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WHAT ARE BLUES IN THE SCHOOL PROGRAMS?
Blues in the Schools Programs (BITS) are music education programs designed to create a deeper appreciation and greater awareness of blues music and its rich history. Over the years the BITS programs have expanded to include not only programs provided in a school setting, but all our programs conducted in the community at large. The venues have been as varied as the zoo, library, a baseball game, St. Patrick’s Day Parade, homes of stroke victims, churches, juvenile detention center, rural arts fair, and neighborhood parks.
IS THERE ANY COST TO THE SCHOOL OR VENUE REQUESTING THE BITS PROGRAMS?
No, there is no cost to the organization requesting the BITS.
HOW IS THE BITS PROGRAM PRESENTED?
BITS programs are presented by professional musicians through lecture, performances or artist residencies.
CAN I REQUEST A SPECIFIC BITS PROGRAM?
The Chair of the BITS program will work with the requesting organization to design a program that fits the goals of the organization with the talents of the musician who best fits the designed BITS.
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF A BITS PROGRAM?
- Provides education in one or more of the following: music; singing; culture; history; and/or writing.
- Teaches interaction and teamwork which creates self-esteem and self confidence
- Teaches discipline of the art form.
- Brings about cross cultural understanding.
- Helps to break down barriers between ethnic groups.
- Self awareness for young African-Americans in an art form unique to their culture.
HOW DO I REQUEST A BITS PROGRAM?
The Blues in the School Committee Chair’s contact information is listed here.
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Research paper topics, free example research papers
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Research paper example essay prompt: Zebra Storyteller And Yellow Wallpaper - 1123 words
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Zebra Storyteller And Yellow Wallpaper "The role of the narrator influences the type of relationship we have not only with him or her but also with the story" (Landy 75). This quote was taken from our Literary Studies book in which we have read several stories concerning different styles of narration. Narration is one of the most important components of a story. The characters, plot, setting, and theme are also significant, however the narrator sets the mood and also the pace of the story. Two good examples of narration is the short tale The Zebra Storyteller by Spencer Holst and The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman.
These are stories in which the narrators retain certain styles of narration. An outside book that we have not read is the fairy tale Cinderella. In these three works, the narrators have specific functions or duties to carry throughout the story. In The Zebra Storyteller the narrator is a Siamese cat but the narrator is also an outsider. During the story the cat tells a story to his friends about how skillful and 'powerful' he is at killing zebras.
Towards the end of the story the cat is handed his fate; he is kicked and killed by a zebra, who sensed feared when approached. At the end of the story Holst concludes with the statement, "That is the function of the storyteller." This statement pertains to the idea of the function the storyteller has or how they create the atmosphere and set the grounds in which the story is based on. There are many functions of the storyteller. They can teach a lesson, control the story, entertain, and stretch one's own imagination. In this story it is a great example how the story can take a sudden unexpected turn and shock the reader.
The narrator can take twists and turns and can make expected or even unexpected outcomes in the story. A good example in the story would be where the narrator states, "The zebra storyteller wasn't fit to be tied at hearing a cat speaking his language, because he'd been thinking about that very thing" (Holst 1971). At this point the narrator changes the reader's perspective and sheds light on an upcoming event in the story. Which turned out to be a big event where the Siamese cat got killed. Of course this story is fictional but it is an excellent story to portray how a narrator can expand the reader's imagination. The Yellow Wallpaper is a story in that one of the different styles of narration is prevalent.
Some types of unique styles of narration writing are story telling, diary style, or telling a story about a day's experience. The Yellow Wallpaper is in diary format which means the narrators internal thoughts are exposed in the story as well as their outside thoughts, meaning how they deal with the other characters in the story. This story is about a woman who is in a mental hospital where she is kept in a room that has very old yellow wallpaper on the walls. In this story the main character or the narrator is secluded in this room by herself and is limited to basically doing nothing. As the story continues the narrator is drawn toward the hideous wallpaper and finds herself in the wallpaper.
In her diary writings she reports, "There are things in that paper that nobody knows but me, or ever will. Behind that outside pattern the dim shapes get clearer everyday" (Gilman 83). In her reports she creates a mysterious, scary mood about the woman she sees in that paper. When the narrator reveals 'her diary' it allows reading into their thoughts on how they take in the actions in the story. She lets them into how she feels about her husband and also she is not allowed to write because he says it is going to delay her getting better, which she disagrees with. She says, "Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good" (Gilman 78).
The narrator's function in this story is to set not only the mood but also the setting. In the beginning she describes her settings very clearly giving details of her room and the outside gardens. As the story continues she becomes more abstract due to her deteriorating awareness of reality. At the end her husband collapses due to the sight of his wife 'creeping through the wallpaper.' She makes her reader's imagination wonder what really happens at the end. After he faints she says, "Now why should that man have fainted? But he did, and right across my path by the wall, so that I had to creep over him every time" (Gilman 89).
The function of the narrator in this story is to cause the reader to imagine and picture the story. The fairytale that I chose to discuss the narrator role was Cinderella. This story is a very popular tale among young children especially me when I was little. In this story the narrator is an outsider who tells the story of a young girl who meets a prince that she falls in love with. Cinderella is a greatly imaginative story where the reader can picture and imagine scenes throughout the story. The narrator describes in great detail major points of the story.
He writes, "And not just the kind thoughts, and love, but also dresses, shoes, shawls, delicious food, comfy beds, as well as every home comfort" (Dulac 1). He describes the way the evil stepsisters treat Cinderella and how harsh and distasteful they are. There is much dialogue incorporated in the story from all the important characters. The narrator's purpose in this story is to simply tell the story from an outside perspective. He is not a character in the story but he does have a role throughout.
When the fairy godmother turned the mice into horsemen the narrator remarks, "The pumpkin turned into a sparkling coach and the mice became six white horses, while the seventh mouse turned into a coachman, in a smart uniform and carrying a whip. Cinderella could hardly believe her eyes" (Dulac 2). The narrator in Cinderella has a magical way with words. He enraptures his reader's who are predominantly young in age into an enchanted world where mice become horsemen and a servant's ensemble turns into a beautiful, sparkly ball gown. Narrator's in stories whether they be short or long have many specific roles. They can teach an important lesson, control the story, amuse, and entertain.
A significant theme can be taught by the way the narrator tells the story and how the atmosphere or mood is created. If there was not an effective narrator in a story, the story would not be worth reading.
Research paper topics, free essay prompts, sample research papers on Zebra Storyteller And Yellow Wallpaper
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We make decisions every day that have an impact on the ecosystem, climate, and other species. There's a lot we can do to limit our environmental impact so that wild animals and plants have more space, from what we eat to how many children we have. Small steps matter.
Here are our tips:
-Consume less/no meat
Apart from taking the lives of poor animals, meat production consumes a huge amount of water, pollutes our groundwater with liquid manure, and takes up valuable area for fodder farming. Furthermore, working conditions in the meat industry are frequently inhumane, and industrial factory farming is unethical. Avoiding or reducing your consumption of animal-based foods is the most effective strategy to lower your ecological footprint.
-Consume local food
Seasonal foods from your region travel fewer distances, making them more environmentally friendly and less expensive. Seasonal calendars can be found on the internet. Furthermore, many of the food publications at the checkout like to feature the season's highlights on the front pages.
-Go plastic free
From food to toys, cosmetics to gadgets, plastic packaging is ubiquitous. Whenever possible, buy items with sustainable packaging or unpackaged items, such as from an unpackaged store. If you can't avoid it, throw away plastic in the yellow bins at stores or at home when you're done shopping.
You can assist minimise the mountains of waste in the form of technological waste, plastic, and textiles by buying less. Do you want your employees to be fairly compensated? Then think about who you order items from online or who you shop locally. Alternatively, look in classified ads or online communities to see if you can find used items.
-Consume less power
Print as little as possible to save money on paper. For printers and notes, recycle paper. If you aren't going to use the computer for a while, turn it off completely. Because the Internet's computer farms waste a lot of energy, you should download and enjoy music and movies instead of streaming them.
-Drive less, walk more
Whenever possible, walk, cycle, carpool, or take public transportation. Regular tune-ups and tyre inflations are also vital for keeping your car in good repair. Tune-ups can help you save anywhere from 4% to 40% on gas.
Being more sustainable isn't a one-time goal that you can cross off your list and go on to the next - it's a lifelong journey of learning, testing, failing, restarting, and sharing your journey.
The destination is crucial for us all to strive for, but it is the journey that counts, no matter how slow or fast it is.
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Today marks the beginning of Obon, a celebration of ancestors and family. Oban is a Buddhist tradition which began over 500 years ago. During Oban people return to their family homes to visit and clean the graves of their ancestors.
Before Oban begins people clean their houses and altars in preparation. On the first day of Obon paper chochin lanterns are lit at the home altar, then carried to the graves of their ancestors to guide their way home. Fires may also be lit at the entrance to the house to guide the spirits. Homes are filled with the scent of incense.
Oban lasts for three days. During this time people gather with family and friends to eat, dance the Bon Odori, and enjoy summer treats like watermelon. The Bon Odori dance welcomes the spirits of the dead, and varies from location to location. Typically, however, dancers make a circle around a scaffold called a yagura where the musicians and singers sit.
In Kyoto, giant bonfires are also lit during the height of the Obon festival. The bonfires form giant characters that can be viewed from a distance. Known as the Gozan no Okuribi, or "Giant Words", characters formed by the fires light up the mountains surrounding Kyoto. Five bonfires are lit forming the words: Great wondrous Dharma, followed by an image of a boat. The character for great is then repeated followed by the shape of a shrine gate.
On the last night of Oban the ceremony of toro nagashi (floating lanterns) takes place. Paper lanterns inscribed with the family crest are lit by candles. These lanterns are carried to a river and let go to float to the ocean, guiding the spirit back to the other world.
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PROJECT 1: Make Me a Sandwich
PROJECT GOAL: Students will work with layers, masks and cropping in Photoshop.
The objective of this project is to obtain a better understanding of Photoshop Layers by creating the layers of a sandwich on a plate. Utilizing layers effectively is a key skill to have in order to create efficient and fully editable graphics. If layers are not used effectively, it can be detrimental to the success of your project.
Teacher instruction will be provided during class time to guide you through your first ever Photoshop project! (isn't that exciting?!) You will also find a finished sample and a PDF tutorial to help you complete this project.
YOUR JOB: You have been hired to create a graphic design for the Supreme Diner. The owner wants a BLT sandwich as a graphic for the diner. He has supplied you with an image of the place setting from the restaurant as well as images of the ingredients for the sandwich. You are to follow the directions given by the project manager to complete the project for the target audience.
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Theory X and Theory Y pertain to employee motivation and have been used in human resource management, organizational behavior analysis, and organizational development. Empxtrack – an Integrated Human Capital and Talent Management Tool is based on such theories and helps organizations to transform their human resource practices.
Theory X and Theory Y: Theories of Employee Motivation
Theory X and Theory Y was created and developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1960s. It describes two very different attitudes towards workforce motivation. McGregor felt that companies followed either one of these approaches.
Description of Theory X
In this theory, management assumes that employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. Because of this, workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of control put in place. A hierarchical structure is needed, with narrow span of control at each level, for effective employee management. According to this theory employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can.
The managers influenced by Theory X believe that everything must end in blaming someone. They think most employees are only out for themselves and their sole interest in the job is to earn money. They tend to blame employees in most situations, without questioning the systems, policy, or lack of training which could be the real cause of failures.
Managers that subscribe to Theory X tend to take a rather pessimistic view of their employees. Theory X manager believes that it is the manager’s job to structure the work and energize employees. The result of this line of thought is that Theory X managers naturally adopt a controlling style based on the threat of punishment. Critics believe that a Theory X manager could be an impediment to employee morale & productivity.
Description of Theory Y
Management influenced by this theory assumes that employees are ambitious, self-motivated and anxious to accept greater responsibility and exercise self-control, self-direction, autonomy and empowerment. Management believes that employees enjoy their work. They also believe that employees have the desire to be creative at their work place and become forward looking. There is a chance for greater productivity by giving employees’ the freedom to perform to the best of their abilities, without being bogged down by rules.
Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work and that there is a pool of unused creativity in the workforce. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation in itself. Theory Y manager will try to remove the barriers that prevent workers from fully actualizing themselves.
Many people interpret Theory Y as a positive set of assumptions about workers. A close reading of The Human Side of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that create enthusiasm.
Though these theories are very basic in nature, they provide a platform for future generations of management theorists and practitioners to understand the changing dynamics of human behavior. Taken too literally, Theories X and Y seem to represent unrealistic extremes. Most employees (including managers) fall somewhere in between these poles. Recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, yet McGregor’s X-Y Theories remain guiding principles to the management to evolve processes which help in organizational development. A mix of practices which ensure a healthy blend of systems and the freedom to perform at the work place is likely to motivate the employees more. This mix of practices calls for induction of technology into HR. How we can practice Talent Management in all types of organizations will indicate how well we have understood & deployed these theories X and Y in our real time environment.
A self-service portal at no cost
* No credit card required
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Environmentally friendly holidays in Saalbach Hinterglemm
Electricity from renewable energy sources
Sustainability ensures an environmentally friendly holiday in Saalbach Hinterglemm. All energy at the Bachgut is gained from the following energy sources: sun, water and ground. Learn more about the respective procedures of energy generation.
Water – energy through water power station
The drinking waters pipes of the Bachgut were made from pressure-durable tubing allowing for the installation of a drinking water turbine in the high-level tank in the valley. Thus, the Bachgut not only has its own supply of drinking water, but also its own drinking water power station generation power day and night via a Pelton turbine.
Annual energy generation: 45,000 kW - CO2 savings of 29.25 tons
Ground – energy through biomass power station
The thermal energy needed at the Bachgut is generated by a woodchip or pellets furnace.
Annual requirement: approx. 250 cubic metres
Wood supply for woodchips: own forest / Waldgemeinschaft Saalbach Hinterglemm
Heat producer: Hargasser woodchip boiler 2 x 100 kW
Heatspreader: district heating network to
- Heustadl 8 kW
- Alpine chalets Bachgut 70 kW
- Bachgut main house 100 kW
- Bachgut Jagdhaus 10 kW
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JEHOASH (Heb. יוֹאָשׁ ,יְהוֹאָשׁ; "The Lord has given"), son of Jehoahaz, king of Israel (reigned 801–785 B.C.E.). Jehoash shared the throne with his father for two years or more. When the resumption of King Adad-Nirari III of Assyria's military campaigns in Syria toward the end of the eighth century B.C.E. weakened the power of *Aram, Jehoash determined to free Israel from Aramean control. The decisive stimulus for the liberation of Israel's territories to the east of the Jordan came in 796 with Adad-Nirari's campaign against Manṣuate in the Lebanon valley (Massyas according to Strabo 16:2, 18); at that time, the king of Assyria also attacked Damascus, defeated the Aramean armies, and exacted a heavy tribute from Ben-Hadad III, the king of Aram. The subsequent wars of Aphek (Alphikh, east of Lake Kinneret) appear to have completely broken the strength of Aram. Elisha's prophecy to Jehoash (made just before the prophet's death; II Kings 13:14–19) that the king would defeat Aram at Aphek should be interpreted against this background. It appears that Jehoash then recognized the sovereignty of Assyria, his natural ally in the war against Aram, a conjecture substantiated by an Assyrian inscription from Telel-Rimah in which Jehoash (written Ia'asu) of Samaria is mentioned among those paying tribute to Adad-Nirari (Cogan and Tadmor, 335). The countries subdued by the above campaign are also listed in Adad-Nirari's inscription from Calah (Nimrud). They were: Tyre, Sidon, "the land of Omri" (i.e., Israel), Edom, and Philistia (A.K. Grayson, RIMA 3, 212–13).
The relationship between Jehoash and *Amaziah, king of Judah, is not clear. Israel and Judah may have formed an alliance with the aim of conquering Edom – similar to the alliance between Jehoshaphat and Ahab – but then, for some unknown reason, the two kings quarreled. According to a late story in II Chronicles 25:6, before Amaziah went to war against Edom he hired 100,000 soldiers from Israel; but II Kings 14:8–10 relates that after the conquest of Edom, Amaziah challenged Jehoash: "Then Amaziah sent messengers to Jehoash… to say, come let us meet together." In the battle between the armies of Judah and Israel near Beth-Shemesh, Amaziah was defeated and taken prisoner. Jehoash entered Jerusalem, looted the palace and Temple treasuries, and broke down the city wall for a distance of 400 cubits "from the gate of Ephraim unto the corner gate" as a symbol of its surrender (II Kings 14:13). Shortly after his victory Jehoash died, in the 15th year of Amaziah's reign (785 B.C.E.). From the chronological data concerning the reign of his son *Jeroboam, it appears that father and son reigned jointly during Jehoash's last years.
E.R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (1951), 69; idem, in: VT, 4 (1954), 193–4; Pritchard, Texts, 281; H. Tadmor, in: Scripta Hierosolymitana, 8 (1961), 241–3; idem, in: Bi-Ymei Bayit Rishon (1961), 166–7; B. Mazar, ibid., 149–50; H.L. Ginsberg, in: Fourth World Congress of Jewish Studies, 1 (1967), 91–93; S. Page, in: Iraq, 30 (1968), 139–53; idem, in: VT, 19 (1969), 483–4; A. Cazelles, in: Comptes rendus des Académies des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1969), 106–17. ADD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Cogan and H. Tadmor, II Kings (1988).
Source: Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved.
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It is evident in residential and commercial properties all over the globe. Metal construction offers a variety of advantages. We will be discussing some of them within this article.
Construction of buildings made from metal has its first advantage in being durable. Metal is strong that is resistant to weather conditions. Since weather can cause serious damage, this is a crucial quality to have in a building. Metal structures also last for a very long time. Being sturdy will help save many dollars in the cost of repairs and remodeling.
Another benefit is that construction also works to save energy. Metal roofing systems do an excellent job in keeping the warm air inside while keeping it out. They won’t need to think about cooling the building if you can keep the heat out. The cooling of buildings takes much energy, which can be noticed on your bill.
They are the two primary benefits of building with metal.
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I created these word sorts to use with my students for independent work. My students enjoy the themed activities.
Included: Color and B&W
word cards four words each for (gn, kn, mb, wr)
color a word
Words are chosen from Reading Street, 2nd grade spelling.
These will look great whether printed in color or black and white. Enjoy having some April fun with your students.
Check out some of my other products:
Reading Street 1st grade sight words
Read Well 1 Activity Packets
*****Please take time to provide feedback on your purchase. If you have a concern, please contact me first before rating. Leaving feedback will provide you with credit towards future purchases.
You’ll be the first to hear about new product and sales, by following me.
Thank you for your support!
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by Chris Hartigan, Scott Osborne, Jonathan Shaw, and Evin Stanford
North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, Updated 2017.
Length: about 3 ft.
Height: about 3 ft.. at the shoulder
Weight: buck 100-200+ lbs;doe 80-160 lbs.
Green leaves, succulent plants, tender woody vegetation, grasses, acorns, and agricultural crops
Male deer, called bucks, will mate with several female deer. Female deer, called does, may mate with one or more males. Mating occurs in autumn, and females breed every year.
After a gestation period of 196 days, 1-3 fawns are typically born in May or June and weaned at 4 months. Fawns will stay with the doe for the first year, then yearling bucks leave. Yearling does may stay and form family units. Some does breed as fawns, although most begin breeding at 1.5 years-of-age.
In the wild, 2-5 years for bucks and 3-6 years for does in the wild. Age is determined by examining teeth in the lower jaw bone.
Range and Distribution
In the United States, white-tailed deer are found in all 48 contiguous states. Every county in North Carolina has deer, although they are distributed unevenly, with large numbers in some areas of the Coastal Plain and Piedmont and fewer deer in the Mountain Region.
No wild animal in North Carolina is as recognizable as the white-tailed deer. Whether a mature buck with splendid antlers, a graceful doe or a spotted fawn running with its mother, the white-tailed deer is one of the most popular of animals.
The five species of deer in North America are: the mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, caribou and moose. The white-tailed deer is prevalent in North Carolina, and the National Park Service has released elk in the mountains.
A deer’s coat is usually a tannish brown, or some shade of brown, ranging almost to gray. It usually has a white patch on its neck and large prominent ears. Its eyes are circled with white and a white band rings the muzzle. The belly is white, with white running down the inside of the legs. The tail, about 9 to 11 inches long, is mostly brown although the underside is all white. The hooves have two toes covered with a hard fingernail-like material, and another toe, called the dew claw, appears about 3 inches high on the back of each leg.
Buck deer grow antlers, not horns. Antelopes grow horns, as do buffalo and goats. Horns are permanent parts of a skull that grow continuously, while buck deer drop their antlers each year. Antlers range in size from little spikes that protrude from the skin, to larger “racks” that branch out to a variable number of points. An average mature buck typically has eight or more points. Antler size depends on the age of the buck, its nutrition, and its genetics.
While deer can run up to 35 or 40 miles per hour, they cannot run 35+ miles per hour for very long. They are also excellent swimmers and strong jumpers. To protect themselves, deer rely mainly on their strong sense of smell. They also have good hearing, as well as eyesight that enables them to easily detect movement, even in low-light conditions. Deer feed mostly in the early morning and at twilight, but they may also feed at any other time of the day.
History and Status
The white-tailed deer population in North Carolina has made a dramatic turnaround. Deer were plentiful when European settlers first arrived, but the animals were hunted extensively for meat and hide with no thought of conservation or management. Within 100 years, deer were threatened with extirpation in North Carolina, as well as in the entire United States. Deer populations today have risen to approximately one million deer in North Carolina.
Habitat and Habits
Deer are so adaptable that they are found in almost any type of habitat. They like creek and river bottoms, oak ridges, pine forests, farmlands, or any other type of habitat that offers food, water, and cover. They adapt well to suburban sprawl. In autumn, deer fatten up for the breeding season or “rut”, which peaks from early October on the Coast, to early December in the Mountains. Around the breeding season, a buck rubs its antlers on trees and limbs, scrapes depressions in the ground, and deposits scent as a form of communicating with other deer. Around the middle of January and early February, the bucks’ antlers drop, and in April and May they begin to grow again
White-tailed deer are often seen feeding in fields, on the side of the road, and are becoming increasingly common in residential areas. When properly managed, hunting does not hurt deer populations and is a helpful management tool for keeping deer from becoming overpopulated. Before European settlers arrived, deer populations were controlled by year-round hunting by Native Americans and large predators like cougars and wolves. Without some control, deer populations grow larger than their habitat can support, causing mass starvation and disease in deer herds, as well as severe crop depredation and overgrazing of habitat.
People may occasionally find fawns, but it is important that people do not approach, touch, feed, or move them. Though the fawn may look very much alone, most likely they are not abandoned. Whitetails are a “hider” species, which means the female will hide her fawn in vegetation while she feeds. Lacking scent, fawns are well-camouflaged which is effective for avoiding detection by predators. The doe will return to the fawn several times a day to nurse and clean it, staying only a few minutes each time before leaving again to seek food. The fawn is also well-equipped to protect itself. By the time a fawn is 5 days old, it can outrun a human
The N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission is imploring people not to approach, touch, feed or move white-tailed fawns. Though the tiny baby deer may look very much alone, most likely they are not abandoned. If a fawn is in obvious danger, contact the N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission at (919) 707-0040 for the telephone number of a local, permitted fawn rehabilitator. It is illegal to remove a fawn from the wild.
Written by Chris Hartigan, Scott Osborne, Jonathan Shaw, and Evin Stanford, NCWRC; updated 2017.
Produced by the Division of Conservation Education, Cay Cross–Editor.
Illustrated by J. T. Newman. Photos by NCWRC.
"White-tailed Deer." NC State Wildlife Extension. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/wild/wildlife/animals/mammals/deer.htm
"White-Tailed Deer, Odocoileus virginianus" National Geographic. http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/white-tailed-deer/ (accessed February 4, 2013).
Elman, R. 1976. All about deer hunting in America. Winchester Press.
Hewitt, D. 2011. Biology and management of white-tailed deer. CRC Press.
Madson, J. The white-tailed deer. Olin Matheson Chemical Corporation.
Osborne, S. The white-tailed deer in North Carolina. N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission.
Rue, L. L. III. 1978. The deer of North America. Grolier Book Clubs, Inc., Outdoor Life.
1 January 2009 | Hartigan, Chris; Osborne, Scott; Stanford, Evin
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|2017-2018 ACM-ICPC, NEERC, Southern Subregional Contest, qualification stage (Online Mirror, ACM-ICPC Rules, Teams Preferred)|
In the computer network of the Berland State University there are n routers numbered from 1 to n. Some pairs of routers are connected by patch cords. Information can be transmitted over patch cords in both direction. The network is arranged in such a way that communication between any two routers (directly or through other routers) is possible. There are no cycles in the network, so there is only one path between each pair of routers over patch cords.
Unfortunately, the exact topology of the network was lost by administrators. In order to restore it, the following auxiliary information was collected.
For each patch cord p, directly connected to the router i, list of routers located behind the patch cord p relatively i is known. In other words, all routers path from which to the router i goes through p are known. So for each router i there are ki lists, where ki is the number of patch cords connected to i.
For example, let the network consists of three routers connected in chain 1 - 2 - 3. Then:
Your task is to help administrators to restore the network topology, i. e. to identify all pairs of routers directly connected by a patch cord.
The first line contains a single integer n (2 ≤ n ≤ 1000) — the number of routers in the network.
The i-th of the following n lines contains a description of the lists for the router i.
The description of each list begins with the number of routers in it. Then the symbol ':' follows, and after that the numbers of routers from the list are given. This numbers are separated by comma. Lists are separated by symbol '-'.
It is guaranteed, that for each router i the total number of routers in its lists equals to n - 1 and all the numbers in lists of each router are distinct. For each router i lists do not contain the number i.
Print -1 if no solution exists.
In the other case print to the first line n - 1 — the total number of patch cords in the network. In each of the following n - 1 lines print two integers — the routers which are directly connected by a patch cord. Information about each patch cord must be printed exactly once.
Patch cords and routers can be printed in arbitrary order.
The first example is analyzed in the statement.
The answer to the second example is shown on the picture.
The first router has one list, which contains all other routers. The second router has three lists: the first — the single router 4, the second — the single router 1, the third — two routers 3 and 5. The third router has one list, which contains all other routers. The fourth router also has one list, which contains all other routers. The fifth router has two lists: the first — the single router 3, the second — three routers 1, 2 and 4.
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http://codeforces.com/problemset/problem/847/L
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THE BUCCANEERS IN THE WEST INDIES IN THE XVII CENTURY
WITH TEN MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
METHUEN & CO. LTD. 36 ESSEX STREET W.C. LONDON
First Published in 1910
The principal facts about the exploits of the English and French buccaneers of the seventeenth century in the West Indies are sufficiently well known to modern readers. The French Jesuit historians of the Antilles have left us many interesting details of their mode of life, and Exquemelin's history of the freebooters has been reprinted numerous times both in France and in England. Based upon these old, contemporary narratives, modern accounts are issued from the press with astonishing regularity, some of them purporting to be serious history, others appearing in the more popular and entertaining guise of romances. All, however, are alike in confining themselves for their information to what may almost be called the traditional sources—Exquemelin, the Jesuits, and perhaps a few narratives like those of Dampier and Wafer. To write another history of these privateers or pirates, for they have, unfortunately, more than once deserved that name, may seem a rather fruitless undertaking. It is justified only by the fact that there exist numerous other documents bearing upon the subject, documents which till now have been entirely neglected. Exquemelin has been reprinted, the story of the buccaneers has been re-told, yet no writer, whether editor or historian, has attempted to estimate the trustworthiness of the old tales by comparing them with these other sources, or to show the connection between the buccaneers and the history of the English colonies in the West Indies. The object of this volume, therefore, is not only to give a narrative, according to the most authentic, available sources, of the more brilliant exploits of these sea-rovers, but, what is of greater interest and importance, to trace the policy pursued toward them by the English and French Governments.
The "Buccaneers in the West Indies" was presented as a thesis to the Board of Modern History of Oxford University in May 1909 to fulfil the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Letters. It was written under the supervision of C.H. Firth, Regius Professor of Modern History in Oxford, and to him the writer owes a lasting debt of gratitude for his unfailing aid and sympathy during the course of preparation.
I. Introductory— Part I.—The Spanish Colonial System 1 Part II.—The Freebooters of the Sixteenth Century 28 II. The Beginnings of the Buccaneers 57 III. The Conquest of Jamaica 85 IV. Tortuga, 1655-1664 113 V. Porto Bello and Panama 120 VI. The Government Suppresses the Buccaneers 200 VII. The Buccaneers Turn Pirate 232 Appendices 273-74 Bibliography 275 Index 289
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Map of the West Indies Frontispiece From Charlevoix' Histoire de S. Domingue.
Spanish Periagua 1
From Exquemelin's Histoire des Aventuriers Trevoux, 1744.
Buccaneer Vessels 76
From Exquemelin's Histoire des Aventuriers Trevoux, 1744.
A Correct Map of Jamaica 85
From the Royal Magazine, 1760.
Map of San Domingo 86
From Charlevoix' Histoire de S. Domingue.
Plan of the Bay and Town of Portobelo 154
From Prevost d'Exiles' Voyages.
The Isthmus of Darien 164
From Exquelmelin's Bucaniers, 1684-5.
'The Battel between the Spaniards and the pyrats or Buccaniers before the Citty of Panama' 166
From Exquemelin's Bucaniers of America, 1684-5.
Plan of Vera-Cruz 242
From Charlevoix' Histoire de S. Domingue, 1730.
Plan of the Town and Roadstead of Cartegena and of the Forts 264
From Baron de Pontis' Relation de ce qui c'est fait la prise de Carthagene, Bruxelles, 1698.
THE BUCCANEERS IN THE WEST INDIES IN THE XVII CENTURY
I.—THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM
At the time of the discovery of America the Spaniards, as M. Leroy-Beaulieu has remarked, were perhaps less fitted than any other nation of western Europe for the task of American colonization. Whatever may have been the political role thrust upon them in the sixteenth century by the Hapsburg marriages, whatever certain historians may say of the grandeur and nobility of the Spanish national character, Spain was then neither rich nor populous, nor industrious. For centuries she had been called upon to wage a continuous warfare with the Moors, and during this time had not only found little leisure to cultivate the arts of peace, but had acquired a disdain for manual work which helped to mould her colonial administration and influenced all her subsequent history. And when the termination of the last of these wars left her mistress of a united Spain, and the exploitation of her own resources seemed to require all the energies she could muster, an entire new hemisphere was suddenly thrown open to her, and given into her hands by a papal decree to possess and populate. Already weakened by the exile of the most sober and industrious of her population, the Jews; drawn into a foreign policy for which she had neither the means nor the inclination; instituting at home an economic policy which was almost epileptic in its consequences, she found her strength dissipated, and gradually sank into a condition of economic and political impotence.
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor in the service of the Castilian Crown, wishing to find a western route by sea to India and especially to Zipangu (Japan), the magic land described by the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, landed on 12th October 1492, on "Guanahani," one of the Bahama Islands. From "Guanahani" he passed on to other islands of the same group, and thence to Hispaniola, Tortuga and Cuba. Returning to Spain in March 1493, he sailed again in September of the same year with seventeen vessels and 1500 persons, and this time keeping farther to the south, sighted Porto Rico and some of the Lesser Antilles, founded a colony on Hispaniola, and discovered Jamaica in 1494. On a third voyage in 1498 he discovered Trinidad, and coasted along the shores of South America from the Orinoco River to the island of Margarita. After a fourth and last voyage in 1502-04, Columbus died at Valladolid in 1506, in the firm belief that he had discovered a part of the Continent of Asia.
The entire circle of the Antilles having thus been revealed before the end of the fifteenth century, the Spaniards pushed forward to the continent. While Hojida, Vespucci, Pinzon and de Solis were exploring the eastern coast from La Plata to Yucatan, Ponce de Leon in 1512 discovered Florida, and in 1513 Vasco Nunez de Balboa descried the Pacific Ocean from the heights of Darien, revealing for the first time the existence of a new continent. In 1520 Magellan entered the Pacific through the strait which bears his name, and a year later was killed in one of the Philippine Islands. Within the next twenty years Cortez had conquered the realm of Montezuma, and Pizarro the empire of Peru; and thus within the space of two generations all of the West Indies, North America to California and the Carolinas, all of South America except Brazil, which the error of Cabral gave to the Portuguese, and in the east the Philippine Islands and New Guinea passed under the sway of the Crown of Castile.
Ferdinand and Isabella in 1493 had consulted with several persons of eminent learning to find out whether it was necessary to obtain the investiture of the Pope for their newly-discovered possessions, and all were of opinion that this formality was unnecessary. Nevertheless, on 3rd May 1493, a bull was granted by Pope Alexander VI., which divided the sovereignty of those parts of the world not possessed by any Christian prince between Spain and Portugal by a meridian line 100 leagues west of the Azores or of Cape Verde. Later Spanish writers made much of this papal gift; yet, as Georges Scelle points out, it is possible that this bull was not so much a deed of conveyance, investing the Spaniards with the proprietorship of America, as it was an act of ecclesiastical jurisdiction according them, on the strength of their acquired right and proven Catholicism, a monopoly as it were in the propagation of the faith. At that time, even Catholic princes were no longer accustomed to seek the Pope's sanction when making a new conquest, and certainly in the domain of public law the Pope was not considered to have temporal jurisdiction over the entire world. He did, however, intervene in temporal matters when they directly influenced spiritual affairs, and of this the propagation of the faith was an instance. As the compromise between Spain and Portugal was very indecisive, owing to the difference in longitude of the Azores and Cape Verde, a second Act was signed on 7th June 1494, which placed the line of demarcation 270 leagues farther to the west.
The colonization of the Spanish Indies, on its social and administrative side, presents a curious contrast. On the one hand we see the Spanish Crown, with high ideals of order and justice, of religious and political unity, extending to its ultramarine possessions its faith, its language, its laws and its administration; providing for the welfare of the aborigines with paternal solicitude; endeavouring to restrain and temper the passions of the conquerors; building churches and founding schools and monasteries; in a word, trying to make its colonies an integral part of the Spanish monarchy, "une societe vieille dans une contree neuve." Some Spanish writers, it is true, have exaggerated the virtues of their old colonial system; yet that system had excellences which we cannot afford to despise. If the Spanish kings had not choked their government with procrastination and routine; if they had only taken their task a bit less seriously and had not tried to apply too strictly to an empty continent the paternal administration of an older country; we might have been privileged to witness the development and operation of as complete and benign a system of colonial government as has been devised in modern times. The public initiative of the Spanish government, and the care with which it selected its colonists, compare very favourably with the opportunism of the English and the French, who colonized by chance private activity and sent the worst elements of their population, criminals and vagabonds, to people their new settlements across the sea. However much we may deprecate the treatment of the Indians by the conquistadores, we must not forget that the greater part of the population of Spanish America to-day is still Indian, and that no other colonizing people have succeeded like the Spaniards in assimilating and civilizing the natives. The code of laws which the Spaniards gradually evolved for the rule of their transmarine provinces, was, in spite of defects which are visible only to the larger experience of the present day, one of the wisest, most humane and best co-ordinated of any to this day published for any colony. Although the Spaniards had to deal with a large population of barbarous natives, the word "conquest" was suppressed in legislation as ill-sounding, "because the peace is to be sealed," they said, "not with the sound of arms, but with charity and good-will."
The actual results, however, of the social policy of the Spanish kings fell far below the ideals they had set for themselves. The monarchic spirit of the crown was so strong that it crushed every healthy, expansive tendency in the new countries. It burdened the colonies with a numerous, privileged nobility, who congregated mostly in the larger towns and set to the rest of the colonists a pernicious example of idleness and luxury. In its zeal for the propagation of the Faith, the Crown constituted a powerfully endowed Church, which, while it did splendid service in converting and civilizing the natives, engrossed much of the land in the form of mainmort, and filled the new world with thousands of idle, unproductive, and often licentious friars. With an innate distrust and fear of individual initiative, it gave virtual omnipotence to royal officials and excluded all creoles from public employment. In this fashion was transferred to America the crushing political and ecclesiastical absolutism of the mother country. Self-reliance and independence of thought or action on the part of the creoles was discouraged, divisions and factions among them were encouraged and educational opportunities restricted, and the American-born Spaniards gradually sank into idleness and lethargy, indifferent to all but childish honours and distinctions and petty local jealousies. To make matters worse, many of the Spaniards who crossed the seas to the American colonies came not to colonize, not to trade or cultivate the soil, so much as to extract from the natives a tribute of gold and silver. The Indians, instead of being protected and civilized, were only too often reduced to serfdom and confined to a laborious routine for which they had neither the aptitude nor the strength; while the government at home was too distant to interfere effectively in their behalf. Driven by cruel taskmasters they died by thousands from exhaustion and despair, and in some places entirely disappeared.
The Crown of Castile, moreover, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries sought to extend Spanish commerce and monopolize all the treasure of the Indies by means of a rigid and complicated commercial system. Yet in the end it saw the trade of the New World pass into the hands of its rivals, its own marine reduced to a shadow of its former strength, its crews and its vessels supplied by merchants from foreign lands, and its riches diverted at their very source.
This Spanish commercial system was based upon two distinct principles. One was the principle of colonial exclusivism, according to which all the trade of the colonies was to be reserved to the mother country. Spain on her side undertook to furnish the colonies with all they required, shipped upon Spanish vessels; the colonies in return were to produce nothing but raw materials and articles which did not compete with the home products with which they were to be exchanged. The second principle was the mercantile doctrine which, considering as wealth itself the precious metals which are but its symbol, laid down that money ought, by every means possible, to be imported and hoarded, never exported. This latter theory, the fallacy of which has long been established, resulted in the endeavour of the Spanish Hapsburgs to conserve the wealth of the country, not by the encouragement of industry, but by the increase and complexity of imposts. The former doctrine, adopted by a non-producing country which was in no position to fulfil its part in the colonial compact, led to the most disastrous consequences.
While the Spanish Crown was aiming to concentrate and monopolize its colonial commerce, the prosperity of Spain itself was slowly sapped by reason of these mistaken economic theories. Owing to the lack of workmen, the increase of imposts, and the prejudice against the mechanic arts, industry was being ruined; while the increased depopulation of the realm, the mainmort of ecclesiastical lands, the majorats of the nobility and the privileges of the Mesta, brought agriculture rapidly into decay. The Spaniards, consequently, could not export the products of their manufacture to the colonies, when they did not have enough to supply their own needs. To make up for this deficiency their merchants were driven to have recourse to foreigners, to whom they lent their names in order to elude a law which forbade commerce between the colonies and traders of other nations. In return for the manufactured articles of the English, Dutch and French, and of the great commercial cities like Genoa and Hamburg, they were obliged to give their own raw materials and the products of the Indies—wool, silks, wines and dried fruits, cochineal, dye-woods, indigo and leather, and finally, indeed, ingots of gold and silver. The trade in Spain thus in time became a mere passive machine. Already in 1545 it had been found impossible to furnish in less than six years the goods demanded by the merchants of Spanish America. At the end of the seventeenth century, foreigners were supplying five-sixths of the manufactures consumed in Spain itself, and engrossed nine-tenths of that American trade which the Spaniards had sought so carefully to monopolize.
In the colonies the most striking feature of Spanish economic policy was its wastefulness. After the conquest of the New World, it was to the interest of the Spaniards to gradually wean the native Indians from barbarism by teaching them the arts and sciences of Europe, to encourage such industries as were favoured by the soil, and to furnish the growing colonies with those articles which they could not produce themselves, and of which they stood in need. Only thus could they justify their monopoly of the markets of Spanish America. The same test, indeed, may be applied to every other nation which adopted the exclusivist system. Queen Isabella wished to carry out this policy, introduced into the newly-discovered islands wheat, the olive and the vine, and acclimatized many of the European domestic animals. Her efforts, unfortunately, were not seconded by her successors, nor by the Spaniards who went to the Indies. In time the government itself, as well as the colonist, came to be concerned, not so much with the agricultural products of the Indies, but with the return of the precious metals. Natives were made to work the mines, while many regions adapted to agriculture, Guiana, Caracas and Buenos Ayres, were neglected, and the peopling of the colonies by Europeans was slow. The emperor, Charles V., did little to stem this tendency, but drifted along with the tide. Immigration was restricted to keep the colonies free from the contamination of heresy and of foreigners. The Spanish population was concentrated in cities, and the country divided into great estates granted by the crown to the families of the conquistadores or to favourites at court. The immense areas of Peru, Buenos Ayres and Mexico were submitted to the most unjust and arbitrary regulations, with no object but to stifle growing industry and put them in absolute dependence upon the metropolis. It was forbidden to exercise the trades of dyer, fuller, weaver, shoemaker or hatter, and the natives were compelled to buy of the Spaniards even the stuffs they wore on their backs. Another ordinance prohibited the cultivation of the vine and the olive except in Peru and Chili, and even these provinces might not send their oil and wine to Panama, Gautemala or any other place which could be supplied from Spain. To maintain the commercial monopoly, legitimate ports of entry in Spanish America were made few and far apart—for Mexico, Vera Cruz, for New Granada, the town of Cartagena. The islands and most of the other provinces were supplied by uncertain "vaisseaux de registre," while Peru and Chili, finding all direct commerce by the Pacific or South Sea interdicted, were obliged to resort to the fever-ridden town of Porto Bello, where the mortality was enormous and the prices increased tenfold.
In Spain, likewise, the colonial commerce was restricted to one port—Seville. For in the estimation of the crown it was much more important to avoid being defrauded of its dues on import and export, than to permit the natural development of trade by those towns best fitted to acquire it. Another reason, prior in point of time perhaps, why Seville was chosen as the port for American trade, was that the Indies were regarded as the exclusive appanage of the crown of Castile, and of that realm Seville was then the chief mercantile city. It was not a suitable port, however, to be distinguished by so high a privilege. Only ships of less than 200 tons were able to cross the bar of San Lucar, and goods therefore had to be transhipped—a disability which was soon felt when traffic and vessels became heavier. The fact, nevertheless, that the official organization called the Casa de Contratacion was seated in Seville, together with the influence of the vested interests of the merchants whose prosperity depended upon the retention of that city as the one port for Indian commerce, were sufficient to bear down all opposition. The maritime towns of Galicia and Asturia, inhabited by better seamen and stronger races, often protested, and sometimes succeeded in obtaining a small share of the lucrative trade. But Seville retained its primacy until 1717, in which year the Contratacion was transferred to Cadiz.
The administration of the complex rules governing the commerce between Spain and her colonies was entrusted to two institutions located at Seville,—the Casa de Contratacion, mentioned above, and the Consulado. The Casa de Contratacion, founded by royal decree as early as 1503, was both a judicial tribunal and a house of commerce. Nothing might be sent to the Indies without its consent; nothing might be brought back and landed, either on the account of merchants or of the King himself, without its authorization. It received all the revenues accruing from the Indies, not only the imposts on commerce, but also all the taxes remitted by colonial officers. As a consultative body it had the right to propose directly to the King anything which it deemed necessary to the development and organization of American commerce; and as a tribunal it possessed an absolute competence over all crimes under the common law, and over all infractions of the ordinances governing the trade of the Indies, to the exclusion of every ordinary court. Its jurisdiction began at the moment the passengers and crews embarked and the goods were put on board, and ended only when the return voyage and disembarkation had been completed. The civil jurisdiction of the Casa was much more restricted and disputes purely commercial in character between the merchants were reserved to the Consulado, which was a tribunal of commerce chosen entirely by the merchants themselves. Appeals in certain cases might be carried to the Council of the Indies.
The first means adopted by the northern maritime nations to appropriate to themselves a share of the riches of the New World was open, semi-piratical attack upon the Spanish argosies returning from those distant El Dorados. The success of the Norman and Breton corsairs, for it was the French, not the English, who started the game, gradually forced upon the Spaniards, as a means of protection, the establishment of great merchant fleets sailing periodically at long intervals and accompanied by powerful convoys. During the first half of the sixteenth century any ship which had fulfilled the conditions required for engaging in American commerce was allowed to depart alone and at any time of the year. From about 1526, however, merchant vessels were ordered to sail together, and by a cedula of July 1561, the system of fleets was made permanent and obligatory. This decree prohibited any ship from sailing alone to America from Cadiz or San Lucar on pain of forfeiture of ship and cargo. Two fleets were organized each year, one for Terra Firma going to Cartagena and Porto Bello, the other designed for the port of San Juan d'Ulloa (Vera Cruz) in New Spain. The latter, called the Flota, was commanded by an "almirante," and sailed for Mexico in the early summer so as to avoid the hurricane season and the "northers" of the Mexican Gulf. The former was usually called the galeones (anglice "galleons"), was commanded by a "general," and sailed from Spain earlier in the year, between January and March. If it departed in March, it usually wintered at Havana and returned with the Flota in the following spring. Sometimes the two fleets sailed together and separated at Guadaloupe, Deseada or another of the Leeward Islands.
The galleons generally consisted of from five to eight war-vessels carrying from forty to fifty guns, together with several smaller, faster boats called "pataches," and a fleet of merchantmen varying in number in different years. In the time of Philip II. often as many as forty ships supplied Cartagena and Porto Bello, but in succeeding reigns, although the population of the Indies was rapidly increasing, American commerce fell off so sadly that eight or ten were sufficient for all the trade of South and Central America. The general of the galleons, on his departure, received from the Council of the Indies three sealed packets. The first, opened at the Canaries, contained the name of the island in the West Indies at which the fleet was first to call. The second was unsealed after the galleons arrived at Cartagena, and contained instructions for the fleet to return in the same year or to winter in America. In the third, left unopened until the fleet had emerged from the Bahama Channel on the homeward voyage, were orders for the route to the Azores and the islands they should touch in passing, usually Corvo and Flores or Santa Maria.
The course of the galleons from San Lucar was south-west to Teneriffe on the African coast, and thence to the Grand Canary to call for provisions—considered in all a run of eight days. From the Canaries one of the pataches sailed on alone to Cartagena and Porto Bello, carrying letters and packets from the Court and announcing the coming of the fleet. If the two fleets sailed together, they steered south-west from the Canaries to about the latitude of Deseada, 15' 30", and then catching the Trade winds continued due west, rarely changing a sail until Deseada or one of the other West Indian islands was sighted. From Deseada the galleons steered an easy course to Cape de la Vela, and thence to Cartagena. When the galleons sailed from Spain alone, however, they entered the Caribbean Sea by the channel between Tobago and Trinidad, afterwards named the Galleons' Passage. Opposite Margarita a second patache left the fleet to visit the island and collect the royal revenues, although after the exhaustion of the pearl fisheries the island lost most of its importance. As the fleet advanced into regions where more security was felt, merchant ships too, which were intended to unload and trade on the coasts they were passing, detached themselves during the night and made for Caracas, Santa Marta or Maracaibo to get silver, cochineal, leather and cocoa. The Margarita patache, meanwhile, had sailed on to Cumana and Caracas to receive there the king's treasure, mostly paid in cocoa, the real currency of the country, and thence proceeded to Cartagena to rejoin the galleons.
The fleet reached Cartagena ordinarily about two months after its departure from Cadiz. On its arrival, the general forwarded the news to Porto Bello, together with the packets destined for the viceroy at Lima. From Porto Bello a courier hastened across the isthmus to the President of Panama, who spread the advice amongst the merchants in his jurisdiction, and, at the same time, sent a dispatch boat to Payta, in Peru. The general of the galleons, meanwhile, was also sending a courier overland to Lima, and another to Santa Fe, the capital of the interior province of New Granada, whence runners carried to Popagan, Antioquia, Mariguita, and adjacent provinces, the news of his arrival. The galleons were instructed to remain at Cartagena only a month, but bribes from the merchants generally made it their interest to linger for fifty or sixty days. To Cartagena came the gold and emeralds of New Granada, the pearls of Margarita and Rancherias, and the indigo, tobacco, cocoa and other products of the Venezuelan coast. The merchants of Gautemala, likewise, shipped their commodities to Cartagena by way of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river, for they feared to send goods across the Gulf of Honduras to Havana, because of the French and English buccaneers hanging about Cape San Antonio.
Meanwhile the viceroy at Lima, on receipt of his letters, ordered the Armada of the South Sea to prepare to sail, and sent word south to Chili and throughout the province of Peru from Las Charcas to Quito, to forward the King's revenues for shipment to Panama. Within less than a fortnight all was in readiness. The Armada, carrying a considerable treasure, sailed from Callao and, touching at Payta, was joined by the Navio del Oro (golden ship), which carried the gold from the province of Quito and adjacent districts. While the galleons were approaching Porto Bello the South Sea fleet arrived before Panama, and the merchants of Chili and Peru began to transfer their merchandise on mules across the high back of the isthmus.
Then began the famous fair of Porto Bello. The town, whose permanent population was very small and composed mostly of negroes and mulattos, was suddenly called upon to accommodate an enormous crowd of merchants, soldiers and seamen. Food and shelter were to be had only at extraordinary prices. When Thomas Gage was in Porto Bello in 1637 he was compelled to pay 120 crowns for a very small, meanly-furnished room for a fortnight. Merchants gave as much as 1000 crowns for a moderate-sized shop in which to sell their commodities. Owing to overcrowding, bad sanitation, and an extremely unhealthy climate, the place became an open grave, ready to swallow all who resorted there. In 1637, during the fifteen days that the galleons remained at Porto Bello, 500 men died of sickness. Meanwhile, day by day, the mule-trains from Panama were winding their way into the town. Gage in one day counted 200 mules laden with wedges of silver, which were unloaded in the market-place and permitted to lie about like heaps of stones in the streets, without causing any fear or suspicion of being lost. While the treasure of the King of Spain was being transferred to the galleons in the harbour, the merchants were making their trade. There was little liberty, however, in commercial transactions, for the prices were fixed and published beforehand, and when negotiations began exchange was purely mechanical. The fair, which was supposed to be open for forty days, was, in later times, generally completed in ten or twelve. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the volume of business transacted was estimated to amount to thirty or forty million pounds sterling.
In view of the prevailing east wind in these regions, and the maze of reefs, cays and shoals extending far out to sea from the Mosquito Coast, the galleons, in making their course from Porto Bello to Havana, first sailed back to Cartagena upon the eastward coast eddy, so as to get well to windward of Nicaragua before attempting the passage through the Yucatan Channel. The fleet anchored at Cartagena a second time for ten or twelve days, where it was rejoined by the patache of Margarita and by the merchant ships which had been sent to trade in Terra-Firma. From Cartagena, too, the general sent dispatches to Spain and to Havana, giving the condition of the vessels, the state of trade, the day when he expected to sail, and the probable time of arrival. For when the galleons were in the Indies all ports were closed by the Spaniards, for fear that precious information of the whereabouts of the fleet and of the value of its cargo might inconveniently leak out to their rivals. From Cartagena the course was north-west past Jamaica and the Caymans to the Isle of Pines, and thence round Capes Corrientes and San Antonio to Havana. The fleet generally required about eight days for the journey, and arrived at Havana late in the summer. Here the galleons refitted and revictualled, received tobacco, sugar, and other Cuban exports, and if not ordered to return with the Flota, sailed for Spain no later than the middle of September. The course for Spain was from Cuba through the Bahama Channel, north-east between the Virginian Capes and the Bermudas to about 38 deg., in order to recover the strong northerly winds, and then east to the Azores. In winter the galleons sometimes ran south of the Bermudas, and then slowly worked up to the higher latitude; but in this case they often either lost some ships on the Bermuda shoals, or to avoid these slipped too far south, were forced back into the West Indies and missed their voyage altogether. At the Azores the general, falling in with his first intelligence from Spain, learned where on the coast of Europe or Africa he was to sight land; and finally, in the latter part of October or the beginning of November, he dropped anchor at San Lucar or in Cadiz harbour.
The Flota or Mexican fleet, consisting in the seventeenth century of two galleons of 800 or 900 tons and from fifteen to twenty merchantmen, usually left Cadiz between June and July and wintered in America; but if it was to return with the galleons from Havana in September it sailed for the Indies as early as April. The course from Spain to the Indies was the same as for the fleet of Terra-Firma. From Deseada or Guadeloupe, however, the Flota steered north-west, passing Santa Cruz and Porto Rico on the north, and sighting the little isles of Mona and Saona, as far as the Bay of Neyba in Hispaniola, where the ships took on fresh wood and water. Putting to sea again, and circling round Beata and Alta Vela, the fleet sighted in turn Cape Tiburon, Cape de Cruz, the Isle of Pines, and Capes Corrientes and San Antonio at the west end of Cuba. Meanwhile merchant ships had dropped away one by one, sailing to San Juan de Porto Rico, San Domingo, St. Jago de Cuba and even to Truxillo and Cavallos in Honduras, to carry orders from Spain to the governors, receive cargoes of leather, cocoa, etc., and rejoin the Flota at Havana. From Cape San Antonio to Vera Cruz there was an outside or winter route and an inside or summer route. The former lay north-west between the Alacranes and the Negrillos to the Mexican coast about sixteen leagues north of Vera Cruz, and then down before the wind into the desired haven. The summer track was much closer to the shore of Campeache, the fleet threading its way among the cays and shoals, and approaching Vera Cruz by a channel on the south-east.
If the Flota sailed from Spain in July it generally arrived at Vera Cruz in the first fifteen days of September, and the ships were at once laid up until March, when the crews reassembled to careen and refit them. If the fleet was to return in the same year, however, the exports of New Spain and adjacent provinces, the goods from China and the Philippines carried across Mexico from the Pacific port of Acapulco, and the ten or twelve millions of treasure for the king, were at once put on board and the ships departed to join the galleons at Havana. Otherwise the fleet sailed from Vera Cruz in April, and as it lay dead to the leeward of Cuba, used the northerly winds to about 25 deg., then steered south-east and reached Havana in eighteen or twenty days. By the beginning of June it was ready to sail for Spain, where it arrived at the end of July, by the same course as that followed by the galleons.
We are accustomed to think of Spanish commerce with the Indies as being made solely by great fleets which sailed yearly from Seville or Cadiz to Mexico and the Isthmus of Darien. There were, however, always exceptions to this rule. When, as sometimes happened, the Flota did not sail, two ships of 600 or 700 tons were sent by the King of Spain to Vera Cruz to carry the quicksilver necessary for the mines. The metal was divided between New Spain and Peru by the viceroy at Mexico, who sent via Gautemala the portion intended for the south. These ships, called "azogues," carried from 2000 to 2500 quintals of silver, and sometimes convoyed six or seven merchant vessels. From time to time an isolated ship was also allowed to sail from Spain to Caracas with licence from the Council of the Indies and the Contratacion, paying the king a duty of five ducats on the ton. It was called the "register of Caracas," took the same route as the galleons, and returned with one of the fleets from Havana. Similar vessels traded at Maracaibo, in Porto Rico and at San Domingo, at Havana and Matanzas in Cuba and at Truxillo and Campeache. There was always, moreover, a special traffic with Buenos Ayres. This port was opened to a limited trade in negroes in 1595. In 1602 permission was given to the inhabitants of La Plata to export for six years the products of their lands to other Spanish possessions, in exchange for goods of which they had need; and when in 1616 the colonists demanded an indefinite renewal of this privilege, the sop thrown to them was the bare right of trade to the amount of 100 tons every three years. Later in the century the Council of the Indies extended the period to five years, so as not to prejudice the trade of the galleons.
It was this commerce, which we have noticed at such length, that the buccaneers of the West Indies in the seventeenth century came to regard as their legitimate prey. These "corsarios Luteranos," as the Spaniards sometimes called them, scouring the coast of the Main from Venezuela to Cartagena, hovering about the broad channel between Cuba and Yucatan, or prowling in the Florida Straits, became the nightmare of Spanish seamen. Like a pack of terriers they hung upon the skirts of the great unwieldy fleets, ready to snap up any unfortunate vessel which a tempest or other accident had separated from its fellows. When Thomas Gage was sailing in the galleons from Porto Bello to Cartagena in 1637, four buccaneers hovering near them carried away two merchant-ships under cover of darkness. As the same fleet was departing from Havana, just outside the harbour two strange vessels appeared in their midst, and getting to the windward of them singled out a Spanish ship which had strayed a short distance from the rest, suddenly gave her a broadside and made her yield. The vessel was laden with sugar and other goods to the value of 80,000 crowns. The Spanish vice-admiral and two other galleons gave chase, but without success, for the wind was against them. The whole action lasted only half an hour.
The Spanish ships of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were notoriously clumsy and unseaworthy. With short keel and towering poop and forecastle they were an easy prey for the long, low, close-sailing sloops and barques of the buccaneers. But this was not their only weakness. Although the king expressly prohibited the loading of merchandise on the galleons except on the king's account, this rule was often broken for the private profit of the captain, the sailors, and even of the general. The men-of-war, indeed, were sometimes so embarrassed with goods and passengers that it was scarcely possible to defend them when attacked. The galleon which bore the general's flag had often as many as 700 souls, crew, marines and passengers, on board, and the same number were crowded upon those carrying the vice-admiral and the pilot. Ship-masters frequently hired guns, anchors, cables, and stores to make up the required equipment, and men to fill up the muster-rolls, against the time when the "visitadors" came on board to make their official inspection, getting rid of the stores and men immediately afterward. Merchant ships were armed with such feeble crews, owing to the excessive crowding, that it was all they could do to withstand the least spell of bad weather, let alone outman[oe]uvre a swift-sailing buccaneer.
By Spanish law strangers were forbidden to resort to, or reside in, the Indies without express permission of the king. By law, moreover, they might not trade with the Indies from Spain, either on their own account or through the intermediary of a Spaniard, and they were forbidden even to associate with those engaged in such a trade. Colonists were stringently enjoined from having anything to do with them. In 1569 an order was issued for the seizure of all goods sent to the colonies on the account of foreigners, and a royal cedula of 1614 decreed the penalty of death and confiscation upon any who connived at the participation of foreigners in Spanish colonial commerce. It was impossible, however, to maintain so complete an exclusion when the products of Spain fell far short of supplying the needs of the colonists. Foreign merchants were bound to have a hand in this traffic, and the Spanish government tried to recompense itself by imposing on the out-going cargoes tyrannical exactions called "indults." The results were fatal. Foreigners often eluded these impositions by interloping in the West Indies and in the South Sea. And as the Contratacion, by fixing each year the nature and quantity of the goods to be shipped to the colonies, raised the price of merchandise at will and reaped enormous profits, the colonists welcomed this contraband trade as an opportunity of enriching themselves and adding to the comforts and luxuries of living.
From the beginning of the seventeenth century as many as 200 ships sailed each year from Portugal with rich cargoes of silks, cloths and woollens intended for Spanish America. The Portuguese bought these articles of the Flemish, English, and French, loaded them at Lisbon and Oporto, ran their vessels to Brazil and up the La Plata as far as navigation permitted, and then transported the goods overland through Paraguay and Tucuman to Potosi and even to Lima. The Spanish merchants of Peru kept factors in Brazil as well as in Spain, and as Portuguese imposts were not so excessive as those levied at Cadiz and Seville, the Portuguese could undersell their Spanish rivals. The frequent possession of Assientos by the Portuguese and Dutch in the first half of the seventeenth century also facilitated this contraband, for when carrying negroes from Africa to Hispaniola, Cuba and the towns on the Main, they profited by their opportunities to sell merchandise also, and generally without the least obstacle.
Other nations in the seventeenth century were not slow to follow the same course; and two circumstances contributed to make that course easy. One was the great length of coast line on both the Atlantic and Pacific slopes over which a surveillance had to be exercised, making it difficult to catch the interlopers. The other was the venal connivance of the governors of the ports, who often tolerated and even encouraged the traffic on the plea that the colonists demanded it. The subterfuges adopted by the interlopers were very simple. When a vessel wished to enter a Spanish port to trade, the captain, pretending that provisions had run low, or that the ship suffered from a leak or a broken mast, sent a polite note to the governor accompanied by a considerable gift. He generally obtained permission to enter, unload, and put the ship into a seaworthy condition. All the formalities were minutely observed. The unloaded goods were shut up in a storehouse, and the doors sealed. But there was always found another door unsealed, and by this they abstracted the goods during the night, and substituted coin or bars of gold and silver. When the vessel was repaired to the captain's satisfaction, it was reloaded and sailed away.
There was also, especially on the shores of the Caribbean Sea, a less elaborate commerce called "sloop-trade," for it was usually managed by sloops which hovered near some secluded spot on the coast, often at the mouth of a river, and informed the inhabitants of their presence in the neighbourhood by firing a shot from a cannon. Sometimes a large ship filled with merchandise was stationed in a bay close at hand, and by means of these smaller craft made its trade with the colonists. The latter, generally in disguise, came off in canoes by night. The interlopers, however, were always on guard against such dangerous visitors, and never admitted more than a few at a time; for when the Spaniards found themselves stronger than the crew, and a favourable opportunity presented itself, they rarely failed to attempt the vessel.
Thus the Spaniards of the seventeenth century, by persisting, both at home and in their colonies, in an economic policy which was fatally inconsistent with their powers and resources, saw their commerce gradually extinguished by the ships of the foreign interloper, and their tropical possessions fall a prey to marauding bands of half-piratical buccaneers. Although struggling under tremendous initial disabilities in Europe, they had attempted, upon the slender pleas of prior discovery and papal investiture, to reserve half the world to themselves. Without a marine, without maritime traditions, they sought to hold a colonial empire greater than any the world had yet seen, and comparable only with the empire of Great Britain three centuries later. By discouraging industry in Spain, and yet enforcing in the colonies an absolute commercial dependence on the home-country, by combining in their rule of distant America a solicitous paternalism with a restriction of initiative altogether disastrous in its consequences, the Spaniards succeeded in reducing their colonies to political impotence. And when, to make their grip the more firm, they evolved, as a method of outwitting the foreigner of his spoils, the system of great fleets and single ports of call, they found the very means they had contrived for their own safety to be the instrument of commercial disaster.
II.—THE FREEBOOTERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
It was the French chronologist, Scaliger, who in the sixteenth century asserted, "nulli melius piraticam exercent quam Angli"; and although he had no need to cross the Channel to find men proficient in this primitive calling, the remark applies to the England of his time with a force which we to-day scarcely realise. Certainly the inveterate hostility with which the Englishman learned to regard the Spaniard in the latter half of the sixteenth and throughout the seventeenth centuries found its most remarkable expression in the exploits of the Elizabethan "sea-dogs" and of the buccaneers of a later period. The religious differences and political jealousies which grew out of the turmoil of the Reformation, and the moral anarchy incident to the dissolution of ancient religious institutions, were the motive causes for an outburst of piratical activity comparable only with the professional piracy of the Barbary States.
Even as far back as the thirteenth century, indeed, lawless sea-rovers, mostly Bretons and Flemings, had infested the English Channel and the seas about Great Britain. In the sixteenth this mode of livelihood became the refuge for numerous young Englishmen, Catholic and Protestant, who, fleeing from the persecutions of Edward VI. and of Mary, sought refuge in French ports or in the recesses of the Irish coast, and became the leaders of wild roving bands living chiefly upon plunder. Among them during these persecutions were found many men belonging to the best families in England, and although with the accession of Elizabeth most of the leaders returned to the service of the State, the pirate crews remained at their old trade. The contagion spread, especially in the western counties, and great numbers of fishermen who found their old employment profitless were recruited into this new calling. At the beginning of Elizabeth's reign we find these Anglo-Irish pirates venturing farther south, plundering treasure galleons off the coast of Spain, and cutting vessels out of the very ports of the Spanish king. Such outrages of course provoked reprisals, and the pirates, if caught, were sent to the galleys, rotted in the dungeons of the Inquisition, or, least of all, were burnt in the plaza at Valladolid. These cruelties only added fuel to a deadly hatred which was kindling between the two nations, a hatred which it took one hundred and fifty years to quench.
The most venturesome of these sea-rovers, however, were soon attracted to a larger and more distant sphere of activity. Spain, as we have seen, was then endeavouring to reserve to herself in the western hemisphere an entire new world; and this at a time when the great northern maritime powers, France, England and Holland, were in the full tide of economic development, restless with new thoughts, hopes and ambitions, and keenly jealous of new commercial and industrial outlets. The famous Bull of Alexander VI. had provoked Francis I. to express a desire "to see the clause in Adam's will which entitled his brothers of Castile and Portugal to divide the New World between them," and very early the French corsairs had been encouraged to test the pretensions of the Spaniards by the time-honoured proofs of fire and steel. The English nation, however, in the first half of the sixteenth century, had not disputed with Spain her exclusive trade and dominion in those regions. The hardy mariners of the north were still indifferent to the wonders of a new continent awaiting their exploitation, and it was left to the Spaniards to unfold before the eyes of Europe the vast riches of America, and to found empires on the plateaus of Mexico and beyond the Andes. During the reign of Philip II. all this was changed. English privateers began to extend their operations westward, and to sap the very sources of Spanish wealth and power, while the wars which absorbed the attention of the Spaniards in Europe, from the revolt of the Low Countries to the Treaty of Westphalia, left the field clear for these ubiquitous sea-rovers. The maritime powers, although obliged by the theory of colonial exclusion to pretend to acquiesce in the Spaniard's claim to tropical America, secretly protected and supported their mariners who coursed those western seas. France and England were now jealous and fearful of Spanish predominance in Europe, and kept eyes obstinately fixed on the inexhaustible streams of gold and silver by means of which Spain was enabled to pay her armies and man her fleets. Queen Elizabeth, while she publicly excused or disavowed to Philip II. the outrages committed by Hawkins and Drake, blaming the turbulence of the times and promising to do her utmost to suppress the disorders, was secretly one of the principal shareholders in their enterprises.
The policy of the marauders was simple. The treasure which oiled the machinery of Spanish policy came from the Indies where it was accumulated; hence there were only two means of obtaining possession of it:—bold raids on the ill-protected American continent, and the capture of vessels en route. The counter policy of the Spaniards was also two-fold:—on the one hand, the establishment of commerce by means of annual fleets protected by a powerful convoy; on the other, the removal of the centres of population from the coasts to the interior of the country far from danger of attack. The Spaniards in America, however, proved to be no match for the bold, intrepid mariners who disputed their supremacy. The descendants of the Conquistadores had deteriorated sadly from the type of their forbears. Softened by tropical heats and a crude, uncultured luxury, they seem to have lost initiative and power of resistance. The disastrous commercial system of monopoly and centralization forced them to vegetate; while the policy of confining political office to native-born Spaniards denied any outlet to creole talent and energy. Moreover, the productive power and administrative abilities of the native-born Spaniards themselves were gradually being paralyzed and reduced to impotence under the crushing obligation of preserving and defending so unwieldy an empire and of managing such disproportionate riches, a task for which they had neither the aptitude nor the means. Privateering in the West Indies may indeed be regarded as a challenge to the Spaniards of America, sunk in lethargy and living upon the credit of past glory and achievement, a challenge to prove their right to retain their dominion and extend their civilization and culture over half the world.
There were other motives which lay behind these piratical aggressions of the French and English in Spanish America. The Spaniards, ever since the days of the Dominican monk and bishop, Las Casas, had been reprobated as the heartless oppressors and murderers of the native Indians. The original owners of the soil had been dispossessed and reduced to slavery. In the West Indies, the great islands, Cuba and Hispaniola, were rendered desolate for want of inhabitants. Two great empires, Mexico and Peru, had been subdued by treachery, their kings murdered, and their people made to suffer a living death in the mines of Potosi and New Spain. Such was the Protestant Englishman's conception, in the sixteenth century, of the results of Spanish colonial policy. To avenge the blood of these innocent victims, and teach the true religion to the survivors, was to glorify the Church militant and strike a blow at Antichrist. Spain, moreover, in the eyes of the Puritans, was the lieutenant of Rome, the Scarlet Woman of the Apocalypse, who harried and burnt their Protestant brethren whenever she could lay hands upon them. That she was eager to repeat her ill-starred attempt of 1588 and introduce into the British Isles the accursed Inquisition was patent to everyone. Protestant England, therefore, filled with the enthusiasm and intolerance of a new faith, made no bones of despoiling the Spaniards, especially as the service of God was likely to be repaid with plunder.
A pamphlet written by Dalby Thomas in 1690 expresses with tolerable accuracy the attitude of the average Englishman toward Spain during the previous century. He says:—"We will make a short reflection on the unaccountable negligence, or rather stupidity, of this nation, during the reigns of Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Queen Mary, who could contentedly sit still and see the Spanish rifle, plunder and bring home undisturbed, all the wealth of that golden world; and to suffer them with forts and castles to shut up the doors and entrances unto all the rich provinces of America, having not the least title or pretence of right beyond any other nation; except that of being by accident the first discoverer of some parts of it; where the unprecedented cruelties, exorbitances and barbarities, their own histories witness, they practised on a poor, naked and innocent people, which inhabited the islands, as well as upon those truly civilized and mighty empires of Peru and Mexico, called to all mankind for succour and relief against their outrageous avarice and horrid massacres.... (We) slept on until the ambitious Spaniard, by that inexhaustible spring of treasure, had corrupted most of the courts and senates of Europe, and had set on fire, by civil broils and discords, all our neighbour nations, or had subdued them to his yoke; contriving too to make us wear his chains and bear a share in the triumph of universal monarchy, not only projected but near accomplished, when Queen Elizabeth came to the crown ... and to the divided interests of Philip II. and Queen Elizabeth, in personal more than National concerns, we do owe that start of hers in letting loose upon him, and encouraging those daring adventurers, Drake, Hawkins, Rawleigh, the Lord Clifford and many other braves that age produced, who, by their privateering and bold undertaking (like those the buccaneers practise) now opened the way to our discoveries, and succeeding settlements in America."
On the 19th of November 1527, some Spaniards in a caravel loading cassava at the Isle of Mona, between Hispaniola and Porto Rico, sighted a strange vessel of about 250 tons well-armed with cannon, and believing it to be a ship from Spain sent a boat to make inquiries. The new-comers at the same time were seen to launch a pinnace carrying some twenty-five men, all armed with corselets and bows. As the two boats approached the Spaniards inquired the nationality of the strangers and were told that they were English. The story given by the English master was that his ship and another had been fitted out by the King of England and had sailed from London to discover the land of the Great Khan; that they had been separated in a great storm; that this ship afterwards ran into a sea of ice, and unable to get through, turned south, touched at Bacallaos (Newfoundland), where the pilot was killed by Indians, and sailing 400 leagues along the coast of "terra nueva" had found her way to this island of Porto Rico. The Englishmen offered to show their commission written in Latin and Romance, which the Spanish captain could not read; and after sojourning at the island for two days, they inquired for the route to Hispaniola and sailed away. On the evening of 25th November this same vessel appeared before the port of San Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola, where the master with ten or twelve sailors went ashore in a boat to ask leave to enter and trade. This they obtained, for the alguazil mayor and two pilots were sent back with them to bring the ship into port. But early next morning, when they approached the shore, the Spanish alcaide, Francisco de Tapia, commanded a gun to be fired at the ship from the castle; whereupon the English, seeing the reception accorded them, sailed back to Porto Rico, there obtained some provisions in exchange for pewter and cloth, and departed for Europe, "where it is believed that they never arrived, for nothing is known of them." The alcaide, says Herrera, was imprisoned by the oidores, because he did not, instead of driving the ship away, allow her to enter the port, whence she could not have departed without the permission of the city and the fort.
This is the earliest record we possess of the appearance of an English ship in the waters of Spanish America. Others, however, soon followed. In 1530 William Hawkins, father of the famous John Hawkins, ventured in "a tall and goodly ship ... called the 'Polo of Plymouth,'" down to the coast of Guinea, trafficked with the natives for gold-dust and ivory, and then crossed the ocean to Brazil, "where he behaved himself so wisely with those savage people" that one of the kings of the country took ship with him to England and was presented to Henry VIII. at Whitehall. The real occasion, however, for the appearance of foreign ships in Spanish-American waters was the new occupation of carrying negroes from the African coast to the Spanish colonies to be sold as slaves. The rapid depopulation of the Indies, and the really serious concern of the Spanish crown for the preservation of the indigenes, had compelled the Spanish government to permit the introduction of negro slaves from an early period. At first restricted to Christian slaves carried from Spain, after 1510 licences to take over a certain number, subject of course to governmental imposts, were given to private individuals; and in August 1518, owing to the incessant clamour of the colonists for more negroes, Laurent de Gouvenot, Governor of Bresa and one of the foreign favourites of Charles V., obtained the first regular contract to carry 4000 slaves directly from Africa to the West Indies. With slight modifications the contract system became permanent, and with it, as a natural consequence, came contraband trade. Cargoes of negroes were frequently "run" from Africa by Spaniards and Portuguese, and as early as 1506 an order was issued to expel all contraband slaves from Hispaniola. The supply never equalled the demand, however, and this explains why John Hawkins found it so profitable to carry ship-loads of blacks across from the Guinea coast, and why Spanish colonists could not resist the temptation to buy them, notwithstanding the stringent laws against trading with foreigners.
The first voyage of John Hawkins was made in 1562-63. In conjunction with Thomas Hampton he fitted out three vessels and sailed for Sierra Leone. There he collected, "partly by the sword and partly by other means," some 300 negroes, and with this valuable human freight crossed the Atlantic to San Domingo in Hispaniola. Uncertain as to his reception, Hawkins on his arrival pretended that he had been driven in by foul weather, and was in need of provisions, but without ready money to pay for them. He therefore requested permission to sell "certain slaves he had with him." The opportunity was eagerly welcomed by the planters, and the governor, not thinking it necessary to construe his orders from home too stringently, allowed two-thirds of the cargo to be sold. As neither Hawkins nor the Spanish colonists anticipated any serious displeasure on the part of Philip II., the remaining 100 slaves were left as a deposit with the Council of the island. Hawkins invested the proceeds in a return cargo of hides, half of which he sent in Spanish vessels to Spain under the care of his partner, while he returned with the rest to England. The Spanish Government, however, was not going to sanction for a moment the intrusion of the English into the Indies. On Hampton's arrival at Cadiz his cargo was confiscated and he himself narrowly escaped the Inquisition. The slaves left in San Domingo were forfeited, and Hawkins, although he "cursed, threatened and implored," could not obtain a farthing for his lost hides and negroes. The only result of his demands was the dispatch of a peremptory order to the West Indies that no English vessel should be allowed under any pretext to trade there.
The second of the great Elizabethan sea-captains to beard the Spanish lion was Hawkins' friend and pupil, Francis Drake. In 1567 he accompanied Hawkins on his third expedition. With six ships, one of which was lent by the Queen herself, they sailed from Plymouth in October, picked up about 450 slaves on the Guinea coast, sighted Dominica in the West Indies in March, and coasted along the mainland of South America past Margarita and Cape de la Vela, carrying on a "tolerable good trade." Rio de la Hacha they stormed with 200 men, losing only two in the encounter; but they were scattered by a tempest near Cartagena and driven into the Gulf of Mexico, where, on 16th September, they entered the narrow port of S. Juan d'Ulloa or Vera Cruz. The next day the fleet of New Spain, consisting of thirteen large ships, appeared outside, and after an exchange of pledges of peace and amity with the English intruders, entered on the 20th. On the morning of the 24th, however, a fierce encounter was begun, and Hawkins and Drake, stubbornly defending themselves against tremendous odds, were glad to escape with two shattered vessels and the loss of L100,000 treasure. After a voyage of terrible suffering, Drake, in the "Judith," succeeded in reaching England on 20th January 1569, and Hawkins followed five days later. Within a few years, however, Drake was away again, this time alone and with the sole, unblushing purpose of robbing the Dons. With only two ships and seventy-three men he prowled about the waters of the West Indies for almost a year, capturing and rifling Spanish vessels, plundering towns on the Main and intercepting convoys of treasure across the Isthmus of Darien. In 1577 he sailed on the voyage which carried him round the world, a feat for which he was knighted, promoted to the rank of admiral, and visited by the Queen on board his ship, the "Golden Hind." While Drake was being feted in London as the hero of the hour, Philip of Spain from his cell in the Escorial must have execrated these English sea-rovers whose visits brought ruin to his colonies and menaced the safety of his treasure galleons.
In the autumn of 1585 Drake was again in command of a formidable armament intended against the West Indies. Supported by 2000 troops under General Carleill, and by Martin Frobisher and Francis Knollys in the fleet, he took and plundered San Domingo, and after occupying Cartagena for six weeks ransomed the city for 110,000 ducats. This fearless old Elizabethan sailed from Plymouth on his last voyage in August 1595. Though under the joint command of Drake and Hawkins, the expedition seemed doomed to disaster throughout its course. One vessel, the "Francis," fell into the hands of the Spaniards. While the fleet was passing through the Virgin Isles, Hawkins fell ill and died. A desperate attack was made on S. Juan de Porto Rico, but the English, after losing forty or fifty men, were compelled to retire. Drake then proceeded to the Main, where in turn he captured and plundered Rancherias, Rio de la Hacha, Santa Marta and Nombre de Dios. With 750 soldiers he made a bold attempt to cross the isthmus to the city of Panama, but turned back after the loss of eighty or ninety of his followers. A few days later, on 15th January 1596, he too fell ill, died on the 28th, and was buried in a leaden coffin off the coast of Darien.
Hawkins and Drake, however, were by no means the only English privateers of that century in American waters. Names like Oxenham, Grenville, Raleigh and Clifford, and others of lesser fame, such as Winter, Knollys and Barker, helped to swell the roll of these Elizabethan sea-rovers. To many a gallant sailor the Caribbean Sea was a happy hunting-ground where he might indulge at his pleasure any propensities to lawless adventure. If in 1588 he had helped to scatter the Invincible Armada, he now pillaged treasure ships on the coasts of the Spanish Main; if he had been with Drake to flout his Catholic Majesty at Cadiz, he now closed with the Spaniards within their distant cities beyond the seas. Thus he lined his own pockets with Spanish doubloons, and incidentally curbed Philip's power of invading England. Nor must we think these mariners the same as the lawless buccaneers of a later period. The men of this generation were of a sterner and more fanatical mould, men who for their wildest acts often claimed the sanction of religious convictions. Whether they carried off the heathen from Africa, or plundered the fleets of Romish Spain, they were but entering upon "the heritage of the saints." Judged by the standards of our own century they were pirates and freebooters, but in the eyes of their fellow-countrymen their attacks upon the Spaniards seemed fair and honourable.
The last of the great privateering voyages for which Drake had set the example was the armament which Lord George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, sent against Porto Rico in 1598. The ill-starred expeditions of Raleigh to Guiana in 1595 and again in 1617 belong rather to the history of exploration and colonization. Clifford, "courtier, gambler and buccaneer," having run through a great part of his very considerable fortune, had seized the opportunity offered him by the plunder of the Spanish colonies to re-coup himself; and during a period of twelve years, from 1586 to 1598, almost every year fitted out, and often himself commanded, an expedition against the Spaniards. In his last and most ambitious effort, in 1598, he equipped twenty vessels entirely at his own cost, sailed from Plymouth in March, and on 6th June laid siege to the city of San Juan, which he proposed to clear of Spaniards and establish as an English stronghold. Although the place was captured, the expedition proved a fiasco. A violent sickness broke out among the troops, and as Clifford had already sailed away with some of the ships to Flores to lie in wait for the treasure fleet, Sir Thomas Berkeley, who was left in command in Porto Rico, abandoned the island and returned to rejoin the Earl.
The English in the sixteenth century, however, had no monopoly of this piratical game. The French did something in their own way, and the Dutch were not far behind. Indeed, the French may claim to have set the example for the Elizabethan freebooters, for in the first half of the sixteenth century privateers flocked to the Spanish Indies from Dieppe, Brest and the towns of the Basque coast. The gleam of the golden lingots of Peru, and the pale lights of the emeralds from the mountains of New Granada, exercised a hypnotic influence not only on ordinary seamen but on merchants and on seigneurs with depleted fortunes. Names like Jean Terrier, Jacques Sore and Francois le Clerc, the latter popularly called "Pie de Palo," or "wooden-leg," by the Spaniards, were as detestable in Spanish ears as those of the great English captains. Even before 1500 French corsairs hovered about Cape St Vincent and among the Azores and the Canaries; and their prowess and audacity were so feared that Columbus, on returning from his third voyage in 1498, declared that he had sailed for the island of Madeira by a new route to avoid meeting a French fleet which was awaiting him near St Vincent. With the establishment of the system of armed convoys, however, and the presence of Spanish fleets on the coast of Europe, the corsairs suffered some painful reverses which impelled them to transfer their operations to American waters. Thereafter Spanish records are full of references to attacks by Frenchmen on Havana, St. Jago de Cuba, San Domingo and towns on the mainland of South and Central America; full of appeals, too, from the colonies to the neglectful authorities in Spain, urging them to send artillery, cruisers and munitions of war for their defence.
A letter dated 8th April 1537, written by Gonzalo de Guzman to the Empress, furnishes us with some interesting details of the exploits of an anonymous French corsair in that year. In November 1536 this Frenchman had seized in the port of Chagre, on the Isthmus of Darien, a Spanish vessel laden with horses from San Domingo, had cast the cargo into the sea, put the crew on shore and sailed away with his prize. A month or two later he appeared off the coast of Havana and dropped anchor in a small bay a few leagues from the city. As there were then five Spanish ships lying in the harbour, the inhabitants compelled the captains to attempt the seizure of the pirate, promising to pay for the ships if they were lost. Three vessels of 200 tons each sailed out to the attack, and for several days they fired at the French corsair, which, being a patache of light draught, had run up the bay beyond their reach. Finally one morning the Frenchmen were seen pressing with both sail and oar to escape from the port. A Spanish vessel cut her cables to follow in pursuit, but encountering a heavy sea and contrary winds was abandoned by her crew, who made for shore in boats. The other two Spanish ships were deserted in similar fashion, whereupon the French, observing this new turn of affairs, re-entered the bay and easily recovered the three drifting vessels. Two of the prizes they burnt, and arming the third sailed away to cruise in the Florida straits, in the route of ships returning from the West Indies to Spain.
The corsairs, however, were not always so uniformly successful. A band of eighty, who attempted to plunder the town of St. Jago de Cuba, were repulsed with some loss by a certain Diego Perez of Seville, captain of an armed merchant ship then in the harbour, who later petitioned for the grant of a coat-of-arms in recognition of his services. In October 1544 six French vessels attacked the town of Santa Maria de los Remedios, near Cape de la Vela, but failed to take it in face of the stubborn resistance of the inhabitants. Yet the latter a few months earlier had been unable to preserve their homes from pillage, and had been obliged to flee to La Granjeria de las Perlas on the Rio de la Hacha. There is small wonder, indeed, that the defenders were so rarely victorious. The Spanish towns were ill-provided with forts and guns, and often entirely without ammunition or any regular soldiers. The distance between the settlements as a rule was great, and the inhabitants, as soon as informed of the presence of the enemy, knowing that they had no means of resistance and little hope of succour, left their homes to the mercy of the freebooters and fled to the hills and woods with their families and most precious belongings. Thus when, in October 1554, another band of three hundred French privateers swooped down upon the unfortunate town of St. Jago de Cuba, they were able to hold it for thirty days, and plundered it to the value of 80,000 pieces of eight. The following year, however, witnessed an even more remarkable action. In July 1555 the celebrated captain, Jacques Sore, landed two hundred men from a caravel a half-league from the city of Havana, and before daybreak marched on the town and forced the surrender of the castle. The Spanish governor had time to retire to the country, where he gathered a small force of Spaniards and negroes, and returned to surprise the French by night. Fifteen or sixteen of the latter were killed, and Sore, who himself was wounded, in a rage gave orders for the massacre of all the prisoners. He burned the cathedral and the hospital, pillaged the houses and razed most of the city to the ground. After transferring all the artillery to his vessel, he made several forays into the country, burned a few plantations, and finally sailed away in the beginning of August. No record remains of the amount of the booty, but it must have been enormous. To fill the cup of bitterness for the poor inhabitants, on 4th October there appeared on the coast another French ship, which had learned of Sore's visit and of the helpless state of the Spaniards. Several hundred men disembarked, sacked a few plantations neglected by their predecessors, tore down or burned the houses which the Spaniards had begun to rebuild, and seized a caravel loaded with leather which had recently entered the harbour. It is true that during these years there was almost constant war in Europe between the Emperor and France; yet this does not entirely explain the activity of the French privateers in Spanish America, for we find them busy there in the years when peace reigned at home. Once unleash the sea-dogs and it was extremely difficult to bring them again under restraint.
With the seventeenth century began a new era in the history of the West Indies. If in the sixteenth the English, French and Dutch came to tropical America as piratical intruders into seas and countries which belonged to others, in the following century they came as permanent colonisers and settlers. The Spaniards, who had explored the whole ring of the West Indian islands before 1500, from the beginning neglected the lesser for the larger Antilles—Cuba, Hispaniola, Porto Rico and Jamaica—and for those islands like Trinidad, which lie close to the mainland. And when in 1519 Cortez sailed from Cuba for the conquest of Mexico, and twelve years later Pizarro entered Peru, the emigrants who left Spain to seek their fortunes in the New World flocked to the vast territories which the Conquistadores and their lieutenants had subdued on the Continent. It was consequently to the smaller islands which compose the Leeward and Windward groups that the English, French and Dutch first resorted as colonists. Small, and therefore "easy to settle, easy to depopulate and to re-people, attractive not only on account of their own wealth, but also as a starting-point for the vast and rich continent off which they lie," these islands became the pawns in a game of diplomacy and colonization which continued for 150 years.
In the seventeenth century, moreover, the Spanish monarchy was declining rapidly both in power and prestige, and its empire, though still formidable, no longer overshadowed the other nations of Europe as in the days of Charles V. and Philip II. France, with the Bourbons on the throne, was entering upon an era of rapid expansion at home and abroad, while the Dutch, by the truce of 1609, virtually obtained the freedom for which they had struggled so long. In England Queen Elizabeth had died in 1603, and her Stuart successor exchanged her policy of dalliance, of balance between France and Spain, for one of peace and conciliation. The aristocratic free-booters who had enriched themselves by harassing the Spanish Indies were succeeded by a less romantic but more business-like generation, which devoted itself to trade and planting. Abortive attempts at colonization had been made in the sixteenth century. The Dutch, who were trading in the West Indies as early as 1542, by 1580 seem to have gained some foothold in Guiana; and the French Huguenots, under the patronage of the Admiral de Coligny, made three unsuccessful efforts to form settlements on the American continent, one in Brazil in 1555, another near Port Royal in South Carolina in 1562, and two years later a third on the St. John's River in Florida. The only English effort in the sixteenth century was the vain attempt of Sir Walter Raleigh between 1585 and 1590 to plant a colony on Roanoke Island, on the coast of what is now North Carolina. It was not till 1607 that the first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown in Virginia. Between 1609 and 1619 numerous stations were established by English, Dutch and French in Guiana between the mouth of the Orinoco and that of the Amazon. In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was incorporated, and a few years later proposals for a similar company were broached in England. Among the West Indian Islands, St. Kitts received its first English settlers in 1623; and two years later the island was formally divided with the French, thus becoming the earliest nucleus of English and French colonization in those regions. Barbadoes was colonized in 1624-25. In 1628 English settlers from St. Kitts spread to Nevis and Barbuda, and within another four years to Antigua and Montserrat; while as early as 1625 English and Dutch took joint possession of Santa Cruz. The founders of the French settlement on St. Kitts induced Richelieu to incorporate a French West India Company with the title, "The Company of the Isles of America," and under its auspices Guadeloupe, Martinique and other islands of the Windward group were colonized in 1635 and succeeding years. Meanwhile between 1632 and 1634 the Dutch had established trading stations on St. Eustatius in the north, and on Tobago and Curacao in the south near the Spanish mainland.
While these centres of trade and population were being formed in the very heart of the Spanish seas, the privateers were not altogether idle. To the treaty of Vervins between France and Spain in 1598 had been added a secret restrictive article whereby it was agreed that the peace should not hold good south of the Tropic of Cancer and west of the meridian of the Azores. Beyond these two lines (called "les lignes de l'enclos des Amities") French and Spanish ships might attack each other and take fair prize as in open war. The ministers of Henry IV. communicated this restriction verbally to the merchants of the ports, and soon private men-of-war from Dieppe, Havre and St. Malo flocked to the western seas. Ships loaded with contraband goods no longer sailed for the Indies unless armed ready to engage all comers, and many ship-captains renounced trade altogether for the more profitable and exciting occupation of privateering. In the early years of the seventeenth century, moreover, Dutch fleets harassed the coasts of Chile and Peru, while in Brazil and the West Indies a second "Pie de Palo," this time the Dutch admiral, Piet Heyn, was proving a scourge to the Spaniards. Heyn was employed by the Dutch West India Company, which from the year 1623 onwards, carried the Spanish war into the transmarine possessions of Spain and Portugal. With a fleet composed of twenty-six ships and 3300 men, of which he was vice-admiral, he greatly distinguished himself at the capture of Bahia, the seat of Portuguese power in Brazil. Similar expeditions were sent out annually, and brought back the rich spoils of the South American colonies. Within two years the extraordinary number of eighty ships, with 1500 cannon and over 9000 sailors and soldiers, were despatched to American seas, and although Bahia was soon retaken, the Dutch for a time occupied Pernambuco, as well as San Juan de Porto Rico in the West Indies. In 1628 Piet Heyn was in command of a squadron designed to intercept the plate fleet which sailed every year from Vera Cruz to Spain. With thirty-one ships, 700 cannon and nearly 3000 men he cruised along the northern coast of Cuba, and on 8th September fell in with his quarry near Cape San Antonio. The Spaniards made a running fight along the coast until they reached the Matanzas River near Havana, into which they turned with the object of running the great-bellied galleons aground and escaping with what treasure they could. The Dutch followed, however, and most of the rich cargo was diverted into the coffers of the Dutch West India Company. The gold, silver, indigo, sugar and logwood were sold in the Netherlands for fifteen million guilders, and the company was enabled to distribute to its shareholders the unprecedented dividend of 50 per cent. It was an exploit which two generations of English mariners had attempted in vain, and the unfortunate Spanish general, Don Juan de Benavides, on his return to Spain was imprisoned for his defeat and later beheaded.
In 1639 we find the Spanish Council of War for the Indies conferring with the King on measures to be taken against English piratical ships in the Caribbean; and in 1642 Captain William Jackson, provided with an ample commission from the Earl of Warwick and duplicates under the Great Seal, made a raid in which he emulated the exploits of Sir Francis Drake and his contemporaries. Starting out with three ships and about 1100 men, mostly picked up in St. Kitts and Barbadoes, he cruised along the Main from Caracas to Honduras and plundered the towns of Maracaibo and Truxillo. On 25th March 1643 he dropped anchor in what is now Kingston Harbour in Jamaica, landed about 500 men, and after some sharp fighting and the loss of forty of his followers, entered the town of St. Jago de la Vega, which he ransomed for 200 beeves, 10,000 lbs. of cassava bread and 7000 pieces of eight. Many of the English were so captivated by the beauty and fertility of the island that twenty-three deserted in one night to the Spaniards.
The first two Stuart Kings, like the great Queen who preceded them, and in spite of the presence of a powerful Spanish faction at the English Court, looked upon the Indies with envious eyes, as a source of perennial wealth to whichever nation could secure them. James I., to be sure, was a man of peace, and soon after his accession patched up a treaty with the Spaniards; but he had no intention of giving up any English claims, however shadowy they might be, to America. Cornwallis, the new ambassador at Madrid, from a vantage ground where he could easily see the financial and administrative confusion into which Spain, in spite of her colonial wealth, had fallen, was most dissatisfied with the treaty. In a letter to Cranborne, dated 2nd July 1605, he suggested that England never lost so great an opportunity of winning honour and wealth as by relinquishing the war with Spain, and that Philip and his kingdom "were reduced to such a state as they could not in all likelihood have endured for the space of two years more." This opinion we find repeated in his letters in the following years, with covert hints that an attack upon the Indies might after all be the most profitable and politic thing to do. When, in October 1607, Zuniga, the Spanish ambassador in London, complained to James of the establishment of the new colony in Virginia, James replied that Virginia was land discovered by the English and therefore not within the jurisdiction of Philip; and a week later Salisbury, while confiding to Zuniga that he thought the English might not justly go to Virginia, still refused to prohibit their going or command their return, for it would be an acknowledgment, he said, that the King of Spain was lord of all the Indies. In 1609, in the truce concluded between Spain and the Netherlands, one of the stipulations provided that for nine years the Dutch were to be free to trade in all places in the East and West Indies except those in actual possession of the Spaniards on the date of cessation of hostilities; and thereafter the English and French governments endeavoured with all the more persistence to obtain a similar privilege. Attorney-General Heath, in 1625, presented a memorial to the Crown on the advantages derived by the Spaniards and Dutch in the West Indies, maintaining that it was neither safe nor profitable for them to be absolute lords of those regions; and he suggested that his Majesty openly interpose or permit it to be done underhand. In September 1637 proposals were renewed in England for a West India Company as the only method of obtaining a share in the wealth of America. It was suggested that some convenient port be seized as a safe retreat from which to plunder Spanish trade on land and sea, and that the officers of the company be empowered to conquer and occupy any part of the West Indies, build ships, levy soldiers and munitions of war, and make reprisals. The temper of Englishmen at this time was again illustrated in 1640 when the Spanish ambassador, Alonzo de Cardenas, protested to Charles I. against certain ships which the Earls of Warwick and Marlborough were sending to the West Indies with the intention, Cardenas declared, of committing hostilities against the Spaniards. The Earl of Warwick, it seems, pretended to have received great injuries from the latter and threatened to recoup his losses at their expense. He procured from the king a broad commission which gave him the right to trade in the West Indies, and to "offend" such as opposed him. Under shelter of this commission the Earl of Marlborough was now going to sea with three or four armed ships, and Cardenas prayed the king to restrain him until he gave security not to commit any acts of violence against the Spanish nation. The petition was referred to a committee of the Lords, who concluded that as the peace had never been strictly observed by either nation in the Indies they would not demand any security of the Earl. "Whether the Spaniards will think this reasonable or not," concludes Secretary Windebank in his letter to Sir Arthur Hopton, "is no great matter."
During this century and a half between 1500 and 1650, the Spaniards were by no means passive or indifferent to the attacks made upon their authority and prestige in the New World. The hostility of the mariners from the north they repaid with interest, and woe to the foreign interloper or privateer who fell into their clutches. When Henry II. of France in 1557 issued an order that Spanish prisoners be condemned to the galleys, the Spanish government retaliated by commanding its sea-captains to mete out the same treatment to their French captives, except that captains, masters and officers taken in the navigation of the Indies were to be hung or cast into the sea. In December 1600 the governor of Cumana had suggested to the King, as a means of keeping Dutch and English ships from the salt mines of Araya, the ingenious scheme of poisoning the salt. This advice, it seems, was not followed, but a few years later, in 1605, a Spanish fleet of fourteen galleons sent from Lisbon surprised and burnt nineteen Dutch vessels found loading salt at Araya, and murdered most of the prisoners. In December 1604 the Venetian ambassador in London wrote of "news that the Spanish in the West Indies captured two English vessels, cut off the hands, feet, noses and ears of the crews and smeared them with honey and tied them to trees to be tortured by flies and other insects. The Spanish here plead," he continued, "that they were pirates, not merchants, and that they did not know of the peace. But the barbarity makes people here cry out." On 22nd June 1606, Edmondes, the English Ambassador at Brussels, in a letter to Cornwallis, speaks of a London ship which was sent to trade in Virginia, and putting into a river in Florida to obtain water, was surprised there by Spanish vessels from Havana, the men ill-treated and the cargo confiscated. And it was but shortly after that Captain Chaloner's ship on its way to Virginia was seized by the Spaniards in the West Indies, and the crew sent to languish in the dungeons of Seville or condemned to the galleys.
By attacks upon some of the English settlements, too, the Spaniards gave their threats a more effective form. Frequent raids were made upon the English and Dutch plantations in Guiana; and on 8th-18th September 1629 a Spanish fleet of over thirty sail, commanded by Don Federico de Toledo, nearly annihilated the joint French and English colony on St. Kitts. Nine English ships were captured and the settlements burnt. The French inhabitants temporarily evacuated the island and sailed for Antigua; but of the English some 550 were carried to Cartagena and Havana, whence they were shipped to England, and all the rest fled to the mountains and woods. Within three months' time, however, after the departure of the Spaniards, the scattered settlers had returned and re-established the colony. Providence Island and its neighbour, Henrietta, being situated near the Mosquito Coast, were peculiarly exposed to Spanish attack; while near the north shore of Hispaniola the island of Tortuga, which was colonized by the same English company, suffered repeatedly from the assaults of its hostile neighbours. In July 1635 a Spanish fleet from the Main assailed the island of Providence, but unable to land among the rocks, was after five days beaten off "considerably torn" by the shot from the fort. On the strength of these injuries received and of others anticipated, the Providence Company obtained from the king the liberty "to right themselves" by making reprisals, and during the next six years kept numerous vessels preying upon Spanish commerce in those waters. King Philip was therefore all the more intent upon destroying the plantation. He bided his time, however, until the early summer of 1641, when the general of the galleons, Don Francisco Diaz Pimienta, with twelve sail and 2000 men, fell upon the colony, razed the forts and carried off all the English, about 770 in number, together with forty cannon and half a million of plunder. It was just ten years later that a force of 800 men from Porto Rico invaded Santa Cruz, whence the Dutch had been expelled by the English in 1646, killed the English governor and more than 100 settlers, seized two ships in the harbour and burnt and pillaged most of the plantations. The rest of the inhabitants escaped to the woods, and after the departure of the Spaniards deserted the colony for St. Kitts and other islands.
[Footnote 1: Herrera: Decades II. 1, p. 4, cited in Scelle: la Traite Negriere, I. p. 6. Note 2.]
[Footnote 2: Scelle, op. cit., i. pp. 6-9.]
[Footnote 3: "Por cuanto los pacificaciones no se han de hacer con ruido de armas, sino con caridad y buen modo."—Recop. de leyes ... de las Indias, lib. vii. tit. 1.]
[Footnote 4: Scelle, op. cit., i. p. 35.]
[Footnote 5: Weiss: L'Espagne depuis Philippe II. jusqu'aux Bourbons., II. pp. 204 and 215. Not till 1722 was legislative sanction given to this practice.
M. Lemonnet wrote to Colbert in 1670 concerning this commerce:—"Quelque perquisition qu'on ait faite dans ce dernier temps aux Indes pour decouvrir les biens des Francois, ils ont plustost souffert la prison que de rien declarer ... toute les merchandises qu'on leur donne a porter aux Indes sont chargees sous le nom d'Espagnols, que bien souvent n'en ont pas connaissance, ne jugeant pas a propos de leur en parler, afin de tenir les affaires plus secretes et qu'il n'y ait que le commissionaire a le savoir, lequel en rend compte a son retour des Indes, directement a celui qui en a donne la cargaison en confiance sans avoir nul egard pour ceux au nom desquels le chargement a ete fait, et lorsque ces commissionaires reviennent des Indes soit sur le flottes galions ou navires particuliers, ils apportent leur argent dans leurs coffres, la pluspart entre pont et sans connoissement." (Margry: Relations et memoires inedits pour servir a l'histoire de la France dans les pays d'outremer, p. 185.)
The importance to the maritime powers of preserving and protecting this clandestine trade is evident, especially as the Spanish government frequently found it a convenient instrument for retaliating upon those nations against which it harboured some grudge. All that was necessary was to sequester the vessels and goods of merchants belonging to the nation at which it wished to strike. This happened frequently in the course of the seventeenth century. Thus Lerma in 1601 arrested the French merchants in Spain to revenge himself on Henry IV. In 1624 Olivares seized 160 Dutch vessels. The goods of Genoese merchants were sequestered by Philip IV. in 1644; and in 1684 French merchandize was again seized, and Mexican traders whose storehouses contained such goods were fined 500,000 ecus, although the same storehouses contained English and Dutch goods which were left unnoticed. The fine was later restored upon Admiral d'Estrees' threat to bombard Cadiz. The solicitude of the French government for this trade is expressed in a letter of Colbert to the Marquis de Villars, ambassador at Madrid, dated 5th February 1672:—"Il est tellement necessaire d'avoir soin d'assister les particuliers qui font leur trafic en Espagne, pour maintenir le plus important commerce que nous ayons, que je suis persuade que vous ferez toutes les instances qui pourront dependre de vous ... en sorte que cette protection produira des avantages considerables au commerce des sujets de Sa Majeste" (ibid., p. 188).
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Introduction: 🌿✨ Welcome to another exciting blog post! In this edition, we will explore the versatile uses of cloves. Cloves, known for their aromatic and warm flavor, have been used for centuries in various cuisines and as a natural remedy for various ailments. Join us as we uncover the multitude of ways cloves can enhance your culinary creations and contribute to your well-being.
Culinary Uses of Cloves:
- Spice Blends and Seasonings: 🌿🍳 Cloves are a popular spice used in various spice blends and seasonings, adding depth and complexity to dishes. They are often found in spice mixes such as garam masala, pumpkin spice, and mulled wine spice blends. Cloves can be used whole or ground to add a warm and aromatic touch to soups, stews, curries, and baked goods.
- Baking and Desserts: 🌿🍰 Cloves are a delightful addition to baked goods and desserts. Ground cloves can be used in cakes, cookies, pies, and fruit compotes, providing a distinct and spicy flavor. They pair exceptionally well with ingredients like cinnamon, nutmeg, and ginger, creating a harmonious blend of flavors.
- Hot Beverages: 🌿☕ Cloves are a popular ingredient in warm beverages. They can be added to hot apple cider, chai tea, and spiced coffee to infuse a rich and aromatic flavor. Simply simmer the cloves with other spices and enjoy a comforting and flavorful beverage.
- Pickling and Preserving: 🌿🥒 Whole cloves can be used to enhance the flavor of pickles, chutneys, and preserves. They add a unique taste and contribute to the overall complexity of the preserved items.
Natural Remedies and Home Uses of Cloves:
- Oral Health and Fresh Breath: 🌿🦷 Cloves have long been used as a natural remedy for oral health. Chewing on a whole clove or using clove-infused products, such as mouthwash or toothpaste, can help freshen breath, alleviate toothache, and provide temporary relief from oral discomfort.
- Digestive Aid: 🌿🌱 Cloves are known for their digestive benefits. They can be used in herbal remedies and teas to help alleviate indigestion, bloating, and gas. Clove-infused tea or simply chewing on a clove after a meal can aid in digestion.
- Home Fragrance and Potpourri: 🌿🏠 Cloves have a distinct and inviting aroma that can be used to create homemade potpourri or simmering potpourri blends. The warm and spicy fragrance of cloves adds a comforting and cozy ambiance to any space.
- Natural Insect Repellent: 🌿🐜 Cloves possess natural insect-repelling properties. Placing cloves in sachets or using clove-infused oils can help deter insects and keep your home free from pests.
- Aromatherapy and Relaxation: 🌿🛀 Clove essential oil is used in aromatherapy for its calming and soothing properties. Adding a few drops of clove essential oil to a diffuser or bath can create a relaxing and rejuvenating experience.
Precautions and Considerations: 🌿⚠️ While cloves offer various uses and benefits, it’s important to keep the following points in mind:
- Moderation: Use cloves in moderation as part of a balanced diet or natural remedy routine. Excessive consumption or use may lead to adverse effects.
- Allergies and Sensitivities: Some individuals may be allergic or sensitive to cloves. If you experience any adverse reactions, discontinue use and seek medical advice.
- Pregnancy and Medical Conditions: Pregnant or breastfeeding women, as well as individuals with certain medical conditions or taking medications, should consult with their healthcare provider before using cloves for medicinal purposes.
Conclusion: 🌿✨ Cloves are a versatile spice that can elevate your culinary creations and provide natural remedies for various ailments. From adding flavor and warmth to dishes to promoting oral health, aiding digestion, and serving as a natural insect repellent, cloves have a wide range of uses. Embrace the aromatic and beneficial properties of cloves in your daily life, and discover the many ways they can enhance your well-being.
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Adverse effects of agrochemicals on earthworms’ burrowing behaviour can have crucial impacts on the entire ecosystem. In the present study, we have therefore assessed short- and long-term effects on burrowing behaviour in the earthworm species Aporrectodea caliginosa and Lumbricus terrestris after exposure to a range of imidacloprid concentrations (0.2–4 mg kg-1 dry weight (DW)) for different exposure times (1, 7, 14 d). Short-term effects on the burrowing behaviour of A. caliginosa were already detected at the lowest test concentration (0.2 mg kg-1 DW), whereas such effects in L. terrestris were not observed until exposure to concentrations 10 times higher (2 mg kg-1 DW). Since many of the observed effects occurred at imidacloprid concentrations relevant to natural conditions and since reduced activities of earthworms in soils can have crucial impacts on the ecosystem level, our results are of environmental concern.
Nils Dittbrenner, Isabelle Moser, Rita Triebskorn, Yvan Capowiez
Chemosphere 84 (2011) 1349–1355
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Have Cell Phones Increased the Rate of Car Accidents?September 14, 2022
It is hard to imagine living life in today’s world without the internet or a smartphone. Seemingly everybody you know owns and uses a smartphone. Although the innovative technology has enhanced our lives in ways that we never thought possible, cell phones can be quite dangerous when used improperly. In fact, they can even be deadly; statistics over the past several years have shown that cell phone use while driving increases the chances of a car accident, which will likely lead to personal injury or death.
Using your cell phone while driving is dangerous behavior and is outlawed in many states. The statistics showing how hazardous it is to use your phone while driving are astonishing:
- According to the National Safety Council (NSC), over 1.6 million car accidents occur each year because of cell phone use.
- About one out of every four car accidents in the United States occur because of texting and driving.
- Almost 390,000 accident-related injuries occur every year because of drivers texting.
- Teenage drivers are four times more likely to get into an accident when using their phone while driving.
- Although 94 percent of teenage drivers know the dangers of texting while driving, about 35 percent admit to doing it.
- Over 20 percent of teen drivers who were in a fatal car accident were using their cell phones at the time.
- According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 660,000 drivers use their phones while driving each day.
Using a cell phone while driving dramatically increases the chances of getting into a car accident. Texting and driving is perhaps the most egregious activity because it quite literally takes your eyes off the road for an extended period. Texting forces your eyes to be on the phone for several seconds. In that time span, situations may occur that could be disastrous; the driver in front may slam on their brakes, or someone may run out in the road. In fact, one study found that texting while driving at 55 mph is the equivalent of driving the length of a football field while blindfolded.
Although texting is often viewed as the most dangerous behavior while driving and done by people of all ages, there are others:
- Playing music. Many people use their phones for streaming music and play it through their car radio. However, people take their time while they are driving choosing what song to play, or may switch between apps to find a tune, all while not focusing their attention to what is happening on the road. One way to remedy this is to pick a playlist before setting off so that you do not have to choose mid-travel, or just stick to the car’s radio to limit your distractions.
- Receiving or making phone calls. Although many vehicles now offer so-called hands-free phone calls, which means utilizing the vehicle’s Bluetooth system so that the driver can keep their eyes on the road and hands on the wheel, talking on the phone is still not fully paying attention to driving. It is better to silent notifications or turn off your phone entirely and let calls go to voicemail instead of being distracted by a conversation.
- Using social media. Even a quick scroll through social media or checking for updates takes your eyes off the road for a few seconds. Although it does not happen as frequently as texting and driving, scrolling social media and driving can be just as dangerous. Again, silent notifications before driving and keep your phone out of reach.
- Using GPS. A study by an insurance comparison website found that over half of drivers believe that using GPS while driving is safer than texting while driving, but that is simply not the case. Traveling roads with which you are not familiar increases the chances of a car accident exponentially; combining that with focusing on your GPS instead of what is going on in front of you can turn into a serious or deadly accident.
Why Do People Text and Drive?
Although some studies have shown that texting and driving is six times more likely to cause a car crash than drunk driving, people still believe they can pull it off without consequences. Whatever their reasoning is, it is a fact that texting and driving is just another form of distracted driving, and operating a car under such conditions will likely lead to an accident:
- Multitasking. Many people believe that they can multitask, which will help them get more accomplished done during any given day. However, studies show that it is impossible to focus 100 percent on two different tasks, let alone more than two. The more tasks someone takes on, the more their attention diminishes.
- Motorists’ inflated opinion of their driving skills. Studies show that most drivers already believe they are better at driving than others, and now there are some who believe that they are better at texting and driving than others. It is difficult to understand this rationale, but it is one that many share. They seem to convince themselves that, although others are not allowed to do it, they are under more control and that they are immune to any consequences.
- Invincibility. Many people share this feeling of invincibility that makes them believe they can behave so dangerously without repercussions. This invincibility fallacy was once contributed to teenagers and young adults, but apparently many adults have the feeling as well.
- Need to be plugged-in. In today’s world, we constantly feel the need to be plugged-in, meaning we must always feel connected, either through the internet or by texting or other means. Because of the advent of modern technology, people who once were unreachable before can now be contacted in seconds and at any time on any day. This boosts one’s self-esteem, as receiving a notification or text message fulfills the need to be wanted and gives us immediate gratification.
How to Stop Using Your Phone while Driving
Although it seems to be a monumental task, the truth is you can pull yourself away from the dangerous habit of phone use and driving as you can with any other habit. Here are a few tips to do so:
- Use other distractions. You can safely distract yourself with other means in the car other than looking at social media or texting. Try using an audiobook or listen to an interesting podcast. A positive activity such as those suggestions do not take away as much attention as texting or fiddling around with the radio.
- Put the phone out of reach and out of mind. Put your phone on silent or airplane mode and place it in your glovebox before you drive, because if it is out of reach or out of sight, you more than likely will not think about it. If you are still tempted to look at your phone, putting it in your trunk before driving will be a better alternative. Doing any of these will increase your safety behind the wheel, and you can suggest this new behavior to others and maybe it will make the roads a lot safer for everyone.
- Take advantage of new apps. There are now newer apps that help deter you from using your phone while driving. Most may be called “drive mode” or something similar and are generally offered by many big-name companies such as AT&T or Verizon. Newer smartphones have a drive mode built in, which detects when it is traveling above a certain speed and prevents you from sending or receiving texts. Another option is just having a passenger in your vehicle answer your phone for you.
Distracted driving not only is dangerous to yourself and others, but also will raise your insurance rate by an average of over 20 percent. In Maryland, getting caught with a distracted driving penalty such as texting and driving will cause your insurance rate to increase by over 15 percent.
Baltimore Car Accident Lawyers at LeViness, Tolzman & Hamilton Help Clients Injured by Distracted Drivers
There is no other way around it: Texting and driving is a dangerous habit and will lead to an accident. If you or a loved one has been injured by a distracted or negligent driver, reach out the Baltimore car accident lawyers at LeViness, Tolzman & Hamilton. We will thoroughly review the details of the accident, address all your questions and concerns, and ensure that you receive full and fair financial compensation for your injuries. We will continue to fight for you until you are completely satisfied. Call us today at 800-547-4LAW (4529) or contact us online to schedule a free consultation.
We have offices in Baltimore, Glen Burnie, and Prince George’s County, allowing us to represent clients in Maryland, including those in Anne Arundel County, Carroll County, Harford County, Howard County, Montgomery County, Prince George’s County, Queen Anne’s County, Maryland’s Western Counties, Southern Maryland and the Eastern Shore, as well as the communities of Catonsville, Essex, Halethorpe, Middle River, Rosedale, Gwynn Oak, Brooklandville, Dundalk, Pikesville, Parkville, Nottingham, Windsor Mill, Lutherville, Timonium, Sparrows Point, Ridgewood, and Elkridge.
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The Safeguarding Adults eLearning course provides an introduction to the adult safeguarding process. It explains what safeguarding is, who it applies to and the six principles that underpin adult safeguarding. It highlights the importance of using a person-centred approach so that adults are respected, heard and supported during the safeguarding process. References are made to the legal framework that supports safeguarding practices. The course highlights the main types of abuse and what signs and symptoms are associated with each type. The course provides a wide range of scenarios to help identify what these forms of abuse might look like. Identifying the signs and symptoms of abuse is a critical part of the safeguarding process. It’s essential to know what to do if you suspect abuse and to act quickly. The course gives advice on how to respond if you suspect or are told abuse is occurring. Everyone has a responsibility for reporting abuse and sharing information with other individuals and organisations to safeguard adults at risk.
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The fact that the moon phases disturb the sleep sounds like a myth. Does the moon really affect our sleep behavior?
The moon has never left people cold. Ancient cultures worshiped the earth-satellite as a deity. In the Middle Ages, the belief was widespread that werewolves come, in full moon nights, to do their thing. And today? Many people are convinced that the full moon in the night sky robs them of sleep.
Many people actually sleep worse at full moon. So, they really do exist: the full moon nights, when people desperately roll from one side to the other, without coming to rest.
Does the moon affect the body or psyche?
More difficult to answer is the question of what actually costs us sleep. One theory: The full moon disturbs the natural melatonin metabolism. The hormone is secreted more in the dark and promotes falling asleep. In contrast, light inhibits melatonin production in the pineal gland of the human brain. If the spherical moon shines brightly through the bedroom window, this could result in a lower secretion of the sleep hormone.
But perhaps the explanation is much simpler: Belief in the power of the full moon causes people to anticipate sleeping badly during those nights. And that’s why you can’t find peace.
In any case, a full moon in the night sky probably only affects people who tend to sleep disorders. The moon doesn’t interests a healthy sleeper. So, is it just a matter of mind?
Study finds hints
In contrast to the old saga poets, modern sleep research has so far been relatively less concerned with the full moon. But in 2013, a study by Swiss chronobiologist Christoph Cajochen provided scientific evidence that the lunar cycle could actually affect sleep patterns.
In the study, which was relatively small with 33 participants, the subjects slept about 20 minutes less on full moon nights. In addition, they had lower melatonin levels and complained of an overall poorer sleep quality.
Lock out for the moonlight
That’s an indication that there might be something in the phenomenon. But not more. A similarly constructed study with more participants could not confirm the results a year later. Clearly the moon issue is not yet clear.
Whatever answers science may come up with in the future, those who feel that the full moon is preventing them from sleeping can take some action. Against the light, the bedroom darkening. If that does not help either, autogenic training may help distract your thoughts from the moon and helps you relax.
Many causes of disturbed sleep
The full moon is no longer the biggest sleeping robber anyway today. Stress at work, traffic noise and LED light irradiation from televisions or smartphones are likely to be far more common causes of sleep disorders.
All these things are inventions of modern times. Our ancestors did not have to deal with them yet. They were able to direct their gaze still relatively free of distractions on the large, round moon in the night sky.
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Decades-old pollution loophole still burns people of color and the poor
Petrochemical companies in the U.S. are into some really funky practices.
You may know that refineries and other polluting industrial plants have to apply for government-issued permits to secrete toxins into the air. The permits ensure that those secretions don’t rise above certain air quality standards so people living nearby don’t get sick and die.
Even so, companies across the country have found ways to release more poisons into the air than is safe — nasties like soot, the product of incomplete combustion. Scientists have found no level of soot that is safe for humans breathe it in. There’s no 50 shades of this gray stuff; if you live next to one of these soot secretors and inhale even a little bit of the stuff, you increase your likelihood of dying early, period.
One of the excuses companies use is that their facilities release certain premature and post-operational emissions when they are firing up, shutting down, or when they break down. This is part of doing business, they say, so it shouldn’t count under the permit caps, even though it fouls up the air quality of the people who live near their facilities.
Roughly three dozen states allow for this type of pollution under rules called “startup shutdown malfunction,” or SSM, by those who track this and who care about people’s health. It’s been going on for roughly four decades, and environmental justice groups want it stopped, like, yesterday.
The Environmental Protection Agency is in the process of finalizing a rule to do that by June 12 — thanks to a Sierra Club petition — but the groups want faster closure. After all, lives are at stake. On Earth Day, the Environmental Justice Leadership Forum on Climate Change sent a letter to President Obama urging him to “expeditiously move forward with finalization and implementation of this much- needed, long-overdue public health safeguard.”
The problem isn’t Obama, though. Like most things policy these days, it’s the states that have been obstructing progress. States are responsible for developing plans that ensure they are complying with national air quality standards. But not only have many states allowed for SSM excuses, but some provide additional cover for SSM pollution by waiving the financial liability — as much as $37,500 per violation daily — that normally comes with polluting beyond permitted limits. Called “affirmative defense,” it’s the kind of corporate affirmative action that hardly ever gets checked. (The EPA actually has allowed these affirmative defenses in the past, but a recent D.C. Circuit Court ruling, on a case brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council, will force the agency to rethink that.)
Luckily, states don’t have final say on air quality plans, especially if they are not up to snuff. Congress granted the EPA the last say, under the Clean Air Act, meaning the federal agency becomes the ultimate dominatrix tasked with whipping state plans into shape if proven flaccid.
The EPA knew SSM was a problem back in 1977. But when it set the rules, it had neither the resources nor the staff expertise to actually do anything when the rules were broken. That’s not a knock against the EPA; many new federal agency rules have a trial-and-error period when they are refined through tests and challenges. Also, Congress often bestows rule-making powers on federal agencies, but with little guidance on how to exercise those powers. Environmental groups help mold and finesse the rules via public comments … and by suing the shit out of the government agencies responsible for upholding them.
But when it comes to SSM, companies have been allowed to pollute with impunity for so long that it’s as if they feel entitled. (Remember this next time Republicans give a budget speech cursing the “entitlements” of low-income Americans.) I’m sure it hasn’t helped that the victims of this lack of oversight have mostly been communities of color and poor residents. Those neighborhoods generally don’t matter enough for anyone to care to change their practices.
Fact is, little cracking down happened for too long. Today, air pollution can be better tracked and mapped, and the data better organized and stored — though all far from perfect. Environmental groups just want the rules and their enforcement finally brought into alignment with the updated info.
To understand the urgency of this, listen to the stories of some of the people who live on the fencelines of these polluters, collected from a Sierra Club document about state plans to address SSM issues:
The Walter Coke plant has been raining down pollution since the 1880s, a practice that hasn’t slowed even as Jefferson County recently ranked tenth in the nation for cancer risks from toxic air. The company is no stranger to SSM, having invoked it over 80 times from 2008 to 2012 alone. This has meant hell for Charlie Powell, who lived close-by for nearly 40 years, developing respiratory problems in the process, and his wife developing cancer. His 70-year-old aunt Eunice Webb also has asthma after 20 years of living within a mile of the plant, as does one of her grandchildren who lives with her. Her mother and sister, also Walter Coke neighbors, have suffered heart attacks and her husband died from cancer.
The 48217 zip code is the most polluted in the nation, thanks to the Detroit Marathon Refinery. A $2.2 billion expansion in 2008 to process Canadian tar sands for crude oil couldn’t have helped. The funky sulfuric emissions from Marathon flaring has burdened long-time 48217 resident Regina Woodard-Smith with breathing problems, when not regularly over-peppering her home and yard with soot. For Sherry Griswold, who lives within a few hundred feet of Marathon, the monster flaring has shaken her home so badly that ceiling tiles dropped loose. She has stopped bringing her grandchildren over after tiring of washing soot off their skin from playing outside.
The Calumet refinery released over 320,000 pounds of excess air pollution over the neighboring community between 2005 and 2012. There are four elementary schools in close proximity. Velma White, who’s lived in the community for almost 40 years, became concerned about Calumet’s pollution after her daughter fell ill to renal failure. Many others in the neighborhood have developed respiratory illnesses, asthma, heart disease, skin problems, and cancer. She has suffered from Calumet’s flaring and funky emissions herself, with constant burning sensations in her nose and mouth and nausea.
It doesn’t sound like these communities are getting any pleasure out of living close to these refineries. Since many of the residents are elderly and low-income, they have few if any options to move away. This is why environmental groups are hoping Obama hears their hollers.
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Your one-gigabyte thumb drive holds around 8.5 billion bits of data, and it takes about a million atoms to store each of those bits. That's a lot of atoms, and computer scientists are constantly working to shrink that number to fit more data into a smaller space.
On Thursday, scientists from IBM reported in the journal Science that they fit a single bit of data into just 12 atoms -- far fewer than have ever been reported before -- by taking advantage of their magnetism.
What exactly does that mean? Computers read binary codes: that is, they convert encoded bits, the oft-mentioned zeroes and ones, into a message. And, as of now, these two bits are kept distinct by the precise arrangement of around one million atoms, with one pattern standing for a zero, and another for a one.
The reason modern data storage requires so many atoms is that atoms are magnetized. You know what happens when two negatively-poled magnets are pushed together: they repel one another. If you're trying to create two distinct patterns of atoms to clearly represent 'zero' and 'one' with no possibility of confusion, this repulsion ensures that your bit will take up a lot of space so that the atomic patterns remain stable.
The IBM researchers decided that this repulsion was slowing them down. To get around it, they instead tried to line up atoms with opposite poles. To do this, they placed a single iron atom on a copper nitride surface and then, using a scanning tunneling microscope, switched the polarization of each successive atom manually to form a negative-positive-negative-positive pattern, six atoms long by two atoms wide.
Once they had the 12 atoms painstakingly arranged, they then used their microscope to switch the magnetic poles of the entire set -- and, in the process, created a binary system. So, for example, a negative-positive-negative arrangement represented a zero, while positive-negative-positive represented a one.
Being able to store so much data on such a small scale is incredibly exciting, and not just so that you can carry your entire music library in your pocket. Some of the problems hindering genomic research, for example, are as simple as how and where to store all the accumulated data. And that potential of their finding is not lost on the researchers.
"Looking at this conservatively ... instead of 1TB on a device you'd have 100TB to 150TB. Instead of being able to store all your songs on a drive, you'd be able to have all your videos on the device," Andreas Heinrich, IBM Research Staff Member and lead investigator on this project, told ComputerWorld.
However, you won't find this at the store in the immediate future. First of all, the IBM researchers had to use a scanning tunneling microscope to arrange each atom one by one, equipment and training which isn't necessarily available to most flash drive manufacturers. Additionally, they had to cool the atoms to just a few degrees above absolute zero to keep the 12-atom pattern stable.
"We use low temperatures because it enables us to start from one atom and assemble bigger and bigger structures while keeping an eye on their magnetic properties," an an IBM spokesman told ComputerWorld. "The more atoms we use to make each bit, the more stable the bits become. We anticipate that in order to make bits of this type that are stable at room temperature would require about 150 atoms per bit (rather than 12 atoms at low temperatures)."
To learn more, watch this video produced by the IBM team.
Photo: IBM Research Zurich/Flickr
This post was originally published on Smartplanet.com
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“Indeed, He will speak to THIS people through stammering lips and a foreign tongue, He who said to THEM, ‘Here is rest, give rest to the weary,’ and, ‘Here is repost,’ but THEY would not listen.” (Isa 28:11,12 NASB)
The subject of speaking in a foreign tongue is one of the most controversial and often one of the most contentious subjects to be found today. Hopefully I can share some things that will help give understanding to the Biblical subject of speaking in other languages.
First let’s consider the above Scripture where the prophet Isaiah calls attention to speaking in a foreign tongue. Here are the terms we need to note:
- ‘He will speak to THIS people.’ The Isaiah prophecy is specific to a single people group, the Jews.
- “He who said to them, ‘Here is rest, give rest to the weary.'” Jesus is the one who called attention to God’s rest to be found in Him.
- ‘But they would not listen.’ Reflects on the leaders in particular rejecting Jesus Christ as Lord and Messiah of Israel.
Which brings us to Pentecost, 33 a.d.
Jews once again gathered in Jerusalem to celebrate the Jewish pilgrim festivals. They came from many cultures and nations. They spoke many different languages.
However, this Pentecost would be different. It would be the ushering in of God’s new eternal covenant in Christ.
Suddenly a sound like a rushing wind filled the temple complex. A band of 120 men and women began speaking of the glory of God in the varied languages of the multitudes.
A question stirs through the crowd of worshippers,
“How is it that we each hear them in our own language to which we were born?’
Thus we see the miracle of speaking in foreign languages with the prophecy of Isaiah coming to pass. The speaking in tongues on that day of Pentecost had a defined purpose. The Rest Giver had come.
The Promised Rest Giver.
From long ages past there had been a deep hunger in the hearts of God’s people to find the promised rest from their painful labors. This longing is described in the ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament as, ‘the desire of the nations.’
When Noah was born, they wondered if he was the Rest Giver.
“Lamech lived one hundred and eighty-two years, and became the father of a son. Now he called his name Noah, saying, ‘This one will give us rest from our work and from the toil of our handsarising from the ground which the LORD has cursed.” Gen 5:28-29 nasb
But Noah was not the Rest Giver. Only God could do that. We catch just a glimpse of this when Moses was speaking with the Lord God.
‘Now therefore, I pray You, if I have found favor in Your sight, let me know Your ways that I may know You, so that I may find favor in Your sight. Consider too, that this nation is Your people.’ And He said, ‘My presence shall go with you, and I will give you rest.’“
Why is this language of, ‘I will give you rest,’ so hauntingly familiar? It is because we are hearing the voice of the Rest Giver. Now hear it from Jesus:
“Come to Me, all who are weary and heavy-laden, and I will give you rest. Take My yoke upon you and learn from Me, for I am gentle and humble in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For My yoke is easy and My burden is light.” (Mat 11:28-30
And so the purpose for speaking in other languages on the day of Pentecost was to call attention that Jesus Christ was the promised ‘Rest Giver.’
This day of Pentecost was a fulfillment to what had been written by the prophet Isaiah. The Messiah had come, died on the cross, was buried, resurrected, and ascended into heaven. When Peter stood up to preach, he drew attention to the ancient prophets in declaring that Jesus was the Christ of God.
Additional Background on Speaking in Tongues
It should be understood, however, that through the centuries the Church has placed little attention on speaking in tongues. The early church accepted tongues as one gift among many. But this still leaves us with unanswered issues concerning speaking in other languages. Here is where we can take time to understand some Greek terms that relate to speaking in foreign languages.
- The term ‘glossolalia‘ was introduced into English in 1879. It comes from glossais lelein, a term used in the New Testament, meaning “To speak in [with or by] tongues.” From this comes the expression, ‘the gift of tongues.’ The precise term ‘gift of tongues’ does not occur in the Scriptures.
- One early Christian writer used the Greek term ‘glossomania‘ to describe the insane speech of Greek philosophers. The philosophers would jabber and babble in a way that made no sense whatsoever.
- The Greek ‘akolalia‘ had to do with the perceived hearing of another language even when one was not spoken.
- ‘Echolalia‘ speaks of an agitated repetition of the words of another.
- ‘Idiolect‘ refers to a glossolalic dialect peculiar to an individual. Televangelists made this term popular by calling it a ‘prayer language.’
- Then we have ‘exnoglossia.’ This word was coined in 1905, to describe a spiritualist medium, who, in a trance, wrote in modern Greek, without having knowledge of that language.
Now we see that there is a problem that has to be addressed. The problem is that ‘speaking in tongues is not peculiar to certain Christian groups. Speaking in tongues is a known phenomenon from around the world. You find it in Mormon history. You find it with Hindus and Muslims. It is found it in African occultic religions.
Here is a quote from the Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, page 336;
“Spiritualistic glossolalia and related phenomena among spiritual mediums were among the first studied by psychologists near the beginning of the twentieth century. … Pathological glossolalia is known to medicine and psychiatry, the result of such causes as organic neurological damage, effects of drugs, or psychotic disorders. Schizophrenic disorders have furnished examples of glossolalia. Most relevant to Christian glossolalia are clearly reported cases of pagan glossolalia, both ancient and modern…. [Glossolalia] was used sparingly among American Indians but was widespread in African tribal religions.”
Paul likely ran into some of this pagan speaking in tongues. When he wrote the Corinthian Church, some of the background for the problems of this Church actually was pagan glossolalia. Less than 50 miles from Corinth, was Delphi. An inquirer would be brought into the presence of a young woman, a priestess of Apollo, who was said to possess a “pythonic spirit.” The priestess would speak in tongues and a male prophet would interpret. Paul may have had this in mind when he said,
“You know that when you were pagans, you were led astray to the mute idols, however you were led.” (1Co12:2)
Let’s consider the Biblical position.
There is no question that speaking in tongues on the day of Pentecost was a supernatural act of God. There have also been documented cases in Church history where missionaries have found themselves able to speak in the language of a primitive tribe, having had no knowledge of their language.
It is also possible that the Lord intended to bring this gift forward at different points in history to meet a purpose at the time. Paul seems to indicate such may be the case. He said,
“Love never fails; but if there are gifts of prophecy, they will be done away; if there are tongues, they will cease; if there is knowledge, it will be done away.” (1Co13:8)
The Greek word for cease is pauo. This is where we get our English word pause. Pauo means to make cease, or to no longer be stirred, or to idle or unemployed. In context, Paul is using terms that point to a maturing factor.
Some say Paul is speaking of heaven. This may be the case, but it is odd that Paul’s entire teaching takes its center on ‘maturity.’ He may have been telling the Corinthian believers not to overly concern themselves with the Delphic oracles. He also tried to place speaking in tongues as a less important gift in comparison to other gifts. He says,
“When I was a child, I use to speak as a child, think like a child, reason like a child; when I became a man, I did away with childish things.” (1Co13:11)
My encouragement for any child of God is not to take speaking in tongues beyond Scriptural precedents. When the apostles preached the gospel, they saw no need to put an emphasis upon speaking in tongues.
The Acts of the Apostles is conclusive in this regard. The three recorded times that people spoke in other languages, were all sovereign acts of God. They were in a group setting. And each time it was unexpected. And Acts covers over 35 years of early Church history.
In all this each believer needs to reach their own conclusions.
Finally a call for caution
A major study by K. G. Meador and other researchers reported in a monthly journal of the American Psychiatric Association, that the rate of major depression in Pentecostals was three times greater than in any other religious affiliation.
(Pentecostal is a general term for any group that places a great stress on esoteric experiences and in particular on speaking in tongues. The study covered several thousand cases.)
I have seen that when an undue emphasis is placed on speaking in tongues it can cause mental and spiritual disturbances in a person that is not healthy. Paul tried to warn the Corinthians about putting too much stress on the supernatural.
“But I am afraid that, as the serpent deceived Eve by is craftiness, your minds will be led astray from the simplicity and purity of devotion to Christ.
“For if one comes and preaches another Jesus whom we have not preached, or you receive a different spirit which you have not received, or a different gospel which you have not accepted, you bear this beautifully.” (2Co11:3,4)
What are we left with? Perhaps the way to deal with the gift of speaking in other languages is to make sure that we are following clear Biblical instructions. Paul said,
“All do not speak in tongues, do they?”
He then went on,
“But earnestly desire the greater gifts. And I show you still a more excellent way.” (1Co12:30,31)
What did he mean, ‘a still more excellent way?’ Paul went on to outline the walk of love. He said that when everything else fails, love will stand the test of time. He said,
“If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, but do not have love, I have become a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal.”
Just some things to think about
Always in Christ,
You can send a private email to me with this form:
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- Full Name:
- Agnolo di Cosimo
- Short Name:
- Alternative Names:
- Il Bronzino, Agnolo Bronzino
- Date of Birth:
- 17 Nov 1503
- Date of Death:
- 23 Nov 1572
- Oil, Tempera, Metal, Wood, Other
- Art Movement:
- Florence, Italy
Agnolo Bronzino, whose real name was Agnolo di Cosimo and is most commonly referred to as Il Bronzino or simply Bronzino, was a stand-out artist of the second-wave of Italian Mannerism in the middle of the 16th century. He lived his entire life in Florence and modeled his painting style so closely to that of his mentor, Jacopo Pontormo, that art historians today still debate the credit of several paintings.
Succeeding where Pontormo had not, Bronzino eventually became court painter to the powerful Medici family of Florence and gained notoriety for his portraiture style that meshed a detached realism depicting cold and often arrogant expressions of his noblemen sitters with bold colors such as ice blue and raspberry red. His portraits have proven to be his primary legacy and influenced portraiture painting for a century following his death in 1572.
Bronzino took the principles developed by Pontormo and ran with them. The result was portraits that were immaculately realistic in detail, with his subjects exuding blank, stoic expressions, yet with a sense of nobility and haughtiness. His use of color is primarily what sets Bronzino's style apart from Pontormo's and earned him a permanent place among the great Italian Mannerists.
Andrea del Sarto
The Mannerist movement developed around 1520 in either Florence or Rome and replaced the High Renaissance era. It lasted until around 1580 with the emergence of the Baroque style. Early Mannerist painters include Andea del Sarto, Jacopo Pontormo and Rosso Fiorento and such artists are known for their elongated forms and theatrical lighting.
Mannerism combines various styles and is heavily influenced by the restrained naturalism related to painters such Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. This, Mannerism is known for its artificial rather than naturalistic qualities.
Mannerist portraits by Agnolo Bronzino are distinguished by a still sophistication and superb attention to detail. Bronzino focused heavily on the clothing and materials featured in his works and this was often said to create a gulf between the subject and viewer.
Raffaellino del Garbo
The Deposition from the Cross
Bronzino was born November 17, 1503, in the town of Monticello outside Florence to a poor family. He started his art education at the age of 11 as a pupil of Raffaellino del Garbo, a Florentine Renaissance painter. In 1515 Bronzino undertook an apprenticeship in Florence with the man who would become his biggest artistic influence and, some say, adopted father: Jacopo Carucci, better known as Pontormo.
In 1522 when Bronzino was 19 years old, the plague broke out in Florence so he and Pontormo left the heart of the city to avoid the Black Death and stayed three miles away at Certosa di Galuzzo, a cloistered Carthusian monastery.
In 1925, Pontormo called upon his pupil to help with what would be his masterpiece: Deposition from the Cross. This altarpiece was painted in the Florentine church of Santa Felicità. Pontormo was commissioned to decorate the entire church with frescoes and in a testament to Pontormo's trust in and affection for Bronzino he allowed him to help him once again.
Bronzino fled to Urbino after the Siege of Florence in 1530 after being invited there by the Duke of Urbino to paint a nude Cupid on a spandrel of a vault of the Imperiale. Soon after he arrived, Pontormo wrote letter after letter asking Bronzino to come back. Yet, a prince at Urbino was so impressed with Bronzino's painting that he commissioned him to paint his portrait. Once it was finished, Bronzino rejoined his teacher in Florence.
As Bronzino began to be known for his portraits, the nobility in Florence took note. He became the official portraitist for the Medici and soon went to work painting the portraits of the ruling family members, which he is now largely known for, and which is Bronzino's greatest contribution to Mannerism.
Bronzino had many students as he worked as court painter, a role he fulfilled until his death, but none as favored as Alessandro Allori. In a move that mirrored his relationship with Pontormo, Bronzino adopted Allori as his son. Bronzino moved into the Allori family house and died there on November 23, 1572, at the age of 69.
Art historians have often struggled to identify the work of 16th-century Italian Mannerist Bronzino due to the fact that he is notorious for adopting Pontormo's style so well that the creator of some paintings is still debated.
Common words used to describe Bronzino's portraiture style are cold, calculated, unemotional, detached, superbly realistic and with immaculate attention to detail, especially when painting elaborate clothing patterns and fabrics. He molded his faces and bodies into an almost three-dimensional effect as opposed to appearing flat on the canvas. His portraits capture the arrogance of high society that became en vogue during the 16th century.
Bronzino's portraiture style was so popular that it influenced court portraiture throughout Europe and for centuries to come.
Religious and Allegorical Style:
Bronzino's religious works are generally marked by complex compositions and contorted body positions, an influence of both Pontormo and Michelangelo. Yet, Bronzino lacked the passion that Pontormo oozed in his religious paintings meaning they often seemed emotionally empty even though the craftsmanship was evident.
Bronzino used this technique to bring attention to the light-colored figures in the painting so they stood out from the dark background.
Bronzino's allegory paintings heavily used symbolism and, like many of his religious works, made use of the naked human form.
Bronzino's painting technique is extremely controlled and meticulous. His brushstrokes appear non-existent, which gives his works, especially his portraits, an extremely realistic, almost life-like appearance.
Pontormo had, by far, the biggest influence on Bronzino's career. Bronzino became Pontormo's student in Florence in 1515, at the age of 12, and remained his close assistant and friend until Pontormo's death in 1557.
Pontormo was primarily considered a religious painter throughout his long career in Florence. Although Bronzino also painted religious subjects he was not considered as skilled in such works as his mentor.
Andrea del Sarto:
Some historical accounts say that Bronzino briefly studied under Andrea del Sarto in Florence, which is perhaps where he picked up some of his painting style. What is not disputed is that Pontormo was one of Sarto's students and was heavily influenced by the artist who bridged the gap between the Italian High Renaissance and Italian Mannerism.
Bronzino either acquired Sarto's style of bold colors and slightly elongated forms from the artist himself or from his close work with Pontormo. Sarto also appears to have influenced Pontormo's attention to detail and realism in his portraits.
Although Pontormo was Bronzino's biggest influence and most inspirational teacher, Bronzino idolized Michelangelo, like so many other Italian artists. Michelangelo's influence is most apparent in Bronzino's work in his mid-to-late career, from about 1530 to 1560. Like Michelangelo, Bronzino studied the human form in great detail and included several nudes in his paintings.
Michelangelo's influence can also be noted in Bronzino's religious pieces where his characters' poses can be traced back to Michelangelo. But perhaps a more interesting link is the way the two artists sometimes included goulish subjects in their work.
Leonardo da Vinci:
Bronzino had a much closer connection to da Vinci and his work than many other artists of his generation. Bronzino's mentor, Pontormo, studied under da Vinci as a young painter in Florence in the early 16th century and therefore garnered some of his early style from da Vinci and passed it onto Bronzino.
Bronzino's portraits that depict extreme realism and attention to detail can be likened to da Vinci's mastery of this skill. However, Bronzino took his ability to replicate the realistic features of his sitters in a different direction, giving an icy, detached feeling, as opposed to da Vinci who painted his sitters not only realistically but also in an inviting manner.
Portrait of Grand Duchess Bianca Capello de Medici with Her Son, Alessandro Allori
Bronzino had broad influence over court portraiture for an entire century following his death in 1572. The aloof, detached style he used to capture the noble class of Florence, in its decadent and arrogant pride spread throughout Europe reaching courts as far as Elizabethan England. Bronzino's portraits are his primary genius and legacy to the art world and several artists were particularly inspired by his unique style.
Allori became Bronzino's student when he was five years old and was later adopted by the artist. Their relationship and the strong influence Bronzino had on Allori's art mirrors that of Bronzino's relationship with his mentor, Pontormo, who some historians say actually adopted Bronzino as his son.
Allori, like Bronzino before him, was a court painter for the ruling Medici family of Florence. Allori's court portraiture is extremely similar to Bronzino's style: the meticulous attention to detail and realistic presentation, blank facial expressions that give a detached arrogance, and extremely elaborate costumes that almost overwhelm the presence of the sitter.
The two artists' portraiture style is so similar that some portraits that had once been attributed to Bronzino were later correctly accredited to Allori, who is considered one of the last Mannerist artists before the Baroque era took hold.
Dahl was a Swedish painter working in England during the second half of the 17th century and early part of the 18th century. He was considered by many to be the only serious rival to the most important English painter of the period, Sir Godfrey Kneller. Dahl's portraits of English nobility matched many of the stylistic fingerprints of Bronzino: the arrogant facial expression, the extravagant and detailed clothing, and bold colors.
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres:
Ingres was a French Neoclassical painter who, like Bronzino, was best known for his court portraits. Ingres was not interested in being an innovator but rather a conservator of an older style of painting. Almost 300 years after Bronzino died, Ingres was carrying on his portraiture tradition of immaculate realism, decadent and detailed costumes and facial expressions that reflect the high-class arrogance of the majority of his sitters.
To read more about Bronzino and his artworks please refer to the recommended reading list below.
• Brock, Maurice. Bronzino. Flammarion, 2002
• Cecchi, Alessandro. Bronzino (The library of great masters). Constable, 1997
• Cox-Rearick, Janet. Bronzino's Chapel of Eleonora in the Palazzo Vecchio. University of California Press, 1993
• Falciani, Carlo & Natali, Antonio. Bronzino: Painter and Poet at the Court of the Medici. Mandragora, 2010
• Levey, Michael. Bronzino. Purnell, 1967
• McComb, Arthur Kilgore. Agnolo Bronzino: His Life and Works. Harvard University Press, 1928
• Pilliod, Elizabeth. Pontormo, Bronzino, Allori: A Genealogy of Florentine Art. Yale University Press, 2001
• Strehlke, Carl Brandon. Pontormo, Bronzino, and the Medici: The Transformation of the Renaissance Portrait in Florence. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004
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All living beings have the same basic wish to be happy and avoid suffering, but very few people understand the real causes of happiness and suffering.
We generally believe that external conditions such as food, friends, cars, and money are the real causes of happiness, and as a result we devote nearly all our time and energy to acquiring these. Superficially it seems that these things can make us happy, but if we look more deeply we shall see that they also bring us a lot of suffering and problems.
Happiness and suffering are opposites, so if something is a real cause of happiness it cannot give rise to suffering. If food, money, and so forth really are causes of happiness, they can never be causes of suffering; yet we know from our own experience that they often do cause suffering. For example, one of our main interests is food, but the food we eat is also the principal cause of most of our ill health and sickness.
In the process of producing the things we feel will make us happy, we have polluted our environment to such an extent that the very air we breathe and the water we drink now threaten our health and well-being. We love the freedom and independence a car can give us, but the cost in accidents and environmental destruction is enormous.
We feel that money is essential for us to enjoy life, but the pursuit of money also causes immense problems and anxiety. Even our family and friends, with whom we enjoy so many happy moments, can also bring us a lot of worry and heartache.
In recent years our understanding and control of the external world have increased considerably, and as a result we have witnessed remarkable material progress; but there has not been a corresponding increase in human happiness.
There is no less suffering in the world today, and there are no fewer problems. Indeed, it could be said that there are now more problems and greater unhappiness than ever before. This shows that the solution to our problems, and to those of society as a whole, does not lie in knowledge or control of the external world.
Why is this? Happiness and suffering are states of mind, and so their main causes cannot be found outside the mind. The real source of happiness is inner peace. If our mind is peaceful, we shall be happy all the time, regardless of external conditions, but if it is disturbed or troubled in any way, we shall never be happy, no matter how good our external conditions may be.
External conditions can only make us happy if our mind is peaceful. We can understand this through our own experience. For instance, even if we are in the most beautiful surroundings and have everything we need, the moment we get angry any happiness we may have disappears. This is because anger has destroyed our inner peace.
We can see from this that if we want true, lasting happiness we need to develop and maintain a special experience of inner peace. The only way to do this is by training our mind through spiritual practice – gradually reducing and eliminating our negative, disturbed states of mind and replacing them with positive, peaceful states.
Eventually, through continuing to improve our inner peace we shall experience permanent inner peace, or ‘nirvana’. Once we have attained nirvana we shall be happy throughout our life, and in life after life. We shall have solved all our problems and accomplished the true meaning of our human life.
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A cognitive impairment means that a person is not able to think, remember, and process information in a manner or at a rate that falls within the normal limits for the person's age and level of education or training.
A person can be born with a cognitive impairment. In this case, it is usually termed mental retardation. It may result from a birth injury, such as a lack of oxygen. It may also result from a defect as the baby was formed. A cognitive impairment also may occur later in life, following an injury or as part of a disease.
A cognitive impairment interferes with the body's normal function. The change may be minor and have little or no impact on a person's daily functioning. In other cases, the impairment may be obvious. A cognitive impairment can range from mild memory problems to the complete inability to think independently.
A cognitive impairment may be present when a child is born, which is known as mental retardation. It may also be the result of: abuse of prescription medicines, chemicals, street drugs, or alcohola disease, such as Alzheimer diseasea side effect of some medicinesa trauma such as head injury
Frail, elderly people who are removed from a familiar setting often develop cognitive problems. This may occur when they go to a hospital because of illness or when they are moved to a nursing home. Depending on the cause, cognitive impairments may be temporary or permanent.
Cognitive impairment can occur at any age and cannot always be prevented. However, the following measures may be helpful: avoiding illegal drugsdrinking alcohol in moderation or not at allfollowing sports safety guidelines for children, adolescents, and adultsobtaining prenatal care during pregnancyusing medicines only as directed
In some cases, mental retardation can be diagnosed at birth. An infant with Down syndrome, for example, is often identified by characteristic features. The diagnosis is confirmed with a chromosome analysis.
Other tests used to diagnose cognitive impairments or their causes include: cognitive testing, which provides information about the individual's memory and thinking skillscranial CT scan cranial MRIspinal tap
A person with cognitive impairment can often live a nearly normal life. He or she can learn ways to deal with disability and take part in many activities. He or she may become so good at this that others may not notice the impairment. Even if the impairment is severe, rehabilitation therapy can help many people learn to function independently.
Cognitive impairments are not contagious and pose no risk to others.
After a cognitive impairment has occurred, there may be ways to improve the problem. If the cause is known, it can sometimes be eliminated. In this case, the symptoms may improve without further treatment. Professionals involved in the treatment of cognitive problems may include psychiatrists, psychologists, rehabilitation nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, and speech therapists.
Therapy may help improve thinking skills, such as memory, concentration, and problem-solving. Aids such as alarms or earplugs can also be used. If the person has trouble controlling emotions, psychotherapy may help. Controlling the person's surroundings can also help prevent outbursts. Behavior problems may also be helped with cognitive behavioral therapy. Teaching a person how to behave in different situations is useful, as well. If behavior problems are severe, the person may require supervision.
There are no side effects to these rehabilitation therapies.
An individual with mild or well-controlled impairments may be able to live alone. He or she may be able to drive, work, and make independent decisions. A part-time helper may be needed for tasks such as money management.
A person who needs regular help usually lives with family members or in residential care. Another option for some people is a group home. This provides the person with help in a shared setting. The individual is still able to retain much of his or her independence. In severe cases, living in a supervised, structured setting, such as a nursing home, may be needed.
A person with cognitive impairment should be treated as normally as possible. If the person requires some help or supervision, it is important for others to know exactly what kind of help is needed. In many cases, the affected person can ask for help. If this is not possible, the healthcare professionals should share instructions with family members and caregivers on how to help or supervise.
An individual with a continuing cognitive impairment needs to make regular visits to his or her healthcare professional, to whom any new or worsening symptoms should be reported.
Gatens, C&Hebert, A. (1996). Cognition and behavioral patterns. In S. Hoeman (Ed.), Rehabilitation nursing: process and application. St. Louis: Mosby.
Preston, K. (2000, March). Neuropsychologic function. Seminar session presented at Professional Rehabilitaiton Nursing Course, Association of Rehabilitation Nurses, Chicago.
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- Collared Scops Owl
Collared Scops Owl Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Strigiformes Family: Strigidae Genus: Otus Species: O. lettia Binomial name Otus lettia
The Collared Scops Owl (Otus lettia) is an owl which is a resident breeder in south Asia from northern Pakistan, northern India and the Himalayas east to south China. It is partially migratory, with some birds wintering in India, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. This species was formerly considered to be included within what is now separated as the Indian Scops Owl (Otus bakkamoena).
This species is a part of the larger grouping of owls known as typical owls, Strigidae, which contains most species of owl. The other grouping is the barn owls, Tytonidae.
The Collared Scops Owl is a common breeding bird in forests and other well-wooded areas. It nests in a hole in a tree, laying 3-5 eggs.
The Collared Scops Owl is a small (23–25 cm) owl, although it is the largest of the scops owls. Like other scops owls, it has small head tufts, or ears. The upperparts are grey or brown, depending on the subspecies, with faint buff spotting. The underparts are buff with fine darker streaking.
The facial disc is whitish or buff, and the eyes are orange or brown. There is a buff neckband. Sexes are similar. The flight is deeply undulating.
This species is nocturnal but it can often be located by the small birds that mob it while it is roosting in a tree. It feeds mainly on insects. The call is a quiet goog gook.
This species is chiefly found in northern India and is replaced by the very similar looking Oriental Scops Owl Otus sunia (recently split) towards the south of its range. It is very similar also to the slightly smaller Indian Scops Owl, O. bakkamoena. They are most easily separated in the field by their calls.
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
Look at other dictionaries:
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As more outdoor lighting is installed for safety and development, light pollution has become a growing problem that threatens the quality of life for humans and wildlife. The onset of light pollution in cities and dark sky areas not only hinders humans from seeing the stars and the Milky Way but also has been linked to health disorders in humans and behavioral changes in flora and fauna. Park officials are Grand Teton National Park are concerned about light pollution's impacts on visitor experience and the environment. Thus, in collaboration with the National Park Service and Wyoming Stargazing, our team created the Skyglow Estimation Toolbox (SET), a Python program that calculates images of artificial sky glow from the vantage point of a viewer on the ground. SET processes visible light radiance imagery collected by the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite Day/Night Band. By processing the pixel values in VIIRS imagery with convolution, the Toolbox applies Cinzano (2001) and Garstang's (1989) model of light propagation to create artificial skyglow maps to measure skyglow at a user-supplied viewing angle and location. We applied this program to a 300 km square buffer of our study area, GRTE, and created multi-annual composites of sky glow over the summer months (July, August, and September) of 2014, 2015, and 2016. With further development and model validation, SET will help government officials and communities quantify the impact of light sources to their night skies and will help inform decisions regarding lighting ordinances in nearby Teton County.
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Sir Winston Churchill (1874 - 1965) became Prime Minister in 1940, leading an all-party war coalition.
He was to lead the country throughout the war years, until after victory in Europe had been secured.
Churchill was a master at both writing and delivering speeches. The many memorable ones he made during the war - 'blood, sweat and tears', 'we shall fight them on the beaches', 'their finest hour', 'the few' - have been credited with galvanising national spirit and helping to inspire eventual victory.
Churchill had only recently become Prime Minister when he made this speech on 18 June 1940. In it he prepares the nation for the Battle of Britain to come.
'What General Weygand has called the Battle of France is over: the Battle of Britain is about to begin. Upon this battle depends the survival of Christian civilisation. Upon it depends our own British life, and the long continuity of our institutions and our Empire. The whole fury and might of the enemy must very soon be turned on us. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be freed and the life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duty and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say:
This was their finest hour '.
A collection of programmes to download as mp3 files at any time.
Spring 2014 podcasts available from 14/01/2014. Never miss a programme!
Commemorate the outbreak of WW1 by staging our specially-written play 'Archie Dobson's War'.
Our new abridgement of Michael Morpurgo's moving WW1 story 'Private Peaceful' begins 17/01/2014.
We welcome your feedback, suggestions and pupils' work.
Notes to support the programmes are simple to print or download as pdf.
This page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets (CSS) if you are able to do so.
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Exercise has been defined as a rhythmical activity for the purpose of improving fitness or health.
What are the different types of exercise? :-
Physical activity includes all forms of activity (occupational, recreational, or sports-related) performed without the specific purpose of fitness or health.
(1) Aerobic (e.g. walking, swimming)
(2) Anaerobic (e.g. sprinting)
(3) Isometric (e.g. lifting weights)
Resistance Training involves providing some form of resistance to the contracting muscles to stimulate the body for increased strength.Equipment used for resistance training takes multiple forms, including hand weights, pulleys, hydraulic, elastic, rubber, fiberglass, and magnetic equipment.
Strength or resistance training is very important to improve ones functionality and reduce the risk of injury.As people age, the lean tissue (i.e. muscle) declines more from lack of use than from aging itself.Performing some type of resistance training on a regular basis is essential.
Safety Since the demand on the heart is generally less while strength training than when walking at a moderate pace, resistance training is regarded as safe for patients with heart conditions. It is advisable never to strain or hold breath in an attempt to lift something.Straining can adversely affect blood flow to the heart.
What are the goals of exercise?
The goals of exercise are to :-
(1) Improve oxygen delivery and metabolic processes.
(2) Build strength and endurance.
(3) Decrease body fat.
(4) Improve movement in joints and muscles.
(5) Improve sense of well-being.
(6) Slows down aging process. Normal.
Warm-Up and Cool-Down Period. Warming up and cooling down are important parts of any exercise routine. They aid the body in making the transition from rest to activity and back again and can help prevent soreness or injury, especially in older people.
(1) Warm-up exercises should be practiced for five to 10 minutes at the beginning of an exercise session. Older people need a longer period to warm up their muscles. Low-level aerobic exercise, such as walking briskly, swinging the arms, or jogging in place are the best.
(2) To cool down,one should walk slowly until the heart rate is 10 to 15 beats above resting rate. Stopping too suddenly can sharply reduce blood pressure.This is a danger for older people, and may also cause muscle cramping.Breathe deeply during the cool off phase.
(3) Stretching is appropriate for the cooling down period, but not for warming up because it can injure cold muscles. Particular exercises may require stretching specific muscles. For example, a jogger or biker might emphasis stretching the hamstrings, calves, groin, and quadriceps, while swimmers would focus on the groin, shoulders, and back. Stretching is best done when joints are lose and flexible that is in the afternoons or evenings.
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Chipmunks, woodchucks, ground squirrels, jumping mice and bats are on the list of true hibernators. During hibernation they are very hard to wake up. Their heart rate, respiration and body temperature drop dramatically. In contrast, animals that aren’t true hibernators–like bears, raccoons and skunks, wake easily and don’t have such dramatic drops in temperature and heart rates. For example, a sleeping bear’s temperature only decreases by about ten degrees and they breathe only a few breaths slower. Interestingly, bears can go more than 100 days without eating, drinking or passing waste and females actually give birth during their winter sleep! Imagine waking up after a long nap to find a baby snuggled by your side!
During winter a chipmunk’s heart rate drops from 350 to only 4 or 5 times per minute. Their body temperature goes from 96-104 all the way down to 42-45 degrees F during winter. And while they might take 60 breaths per minute during the rest of the year, during hibernation, this drops to fewer than 20. If you discovered one, it would likely be curled up in a tight ball and looking for all intents and purposes, dead.
In the winter during periods of no snow or warm temperatures, chipmunks might rouse from their sleep and emerge from their dens, especially if the fall produced a good harvest of nuts. Chipmunks are notorious for filling their cheeks full of nuts, seeds, berries and grains. They take these back to their underground burrows–which may be as long as ten feet–and deposit them in special food chambers. These may contain hundreds of nuts by the time winter arrives. They also have separate tunnels for their “toilet.”
Chipmunks are the smallest members of the squirrel family, weighing in at 1-5 ounces. During hibernation their weight may drop by half! Many don’t make it through the winter because their fat reserves run out or they are found by predators, like a fox or coyote and don’t wake up before they are eaten.
Chipmunks, like the golden-mantled ground squirrel, excavate burrows in the ground unlike other squirrels like red, gray and flying squirrels that make their homes in treetops or in hollow cavities in trees. On average a chipmunk in the wild lives only 2-3 years.
To read more about bats and some of the troubles that they are having lately while they hibernate, click HERE, or about gray squirrels and how they spend their winters, click HERE. For this week’s puzzler, Click HERE.
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Quasars appear to all reside in host galaxies and so may represent an early phase of galaxy evolution.
Quasars appear to be due to material from a large star in a binary system falling onto the surface of a neutron-star companion within the same system.
All quasars appear to have been ejected from parent galaxies by catastrophic phenomena that destroyed their host galaxies.
Most quasars show evidence of being due to interacting pairs of black holes.
Quasars appear to all reside in galaxies fairly close to the Local Group and so must represent a recent phase of galaxy evolution.
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| 0.899131 | 120 | 3.375 | 3 |
Phytoestrogens, or plant-based estrogens, are an almost mysterious part of nutrition. Just like it’s hard to tell if soy is bad for you or not, sometimes phytoestrogens arebad for you, and other times they can fight certain cancers!
To illustrate just how confusing phytoestrogens are, there are countless studies that show they can, in fact, fight and inhibit breast cancer … while at the same time, research out of Canada warns that low concentrations of certain phytoestrogens actually promote breast cancer tumor growth and inhibit certain drugs that treat the disease! No wonder they’re so difficult to wrap our heads around!
Their effects are controversial, and research, at first glance, even seems to conflict. However, understanding therole of phytoestrogens in your health is a key part to maintaining proper hormone levels throughout your life. So are phytoestrogens good or bad for you? Do they contribute to the estrogen epidemic or not? Let’s separate the fact from the fiction and look at the positives and negatives of these controversial plant estrogens.
What Are Phytoestrogens?
The word phytoestrogenscomes from the Greek word “phyto,” or plant, and “estrogen,” the hormone that causes fertility in all female mammals. Phytoestrogenshave also been termed dietary estrogens because they’re not created by the human endocrine system. They can only be ingested or consumed.
A similar class of non-endocrine estrogens is xenoestrogens, synthetic estrogens found in certain kinds of plastic and pesticide products. While I deal primarily with a discussion on phytoestrogens in this article, it’s important to consider the combination and interaction of all of the environmental estrogens you encounter.
In their natural state, phytoestrogens exist within plants as a natural defense against herbivores. Plants secrete these hormones to modulate the fertility of animals thatmay eat them to reduce further attacks. (1)
Soy is known as the most phytoestrogen-rich plant found in a typical Western diet. Although it was initially considered a superfood, the real story with soy is that it’s usually something to avoid. I’ll talk more about soy in a moment, but first, let’s talk a little more about what phytoestrogens are.
Part of what makes phytoestrogens a bit tricky is their ability to both mimic estrogen and act as an estrogen antagonist (meaning they behave in the opposite way of biological estrogen). They affect the body by attaching to estrogen receptors. Because they aren’t specifically necessary for a human diet, phytoestrogens can’t be considered actual nutrients. The most well-studied of the types of phytoestrogen compounds are isoflavones, also commonly referred to as soy isoflavones because most are foundin soy and red clover.
The estrogenic and anti-estrogenic effects of phytoestrogens have often been thought of as overwhelmingly negative. For the majority of young women, extra estrogen in the body can lead to infertility, polycystic ovarian syndromeand even certain types of cancer. Men generally don’t need extra estrogen in their systems, either. However, in the case of women over the age of 50 experiencing decreased estrogen levels, extra estrogen can decrease cancer risk, among other benefits.
Don’t fear! The research surrounding phytoestrogens isn’t all bad. While I encourage you to consultwith your physician before making any major diet changes, for certain people (generally, women over 50), phytoestrogens can actually benefit you!
1. MayReduce or Prevent Certain Types of Cancers
Cancers related to hormone production can be treated, in part, by adjusting the hormone levels in the body by eating the right foods. Phytoestrogens have been studied extensively in connection with breast and ovarian cancers, with many positive results showing they can actually be natural cancer treatments for some.
A 2009 study of over 5,000 women diagnosed with breast cancer showed a significant decrease in death and recurrence of the disease of the patients on a diet rich in non-soy phytoestrogens, a finding that echoed a 1997 questionnaire study of breast cancer patients. (2, 3)Another project, spanning nine years and following 800 women, showed a 54 percent decrease in the occurrence of endometrial cancer in women eating a diet high in phytoestrogens. (4)
Regarding breast cancer in particular, it seems that apigenin might be the best of the phytoestrogens in reducing breast cancer cell growth. (5)
The jury is still out on exactly how and when phytoestrogens are most efficient in fighting hormonal cancers. Depending on the state of menopause, individual body makeup and the times at which high levels of soy are part of one’s diet, phytoestrogens may or may not be beneficial for cancer prevention and/or treatment. (6,7)
2. Enhance Heart Health
OK, they may not make you feel all warm and fuzzy inside, but phytoestrogens areproven to improve heart health, specifically in postmenopausal women. They can be used to treatarteriosclerosis, a disease characterized by fatty buildup within the arteries, and seem to do so by regulating many different hormone and chemical levels within the body. (8)
3. ImproveHealth During Menopause
Yes, it’s important to limit intake of phytoestrogen-rich foods and avoid high-estrogen foods during most someone’s life. However, a large variety of studies has proved these dietary estrogens actually help some women during menopause.
Menopause is the period of time in which a women transitions from her last menstrual cycle, ending fertility. While childbearing potential ends, menopause doesn’t have to mark the end of vitality and healthy sexuality. The biggest drawback to menopause is the unpredictable change in sex hormone levels, namely estrogen, progesterone and testosterone.
During perimenopause, some physicians suggest beginning to increase phytoestrogen intake to counteract the effects of the hormonal imbalances women begin to experienceand balance hormones naturally. Some research indicates a drastic drop it in hot flashes for women in perimenopause eating a phytoestrogen-rich diet.
Another benefit phytoestrogens may offer to menopausal or postmenopausal women is a reduction in bone loss, leading to higher bone density and fewer breaks, when administered in dose-specific measures alongside vitamin D. (9) They’ve also been shown to regulate iron absorption into the bloodstream, offering mild anti-inflammatory effects and protecting against massive iron level fluctuations. (10)
As of yet, there is not sufficient evidence to suggest a phytoestrogen-rich diet can totally counter and relieve menopause symptoms, but nothing truly can. The symptoms of this hormonal change can be managed but not completely avoided. I do recommend looking into natural alternatives to dangerous hormone replacement therapy.
4.Help with Weight Loss
The phytoestrogen genistein is highlighted in a study to determine the effects of phytoestrogens on obesity. Due to its various effects, genistein seems to have the ability to regulate obesity, although the reasons why are unclear. (11)
This weight loss benefit requires moreresearch to draw specific conclusions, but the findings are encouraging. Of course, the best defense against obesity is a healthy, balanced diet and an active lifestyle.
Yes, you read that right! Some reports suggest that phytoestrogens, specifically in beer, may delay ejaculation and increase libido.While too much of a good thing isn’t—well — good, the mild estrogenic effects of phytoestrogens from hops, bourbon and beer in the male body seem to increase the time you have to pleaseyour partner.(12)
However, remember that excessive phytoestrogen intake over time is not advisable for men — moderation is key.
While research supports thesebenefits described above, there are negative effects of phytoestrogens as well, of which you should be aware. These issues are mainly related to fertility and development. It’s also important to note that many of these studies delve into the effects of phytoestrogens in soy, which contains its own problematic issues.
1. Can Adversely Affect Fertility
Studies show thatdiets rich in certain phytoestrogens reduce the occurrence of pregnancies in humans, California quail, deer mice, Australian sheep and cheetahs. In some of these examples, the removal of phytoestrogens from the diet caused fertility levels to rebalance.
In addition,exposure to genistein and coumestrol, two specific phytoestrogen compounds, early in life may contribute to fertility issues later in development. They may cause decreased sperm levels, but this remains unclear throughout different research studies. (13, 14)
2. May Lead toHormonal Issues
One particular area of concern is the appearance of plant-based estrogens in soy infant formulas, as the long-term consequences are still not well-understood. However, some research indicates possible negative correlations, including a higher occurrence of boys born with hypospadias, increased use of allergy medicines, and more severe menstrual bleeding and cramps for girls. Again, genistein was identified as the most likely culprit.
As with much of the information about phytoestrogens, there are conflicting ideas about whether or not they’re harmful in the long run. At least one study found no significant difference in people fed soy formula versus those fed with cow’s milk, so more research is still needed to make any firm conclusions. (15)
3. Potentially Stimulate Breast Cancer Growth
As I’ve already mentioned, phytoestrogens have the ability to inhibit the growth of certain cancers, such as breast cancer. However, afascinating study out of Canada found that low concentrations of phytoestrogens actually may make breast cancers grow faster, as well as inhibit the effects of tamoxifen, the drug used to treat late-stage breast cancer.
In higher concentrations, the effect was the opposite, causing tumors to shrink and magnifying the impact of the drugs — showing just how complicated phytoestrogens really are. (16)
4. Increase Risk of Cognitive Decline and Dementia
Another concern to be aware of is the possibility of mental decline in connection with consuming a lot of phytoestrogens. While the evidence remains inconclusive, research suggests a link between dementia and cognitive decline with phytoestrogen intake.
The factors that may cause this decline vary, depending on age and thyroid health, but it’s important to take good care of your brain — it’s the only one you’ve got! Don’t go overboard with phytoestrogen intake, especially if you might be at risk for cognitive disorders like dementia. (17)
Phytoestrogens exist in many foods, supplements and essential oils.Some of the highest concentrations can be found in (18):
- Soybeans and soy products
- Sesame seeds
- Jasmine oil
- Wheat germ
- Licorice root
- Red clover
- Clary sage oil
All Soy Is Not Created Equal
As soy is the most concentrated source of phytoestrogens for the typical American, it’s important to examine the safety of soy itself — a subject debated quite abit. So, is soy bad for youor good for you?
The answer is not a simple “yes” or “no.” It’s more complex. The difficulty of understanding the effects of soy is caused mainly by the form of available soy in the U.S. There is soy to eat and soy to avoid — and unfortunately, most soy in the U.S. falls into the latter category.
In Japan, one of the healthiest places on Earth, soy is a prevalent staple. However, the soy there is not genetically modified. That used to be the case in the U.S. as well. In 1997, only 8 percent of soy was genetically modified. As of 2010, about 93 percent of the soy in the U.S. was genetically modified— and that’s definitely not something you want to have in your body.
Another factor in the soy discussion is unfermented versus fermented soy. Unfermented soy contains a laundry list of nasty things you should avoid. Fermented soy, on the other hand, is a great probiotic food.
I advocate the removal of all soy milk, soy protein and most other forms of soy from your diet. The exception I generally make is for soy lecithin, a fermented soy product that has several health benefits.
Remember, if you’re a woman entering or going through menopause and may benefit from phytoestrogens in your diet, soy is not the only source.
The Dangers of Endocrine Disruptors
By now, you’ve probably heard of endocrine disruptors— synthetic or non-human hormones we’re exposed to or ingest that mess with our hormones. Some disruptors are more harmful than others. For example, the xenoestrogens in plastics, such as medicine bottles, are some of the worst for the balance of hormones in your body.
Phytoestrogens are weak estrogens in comparison to xenoestrogens or the biological estrogen the human body produces. They may not be as unsafe as other endocrine disruptors, but they should be considered generally undesirable for men and younger women, especially those who have issues with estrogen dominance.
But what are endocrine disruptors (ED)? I discuss it in detail in the link above, but in short, EDs are chemicals and natural compounds that interrupt hormonal balance in the body and may cause a host of health problems, especially when they build up over time. (19) The most prevalent appearance of EDs are chemicals found in plastics and pesticides, but they can also be found in the form of phytoestrogens, progestin(progesterone-mimickers) and even in many cosmetics.
The hormonal imbalances caused by these sneaky disruptors have led to an overall drop in the average age of puberty and may also contribute to various fertility issues, such as low sperm counts, endometriosis, and ovarian or testicular cancer.
Two of the best protections against a buildup of endocrine disruptors in your body are a diet full of organic, non-GMO foods and a lifestyle avoiding harsh chemicals wherever possible, such as in makeup or pesticides. The more you’re exposed to these disruptors — such as phytoestrogens — over the course of your life, the higher the likelihood that you will experience negative reactions.
One good way to modulate the impact of phytoestrogens in particular is to pair them with phyto-progestins (progestins specifically found in plants). Clary sage oil is an example of a source of both phytoestrogens and phyto-progestins, which balance the effects of one another and help protect your body against too much of one reproductive hormone.
As we’ve seen, phytoestrogens are not easily put into the healthy or unhealthy category. The truth of the matter is they can be beneficial in doses, particularly for women of menopausal age, but they also have adverse side effects, particularly for men.
As endocrine disruptors, your best bet is to limit your intake overall and consult with your doctor before deciding to either add more phytoestrogens into your diet or cutting them out completely.
One thing is for sure, however: You’re better off avoiding soy as your phytoestrogens source, instead opting for healthier, more nutritious options like essential oils and certain vegetables. The debate rages on in the research community, but if you keep these facts about phytoestrogens top of mind, you can optimize their benefits while limiting their negative side effects.
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A law aimed at preserving minority culture in Yunnan has led to the creation of a facility developed solely for the recording and transcription of the province's diverse languages. The project, overseen by faculty at Yuxi Normal University, is tasked specifically with establishing archives of the most endangered of Yunnan's languages and is the first of its kind in southwest China.
Professor Bai Bibo (白碧波), who heads the effort, has said gathering records of minority languages with fewer than 500 fluent speakers has been given precedence. Yunnan is home to 25 officially recognized minorities. However, such categories often encompass smaller groups who identify themselves as culturally distinct from their designated ethnicity.
The goal of the project is to compile audio and video recordings of people speaking their native languages and then transcribing the samples into Mandarin and pinyin. Once this is accomplished, linguists working at the university translate everything into the international phonetic alphabet to make the documentation more easily accessible to linguists in other countries.
Researchers in Yuxi encourage participants to tell folk stories, riddles or sing in their native languages while they are being filmed. Linguists then collaborate with native speakers who are fluent in Mandarin to ensure translations are correct.
One of the the project's first recordings was that of the A'nong language (阿侬语). Considered part of the Tibeto-Burman language family, it is only spoken in a small area in the Nu River valley near Fugong by roughly 400 people.
Bai estimates languages such as this may only exist for one or two generations before they die out completely. As another example he cited Buxing (布兴语), which is spoken by fewer than 200 people in two villages in Mengla County. It is quickly being replaced in daily use by the more commonly spoken Dai language, as well as Mandarin.
In addition to collecting spoken records, Yuxi Normal University is cooperating with international language preservation institutes. One of the reasons behind these collaborations is to compare language samples taken recently with those collected in the past. Researches hope their analyses will help identify which languages are in the most urgent need of being recorded.
Image: Wikipedia© Copyright 2005-2023 GoKunming.com all rights reserved. This material may not be republished, rewritten or redistributed without permission.
I want to learn how to write like the captioned pictures...that's pretty cool...
It does look cool and strangely contemporary. Although it looks a little bit like Fido Dido on speed.
Doesn't sound terribly scientific to me, although this description may not be accurate. These languages are often unrelated to Mandarin, so "transcribing them into Mandarin and pinyin" would be pointless if "pinyin" here is a reference to "hanyu pinyin."
The logical way to do it would be to record the original speech and render it in international phonetic alphabet (IPA) then and there, and then have the spelling finalized based on further analysis of the recording. The only role for Mandarin would be to confirm the approximate meaning of the recorded words.
I translated 《额尔古纳河右岸》(Last Quarter of the Moon) by Chi Zijian, which contains about 150 Evenki names, place names and words. In my experience, neither Chinese characters nor Hanyu Pinyin are well equipped to capture the sounds of a polysyllabic Tungusic tongue like Evenki.
I agree with szbruce - the idea of using hanyu pinyin would, however, perhaps encourage any non-mother-tongue users of the language (such as most Chinese, and non-Chinese who don't go to IPA (as most won't)) to pronounce it in a similar manner to the pronunciation of Chinese, and so in this way to move in the direction of a 'sinicization' of the languages (essentially, to make Han Chinese a sort of standard for these languages). This sounds suspiciously like a nationalist move, and perhaps that is what is intended.
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The Solar Monsters is a kit developed by Led & Chips for the youngest, a fun introduction to the wonderful world of electronics and solar energy. It is based on SunEater, the solar circuit invented by Canadian Mark Tilden, also inventor of the famous Beam Bots.
It is a very simple circuit, designed to convert light energy.
First, energy is stored in a capacitor which is then released in bursts, causing a motor to move. The kit was developed to facilitate the soldering of electronic components such as the use of copper nails as points of connection and welding.
The electronic kit comes unassembled with all electronic components. The tools necessary for assembly
are not included. Please check the kit contents
list to see what is included. Assembly is very easy and takes less than an hour, even if you've never soldered before!
Solar Monsters from ledsandchips on Vimeo.
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| 0.957622 | 184 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Most people know that the HeinOnline subscription database is a great source of legal research materials from all over the world. HeinOnline’s collection of legal primary and secondary sources from Canada is especially strong, and it is growing all the time.
In addition to the Canada Supreme Court Reports (date coverage: 1876-2016) and the Revised Statutes of Canada (all six revisions, from 1886 through 1985), Hein recently added a new library: Provincial Statutes of Canada.
Hein describes this new library as follows:
“The Provincial Statutes of Canada contain public and private acts passed by Canadian provincial governments. Current, revised, and historical content is available for Alberta, British Columbia, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Ontario. Historical and revised content only is available for Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan.”
HeinOnline also has a collection of more than 100 Canadian law journals. To access this collection from the HeinOnline homepage, click Law Journal Library > Country > Canada.
In addition to HeinOnline, the Law Library also subscribes to QuickLaw: LexisNexis Canada. This source provides access to Canadian court cases, legislation, journal articles, commentary, and more.
If you would like to read more the intricacies of Canadian legal research, the 4th edition of The Practical Guide to Canadian Legal Research, edited by Nancy McCormick, was published in 2015.
Photo Credit: Justin Trudeau, the leader of Canada’s Liberal Party, was sworn in as the country’s 23rd Prime Minister on November 4, 2015. This photo was taken during a debate in Toronto on February 16, 2013 by Adam Scotti. https://flic.kr/p/dW2m9a.
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The Feudal system was a power structure that existed primarily during medieval times in Europe.
In this power structure, the power of an individual was directly tied to the amount of land he held. Moreover, relationships between different classes were based on land exchange.
The King granted land to nobles, the nobles granted land to the lord and lords had peasants, slaves, or serfs cultivate this land.
In exchange for land holdings, lords owed allegiance to nobles and helped them in wars, and nobles owed similar allegiances to the king.
In the classical form of feudalism, the power structure was shaped like a pyramid. At the top of the pyramid was the King who was considered the true owner of all land. Under the King came the vassal of the King, who was usually a baron or a lord.
The King directly granted land to this vassal. Under the vassal came the mesne tenant who was mostly a knight and only occasionally a baron.
The vassal granted land to these mesne tenants. A Mesne tenant could further portion his land between further mesne tenants.
In a feudal society, the social relationships between different classes of the society were dictated by their landholdings.
The social status of any given individual was derived from the amount of land he held. The peasant was at the lowest rung of the social ladder, who provided labor to the landowner and in some cases was allowed to hold some land.
A characteristic feature of feudal society was the private jurisdiction of a noble or lord on the land he owned.
Moreover, the military formation of the society greatly depended on the feudal system where each lord or noble on the lower rung of the ladder was to provide fighters for the lord or noble above him.
The term feudal tenant referred to a person who was granted land directly by a king or prince under any of the various land tenure agreements.
In return, the tenant was required to provide knights directly for the army of that respective king or prince.
The tenant was a unique landholder in the feudal society in that he didn’t have another lord above him on the social ladder but was directly responsible to the king or the prince.
Sometimes, the tenants would hand out portions of his lands to further sub-tenants. The land held by the tenant was considered his for a certain tenure and the king or prince who had granted it could take it back in the future.
Feudal tenure refers to the agreement or contract which overlooked the land granted by the king or the prince directly to an individual.
Different forms of feudal tenure existed in European feudalism. The highest among these was the barony, under which the land was granted to a feudal baron who provided military service and fighters in return.
Similarly, other feudal tenure came with the condition of service as a knight or as a castle guard at the local castle.
The fee-farm kind of feudal tenure allowed an individual to collect revenues on a certain portion of land and pay a fixed rent to the Crown. Clerics were granted tenure under a different category called frankalmoigne.
Feudal dues referred to the various taxes that were imposed by the king or the other sections of aristocracy on landowners below.
For instance, a king imposed a number of special taxes on the lands of his own tenants. A King could ask his nobles to pay a portion of the expenses for the knighting of his son, and this money to be paid fell under feudal dues.
The weight of the feudal dues was felt most by the peasant or the serf who cultivated land and paid rent on it to the landowner.
Feudal hierarchy refers to a social structure where the influence and power of an individual are determined by the amount of land he holds.
So a greater higher in the feudal hierarchy held a greater amount of land while one lower in the social ladder had lesser land. At the top of the feudal system was the King, who could grant or take away the land.
Feudal law referred to the basic assumption of feudalism: that all land belongs to the King.
This law further forms the basis of a political system where land was distributed into a hierarchy of lords, nobles, and landowners, the position of each determined by the amount of land he held.
Everyone had to pay taxes on land holdings, and in return for land fealty and allegiance were owed to the person who granted the land.
Life in feudal society was centered on the manor estate. A typical manor comprised of a village surrounded by the farmland, the castle of the owner of the manor who was usually a vassal, and the church.
Peasants lived in the village and worked on the land, often in return for the grant of small portions of land.
They had to pay taxes not just to the vassal owning the land but also to the church. In return, the lord of the manor ensured the protection of the peasants.
A feudal lord is someone in a feudal society who owns vast swathes of land and hands ownership of these lands as fiefs to his vassals.
The vassals, in return, owed their allegiance and fealty to the lord on one hand and hired peasants to work on their lands on the other hand.
A feudal vassal is someone who is given land by a superior, normally a lord.
The vassal in return owes fealty and allegiance to the lord and helps him gather enough soldiers during wartime. In most manors, a vassal was the lord of the manor.
The feudal peasant received land from the lord of the manor which they cultivated on their own. In return, these peasants cultivated the land of the lord. Moreover, the peasants paid a portion of their annual produce to the lord of the manor and the church in lieu of taxes.
In a feudal system, the King was the de-facto owner of all land in a country. He portioned out the land to his nobles, who further portioned it out to their vassals who in turn could grant it to other vassals or hire peasants to work on it.
The vassals protected their peasants in return for their labor and owed fealty and military service to the noble who granted them the land.
The noble reciprocated similar fealty and allegiance to the king in return for the land.
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Active Citizenship Projects ENVIRONMENT
in this section you find one German informal environmental learning project.
Near Goettingen there exists an adventure trail through the forest to experience nature built by the forestry office in the late nineties. The tour consists of 13 stages where people get different information and tasks. The visitors acquire knowledge about the flora and fauna on their own through thinking, solving a riddle or discovering something. The aim is to experience nature with a high amount of mental and physical activity and with all senses.
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| 0.926102 | 106 | 2.703125 | 3 |
08 July 2011
Scientists in the US have discovered that electrons confined to their double bonds can sometimes deliver stronger pi-stacking interactions than those roaming free in aromatic systems. The discovery could have a big impact on the design of receptors and supramolecular assemblies that rely on delocalised systems, they say.
Pi-stacking interactions are usually thought of as occurring between aromatic rings, and such interactions along with anion-pi and cation-pi interactions are often collectively referred to as 'aromatic interactions'.
Now, Steven Wheeler and colleagues at Texas A&M University have shown, using computational chemistry, that the monomer aromaticity is not necessary in aromatic interactions, and it can even hinder aromatic interactions in some cases.1 'The term "aromatic interactions" is really a misnomer,' says Wheeler 'Or at least it implies too strict a definition of these interactions.'
Wheeler explains that nature seems to favour pi-stacking interactions involving aromatic systems for example in aromatic amino acid interactions and DNA base stacking. However, he and his team believe this to be due more to the stability of the monomers, rather than strong pi-stacking interactions. 'Although mimicking nature is often fruitful, in this case it might be that the natural prevalence of aromatic rings in pi-stacking interactions is a side-effect of other factors, not a driving force itself,' he says.
By analysing computed stacking energies that the team calculated for a range of pi-stacking systems, they concluded that stacking interactions involving non-aromatic polyenes are as favourable as, if not more favourable than, interactions among equivalent aromatic species. 'Employing such non-aromatic polyenes in supramolecular applications should be advantageous,' Wheeler says.
'The Wheeler paper is a major step forward in understanding,' says Paul von Rague' Schleyer, an expert in computational studies of aromaticity at the University of Georgia in Athens, US. 'It builds on and extends our work on stacking interactions of three to nine membered rings2, which anticipated the present findings and conclusions at least to some degree,' he adds.
David Sherrill, a leader in the field of computational studies of stacking interactions, from the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, US, says: 'What this paper seems to show is that in some cases pi-pi interactions can be enhanced by breaking the aromaticity to yield localised pi orbitals. This is a big surprise, and I think most of the community would not have expected that result,' he says. 'It is commonly the case that when one is making some supramolecular systems, the presence of an aromatic interaction is considered the favourable recognition element, and it still is. But now, I think we can broaden our view to look at a wider variety of these recognition elements,' he adds.
Even though this is a theoretical study, Wheeler explains that many research groups have devised ways of measuring stacking free energies experimentally. 'These molecular probes are typically used to measure the effect of substituent or heteroatoms on pi-stacking interactions,' he says. 'I think that some of these probes could be adapted to directly measure the stacking free energy of two phenyl rings versus a phenyl ring and a non-aromatic cyclic polyene.'
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http://esraa-chemist.blogspot.com/
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| 0.938996 | 674 | 2.875 | 3 |
While "e" inc. is not the only program in the country concerned about linking science to the lives of urban children we are unique in linking science to action and in promoting 'environmental citizenry' as an imperative for our students and our planet. We understand that science must be both exciting and relevant to our children's lives.
It is "e" inc.'s excitement, hope, energy, and science expertise that helps them succeed.
Help us continue to create change.
Don't leave it to someone else to ensure that all children:
Every dollar you give helps us move this effort forward. Renew your gift or make a first-time donation today. Our students are living proof that positive change for the planet can happen.
Dr. Ricky Stern and the Board and Staff of "e" inc.
We use the excitement of science discovery to inspire new scientists and we pair science education with action to develop science-minded 'Planet Protectors.' Now, with support from concerned friends like you, we can reach and inspire even more young people and give them a chance to explore, understand, and protect their home.
Urban children get minimal exposure to nature or the effect of human behavior on the world. With insufficient hands-on experiences at school, home, or community, there is little opportunity for our kids to see the links between science and their lives. By middle or high school science can bring discomfort rather than curiosity. And Science Careers? Not even a consideration.
But shouldn't science be a source of wonder for all?
For 12 years, "e" inc. has maintained its commitment to teach exciting science to low-income children and teens and then to always involve them in action. Whether considering
• our in-depth year-long residencies serving 4,500 young people in public schools,
• our ongoing after school programs in 3 cities,
• our developmental teen teams, or
• our summer field experiences,
"e" inc. hands-on science is a delight.
Children stop our educators in the halls to tell them what they liked or remember. This fall, a 3rd grader brought in a homemade power station she made to show her grandmother what she'd learned on electricity. In after schools, children light up when they see our teachers arrive:
Why this response? Because the work of "e" inc. is special. It is developmentally crafted. It is intimate. It has activities that bring amazing science ideas to our students. It has a staff of educators dedicated to children. And it has something else…
It has Action!
"e" inc. children learn why and how to make a difference. Through our programs, children not only see how the Earth works, they come to see its current challenges and ways they can have an effect. They understand that the planet needs their help and they love the idea of being called to action. It builds their confidence and, equally important, it supports the idea that they matter!
Such moments are precious.
At “e” inc.we bring precious moments to children and youth every day.
Perhaps it was the surprise of viewing a deer in the woods!
Was it a day exploring the reed-life at a pond?
Was it when you walked into a museum and realized the sheer size of a wooly mammoth?
When did you first realize you loved the planet?
"e" inc. provides children, teens, and adults a scientific
understanding of Earth's biomes, resources, and
system and the skills to protect the planet and live sustainably.
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| 0.947817 | 736 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The Trump administration's campaign to roll back as many government regulations as possible is well underway. On the environmental front, Trump administration officials have already -- in one day alone, and without allowing any opportunity for public comment -- delayed the dates of 30 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rules. A rule that restricted animal welfare requirements for organic poultry and livestock has been delayed by two months, and a bumble bee which was about to be added to the endangered species list has just found itself in jeopardy of extinction since the Trump administration said it would postpone the listing until at least March 21.
Meanwhile, Trump administration officials are indicating that they will be making marked changes in oil and gas industry regulations. In November, the Obama administration's EPA requested that nearly 20,000 oil and gas companies measure their methane emissions within two to six months, depending on their type of facility. Methane is a greenhouse gas 23 times more potent than CO2, and reducing methane emissions is a critical part of mitigating climate disruption. However, the Trump administration has been granting a 90-day extension on the measurement regulation to every oil and gas company that wants one. Many oil and gas officials now expect the methane survey to be scaled back dramatically, or altogether abandoned.
Scott Pruitt, Trump's EPA administrator and climate-denying oil and gas apologist, has even questioned whether his agency has the authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. Add to this the fact that his proposed EPA budget calls for a 25 percent budget cut, which will endanger the lives of countless Americans, as regulations safeguarding clean air and water are stripped down or cut altogether.
Of course, as the denial of anthropogenic climate disruption (ACD) continues, the world is continuing to warm. A new reminder of that comes in the form of a scientific paper published in the International Society for Microbial Ecology Journal. The study has pinpointed the source of an enormous Pacific methane pool, uncovering disastrous news for the planet.
Enormous Amounts of Methane
The new study reveals the location of bacteria responsible for the release of massive amounts of methane in the ocean. The vast amount of methane they are producing covers an area that stretches from Panama up to Mexico, and all the way out to the Hawaiian Islands.
According to a news report on the study, the plumes of methane being released are spreading for many thousands of miles.
The bacteria generate methane when there is no oxygen present, so the newly discovered methane pools happen in deoxygenated "dead zones" of the ocean.
While the massive plumes of methane are, at present, still being absorbed back into the ocean water, study author Felicity Shelley of Queen Mary University of London told the International Business Times, "Scientists are predicting these low-oxygen zones will get larger and closer to the surface when the oceans warm." This would increase the risk of methane -- which is already being released in massive amounts in the Arctic due to melting permafrost -- being released into the atmosphere.
And troublingly, ACD is already causing an expansion in both the numbers and size of dead zones around the planet.
Growing Dead Zones
The second largest dead zone on the planet is in the Gulf of Mexico. It has consistently been measured at over 6,000 square miles, and is the result, largely, of the excessive use of chemical fertilizers by industrial agriculture in the US. The chemicals in the fertilizer cause an increase in algae in the water, which then starves other marine life of oxygen.
"The dead zone makes an area of the ocean floor -- this year about the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island, combined -- with oxygen levels so low, critters in these areas must swim away or suffocate and die," Matt Rota, senior policy director for the Gulf Restoration Network (GRN), an environmental group that works to protect the ecology of the Gulf of Mexico, told Truthout in a 2015 interview about the dead zone.
Even then, the EPA was not regulating the use of these fertilizers across much of the US, so Rota's organization was suing the agency.
Now, with oil and gas proponent Pruitt heading the EPA, all bets are off on how much larger the Gulf of Mexico dead zone -- along with others near the US's coasts -- will grow.
The most current estimates show more than 400 dead zones around the world, and the number is growing due to increasingly warm waters and ocean acidification, both direct byproducts of ACD. In 2003, there were 146 dead zones; by 2009, the number had more than doubled.
In 2014, a Smithsonian-led study showed that ACD is contributing to an increase in global dead zones, in both size and number.
The dead zones' release of methane, coupled with the increase in dead zones worldwide, is a sobering discovery. Yet another source of atmospheric warming has been added to a very long list -- amid a political climate in which key regulations appear to be dead in the water.
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| 0.950189 | 1,010 | 2.609375 | 3 |
What are wetlands?
According to the EPA, wetlands are “those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas.” Check out the EPA’s site here for more general information on wetlands.
Why should you care?
Whether you’re more economically minded or more biologically minded, you should care about wetland conservation. Wetlands provide numerous ecosystems services. For example, wetlands such as salt marshes provide a buffer between the ocean and the land. This means that wetlands take the brunt of large storms, protecting the upshore area (where we tend to live). They can also accommodate large quantities of water, which protects upshore areas from flooding.
Wetlands are also huge, natural (i.e., FREE!) water-treatment facilities. The water that passes through wetlands is filtered through layers of roots and soil, which removes pollutants. In fact, many cities have implemented rain gardens or man-made wetlands into their water treatment plants (including Lansing, MI, see here and here). Wetlands also filter out a lot of sediment and pollutants, which cleans up water for our use (but wetlands can only do so much, so too much pollution can overwhelm a wetland). For tons of information about the ecosystem services provided by wetlands, check this out.
As a biologist, I get excited about wetlands because they are also major diversity hotspots. In fact, wetlands are considered some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on that planet! Not only do they support lots of species found only in wetlands, but a lot of species that you don’t think of as being associated with wetlands will pass through a wetland during a critical period in its development. For example, up to 75% of the USA-associated animals caught in the fisheries trade relied on estuaries (a type of wetland) at some point (Clean Water Network). For more information on the importance of estuarine fish and shellfish to fisheries, check out this NOAA report.
Risks to wetland habitats:
Because of human activity, fewer than half of all wetlands that were present in the 1600’s are present today. Wetland loss is not evenly distributed, and states such as Ohio and California have lost as much as 90% of their wetland habitat (EPA). Lots of factors have contributed to the decline of wetland habitat in the US. Among them:
1) Real estate: Wetland habitat is often found in prime real estate locations. For example, salt marshes are found near oceans, and may be drained to build ocean-adjacent housing.
2) Farming: Historically, lots of wetlands were drained and turned into farmland.
3) Mosquito control: The stagnant water often found in wetlands can provide a breeding ground for mosquitos. Many wetlands were thus drained to control mosquito populations and decrease the risk of diseases associated with mosquitos. Some research suggests, however, that healthy wetlands actually don’t support mosquito populations anywhere near as large as we once believed, because healthy wetlands support lots of predators of mosquito larvae and this controls mosquito population size. That being said, unhealthy wetlands (like those inundated with pollution) probably do not support large populations of mosquito-eating predators.
4) Pollution: Run-off from farms or roads often ends up in wetlands, and the pollutants carried by this run-off accumulate over time.
How can you help?
One way you can help is by supporting local wetland restoration efforts in your area. This EPA website can help you locate local groups doing wetland restoration or conservation, and you can either donate or volunteer your time. Below is information about how to support a group found in Indiana that is working on wetland restoration:
Little River Wetlands Project is a nonprofit land trust that restores and preserves wetlands in the Little River valley in the vicinity of Fort Wayne, Indiana. Wetland ecosystems have been destroyed at an astounding rate in the Midwest–mainly for farm land. These habitats are integral to the life cycle of many species, including indicator species (such as amphibians) and migratory shore birds.
LRWP is a great example of conservation on a local level. Run and staffed by volunteers, and funded in great part by private donations, they protect nearly 1,200 acres of land. Their preserves are home to a number of state and federally endangered species that require wetland habitats in their lifecycles. In addition, they provide free programs, including themed nature hikes and educational programs, to the public.
LRWP is a small organization, so every donation counts. Funds raised during Walk for the Wetlands will be put to good use as LRWP seeks to procure, restore, and protect more land.
To see a great synopsis of what LRWP is all about, check out this video the local PBS station did about them a couple of years ago.
Tiffany Holmes is Walking for the Wetlands, and you can support her (and the Little River Wetlands Project!) here.
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http://www.weinersmith.com/support-wetlands/
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| 0.955615 | 1,066 | 3.8125 | 4 |
Bowel leakage, also called bowel incontinence, can be a very embarrassing topic to discuss. Many women experience bowel leakage at some time in their life. There are usually ways to reduce incontinence, so seek help as soon as possible. Remember, it is never too late and you are never too old to seek improvements.
What is normal, what are the causes, how is it diagnosed and what can you do to prevent and manage bowel incontinence?
What is bowel incontinence?
What causes bowel incontinence?
Prevention & management
Bowel incontinence is the accidental or involuntary leakage of faeces (also called stools or poo) or wind. This is commonly caused by constipation, but also may be associated with diarrhoea, and can happen to anyone at any age.
Normal frequency of emptying the bowel when you are healthy can be anything from three times a day to three times a week. You should have a warning that you need to empty your bowel, but be able to get to the toilet in time without having to hurry.
Incontinence can result from having weakened muscles in the pelvic floor and around the anus. This could be as a result of having chronic constipation or haemorrhoids, or can occur after having children or pelvic surgery, and from some medical illnesses.
Even though it is quite common, many women are embarrassed to talk to their doctor about bowel incontinence, or are unsure what incontinence is.
If you are worried about leakage, try to tell your doctor what's happening, no matter how trivial you think it is.
Bowel weakness can be diagnosed by:
|Diagnostic approach||What to expect|
Your doctor may ask you questions about:
The physical examination will assess:
A test of your anal reflexes and sensations where a small balloon-like device is placed in the anus and then inflated.
|Anal and rectal ultrasound|
An ultrasound is used to provide an image of the rectum, the sphincter muscles and surrounding tissue.
You can prevent and manage bowel incontinence with a number of simple dietary and lifestyle actions.
Drink 6-8 cups or glasses of fluid per day. This does not have to be only water, and includes all of your drinks. Not drinking enough fluid makes stools hard, dry and difficult to pass, which increases the strain on the pelvic floor muscles, and can cause leakage around the hard stool.
|Caffeine and alcohol|
Cut down on caffeinated and carbonated drinks and alcohol, as they can contribute to bowel urgency and incontinence.
To avoid constipation and strain on the pelvic floor muscles, each day:
Be physically active as this stimulates bowel movement: aim for 30 minutes of moderate physical activity most days of the week, preferably in the morning to get your bowels moving.
|Pelvic floor exercises|
Do pelvic floor exercises regularly to strengthen your muscles.
Avoid heavy lifting to reduce strain on your pelvic floor.
Quit smoking as chronic coughing associated with smoking can weaken your pelvic floor – for help call the Quitline on 13 7848 or visit quit.org.au
Medication may be prescribed to treat bowel incontinence.
Surgery may be used to treat some types of bowel incontinence.
Continence pads come in different sizes and are designed to absorb bladder or bowel leakage. Continence liners are as small as regular panty liners. Ask your doctor, continence nurse, pelvic floor physiotherapist or pharmacist for advice.
This web page is designed to be informative and educational. It is not intended to provide specific medical advice or replace advice from your health practitioner. The information above is based on current medical knowledge, evidence and practice as at August 2018.
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The Falcon – Baaz
By Sonia Dhami
The tenth master Guru Gobind Singh Ji had many titles bestowed upon him, one of the most beautiful was ‘Chittay baaja wala”, the keeper of the white falcon. Guru Ji held darbar (court) where he met Rajas and emperors as well as the poor and needy. Guru Ji is often portrayed in paintings with a sword draped along his side with royal plumes decorating his turban and holding a white bird of prey, the Baaz. The word Baaz is Sanskrit in origin and mostly it is agreed that it refers to a falcon as opposed to a hawk. If the historical anecdotes are to be believed then it is most likely that the 'white bird of prey' which the 10th Guru handled was a Gyrfalcon.
The Gyrfalcon is the only 'regularly white falcon' that exists and is also the largest. It would have been a very prized possession during the seventeenth century especially in Asia, for dignitaries and rich individuals to bring and sell or gift to royalty in India.
The gyrfalcon has a very sharp vision and can change their flight direction abruptly. With a wingspan of up to 63" (160 cm) and a body weight of up to 4.6 lb (2.1kg) it is indeed an impressive and powerful bird. Their diet is mainly birds and small animals like rabbits, mice & squirrels. The prey is normally taken on the wing, although ground catches are not uncommon. They use their sharp claws and bills to tear apart the prey. They build their nest of twigs and sticks high in the trees. The female lays 3-5 eggs which hatch in 4-5 weeks. The young ones are blind and helpless. They are fed by their parents for 5-6 weeks.
The Baaz features in a number of stories relating to Guru Gobind Singh. Here is one of them:
In 1699, Guru Sahib Ji created Amrit (holy nectar) for the purpose of creating the Khalsa brotherhood. A few drops of amrit fell from the iron cauldron, which were readily consumed by a few sparrows. The sparrows turned onto the Baaz and repeatedly assaulted him to such an extent that he had to take flight, followed vigorously by the sparrows. This incident showed the Sikhs that the amrit created by the Tenth Guru had immense power, after drinking a few drops a small sparrow not only had the courage to take on a bird of prey but harassed it until it took flight and fled.
Guru Gobind Singh Ji said “I will create my Khalsa of such courage and vigor that he will take on armies of the enemy, he will stand up for the poor and the downtrodden”
Sava Lakh say ek ladaho (One will confront a lakh and a quarter of the enemy)
In Gurbani, we find the following reference to Falcons/Baaz
SHALOK, FIRST MEHL: Tigers, hawks, falcons and eagles – the Lord could make them eat grass. And those animals which eat grass – He could make them eat meat. He could make them follow this way of life. He could raise dry land from the rivers, and turn the deserts into bottomless oceans. He could appoint a worm as king, and reduce an army to ashes. All beings and creatures live by breathing, but He could keep us alive, even without the breath. O Nanak, as it pleases the True Lord, He gives us sustenance. || 1 ||
salok mehlaa 1: seehaa baajaa chargaa kuhee-aa aynaa khavaalay ghaah. ghaahu khaan tinaa maas khavaalay ayhi chalaa-ay raah. nadee-aa vich tibay daykhaalay thalee karay asgaah. keerhaa thaap day-ay paatisaahee laskar karay su-aah. jaytay jee-a jeeveh lai saahaa jeevaalay taa ke asaah.
naanak ji-o ji-o sachay bhaavai ti-o ti-o day-ay giraah. ||1||
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Strategic bombing during World War II
|Strategic bombing during World War II|
|Part of World War II|
A B-24 on a bomb run over the Astra Romana refinery in Ploieşti, Romania, during Operation Tidal Wave
| United Kingdom
|Commanders and leaders|
| Charles Portal
| Hermann Göring
|Casualties and losses|
|60,595 British civilians
160,000 airmen (Europe)
More than 500,000 Soviet civilians
67,078 French civilians killed by US-UK bombing
260,000 Chinese civilians
|305,000–600,000 civilians in Germany, including foreign workers
330,000–500,000 Japanese civilians
50,000 Italians killed by Allied bombing
Strategic bombing during World War II defines any nations' government engaged in World War II undertaking independent air campaigns of a clearly recognisable strategic intent. This includes the sustained bombing of railways, harbours, cities (civilian areas), and industrial areas in enemy territory. The strategy is the air power theory that major victories can best be won by attacking the enemy's industrial and political infrastructure, rather than purely military targets. Strategic bombing is distinct from both close air support of ground forces and "tactical air power" (which is the battle for control of the air space.)
In 1939, Germany invaded Poland and the Luftwaffe (German air force) began providing close air support to the German Army. The Luftwaffe also began eliminating strategic objectives and bombing cities and civilian population in Poland in an indiscriminate and unrestricted aerial bombardment campaign. France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany and the UK's Royal Air Force began attacking German warships along the German coast with the North Sea.
As the war continued to expand, bombing by both the Axis and Allied powers increased significantly. Military and industrial installations were targeted, but so were civilian populations in major war centres. Targeting cities and civilians was viewed as disrupting the control centre of the enemy, damaging his rail network, disrupting war industries, and as a psychological weapon to break the enemy's will to fight. From 1940–1941, Germany used this weapon in its 'Blitz' against Britain. From 1942 onward, the intensity of the British bombing campaign against Germany became less restrictive, increasingly targeting industrial sites and eventually, civilian areas. By 1943, the United States had significantly reinforced these efforts. The controversial firebombings of Hamburg (1943), Dresden (1945), and other German cities followed. The effect of strategic bombing varied depending on duration and intensity. Both the Luftwaffe and RAF failed to deliver a knockout blow by destroying enemy morale. However, strategic bombing of military targets could significantly reduce enemy industrial capacity and production.
In the Pacific War, the Japanese bombed Chongqing repeatedly until 1943. The U.S. strategic bombing of the Japanese Empire began in earnest in October 1944. Earlier, small-scale attacks by the U.S. out of China had been hampered by the task of delivering supplies over the Himalayas (known as "The Hump"). Missions out of the Mariana Islands escalated into widespread firebombing, which culminated in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945 respectively, and the Japanese surrender on 15 August. In the opinion of inter-war proponents, the surrender of Japan vindicated strategic bombing.
- 1 Legal considerations
- 2 Europe
- 2.1 Policy at the start of the war
- 2.2 Early war in Europe
- 2.3 Germany later in the war
- 2.4 The British later in the war
- 2.5 US bombing in Europe
- 2.6 Bombing in France
- 2.7 Effectiveness
- 2.8 Effect on morale
- 2.9 Allied bombing statistics 1939–45
- 2.10 Casualties
- 3 Asia
- 4 See also
- 5 References
- 6 External links
The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which address the codes of wartime conduct on land and at sea, were adopted before the rise of air power. Despite repeated diplomatic attempts to update international humanitarian law to include aerial warfare, it was not updated before the outbreak of World War II. The absence of specific international humanitarian law did not mean aerial warfare was not covered under the laws of war, but rather that there was no general agreement of how to interpret those laws. This means that aerial bombardment of civilian areas in enemy territory by all major belligerents during World War II was not prohibited by positive or specific customary international humanitarian law.
Many reasons exist for the absence of international law regarding aerial bombing in World War II. Most nations had refused to ratify such laws or agreements because of the vague or impractical wording in treaties such as the 1923 Hague Rules of Air Warfare. Also, the major powers' possession of newly developed advanced bombers was a great military advantage; they would not accept any negotiated limitations regarding this new weapon. In the absence of specific laws relating to aerial warfare, the belligerents' aerial forces at the start of World War II used the 1907 Hague Convention — signed and ratified by most major powers — as the customary standard to govern their conduct in warfare, and this convention was interpreted by both sides to allow the indiscriminate bombing of enemy cities throughout the war.
If the first badly bombed cities — Warsaw, Rotterdam, Belgrade, and London — suffered at the hands of the Germans and not the Allies, nonetheless the ruins of German and Japanese cities were the results not of reprisal but of deliberate policy, and bore witness that aerial bombardment of cities and factories has become a recognized part of modern warfare as carried out by all nations.
Article 25 of the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions on Land Warfare also did not provide a clear guideline on the extent to which civilians may be spared; the same can be held for naval forces. Consequently, cyclical arguments, such as those advanced by Italian general and air power theorist Giulio Douhet, do not appear to violate any of the Convention's provisions. Due to these reasons, the Allies at the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials never criminalised aerial bombardment of non-military targets and Axis leaders who ordered a similar type of practice were not prosecuted. Chris Jochnick and Roger Normand in their article The Legitimation of Violence 1: A Critical History of the Laws of War explains that: "By leaving out morale bombing and other attacks on civilians unchallenged, the Tribunal conferred legal legitimacy on such practices."
Policy at the start of the war
Before World War II began, advances in aviation had led to a situation where groups of aircraft could devastate cities. This worrying development was compounded by the problem that the new aircraft flew at such altitudes that anti-aircraft guns were largely impotent and such speeds that ground based interceptors would be unlikely to be able to intercede. As British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin warned in 1932, "The bomber will always get through".
When the war began on 1 September 1939, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the neutral United States, issued an appeal to the major belligerents (Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Poland) to confine their air raids to military targets, and "under no circumstances undertake bombardment from the air of civilian populations in unfortified cities" The British and French agreed to abide by the request, with the British reply undertaking to "confine bombardment to strictly military objectives upon the understanding that these same rules of warfare will be scrupulously observed by all their opponents". Germany also agreed to abide by Roosevelt's request and explained the bombing of Warsaw as within the agreement because it was supposedly a fortified city—Germany did not have a policy of targeting enemy civilians as part of their doctrine prior to World War II.
The British Government's policy was formulated on 31 August 1939: if Germany initiated unrestricted air action, the RAF "should attack objectives vital to Germany's war effort, and in particular her oil resources". If the Luftwaffe confined attacks to purely military targets, the RAF should "launch an attack on the German fleet at Wilhelmshaven" and "attack warships at sea when found within range". The government communicated to their French allies the intention "not to initiate air action which might involve the risk of civilian casualties"
While it was acknowledged bombing Germany would cause civilian casualties, the British government renounced deliberate bombing of civilian property, outside combat zones, as a military tactic. The British changed their policy on 15 May 1940, one day after the German bombing of Rotterdam, when the RAF was given permission to attack targets in the Ruhr Area, including oil plants and other civilian industrial targets which aided the German war effort, such as blast furnaces that at night were self-illuminating. The first RAF raid on the interior of Germany took place on the night of 15/16 May 1940 while the Battle of France was still continuing.
Early war in Europe
After the invasion of Poland, the Luftwaffe engaged in massive air raids against most Polish cities, destroying various infrastructure such as hospitals and schools. Civilians and refugees were also attacked. Notably, the Luftwaffe bombed Warsaw, Wieluń, and Frampol. It is believed that the bombing of Frampol was an experiment as it had no targetable industry and no military units were stationed there.
In his book, Eyes on the Sky, Wolfgang Schreyer wrote:
Frampol was chosen as an experimental object, because test bombers, flying at low speed, weren't endangered by AA fire. Also, the centrally placed town hall was an ideal orientation point for the crews. We watched possibility of orientation after visible signs, and also the size of village, what guaranteed that bombs nevertheless fall down on Frampol. From one side it should make easier the note of probe, from second side it should confirm the efficiency of used bombs.
The directives issued to the Luftwaffe for the Polish Campaign were to prevent the Polish Air Force from influencing the ground battles or attacking German territory. In addition, it was to support the advance of German ground forces through direct tactical and indirect air support with attacks against Polish mobilisation centres and thus delay an orderly Polish strategic concentration of forces and to deny mobility for Polish reinforcements through the destruction of strategic Polish rail routes.
Preparations were made for a concentrated attack (Operation Wasserkante) by all bomber forces against targets in Warsaw. However the operation was cancelled-according to Polish professor Tomasz Szarota due to bad weather conditions, while German author Boog claims it was possibly due to Roosevelt's plea to avoid civilian casualties; according to Boog the bombing of military and industrial targets within the Warsaw residential area called Praga was prohibited. Polish reports from the beginning of September note strafing of civilians by German attacks and bombing of cemeteries and marked hospitals (marking of hospitals proved counterproductive as German aircraft began to specifically target them, until hospitals were moved into the open to avoid such targeting), and indiscriminate attacks on fleeing civilians which according to professor Tomasz Szarota was a direct violation of the Hague Convention. Warsaw was first attacked by German ground forces on 9 September and was put under siege on 13 September. German author Boog claims that with the arrival of German ground forces, the situation of Warsaw changed; under the Hague Convention, the city could be legitimately attacked as it was a defended city in the front line that refused calls to surrender.
The bombing of the rail network, crossroads, and troop concentrations played havoc on Polish mobilisation, while attacks upon civilian and military targets in towns and cities disrupted command and control by wrecking the antiquated Polish signal network. Over a period of a few days, Luftwaffe numerical and technological superiority took its toll on the Polish Air Force. Polish Air Force bases across Poland were also subjected to Luftwaffe bombing from 1 September 1939.
On 13 September, following orders of the ObdL to launch an attack on Warsaw's Jewish Quarter, justified as being for unspecified crimes committed against German soldiers but probably in response to a recent defeat by Polish ground troops, and intended as a terror attack, 183 bomber sorties were flown with 50:50 load of high explosive and incendiary bombs, reportedly set the Jewish Quarter ablaze. On 22 September, Wolfram von Richthofen messaged, "Urgently request exploitation of last opportunity for large-scale experiment as devastation terror raid ... Every effort will be made to eradicate Warsaw completely". His request was rejected. However, Hitler issued an order to prevent civilians from leaving the city and to continue with the bombing, which he thought would encourage Polish surrender.
On 14 September, the French Air attaché in Warsaw reported to Paris, "the German Air Force acted in accordance to the international laws of war [...] and bombed only targets of military nature. Therefore, there is no reason for French retorsions." That day – the Jewish New Year – the Germans concentrated again on the Warsaw's Jewish population, bombing the Jewish quarter and targeting synagogues. According to professor Szarota the report was inaccurate-as its author Armengaud didn't knew about the most barbaric bombings like those in Wieluń or Kamieniec, left Poland on 12 September, and was motivated by his personal political goal to avoid French involvement in the war, in addition the report published in 1948 rather than in 1939.
Three days later, Warsaw was surrounded by the Wehrmacht, and hundreds of thousands of leaflets were dropped on the city, instructing citizens to evacuate the city pending a possible bomber attack. On 25 September the Luftwaffe flew 1,150 sorties and dropped 560 tonnes of high explosive and 72 tonnes of incendiaries. (Overall, incendiaries made up only three percent of the total tonnage dropped.)
To conserve the strength of the bomber units for the upcoming western campaign, the modern He 111 bombers were replaced by Ju 52 transports using "worse than primitive methods" for the bombing. Due to prevailing strong winds they achieved poor accuracy, even causing some casualties to besieging German troops.
The only Polish raid against a target in Germany was executed by PZL.23 Karaś light bombers against a factory in Ohlau. The Polish air force left Poland on 18 September 1939 due to the Soviet attack on 17 September 1939, and imminent capture of the Polish airstrips and aircraft stationed in eastern parts of Poland. There was no exception; even Pursuit Brigade, an organic part of the defences of the Polish capitol, Warsaw, was transferred to Lublin, one week into the war.
The Western Front, 1939 to June 1940
In 1939, following the German invasion of Poland, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany and the war in the West began. Britain attempted to bomb German warships and light vessels in several harbours on 3 and 4 September. Eight German Kriegsmarine men were killed at Wilhelmshaven – the war's first casualties to British bombs; attacks on ships at Cuxhaven and Heligoland followed. The 1939 Battle of the Heligoland Bight showed the vulnerability of bombers to fighter attack.
Germany's first strikes were not carried out until the 16 and 17 October 1939, against the British fleet at Rosyth and Scapa Flow. Little activity followed. Meanwhile, attacks by the Royal Air Force dwindled to less than one a month. As the winter set in, both sides engaged in propaganda warfare, dropping leaflets on the populations below. The Phony War continued.
The British government banned attacks on land targets and German warships in port due to the risk of civilian casualties. For the Germans, the earliest directive from the Luftwaffe head Hermann Göring permitted restricted attacks upon warships anywhere, as well as upon troop transports at sea. However, Hitler's OKW Direktive Nr 2 and Luftwaffe Direktive Nr 2, prohibited attacks upon enemy naval forces unless the enemy bombed Germany first, noting, "the guiding principle must be not to provoke the initiation of aerial warfare on the part of Germany."
After the Altmark Incident, the Luftwaffe launched a strike against the British navy yard at Scapa Flow on 16 March 1940, leading to the first British civilian death. A British attack followed against the German airbase at Hörnum on the island of Sylt, hitting a hospital, although there were no casualties. The Germans retaliated with a naval raid.
On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, intending to drive through the Ardennes into France and strike a quick blow that would end the war. This assault initiated the Battle of France. As it began, three German bombers from KG 51 mistakenly bombed the German city of Freiburg instead of the French airfield of Dole-Taveux, having lost their way over the Black Forest. The Germans reported it as an Allied 'terror attack', and not until 1956, when the mistake was brought to light by researchers, was the myth dispelled.
German bombing of France began on the night of 9/10 May. By 11 May, the French reported bombs dropped on Henin-Lietard, Bruay, Lens, La Fere, Loan, Nancy, Colmar, Pontoise, Lambersart, Lyons, Bouai, Hasebrouck, Doullens and Abbeville with at least 40 civilians killed.
On 12 May 1940, the British launched their first attacks on transport targets in the German industrial Ruhr Valley, including Cologne. While Allied light and medium bombers attempted to delay the German invasion by striking at troop columns and bridges, the British War Cabinet gave permission for limited bombing raids against targets such as roads and railways west of the River Rhine. The first British bombs fell on Mönchengladbach on the night of 11/12 May 1940, while Bomber Command was attempting to hit roads and rail near the Dutch-German border; four people were killed. Targets in Gelsenkirchen were attacked first on the 14/15 May.
- Rotterdam Blitz
The Germans used the threat of bombing Rotterdam to try to get the Dutch to come to terms and surrender. After a second ultimatum had been issued by the Germans, it appeared their effort had failed and on 14 May 1940, Luftwaffe bombers were ordered to bomb Rotterdam in an effort to force the capitulation of the besieged city. The controversial bombing targeted the centre of the besieged city, instead of providing direct tactical support for the hard-pressed German 22nd Infantry Division (under Lt. Gen. von Sponeck, which had airlanded on 10 May) in combat with Dutch forces northwest of the city, and in the eastern part of the city at the Meuse river bridge. At the last minute, Holland decided to submit and sent a plenipotentiary and other negotiators across to German lines. There was an attempt to call off the assault, but the bombing mission had already begun. In legal terms, the attack was performed against a defended part of a city vital for the military objectives and in the front-line, and the bombing respected Article 25 to 27 of the Hague Conventions on Land Warfare.
Out of 100 Heinkel He 111s, 57 dropped their ordnance, a combined 97 tons of bombs. In the resulting fire 1.1 square miles (2.8 km2) of the city centre were devastated, including 21 churches and 4 hospitals. The strike killed between 800–1,000 civilians, wounded over 1,000, and made 78,000 homeless. Nearly twenty-five thousand homes, 2,320 stores, 775 warehouses and 62 schools were destroyed.
Whilst German Historian Horst Boog says British propaganda inflated the number of civilian casualties by a factor 30, contemporary newspaper reports show the Dutch legation in Paris initially estimated 100,000 people were killed, the Dutch legation in New York later issued a revised figure of 30,000. International news agencies widely reported these figures, portraying Rotterdam as a city mercilessly destroyed by terror bombing without regard for civilian life, with 30,000 dead lying under the ruins. Neither claim was true. Furthermore, the bombing was against well-defined targets, albeit in the middle of the city, and would have assisted the advancing German Army. The Germans had threatened to bomb Utrecht in the same fashion, and the Netherlands surrendered.
- British response
Following the attack on Rotterdam, RAF Bomber Command was authorized to attack German targets east of the Rhine on 15 May 1940; the Air Ministry authorized Air Marshal Charles Portal to attack targets in the Ruhr, including oil plants and other civilian industrial targets which aided the German war effort, such as blast furnaces (which at night were self-illuminating). The underlying motive for the attacks was to divert German air forces away from the land front. Churchill explained the rationale of his decision to his French counterparts in a letter dated the 16th: "I have examined today with the War Cabinet and all the experts the request which you made to me last night and this morning for further fighter squadrons. We are all agreed that it is better to draw the enemy on to this Island by striking at his vitals, and thus to aid the common cause." Due to the inadequate British bomb-sights the strikes that followed "had the effect of terror raids on towns and villages." On the night of 15/16 May, 96 bombers crossed the Rhine and attacked. 78 had been assigned oil targets, but only 24 claimed to have accomplished their objective. On the night of 17/18 May, RAF Bomber Command bombed oil installations in Hamburg and Bremen; the H.E. and 400 incendiaries dropped caused six large, one moderately large and 29 small fires. As a result of the attack, 47 people were killed and 127 were wounded. Railway yards at Cologne were attacked on the same night. During May, Essen, Duisburg, Düsseldorf and Hanover were attacked in a similar fashion by Bomber Command. In June, attacks were made on Dortmund, Mannheim, Frankfurt and Bochum. At the time, Bomber Command lacked the necessary navigational and bombing technical background and the accuracy of the bombings during the night attacks was abysmal. Consequently, the bombs were usually scattered over a large area, causing an uproar in Germany. Furthermore, on the night of 7/8 June 1940 a single French Navy Farman F.223 bomber attacked Berlin. The attack occurred just days after Germany had bombed Paris.
Despite the British attacks on German cities, the Luftwaffe did not begin to attack military and economic targets in the UK mainland until six weeks after the campaign in France had been concluded.
The Battle of Britain and the Blitz
On 22 June 1940, France signed an armistice with Germany. Britain was determined to keep fighting. On 1/2 July, the British attacked the German warships Scharnhorst and Prinz Eugen in the port of Kiel and the next day, 16 RAF bombers attacked German train facilities in Hamm.
On 10 July, the Battle of Britain began with attack on shipping and fighter skirmishes over the British Channel. The battle began with probing attacks on British coastal shipping, during which Hitler called for the British to accept peace, but the British refused to negotiate.
Still hoping that the British would negotiate for peace, Hitler explicitly prohibited attacks on London and against civilians. Any airmen who, deliberately or unintentionally, violated this order were punished. Hitler's No. 17 Directive, issued 1 August 1940, established the conduct of war against Britain and specifically forbade the Luftwaffe from conducting terror raids. The Führer declared that terror attacks could only be a means of reprisal, as ordered by him. Hitler's instructions were echoed in Hermann Göring's general order, issued on 30 June 1940:
The war against England is to be restricted to destructive attacks against industry and air force targets which have weak defensive forces. ... The most thorough study of the target concerned, that is vital points of the target, is a pre-requisite for success. It is also stressed that every effort should be made to avoid unnecessary loss of life amongst the civilian population.—Hermann Göring
On 8 August 1940, the Germans switched to raids on RAF fighter bases. To reduce losses, the Luftwaffe also began to use increasing numbers of bombers at night. By the last week of August, over half the missions were flown under the cover of dark. On 24 August, fate took a turn, and several off-course German bombers accidentally bombed residential areas of London. The next day, the RAF bombed Berlin for the first time, targeting Tempelhof airfield and the Siemens factories in Siemenstadt. These attacks were seen as indiscriminate bombings by the Germans due to their inaccuracy, and this infuriated Hitler; he ordered that the 'night piracy of the British' be countered by a concentrated night offensive against the island, and especially London. In a public speech in Berlin on 4 September 1940, Hitler announced that:
The other night the English had bombed Berlin. So be it. But this is a game at which two can play. When the British Air Force drops 2000 or 3000 or 4000 kg of bombs, then we will drop 150 000, 180 000, 230 000, 300 000, 400 000 kg on a single night. When they declare they will attack our cities in great measure, we will eradicate their cities. The hour will come when one of us will break – and it will not be National Socialist Germany!—Adolf Hitler
The Luftwaffe, which Hitler had prohibited from bombing civilian areas in the UK, was now ordered to bomb British cities. The Blitz was underway. Göring – at Kesselring's urging and with Hitler's support- turned to a massive assault on the British capital. On 7 September, 318 bombers from the whole KG 53 supported by eight other Kampfgruppen, flew almost continuous sorties against London, the dock area which was already in flames from earlier daylight attacks. The attack of 7 September 1940 did not entirely step over the line into a clear terror bombing effort since its primary target was the London docks, but there was clearly an assumed hope of terrorizing the London population. Hitler himself hoped that the bombing of London would terrorize the population into submission. He stated that "If eight million [Londoners] go mad, it might very well turn into a catastrophe!". After that he believed "even a small invasion might go a long way". Another 250 bomber sorties were flown in the night. By the morning of the 8 September 430 Londoners had been killed. The Luftwaffe issued a press notice announcing they had dropped more than 1,000,000 kilograms of bombs on London in 24 hours. Many other British cities were hit in the nine-month Blitz, including Birmingham, Liverpool, Southampton, Manchester, Bristol, Belfast, Cardiff, Clydebank, Kingston upon Hull and Coventry. Sir Basil Collier, author of 'The Defence of the United Kingdom', the HMSO's official history, wrote:
Although the plan adopted by the Luftwaffe early September had mentioned attacks on the population of large cities, detailed records of the raids made during the autumn and the winter of 1940–41 does not suggest that indiscriminate bombing of the civilians was intended. The points of aim selected were largely factories and docks. Other objectives specifically allotted to bomber-crews included the City of London and the governmental quarter rounds Whitehall.
In addition to the conclusions of Sir Basil Collier to that effect there are also for example the 1949 memoirs of General Henry H. Arnold who had been in London 1941 and support Colliers estimate, and Harris noted in 1947 that the Germans had failed to take the opportunity to destroy English cities by concentrated incendiary bombing.
As the war continued, an escalating war of electronic technology developed. To counter German radio navigation aids, which helped their navigators find targets in the dark and through cloud cover, the British raced to work out the problems with countermeasures (most notably airborne radar, as well as highly effective deceptive beacons and jammers).
Despite causing a great deal of damage and disrupting the daily lives of the civilian population, the bombing of Britain failed to have an impact. British air defenses became more formidable, and attacks tapered off as Germany abandoned its efforts against Britain and focused more on the Soviet Union.
Operation Abigail Rachel was the bombing of Mannheim the "first deliberate terror raid" on Germany on 16 December. The British had been waiting for the opportunity to experiment with such a raid aimed at creating a maximum of destruction in a selected town since the summer 1940, and the opportunity was given after the German raid on Coventry. Internally it was declared to be a reprisal for Coventry and Southampton. The new bombing policy was officially ordered by Churchill at the start of December and the operation on condition it receive no publicity and be considered an experiment. Target marking missed the city centre and most bombs missed the city centre. This led to the development of the bomber stream. Despite the lack of decisive success of this raid, approval was granted for further Abigails.
This was the start of a British drift away from precision attacks on military targets and towards area bombing attacks on whole cities.
Germany later in the war
Due to the pre-war death of Generalleutnant Walther Wever in 1936, the primary proponent of a strategic bombing capability for Hitler's new air force, virtually nothing serious had been done with building any sort of truly-"four-engined" heavy bomber as the Allies possessed before the war began. The only "heavy bomber" design that would see service with the Luftwaffe in World War II – the trouble-prone Heinkel He 177A – had also been mistakenly meant by the RLM to have a medium angle "dive bombing" capability from the design's start in November 1937, something which Ernst Heinkel and Erhard Milch had vehemently disagreed with. The He 177A went into service in April 1942, despite an ongoing series of engine fires in the prototype series of aircraft, and the small batch of A-0 series production prototypes leading up to that timeframe – a serious-enough defeciency to lead Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring to decry the He 177A's pair of Daimler-Benz DB 606 powerplants to be nothing more than fire-prone, cumbersome "welded-together engines" in August of that year.
As the He 177As entered service in April 1942, following a destructive RAF attack on the Hanseatic medieval city of Lübeck, Adolf Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe to retaliate, leading to the so-called Baedeker Blitz:
The Führer has ordered that the air war against England be given a more aggressive stamp. Accordingly, when targets are being selected, preference is to be given to those where attacks are likely to have the greatest possible effect on civilian life. Besides raids on ports and industry, terror attacks of retaliatory nature are to be carried out against towns other than London. Minelaying is to be scaled down in favour of these attacks.
In January 1944, a beleaguered Germany tried to strike a blow to British morale with terror bombing with Operation Steinbock. At this stage of the war, Germany was critically short of heavy and medium bombers, with the added obstacles of a highly effective and sophisticated British air-defence system, and the increasing vulnerability of airfields in occupied Western Europe to Allied air attack making the effectiveness of German retaliation more doubtful.
However, German scientists had invented vengeance weapons – V-1 flying bombs and V-2 ballistic missiles – and these were used to launch an aerial assault on London and other cities in southern England from continental Europe. The campaign was much less destructive than the Blitz, so the British called it 'the Baby Blitz'. As the Allies advanced across France and towards Germany from the West, Paris, Liège, Lille and Antwerp also became targets.
The British and US directed part of the strategic bombing to the eradication of "wonder weapon" threats in what was later known as Operation Crossbow. The development of the V2 was hit preemptively in the British Peenemünde Raid (Operation Hydra) of August 1943.
British historian Frederick Taylor asserts that "all sides bombed each other's cities during the war. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids."
|This section requires expansion. (April 2009)|
The British later in the war
The purpose of the area bombardment of cities was laid out in a British Air Staff paper, dated 23 September 1941:
The ultimate aim of an attack on a town area is to break the morale of the population which occupies it. To ensure this, we must achieve two things: first, we must make the town physically uninhabitable and, secondly, we must make the people conscious of constant personal danger. The immediate aim, is therefore, twofold, namely, to produce (i) destruction and (ii) fear of death.
During the first few months of the area bombing campaign, an internal debate within the British government about the most effective use of the nation's limited resources in waging war on Germany continued. Should the Royal Air Force (RAF) be scaled back to allow more resources to go to the British Army and Royal Navy or should the strategic bombing option be followed and expanded? An influential paper was presented to support the bombing campaign by Professor Frederick Lindemann, the British government's leading scientific adviser, justifying the use of area bombing to "dehouse" the German workforce as the most effective way of reducing their morale and affecting enemy war production.
Mr. Justice Singleton, a High Court Judge, was asked by Cabinet to look into the competing points of view. In his report, delivered on 20 May 1942, he concluded:
If Russia can hold Germany on land I doubt whether Germany will stand 12 or 18 months’ continuous, intensified and increased bombing, affecting, as it must, her war production, her power of resistance, her industries and her will to resist (by which I mean morale).
In the end, thanks in part to the dehousing paper, it was this view which prevailed and Bomber Command would remain an important component of the British war effort up to the end of World War II. A very large proportion of the industrial production of the United Kingdom was harnessed to the task of creating a vast fleet of heavy bombers—so much so other vital areas of war production were under-resourced. Until 1944, the effect on German production was remarkably small and raised doubts whether it was wise to divert so much effort—the response being there was nowhere else the effort could have been applied, as readily, to greater effect.
Lindemann was liked and trusted by Winston Churchill, who appointed him the British government's leading scientific adviser with a seat in the Cabinet. In 1942, Lindemann presented the "dehousing paper" to the Cabinet showing the effect that intensive bombing of German cities could produce. It was accepted by the Cabinet, and Air Marshal Harris was appointed to carry out the task. It became an important part of the total war waged against Germany. Professor Lindemann's paper put forward the theory of attacking major industrial centres in order to deliberately destroy as many homes and houses as possible. Working-class homes were to be targeted because they had a higher density and fire storms were more likely. This would displace the German workforce and reduce their ability to work. His calculations (which were questioned at the time, in particular by Professor P. M. S. Blackett of the Admiralty operations research department, expressly refuting Lindemann's conclusions) showed the RAF's Bomber Command would be able to destroy the majority of German houses located in cities quite quickly. The plan was highly controversial even before it started, but the Cabinet thought that bombing was the only option available to directly attack Germany (as a major invasion of the continent was almost two years away), and the Soviets were demanding that the Western Allies do something to relieve the pressure on the Eastern Front. Few in Britain opposed this policy, but there were three notable opponents in Parliament, Bishop George Bell and the Labour MPs Richard Stokes and Alfred Salter. No effort to examine the effects of bombing was ever made.
On 14 February 1942, the Area bombing directive was issued to Bomber Command. Bombing was to be "focused on the morale of the enemy civil population and in particular of the industrial workers." Though it was never explicitly declared, this was the nearest that the British got to a declaration of unrestricted aerial bombing – Directive 22 said "You are accordingly authorised to use your forces without restriction", and then listing a series of primary targets which included Essen, Duisburg, Düsseldorf, and Cologne. Secondary targets included Braunschweig, Lübeck, Rostock, Bremen, Kiel, Hanover, Frankfurt, Mannheim, Stuttgart, and Schweinfurt. The directive stated that "operations should now be focused on the morale of the enemy civilian population, and in particular, the industrial workers". Lest there be any confusion, Sir Charles Portal wrote to Air Chief Marshal Norman Bottomley on 15 February "...I suppose it is clear that the aiming points will be the built-up areas, and not, for instance, the dockyards or aircraft factories". Factories were no longer targets.
The first true practical demonstrations were on the night of 28 to 29 March 1942, when 234 aircraft bombed the ancient Hanseatic port of Lübeck. This target was chosen not because it was a significant military target, but because it was expected to be particularly susceptible – in Harris's words it was "built more like a fire lighter than a city". The ancient timber structures burned well, and the raid destroyed most of the city's centre. A few days later, Rostock suffered the same fate.
At this stage of the air war, the most effective and disruptive examples of area bombing were the "thousand-bomber raids". Bomber Command was able by organization and drafting in as many aircraft as possible to assemble very large forces which could then attack a single area, overwhelming the defences. The aircraft would be staggered so that they would arrive over the target in succession: the new technique of the "bomber stream".
On 30 May 1942, between 0047 and 0225 hours, in Operation Millennium 1,046 bombers dropped over 2,000 tons of high explosive and incendiaries on the medieval town of Cologne, and the resulting fires burned it from end to end. The damage inflicted was extensive. The fires could be seen 600 miles away at an altitude of 20,000 feet. Some 3,300 houses were destroyed, and 10,000 were damaged. 12,000 separate fires raged destroying 36 factories, damaging 270 more, and leaving 45,000 people with nowhere to live or to work. Only 384 civilians and 85 soldiers were killed, but thousands evacuated the city. Bomber Command lost 40 bombers.
Two further thousand-bomber raids were conducted over Essen and Bremen, but neither so utterly shook both sides as the scale of the destruction at Cologne and Hamburg. The effects of the massive raids using a combination of blockbuster bombs (to blow off roofs) and incendiaries (to start fires in the exposed buildings) created firestorms in some cities. The most extreme examples of which were caused by Operation Gomorrah, the attack on Hamburg, (45,000 dead), attack on Kassel (10,000 dead), the attack on Darmstadt (12,500 dead), the attack on Pforzheim (21,200 dead), the attack on Swinemuende (23,000 dead) and the attack on Dresden (35,000 dead).
The effects of strategic bombing were very poorly understood at the time and grossly overrated. Particularly in the first two years of the campaign, few understood just how little damage was caused and how rapidly the Germans were able to replace lost production—despite the obvious lessons to be learned from the United Kingdom's own survival of the blitz. These problems were dealt with in two ways: first the precision targeting of vital facilities (ball-bearing production in particular) was abandoned in favour of "area bombing"—This change of policy was agreed by the Cabinet in 1941 and in early 1942 a new directive was issued and Air Marshal Arthur Harris (commonly known as "Bomber" Harris) was appointed to carry out the task—second as the campaign developed, improvements in the accuracy of the RAF raids were joined by better crew training, electronic aids, and new tactics such as the creation of a "pathfinder" force to mark targets for the main force, which was done over Harris' objections.
According to economic historian Adam Tooze, in his book The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy, a turning point in the bomber offensive was reached in March 1943, during the Battle of the Ruhr. Over five months 34,000 tons of bombs were dropped. Following the raids, steel production fell by 200,000 tons, making a shortfall of 400,000 tons. Speer acknowledged that the RAF were hitting the right targets, and raids severely disrupted his plans to increase production to meet increasing attritional needs. Between July 1943 and March 1944 there were no further increases in the output of aircraft.
The bombing of Hamburg in 1943 also produced impressive results. Tiger tank production, and the manufacture of 88mm guns, the most potent dual-purpose artillery piece in the Wehrmacht was "set back for months". On top of this, some 62 percent of the population was dehoused causing more difficulties. However, RAF Bomber Command allowed itself to be distracted by Harris' desire for a war winning blow, and attempted the fruitless missions to destroy Berlin and end the war by spring, 1944.
In October 1943, Harris urged the government to be honest with the public regarding the purpose of the bombing campaign. To Harris, his complete success at Hamburg confirmed the validity and necessity of his methods, and he urged that:
the aim of the Combined Bomber Offensive...should be unambiguously stated [as] the destruction of German cities, the killing of German workers, and the disruption of civilized life throughout Germany.
... the destruction of houses, public utilities, transport and lives, the creation of a refugee problem on an unprecedented scale, and the breakdown of morale both at home and at the battle fronts by fear of extended and intensified bombing, are accepted and intended aims of our bombing policy. They are not by-products of attempts to hit factories.
By contrast, the United States Strategic Bombing Survey found attacks on waterways, beginning 23 September with strikes against the Dortmund-Ems Canal and Mittelland Canal, produced tremendous traffic problems on the Rhine River. It had immediate impacts on shipments of goods, and especially coal deliveries, upon which Germany's economy depended; with no more additional effort, by February 1945, rail transport (which competed for coal) had seen its shipments cut by more than half, and by March, "except in limited areas, the coal supply had been eliminated."
Other British efforts
Operation Chastise, better known as the Dambusters raid, was an attempt to damage German industrial production by crippling its hydro-electric power and transport in the Ruhr area. Operation Hydra of August 1943 sought to destroy German work on long-range rockets but only delayed it by a few months. Subsequent efforts were directed against V-weapon launch sites in France.
US bombing in Europe
In mid 1942, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) arrived in the UK and carried out a few raids across the English Channel. The USAAF Eighth Air Force's B-17 bombers were called the "Flying Fortresses" because of their heavy defensive armament of ten to twelve machine guns, and armor plating in vital locations. In part because of their heavier armament and armor, they carried smaller bomb loads than British bombers. With all of this, the USAAF's commanders in Washington, DC, and in Great Britain adopted the strategy of taking on the Luftwaffe head on, in larger and larger air raids by mutually defending bombers, flying over Germany, Austria, and France at high altitudes during the daytime. Also, both the U.S. Government and its Army Air Forces commanders were reluctant to bomb enemy cities and towns indiscriminately. They claimed that by using the B-17 and the Norden bombsight, the USAAF should be able to carry out "precision bombing" on locations vital to the German war machine: factories, naval bases, shipyards, railroad yards, railroad junctions, power plants, steel mills, airfields, etc.
In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, it was agreed RAF Bomber Command operations against Germany would be reinforced by the USAAF in a Combined Operations Offensive plan called Operation Pointblank. Chief of the British Air Staff MRAF Sir Charles Portal was put in charge of the "strategic direction" of both British and American bomber operations. The text of the Casablanca directive read: "Your primary object will be the progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial, and economic system and the undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where their capacity for armed resistance is fatally weakened.", At the beginning of the combined strategic bombing offensive on 4 March 1943, 669 RAF and 303 USAAF heavy bombers were available.
In the late 1943, the 'Pointblank' attacks manifested themselves in the infamous Schweinfurt raids (first and second). Formations of unescorted bombers were no match for German fighters, which inflicted a deadly toll. In despair, the Eighth halted air operations over Germany until a long-range fighter could be found in 1944; it proved to be the P-51 Mustang, which had the range to fly to Berlin and back.
USAAF leaders firmly held to the claim of "precision bombing" of military targets for much of the war, and dismissed claims they were simply bombing cities. However the American Eighth Air Force received the first H2X radar sets in December 1943. Within two weeks of the arrival of these first six sets, the Eighth command gave permission for them to area bomb a city using H2X and would continue to authorize, on average, about one such attack a week until the end of the war in Europe.
In reality, the day bombing was "precision bombing" only in the sense that most bombs fell somewhere near a specific designated target such as a railway yard. Conventionally, the air forces designated as "the target area" a circle having a radius of 1000 feet around the aiming point of attack. While accuracy improved during the war, Survey studies show that, in the over-all, only about 20% of the bombs aimed at precision targets fell within this target area. In the fall of 1944, only seven percent of all bombs dropped by the Eighth Air Force hit within 1,000 feet of their aim point.
Nevertheless, the sheer tonnage of explosive delivered by day and by night was eventually sufficient to cause widespread damage, and, more importantly from a military point of view, forced Germany to divert resources to counter it. This was to be the real significance of the Allied strategic bombing campaign—resource allocation.
For the sake of improving the USAAF firebombing capabilities, a mock-up German Village was built up and repeatedly burned down. It contained full scale replicas of German residential homes. Firebombing attacks proved quite successful, in a single 1943 attack on Hamburg, roughly 50,000 civilians were killed and practically the entire city destroyed.
With the arrival of the brand-new Fifteenth Air Force based in Italy, command of the U.S. Air Forces in Europe was consolidated into the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF). With the addition of the Mustang to its strength, the Combined Bomber Offensive was resumed. Planners targeted the Luftwaffe in an operation known as 'Big Week' (20–25 February 1944) and succeeded brilliantly – losses were so heavy German planners were forced into a hasty dispersal of industry and the day fighter arm never fully recovered.
On 27 March 1944, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued orders granting control of all the Allied air forces in Europe, including strategic bombers, to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, who delegated command to his deputy in SHAEF Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder. There was resistance to this order from some senior figures, including Winston Churchill, Harris, and Carl Spaatz, but after some debate, control passed to SHAEF on 1 April 1944. When the Combined Bomber Offensive officially ended on 1 April, Allied airmen were well on the way to achieving air superiority over all of Europe. While they continued some strategic bombing, the USAAF along with the RAF turned their attention to the tactical air battle in support of the Normandy Invasion. It was not until the middle of September that the strategic bombing campaign of Germany again became the priority for the USSTAF.
The twin campaigns—the USAAF by day, the RAF by night—built up into massive bombing of German industrial areas, notably the Ruhr, followed by attacks directly on cities such as Hamburg, Kassel, Pforzheim, Mainz and the often-criticized bombing of Dresden.
Bombing in France
German-occupied France contained a number of important targets that attracted the attention of the British, and later American bombing. In 1940, RAF Bomber Command launched attacks against German preparations for Operation Sealion, the proposed invasion of England, attacking Channel Ports in France and Belgium and sinking large numbers of barges that had been collected by the Germans for use in the invasion. France's Atlantic ports were important bases for both German surface ships and submarines, while French industry was an important contributor to the German war effort.
Before 1944, the Allies bombed targets in France that were part of the German war industry. This included raids such as those on the Renault factory in Boulogne-Billancourt in March 1942 or the port facilities of Nantes in September 1943 (which killed 1,500 civilians). In preparation of Allied landings in Normandy and those in the south of France, French infrastructure (mainly rail transport) was intensively targeted by RAF and USAAF in May and June 1944. Despite intelligence provided by the French Resistance, many residential areas were hit in error or lack of accuracy. This included cities like Marseille (2,000 dead), Lyon (1,000 dead), Saint-Etienne, Rouen, Orléans, Grenoble, Nice, Paris surrounds, and so on. The Free French Air Force, operational since 1941, used to opt for the more risky skimming tactic when operating in national territory, to avoid civilian casualties. In 5 January 1945, British bombers struck the "Atlantic pocket" of Royan and destroyed 85% of this city. A later raid, using napalm was carried out before it was freed from Nazi occupation in April. Of the 3,000 civilians left in the city, 442 died.
French civilian casualties due to Allied strategic bombing are estimated at about half of the 67,000 French civilian dead during Allied operations in 1942–1945; the other part being mostly killed during tactical bombing in the Normandy campaign. 22% of the bombs dropped in Europe by British and American air forces between 1940 and 1945 were in France. The port city of Le Havre has been destroyed by 132 bombings during the war (5,000 dead) until September 1944. It has been rebuilt by architect Auguste Perret and is now a World Heritage Site.
Strategic bombing has been criticized on practical grounds because it does not always work predictably. The radical changes it forces on a targeted population can backfire, including the counterproductive result of freeing inessential labourers to fill worker shortages in war industries.
Much of the doubt about the effectiveness of the bomber war comes from the oft-stated fact German industrial production increased throughout the war. Until late in the war, industry had not been geared for war and German factories only worked a single shift. Simply by going to three shifts, production could have been tripled with no change to the infrastructure. However, attacks on the infrastructure were taking place. The attacks on Germany's canals and railroads made transportation of materiel difficult.
The attack on oil production, oil refineries, and tank farms was, however, extremely successful and made a very large contribution to the general collapse of Germany in 1945. In the event, the bombing of oil facilities became Albert Speer's main concern; however, this occurred sufficiently late in the war that Germany would soon be defeated in any case. Nevertheless, it is fair to say the oil bombing campaign materially shortened the war, thereby saving many lives.
German insiders credit the Allied bombing offensive with crippling the German war industry. Speer repeatedly said (both during and after the war) it caused crucial production problems. Admiral Karl Dönitz, head of the U-boat fleet (U-waffe), noted in his memoirs failure to get the revolutionary Type XXI U-boats (which could have completely altered the balance of power in the Battle of the Atlantic) into service was entirely the result of the bombing. The United States Strategic Bombing Survey (Europe), says, despite bombing becoming a major effort, between December 1942 and June 1943, "The attack on the construction yards and slipways was not heavy enough to be more than troublesome" and the delays in delivery of Type XXIs and XXIIIs up until November 1944 "cannot be attributed to the air attack", but adds, "The attacks during the late winter and early spring of 1945 did close, or all but close, five of the major yards, including the great Blohm and Voss plant at Hamburg".
Effect on morale
Although designed to "break the enemy's will", the opposite often happened. The British did not crumble under the German Blitz and other air raids early in the war. British workers continued to work throughout the war and food and other basic supplies were available throughout.
The impact of bombing on German morale was significant according to Professor John Buckley. Around a third of the urban population under threat of bombing had no protection at all. Some of the major cities saw 55–60 percent of dwellings destroyed. Mass evacuations were a partial answer for six million civilians, but this had a severe impact on morale as German families were split up to live in difficult conditions. By 1944 absenteeism rates of 20–25 percent were not unusual and in post-war analysis 91 percent of civilians stated bombing was the most difficult hardship to endure and was the key factor in the collapse of their own morale. The United States Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that the bombing was not stiffening morale but seriously depressing it; fatalism, apathy, defeatism were apparent in bombed areas. The Luftwaffe was blamed for not warding off the attacks and confidence in the Nazi regime fell by 14 percent. Some 75 percent of Germans believed the war was lost in the spring of 1944, owing to the intensity of the bombing.
Buckley argues the German war economy did indeed expand significantly following Albert Speer’s appointment as Reichsminister of Armaments, "but it is spurious to argue that because production increased then bombing had no real impact". But the bombing offensive did do serious damage to German production levels. German tank and aircraft production, though reached new records in production levels in 1944, was in particular one-third lower than planned. In fact, German aircraft production for 1945 was planned at 80,000, "which gives an idea of direction Erhard Milch and the German planners were pushing", "unhindered by Allied bombing German production would have risen far higher".
Journalist Max Hastings and the authors of the official history of the bomber offensive, Noble Frankland among them, has argued bombing had a limited effect on morale. In the words of the British Bombing Survey Unit (BBSU): "The essential premise behind the policy of treating towns as unit targets for area attack, namely that the German economic system was fully extended, was false." This, the BBSU noted, was because official estimates of German war production were "more than 100 percent in excess of the true figures". The BBSU concluded: "Far from there being any evidence of a cumulative effect on (German) war production, it is evident that, as the (bombing) offensive progressed ... the effect on war production became progressively smaller (and) did not reach significant dimensions."
Allied bombing statistics 1939–45
After the war, the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey reviewed the available casualty records in Germany, and concluded that official German statistics of casualties from air attack had been too low. The survey estimated that at a minimum 305,000 were killed in German cities due to bombing and estimated a minimum of 780,000 wounded. Roughly 7,500,000 German civilians were also rendered homeless. (see Dehousing).
In addition to the minimum figure given in the Strategic bombing survey, the number of people killed by Allied bombing in Germany has been estimated at between 400,000 and 600,000. In the UK, 60,595 British were killed by German bombing, and in France, 67,078 French were killed by US-UK bombing.
Belgrade was heavily bombed by the Luftwaffe on 6 April 1941, when more than 17,000 people were killed. According to The Oxford companion to World War II, "After Italy's surrender the Allies kept up the bombing of the northern part occupied by the Germans and more than 50,000 Italians were killed in these raids."
Within Asia, the majority of strategic bombing was carried out by the Japanese and the US. The British Commonwealth planned that once the war in Europe was complete, a strategic bombing force of up to 1,000 heavy bombers ("Tiger Force") would be sent to the Far East. This was never realised before the end of the Pacific War.
Japanese strategic bombing was independently conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service and the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service. Bombing efforts mostly targeted large Chinese cities such as Shanghai, Wuhan, and Chongqing, with around 5,000 raids from February 1938 to August 1943 in the later case.
The bombing of Nanjing and Canton, which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, expressed his indignation in his own declaration.
Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians...—Lord Cranborne
There were also air raids on Philippines and northern Australia (Bombing of Darwin, 19 February 1942). The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service used tactical bombing against enemy airfields and military positions, as at the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Imperial Japanese Army Air Service also attacked enemy ships and military installations.
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United States bombing of Japan
The United States strategic bombing of Japan took place between 1942 and 1945. In the last seven months of the campaign, a change to firebombing resulted in great destruction of 67 Japanese cities, as many as 500,000 Japanese deaths and some 5 million more made homeless. Emperor Hirohito's viewing of the destroyed areas of Tokyo in March 1945 is said to have been the beginning of his personal involvement in the peace process, culminating in Japan's surrender five months later.
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The first U.S. raid on the Japanese main island was the Doolittle Raid of 18 April 1942 when sixteen B-25 Mitchells were launched from the USS Hornet (CV-8) to attack targets including Yokohama and Tokyo and then fly on to airfields in China. The raids were military pin-pricks, but a significant propaganda victory. Launched prematurely, none of the attacking aircraft reached the designated post mission airfields, either crashing or ditching (except for one aircraft, which landed in the Soviet Union, where the crew was interned). Two crews were captured by the Japanese.
The key development for the bombing of Japan was the B-29 Superfortress, which had an operational range of 1,500 miles (2,400 km); almost 90% of the bombs dropped on the home islands of Japan were delivered by this type of bomber (147,000 tons). The first raid by B-29s on Japan from China was on 15 June 1944. The B-29s took off from Chengdu, over 1,500 miles away. This first raid was also not particularly damaging to Japan. Only forty-seven of the sixty-eight bombers that took off hit the target area; four aborted with mechanical problems, four crashed, six jettisoned their bombs because of mechanical difficulties, and others bombed secondary targets or targets of opportunity. Only one B–29 was lost to enemy aircraft. The first raid from the east was on 24 November 1944 when 88 aircraft bombed Tokyo. The bombs were dropped from around 30,000 feet (10,000 m) and it is estimated that only around 10% of the bombs hit designated targets.
The initial raids were carried out by the Twentieth Air Force operating out of mainland China in Operation Matterhorn under XX Bomber Command. Initially the Twentieth Air Force was under the command of Hap Arnold, and later Curtis LeMay. This was never a satisfactory arrangement because not only were the Chinese airbases difficult to supply—materiel being sent by air from India over "the Hump"—but the B-29s operating from them could only reach Japan if they traded some of their bomb load for extra fuel in tanks in the bomb-bays. When Admiral Chester Nimitz's island-hopping campaign captured islands close enough to Japan to be within the range of B-29s, the Twentieth Air Force was assigned to XXI Bomber Command which organized a much more effective bombing campaign of the Japanese home islands. Based in the Marianas (Guam and Tinian in particular) the B-29s were now able to carry their full bomb loads and were supplied by cargo ships and tankers.
Unlike all other forces in theater, the USAAF Bomber Commands did not report to the commanders of the theaters but directly to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In July 1945, they were placed under the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific which was commanded by General Carl Spaatz.
As in Europe, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) tried daylight precision bombing. However, it proved to be impossible due to the weather around Japan, "during the best month for bombing in Japan, visual bombing was possible for [just] seven days. The worst had only one good day." Further, bombs dropped from a great height were tossed about by high winds.
General LeMay, commander of XXI Bomber Command, instead switched to mass firebombing night attacks from altitudes of around 7,000 feet (2,100 m) on the major conurbations. "He looked up the size of the large Japanese cities in the World Almanac and picked his targets accordingly." Priority targets were Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, and Kobe. Despite limited early success, particularly against Nagoya, LeMay was determined to use such bombing tactics against the vulnerable Japanese cities. Attacks on strategic targets also continued in lower-level daylight raids.
The first successful firebombing raid was on Kobe on 3 February 1945, and following its relative success the USAAF continued the tactic. Nearly half of the principal factories of the city were damaged, and production was reduced by more than half at one of the port's two shipyards.
Much of the armor and defensive weaponry of the bombers was removed to allow increased bomb loads; Japanese air defense in terms of night-fighters and anti-aircraft guns was so feeble it was hardly a risk. The first raid of this type on Tokyo was on the night of 23–24 February when 174 B-29s destroyed around one square mile (3 km²) of the city. Following on that success, as Operation Meetinghouse, 334 B-29s raided on the night of 9–10 March, dropping around 1,700 tons of bombs. Around 16 square miles (41 km²) of the city was destroyed and over 100,000 people are estimated to have died in the fire storm. The destruction and damage was at its worst in the city sections east of the Imperial Palace. It was the most destructive conventional raid, and the deadliest single bombing raid of any kind in terms of lives lost, in all of military aviation history. The city was made primarily of wood and paper, and Japanese firefighting methods were not up to the challenge. The fires burned out of control, boiling canal water and causing entire blocks of buildings to spontaneously combust from the heat. The effects of the Tokyo firebombing proved the fears expressed by Admiral Yamamoto in 1939: "Japanese cities, being made of wood and paper, would burn very easily. The Army talks big, but if war came and there were large-scale air raids, there's no telling what would happen."
In the following two weeks, there were almost 1,600 further sorties against the four cities, destroying 31 square miles (80 km²) in total at a cost of 22 aircraft. By June, over forty percent of the urban area of Japan's largest six cities (Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe, Osaka, Yokohama, and Kawasaki) was devastated. LeMay's fleet of nearly 600 bombers destroyed tens of smaller cities and manufacturing centres in the following weeks and months.
Leaflets were dropped over cities before they were bombed, warning the inhabitants and urging them to escape the city. Though many, even within the Air Force, viewed this as a form of psychological warfare, a significant element in the decision to produce and drop them was the desire to assuage American anxieties about the extent of the destruction created by this new war tactic. Warning leaflets were also dropped on cities not in fact targeted, to create uncertainty and absenteeism.
A year after the war, the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey (Pacific War) reported they had underestimated the power of strategic bombing combined with naval blockade and previous military defeats to bring Japan to unconditional surrender without invasion. By July 1945, only a fraction of the planned strategic bombing force had been deployed yet there were few targets left worth the effort. In hindsight, it would have been more effective to use land-based and carrier-based air power to strike merchant shipping and begin aerial mining at a much earlier date so as to link up with effective submarine anti-shipping campaign and completely isolate the island nation. This would have accelerated the strangulation of Japan and ended the war sooner. A postwar Naval Ordnance Laboratory survey agreed, finding naval mines dropped by B-29s had accounted for 60% of all Japanese shipping losses in the last six months of the war. In October 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe said the sinking of Japanese vessels by U.S. aircraft combined with the B-29 aerial mining campaign were just as effective as B-29 attacks on industry alone, though he admitted, "the thing that brought about the determination to make peace was the prolonged bombing by the B-29s." Prime Minister Baron Kantarō Suzuki reported to U.S. military authorities it "seemed to me unavoidable that in the long run Japan would be almost destroyed by air attack so that merely on the basis of the B-29s alone I was convinced that Japan should sue for peace."
On 6 August 1945, the "Little Boy" enriched uranium nuclear bomb was dropped on the city of Hiroshima, followed on 9 August by the detonation of the "Fat Man" plutonium core nuclear bomb over Nagasaki. To date, these are the only uses of nuclear weapons in warfare.
The physical destruction in Hiroshima amounted to 90% of the area, and in Nagasaki 45%. By the end of 1945, as many as 140,000 people in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki were dead from the attacks, roughly half of the residential populations on the days of the bombings. Thousands more have been subsequently killed from injuries or the combined effects of flash burns, trauma, and radiation burns, compounded by illness, malnutrition and radiation sickness. Since then more have died from leukemia and solid cancers attributed to exposure to radiation released by the bombs. In both cities, the overwhelming majority of the dead were civilians.
On 15 August 1945, Japan announced its surrender to the Allied Powers, signing the Instrument of Surrender on 2 September which officially ended World War II. Furthermore, the experience of bombing led post-war Japan to adopt Three Non-Nuclear Principles, which forbade Japan from nuclear armament.
- Defense of the Reich, the strategic defensive aerial campaign fought by the German Luftwaffe over Germany and German occupied Europe.
- Strategic bombing civilian casualties
- Emergency Fighter Program
- Duga, James; Stewart, Carroll (2002). Ploesti. Brassey's. ISBN 978-1-57488-510-1. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
- White, Matthew. Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls: United Kingdom. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
- 60,000, John Keegan The Second World War (1989); "bombing"
- 60,000: Boris Urlanis, Wars and Population (1971)
- 60,595: Harper Collins Atlas of the Second World War
- 60,600: John Ellis, World War II: a statistical survey (Facts on File, 1993) "killed and missing"
- 92,673, (incl. 30,248 merchant mariners and 60,595 killed by bombing): Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, 1992 printing. "Killed, died of wounds, or in prison .... exclud[ing] those who died of natural causes or were suicides."
- 92,673: Norman Davies,Europe A History (1998) same as Britannica's war dead in most cases
- 92,673: Michael Clodfelter Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991;
- 100,000: William Eckhardt, a three-page table of his war statistics printed in World Military and Social Expenditures 1987–88 (12th ed., 1987) by Ruth Leger Sivard. "Deaths", including "massacres, political violence, and famines associated with the conflicts."
- Crook, Paul (2003.). "Chapter 10 "The case against Area Bombing"". In Peter Hore. Patrick Blackett: Sailor, Scientist, and Socialist. Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 0-7146-5317-9.
- André Corvisier (1994). A Dictionary of Military History and the Art of War, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-16848-6. "Germany, air battle (1942–45)" by P. Facon and Stephen J. Harris p. 312
- Charles Hawley. "Dresden Bombing Is To Be Regretted Enormously", Der Spiegel online, 11 February 2005
- Olivier Wieviorka, "Normandy: the landings to the liberation of Paris" p.131
- Jennifer M. Lind (2010). "Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics". Cornell University Press. p.28. ISBN 0-8014-7628-3
- German Deaths by aerial bombardment (It is not clear if these totals includes Austrians, of whom about 24,000 were killed (see Austrian Press & Information Service, Washington, D.C) and other territories in the Third Reich but not in modern Germany)
- 600,000 about 80,000 were children in Hamburg, Juli 1943 in Der Spiegel SPIEGEL ONLINE 2003 (in German)
- Matthew White Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls lists the following totals and sources:
- more than 305,000: (1945 Strategic Bombing Survey);
- 400,000: Hammond Atlas of the 20th century (1996)
- 410,000: R. J. Rummel, 100% democidal;
- 499,750: Michael Clodfelter Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991;
- 593,000: John Keegan The Second World War (1989);
- 593,000: J. A. S. Grenville citing "official Germany" in A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1994)
- 600,000: Paul Johnson Modern Times (1983)
- Matthew White Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls: Allies bombing of Japan lists the following totals and sources
- Ian Dear, Michael Richard Daniell Foot (2001). The Oxford companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. p.837. ISBN 0-19-860446-7
- Tami Davis Biddle, "British and American Approaches to Strategic Bombing: Their Origins and Implementation in the World War II Combined Bomber Offensive," Journal of Strategic Studies (1995) 18#1 pp 91-144
- R.J. Overy, The Air War. 1939-1945 (1980) pp. 8-14
- Levine 1992, p. 21
- Richards, Denis (1953). Royal Air Force 1939–1945. HMSO. pp. 38–40. Retrieved 16 April 2009.
- Murray 1983, p. 52.
- Hastings 1979
- Garrett 1993[page needed]
- Boog 2001, p. 408.
- Buckley 1998, p. 165.
- Murray 1983, p. 253.
- Pimlott, John. B-29 Superfortress (London: Arms and Armour Press, 1980), p.40.
- Buckley 1998, p. 197.
- Gómez, Javier Guisández (20 June 1998). "The Law of Air Warfare". International Review of the Red Cross. nº 323: 347–63.
- Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II. Berghahn Books. 2010. p. 167. ISBN 1-8454-5844-3.
- Evangeslista, Matthew. "Peace Studies, Volume 3". page 447. Routledge.
- Sir Arthur Harris (November 30, 1995). Despatch on War Operations: 23rd February 1942 to 8th May 1945. Routledge. p. 44. ISBN 0-7146-4692-X.
- .Obote-Odora, Alex. "The judging of war criminals: individual criminal responsibility under international law". page 177.
- State Crime: Current Perspectives (Critical Issues in Crime and Society). Rutgers University Press. September 28, 2010. p. 90. ISBN 0-8135-4901-9.
- President Franklin D. Roosevelt Appeal against aerial bombardment of civilian populations, 1 September 1939
- Taylor (2005), Chapter "Call Me Meier", p. 105
- Nelson (2006), p. 104.
- Corum, 1995., p. 7
- Cabinet Office Records CAB 66/1/19 The National Archives
- Cabinet Office Records CAB 65/1/1 The National Archives
- A.C. Grayling (Bloomsbury 2006), p. 24.
- Taylor, Chapter "Call Me Meier", p. 111
- Sylwia Słomińska, "Wieluń, 1 września 1939 r.", Z dziejów dawnego Wielunia "History of old Wielun", site by Dr Tadeusz Grabarczyk, Historical Institute at University of Lodz,
- Norman Davies. (1982). God's Playground: A History of Poland, Columbia University Press, p 437. – this source does not say "most" Polish cities, it is a source for the other information
- Bruno Coppieters, N. Fotion, eds. (2002) Moral constraints on war: principles and cases, Lexington Books, p 74.
- Bob Golan, Jacob Howland, Bette Howland, (2005). A long way home, University Press of America, p 11.
- Laqueur, Walter; Baumel, Judith Tydor (2001). The Holocaust encyclopedia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08432-0.[page needed]
- George Topas, (1990). The iron furnace: a Holocaust survivor's story, University Press of Kentucky, p 23.
- Hempel, Andrew. (2000). Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History ISBN 978-0-7818-0758-6 p 14.
- Hooton 1994, p. 183.
- Speidel, p. 18
- Straty Warszawy 1939–1945.Raport pod red. Wojciecha Fałkowskiego,Naloty na Warszawę podczas II wojny światowej Tomasz Szarota, pages 240–281. Warszawa: Miasto Stołeczne Warszawa 2005
- Boog 2001, p. 360-361.
- Boog 2001, p. 361.
- Hooton 1994, p. 182.
- Hooton 1994, p. 181.
- Hooton 1994, p. 186.
- Hooton 1994, p. 187.
- Spencer Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts, (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: a political, social and military history, ABC-CLIO, p 1613.
- Daniel Blatman, Rachel Grossbaum-Pasternak, Abraham Kleban, Shmuel Levin, Wila Orbach, Abraham Wein. (1999). Pinkas Hakehillot: Encyclopedia of Jewish Communities, Poland (English translation) Volume VII, Yad Vashem, pp 406–407.
- Poeppel-von Preußen-von Hase, 2000. p. 248.
- Smith&Creek, 2004. p. 63
- Hooton 1994, p. 92.
- Smith&Creek, 2004. pp. 63–64
- Hooton 1994, p. 188.
- Poeppel-von Preußen-von Hase, 2000. p. 249.
- Electronic Encyclopaedia of Civil Defense and Emergency Management
- Richards, Denis, 1953. pp. 38–40
- "Attacks in 1939" (in German). www.bunkermuseum.de.
- "Stadt Cuxhaven – Geschichte" (in german). www.cuxhaven.de.
- Vice Admiral a. D. Prof. Friedrich Ruge, Dr. Hellmuth Günther Dahms, Dr. Ernst Schraepler, Dr. Herbert Michaelis, Dr. Walther Hubatsch, (1968). Der 2. Weltkrieg, Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Gütersloh, p. 657
- Richards 1953, p. 38-40
- "RAF strikes German naval base". www.onwar.com/.
- Richards 1953, p.67.
- Smith&Creek, 2004. p. 64
- Middlebrook, Martin (1985). The Bomber Command War Diaries (London: Penguin Books), p.19 ISBN 0-670-80137-2
- Hooton 1994, p. 190.
- Richards 1953, p.68.
- "IN THE AIR: Raid on Sylt". Time. 1 April 1940. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- "The Miami Daily News, Saturday 11 May 1940"
- http://www.bilderbuch-koeln.de/Themen/Kriegserinnerungen%201940[dead link]
- Richards 1953, pp.114—115.
- Hinchliffe, 2000. p. 43
- 60 Jahre Kriegsende – Bombenkrieg
- Jane's, 1989. p. 34
- Rutherford, Ward, Blitzkrieg 1940, G.P.Putnam's Sons, NY, 1980, p.52.
- Piekalkiewicz, Janusz, The Air War, 1939–1945, Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, UK, 1985, p.74.
- DeutschlandRadio Berlin – MerkMal – Der Bombenkrieg in Europa
- Boog 2001, p. 361,362.
- Hooton Vol 2 2007, p. 52.
- Hinchliffe, 2000. p. 42
- Van Nul to Nu Deel 3-De vaderlandse geschiedenis van 1815 tot 1940 Page 42, Square 2- by Thom Roep and Co Loerakker ISBN 90-5425-098-4
- Boog 2001, p. 361
- The Milwaukee Journal, Monday 20 May 1940
- St Petersburg Times, Wednesday 17 July 1940
- Maass, Walter B., The Netherlands at War: 1940–1945, Abelard-Schuman, NY, 1970, pp. 38–40.
- Kennett, Lee, A History of Strategic Bombing, Charles Scribner's Sons, NY, 1982, p.112.
- Boyne, Walter J., Clash of Wings: World War II in the Air, Simon & Schuster, NY, 1994, p.61.
- Hastings 1979, p. 6
- Taylor 2005, Chapter "Call Me Meier", p. 111.
- Boog 2001, p. 362.
- National Archives 15 May 1940 CAB 65/13/9
- Richards 1953, p.124.
- Hinchliffe, 2000. p. 44
- Hinchliffe, 2000. pp. 44–45
- "Als die ersten Bomben fielen" Hamburger Abendblatt
- Green 1967, p.19.
- British Military Aviation in 1940 – Part 4
- Naval Events, 1–14 July 1940
- Great Air Battles: The Battle of Britain
- SC Military Museum
- Quester, George "Bargaining and Bombing During World War II in Europe," World Politics, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Apr. 1963), pp. 421, 425. Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
- Wood and Dempster, 2003. p. 122.
- Wood and Dempster, 2003. p. 117.
- Royal Air Force, "Phase 2 – Pressure grows" The Battle of Britain
- John Ray, The Night Blitz, chapter "Choosing London", pages 101–102.
- Quester, George "Bargaining and Bombing During World War II in Europe," World Politics, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Apr. 1963), pp. 426. Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
- Wings Over Wairarapa
- BBC – History – British Bombing Strategy in World War Two
- Richard Overy The Battle Chapter "The Battle" pages 82–83
- Der alliierte Luftkrieg – TEIL IV
- "Luftkieg" (in German).
- "World War II Resource Pack". RAF Museum Cosford Learning Resources. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- Smith&Creek, 2004. Volume II. p. 122
- Schmidt-Klingenberg, Michael. "Wir werden sie ausradieren" Spiegel Online
- "The Role of Bombing in World War II".
- Ray, John, "The Night Blitz", Cassel & Co 1996, ISBN 0-304-35676-X p.103
- Collier, 1957. p. 261
- Boog 2001, p. 365.
- Ray, John, "The Night Blitz", Cassel & Co 1996, ISBN 0-304-35676-X p.236-241
- Edited by Horst Boog, Werner Rahn, Reinhard Stumpf, and Bernd Wegner, "Germany and the Second World War: Volume VI The Global War", Oxford University Press, (2001), ISBN 0-19-822888-0, pp 507–508
- [dead link]
- Horst Boog, "Germany and the Second World War: The global war", p 509
- Price, 2005. p. 195.
- Jakub Skalický (14 October 2007). (Czech)(German) "Hitlerův rozkaz k zahájení "baedekerových" náletů". www.fronta.cz. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
- "Why did the RAF bomb cities?". World War I: Western Europe 1939–1945: Hamburg. The National Archives. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
- Max Hastings, Bomber Command (1979) pp 371–2
- Harris, Arthur Travers (1995). Despatch on war operations, 23rd February, 1942, to 8th May, 1945. Cass Series: Studies in Air Power 3. Psychology Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7146-4692-3.
- Levine 1992, p. 39.
- Longmate 1983, p.133
- Copp 1996.
- Issues : Singleton – World War Two
- This was the sole attempt to analyse Bomber Command policy during the war. Ethics and Airpower.
- Ethics and Airpower.
- Levine 1992, p. 36.
- Levine 1992, p. 48.
- Hastings, Max. Bomber Command (New York City: Dial Press/J. Wade, 1979).
- Tooze 2002, pp. 597–598.
- Tooze 2002, p. 602.
- Denson 1999, p. 352.
- Garret 1993, pp. 32–33.
- Sokolski 2004, p. 36.
- Strategic Bombing Survey summary report, pp.12–13.
- US Strategic Bombing Survey: Statistical Appendix to Overall report (European War) (Feb 1947) table 1
- Harris, Arthur Travers, ed Cox, Sebastian (1995). Despatch on War Operations: 23 February 1942, to 8th May, 1945, Routledge, ISBN 0-7146-4692-X. p.196
- Richard G Davis American Bombardment Policy against Germany, 1942–1945, Air Power Review, Volume 6 Number 3, pp. 49–62. (see p. 54 (PDF 63)). Retrieved 4 March 2010
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey
- Norman Longmate, The Bombers:The RAF Offensive against Germany 1939–1945, pp.309–312
- Richards 1995, pp. 84–87.
- "The Bombing of France 1940–1945 Exhibition". Bombing, States and Peoples in Western Europe, 1940–1945. University of Exeter Centre for the Study of War, State and Society. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
- Eddy Florentin, "Quand les alliés bombardaient la France, 1940–1945", Perrin, Paris, 2008.
- J.K. Galbraith, "The Affluent Society", chapter 12 "The Illusion of National Security", first published 1958. Galbraith was a director of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey.
- Williamson Murray, Allan Reed Millett, "A War To Be Won: fighting the Second World War", p. 319
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey summary
- Buckley 1998, p. 166.
- Kershaw 1987, pp. 206–207.
- British Bombing Survey Unit (BBSU) Report, p.41 paras 137-8, corroborated in United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) report No.31, "The attack on German cities", Washington DC: Government Printing Office 1945 ; Noble & Frankland, The Bomber Offensive Against Germany, London: Faber 1965, p.114;
- Hastings, p. 352 quoting German post-war Statistical Office calculations.
- Humble, Richard (1975). War in the Air 1939–1945. London: Salamander. OCLC 4248555.
- The United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Statistical Appendix (European War), Feb 1947
- "Part Two the Yugoslav Campaign". THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN IN THE BALKANS (SPRING 1941). United States Army Center of Military History. 1986 . CMH Pub 104-4. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
- Kenneth K. Hatfield (2003). "Heartland heroes: remembering World War II.". p.91.
- The Illustrated London News, Marching to War 1933–1939, Doubleday, 1989, p.135
- Caidin, Martin. A Torch to the Enemy: The Fire Raid on Tokyo, Bantam War Books, 1960. ISBN 0-553-29926-3 pp.??
- Bradley, F. J. No Strategic Targets Left. "Contribution of Major Fire Raids Toward Ending WWII", Turner Publishing Company, limited edition. ISBN 1-56311-483-6. p. 38.
- Kaplan, Fred (1983). The Wizards of Armageddon. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-42444-2.p.42
- Kaplan, Fred (1983). The Wizards of Armageddon. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-42444-2.p.43
- Spector, Ronald (1985). "Eagle Against the Sun." New York: Vintage Books. p. 503.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War). 1 July 1946
- Hallion, Dr. Richard P. Decisive Air Power Prior to 1950 Air Force History and Museums Program.
- Major John S. Chilstrom, School of Advanced Airpower Studies. Mines Away! The Significance of U.S. Army Air Forces Minelaying in World War II. Diane Publishing, 1992.
- "Frequently Asked Questions No. 1". Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Retrieved 18 September 2007.
- Rezelman, David; F.G. Gosling and Terrence R. Fehner (2000). "The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima". The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 18 September 2007. page on Hiroshima casualties.
- The Spirit of Hiroshima: An Introduction to the Atomic Bomb Tragedy. Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. 1999.
- Mikiso Hane (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3756-9.
- Boog, Horst (2006). Germany and the Second World War. Volume VII: The Strategic Air War in Europe and the War in the West and East Asia, 1943-1944/5. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822889-9.
- Bradley, F. J. (1999) No Strategic Targets Left. "Contribution of Major Fire Raids Toward Ending WWII", Turner Publishing. ISBN 1-56311-483-6.
- Buckley, John (1998). Air Power in the Age of Total War. UCL Press. ISBN 1-85728-589-1.
- Caidin, Martin (1960). A Torch to the Enemy: The Fire Raid on Tokyo. Bantam War Books. ISBN 0-553-29926-3.
- Copp, Terry. The Bomber Command Offensive, originally published in the Legion Magazine September/October 1996
- Collier, Basil. The Defence of the United Kingdom. HMSO, 1957. OCLC 59930716
- Corum, James. (2007). The Luftwaffe: The Operational Air War, 1918–1940. University of Kansas Press. ISBN 0-7006-0836-2
- Davis, Richard G. (2006) Bombing the European Axis Powers. A Historical Digest of the Combined Bomber Offensive 1939–1945 Air University Press.
- Garrett, Stephen (1993). Ethics and Airpower in World War II. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-08683-1.
- Grafton, Brian. Bomber Command on the website Military History Online
- Grayling, A. C. (2006). Among the Dead Cities. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-7671-6.
- Green, William (1967). War Planes of the Second World War: Volume Eight Bombers. London: Macdonald.
- Hall, Cargill (1998). Case Studies in Strategic Bombardment. Air Force History and Museums Program. ISBN 0-16-049781-7.
- Hallion, Richard P. Decisive Air Power Prior to 1950 USAF History and Museums Program.
- Hastings, Max (1979). RAF Bomber Command. Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-39204-2
- Hinchcliffe, Peter (1996) The other battle : Luftwaffe night aces versus Bomber Command. Airlife Publishing, ISBN 978-1-85310-547-0
- Hooton, E.R (1994). Phoenix Triumphant; The Rise and Rise of the Luftwaffe. London: Arms & Armour Press. ISBN 1-86019-964-X
- Hooton, E.R (1997). Eagle in Flames; The Fall of the Luftwaffe. London: Arms & Armour Press. ISBN 1-86019-995-X
- Hooton, E.R (2007). Luftwaffe at War; Blitzkrieg in the West: Volume 2. London: Chervron/Ian Allen. ISBN 978-1-85780-272-6.
- Jane's (1989). All the World's Aircraft 1940/41/42/43/44/45. London, Random House, ISBN 1-85170-199-0
- Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6.
- Longmate, Norman. (1983) The Bombers. Hutchinson. ISBN 0-09-151580-7.
- Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1933–1945. Maxwell AFB: Air University Press. ISBN 978-1-58566-010-0.
- Nelson, Hank (2003). A different war: Australians in Bomber Command paper presented at the 2003 History Conference – Air War Europe
- Nelson, Hank (2006). Chased by the Sun: The Australians in Bomber Command in World War II, Allen & Unwin, ISBN 1-74114-847-2, ISBN 978-1-74114-847-3
- Overy, Richard J. (1980) The Air War Stein and Day. ISBN 978-1-57488-716-7
- Poeppel, Hans and Prinz von Preußen, Wilhelm-Karl and von Hase, Karl-Günther. (2000) Die Soldaten der Wehrmacht. Herbig Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7766-2057-3
- Price, Alfred. Kampfflieger -Bombers of the Luftwaffe January 1942-Summer 1943, Volume 3. 2005, Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-49-9
- Hansen, Randall (2008). Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945. Toronto: Doubleday Canada. ISBN 978-0-385-66403-5.
- Ray, John. The Night Blitz. Booksales. ISBN 978-0-7858-1601-0.
- Richards, Denis (1953). Royal Air Force 1939–1945:Volume I The Fight at Odds. London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office.
- Richards, Denis. The Hardest Victory: RAF Bomber Command in the Second World War. London: Coronet, 1995. ISBN 0-340-61720-9.
- R.J. Rummel. Was World War II American Urban Bombing Democide?
- Sherwood Ross. How the United States Reversed Its Policy on Bombing Civilians, The Humanist, Vol. 65, July–August 2005
- Smith, J. Richard and Creek, Eddie J. (2004). Kampflieger. Vol. 2.: Bombers of the Luftwaffe July 1940 – December 1941. Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-42-0
- Smith, J. Richard and Creek, Eddie J. (2004). Kampflieger. Vol. 2.: Bombers of the Luftwaffe July 1940 – December 1941. Classic Publications. ISBN 978-1-903223-43-7
- Spaight. James M. "Bombing Vindicated" G. Bles, 1944. ASIN: B0007IVW7K (Spaight was Principal Assistant Secretary of the Air Ministry (U.K))
- Spector, Ronald (1985). Eagle Against the Sun. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74101-7
- Speidel, Wilhelm (1956). The Luftwaffe in the Polish Campaign of 1939. Montgomery, Alabama: Air Force Historical Research Agency.
- Taylor, Frederick. (2005) Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945. Bloomsbury. ISBN 0-7475-7084-1
- Saward, Dudley. (1985) Bomber Harris. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-11258-1
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. Summary Report(Pacific War) 1 July 1946.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. Summary Report(European War) 30 September 1945.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Defeat of the German Air Force. 1947.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Effects of Strategic Bombing on German Transportation. 1947.
- United States Strategic Bombing Survey. The Effects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy. 1945.
- Willmott, H.P. (1991). The Great Crusade. Free Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-02-934716-4
- Wood & Dempster (1990) The Narrow Margin Chapter "Second Phase" ISBN 978-0-87474-929-8
- Wood, Derek and Dempster, Derek. (1990). The Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air Power, London: Tri-Service Press, third revised edition. ISBN 1-85488-027-6.
- Young, Kevin. "The Path to Hiroshima and Nagasaki – Targeting Civilians", CounterPunch, 9–10 August 2008
- Childers, Thomas (2008). "Facilis descensus averni est: The Allied Bombing of Germany and the Issue of German Suffering". Central European History 38: 75. doi:10.1163/1569161053623624. ISSN 1569-1616.
- Clodfelter, Mark. "Aiming to Break Will: America's World War II Bombing of German Morale and its Ramifications," Journal of Strategic Studies, June 2010, Vol. 33#3 pp 401–435, doi:10.1080/01402390903189436
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1977). Decision over Schweinfurt. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-679-50763-5.
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1982). HAP: The Story of the U.S. Air Force and the Man who Built It, General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-36069-7.
- Coffey, Thomas M. (1987). Iron Eagle : The Turbulent Life of General Curtis LeMay. Random House Value publishing. ISBN 0-517-55188-8.
- Crane, Conrad C. (1994). The cigar that brought the fire wind: Curtis LeMay and the strategic bombing of Japan. JGSDF-U.S. Army Military History Exchange. OCLC 32844008.
- Craven, Wesley F.; Cate, James Lea (1948–1958). The Army Air Forces in World War II, volumes 1–8. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-405-12137-1.
- Garretsen, Harry; Schramm, Marc; Brakman, Steven. The Strategic Bombing of German Cities during World War II and its Impact for Germany. Discussion Paper Series nr: 03-09. Tjalling, C. Koopmans Research Institute, Utrecht School of Economics, Utrecht University.
- Great Britain Air Ministry (1983). The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force. Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 978-0-85368-560-9.
- Greer, Ron (2005). Fire from the Sky: A Diary Over Japan. Jacksonville, Arkansas, U.S.A.: Greer Publishing. ISBN 0-9768712-0-3.
- Guillian, Robert (1982). I Saw Tokyo Burning: An Eyewitness Narrative from Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima. Jove Pubns. ISBN 0-86721-223-3.
- Harris, Arthur (1998). Bomber Offensive. Greenhill Books/Lionel Leventhal. ISBN 978-1-85367-314-6.
- Hastings, Max (1979). Bomber Command. New York: Dial. ISBN 978-0-7181-1603-3.
- Kennet, Lee (1982). A History of Strategic Bombing. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-17781-6.
- Lemay, Curtis E.; Yenne, Bill (1988). Superfortress: The Story of the B-29 and American Air Power. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-037164-4.
- McGowen, Tom (2001). Air Raid!:The Bombing Campaign. Brookfield, Connecticut, U.S.A.: Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1810-0.
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STUDENTS should be taught the art of sleeping at school so they can get more shut-eye to improve their focus during class, experts say.
Studies have shown good sleep patterns can assist with concentration and therefore academic performance.
Now researchers at UniSA's Centre for Sleep Research say a new study highlights the need for sleep to become a topic that is studied at school.
They monitored the sleeping patterns of Year 6 and 7 students who received four lessons focused on sleeping, over six weeks, then compared the results to other students in the same grades. They discovered that students who had completed the lessons slept for an average of seven minutes longer each night.
Researcher Gabrielle Rigney said this increase was significant and noticeable in the nights following the lessons. "We know how important sleep is in terms of getting children to focus in the class and helping them learn," Ms Rigney said.
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Sometimes it is easier to identify a wasp by the prey it is carrying than by the wasp itself. Ned Harris and myself found this wasp at Madera Canyon’s White House Picnic Area last week. Ned noticed the grasshopper prey before I did. I was convinced the wasp was another species until I saw it was a grasshopper of the family Acrididae, which told me differently. Here at last was Prionyx thomae.
There are seven species of wasps in the genus Prionyx (family Sphecidae) found in the United States. Collectively they range across the entire U.S. and adjacent southern Canada, so there is probably at least one species calling your own geographic location home. All are “thread-waisted” wasps with a very globose abdomen and stout, spiny legs. Two species are entirely black in color (atratus and subatratus), while the remainder are black and red with silvery highlights.
These are solitary wasps, each individual female making her own nest, the same as the cicada killers I introduced last week. Both are also termed “parasitoid” species. Parasitoids invariably kill their hosts. The interesting thing about parasitoid wasps is that most species actively carry their victims to a storage site rather than leaving them in situ. This probably evolved to protect the wasp’s offspring, and their food, from predators and parasites.
Prionyx thomae has no common English name. Most insects that are of no economic importance have only a Latin or Greek name. This species, which ranges from the southeastern and western U.S. to Argentina, looks very similar to P. parkeri and P. canadensis. I have yet to find canadensis here in southeast Arizona, however, and parkeri can be readily identified by the two pairs of long palps, part of its mouthparts.
Back to the action. When Ned and I spotted this particular wasp, she was in the usual state of alertness and nervousness of most solitary wasps. She snapped at ants that blundered near her or her paralyzed grasshopper prey. She stopped on a rock and groomed herself. She maneuvered the grasshopper into a better location. Then she began to excavate a burrow in the damp, rocky soil. Apparently the audience was too much and she evidently abandoned the burrow and her prey.
The victim in this instance appeared to be a band-winged grasshopper, Conozoa carinata. Other recorded hosts for this wasp include Amphitornus, Aulocara, Orphulella pelidna, Arphia xanthoptera, Dissosteira Carolina, Encoptolopus subgracilis, and Paraidemona. Most of these are not small grasshoppers, and the ability of the wasp to lug around one of them over rugged terrain would be comparable to a person carrying a couch single-handedly.
The female wasp secures her prey before digging a burrow. The burrow can be curved, linear, or L-shaped, and ends in a single chamber that receives the single grasshopper victim. The wasp then lays an egg on it, exits, and seals the burrow entrance. She then leaves to repeat the process again.
During the process of digging and provisioning the burrow the wasp and her prey are both vulnerable to parasites. Chief among them are the “satellite flies” of the subfamily Miltogramminae (in the family Sarcophagidae). Satellite flies get their name from the way they “orbit” their hosts, waiting for a chance to deposit eggs on the wasp’s prey. The fly larvae that hatch then feed on the food that was intended for the larval wasps, effectively starving them to death. Such behavior is called “kleptoparasitism” when a parasite “robs” the host of its rightful resources. I took the image below in South Deerfield, Massachusetts. The wasp in this case was probably Prionyx canadensis.
There is no end to the dramas that take place on a macroscopic scale in your flowerbed, lawn, or child’s sandbox. You just have to be observant and interested. Then, I guarantee you, you will be entertained, mesmerized, and awed by how incredibly strong, intelligent, and energetic most insects are.
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Journal Jottings and Photographs
by Jennie Thomas and David Young
About the Book
Welcome to our journey to Galápagos, a unique archipelago of islands on the equator, in the Pacific Ocean, one thousand kilometres west of the coast of Ecuador. This is one of the most important natural history sites in the world, a laboratory of evolution. In this book we share jottings and photos of our exploration of many of the islands with added information about each island and the birds, animals and plants that make those islands their home. Galápagos is a place where the wildlife shows no fear of their human visitors, thanks to the strict rules that visitors must abide by. It’s a place that helps to put into context Charles Darwin's groundbreaking work on the 'Theory of Evolution", a theory that becomes real before your very eyes. It's a place that leaves you in awe of nature; that stirs your very soul; it's a place that, once visited, is never forgotten. So why not join us for the journey.
Features & Details
- Category Travel
Standard Landscape, 10×8 in, 25×20 cm
- Publish Date Mar 10, 2014
- Language English
- Tags Jennie Thomas, Jennie Thomas and David Young, Galapagos Journey Jottings, animal adaptation, Frigata minor, Great Frigatebirds, Tiquilia nesiotica, Spheniscus mendiculus, Galápagos Penguin, Lava Heron, Butorides sundevalli, Galápagos Heron, Ardea herodias, Great Blue Heron, Brachycereus nesioticus, Mollugo Lava Cactus, black basaltic “pahoehoe”, Scandinavian sailing ship, rope lava, Butorides striatus, Striated Lava Herons, Buteo galapagoensis, Galápagos Hawk, (Jasminocereus thouarsii var. delicatus, Candelabra Cacti, Fregata magnificens, Magnificent Frigate, Cryptocarpus pyriformis, Salt Bush, Creagrus furcatus, Swallow-tailed Gull, evolutionary process, Iguana iguana, Portulaca howellii, Galápagos Purslane, Conolophus subcristatus, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Sea Purslane, Pelecanus occidentalis ssp. urinator, Brown Pelican, Larus fuliginosus, Lava Gull, Giant Tortoise Breeding Progams, Geochelone elephantopus, Giant Galápagos Tortoises, Conolophus pallidus, Giant Cactus, Opuntia echios barringtonensis, Zenaida galapagoensis, Galápagos Dove, Margret Wittmer, Dr Freidrich Ritter, Post Office Bay, Phoenicopterus ruber, Greater Flamingo, Nyctanassa violacea, Yellow-crowned Night Heron, palo santo, Incense trees, Bursera graveolens, Haematopus palliatus, American Oystercatcher, Tropidurus spp., Española Lava Lizards, Grapsus grapsus, Sally Lightfoot Crabs, Puncture Weed, Tribulus cistoides, Waved Albatross, Diomedea irrorata, Croton scouleri, Ipomoea alba, Cordia lutea, Thread-leafed Chaff Flower, Alternanthera filifolia, Lantana peduncularis, Physalis sp., breeding cycles, Masked Booby, Sula granti, Nazca Boobies, Sula nebouxii, Blue-footed Boobies, Amblyrhyncus cristatus, Galápagos Marine Iguanas, eared seals, Zalophus californianus wollebacki, Galápagos Sea Lions, Nazca Plate, San Christóbal, Sombrero Chino, North Seymour, South Plaza, Puerto Ayora, Santa Cruz, Santa Fé, Gardner Bay, Charles Darwin, Theory of Evolution, natural history, Galápagos Islands, Charles Darwin Research Station, Galápagos National Park Service, panga, snorkelling, whalers, Scalesia, thigmotactic, pinnipeds, Athala, volcanoes, Fernandina, Isabela, Genovesa, Bartolomé, Santiago, Rábida, Floreana, Española, Ecuador, Galápagos
My partner and fellow photographer, David Young, and I live in Canberra, Australia. We have been exploring the world for many years, often to places off the beaten track. We enjoy meeting people, learning about different cultures, experiencing new environments and capturing the essence of people and places through our photography and videography. On our travels, we also enjoy discovering our family history, filming gardens and seeking out wildflowers. David is a horticulturist and has been a radio broadcaster and television presenter. I've spent a lifetime in education and enjoy my voluntary mentoring role with university students and researchers.
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Noun(1) the branch of biology that deals with the structure of animals and plants(2) studies of the rules for forming admissible words(3) the admissible arrangement of sounds in words(4) the branch of geology that studies the characteristics and configuration and evolution of rocks and land forms
(1) Organisms were identified by morphology and biochemical reactions.(2) grammar is organized along two main dimensions: morphology and syntax(3) Indeed, far more studies have examined the relationship between morphology and performance than between performance and fitness.(4) Given the relationship with male morphology , another question arising from these studies is what determines wasp body size.(5) The general implication is that the ambiguities that exist in the relationships between orthography, phonology, and morphology underlie spelling knowledge.(6) In some circumstances, languages borrow morphology as well as vocabulary.(7) Dialect encompasses various aspects of the language - syntax, morphology , lexicon, phonology.(8) Analysis of covariance revealed some relationships between subspecies morphology / growth habit and local environmental conditions.(9) Gross changes in chromosome morphology occur at each mitosis.(10) a generative approach to Italian morphology(11) French has inflectional morphology to indicate plurality, person, number, and tense, so inflection is not a foreign concept.(12) Of central concern is the relationship between morphology and phonology.(13) Early morphologists , such as Cuvier, felt that function was predictable from organismal form, to the extent that animals and plants represented perfect adaptations to their habits.(14) In contrast, larger testis size is a clear morphologic adaptation of parasitic males that involves a strong energetic investment.(15) Corneal tissue is analysed and graded on morphological and functional criteria.(16) There is some morphological variation related to their position in the plant.
1. geomorphology ::
Different Formsmorphological, morphology
English to Afrikaans Dictionary: morphology
Meaning and definitions of morphology, translation in Afrikaans language for morphology with similar and opposite words. Also find spoken pronunciation of morphology in Afrikaans and in English language.
Tags for the entry "morphology"
What morphology means in Afrikaans, morphology meaning in Afrikaans, morphology definition, examples and pronunciation of morphology in Afrikaans language.
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Role of the History of Science and Technology
Proposed National Standards for Schools
A major national effort to set standards for teaching history to young people has come under attack as part of the general debate over traditional vs. multi-cultural approaches. The treatment of the history of science and technology has been particularly discussed, since until recently these fields were dominated by white males. Regardless of how widely the proposed standards are officially adopted, they are worth scrutiny because they represent a consensus that is already widespread. Writing of the standards, initiated and funded by the federal government, was overseen by a coalition that comprised the chief American teaching and historical organizations. What do these leading teachers, historians, and state and local government officials believe should be taught about the history of science and technology?
The proposed "National Standards for World History" contains about 100 main standards, each with several subheadings. Science or technology are referred to within nearly a quarter of the standards, but usually only in passing. For example, the whole of ancient science is represented in one of the thirteen standards for the period by one of five subheads: students should show understanding by "Evaluating major achievements of Hellenistic art, philosophy, science, and political thought." Technology in this period is represented by similarly brief references to agricultural and metals technology. For the medieval period there are cursory mentions of the Olmec and Maya calendars, Gupta mathematics, and Abassid and Chinese science, but not European developments. These arrive with the Renaissance in mentions of maritime, printing, and gunpowder technologies (their Chinese origins are not stressed).
Next comes an entire standard, the only one primarily relating to science, on "the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment." This does not ask for study of how the revolutions came about and proceeded. Rather, students are to show understanding by "analyzing the cultural, religious, and scientific impact" of the work from Copernicus to Newton and the "importance of discoveries... on 17th- and 18th- century European society."
This attitude persists through the rest of the standards. Science is implicitly viewed as something which has descended from elsewhere mainly around Newton's time. Technology too is treated as an external body which "impacts" upon society. Thus when the subjects reappear in the nineteenth century, students are asked to analyze not the origins but the consequences of the agricultural revolution, "new inventions such as the railroad, telegraph... and photography," and medical and weapons technologies, as well as "the social significance of the work of 19th-century scientists such as Maxwell, Darwin, Pasteur, and Curie."
For the twentieth century there are a couple of general references to the need for students to understand "major scientific, medical, and technological advances" and especially their consequences notably "the impact of space exploration, biotechnology, the new physics, and medical advances on human society and ecology." There are three more specific requirements, viz.: a call for "Assessing the impact of the work of Einstein, Freud, and other scientists on traditional views of nature and the universe;" "Evaluating ways in which popular faith in science, technology, and material progress affected attitudes toward the possibility of war among European states" (part of the standard on the causes of World War I); and "Assessing why scientific, technological, and medical advances have improved living standards for many but have failed to eradicate hunger, poverty, and epidemic disease."
The "National Standards for United States History," issued at the same time, contain even less about science and technology. Presumably the teachers expect these have been covered sufficiently in the world history courses. There are several perfunctory references to the effects of "technological developments" on early exploration and nineteenth-century economic transformations, but the only technologies specifically mentioned are the cotton gin, "military technology" in the Civil War, and "extractive mining techniques." An entire standard devoted to "the `second industrial revolution'" is concerned solely with how it "changed the nature and conditions of work," for example in the employment of children.
For the twentieth century, students are likewise to show understanding by "Explaining how inventions, technological innovations, and principles of scientific management transformed production and work." In the postwar period science itself makes its sole appearance, in a requirement for "Evaluating the importance of scientific and technological change on the workplace and productivity." The single hint of influence in the reverse direction is a subheading calling for study of the impact of the Second World War "on United States culture and technology." The final standard addresses American culture by asking students to analyze how it has been affected by social change, the media, ethnic diversity, and the commercialization of professional sports and popular culture.
The proposed standards represent the current thought of a cross-section of leaders in American primary and secondary education and academic history. Evidently if students are to learn what society has done in the past to nurture science, how science has affected the development of technology, and where scientific thought has stood within American culture, in the future as in the past they should not look to the typical high school history course.
National Standards for World History and National Standards for United States History
may be ordered from the National Center for History in the Schools, University of California, Los Angeles, 10880 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 761, Los Angeles, CA 90024-4108; Fax (310) 825-4723.
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Yes, it's the time to make New Year's Resolutions yet again. Some of the most popular resolutions are to eat less, exercise more, start volunteering, or get a new job.
MORE FROM HEALTH.COM:
But we say the first step towards keeping your resolutions is remembering them. Why not vow to sharpen your memory in 2013?
There's actually a wealth of research on what works when it comes to giving your brain a workout. Here are some simple steps you can take to strengthen your memory every day.
1. Change your font
Making text slightly harder to read is actually good for the brain, according to one study. You can do this by changing the font on your computer, adding bold or italics, or moving a page away from your face so the text appears smaller. In fact, there are any number of ways to achieve the effect, says study co-author Daniel Oppenheimer, associate professor of psychology at Princeton University. But don't make the task too difficult, cautions Oppenheimer. "That would be detrimental rather than helpful," he says.
2. Learn ballroom dancing
Learning something new–be it a new language or taking a cooking class–is generally good for your brain. But learning formal couples dancing, it turns out, is especially good.
"Not only is it physical, it's learned dance moves," says Dawn Buse, a health psychologist at Montefiore Medical Center in New York City. "You have to think as you go, change and be flexible. If you stretch the body at the same time, it's a bonus."
3. Switch hands
Many stroke survivors who suffer paralysis have to learn how to use the previously non-dominant side of their body for everyday tasks like writing. This helps create new neural networks. But even non-stroke survivors can benefit from the practice. "Brush your teeth with your left hand, buckle your belt with your left hand, eat cereal," says Buse. "These novel activities are stimulating novel parts of the brain."
4. Take breaks
There's a way to never cram again and still remember what you learned. Researchers have determined that people who break their study time into chunks actually learn better than those who study for hours at a time. "Spacing out your learning and allowing time for forgetting to occur in between study sessions can promote your ability to remember information and promote your ability to learn concepts," says researcher Haley Vlach, assistant professor of educational psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
5. Write by hand
Foregoing the keyboard for pen and paper may actually be better for the brain, according to a study in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. People are better at remembering the orientation of a new character if they write the characters by hand rather than type them on a computer keyboard, the study found. And research in children has shown that writing with pen and paper activates more regions of the brain than simply tapping a keyboard.
6. Play a computer game
Don't write off computer keyboards entirely. In one study, adolescent girls who regularly played the computer game Tetris had changes in parts of the brain involved in critical thinking, reasoning, language, and processing, among others. The game requires players to manipulate shapes as they fall so as to create an ordered row of tiles. And while Tetris may be 25 years old, it's still available on all types of gadgets, including the iPhone and iPod Touch.
7. Distract yourself
Turns out distracting noises do more than just drive you crazy. In fact, quite the opposite. A study by University of Amsterdam researchers found that people who were exposed to pesky background noise (the sound of random words) solved more anagrams than those who didn't have the distraction. And anagrams themselves–forming new words with the letters of an existing word–are good for stimulating the brain. You can find ways to tease your brain at GamesForYourBrain.com.
8. Meditate mindfully
Emerging evidence shows that people who routinely meditate can produce physical changes in the brain, thought to be the result of new synaptic networks being formed, says Simon A. Rego, director of psychology training at Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City. This increases not only attentiveness but also self-awareness and empathy. Bonus: It costs nothing and can be done anywhere, at any time.
9. Read out loud
Reading a book or the newspaper out loud stimulates different parts of the brain than reading silently to yourself, says Buse. "That's the key to all this, keeping different parts of the brain healthy and active and keeping blood flowing through them rather than breaking down connections," she says. It's good for public safety too. Airline pilots remember their check lists better if they read them out loud, even without someone else in the cockpit.
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Holocaust survivor talks of her miraculous survival
A Holocaust survivor visited Rutlish School to tell the story of how she survived the horrors of Auschwitz.
Freda Wineman, 90, presented her survival story to 250 Year 9 pupils, who are studying the Holocaust as part of their history syllabus, at a special assembly on Thursday morning.
Mrs Wineman was 16 when the Nazis invaded France, captured her family and set her to work close to the gas chambers, sorting the belongings of prisoners sent to their death.
She was liberated by the Russians in 1945, when she learnt her parents and brother, Marcel, had died at Auschwitz.
Miraculously, her brothers David and Armand both survived and she was reunited with them in Lyons later that year.
Mrs Wineman moved to the UK in 1950 and had two children.
The talk was organised four days before Holocaust Memorial Day held on Monday January 27.
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- Family remember teenager who died in Marchioness Thames tragedy 25 years on
Comments are closed on this article.
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The following hummingbird species are known to occur in Illinois.
Ruby-throated Hummingbirds, Archilochus colubris - Native Breeders ... Generally arrive in April and are usually gone after the end of September. Males are usually the ones to arrive first to stake out their feeding territories, and to depart first. Females and juveniles follow about two weeks later.
The male has a ruby-red throat, a white collar, an emerald green back and a forked tail.
The female has a green back and tail feathers that are banded white, black and grey-green.
Rufous Hummingbirds, Selasphorus rufus - Casual Vagrants
These hummingbirds are usually found in gardens and at feeders. These birds are fearless, and are known for chasing away other hummingbirds and even larger birds, or rodents away from their favorite nectar feeders and flowers.
Males can easily be identified by their glossy orange-red throats.
Females have whitish, speckled throats, green backs and crowns, and rufous, white-tipped tail feathers.
Rufous Hummingbird versus the similar Ruby-throated Hummingbird (Identification)
Allen's Hummingbirds, Selasphorus sasin - Rare vagrants - The Allen's Hummingbird is often confused with the Rufous Hummingbird, but the Allen's can be identified by the green back whereas the Rufous Hummingbird has a coppery back.
The male has a throat that ranges in color from orange-red to yellow-orange, a back that is bright green, a rump that is rufous and its tail feathers are rufous tipped in black.
Broad-billed Hummingbirds (Cynanthus latirostris) - Accidental / Vagrants - These mostly Mexican hummingbirds venture into the United States regularly; they mostly visit the southern parts - but a few vagrants travel as far north as Wisconsin. Most likely occurrence would be between July and December near hummingbird bird feeders.
The male is glossy green above and on the chest. He has a deep blue throat. His straight and slender beak is red with a black tip. His slightly forked tail is dark above, and the under tail feathers are white.
The female is less colorful than the male. Her throat, chest and belly are light to medium grey. She has a white stripe over each eye.
Black-chinned Hummingbirds are rare visitors in this state.
Lombard, IL: Kevin Dafler photographed a black chinned hummingbird at their feeder on Aug 17th, 2014.
One Black-chinned Hummingbird has been reported by Terri Hatfill
Peoria, IL in 2013 (regular visitor to bird feeder).
One male Black-chinned Hummer - reported by Kathy Haa to have visited her Lantana plant in Oswego, Illinois several times on 8/10/2013. She described this Black-Chinned Hummingbird as appearing healthy with a beautiful plumage.
It appears that the Black-chinned hummingbirds are expanding their territories into Illinois.
If you see a hummingbird that doesn't appear to be any of the above, please e-mail comments / images to: email@example.com. Thanks!
The favorite feeding plants for Hummingbirds in Illinois are:
Many hummingbirds favor red blossoms with a tubular shape (but some species prefer other colors). Hummingbirds feed readily on pink, blue, orange, peach and purple flowers.
- Anise Sage (Salvia guaranitica) - Blue flowers. One of hummingbird favorites. Also: Salvia pensetmonoides
- Hummingbird Mints -- (Agastache cana and Agastache rupestris / Agastache 'Acupulco Salmon and Pink' ) - Perennial; grows quickly; very fragrant.
- Royal catchfly (silene regia)
- Flowering Maple (Abutilon sp.) - Not cold resistant. Only survives the winter if brought indoors. A prolific bloomer with lots of nectar. A favorite feeding plant.
- Trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens)
- Texas Sage (Salvia coccinea), Salvia 'Maraschino' (Bush Salvia)
- Red Hot Poker (Tritoma)
- Bee Balm (Monarda)
- Penstemon barbatus
- Crocosmia 'Lucifer'
Species Research by Sibylle Johnson
Please Note: The articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers. Please contact them directly with respect to any copyright or licensing questions. Thank you.
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Disappearance of Srila Prabhupad Swami Maharaj.
The origins of "Krishna consciousness". — "Western civilization — crush it!" — Preaching in America — Saraswati Thakur's desire. — Swami Maharaj had been preaching since his childhood. — What's Krishna's plan? — Swami Maharaj meets Saraswati Thakur. — "If Krishna favours you — He'll take everything from you." That's where the devotion will shine. — "Poor as a Math mouse." Why material asserts are distraction. — The Lord who takes away. — Intensified devotion to Krishna as a result. — Sri Chaitanya-charitamrita. — The only reason for a disciple's life is to fulfil the will of his Guru. — Swami Maharaja's journey to America: atma-nivedanam to the extreme. — The Infinite is brought to the control of the finite: should Krishna consciousness be allowed? — Don't try for the mundane pleasures... — The spread of Krishna consciousness all over the world. — The parade on 5th Avenue as Krishna's gift to Prabhupad. — Last days of Swami Maharaj.
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Affidavit For Distribution Of Property Form Iowa – Affidavit is a written (sworn) declaration of facts that is utilized in legal proceedings of various kinds. Most people have seen television shows featuring lawyers and court scenes. You might have witnessed lawyers administering the witness the oath. That means that if a witness lies under oath they could be prosecuted for criminal offenses of perjury.
Affidavit For Distribution Of Property Form Iowa The affidavit is basically the written version of that swearing under the oath. It’s like being asked to testify in court but it doesn’t need you to be there. The statements you make are written. Just like signing the (court) swearing oath that is, the affidavit can be valid only when you forcefully perform it , and only if you do it in a voluntary manner. Do you have a minimum age in the creation or use of the Affidavit? No, there isn’t. However, you need to really understand what you are doing (including the conditions you sign) and you need to be able to think clearly. If you sign an affidavit which contains incorrect information, not only you could lose the case, but also you’ll likely be charged for perjury.
Affidavits vs Declarations
Many people believe declarations have a lot in common with the affidavits. They have many similarities. Both serve the same function. However, declarations can be processed faster. It is not signed before the notary public has signed it. It’s safe to say that notarization is the sole element that can make a document an affidavit – not simply an affirmation.
Whatever Affidavit forms you choose to use, all elements must be correct and included within the document. It requires two people to sign the document. The person signing the declaration is the first. The person who is second in line would be known as the affiant. The third person would be the one who administers the oath. They have to be legally recognized as authorized. They could be government officials as well as certain court officers, or a notary public.
It is essential that the people who sign the document comprehend the content. They should carefully read the document and ensure that the information is true and true. In the event that the document includes the affiant’s belief or opinion, the truth (considering the opinion or belief) must be clearly stated. This way, it will be clear between beliefs, opinions, or even factual information.
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Pilotbericht "Ein Geschmack der Zukunft der Meere"
Engaging the public on science and sustainable consumption: the how-to guide published in the pilot report "A Taste of the Future of the Seas" explains how to organize fun and impactful popular-scientific events, with a special focus on sustainable food. The guide, published by Ecologic Institute, is part of the Science Year 2016*17 – Seas and Oceans and is available for download in German.
Description, goal, and target audience of the Pilot Report
This Pilot Report consists of a how-to guide for organisations and scientific institutions that want to put on entertaining events that bring together science and sustainable consumption, and especially sustainable food.
The goal of the report is to encourage similar event series in other institutions and to provide recommendations for planning and implementation.
The report is targeted at scientific institutions (research institutes, museums, universities, foundations, etc.) and organisations/agencies for science communication. The report is available only in German.
"A Taste of the Future of the Seas": project description
This report was created within the joint project "A Taste of the Future of the Seas" by Ecologic Institute and the Museum for Natural History (Museum für Naturkunde) Berlin. The project ran from February to October 2017 and was funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) as part of the Science Year 2016*2017 - Seas and Oceans.
Our oceans and their biodiversity are increasingly influenced by anthropogenic activities. Oceans and seas are an essential food source for roughly a billion people globally. Though it is of utmost importance to use this resource sustainably, the devastation of the seas through pollution, overfishing, illegal fishing and climate change irreversibly harms vital functions and food networks. Several of these issues are linked to consumer behaviour, but the large majority of consumers remain unaware of their impact due to the complexity of the problem.
The Project "A Taste of the Future of the Seas" ("Ein Geschmack der Zukunft der Meere") presents scientific findings on sustainable use and protection of oceans to a broad audience through interactive and fun events. Participants will learn about the advances and challenges in sustainable marine science while simultaneously being animated to actively participate in sustainable change and consumption.
The following interactive events took place at the Museum for Natural History in Berlin:
- The event series "Science Sips" will cover short, energetic presentations on different topics on marine science and give participants the chance to enjoy snacks and drinks from sustainable seafood
- The special theme day on "A Taste of the Future of the Seas" is dedicated to teaching families, tourists and young adults about marine science and sustainable consumption through special tours, interactive exhibits, sustainable seafood snacks, and more
- Additionally, the information booth "Future Fish" will accompany all events and will help participants make a connection between scientific findings and sustainable consumption and offer sustainable options for taking action in their own lives
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What is Apache ?
Apache is the most generally utilized web server programming. Created and kept up by Apache Software Foundation, Apache is an open source programming accessible for nothing. It keeps running on 67% of all webservers on the planet. It is quick, solid, and secure. It very well may be exceptionally altered to address the issues of a wide range of situations by utilizing expansions and modules. Most WordPress facilitating suppliers utilize Apache as their web server programming. In any case, WordPress can keep running on other web server programming also.
What is a Web Server?
Pondering what the hell is a web server? Well a web server resembles an eatery have. When you land in an eatery, the host welcomes you, checks your booking data and takes you to your table. Like the eatery have, the web server checks for the site page you have asked for and gets it for your survey delight. In any case, A web server isn't only your host yet in addition your server. When it has discovered the site page you asked for, it likewise serves you the website page. A web server like Apache, is additionally the Maitre D' of the eatery. It handles your correspondences with the site (the kitchen), handles your solicitations, ensures that other staff (modules) are prepared to serve you. It is likewise the waiting assistant, as it cleans the tables (memory, store, modules) and clears them for new clients.
So fundamentally a web server is the product that gets your demand to get to a site page. It runs a couple of security keeps an eye on your HTTP ask for and takes you to the website page. Contingent upon the page you have asked for, the page may request that the server run a couple of additional modules while producing the record to serve you. It at that point serves you the record you asked. Quite amazing isn't it.
How to install Apache ?
There are various methods for introducing the bundle or application. There are enrolled underneath -
One of the highlights of this open source web application is that anybody can make installer according to their own condition. This has permitted different merchants like Debian, Red Hat, FreeBSD, Suse and so forth to alter the document area and setup of apache considering other introduced applications and base OS.
Aside from introducing it from a merchant based installer, there is dependably the alternative of building and introducing it from the source code. Introducing Apache from source document is a stage free and works for all OS.
The apache web server is a measured application where the executive can pick the required usefulness and introduce distinctive modules according to his/her prerequisite.
All modules can be accumulated as a Dynamic Shared Objects (DSO is a protest record that could be shared by numerous applications while they are executing) that exists independently from the principle apache document. The DSO approach is exceedingly prescribed, it makes the undertaking of including/evacuating/refreshing modules from the servers setup extremely straightforward.
Types of Apache Virtualhost
1. Name-based Virtual host
2. Address-based or IP based virtual host and.
What Apache needs to Run Php File?
Running Php files on Apache needs mod_php enabled on your server. It allows Apache to interpret .Php files. It has Php handlers that interpret the Php code in apache and send HTML to your web server.
What is Apache Tomcat ?
Apache Tomcat permits the execution of Java Servlets and JavaServer Pages (JSP) to advance a powerful Java server condition. Clients can likewise get to assets for setup and utilize extensible markup dialect (XML) to arrange ventures. Progressive adaptations of Apache Tomcat have tackled diverse issues by applying programming patches and different arrangements. A few specialists portray Apache Tomcat as an item offering a runtime shell for Java Servlets. Clients can likewise set up Java virtual machines (JVM) to design virtual facilitating.
Five Reasons You Should Use Tomcat
It’s Incredibly Lightweight
It’s Highly Flexible
Your Server Will Be More Stable
It Offers An Extra Level Of Security.
Salient advantages of utilizing Apache are:
- It is accessible free of cost that requires no permit
- Reliable and elite
- Easy to introduce and utilize full-highlighted web server
- More help and speedier turnaround time
- Immediate changes, no compelling reason to restart the server for new changes to be reflected.
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It was only at University that I started using a Personal Computer. The first Mac Computer is now a Museum piece! My kids regularly search for Minecraft and Lego ideas on YouTube, Skype with friends on different parts of the globe and use the computer for different assignments. Their gadgets are both a source of learning, entertainment and communication. When I was their age, I was calling up my friend on the land line phone to ask about Maths. The boundaries certainly have changed. The challenge, as parents and educators, is to consider how we can facilitate this change for this digital generation.
I have a written a few posts on the need to keep kids safe online. Another area to consider is are children and teens able to switch their minds off from whatever they are doing online; social media, games etc back to their work when they need to? While doing a research online it can be tempting for a child to reply to a message alert. It is after all takes less than a minute.
Interestingly, research points out that the brain is not able to multi-task in this manner. It is not a matter of time spent but the inefficiency of doing two tasks which makes one less productive.
I summarised the above article at the Learning Lab. It was well taken by my kids. We had a discussion on it. I admitted to them that I too had to cease trying to read tweets while while cooking dinner or thinking about a blog post during a lesson. It just overworks the brain! Part of raising digital natives is being role models of good users of technology. I am still figuring my way through this. What about you?
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The ibisbill is a bird related to the waders, but sufficiently distinctive to merit its own family Ibidorhynchidae. It is grey with a white belly, red legs and long down-curved bill, and a black face and black breast band. It occurs on the shingle riverbanks of the high plateau of central Asia and the Himalayas. The ibisbill feeds by probing under rocks or gravel on stream beds. It will take a variety of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates including caddisfly and mayfly larvae that hide under boulders in streams, grasshoppers and also small fish. It is classified as least concern by IUCN.
Sorry, the comment form is closed at this time.
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Here are some useful ideas to consider when doing academic research and evaluating the reliability of sources.
The Research Process: This library page explains the basics of the research process, from finding a topic, to finding articles, evaluating websites, writing a research proposal, writing tips, and sharing your research.
Is it scholarly?: Tips on how to identify if an article, work, or website is scholarly or not.
Using Refereed/Peer-Reviewed Research: Outlines some basic questions and answers on what is refereed and peer review research. Also shows how to identify a peer reviewed article.
Google: Although Google may be useful for your research, it is not considered an academic resource. Google is driven by market and other commercially driven considerations, and it will not show results based on an academic inquiry.
Google Scholar is the academic side of Google. However, it might not provide absolute coverage, or even applicable, to your topic. Since it is a free service many journals do not post articles here and stay within academic databases.
Wikipedia is a free online reference site. Although some pages are reviewed by other members, there's is no guarantee that those writing or reviewing are scholars. The consistency with how information is edited in wikipedia also poses problems, since what might be there today might not be there tomorrow. Wikipedia's priority is to provide quick and online reference that is easily updated, bypassing academic rigurosity. It should not be cited in an academic paper.
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A web browser is a program that lets a human access webpages on the World Wide Web. At a bare minimum, a web browser must be able to make HTTP requests and to present parsed HTML to the user in a form that he can understand. Most modern browsers present the user with a flat document that contains text and pictures, according to the HTML page received. Others may present serial text only, or even read the page aloud. While most people interact with their browser with a mouse, many advanced web browsers such as Opera provide full keyboard and voice control. Also, there are specialty browsers designed for people with physical handicaps and other disabilities. For use in a low-resources environment, text-only web browsers such as Lynx may be used.
In addition to the text and pictures of standards-compliant HTML code, most of today's web browsers can display video, play music, and provide a limited amount of scripting ability. While these abilities do afford the webmaster the ability to design more elaborate websites, not all web browsers interpret the non-standard code in the same way. In fact, even the standardized code is not very well supported certain web browsers, notably Internet Explorer. The race to add more features at the expense of standards-compliance is known as the Browser Wars, and has led to a situation where very few websites display properly in all the major web browsers. From 2002 until late 2006 the Browser Wars have been very cool with little development done on IE, the most popular web browser in use today. However, in late October 2006 both IE and Firefox (IE's current arch-foe) released new versions of the software. This has renewed interest and awareness of the subject, especially in light of severe security flaws in the new IE7.
The first web browser was written by Tim Berners-Lee, who also invented HTML, HTTP, and wrote the first web server. The WorldWideWeb web browser was intended for use by physicists working in labs in different parts of the world, thus the HTML language that it supported was designed to be very easy to learn (for physicists). The language is based upon hierarchical outline structure, with tags spread through out the text that define the presentation of the page in question. In the 15+ years since its invention, HTML has moved away from its original goal of defining the layout of webpages, to defining the meaning of its contents. Separate technologies, such as CSS, are responsible for defining page layout today.
Software Terminology Questions
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When Stephanie Green and a team of seven other scientists first began their latest research study more than two years ago in Vancouver, she said they were driven by curiosity.
Green, a Canadian, is a Banting post-doctoral fellow at Stanford University in California. She specializes in marine ecology and conservation science.
Most people knew that there was research underway on local impacts of Canada's oilsands industry, which sits in the middle of North America, hundreds of kilometres away from the coasts. But the team of eight scientists wanted to see how much scientific research had been completed on how the industry might affect the oceans.
By the end of their review, which involved scrutinizing 9,260 different research papers, the scientists concluded that there are a lot of things we don’t know about how Alberta's oilsands industry might alter the planet's oceans.
Overall, the scientists found 15 different ways that the oilsands industry — in a Canadian prairie province that’s home to the world’s third largest reserve of crude oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela — can cause “stress” or “disturbances” to the oceans.
The findings were published Tuesday in Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment in the midst of what the authors call an "intense public policy debate" about the future of energy.
Ten of 15 oilsands impacts on oceans are 'certain'
The scientists found that at least 10 of these impacts are “certain” to happen from new coastal development, ocean shipping, climate change and the risk of spills of bitumen, the heavy oil found in natural deposits of sand and clay in northern Alberta's oilsands. The other impacts would be probable, according to the study, which underwent a rigorous peer review.
Possible impacts would include disruptions to organisms from the waves and noise of ships, collisions with marine life, the introduction of potentially invasive species, as well as contamination from spills or the products used to clean up after disasters. The study also reviewed larger impacts that are caused by development in the oilsands and other industries such as climate change, ocean acidification and sea level rise.
"The extent of public information varies greatly, from little known effects of bitumen products in oceans to well-established consequences of climate change,"according to the study.
Bitumen is too heavy to flow freely in a pipeline in ambient temperatures. So it must be shipped after being diluted in a toxic solution, sometimes using a formula that is considered to be an industry trade secret. This product, known as dilbit, could react differently in water when compared to other forms of crude oil that have previously been implicated in spills such as the Exxon Valdez tanker disaster off the coast of Alaska in March 1989 or the BP Deepwater Horizon drilling disaster of April 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico. The secret formula used to ship bitumen could also make it difficult for responders to figure out how to clean up after a spill, the new paper said.
The new study — Oil sands and the marine environment: current knowledge and future challenges — was published less than a month after Prime Minister Justin Trudeau’s government approved two major pipeline expansion projects, Enbridge’s Line 3 replacement from Alberta to Superior, Wisconsin in the U.S. midwest, and Kinder Morgan’s Trans Mountain expansion project from Alberta to the Vancouver region on the west coast of B.C.
Together, these projects, if completed, would add more than one million barrels per day of capacity to Canada’s pipeline infrastructure. But they are fiercely opposed by many First Nations leaders, environmentalists and some local mayors who say they pose to great a risk of spills, while pushing the country’s climate change goals out of reach.
The latest research from the scientists adds evidence into the debate that was missing when Trudeau announced his government's decisions.
“As Canadians, I think we often think about what’s happening with our fossil fuel industry, particularly around the oilsands being inland — inland Canada — and looking at the environment there,” said Green, the study’s lead author, in an interview with National Observer. “But as we’re seeing increasing pressure to transport this product globally, it’s connecting that type of industry to the ocean in ways that most of us don’t really consider.”
The Trudeau government and industry have said that they are investing hundreds of millions of dollars to ensure that new oilsands projects and pipelines will be safe and responsible. This includes an "historic" $1.5 billion federal plan to protect the oceans that was announced by Trudeau in November.
But the new research paper has recommended that governments should improve environmental assessments and oversight of industrial projects to fill the gaps in knowledge.
Otherwise, Green and her co-authors — Kyle Demes, Michael Arbeider, Wendy Palen, Anne Salomon, Thomas Sisk, Margo Webster and Maureen Ryan — warn that there's a risk when project proponents are “conflating the ‘absence of evidence’ for ecological effects with ‘evidence of absence’ of impacts.” This, in turn, could lead to damage to valuable natural resources, the study said.
“In the case of oil sands development, our study highlights substantial gaps in the scientific knowledge needed to support sound policy decisions,” the study said. “It also reveals gaps in regulatory mechanisms needed to incorporate existing information into risk assessments in North America, and provides key lessons for jurisdictions internationally that will face these same issues in future.”
Oil industry discloses some information on website
Green said that, as a scientist, she thought it would be interesting to examine the full suite of effects of oilsands projects on the oceans in order to determine what information needs to be gathered to understand all of the risks of new development.
“For our group of authors, we understand that there’s a whole bunch of factors that go into the decision-making. But science and evidence need to play an important role for people so that those decision-makers have the right facts and the right information.”
Some of the industry products are disclosed on a website: crudemonitor.ca. But even in government, scientists admit that they haven't studied all types of oil products shipped in Canada since the industry is constantly introducing new products and formulas.
“We’re looking at the ones that are shipped in the highest volumes,” said Carl Brown, a scientist who manages the emergencies, science and technologies section at Environment and Climate Change Canada, in an interview with National Observer, earlier in December. “We’ve looked at different types. So we’ve looked at diluted bitumen (products) that have the condensate as a diluent. We’ve looked at some that have the synthetic crude as the diluent. So. in broad strokes, we’ve looked at the major classes."
The scientists who authored the new study shared their findings with the government in November, prior to Trudeau's announcement, and also shared some of the information with reporters. A few days ago, Wendy Palen, one of the co-authors, even noted on Twitter that the scientists had only found four papers that reviewed direct impacts of bitumen on oceans, describing this as "inadequate risk assessment" of industry.
9000 studies in total, only 4 directly on bitumen in ocean = inadequate risk assessment— Wendy Palen (@wpalen) December 11, 2016
But Brown said he was not among the government officials that were consulted about the new study, prior to the pipeline approvals.
Environment and Climate Change Canada team tries to learn from spills
Brown said his own team at the federal department has examined the differences between products shipped in the winter and the summer and tries to prepare for the possibility of a spill. He also said that they can learn more when a spill actually occurs.
“So, (we) use that as an opportunity to learn and corroborate the science that we’ve produced,” Brown said. “Luckily those sorts of things are not very common, but we try and learn as much as we can to try to prepare for the next time."
The paper also recommended that industry should pay to help the government fill the gaps in knowledge to prepare for spills, noting that this is what happened in the U.S. after the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska. The authors proposed that this could come in the form of a per-barrel tax that would go toward a trust fund that could be used to respond to spills.
Tom Sisk, a co-author, said that the scientists elaborated on this proposal in response to some feedback they received from reviewers who asked for more details about how to address the challenges that they had identified.
But both Green and Sisk said they saw opportunities to engage in Canada as it pursues reviews of its oversight of industry, including the environmental assessment process and its review of the country's pipeline regulator, the National Energy Board.
But when asked about the incoming administration of president-elect Donald Trump, Sisk noted that there was some uncertainty about policies and about what might happen to America's unconventional oil resources if global commodity prices start to rise again.
"We are in a period of political transition, obviously, toward an administration that has promised to roll back some of the environmental policies, particularly with regard to climate. We don't know exactly what that will look like," said Sisk, the director of the landscape conservation initiative at Northern Arizona University.
"The recent decrease in oil prices has certainly led to a pause in the development of unconventional oil in the United States, but as soon as those prices climb up to certain point, I'm sure we'll be immediately back into a place where oilsands (deposits) in the United States, and oil shale — other forms of unconventional oil — will begin to look more attractive, from an economic development standpoint and that will pose new threats to land water and climate and biodiversity."
Sisk added that Americans and Canadians both need to think about the long-term and cumulative impacts of projects, instead of focusing on individual proposals, one at a time.
"We're never going to really succeed in aligning energy needs and environmental values if we're always in a reactive mode," he said. "If we're always trying to stop the latest proposal that has bad environmental consequences. We really need to get out in front to create a realistic energy policy that incorporates sound science and prioritizes the environmental and conservation outcomes that the public has repeatedly stated that they want — things that they value.
"And there are always going to be those tradeoffs and we need to do that from a long-term perspective that really incorporates our best scientific understanding and uses evidence to drive these tough decisions that are going to determine what the environmental energy future is. We need to be thinking long term."
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| Political Party:|
|Languages||English, Romanian (Official)|
|Area||107 miles diameter|
• After Taxes
| Aluminium & Fish|
Furs, Gems, Gold, Lumber, Marble, Spices, Sugar, Uranium
The Trucidian RepublicEdit
The Trucidian Republic (Romanian: Trêcidia), often referred to simply as Trucidia, is a small nation in the Balkan region which borders Moldavia and Ukraine to the north, Romania to the west and Bulgaria to the south, and also has several miles of coastline along the Black Sea. The Carpathian Mountains form the current western border of the Trucidian Republic, and the Danube Delta covers a large portion of the nation. The ancient city of Constanţa is the Trucidian Republic’s largest city and capital. The Trucidian Republic is an active member of the Brotherhood of Sovereign States, having joined on July 30, 2006.
The Middle AgesEdit
The Trucidian Republic can trace it’s origins back to the 1530s, when the Ottoman Empire was at the height of it’s power in eastern Europe and the Balkans. While Romania and Transylvania were under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire they was effectively cut off from western European influences, and during this period the peasant population of Romania began to grow dissatisfied with the totalitarian rule of noble families and the vassal state of Romania. Roman Catholicism was at the height of it’s reign of terror, and many disillusioned Medieval serfs began to fall back to worshiping the old Gods of ancient Romania. In response to this. the established ruling nobles began organizing inquisitions and executions of known and suspected pagans. Peasants, serfs and freemen began to unite under the banners of the pagan gods, notably Bendis, the ancient Thracian (modern Wallachia) goddess of healing. The sacred animal of Bendis, the snake, was used as a symbol for rebellion and general unrest.
Tensions between Romania, Transylvania, the Ottoman empire and the peasant class of Romania itself began to boil over, and in 1588 a peasant revolt lead by the disinherited noble Trêzidiaz family tore Romania in two along the eastern stretch of the Danube river and the Carpathian Mountains. The rebellion would have been short-lived had it not been for the Ottoman Empire’s insistence that the new Trêcidian Empire be allowed to exist lest civil war destabilize the entire region; the Christian kingdoms of Hungary and Austria were considering fighting for independence from Ottoman rule, and any weakness to the east would mean that the Ottoman military would be divided in attention and vulnerable to attack. Over the next 150 years, Austria and her Christian allies would regain freedom from Turkish rule anyway, and along with them, Romania, Transylvania and the Trêcidian Empire.
1700 to 1988Edit
During the invasion of Romania by the Habsburg Monarchy, the Trêcidian Empire was largely spared, partly through military actions and partly because of it’s isolated location, but the nation was still as small and vulnerable as ever. During the First World War the botched Romanian invasion of Transylvania threw the region into chaos, although the Trêcidian Empire did not suffer much from the discord because the nation truly did not have far to fall. The Trêcidian Empire refused to sign the Treaty of Trainon after the Armistice, which resulted in the Empire’s exclusion from much of the Balkan’s economy and ensured the nation’s poverty until the end of the 20th century. The Trécidian Empire’s people suffered at the hands of the Axis powers during World War Two due to their pagan beliefs and unwillingness to surrender to Germany or Italy.
During communist expansion through eastern Europe after the Second World War, the Trêcidian Empire was annexed by the Soviet Union and reorganized into the province of Trucidia in 1949 along with Romania. The Soviet Unions brutal control Trucidia and Romania began to stir dissent and rebellion in the Trucidian people, who once again began to fly the symbol of Bendis as a sign of resistance. In 1958, with the negotiated retreat of Soviet forces from Romania, revolutionary parties began to form in Trucidia, most notably the Trucidian People’s Front. In 1989, the TPF collaborated with the Romanian National Salvation Front to finally retake their respective countries from the Soviet Union with an orchestrated revolution. The TPF formed a Republican-style government on gaining control of the Trucidian government centers, and the modern nation that rose from the ashes of communism was named the Trucidian Republic.
1989 to PresentEdit
Since 1989 the Trucidian Republic has stabilized it’s economy and annexed the Dobrogea province and neighboring counties from Romania. The Trucidian Republic, wary of outside organizations, has refused to join NATO or the European Union, which continues to contribute to it’s exclusion from the larger European community. The snake, the sacred animal of Bendis, has become the emblem of the Republic and is, in one form or another, the symbol for most government branches. The pagan religious tendencies of the Republic’s people have ensured that their treatment by the largely Orthodox, Protestant and Catholic neighbors is wary at best. With the election of Röhdberadt Moyaeru as Consul of the Trucidian Republic, there has been a growth spurt of annexations and military actions, and the Republic appears to have ambitious plans for it’s future.
The government of the Trucidian Republic is a simple Republican system. A Senate composed of members elected by the population elects a Consul every 4 years, who then appoints the various other members of government such as defense ministers and ministers of treasury.
The courts of the Trucidian Republic operate in a hierarchical system ranging from Civil Court at the bottom which deals with non-criminal civil matters to the Constitutional Court at the top. The judicial system of Trucidia is based on the inqiusitorial system.
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By Nour Awad
Advisor: Prof. Nickolas J. Themelis, Columbia University
Co-advisors: Marco J. Castaldi, City College of New York
Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering
Fu Foundation School of Engineering & Applied Science
The cement industry produces the most widely used construction material, requires a significant amount of fossil fuels (120 to 180 kg of coal/ton cement), and contributes up to 5% of the global CO2 emissions. The idea of making use of the non-salable waste as a fuel to be used in cement plants, instead of landfilling it, was the driving force behind this feasibility study of replacing fossil fuels with waste-derived alternative fuels. Economic, environmental and operational feasibility studies are necessary to evaluate to what extent such a substitution can be made without affecting cement quality and adverse environmental impacts. This study showed that extensive work is currently being done on this issue around the globe. Specifically in the U.S., over 20% of the 107 operating cement plants have been integrating alternative fuels (AF) to their processes. The contribution of AF in the cement industry increased from 3 to 25% between 1980 and 2013.
Download Thesis (pdf)
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Home Plate Replacement and Reconstruction
The home plate area experiences very high traffic. An improperly maintained home plate area results in bad ball hops and injuries. Because of the abuse caused by such high traffic, this area must be properly prepared. If home plate is worn, now may be the best time to replace it. The home plate area is a circle with a 26-foot diameter. The batter's box and catcher’s box should be completely level with home plate. Turface® Mound Clay® and MoundMaster® Blocks should be used in the batter's box and catche's box.
Recommended Equipment and Materials
The following steps are similar to those in replacing the pitching rubber.
- To start, take a long nail and place it in the ground at the apex of home plate. This will act as a reference guide when dropping the new plate into the existing foundation.
HINT: It is a good idea to stretch string from the 1st base and 3rd base lines past home plate. The two strings will intersect at the apex where you have placed your nail. If the walls collapse and the nail falls, you will have a back up mark where the strings cross.
- With a pick dig out in front of the plate, exposing the entire front base of the plate.
- Dig out one side of the plate in a similar manner.
- A person should support the back edges by standing with their feet apart at the apex of home plate (see diagram below); slowly and carefully pry out the plate from the front. This should leave three supporting walls in tact. Remove feet so you don’t collapse walls.
- Once the plate is removed, eliminate any excess material in or surrounding the hole.
- Take some packing clay and spread and level it in the base of the foundation.
- Place new home plate into existing foundation.
- For proper accuracy, use a carpenter’s level and tamp to level the plate from front to back and side to side.
- Once the plate is leveled, fill all voids surrounding the plate with prepared packing clay.
- Lightly tamp the new material so it will firm up and bond with the existing soil.
- Make sure the batter's box and the catcher's box are built up to where they are perfectly level with the top of the plate. If home plate is elevated, even by the slightest amount, it can be a safety hazard. Leveling can be accomplished by adding clay, smoothing with the ten foot 2" x 4" placed on top of home plate and then lightly tamping.
ONLY THE WHITE LEVEL PORTION OF THE PLATE SHOULD BE VISIBLE. THE BLACK SLOPING SIDES SHOULD BE COVERED WITH DIRT.
HINT: Many times a home plate is anchored with a cement anchor or a wooden base. This provides added security from home plate movement and makes replacement easier. Consult a base company for ways to accomplish this.
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Eustachian Tube Dysfunction
Eustachian tube dysfunction (ETD) is a condition affecting up to 5% of the adult population. It can cause muffled hearing, pain in the ear, and other symptoms. Untreated, long term eustachian tube dysfunction can have serious health consequences, including damage to the eardrum and middle ear. Dr. Shervin Aminpour uses Acclarent AERA Eustachian Tube Dilation System to treat persistent Eustachian tube dysfunction at the source.
Eustachian Tubes and Their Functions
The Eustachian tubes are the narrow tubes that connect the middle ear (the space behind the eardrum) with the back of the nose. In adults, these tubes are approximately 3 to 4 cm (1.18 to 1.57 inches) long. The 3 main functions of the Eustachian tubes are to:
- Ventilate the middle ear;
- Protect the middle ear from disease; and
- Help drain secretions away from the middle ear.
The Eustachian tubes are normally closed, but open when we yawn, swallow, or chew, which allows air to flow into the middle ear and mucus to flow out. This equalizes air pressure on either side of the eardrum and keeps the middle ear free of mucus. It also helps the eardrum vibrate, which is necessary for us to hear. As long as the Eustachian tubes are working properly, they typically go unnoticed.
Symptoms of Eustachian Tube Dysfunction
ETD occurs when the Eustachian tube becomes blocked or fails to open properly. As air cannot get into the middle ear, the air pressure becomes unequal, with greater pressure on the outside of the eardrum than on the inside, in the middle ear. This pressure pushes the eardrum inward, so it becomes tense and does not vibrate properly when it is hit by sound waves.
Symptoms of ETD can last for several hours to several weeks or longer. They may include:
- Dull or muffled hearing
- Ear pain
- Feeling of fullness in the ear
- Tinnitus (ringing or buzzing in the ear)
Causes of Eustachian Tube Dysfunction
Conditions that cause ETD include:
- Common cold and other nasal, sinus, ear, or throat infections: Blocked nasal passages and thick mucus with a cold or infection can block the Eustachian tube and cause ETD. Infection can also cause inflammation and swelling of the lining of Eustachian the tube. ETD symptoms can persist for a week or more after a cold or infection has healed, as trapped mucus and swelling can take some time to resolve.
- Glue ear: This is a condition, common among children, in which the middle ear becomes filled with a glue-like fluid. The Eustachian tube becomes congested, so air cannot flow into the middle ear. This creates a difference in air pressure, which can lead to muffled hearing and pain. The glue-like fluid further interferes with the vibrations of the eardrum, which can further affect the hearing.
- Allergies: Hay fever or persistent rhinitis (inflammation of the nose), that come with a blocked, itchy, runny nose and sneezing, can cause extra mucus and inflammation in and around the Eustachian tubes. This can lead to Eustachian tube dysfunction.
- Blockage of the Eustachian tube: Enlarged adenoids or any condition that causes a blockage in the Eustachian tubes can lead to ETD. In rare cases, tumors that develop in the back of the nose can cause ETD.
How Eustachian Tube Dysfunction is Diagnosed
An ENT diagnoses ETD by ordering certain tests. In most cases, the common procedure to detect ETD is a nasal endoscopy and at times, tympanometry.
ETD is also diagnosed with the help of CT scans. The doctor also carries out a head and neck exam to check whether the patient experiences any issues due to a fluid imbalance in the ear.
Los Angeles Allergy Specialist
Dr. Aminpour has a vast amount of knowledge and experience when it comes to allergies and how to treat them. Learn more about the many symptoms and what treatments we have to offer.Learn More
Complications of Eustachian Tube Dysfunction
In many cases, after a cold, for example, ETD will resolve on its own within a few days to a week or so after the infection clears up. However, persistent ETD should not be left untreated. It can have serious complications, including:
- Otis media with effusion (a collection of non-infected fluid in the middle ear)
- Atelectasis of the middle ear (reduction in middle ear volume caused by Eustachian tube blockage followed by absorption of the oxygen in the middle ear and retraction of the ear drum medially)
- Adhesive otitis (inflammation of the middle ear caused by prolonged ETD resulting in permanent retraction of the eardrum and obliteration of the middle ear space)
- Cholesteatoma (abnormal, noncancerous skin growth behind the ear drum caused by repeated ear infections)
- Perforation of the ear drum
Risk Factors of ETD
A blocked Eustachian tube can cause imbalance and dizziness since the Eustachian tubes are responsible for equalizing the ear pressure. In addition, it can lead to a loss of hearing and cause blocks in the ear that leads to a ringing sensation.
Blocked Eustachian tubes can also cause upper respiratory tract infections which can eventually lead to a loss of hearing.
When should I see my doctor?
In most cases, ETD goes away on its own. Home remedies like forcing a yawn or chewing gum are helpful in getting rid of the blocked air in the tubes.
If you begin to experience symptoms such as ringing in the ears, dizziness, or loss of hearing, it is important to make an appointment with an ENT right away.
Treatments for Eustachian Tube Dysfunction
Mild cases of ETD can be treated using over the counter medications. Patients are often prescribed anti-histamines in cases where the ETD is triggered by allergies.
Severe infections are treated using antibiotics and topical treatments.
A common treatment method is the Eustachian tube balloon dilation method. In this method, the surgeon inflates a small balloon into the Eustachian tube through the nose. The inflated balloon clears a passageway for mucus and air. Once this is achieved, the surgeon deflates the balloon and pulls it back. This restores the proper function of the Eustachian tube.
Acclarent AERA System to Treat Persistent Eustachian Tube Dysfunction
In the past, treatments for chronic Eustachian tube dysfunction were limited primarily to medications or surgery, but Dr. Aminpour offers his patients another option. The Acclarent AERA Eustachian Tube Balloon Dilation System is the first device in the U.S. for dilating the Eustachian tube to treat persistent ETD.
With this system, Dr. Aminpour uses a catheter to insert a small balloon through the nose and into the Eustachian tube. The balloon is inflated to open up a pathway for air and mucus to flow through the Eustachian tube, to help restore normal function. After the Eustachian tube has been dilated, the balloon is deflated and removed.
Clinical studies of the Acclarent AERA system have shown a 99.7% technical success rate in Eustachian tubes dilated and a greater rate of ear drum normalization than in patients treated with medical management alone. There were no device or procedure-related serious adverse events reported, and a significant percentage of patients reported improved quality of life. The Acclarent AERA system is at the forefront of Eustachian tube dysfunction medical technology and will play a significant role in treating this disease.
Dr. Shervin Aminpour is a board-certified otolaryngologist – an ear, nose, and throat (ENT) doctor in Los Angeles – and a sinus surgeon who offers a broad range of services for patients suffering from ear, nose, and throat issues, such as Eustachian tube dysfunction. He stays up-to-date on ever-changing and evolving ENT technology to provide his patients with the most advanced treatments and highest quality care.
Dr. Aminpour is a certified Los Angeles allergist trained in the Acclarent AERA Eustachian Tube Balloon Dilation System. If you are suffering from persistent Eustachian tube dysfunction, it is important to receive medical treatment for your condition to help prevent further serious complications. When you come to our clinic for a consultation with Dr. Aminpour, he can evaluate your condition and advise you if the Acclarent AERA system is the right treatment option for you.
Eustachian Tube Dysfunction FAQ
What is Eustachian Tube Dysfunction?
Eustachian tubes connect the middle ears to the upper throat. When functioning properly, the tubes drain fluid and keep pressure equalized in the ear. Eustachian tubes remain closed the majority of the time, but open when chewing, swallowing or yawning. When tubes open, negative pressure or fluid can enter the tube. When the tubes become blocked, the pressure outside the ear is high, making hearing difficult. Patients also tend to experience an overwhelming sensation of “fullness” in the ear. This dysfunction can be extremely painful.
What are the Common Symptoms of EDT?
- Ear pain
- A feeling of fullness
- Ear feels plugged
- Ringing or popping noises
- Struggle to hear clearly
- Itching inside of ear
Will EDT Go Away on its Own?
EDT can resolve itself on its own without requiring treatment. If you struggle with the symptoms of EDT in Burbank after for several days, get help from Dr. Shervin Aminpour.
Do Steroids Help Eustachian Tube Dysfunction?
Allergies can play a significant role in chronic Eustachian tube dysfunction. There are numerous ways to treat allergies, including steroids. Oral and nasal steroids may have a beneficial effect and can be used to reduce the inflammation and swelling of the Eustachian tube.
Are There Home Remedies for EDT?
If Eustachian tube dysfunction affects you, there are many home remedies that may or may not be helpful. While your mouth is closed, try breathing out of your nose. If you suffer from allergies, they could be the link to your struggle with Eustachian tube dysfunction. Antihistamines can an effective treatment to clear the sinus passages and prevent any blockage in the ear that might affect the Eustachian tubes. Over the counter medications may be effective in reducing the pain or discomfort if an ear obstruction is present.
How Does Altitude Change Affect Eustachian Tube Dysfunction or Blockage?
Air travel can result in discomfort to the Eustachian tubes due to the sudden changes in altitude or air pressure. Moving from low atmospheric pressure at high elevations to landing where the pressure is higher can create very painful symptoms. Many people experience ear popping when a flight is taking off or landing. The popping occurs because a small air bubble was trapped in the Eustachian tube. The most common way to avoid any issues with the ear is to chew gum during takeoff or landing. Other ways to equalize pressure include yawning, swallowing or sucking on a piece of candy. Those with a more serious case can suffer extreme pain and should have the condition treated and resolved prior to taking a flight.
What is Patulous Eustachian Tube Dysfunction?
The term Patulous means continuously open. Patulous Eustachian tube dysfunction occurs when the Eustachian tube never closes. If you can hear echoing when you talk, or hear yourself breathe, you may be suffering from Patulous Eustachian tube dysfunction. This distortion of sound is because your voice is traveling up your Eustachian tubes at a faster rate than out the ear and into the room itself. If you wish to learn more about Eustachian Tube Dysfunction or Eustachian Tube Balloon Dilation, don't hesitate to contact Dr. Shervin Aminpour today.
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LINQ TakeWhile Partition Operator
In LINQ, TakeWhile Operator is used to get the elements from the list/collection of the data source as long as the specified condition is holding the expression.
Syntax of LINQ TakeWhile Operator
The syntax of using the LINQ TakeWhile operator is to get the elements from the list, based on the specified condition.
From the above syntax, we are getting the elements from the list where the elements starts with "U".
Example of LINQ TakeWhile in Method Syntax
Here is the example of using the LINQ TakeWhile in method syntax to get the elements from the list/collection.
In the above example, we used TakeWhile () operator and a lambda expression in which we specified the condition which will select the countries that starts with "U." So, it returns only the first two elements.
Example of LINQ TakeWhile in Query Syntax
Here is the example of using the LINQ TakeWhile Operator in query syntax to get the elements from the list.
After executing the above program, we get the output as shown below:
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For the 39 million people in the world who are blind, a vision-restoring therapy would be the ultimate prize. So far, this prize has remained out of reach, but two studies published this week have entered the ring as promising contenders in the fight against blindness.
In the red corner, we have a study published in Stem Cell Reports from the RIKEN Institute in Japan led by scientist Masayo Takahashi. Her team restored vision in blind mice with an advanced stage of retinal disease by transplanting sheets of light-sensing photoreceptor cells that were made from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
In the blue corner, we have a study published in Cell Stem Cell from the Buck Institute in California led by scientist Deepak Lamba. His team restored long-term vision in blind mice by transplanting embryonic stem cell-derived photoreceptor cells and preventing the immune system from rejecting the transplant.
Transplanting Retinal sheets
Synaptic integration of graft retina into model mouse
Let’s first talk about the Riken study led by Masayo Takahashi. She is well known for her pioneering work on iPSC-derived treatments for macular degeneration – a disease that damages the retina and causes blindness.
In previous work, Takahashi and her team transplanted sheets of mouse stem cell-derived retinal progenitor cells, which mature into light-sensing cells called photoreceptors, into the eyes of mice. The cells within the sheet formed connections with the resident cells in the mouse eye, proving the feasibility of transplanting retinal sheets to restore vision.
In their current study, published in Stem Cell Reports, Takahashi’s team found that the retinal sheets could restore vision in mice that had a very severe form of retinal disease that left them unable to see light. After the mice received the retinal transplants, they responded to light, which they were unable to do previously. Like their other findings, they found that the cells in the transplant made connections with the host cells in the eye including nerve cells that send light-sensing signals to the brain.
First author on the study, Michiko Mandai explained the importance of their findings and their future plans in a news release,
“These results are a proof of concept for using iPSC-derived retinal tissue to treat retinal degeneration. We are planning to proceed to clinical trials in humans after a few more necessary studies using human iPSC-derived retinal tissue in animals. Clinical trials are the only way to determine how many new connections are needed for a person to be able to ‘see’ again.”
While excited by their results, Mandai and the rest of the RIKEN team aren’t claiming the prize for a successful treatment that will cure blindness in people just yet. Mandai commented,
“We cannot expect to restore practical vision at the moment. We will start from seeing a simple light, then possibly move on to larger figures in the next stage.”
Blocking the immune system
Image showing transplanted GFP-expressing human stem cell derived photoreceptors (green) integrated in a host rodent retina stained for Otx2 (red).
Credit Jie Zhu, Buck Institute for Research on Aging
In the Buck Institute study, Lamba and his team took on the challenge of answering a controversial question about why retinal cell transplants typically don’t survive long-term in the eye. Some scientists think that the transplanted cells die off over time because they don’t integrate into the eye while others think that they are rejected and killed off by the immune system.
To answer this question, Lamba transplanted human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal cells into immunodeficient mice that lacked a protein receptor that’s vital for a functioning immune system. The retinal cells transplanted into immunodeficient mice survived much better than retinal cells transplanted into normal mice and developed into ten times as many photoreceptors that integrated themselves into the host eye.
Their next step was to transplant the retinal cells into mice that were blind and also lacked the same immune receptor as the other mice. After the transplant, the blind mice became responsive to light and showed brain activity associated with sensing light. Their newfound ability to see lasted for nine months to a year following the transplant.
Lamba believes that backing down the immune response is responsible for the long-term vision restoration in the blind mice. He explained the importance of their findings in a Buck Institute news release,
“That finding gives us a lot of hope for patients, that we can create some sort of advantage for these stem cell therapies so it won’t be just a transient response when these cells are put in, but a sustained vision for a long time. Even though the retina is often considered to be ‘immune privileged,’ we have found that we can’t ignore cell rejection when trying to transplant stem cells into the eye.”
In the future, Lamba will explore the potential for using drugs that target the specific protein receptor they blocked earlier to improve the outcome of embryonic stem cell-derived retinal transplants,
“We can also potentially identify other small molecules or recombinant proteins to reduce this interleukin 2 receptor gamma activity in the body – even eye-specific immune responses – that might reduce cell rejection. Of course it is not validated yet, but now that we have a target, that is the future of how we can apply this work to humans.”
Who will be the winner?
The Buck Institute study is interesting because it suggests that embryonic stem cell-based transplants combined with immunosuppression could be a promising strategy to improve vision in patients. But it also begs the question of whether the field should focus instead on iPSC-based therapies where a patient’s own stem cells are used to make the transplanted cells. This strategy would side step the immune response and prevent patients from a taking a lifetime of immunosuppressive drugs.
However, I’m not saying that RIKEN’s iPSC-based strategy is necessarily the way to go for treating blindness (at least not yet). It takes a lot of time and money to make iPSC lines and it’s not feasible given our current output to generate iPSC lines for every blind patient.
So, it sounds like a winner in this fight to cure blindness won’t be announced any time soon. In the meantime, both teams need to conduct further preclinical studies before they can move on to testing these treatments in human clinical trials.
Here at CIRM, we’re funding a promising Phase 1 clinical trial sponsored by jCyte for a form of blindness called Retinis Pigmentosa. Based on preliminary results with a small cohort of patient, the treatment seems safe and may even be showing hints of effectiveness in some patients.
Ultimately, more is better. As the number of stem cell clinical trials for blindness grows, the sooner we can find out which therapies work best for which patients.
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As defined by the U.S. National Library of Medicine, Crohn’s disease is a complex chronic disorder that affects the digestive system. The disease is an autoimmune response that causes excess inflammation in the intestinal walls, most notably in the lower regions of the small intestine, as well as some areas of the colon or large intestine. The inflammation can manifest itself in any part of the digestive system, ranging from the mouth to the anus.
Crohn’s disease is just one of several diseases falling under inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), as well as one of the most common of its forms. For many years, there wasn’t a lot of research or information about Crohn’s disease. Inflammatory bowel diseases were lumped together in a group.
Back in 1875 ulcerative colitis (UC) was first defined by two English physicians named Wilks and Moxon. Ulcerative colitis can also cause chronic inflammation of the intestinal lining. However, unlike Crohn’s disease, which spreads out and can affect other parts of the digestive system, ulcerative colitis tends to localize its inflammation around the colon.
Then, an autopsy performed in a 42-year-old woman who died after many months of suffering diarrhea and fever showed a “transmural ulcerative inflammation of the colon and terminal ileum.” Though Wilks and Moxon first described this as simple ulcerative colitis, it would be renamed roughly a century later into what is now known as Crohn’s disease.
Crohn’s disease was first adequately described in 1932 by Drs. Burril Crohn, Leon Ginzberg, and Gordon D. Oppenheimer. The three doctors had collected data from 14 patients who were supposedly suffering from a disease in the small intestine that they previously only called intestinal tuberculosis. Upon studying the significant symptoms that all 14 patients displayed, they realized that these were not hallmarks of tuberculosis nor that of any other known disease. The group of doctors then described the illness as something new and named it Crohn’s disease. While treatments have improved in the subsequent 90 days, there still isn’t a known cure for the disease.
The inflammation caused by Crohn’s disease compels tissues to become thick and swollen, to the point that some surface areas in the digestive system will develop open sores. The inflammation itself leads to abdominal pain, weight loss, fatigue, and severe diarrhea, along with malnutrition. As the inflammation itself spreads deep into the affected bowel tissue, the patient can experience debilitating pain, and in turn, lead to complications that can threaten their lives. These complications can include intestinal blockages and ulcers. The disease, though it begins gradually, can worsen over time, especially when its symptoms aren’t adequately addressed. In some cases, Crohn’s disease can even lead to chronic bleeding, anemia, and eye and skin issues.
Patients who have Crohn’s disease experience a cycle of flare-ups wherein the disease’s symptoms worsen before going into remission once again. The cycle itself can happen multiple times throughout a person’s life. This cycle is especially evident with individuals who have gastrointestinal tract inflammation, who suffer greatly during a flare-up of the disease. Patients may feel more at ease or even normal during times of remission.
Roughly three million Americans are affected by some form of inflammatory bowel disorder. And more than 700,000 of those are diagnosed with Crohn’s disease. According to the Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, this number grows steadily as new people are diagnosed. The disease affects both adults and children, and symptoms and complications for each of these people may differ.
As Crohn’s disease’s symptoms manifest differently in different people, there are also different types of the disease.
- Ileocolitis – This is considered as the most common form of Crohn's disease. It primarily affects the terminal ileum (the end of the small intestine) and the large intestine or colon. Symptoms include diarrhea, cramping, significant pain in the middle or lower right side of the abdomen, and weight loss.
- Ileitis – Only the ileum is affected in this type of Crohn’s disease. Symptoms are similar to that of ileocolitis, but in severe cases, complications arise, such as fistulas and inflammatory abscesses. Abscesses typically are found at the right-side lower region of the abdomen.
- Gastroduodenal Crohn’s disease – This type of Crohn’s affects the stomach and upper portion of the small intestine. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss.
- Jejunoileitis – Patchy areas of inflammation characterize this specific form of Crohn’s. The patches are typically located in the upper half of the small intestine. Mild to intense abdominal pain and cramps may occur following meals. Diarrhea also occurs, and fistulas may form in more severe cases, especially when the inflammation period is prolonged.
- Crohn’s (Granulomatous) Colitis – Only the colon is affected in this variety of Crohn’s disease. Symptoms are similar to other forms of the disease but can be more severe, including diarrhea, rectal bleeding, infection around the anus (often abscesses, fistulas, and ulcers). Skin lesions and joint pains may manifest in this variety of Crohn’s more so than in others.
To correctly assess which type of Crohn’s disease a patient may have, a thorough examination and diagnosis by a medical professional are necessary.
As mentioned, the signs and symptoms of Crohn’s disease may vary between patients. The experience of having Crohn’s disease will depend upon which part of the gastrointestinal tract is affected by the illness.
Crohn’s can affect both children and adults, and signs of the disease may start at any age. Research has shown that the symptoms often begin to show among adolescents or young adults who are 15-35 years old.
Because Crohn’s is considered a chronic disease, people experience cycles wherein there will be active symptoms called flares followed by periods of remission. During flares, symptoms manifest, but the most notable one remains gastrointestinal tract inflammation, the hallmark of Crohn’s disease. The disease can affect virtually any area of the G.I. tract, from the mouth, all the way to the anus. Issues that Chron’s can cause in the G.I. tract include:
- Rectal bleeding
- Urgent need to move bowels
- Reoccurring or persistent diarrhea. This can range from mild to severe diarrhea, and there may be pus, mucus, or blood.
- Significant abdominal cramps and pain. The pain levels may vary between individuals, but often, the pain will be on the lower right side of the abdomen.
- A sensation of having incomplete bowel evacuation
- And constipation, leading to potential bowel obstructions
These are some of the most common symptoms of Crohn’s. However, the disease also has several secondary signs or complications that aren’t restricted to areas in or around the G.I. tract. Other symptoms that may be evident in the patient’s overall health and affect a patient’s quality of life include:
- Anemia (paleness and blood loss)
- Redness or pain in the eyes
- Fatigue or continually feeling exhausted. Individuals start to feel extremely tired
- Pain, swelling, or soreness in the joints.
- Kidney stones
- A sensation of nausea, accompanied by a loss of appetite
- Skin inflammation, mainly red and tender bumps, rashes, and sores
- Delayed growth and development
- Mouth sores or ulcers
- Night sweats
- Loss of normal menstrual cycle
- On rare occasions, patients might suffer from liver complications, primary sclerosing cholangitis, or cirrhosis
In severe cases, some complications of Crohn’s disease may lead to:
- Fissures – These are tears in the lining of the anus, which create bleeding or blood in the stool, especially during a bowel movement.
- Fistulas – These are also caused by the inflammation and are common around the anus. Fistulas refer to an abnormal channel forming from one intestine to another, or traveling from the intestine to the bladder, vagina, or the skin. These need immediate medical attention if they develop.
- Stricture – This refers to the narrowing of the intestine from the chronic inflammation.
- Abscess – This term refers to a collection of pus forms in the abdomen, pelvis, or in the anal area.
- Perforated bowel – In some cases, the chronic inflammation becomes so severe that the walls of the intestine weaken, and a hole develops there.
- Malnutrition – As the body is unable to properly absorb the nutrients in the food due to the affected areas of the G.I. tract, a person can develop deficiencies of necessary vitamins and minerals.
For some researchers, the stress involved in living with Crohn’s disease and its symptoms may exacerbate symptoms. Some studies suggest a connection between smoking and Crohn’s, as some frequent smokers develop worse or more frequent flare-ups than non-smokers.
There is also the possibility that having Crohn’s disease may increase the likelihood of the patient developing G.I. cancer. Colorectal cancer risks are increased in people with Crohn’s and may increase further as time goes by.
To this day, doctors aren’t sure what specifically causes Crohn’s disease. Numerous risk factors may be associated with getting the disease. Initially it was thought that stress and diet might contribute to the onset of Crohn’s, but doctors have since discovered that those are aggravating factors rather than causes. Research so far suggests that the compound causes may be a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors.
Over 700,000 people in America are believed to have Crohn’s disease. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicates that it affects anywhere between 26 to 199 people for every 100,000. Both men and women are likely to be affected, and it can occur at any age. However, Crohn’s is seen as more prevalent among adolescents and adults, mainly between ages 15 and 35. Heredity and the immune system are seen as significant factors in the development of Crohn’s disease. Environmental triggers such as medication, pollution, and excessive usage of antibiotics get also considered as possible causes.
- Immune System
Some studies speculate that a virus or bacterium may be responsible for the disease by triggering an autoimmune response in the body. Instead of the normal immune response of fighting off the invading microbes, the immune system begins attacking the digestive tract and causing inflammation. White blood cells build up in the gut’s lining, leading to ulcers and bowel injury.
- Genetic Factors
Crohn’s appears more common among people who have family members that also have the disease, so genetics may play a role in increasing the risk of getting Crohn’s disease. Even having a family history of irritable bowel disorders could increase the risk of developing Crohn’s. At least 15% of affected individuals also have a parent or a sibling who also has Crohn’s disease.
According to the U.S. National Library of Medicine’s Genetics Home Reference, many genes that are related to Crohn’s disease (including NOD2, ATG16L1, IL23R, and IRGM) produce proteins that are involved in immune system function. Variations in the genes can disrupt autophagy, changing the way the immune system responds to digestive system bacteria. When triggered by or combined with environmental factors, inflammation occurs and results in the symptoms that are characteristic of Crohn’s.
- Ethnicity and Environment
Crohn’s can affect virtually any ethnic group, but white people, including those of Eastern European Jewish descent, have the highest risk. There is also an increasing incidence of black people living in North America and the United Kingdom getting the disease.
Living in urban or industrialized areas may not necessarily cause Crohn’s disease, but there are more occurrences of the disease in these areas than other places. In terms of geographic distribution, most IBDs can be found in developed countries and northern climates. However, some studies suggest that the patterns may be changing, mostly due to the environment. Ethnic groups that immigrated to the U.S. after coming from countries with low incidences showed that they now adopt higher rates of developing the disease.
Most people that develop Crohn’s disease are typically diagnosed before they’re 30 years old. The condition can be diagnosed at a younger age, but it’s rare to have occurrences of the disease among children younger than eight years old. One-third of children with Crohn’s disease also grow to a shorter final adult height because of the condition.
Diagnosis & Testing
To truly diagnose whether or not an individual has Crohn’s disease, doctors have to perform numerous exams and tests to seek out signs of bleeding and to rule out underlying causes. Because of the genetic and environmental factors, physicians must consider family and patient history as well. They need to study a patient’s background, where they’re from, and whether or not their families had any incidences of IBD or Crohn’s disease in particular.
Specific tests can be performed to aid healthcare providers in diagnosing or eliminating the possibility of Crohn’s disease.
- Blood tests – These include analyses that look into anemia or infection. Anemia is a condition where there aren’t enough red blood cells to oxygenate one’s tissues. However, experts don’t currently recommend using genetic testing or antibody testing for Crohn’s disease. A fecal occult blood test is also another test that may be performed; the patient needs to provide stool samples so the doctor can check if there is any hidden blood.
- Colonoscopy – Through this procedure, doctors will be able to view the entire colon and the end of the ileum. They can check for signs of inflammation, as well as take small samples for laboratory confirmation of a diagnosis.
- Computerized tomography – A CT scan may be necessary to view the entire bowel along with the tissues outside of it. CT enterography may provide better images of the small intestine.
- Magnetic resonance imaging – An MRI scanner can create detailed images of organs and tissues, making it useful for evaluating the anal area through a pelvic MRI.
Capsule endoscopy – The patient swallows a capsule that contains a tiny camera. The camera travels down the G.I. tract and can take photographs of the small intestine, which a doctor can then study for signs of the disease.
As mentioned previously, there is currently no cure available for Crohn’s disease. However, there are available treatments and medication that can help control its symptoms, especially during the cycle of flare-ups and remissions. Procedures will depend on where the inflammation is, how far along the disease has developed, any complications present, and the patient’s previous responses to prior treatments.
- Corticosteroids – Prednisone and budesonide can help reduce inflammation in the body. However, they won’t always work for everyone with Crohn’s disease. These are only used for short-term improvement of symptoms.
- Oral 5-aminosalicylates – These include sulfasalazine and mesalamine. Though widely used in the past, these are also now considered of limited benefit.
- Azathioprine or mercaptopurine – These are immunosuppressants for IBD. A patient will need careful guidance from their physician to watch out for adverse side-effects.
- Infliximab, adalimumab, and certolizumab pegol – These are tumor necrosis factor inhibitors that neutralize specific immune system proteins that are part of the body’s inflammatory response.
- Methotrexate – This is sometimes used for patients who don’t respond well to other medications.
Diet & Lifestyle:
Changing one’s diet can help reduce symptoms. Doctors recommend:
- Avoiding carbonated drinks
- Avoiding popcorn, vegetable skins, nuts, and other foods with very high fiber content
- Staying hydrated and drinking plenty of liquids
- Eating smaller meals rather than large ones
- Maintaining a food diary to keep track of what you consume
Depending on the type of Crohn’s, a doctor might also recommend a diet that’s high calorie, lactose-free, low fat, low fiber, and low salt. It’s important to talk with one’s doctor about the right diet for your symptoms.
Therapy and Procedures:
- Nutrition therapy – This is a special diet given via a feeding tube wherein nutrients are injected straight into a vein to treat the disease.
- Surgery – Assuming that all other methods have failed to relieve the symptoms of Crohn’s disease, a doctor may recommend surgery. While it won’t cure the disease, it can remove damaged portions of the digestive tract and reconnect healthy areas.
- Biologic therapies – These are the most recently-developed treatments for IBD, not just Crohn’s disease. They are recommended for people with moderately to severely active symptoms that haven’t been alleviated by previous therapies.
Research & Advancement
There is still much to be learned about Crohn’s disease. Researchers are still conducting studies and clinical trials to test new treatments, interventions, and tests to detect and manage the disease.
Understanding where the disease comes from is also vital, as there is no specific cause, just numerous risk factors. Therefore it’s critical for patients to also keep a close eye on their patient records and their diaries during treatment. It can give doctors a valuable glimpse into what could cause the disease.
Through the digitalization of patient and medical records, it’s now easier for doctors to keep track of their patients’ progress. They can look into their medical histories, and find new answers to what causes Crohn’s disease, and how they might potentially be able to treat it better.
People with Crohn’s who want to contribute to research can sign up for a PicnicHealth account to contribute their anonymized medical data to Crohn’s research.
Will the disease ever go away?
As IBD and Crohn’s disease are chronic, patients generally have the condition for life, but medication and treatment can help suppress and manage symptoms. You may go through periods of remission wherein the disease’s symptoms fade, but most patients remain on medication even if the disease is in remission.
Are there alternative treatments available if I don’t want surgery?
Surgery remains a significant treatment in the life of a Crohn’s disease patient—one-third of the people afflicted with it will need surgery. That means most people do manage their condition without surgery, through medication and lifestyle changes. Some people also seek alternative medical treatments, but experts recommend that patients consult closely with their physicians first before trying any alternative solutions.
What symptoms will signal an emergency?
Crohn’s disease can cause several embarrassing symptoms, but it can also become life-threatening very quickly. Strictures can occur and cause a bowel obstruction. It would feel like sharp abdominal pain but with no bowel movements. This is typically the only type of medical emergency possible from Crohn’s.
What are the possible side-effects of medication for Crohn’s?
People with Crohn’s disease are often put on powerful medication. You need to be aware of the possible side-effects they may have, including weight gain and anemia. Side-effects vary by medication, so it’s important to discuss with your doctor before taking medication.
Part of understanding and finding better treatments for Crohn’s disease is through the careful study of patient records and tests. PicnicHealth makes it easier to get your complete medical records to aid in managing Crohn’s disease. Visit Picnichealth.com to sign up for a free PicnicHealth account if you have Crohn’s.
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Downloadable (1 PDF - 15 pages)
The Animal Dentistry activity can also be found within the Needs of Plants and Animals - Let's Do Science Bundle. If you are interested in purchasing this activity and more, you can check out the Needs of Plants and Animals bundle here.
During the Animal Dentistry activity, which is ideal for K-1, students will observe pictures of the teeth of 3 different animals that live on the grasslands. Based on observations of these visible characteristics they classify these animals according to their dentistry and their resulting diet. They use this information to build numerous food chains of specific animals on the prairies.
By the end of the activity students should be able to:
Additional resources included with the activity plan:
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I've been playing with G.tec's intendiX -- a commercially available system that uses brain waves to help you spell words on a computer.
The system consists of an EEG cap, a USB signal processor and amplifier, and a laptop running the indendiX software. The cap has eight EEG electrodes, most of which are centred on your occipital lobe -- the visual processing centre at the back of your brain.
Once you've put on the cap and attached the chest strap to pull it firmly down onto your head, you squirt conductive gel into each electrode to improve signal transmission. There's also an ear clip that acts as a reference point -- the software compares the signal from the EEGs with the baseline figure from the ear clip to compensate for background noise.
The first step is calibration. The software displays a grid of letters, and you select the letters you want to try to spell. You concentrate on the letter you want, and the software flashes horizontal and vertical lines across the grid. When your letter is highlighted there is a recognition spike in your occipital lobe -- the P300 wave that the kit detects. Telling the equipment which letter you wish to spell in advance helps the software distinguish between genuine P300 waves and background noise.
After 10 minutes of calibration it was time to spell for real! It's like Sesame Street, only instead of a giant yellow bird, it's a brain reading device.
The process is the same as calibration, but you don’t select a word in advance. We tried to spell 'wired'. It came out as 'sired' -- an impressive first attempt. Our test room has large amounts of background noise thanks to air conditioning and several wireless networks in the vicinity, so was almost a worst-case scenario for interference.
Spelling words this way is a laborious process, but the system is adaptable -- instead of a grid of letters you could have a menu or a set of locations in a house; select the kitchen to have an electric wheelchair move there automatically.
Want to give it a go? The intendiX kit costs £8,500 from OpenVivo.
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Early mathematics was revolutionised by Muslim scholars like Al-Khwarizmi, the founder of Algebra; Al-Kindi, Al-Khazin, Al-Khujandi,Al-Sijzi, Abul Wafa and numerous others.This article reviews some of the important works of these mathematicians.
Islamic mathematical achievements were many as here outlined by Sabra. Islamic scholars devised and successfully applied new and elaborate techniques of computations; they constructed sophisticated mechanical computers; devised methods for calculating with decimal fractions; took significant steps toward extending the concept of number inherited from the Greeks, so as to include irrational magnitudes as well natural numbers and common fractions; added to the limited, ad hoc trigonometric methods they learned from the Greeks (Ptolemy’s chord function) and from the Indians (the sine and tangent functions) and eventually developed them into an independent discipline no longer subservient to astronomy. They recast the algebraic modes of solving numerical problems found among the Greeks and the Indians, thereby creating a new form of algebraic discourse and setting the science of algebra on a new course (but without introducing a symbolic calculus), and they went a long way in exploiting the use of higher geometry (conic sections) in the solution of higher-than-quadratic equations.
Scott too, notes how in their treatment and application of the exact sciences, and especially in the development of the higher branches of mathematics, the Muslims exhibited pre-eminent ability. The decimal system was also introduced by them; they greatly advanced the study of algebra, whose scope and possibilities had previously been imperfectly understood and applied it to geometry, and they substituted sines for chords, invented modern trigonometry, and proposed a formula for the solution of cubic equations.
In the words of Ronan, Islamic mathematics brought into the mathematical art two powerful techniques — algebra and trigonometry — which are as valid today as they were when the Muslims introduced them.
A considerable bibliography is provided here to enlighten on the scope of Islamic mathematics and to form the foundation for younger researchers to study the real impact of Muslims on this science; a study which is still waiting. Still, possibly, the best historians of sciences from Islamic countries are in the exact sciences, in general, and mathematics in particular. To their labours we owe a great deal to the richer knowledge of the role of Muslim mathematics. Amongst such historians must be cited Rashed, Djebbar, al-Daffa, Jaouiche, Lamrabet, and, of course, Sezgin.
|Figure 2. An artist’s impression of Al-Kindi (Image fromwww.muslimheritage.com).|
The most eminent early mathematicians of Islam came from the East, i.e Iraq, and include amongst them Al-Khwarizmi, the Banu Musa Brothers, al-Kindi, al-Battani, and Abu’l Wafa. It is only possible to refer to a few of the subjects addressed by these mathematicians.
Sarton outlines some of the accomplishments of eminent Muslim mathematicians. Al-Khwarizmi, the Banu Musa, Al-Kindi, and others. The 10th century gave us much more, in mathematics, the so-called dust (ghubar) numerals, the numerals we use in our modern calculation were used in Muslim Spain (The eastern forms still used in the eastern block of the Arab world look like the Hindu numerals). In the same 10th century, Abu Jaafar al-Khazin wrote commentaries on the tenth book of Euclid and on other works and solved al-Maham’s cubic equation; Al-Sagham investigated the trisection of the angle; Abu-l-Wafa’ wrote commentaries on Euclid, Diophantos, and al-Khwarizmi, arithmetical and geometrical treatises, and solved a number of geometrical and algebraical problems; Al-Sijzi made a special study of the intersections of conics and found a geometrical means of trisecting angles; Al-Khujandi proved that the sum of two cubic numbers cannot be a cubic number; Maslama ibn Ahmad composed a commercial arithmetic and studied the amicable numbers, and so much more.
The first great Muslim mathematician was Thabit ibn Qurra, whose astronomical work at Baghdad has already been described. He wrote on the theory of numbers and extended their use to describe the ratios between geometrical quantities — a step the Greeks never took — and he discussed the question of where, if anywhere, parallel lines can meet. Ibn Qurra also prepared a Book of Data, a geometrical book, which was to have a vogue in the West in the Middle Ages.
Al-Khwarizmi was the author of Kitab al Mukhtassar fi’l hisab al jabr wa’l muqabalah (Compendious Book of Calculation by Completion and Balancing). Sabra tells that the title of the treatise, `al jabr wal muquabala,’ referred to the two operations used by him in the process of solving linear and quadratic equations, namely those of eliminating negative quantities and reducing positive quantities of the same power on both sides of the equation. Sabra points out that these terms, which may be translated as restoring (or completing) and balancing respectively, could be traced to concepts already present in the work of Diophantus, but no prototype of al Khawarizmi’s book as a whole is known to have existed in any language prior to the 9th century. Al-Khwarizmi who wrote to show ‘what is easiest and most useful in arithmetic’, in which he used algebra in our modern problem to one of six standard forms, using two processes, the first known as al-jabr, the second as al-mu qabala. Al-jabr was concerned with ‘transferring terms’ to eliminate negative quantities (so that, for example, x = 40 – 4x becomes 5x= 40); al-muqabala was the next process, that of ‘balancing’ the positive quantities that remain (thus if we have 50 + x 2 = 29 + 10x al-muqahala reduces it to x2 + 21 = 10 x) . Al-Khawarizmi’s treatise started something new; its systematic approach represented by its reduction of the treated problems to canonical forms provided with proofs, and “can be said to have impressed its character on subsequent algebraic works, even when these (like the treatises of al-Karaji and Umar Khayyam) went far beyond it.
Another of the Baghdad astronomer-mathematicians was al-Battani, and his notable achievements were, first, that he gave up the old Greek system of chords of angles and adopted the far more convenient trigonometrical proportion known as the sine; he also used its converse ratio, the cosine. With Hipparchos and Ptolemy, the Greeks had come close to trigonometry but they had never finally settled on the ratios that al-Battani adopted, and which, because of their simplicity and convenience, were to revolutionise the mathematics of triangles used so much in astronomy and surveying, divesting it of some of its previous difficulty. Al-Battani’s second achievement was his use of trigonometry, and the projection of figures from a sphere on to a plane, to allow him to get some new and elegant solutions to astronomical problems. Al-Battani (850-929 CE) the first to use the expressions “sine” and “cosine” was very much aware of the superiority of his `sines’ over the Greek chords. His methods were copied in Western Europe in the fifteenth century by the astronomer Regiomontanus.
The Banu Musa brothers (early 9th century) wrote amongst others on the measurement of the sphere, and discovered kinematical methods of trisecting angles and of drawing ellipses.
Al-Kindi’s (801-873CE) works on mathematics were numerous—Flugel in his monograph on al-Kindi gives the titles of more than twenty—and their influence is not to be underestimated. He wrote on spherical geometry and its uses in astronomical works; an introduction to arithmetic and the theory of numbers.
Al-Kindi’s lasting influence on subsequent Western scholars has already been briefly noted. His two treatises on geometrical and physiological optics were utilised by Roger Bacon and the German physicist Witelo. Al-Kindi’s influence was so widely felt that Geronimo Cardano (1501-1576 CE), the Italian physician and mathematician, considered him one of the twelve great minds of history. This is no more than might be expected, if we consider the field of interest of Cardano, who among the moderns perhaps most nearly resembles al-Kindi.
Abu’l-Wafa, making a special study of the tangent, tabulated its values, and introduced the secant and the cosecant. He knew the simple relationships between these six basic trigonometric functions, which are often used even today to define them.
All regions of the Muslim world produced great mathematicians. North Africa, or more precisely the city of Bejaia in today’s Algeria is the foundation of modern Western mathematics through Leonardo Fibonacci, just as Al-Qayrawan is the origin of today’s Western medicine (through Salerno). The Moroccan cities of Fes and Marrakech produced some of the greatest mathematicians of the 13th century. Abd al-Wahid Al-Marakushi was born in Marrakech in 1185 CE; his main work is Jami al-Mabadi wal-ghayat (Compendium of the Principles and Objectives); i.e: principles and results), probably completed in 1229-1230 CE , which has much on trigonometry and gnomonics. The Jami of Hassan al-Marrakushi was, Sarton holds, the most elaborate trigonometrical treatise of the Western Caliphate, the best medieval treatise on gnomonics and the best explanation of graphical methods. The section dealing with gnomonics contained studies of dials traced on horizontal, cylindrical, conical, and other surfaces for every latitude. Al-Marakushi gave a table of sines for each half degree, also tables of versed sines and arc sines (this last one he called the table of al-Khwarizmi). To facilitate the use of gnomons he added a table of arc cotangents.
Ibn al-Banna was born in 1256 CE also in the city of Marrakech. He studied geometry, fractional numbers and learnt much of the impressive contributions that the Muslims had made to mathematics over the preceding 400 years. At the university in Fez, Al-Banna taught all branches of mathematics, which at this time included arithmetic, algebra, geometry and astronomy. Many students studied under al-Banna in this thriving academic community. Based on the inventory that was made, at the time, by Ibn Hayder, Ibn al-Banna seems to be in fact the author of more than 100 titles, of which 32 concern Mathematics and Astronomy. His work Tanbih al-albab,(alerting the minds) the first part of which contains the precise mathematical answers to domains of everyday life; the second part, which belongs to the already ancient tradition of judicial and cultural mathematics, joins a collection of little arithmetical problems presented in the form of poetic riddles. Al-Banna’s other best known work is Talkhis amal al-hisab (Summary of the Operations of Calculation) which contains many new features, including improved treatment of fractions; sums of squares and cubes; casting out of nines, eights, and sevens; rules of double false position. It is in this work that al-Banna introduces some mathematical notations which have led certain authors to believe that algebraic symbolism was first developed in Islam by Ibn al-Banna and al-Qalasadi (1412-1486 CE).
Ibn Hamzah al-Maghribi (16th century) from Algeria surpassed Ibn Yunus (950-1009 CE) towards logarithmic operations in his work on geometric progression. He established the following theorem:
`The order of any given term of a geometric progression, starting with unity, equals the sum minus unity of the powers of the common ratio of the two terms whose product equals the given term.
Some of the very last mathematicians to flourish in the land of Islam did so in Central Asia. One of the principal amongst them was Al-Kashi. He devoted himself to astronomy and mathematics while moving from town to town. Al-Kashi remains to this day known for his great mathematical output. In July 1424, he produced his treatise Risala al-Muhitiya (Treatise on the Circumference), a work in which he calculated 2 [pi] to nine sexagesimal places and translated this into sixteen decimal places. This was an achievement far beyond anything which had been obtained before, either by the ancient Greeks or by the Chinese (who achieved 6 decimal places in the 5th century). It would be almost 200 years before van Ceulen surpassed Al-Kashi’s accuracy with 20 decimal places. Al-Kashi’s most impressive mathematical work was however, Miftah al-Hisab (The Key to Arithmetic) which he completed on 2nd March 1427. The work is a major text intended to be used in teaching students in Samarkand. In particular al-Kashi tried to give the necessary mathematics for those studying astronomy, surveying, architecture, accounting and trading. The work is described as follows:
“In the richness of its contents and in the application of arithmetical and algebraic methods to the solution of various problems, including several geometric ones, and in the clarity and elegance of exposition, this voluminous textbook is one of the best in the whole of medieval literature; it attests to both the author’s erudition and his pedagogical ability.”
Due to its high quality, this work was frequently copied, and served as a manual for hundreds of years.
The other scholar of renown from the region was Qadi Zada Rumi (born 1364 in Bursa, Turkey; died: 1436 in Samarkand, Uzbekistan). Qadi Zada was brought up and completed his standard education in his home town of Bursa, then studied geometry and astronomy with the theologian-encyclopaedist al-Fanari (1350-1431 CE). Following this, Qadi Zada studied mathematics and astronomy in Transoxiana; then a great cultural centre. By 1383 Qadi Zada had already gained a great reputation as a mathematician by completing a treatise on arithmetic: Risala fi’l Hisab, a work which covers arithmetic, algebra and mensuration. Qadi Zada wrote a number of commentaries on works on mathematics and astronomy during his first years in Samarkand. One commentary on the compendium of the astronomer al-Jaghmini was written by Qadi Zada in 1412-13 CE, while a second commentary was on a work by al-Samarkandi. Qadi Zada’s most original work Risalat al jayb (Treatise on the Sine) was a computation of sines with remarkable accuracy. He published his methods in his Treatise on the sine and, although al-Kashi also produced a method for solving this problem, the two methods are different and show that two remarkable scientists were both working on the same problems at Samarkand; Qadi Zada computed sin 1 [degrees] to an accuracy of 10-12 (if expressed in decimals), as did al-Kashi.
It is thus apparent that Muslim efforts in mathematics yielded a great deal. So advanced were Muslim mathematics that in the Medieval period, when the scholar and future Pope, Gerbert of Aurillac (d. 1003) sought to introduce Muslim mathematics in the Christian West, it was rejected, as Scott puts it:
“The famous Gerbert, whose genius had unsuccessfully attempted the enlightenment of Europe nearly two hundred years before. The attainments of that accomplished scholar, respectable in any age, were so superior to those of his contemporaries that, as has been previously stated, they procured for him the unenviable and dangerous title of magician.
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- Traditional Medicine > Traditional, Complementary and Herbal Medicine
- Quality and Safety: Medicines > Regulatory Support
(1998; 49 pages) [French] [Spanish]
In July 1990, an order was issued by the Ministry of Health setting out detailed legal requirements for natural products and pharmaceutical preparations thereof that have traditionally been used. A natural product is defined as a material of a natural origin that has traditionally been used for therapeutic purposes, and that has only been treated (processed) by physical methods. A pharmaceutical preparation is defined as a product thereof with a pharmaceutical form and a traditional empiric use for therapeutic purposes, used only orally or administered topically. Products with therapeutic indications have to be registered as medicines, herbal teas are registered as food. Detailed requirements are given that the plant material has to fulfil with respect to cultivation, collection, drying, etc. For the manufacturer of pharmaceutical preparations, a special licence is needed. Plant material is allowed to be brought into the market, individually packed and not mixed, with a special authorization, and a therapeutic use must not be indicated. Pharmaceutical preparations need a registration that has to be applied for with a technical dossier containing documentation on the manufacturing process, quality control and, if necessary, toxicity studies, together with monographs on the material, including its traditional use, method of application, dose, contra-indications, adverse reactions, and a bibliography. If already registered in two or more countries (which are specifically listed), reference may be made to such a previous registration with respect to the documentation of efficacy. In the case of a medicinal plant product, it has to be certified that the plant is included in an official plant list. Drafts of a label and a leaflet have to be submitted. The registration is valid for ten years and may be renewed .
In August 1990, a resolution published by the Ministry of Health listed 17 plants, their common and botanical names, the parts used, and their traditional use which has been officially accepted, and to which reference may be made .
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This post has been updated from its original 2012 version.
Compact fluorescent lamps use significantly less energy than incandescent bulbs, and use energy to produce only light. In comparison, incandescents use a great deal of energy, with the majority of it being used to create heat. There are a variety of CFL bulbs available, with the GU24 base gaining in popularity. The 13w GU24 bulb is a great compact fluorescent replacement for 60 watt to 75 watt incandescent bulbs throughout the home.
When choosing to replace an incandescent light with a GU24 compact fluorescent, it is important to know a few basic facts about the bulb you are planning to buy. Let’s get into the major differences between these two types of bulbs.
Energy used to create light: 10%
Energy used to create heat: 90%
Standard power used in a home: 60 watts to 75watts
Base type: Screw in, pin base
Energy used to create light: 100%
Energy used to create heat: 0%
Standard power used in a home: 13 watts
Base type: GU24
The GU24 base means the bulb has two pins protruding from the bottom that twist and lock only into a GU24 fixture. Also differing from incandescent lights is how light brightness is determined. The amount of light emitted from an incandescent bulb is determined by the amount of energy it uses. The brightness of a compact fluorescent GU24 is measured in lumens. This is how a 13w GU24 bulb with 950 lumens can replace a 60 watt incandescent bulb, and use approximately 78% less energy to do so.
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A Proven Foundation
ALL In Learning is built on a mountain of research that has lead to documented, significant gains.
In study after study, key principles emerge:
- Make a habit of frequent data collection and immediate feedback. A top “turnaround school” success strategy, it lets teachers see misconceptions so they can reteach or remediate in the moment, and it engages students and gives them ownership of their learning.
- PLCs / Data Teams should collaborate broadly based on timely hard data. Regular data-driven collaboration helps teachers plan effectively, meet the needs of different learning groups, share their most effective techniques and materials, and work more efficiently, reducing stress.
Bringing It to the Classroom
ALL In Learning makes it easy for teachers to apply the research-driven strategies every day.
- Clickers are a proven tool for checks for understanding, are very easy for teachers to use, engage every student in seconds, and our approach can be done with no extra work or grading.
- With doc cams or their phones, they can scan bubble sheets in the blink of an eye, saving hours and giving immediate feedback to students.
- 1-to-1 mobile-device or computer-based solution gives immediate feedback and reporting.
- Colorful, immediate, collated reports for teachers and teams.
- Teams can share materials and use mastery/strategy/remediation plan features.
Read about the research that has shaped ALL In Learning:
Ainsworth, L. & Viegut, D. Common Formative Assessments. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Allison, E, Besser, L & Campsen, L. (2010). Data Teams: The Big Picture: Looking at Data Teams through a Collaborative Lens. Englewood, CO: Lead and Learn Press.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan , 80 (2): 139-148.
Black, P, Harrison, C, Lee, C, Marshall, B & Wiliam, D (2003). Assessment for Learning: Putting it into practice. McGraw-Hill Education, Berkshire, England.
Bambrick-Santoya, P. (2010). Driven by Data. New York: Wiley, John and Sons.
Clarke, S. (2011). Active learning through formative assessment. London: Holder.
Clymer, J. B., & Wiliam, D. (2006/2007). Improving the way we grade science. Educational Leadership, 64(4), 36-42.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. A. (2005). Flow. In A. C. Elliot, Competence and Motivation (pp. 598-608). New York: The Guilford Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins.
Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic Motivation. New York: Plenum Press.
Dickens, W. F. (2001). Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: The IQ paradox resolved. Psychological Review, 108, 346-369.
DuFour, R. & Eaker, R. (1998) Professional Learning Communities at Work. Solution Tree Press.
Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.
Elliot, A. F. (2000). Competence valuation as a strategic intrinsic motivation process. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 780-794.
Hattie, J. (2012). Visible Learning for Teachers. Routledge, New York.
Hayes, V. P. (2003). Using pupil self-evaluation within the formative assessment paradigm as a pedagogical tool. Unpublished EdD thesis, University of London
Heward, W. L. (1994). Three “low-tech” strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner III, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. Eshleman, & T. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 283-320).
Gottfried, A. (1990). Academic intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children. Journal of Educational
Psychology. Vol 82(3), Sep 1990, 525-538., Vol. 82(3), 525-538.
Johnson, R., & Johnson, D. (1999). Learning: Together and Alone. New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R., & Holubec, E. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8th Ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Kagan, S. & Kagan, M. (2009). Kagan Cooperative Learning. San Clemente California: Kagan Publishing.
Kamins, M., & Dweck, C. (1998). Contingent self-worth and its effects on young children’s coping with setbacks. Unpublished data.
Leahy,S., Lyon,C., Thompson, M., and Wiliam,D. (2005). Classroom Assessment: Minute by Minute, Day by Day. November 2005, Volume 63, Number 3 Assessment to Promote Learning, Pages 19-24
Marzano, R. J Pickering, D. J. and Pollock, J. E. (2001) Classroom Instruction that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
Mazur, E. (1996). Peer Instruction: A User’s Manual. New York: Addison Wesley.
McLean, A. (2003). The Motivated School. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Meerman, R. (2004). Science Conundrums. ABC Science.
Reeves, D. (2004). Accountability in Action. Englewood Colorado: Advanced Learning Press.
Radosevich, D., Salomon, R., Radosevich, D. M., & Kahn, P. (2008). Using Student Response Systems to Increase Motivation, Learning, and Knowledge Retention. Journal of Online Education, Volume 5, Issue 1. October/November.
Randolph, J. J. (2007). Meta-Analysis of the Research on Response Cards; Effects on Test Achievement, Quiz Achievement, Participation, and Off-Task Behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 113-128.
Rogers, S., Ludington, J., & Graham, S. (1997). Motivation and Learning. Evergreen: Peak Learning Systems.
Rohrer, D. B. (2007). Increasing retention without increasing study time. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 183-186.
Sanders, W. (1999). Teachers, Teachers, Teachers! DLC Blueprint.
Schmoker, M. (2006). Results Now: How We Can Achieve Unprecedented Improvements in Teaching and Learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Silvia, P. (2008). Interest: The curious emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 57 – 60.
Stiggins, R. (2007). Introduction to Student-Involved Assessment for Learning Jul 13, 2007. Englewood Cliffs: Pearson.
Thalheimer, W. (2007). Questioning Strategies for Audience Response Systems: How to Use Questions to Maximize Learning, Engagement and Satisfaction. Somerville, MA: Internal Publication: http://www.audienceresponselearning.org/the_report.htm.
Urdan, T. T. (2005). Competence Motivation in the Classroom. In A. D. Elliot, Handbook of Competence and Motivation (pp. 297 – 317). New York: The Guilford Press.
Ward, D. (1977). A Computerized Lecture Preparation and Delivery System. Journal of Educational Technology , 6, 1, 21-32.
Wiliam, D., Lee, C., Harrison, C., & Black, P. J. (2004). Teachers developing assessment for learning: impact on student achievement. Assessment in Education: Principles Policy and Practice, 11(1), 49-65
Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why Students Don’t Like School. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Yeh, S. (2011). The Cost-Effectiveness of 22 Approaches for Raising Student Achievement. Information Age Publishing. Charlotte, NC
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Ramadan is a holy month of spirituality and is a significant month in the Islamic calendar. During this month, a believer abstains from food and drink from dawn till dusk.
The role of fasting in an Islamic society is to elevate an individual to a higher level of spirituality, patience, piety and compassion to the people around us. Fasting is one of the five pillars of Islam and it is the central aspect of this month. It is renowned for its spiritual and physical benefits.
Our bodies are complex systems and a sudden change in the calorie intake and the timing will have an effect. During Ramadan, there should be a good balance in your consumption.
You should eat foods rich in protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Not to forget your hydration.
But, this does not give you the freedom to consume whatever you can get your hands on. As this can impact your metabolic reaction.
So, it is best to consider the food and beverages which are good and those which are best avoided during Ramadan.
Do’s during the month of Ramadan
Don’ts during the month of Ramadan
If you haven’t tried fasting yet, try fasting for a day. This will help you understand the importance of this month and its virtues. If done right, fasting during the holy month of Ramadan can improve your health, spiritually and physically.
By being aware of the do’s and don’ts we can have a great holy month of Ramadan.
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One of the methods for treating diseases that include cancer, arthritis and radiation sickness is challenged by new research by a team of scientists at University College London (UCL). The current orthodoxy on the role played by oxygen free radicals in the development of a number of diseases is called into question by the UCL team in a paper to be published in the 26th February edition of Nature, in research that may hold profound implications for the standard approach of the medical profession and pharmaceutical industry in treating these conditions.
It is currently held that oxygen free radicals, atoms or groups of atoms produced by white blood cells, are responsible, if produced in excess, for the production of conditions such as arthritis, arteriosclerosis and many others, including cancer. That is why, since the 1970s, medical practice and the pharmaceutical industry have sought to develop drugs to stop the production of free radicals and mop them up with antioxidants (substances capable of preventing the oxidation of organic molecules) as part of the process of treating such diseases.
Following extensive study, the paper categorically discounts the primary evidence upon which this theory is based, and suggests that instead we need to look at other potential treatments, and that specifically treatments should move towards the regulation of enzymes released from neutrophil leukocytes, the most numerous of the white blood cells.
"White blood cells produce oxygen free radicals, and the process by which they do so is essential for the efficient killing of microbes," says Professor Tony Segal of the Centre for Molecular Medicine within UCL's Department of Medicine, one of the authors of the research. "However, people in whom this process is defective are prone to severe, chronic and often fatal infections. This fact has led to the presumption that the oxygen free radicals themselves are highly toxic, and that if they can kill organisms as tough as bacteria and fungi they can also damage human tissues. Free radicals are believed to be promoted by many agents, including smoking and atmospheric pollutants and smoking, and have been implicated in the production of conditions that include cancer, arthritis, arteritis many other conditions caused by an initial inflammation in which these neutrophil leukocytes accumulate.
"However, our work shows that the basic theory underlying the toxicity of oxygen radicals is flawed. Tens, if not hundreds, of millions of pounds have been misspent by the pharmaceutical industry in chasing the red herring of the involvement of oxygen free radicals in the causation of many diseases . Many patients might be using expensive antioxidant drugs based upon completely invalid theories as to their therapeutic potential. All the theories relating to their causation of disease by oxygen free radicals, and the therapeutic value of antioxidants must, at the very least, be re-evaluated".
Source: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.
When there is no enemy within, the enemies outside cannot hurt you.
-- African proverb
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| 0.965489 | 601 | 3.09375 | 3 |
BOH 300 Organizational Behaviour – Assignment Solution
As stated in Chapter 6 of the text, there are many barriers that candidates face and the value of a diverse workforce is underestimated. In Chapter 1, we learn about the effects and importance of environmental factors on Human Resources (HR) practices; in this assignment, you are asked to explore and deconstruct Diversity within an organization of your choice. Choose any organization and complete the following:
- What is your personal definition of Diversity – use credible sources to back up your answer?
- Research and summarize the organization’s Diversity policies and practices.
- Analyze the challenges and opportunities of these practices on its recruitment, selection, and retention practices.
- How can the organization respond to the challenges and opportunities?
- include at least 4 concepts from the course material, in addition to Diversity.
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| 0.929509 | 172 | 3.15625 | 3 |
The end of animal ag?Published on 28th October 2019
Think tank RethinkX paints a grim picture for the future of animal agriculture in a recent report, predicting that ‘precision fermentation’ will be the most profound disruption in food and agriculture for 1,000 years. The change will be driven by economics, with protein cost five times cheaper by 2030 and 10 times cheaper by 2035 than animal proteins.
In its paper The Rethinking Food and Agriculture 2020-2030 Report, the thinktank argues that instead animal agriculture will be replaced by a ‘food-as-software’ model – with foods engineered by scientists at molecular levels and uploaded to databases, accessible by food designers all over the world. Precision fermentation will not only offer a better distributed, localised food-production system that is more stable – it will also be shielded from volume and price volatility. Current factors that shape food production today, such as geography, seasonality, weather, drought, disease and other natural, economic and political factors are redundant when food production becomes a matter of accessing a database.
RethinkX says the costs of precision fermentation will continue to drop, eventually making this type of food production cheaper than animal derived foods. The cost of modern foods and other precision
fermentation products will be at least 50% and as much as 80% lower than the animal products they replace, which will translate into substantially lower prices and increased disposable incomes for consumers. The report notes that the cost of production has fallen significantly; in 2000, precision fermentation cost US$1m/kg compared to US$100/kg today.
Production volumes of the US beef and dairy industries and their suppliers will decline by more than 50% by 2030 according to RethinkX, and nearly 90% by 2035. This will lead to a collapse in farmland values by 40 to 80%, depending on alternative uses, amenity value and policy choices
The development will also benefit the environment. RethinkX estimates 60% of the land currently used for livestock and feed production in the US will be freed for other uses by 2035. Greenhouse gas emissions from cattle will drop by 60% by 2030 with net emissions as a whole from the sector declining by 45% by 2030. Major exporters of animal products, including the US, Brazil and the EU are expected to lose their geopolitical leverage over countries that are dependent on these imports.
Industry stakeholders have had mixed responses to the report’s findings; some called the transition predicted ‘far from inevitable’ and said much will also depend on infrastructure, purchasing power, and crop availability. RethinkX cofounder Janie Arbib said while the report consisted of projections, the thinktank believed that its framework, methodology and findings are more accurate than projections produced by linear models, that lock in expensive, obsolete or uncompetitive assets.
The National Milk Producers Federation said the report’s authors were ‘living in a vegan fantasyland’, questioning the timeline of the transformation and calling the report “a millstone around the neck of the fake-foods lobby.” Consultant Jack Bobo who works at the intersection of food and technology said precision fermentation was potentially disruptive, but a collapse of the US dairy and cattle industry in the short timespan suggested in the report was “incredibly unlikely.”
Adoption of precision fermentation will ultimately be driven by consumers, influenced by the ability of technologies to deliver on taste and cost. However, concerns about “Big Food” which could be leading these changes, and will leave traditional producers and their communities in the dust may also slow any transformation.
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The genus Equitius is revised. Jenolanicus Roewer, 1915, Monacanthobunus Roewer, 1915, Monoxyomma Pocock, 1903 and Rydrusa Roewer, 1931 = new synonyms of Equitius Simon, 1880. Three new combinations are established: E. altus (Forster, 1955) (Jenolanicus), E. spinatus (Pocock, 1903) (Monoxyomma) and E. tambourineus (Roewer, 1921) (Jenolanicus). Four new synonymies are proposed: Jenolanicus armatus Roewer, 1915 and Monacanthobunus continentalis Roewer, 1915 = E. doriae Simon, 1880; E. affinis Roewer, 1923 and Rydrusa armata Roewer, 1931 = E. tambourineus (Roewer, 1921). Three new species are described: E. formidabilis, E. montanus and E. richardsae. A key to all seven species is given.
Discontinuous mountain blocks and major river valleys are seen as factors influencing the present distribution of species in south-eastern Australia. An isolated cave population of E. altus is noted.
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| 0.810275 | 268 | 2.625 | 3 |
sore-inf is a tool that learns deterministic single occurrence regular expressions (SOREs) from positive examples. This is an implementation of the learning algorithms from the paper that Timo Kötzing and I published at ICDT 2013, containing bugfixes from the journal version (see there
for links to both versions).
For further explanation, see the paper. If you want to learn DTDs, use the dtd-inf
You need to install Python 3
on your computer (I do not know or care whether Python 2 will work). Download the package
, unpack it. You can then run
python3 sore-inf.py --help
. (Depending on your system, you can give
executable rights and run it directly.)
./sore-inf.py abc acb c
Computes a deterministic SORE for the sample consisting of the words
. Note that the prettifcation algorithm uses character classes, e.g., instead of
, it writes
Right now, we only allow letters that consist of single characters. As this is a tool that is mostly directed to theorists, it would be useful to have letters like
A327, but we couldn't be bothered to implement this. (In fact, if you want to do this: most of the code already supports this, you would only need to change some parsing code in
The code has not been audited or debugged in large scale (it should work, but don't bet the farm on it). It is also not particularly optimized, neither for efficiency, nor for readability. (But it should be quite fast.) Also, same files use white space as indentation, others tabs. Sorry.
The way the prettification algorithm is used is particularly ugly: Instead of prettifying the inferred regular expression in a tree type data structure, the expression is inferred as string, which is then parsed and prettified. A nice implementation would skip the intermediate string representation. This is one of the reasons why, if your element names contain any fancy unicode stuff, something might break.
Apart from the algorithms in the paper, this implementation also uses an additional post-processing step that makes the expressions prettier (e.g., turns nested expressions like
(a|b|c|d), etc.) The language theoretic details can be found in an eternally half-finished technical report that is available from me.
Authors and license
The core inference algorithm was implemented by Dominik D. Freydenberger and uses this implementation
of Tarjan's Algorithm by Dries Verdegem (which, to our knowledge, is in the public domain). The prettification algorithm is a part of the M.O.D.O.D.
library, which was designed (only for DREs) by Dominik D. Freydenberger and implemented by Christoph Burschka
. The creation of the M.O.D.O.D. library was generously supported by the program "Nachwuchswissenschaftler/innen im Fokus" (Goethe University). We put this stuff under the MIT License, and the source code is already included.
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| 0.918083 | 663 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Genograms are a visual diagram of the psychosocial issues in your family tree. Though the trained eye of a therapist is helpful in interpreting a genogram, you can make one yourself and learn a lot about your family dynamics. What is a genogram, how do you make one, and why are they helpful?
A genogram looks like a family tree and is based on your own lineage. It is used to diagram familial patterns like substance abuse, mental illness, domestic violence, gender roles, marital patterns or family roles, making them easier to see. There is something about putting this information on paper and representing it in symbol that makes it easier for the brain to pick up intergenerational patterns that are handed down from generation to generation.
You can create a genogram using:
- a piece of paper and a pencil
- butcher paper or poster board if you want to make a larger display and have more room to work
- a computer software program like GenoPro
- use a word proceessing or spreadspreet program like Microsoft Word or Excel
- use a workbook like, A Family Genogram Workbook
You can see the rules for building a genogram and some examples of diagrams at the GenoPro site. I have not used the software, but the instructions and examples on this page are excellent. The Westchester University site also has a page of Genogram Symbols you can print out or refer to. Make yourself familiar with the symbols before proceeding with these instructions or print them out to refer back to.
Making Your Genogram
Start your genogram at the bottom with your own information. Include your current spouse or partner, ex-spouses or ex-partners and your children. Complete the same information about your siblings and their families. Move to your parents. Include all of their spouses or partners and their children. If your mother had three husbands and you have stepsiblings, include these in the genogram. Be sure to include all of your parents' siblings, their children and their major relationships.
Keep working your way backward until you have as many generations as you can realistically account for. Completing at least three generations is recommended. Complete the same information for your grandparents as you did for your parents your aunts and your uncles.
Once you have the basic family tree completed start filling in psychologically pertinent information. When adding this information it is important to add what you believe to be true, regardless of whether the family agrees with you or whether an official diagnosis was made. For example, if you believe Uncle Jose was depressed put that on your genogram, even if it was never officially diagnosed. If you believe Aunt Sue had an addiction to pain medications put that on your genogram, even if the family denies it or tries to hide it.
You can use words or symbols, whatever makes it easier for you to see patterns. Symbols usually make it easier to identify patterns and you can create your own color coding or annotations to indicate different issues. For instance, you make add a tiny pink triangle to victims of breast cancer or a tiny yellow square to individuals who experienced depression. You can develop your own coding legend, as long as you are consistent throughout your genogram. Add as many details as you wish about each member of each family. Here are some examples of things you might want to include. Feel free to add any other information you believe to be relevant.
- Birth Order - be sure to arrange siblings in a family in the proper birth order
- Deaths, who is deceased - who, when and from what did they die?
- Divorces/Separations - who and when?
- Substance Abuse - specify the substance(s) used, include prescription medication or anything that appeared to be addictive even if over the counter medication or legal substances, include inhalants such as spray paint or White Out
- Psychiatric Illnesses
- Trauma - this can be from anything, war, a horrible accident, abuse as a child
- Molestation/Incest/Child Abuse - any abuses which happened to family members as children
- Gender Roles - are the women on one side of the family very strong? Very passive? Are the men very authoritarian? Are they absent from the family structure?
- Religious Beliefs - what was actually practiced or not practiced, not what was claimed
- Domestic Violence
- Relationships - document hostilities, alliances, surrogate spouses, etc. Were relationships enmeshed, distant or healthy? Document this using the horizontal lines.
- Gay, Lesbian, Transvestite or Transsexual individuals
- Military Service
- Parenting Styles - were your parents very authoritarian or more laissez-faire? Your grandparents?
- Cultural information - is anyone in the family a first generation immigrant? Speak a different language? Practice a different religion? Any cultural information that may have played a part in family dynamics should be included
- Ethnic backgrounds
- Legal - any arrests or charges
- Family Roles
- Medical Issues
- Disabilities of any Kind
- Financial Problems
- Personality Characteristics
- Gifts or Abilities
When you have it completed, sit back and look for patterns. Some of these examples are stereotypical, but these are just examples of some typical patterns which may emerge. Be open to anything you might see, whether it fits within expected norms or not. You are here to see the truth about your family.
Were all the girls on one side of the family molested as children? (Yes, I've seen this many, many times, unfortunately.)
Were all the boys on one side of the family molested as children?
Do all the women in one family marry abusive partners? Do all the men?
Does alcoholism run through one branch of your family tree? Drugs? Prescription abuse?
Is there depression in one family line? Bipolar Disorder? Schizophrenia? Anxiety?
Alliances and Coalitions
Examine the power structure in families. Who has the power and how is it used?
- Does every father in one family line rule with an iron hand?
- Do the women marry irresponsible partners who disappear and leave the women raising the families?
- Do the mother and the oldest son of each generation ally against the father?
- Do the father and youngest daughter ally against the mother?
- Were the women in the family always hostile towards each other? Or did they all stick together?
- Do the parents in each family of one lineage form a healthy partnership and maintain appropriate boundaries between themselves and the children?
- Do the children run the family in one family line?
Research has shown that Holocaust survivors actually passed down the trauma from the ordeal through two succeeding generations, to their grandchildren. Look for trauma and trauma symptoms. Who experienced it and was it transmitted through the generations? Depression and anxiety issues may be an indicator of this. Was it only transmitted to women or men, or was it transmitted to both genders equally? Was it only transmitted to the oldest or the youngest?
Marriage and Divorce
What kind of relationship patterns do you see in your family line? Long, healthy marriages or numerous divorces? Or are there few marriages at all and mostly turbulent, short-term relationships?
Are there several unnatural, violent or premature deaths in your family line? Deaths from suicide? Deaths as a result of violence? Deaths as a result of substance abuse? Deaths from a common medical problem that runs through your lineage?
Look for patterns among the youngest, oldest and middle children of each family and generation. Is the youngest of every family babied? Does the oldest of every family have a substance abuse disorder?
Is there a pattern of illegal behavior in one family line? Is there a pattern of assault charges or theft charges? This could help you identify other patterns related to substance abuse, domestic violence, explosive personalities, mental illness or financial problems.
Are all the women in one lineage high strung or overly emotional? Or are they very reserved and distant? Are the men stoic and unemotional or explosive and angry?
Is the oldest child in every family the Hero? The youngest the Lost Child?
Continue looking at the various issues present in your family tree and look for patterns. Look for patterns across gender (i.e. all the women), across generations (i.e. all the sons or grandsons) and across birth order (i.e. all the middle children). If you see a pattern that makes sense to you but is not listed here don't discount it. I can't possibly include all the possible patterns in every family. This is for your enlightenment and education. If you see a pattern that explains something about your family, trust it. They're your family and you know them better than anyone.
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en
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A sound bite is a tiny clip from a speech. These posts are designed to be quick ideas (“bites”) about how we busy people can practically integrate wellness into our daily lives. How do you eat an elephant? One bite at a time. How do you accomplish something overwhelming? Start with a manageable crumb.
What enhances your attention for at least two hours, improves your reaction time, and immediately boosts your mood? According to neuroscientist Wendy Suzuki, exercise is “the most transformative thing that you can do for your brain”, with the above benefits occurring after even a single workout. Regular exercise actually changes the physical structure of the brain, improving long-term memory, and bolstering against the effects of neurodegenerative diseases and normal cognitive decline.
Per recommendations from the American Academy of Pediatrics and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, everyone should aim for at least 60 minutes per day of moderate to vigorous physical activity (and children younger than age 6 need even more physical activity!). Focus on exercise that strengthens your heart, your muscles, and your bones. Here are a few ways to add more movement into your day:
Take the stairs instead of the elevator.
Park in the farthest spot from the door.
Briskly walk laps around the parking lot.
Do jumping jacks during commercials.
Make it fun. If exercise isn’t fun, it isn’t sustainable. Find a workout buddy. Make exercise a game (identify timelines and incentives). Revisit activities you enjoyed as a child (e.g. riding a bike, rollerskating, trying to hula hoop, jumping rope, climbing on playground equipment, etc.).
Prepare. Wear appropriate clothing and footgear. Partner with medical professionals regarding past injuries or current health conditions. Notify a trusted friend or partner of your plans and your timeline, and check in as agreed.
Know when to stop. Take breaks when necessary to “refuel”: catch your breath, drink water, or eat a snack. Stop immediately if you feel faint or light-headed: sit down, and put your head between your legs; breathe deeply. Trust your gut, and avoid unsafe conditions; don’t hesitate to call for help.
Celebrate. Celebrate even small victories. You laid out your workout clothes the night before. You put on your running shoes. You made it to the end of the driveway and back. Accomplishing anything requires a series of actions, and each of these “wins” is a stepping stone toward your goal outcome. Celebrating wins creates momentum for future success.
How do you integrate exercise into your life? Send tips to “firstname.lastname@example.org”.
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- Author: Jeannette E. Warnert
A tell-tale sign of spring in California is a flush of new leaf growth on citrus trees. Because the feathery light green leaves are particularly attractive to Asian citrus psyllids (ACP), the leaves' emergence marks a critical time to determine whether the pest has infested trees.
“We encourage home citrus growers and farmers to go out with a magnifying glass or hand lens and look closely at the new growth,” said Beth Grafton-Cardwell, UC Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC ANR) citrus entomologist. “Look for the various stages of the psyllid – small yellow eggs, sesame-seed sized yellow ACP young with curly white tubules, or aphid-like adults that perch with their hind quarters angled up.”
Pictures of the Asian citrus psyllids and its life stages are on the UC ANR website at http://ucanr.edu/acp. If you find signs of the insect, call the California Food and Agriculture (CDFA) Exotic Pest Hotline at (800) 491-1899.
Asian citrus psyllids are feared because they can spread huanglongbing (HLB) disease, an incurable condition that first causes yellow mottling on the leaves and later sour, misshapen fruit before killing the tree. ACP, native of Pakistan, Afghanistan and other tropical and subtropics regions of Asian, was first detected in California in 2008. Everywhere Asian citrus psyllids have appeared – including Florida and Texas – the pests have found and spread the disease. A few HLB-infected trees have been located in urban Los Angeles County. They were quickly removed by CDFA officials.
“In California, we are working hard to keep the population of ACP as low as possible until researchers can find a cure for the disease,” Grafton-Cardwell said. “We need the help of citrus farmers and home gardeners.”
Grafton-Cardwell has spearheaded the development of the UC ANR ACP website for citrus growers and citrus homeowners that provides help in finding the pest and what to do next. The site has an interactive map tool to locate residences and farms that are in areas where the psyllid has already become established, and areas where they are posing a risk to the citrus industry and must be aggressively treated by county officials.
The website outlines biological control efforts that are underway, and directions for insecticidal control, if it is needed. An online calculator on the website allows farmers and homeowners to determine their potential costs for using insecticides.
There are additional measures that can be taken to support the fight against ACP and HLB in California.
- When planting new citrus trees, only purchase the trees from reputable nurseries. Do not accept tree cuttings or budwood from friends or relatives.
- After pruning or cutting down a citrus tree, dry out the green waste or double bag it to make sure that live psyllids won't ride into another region on the foliage.
- Control ants in and near citrus trees with bait stations. Scientists have released natural enemies of ACP in Southern California to help keep the pest in check. However, ants will protect ACP from the natural enemies. Ants favor the presence of ACP because the psyllid produces honeydew, a food source for ants.
- Learn more about the Asian citrus psyllid and huanglongbing disease by reading the detailed pest note on UC ANR's Statewide Integrated Pest Management website.
- Assist in the control of ACP by supporting CDFA insecticide treatments of your citrus or treating the citrus yourself when psyllids are present.
- Support the removal of HLB-infected trees.
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Recent testing of mercury concentrations in three national brands of canned tuna found that “55% of all tuna examined was above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s safety level for human consumption.” And the problem appears to be getting worse. Previous studies on canned tuna, in 1993 and 2004, showed concerning levels of mercury contamination, but not as bad as it is now. See my profile of the paper in my 2-min. videoWhich brand of tuna has the most mercury?
Given the average level of mercury pollution found in canned tuna, researchers suggest that your average 9 year old would exceed the EPA limit even if they only ate a can of tuna every 6 weeks! They conclude: “These results indicate that stricter regulation of the canned tuna industry is necessary to ensure the safety of sensitive populations such as pregnant women, infants, and children.”
Some question whether the federal safety limits are even sufficiently protective. A recent review from researchers at Harvard and elsewhere on the adverse effects of mercury in fish proposed that the exposure limits set in the United States should be cut in half. Already, current regulations in the United States allow up to 10 times as much mercury in fish as the EPA limit allows, and so our fish is allowed to have 20 times more mercury than may be considered safe.
Because the EPA safety limit on mercury in fish may not sufficiently protect pregnant women in the United States, a recommendation has been put forth that fish-eating women may want to get tested for mercury before considering getting pregnant. It’s a simple test. Since mercury basically contaminates our whole body, all they need is a hair sample. See more details in my 2-min. video Hair Testing for Mercury Before Consider Pregnancy.
Studies on children of the neurobehavioral toxicity of mercury suggest that no level of mercury exposure can truly be considered safe, but pressure from the fish industry may be preventing safety limits from dropping further. In my video Nerves of Mercury I profile a famous study published in the Journal of Pediatrics showing brain damage in adolescents at below the mercury limits placed on fish in this country. As one former EPA toxicologist told theWall Street Journal, “They really consider the fish industry to be their clients, rather than the U.S. public.”
Mercury is not just a problem for children. Mercury and other toxic pollutants in fish is thought to be why the consumption of dark fish (such as salmon, swordfish, bluefish, mackerel, and sardines) may increase one’s risk of atrial fibrillation, an irregularity of heart beat rhythm associated with stroke, dementia, heart failure, and a shortened lifespan. See my 2-min. video Red Fish, White Fish; Dark Fish, Atrial Fibrillation. Also check out Fish Fog, which discusses the link between fish consumption and neurobehavioral abnormalities in adults. For more information on industrial pollutants in fish, see Xenoestrogens & Sperm Counts and Fish Intake Biomarker.
There are also natural toxins that can bioaccumulate up the aquatic food chain. See my 2-min. video Amnesic Seafood Poisoning about a rare toxin called domoic acid. It can turn up in tuna and other seafood and can cause anterograde amnesia, the loss of short-term memory popularized in the movie Memento. Even drugs can build up in fish. In my 1-min. video A Fine Kettle of Fluoxetine, I follow up on my earlier video Prozac Residues in Fish about the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in fish fillets.
Fish aren’t the only source of toxic heavy metals, though. Mercury has been found in both high fructose corn syrup-containing products (see Mercury in Corn Syrup?) and Ayurvedic dietary supplements (Get the Lead Out).
-Michael Greger, M.D.
Image credit: veer66 / Flickr
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Child Labour in Tobacco Growing
The use of child labour in tobacco growing is very dangerous and is prohibited worldwide. Read here about countries where children still work on tobacco fields.Read more
Child labour is still widespread in the cultivation and processing of tobacco. On World Day Against Child Labour, we once again criticize the consequences of inadequate tobacco control and the insufficient protection against child labour. We call on the German government to promote stronger tobacco control measures internationally and to support alternatives to tobacco cultivation. We also demand that it protects children’s rights at the very beginning of the supply chain and enforces them on the basis of the Supply Chain Act – because tobacco companies have profited from child labour to date.
Child labour worldwide has increased as a result of the corona pandemic. Schools have closed, many families’ incomes have plummeted, and so children must contribute to their families’ incomes. This is why the latest report from the International Labor Organization (ILO) and UNICEF is particularly alarming – the figures even do not yet include the effects of the corona pandemic: 160 million children worldwide work under exploitative conditions. About 70% of child labourers work in the agricultural sector, 72% work with their families, and about 50% work in particularly hazardous conditions. More than half of all child labourers live and work in Sub-Saharan Africa. Corona, the authors estimate, might turn an additional 9 million children into child labourers.
According to Article 32 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, children have the right to be protected from economic exploitation and not to be required to perform work that is hazardous and likely to harm their health and physical development. In the cultivation and processing of tobacco, working children are exposed to chemicals as well as poisoning from the tobacco plant itself, called green tobacco sickness. In addition, a number of other illnesses and injuries can be caused by this work, such as respiratory illnesses, back problems and cuts. Child labour in tobacco production is banned worldwide as one of the worst forms of child labour, according to ILO Convention 182, because it puts children’s health at risk.
Despite this, an estimated 1.3 million children work in the tobacco industry worldwide. This includes working in tobacco fields, in the processing of tobacco leaves, and in the production of tobacco products (e.g. bidis in India and Bangladesh). In all major tobacco growing countries, such as Brazil, Indonesia or Zambia, child labour in tobacco cultivation is widespread.
In order to comprehensively counteract child labour in tobacco production, various levels must be involved. The goals are, on the one hand, to reduce the overall consumption of tobacco, on the other hand, to improve working conditions and, furthermore, to provide children with a sustainable and long-term perspective for their lives. The following steps are necessary:
The Strategy for a Tobacco-Free Germany 2040 includes in one of its ten specific tobacco control measures that Germany should support tobacco control initiatives and alternatives to tobacco cultivation as part of its international development cooperation. The strategy paper was published by the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe) and the Non-Smoking Action Alliance (Aktionsbündnis Nichtrauchen) and is supported by us and more than 50 health and civil society organizations.
The German government should participate in the FCTC-2030 project and, in this context, provide financial support to low- and middle-income countries in the process of implementing the FCTC. It is also essential to promote tobacco control more strongly in the context of bilateral cooperation.
Germany can also counter human and children’s rights violations in tobacco cultivation by holding companies accountable for respecting human rights in their supply chains. Ensuring that human rights and children’s rights are respected on tobacco plantations requires an effective legal framework and enforceable rights.
The Supply Chain Act was passed in the German Parliament today. In the coming legislative period, it should be further improved so that it covers all tobacco companies and risks must also be analyzed at the very beginning of the supply chain – in cultivation.
Only a strong supply chain act can contribute to curbing child labour in tobacco production.
Alternative livelihoods to tobacco farming need to be strengthened worldwide. Tobacco growing families need support in phasing out tobacco cultivation and growing alternative crops. To achieve this, projects and programs to promote alternatives must be funded and given greater support in bilateral cooperation.
Unfairtobacco is part of the more than 50 health and civil society organizations supporting the Strategy for a Tobacco-Free Germany 2040, calling on policymakers to take decisive action against tobacco use and nicotine addiction – for a tobacco-free Germany.
World Day Against Child Labour & Tobacco Control
The United Nations have declared 2021 the International Year for the Elimination of Child Labour. The main goal for the year is to urge governments to do whatever is necessary to achieve SDG 8.7: the elimination of the worst forms of child labour and by 2025 the elimination of all forms of child labour.
Article 26 of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) provides for the allocation of financial resources to achieve the Convention’s objectives, including the realization of alternative livelihoods to tobacco cultivation, in order to provide tobacco farmers with different income opportunities.
World Day Against Child Labour
"Germany can and should contribute to a tobacco-free world, and support other countries within the framework of international development cooperation - based on Article 26 of the FCTC." (Quote from the Strategy for a Tobacco-Free Germany 2040)
Children have a right to a tobacco free world
Childrens rights and tobacco control
Strategy paper of DKFZ (German Cancer Research Center), Deutsche Krebshilfe (German Cancer Aid) and Aktionsbündnis Nichtrauchen (Non-Smoking Action Alliance) [in German only]
Strategie für ein tabakfreies Deutschland 2040
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Where Did Football Come From?
In most countries other than the United States, when people talk about football they mean the game we call soccer. Here in the United States, football actually means football, as in the game you play with a brown, oval-shaped ball.
For most of history, people have played games with balls and goals. At least 500 years ago in England, the game we call soccer developed. In soccer, players try to put a round ball into a goal without using their hands.
In the early 1800s, players at the Rugby School in England started cheating. Instead of kicking the ball, they picked it up and ran with it into the goal. Some teams liked to play against the Rugby School—they just tackled whoever picked up the ball! Other teams wanted to play soccer the normal way. Soon two separate forms of the sport were played. In rugby, players were supposed to run with the ball, and defenders were supposed to tackle the ballcarrier to the ground.
Americans picked up the game of rugby, but every team wanted to play by different rules. In the late 1800s, several colleges and athletic clubs in America played games similar to rugby. East Coast schools such as Princeton, Rutgers, Harvard, and Yale eventually got together to try to standardize the rules.
By the turn of the century, American rugby had changed enough that you probably could have recognized the game as football. Every play was a running play. Blockers (without much padding) slammed into each other as hard as they could. There were so many injuries, in fact, that many people tried to ban the sport.
At the personal request of President Teddy Roosevelt, Yale athletic director Walter Camp led a commission that created a more exciting and less dangerous game than had been played before. It was Camp who insisted that eleven players was the right number for a team. He invented the idea that the offense had to gain yardage to get a first down. Most importantly, Camp revolutionized football by inventing the forward pass.
College football in the early 1900s was dominated by the northeastern colleges that are now part of the Ivy League. In fact, it was 1912 before a non–Ivy League school won a national championship. College—not pro—football was the popular spectator sport through the first half of the 1900s. Colleges throughout the country formed teams, and more and more people started watching and playing football. The college bowl games on New Year's Day were the highlight of each season.
In the 1920s, colleges all over the country played football. Professional teams had started playing in the Midwest. Both the pro and college games were well known and well followed. However, football didn't become the big deal that it is now until after the Great Depression and World War II.
Football Great: George “Papa Bear” Halas
George Halas played for the company football team at a starch plant in Decatur, Illinois, in the 1910s. Under his leadership, his company team became the Decatur Staleys of the National Football League. He moved the team to Chicago and renamed it the Bears in 1922. Halas ran pretty much the entire Bears organization: he played, he coached, he recruited, and he even sold tickets! In recognition of Papa Bear's contributions to his team and to the NFL, the Bears uniforms show Halas's initials, GSH, on the sleeve.
TV Makes Football Popular
In the 1950s, most people could afford TV sets at home. Television networks figured out that people loved to watch football. Televised football made the game even more popular and provided a good deal of money for team owners. The Super Bowl, first played in 1967, became the most important sporting event in America. Fans enjoyed watching their favorite college players competing for many years as professionals.
Nowadays, you'll see both college and pro football on TV—college on Saturday, pro on Sunday. Many college teams and almost all pro teams sell out their stadiums every week. High schools and youth leagues stage games each week as well, giving more people a chance to play the game.
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September 29th – Today marks the 400th anniversary of the opening of the “New River”.
London’s water supply
In the late twelfth century (the time of the chronicler FitzStephen), water drawn from the City’s rivers, or from springs or wells, was pure and clean and sweet and wholesome. Later, though, “the tide from the sea prevailed to such a degree that the water of the Thames was salt; so much so that many folks complained of the ale tasting like salt” (and obviously they couldn’t have that). And, by the beginning of the thirteenth century, the supply had become so contaminated by waste as to be not only unpalatable but unsafe to drink, for fear of contracting a potentially lethal water-borne disease such as typhus. So, a supply had to be brought in from outside. A so-called Great Conduit was built, by public subscription, in 1236, to bring water from a spring at Tyburn, roughly opposite where Bond Street tube station now stands, to Cheapside, about three miles away, by way of a system of lead (!) pipes. Sections have recently been discovered 2m below Medieval street level in Paternoster Row and in Poultry. The Great Conduit was extended at either end in the fifteenth century so as to run from Oxlese, near where Paddington station now stands, to Cheapside and Cornhill, about six miles away (water was then either piped directly from the conduit to homes and businesses that could afford the expense of the installation of “quills”, or collected from stand-pipes, and carried there by property owners, or, in buckets suspended from shoulder-yokes, by “cobs”, of whom there were 4000 by 1600). The so-called Devil’s Conduit under Queen’s Square probably dated to around the same time, a photograph taken in 1910, shortly before its demolition in 1911-13, showing it to contain graffiti from 1411. By the sixteenth century, the system had become inadequate to meet the demands of the rising population (it had also become subject to much abuse and over-use by individuals and by commercial and industrial concerns). A short-term solution to this problem was provided by the construction by the Dutchman Pieter Maritz in 1580 of a – rather rickety – apparatus under one of the arches of London Bridge that allowed water to be pumped from the Thames into the heart of the City, or, in the case of the original demonstration to City officials, over the spire of the church of St Magnus the Martyr! The apparatus was destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666, but thereafter replaced by Maritz’s grandson, and continued in use, after a fashion, until the early nineteenth century.
The “New River”
A longer-term solution was provided by the construction by the Welshman and wealthy merchant, goldsmith, banker and Member of Parliament Sir Hugh Myddelton in 1609-13 of a 10’ wide and 4’ deep canal, or “New River”, all the way from springs at Amwell and Chadwell in Hertfordshire into the City, an incredible 37 miles away, which is still in use to this day (parts of it can be seen along the “New River” walk in Islington, for example in Canonbury Grove). Myddelton had to overcome any number of technological obstacles, and much land-owner and political opposition, to see this major civil engineering project through to completion, doing so with a mixture of drive and determination, the financial support of 29 investors or “adventurers”, and the tacit backing of the king. His financial backers had to wait some time until they profited from the enterprise (actually, until 1633, although by 1695 the New River Company ranked behind only the East India Company and Bank of England in terms of its capital value). The public health benefits of Myddelton’s project were immediate, though, and immeasurable, and indeed it has been described as “An immortal work – since men cannot more nearly imitate the Deity than in bestowing health”.
|Myddelton statue, Holborn Viaduct|
|Myddelton statue, Islington|
|Section of New River, Canonbury|
Notes. Myddelton died in 1631, and was buried in the church of St Matthew Friday Street, where he had served as a warden. Concerted attempts to locate his coffin and monument following the church’s demolition in 1886 were unfortunately ultimately unsuccessful.
Remarkably, some of the fittings from the New River Company’s offices, including Grinling Gibbons’s “oak room”, still survive, in the London Metropolitan Water Board building in Islington.
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In which Scrabble dictionary does HUMANE exist?
Definitions of HUMANE in dictionaries:
- adj -
pertaining to or concerned with the humanities
- adj -
marked or motivated by concern with the alleviation of suffering
- adj -
showing evidence of moral and intellectual advancement
Characterized by kindness, mercy, or compassion: a humane judge.
The central meaning shared by these adjectives is “marked or motivated by concern with the alleviation of suffering”: a humane physician; compassionate toward disadvantaged people; released the prisoner for humanitarian reasons; is merciful to the repentant.
- adv -
compassionate [adj -MANER, -MANEST] : HUMANELY
There are 6 letters in HUMANE:
A E H M N U
Scrabble words that can be created with an extra letter added to HUMANE
All anagrams that could be made from letters of word HUMANE plus a
Scrabble words that can be created with letters from word HUMANE
6 letter words
5 letter words
4 letter words
3 letter words
2 letter words
Images for HUMANELoading...
SCRABBLE is the registered trademark of Hasbro and J.W. Spear & Sons Limited. Our scrabble word finder and scrabble cheat word builder is not associated with the Scrabble brand - we merely provide help for players of the official Scrabble game. All intellectual property rights to the game are owned by respective owners in the U.S.A and Canada and the rest of the world. Anagrammer.com is not affiliated with Scrabble. This site is an educational tool and resource for Scrabble & Words With Friends players.
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Chestnut flour is a type of flour made from ground chestnuts. Chestnuts are the starchy nut that is commonly used in culinary applications around the world, and they are especially popular in European and Mediterranean cuisine. The flour is typically made by drying and then grinding chestnuts, which results in a fine, powdery substance that can be used in a variety of recipes.
- Chestnut flour has a sweet and nutty flavour that is often compared to hazelnuts, and it has a slightly gritty texture that makes it ideal for certain dishes. It is naturally gluten-free, which makes it a popular alternative to wheat flour for those with celiac disease or gluten intolerance. It is also a good source of fibre, vitamin C, and other nutrients.
- In terms of culinary applications, chestnut flour is commonly used in baking, especially in recipes for cakes, breads, and other pastries. It can also be used as a thickener for soups and stews, or as a coating for meats or vegetables. Chestnut flour is often used in Italian cuisine to make dishes like castagnaccio, a type of chestnut cake, or necci, a type of chestnut flour pancake.
- Overall, chestnut flour is a versatile and flavourful ingredient that is beloved by chefs and home cooks alike. Its unique flavour and texture make it a great addition to a variety of recipes, and its nutritional profile makes it a healthy choice as well.
Organic Chestnut. May Contain Soy
Lactose Free: Yes
Suitable for Vegetarians: Yes
Suitable for Vegan: Yes
Gluten Free: Yes
Store in a cool and dry place.
Our product information, such as names, descriptions, specifications, and serving suggestion images, is not intended to provide a complete legal description of the products, and may not include all relevant information, including allergens. Casinetto may modify product specifications or information at any time without prior notice, and these changes may not be reflected online immediately. To access the latest and most comprehensive information about our products, including allergen details, please refer to the information on the product packaging.
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- Sand casting.
Forming metal shapes in the sand, also known as sand molded casting is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced by the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized foundries. Over seventy percent of all metal castings are produced via this method process.
- Lost-wax casting.
Also called "investment casting", "precision casting", or cire perdue in French, this is the process by which a duplicate metal model is cast from an original model. Casts can be made of the wax model itself, the direct method, or of a wax copy of a model that need not be of wax, the indirect method.
* We use Zortrax 3D printer for all of our casting models printing.
Please contact us if you wish to avail of our 3D printing services.
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Stling Palme Surname History
The family history of the Stling Palme last name is maintained by the AncientFaces community. Join the community by adding to to our knowldge of the Stling Palme:
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Stling Palme Country of Origin, Nationality, & Ethnicity
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The nationality of Stling Palme can be difficult to determine in cases which country boundaries change over time, leaving the nation of origin indeterminate. The original ethnicity of Stling Palme may be difficult to determine depending on whether the name came about naturally and independently in multiple locales; e.g. in the case of names that come from professions, which can appear in multiple countries independently (such as the family name "Baker" which refers to the craft of baker).
Stling Palme Meaning & Etymology
No one has submitted information on stling Palme meaning and etymology. Add to this section
No content has been submitted about the meaning of Stling Palme. The following is speculative information about Stling Palme. You can submit your information by clicking Edit.
The meaning of Stling Palme come may come from a profession, such as the name "Carpenter" which was given to woodworkers. Some of these trade-based surnames may be a profession in some other language. For this reason it is important to understand the nationality of a name, and the languages spoken by its family members. Many names like Stling Palme originate from religious texts like the Bhagavadgītā, the Bible, the Quran, etc. Often these family names relate to a religious expression such as "Worthy of praise".
Stling Palme Pronunciation & Spelling Variations
No one has added information on stling Palme spellings or pronunciations. Add to this section
No content has been submitted about alternate spellings of Stling Palme. The following is speculative information about Stling Palme. You can submit your information by clicking Edit.
In times when literacy was uncommon, names such as Stling Palme were transcribed based on how they sounded when people's names were written in government records. This could have resulted in misspellings of Stling Palme. Names like Stling Palme vary in their pronunciation and spelling as they travel across communities, family lines, and eras over generations. Understanding misspellings and spelling variations of the Stling Palme last name are important to understanding the etymology of the name.
Last names similar to Stling PalmeStlinke, Stlinski, Stlis, Stliven, Stliz, St Liz, Stljervalte, Stljivan, Stlkej, Stlkfs, Stllaurent, Stllbeck, Stllc, Stllch, Stllcvan, Stlle, Stller, Stlling, Stllion, Stllivan
stling Palme Family Tree
Here are a few of the stling Palme biographies shared by AncientFaces users. Click here to see more stling Palmes
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[D]uring times of crisis—such as natural disasters, wars, and epidemics—the risk of gender-based-violence escalates. In China, the number of domestic violence cases reported to the local police tripled in February compared to the previous year, according to Axios. Activists say this is a result of enforced lockdown.
“We know that domestic violence is rooted in power and control,” says Ray-Jones. “Right now, we are all feeling a lack of control over our lives and an individual who cannot manage that will take it out on their victim.” She says that while the number of abuse cases may not rise during the coronavirus crisis, people who were already in an abusive situation will likely find themselves facing more extreme violence, and can no longer escape by going to work or seeing friends.
The current crisis also makes it more difficult for victims to seek help.
For many women, even the fear of contracting the coronavirus is stopping them from seeking out medical care after experiencing physical abuse.
Many victims also feel that they can no longer seek refuge at their parents’ home, for fear that they could expose their elderly parents to the virus.
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Network With Us
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"ReadWriteThink.org is a constant source of inspiration for me, and has been an invaluable tool as I strive to be the most creative and engaging teacher I can be."
Jackie Regales's Story
Making Facebook Friends with Holden Caulfield
When I teach "The Catcher in the Rye" with my ninth grade students, we always discuss how Holden is a product of his cultural context, but also contains many classic traits of what we know today as your typical teenager. We talk about his heavy use of slang, his fears and insecurities about becoming an adult, his struggles with identity and communication. Once we have done some informal writing to help them explore these ideas in their own lives, I often ask them to think about what Holden would be like today. What bands would he listen to on his iPod? What movies would he love, and what books would be in his backpack?
The ReadWriteThink interactive Profile Publisher tool is a really great way to help students make a Facebook page for Holden Caulfield. The tool includes spaces to add a photo, favorite quote and "song now playing," but also prompts students to write a blog entry as the character, responding to specific events in the text and what the character plans to do next. Using the tool for Holden, or any of the minor characters in the novel, helps build close reading skills while also encouraging students to make predictions about what might happen next and think critically about characterization in the novel. This tool could be used also to create an interesting reading quiz at any point in the book, or students could complete the the profiles in groups, each taking a different minor character for certain sections in the book.
Using the Profile Publisher helps my students think both creatively and critically about this classic American coming-of-age story, helping them make connections between their own world and the landscape we see in the book.
I teach in the Upper School of a K-12 all-girls independent school in Baltimore, Maryland, where I also live with my husband, twin daughters, three cats and two hamsters. I have Bachelor's and Master's degrees in American Studies, and In my spare time, I enjoy baking, watching cooking shows, reading, and blogging.
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5 Tips For Better Problem Solving
Teach your homeschooler how to find better ways to deal with problems. Follow these five helpful tips to help your kids learn the important life skill of problem-solving.
Whether it is a math problem or a disagreement with a sibling or best friend, Everyone has problems to solve. But learning to do it in a healthy manner is key to mastering this important life skill. With hormones at an all-time high in the teen years, thinking clearly and problem-solving well can sometimes be a challenge.
As Karl Popper, who was a 20th-century philosopher of science, once quoted, “All life is problem-solving.”
Problem-Solving Tips To Try
Take A Break
If you simply can not have a calm discussion with someone (or solve that math problem without an emotional outburst), then it is time to get some air. Go to another room, or outside. By removing yourself from the situation, allows your brain to process the argument and figure out a different approach. If you need to, simply end the conversation (or the assignment) and come back to it later.
Interestingly, engineering professor Barbara Oakley quoted to the Mother Jones newspaper, “When you are focusing, you are blocking your access to the diffuse mode. The diffuse mode, it turns out, is what you often need to be able to solve an exceedingly difficult, new problem.”
Keep A Journal
If the problem is more serious, try writing down the issue. Often, our brains have a hard time sorting through the feelings before even tackling the solution. Write down the why, what, when, etc. Add to each subtitle with more sensible ideas. Much like an outline you do for an essay. Get it all out on paper first. Then, go back and read each entry. Does it make sense? Does it seem like a better approach to solving the problem?
Sleep On It
Some problems can not be solved in one day. By keeping yourself up worrying about it, not only is bad for your physical health but worse for your mental health. Emotions cool down and your teen’s brain has a chance to process. And what teen doesn’t need a good night’s sleep, right!?!
Have A Chat
If the problem is not resolved and your teen is feeling overwhelmed, sometimes voicing the problem is therapeutic. Call a friend, family member, or trusted adult. Someone that is close to you who has some understanding of your personality. When we are emotional, it is hard to see our own behaviors. By having a “third-party” hear the problem, it gives us that moment to release that anger or sadness and re-focus on the base of the problem more rationally. Learning to discuss and ask for help is a HUGE problem-solving resource (and exercise in humility) that we all need to practice – not just our teens.
Tackle It Head-On
This is the moment that your teen is feeling strong enough emotionally to solve the problem. This might look like, talking to the person that you feel has wronged you or getting up every day just a bit earlier to make some extra time to tack that difficult homeschool subject. When we push ourselves to resolve the hurdle that is holding us back, we are rewarded with feelings of satisfaction and less anxiety.
Your Life Skills: Problem-Solving Workbook
As Albert Einstein eloquently summed it up, “We can not solve our problems with the same level of thinking that created them.” By practicing and utilizing these tips will not only assure a more easily solved conclusion, but your mental health will thank you, making everyone feel better. The Strategic Problem-Solving Workbook Bundle is the perfect tool for teaching this life skill in your homeschool.
Get started helping your homeschooler learn to break big problems down into manageable steps today! Download the FREE Strategic Problem Solving Checklist for Tweens & Teens.
Shannan is a wife, mum, and saved by grace child of The King. Her home base is in Scotland, where she homeschools her two kids (ages 12 & 15) and learns on location throughout Europe as much as possible. She is a classical/Charlotte Mason style home educator living out her God-breathed dream of raising her family in Europe. She’s passionate about many things, especially helping others learn on location using the world as their classroom. She encourages you to pursue your God-breathed dream, no matter what it is! You can join her at Captivating Compass for homeschool and family travel inspiration.
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May 6, 2019
by Dr. Maya Sarkisyan
You usually know your memory function, and if it’s okay or not. Such as if you can recall events in your life, that happened a long time ago or recently.
From time to time due to stress or traumatic events we all experience some memory loss or lapses, but usually it does not concerning.
Alzheimer’s is a dangerous brain health condition; we all know how devastating it is to lose your brain capabilities. Some of us even experienced it with our family and friends, and now consciously aware of our brain function.
Do you know that you can do a lot to prevent your brain from further damage, stop the degrading process and regenerate neurons?
Yes, you can, and the first step is to accept that we live in the reality that creates and maintains chronic degenerative health conditions. It’s a complicated reality to face because we are trapped in it and have to deal with it every day. Almost every decision we make that has to do with the outside world could be evaluated for toxic exposure because it’s around us. But if we do that we would quickly become paranoid (and some people are), so I don’t advise it.
I suggest educating yourself on lifestyle choices you created and changing the most dangerous things you do, and everything else what you can, and relax on the rest knowing you did all you could. But realize the most critical choices you make about your surrounding, especially the ones affecting your physical brain because if it’s not working correctly you cannot make any definite decisions about anything else.
It is not only Alzheimer’s that can take away your brain function but anything that allows the brain to degenerate because of many factors that can happen with it. Alzheimer’s can be predicted by a genetic test, but even then it is not conclusive you will develop it. Or if your genes are clean, it is also not a guarantee that you will retain your brain function and mental acuity till the end of your life.
I think mental acuity is so essential as we age. Think about it, we gain so much experience and knowledge, and some of us are going through personal development work and becoming better and much more aware individuals. Some people even realize they can start enjoying their lives after they are 50-60 years old.
I want to get even better brain function as I gracefully age so that I can enjoy my life entirely.
What can you do to prevent brain neurons degradation?
First, you have to know where you are. To get to Texas, you need to know where you are right now because if you don’t know where you are, you cannot create a roadmap.
I am very excited that now I have a full testing panel to evaluate risk factors for Alzheimer’s. I was waiting for it for a long time.
This creates an important window of opportunity for preclinical management of individuals at higher risk of Alzheimer’s, even years before the clinical onset of disease.
It is a strategically planned panel of biomarkers revealing never-before-seen clinical perspectives of brain-related immune reactivity. It includes:
- Brain proteins
- Growth factors
- Enteric Nerve, Enzymes, and Neurological Peptides
- Oral and other pathogens that can affect your brain
- Chemicals that damage brain cells
- Foods Cross-Reactive to amyloid formation
- Blood-brain barrier and inflammation factors that are affecting the nervous system.
It is one blood test so all of that can be tested at once.
I will be doing it for myself and my family, and I highly recommend to go with it especially if you have genetic markers for all as I’m or you’ve anybody in your family suffered dementia or Alzheimer’s. The earlier you do it, the better the chances are to reverse and correct existing problems.
April 3, 2019
by Dr. Maya Sarkisyan
- Generalized social anxiety is when these feelings happen during any social situations.
- Non-generalized social anxiety when anxiety happens only in particular types of situations.
- Rapid heartbeat when faced with talking to somebody
- Avoidance of social situations
- Fear of public speaking
- Excessive quietness
- Fear of being criticized
- Being judgemental of self and others
- My favorite, of course, is NLP. With that fascinating tool, you can create behaviors you want, change the perception of your reality, and transform negative beliefs into inspirational beliefs. NLP helped me a lot, in fact, it helped me to build a life I wanted, and it is still a big part of my life. My patients and clients know the power of it and every day I teach more people to take their life to the next level.
- Nootropics can be your answer to that. The proper way to stack nootropics is your key to success. You have to know what you are dealing with, what are your symptoms and how to stack them.
- Ashwagandha and Coffee
- Bacopa is another adaptogenic herb and very well known for its ability to quiet the mind, enhance memory, and improve focus.
- L-Theanine is an amino acid found in green tea leaves. When taken as a supplement it can give you a sense of calmness and relaxation without slowing you down. It can increase your learning abilities. Next time you have to go into a social setting try to take 100mg or 200mg and see what happens.
- Phenibut is a synthetic nootropic that is structurally similar to GABA, and it has a calming effect without affecting cognitive abilities. What makes it great for social anxiety relief is that you can think clearly and act relaxed when facing a social situation.
- Aniracetam is one of my favorite nootropics, and it also capable to relax you and improve your mood. It should be taken with some form of choline because it activates choline receptors in your brain. I like it because if faced with a task I have to concentrate on, I can really focus and ignore all distractions.
DOCTOR MAYA HERBAL FAVORITES:
Regarding nootropics I listed above you can contact me to assess your individual needs and create a right stack for you.
March 30, 2019
by Dr. Maya Sarkisyan
Not all nootropics are created equally. And different people need a different stack of nootropics for a superior brain function. Look at it as a legal enhancement of your mental capacity. When composed correctly, it’s like superpowers of your brain.
What are nootropics and where they came from?
Nootropics are cognitive enhancers that are effective and legal. Generally, when composed correctly and taken responsible they are safe.
Nootropics are not medication, they are mostly synthetic supplements designed for specific mental effects. However, some herbs and herbal formulations can be nootropics on their own, or they can participate in “stacking” of nootropics based on individual needs and preferences.
We always evaluate your individual purposes and outcomes before deciding what “stack” you need. Motivation, concentration, and increased cognitive functioning are examples of the goals, but we always need to take into consideration your physical condition and health issues.
Why might you want to consider nootropic?
Some examples are:
- If you have a high-pressure task in front of you and you want to give it your best
- If you need a boost in your social performance, such as effective networking, giving a speech, or preparing for an interview
- If you need to boost your memory and concentration
- If your workouts leave you mentally exhausted
- For deeper sleep
You can create a tolerance to certain nootropics, and they might stop working as effectively. There are working in your body for a certain, and you need to take more to maintain that effect. Some of them also can cause dependency, so you have to be careful and monitor your reactions over time.
This is why I always suggest creating your “stack” carefully. Some of the nootropics boost your body’s ability to start generating neurotransmitters, and some are mimicking neurotransmitters.
There are no right or wrong answers, and you can do both simultaneously. You have to be creative in the way you take, combine, and rotate them.
One of the easy to try examples is combining coffee with L-theanine. It is an amino acid and is found in green tea.
Coffee is an excellent nootropic by itself but can give you jitters, anxiety, and uneven energy distribution. If you add 100mg of l-theanine to it, it balances these effect as theanine is a relaxant, and for some reason, they are perfectly working in synergy.
Another excellent nootropic I found is Focus DL (DL phenylalanine) – an excellent way to focus and concentrate. And it will be much more effective if custom stacked with other supplements for your individual needs.
The most important – nootropics are a valuable addition to a healthy lifestyle. They can give you a boost to start one, and it’s your responsibility to use that opportunity and tune up your life to the best of your potential.
Dr. Maya had been working with bio and mind hackers for many years and has unique expertise in stacking nootropics and helping you to organize and boost your mental and emotional wellbeing.
To schedule a complimentary 15-minute phone consultation with Dr. Maya CONTACT US
or call 800-590-6292.
March 26, 2019
by Dr. Maya Sarkisyan
- You have more accumulated body fat and less energy.
- You have hot flashes and dryness in hair/nails/skin
- You have more worries and less memory
- You have more grief and less joy
- You have more body aches and less movement
- And so on.
- An invasive virus such as Epstein Barr, various strains of Herpes, cytalomegavirus,
- Mold exposure
- Chronic Candida
- Heavy metals
- Environmental Toxins
- Oxalate tissue deposits
- Excessive blood loss caused by childbirth or other trauma
- Postpartum hormonal imbalance
- And others…
- Giving a lot to others without receiving back, or receiving very little
- A prolonged traumatic event such as divorce, abusive partner, long term conflict
- Sexual abuse/rape
- Emotional abuse
- Living with a narcissistic partner/parent/child
- Feeling defeated in something you are really trying to achieve for a long time
- Toxic and negative beliefs about yourself and/or others
- Toxic and negative people around you
- Dealing with “energetic vampires.”
- Unrequited love
- Unreciprocated emotions
- Suppressing emotions
- Living in fear
- And others…
January 10, 2019
by Dr. Maya Sarkisyan
We all want to start our day will good energy and carry it on through the day. We want to achieve something, or just plain feel good.
Starting your day is actually directly related to how you ended your previous day. The state of your mind in the evening and the quality (and quantity) of your sleep will affect not only the energy you have the following day but your overall health – your digestion, immune system, nervous system, cardiovascular system and everything else.
Many of us can remember all-nighters we were able to pull off and get away with it next day. Some of us still do that, and it’s getting harder to maintain good health without proper sleep.
Sleep is the king!
During sleep, your body undergoes essential repairs, and your brain undergoes maintenance as the cellular waste is being flashed from it. It takes a lot of energy to do all this work, and the deeper you sleep, the more successful these repairs and detox.
So it requires some changes in your lifestyle to start towards a better night rest.
Perhaps not every day, but most days during the week you can perform all the steps. Other days perform only your favorites. But once you set up your night environment, it will be easy.
DOCTOR MAYA FAVORITES:
I recommend being home for 2 hours before bedtime. I cannot do it every day because I go out dancing at least once a week, and dance socials such as Argentine tango and Salsa dancing all start very late. So I have to modify this night ritual to feel more energy the next day.
I will share in a different article what I do in the morning to get myself back to high energy.
- Move electronics out of your bedroom. Do it once for a more permanent staff like TV, and every day for smaller stuff like iPads and consoles. I’m surprised that many people find it impossible to do. A TV in the bedroom is a big problem for every are in your life. Seriously, move it out. Bedroom is for resting, sleeping, and intimacy.
- Shut down all the screens. Blue light is very stressful for your nervous system. Make sure you have filters or software on your electronic devices to get rid of blue light.
- Many people use phones as alarms and/or running apps that measure sleep/snoring/etc. Put your phone on airplane mode, and turn it face down.
- If you use standard alarm – block it, so you don’t see the screen.
- Keep the temperature cooler during the night than through the day. The best sleep temperature is between 65 and 72 degrees.
- At least two hours before bedtime stop eating anything and don’t drink alcohol. The best it to have your last bite before 7pm, and have only water or herbal tea after. Sometimes it’s not possible but still, keep it in mind.
- Clean up your environment. It is much better to sleep in a clean room knowing that in the morning you will wake up to an organized space.
- Prepare your morning clothes, so you don’t have to waste your brain power on ordinary tasks. Even if you are going to work out in the morning – prepare your workout outfit and sneakers.
- Relax with a book.
- Get blackout curtains and block all the light sources you can. Get your bedroom as dark as possible.
- If you cannot fall asleep for 30 min – get up, go into another room, have dim lighting only and repeat some of your routines. After 15 minutes you can then go back to bed and try to fall asleep again.
- Drink a cup of herbal tea while reading or listening to relaxing music.
- Journal about the day and write down tasks for tomorrow.
- Take at least 10 minutes to practice mindful relaxation and/or spiritual practices. Usually, spiritual practices take longer. Examples – Prayer, Meditation, Breathing, Qigong.
- When you are in bed with your eyes closed – practice gratitude. First – appreciate defeats – they teach you valuable lessons. Then – recite gratitudes for which is good and positive in your life – name every little thing and be really grateful for it.
The steps are not in a specific order, and you can move them around, create new steps, and do whatever is necessary to fit it into your idea of relaxation.
But the main idea is this – create an environment in which every night you will be able to be repaired and washed on the cellular level.
Everything is better with health. And sleep is one of its main components.
December 23, 2018
by Dr. Maya Sarkisyan
You know how holiday season can take a toll on our health – eating at improper times, drinking perhaps more than usual, sleeping late, etc. I have put together this Holiday Essentials Supplements Guide with some of my most recommended supplements to help you take on the holiday season.
Check out “Holiday Essentials” category in my Favorites. (You can safely create an account on Fullscript – my online pharmacy that protects your information by law. Free shipping over$50)
Sleep & Stress
Between all the holiday activities it’s easy to feel overwhelmed. Check out what I recommend for relaxation.
L-theanine, an amino acid found primarily in green tea leaves, can help promote relaxation and sleep. A study of individuals with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) found that 250 mg of L-theanine administered daily over 8 weeks decreased anxiety, depressive symptoms, and sleep disturbances. Another double-blind, placebo-controlled trial examined the effects of l-theanine supplementation on healthy adults when confronted with a stressor. L-theanine reduced both the subjective stress response and the salivary cortisol response to the stressor, supporting the anti-stress effects of L-theanine.
Melatonin, a neurotransmitter-like compound produced by the pineal gland, is synthesized from tryptophan through a series of reactions. These reactions are stimulated by darkness and suppressed by light, which suggests that melatonin is involved in the regulation of the body’s sleep cycle, the circadian rhythm, and other body functions.Research has shown that melatonin improves sleep quality, increases total sleep time and decreases sleep onset latency (SOL). A meta-analysis found that melatonin supplementation of 5 mg administered at 10 pm shortened time to sleep and increased sleep duration, indicating improved sleep quality. The recommended dose of effectiveness ranged from 0.3 to 10.0 mg/day depending on your individual needs.
During the holiday season, most of us are guilty of a little indulgence. Unfortunately, for many of us, indulging in certain foods can cause digestive discomfort and indigestion.
DGL (deglycyrrhizinated licorice), may help soothe indigestion due to its anti-inflammatory and protective effects. DGL is a form of licorice extract that contains no glycyrrhizin and is safe for those individuals concerned about hypertension.One study found that supplementing 75 mg of licorice root extract twice daily for 30 days resulted in significant improvement in the symptoms of individuals suffering from functional dyspepsia, also known as non-ulcer dyspepsia. Research has also demonstrated licorice extract to be as effective as bismuth (the main ingredient in Pepto Bismol) in H. Pylori eradication.
Digestive enzymes are naturally secreted in the stomach and small intestine to help you digest your food. During the holidays, taking additional enzymes can give your digestive system a little extra help to get through those large meals and decadent foods.Supplemental digestive enzymes often used to address various gastrointestinal disorders, help break down proteins, carbohydrates and lipids to their absorbable forms. Studies show that supplementation with pancreatic enzymes reduced symptoms of bloating, gas and fullness after a high calorie, high-fat meal (hello holidays!). When choosing an enzyme supplement, it’s important to note that broad-spectrum digestive enzymes may be more effective for overall digestion whereas single-enzyme supplements, such as lactase alone, are targeted for specific needs.
Your liver is involved in hundreds of body functions, including balancing hormones, metabolizing fats, and detoxification. Whether you missed a few hours of shut-eye or had an extra glass of wine (or two), B vitamins and Milk Thistle can support your liver and help you recover from the holidays.
Milk Thistle, a plant originating from Europe, has long been used for its hepatoprotective (liver protecting) effects. Its ability to prevent damage to the liver is thought to be primarily due to the antioxidant and free radical scavenging effects of silymarin and silybin, active constituents of milk thistle. Research has shown that silymarin decreases liver enzymes, ALT and AST, in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease patients.
B vitamins are essential to the activation of liver enzymes and proper functioning of liver detoxification pathways. For example, B vitamins, particularly B6, B12, and folate, are essential to the methyltransferase pathway, part of the liver’s Phase 2 detoxification.
You’re healthy all year, then the holidays roll around and suddenly… Hello, colds and flu! Sound familiar? Stress, loss of sleep, and indulging in certain foods, such as rich meals and sugary treats, can leave you vulnerable to illness. The good news is supplementing with probiotics or elderberry may help you feel better faster.
With over 70% of the human immune system residing in the gut, it’s no wonder that probiotics, well-known for keeping our digestive system happy, also play a role in keeping our immune system healthy.
Probiotics help modulate the immune response by influencing the actions of dendritic cells, macrophages, and T and B lymphocytes. Research has shown that probiotics may help prevent or decrease the duration and severity of upper respiratory tract infections, such as the common cold. Multi-strain probiotics, in particular, have demonstrated beneficial effects on immune health and greater efficacy than single-strain options.
When you’re starting to feel a little under the weather, Elderberry, also known as Sambucus nigra, maybe your new go-to remedy. Often found in syrup form, Elderberry is a great choice for adults and children.
Elderberry extract has been shown to be antiviral and has immunostimulatory effects, increasing inflammatory cytokine production. Clinical research shows that some elderberry extracts might improve flu-like symptoms and reduce the duration of colds by four days due to its high concentration of flavonoids and other beneficial vitamins, minerals, phytosterols, and carotenoids.
In the end, prevention is the key, so be sure to get plenty of rest, minimize rich and sugary foods (when possible), do daily deep breathing to combat stress, and always remember…it’s a joyous time of year!
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OVERVIEW: What every practitioner needs to know
Are you sure your patient has hyper IgM syndrome? What are the typical findings for this disease?
The most common manifestation of the hyper IgM syndromes is recurrent sino-pulmonary infections but this does not differentiate the disease from other antibody deficiency diseases. Susceptibility to opportunistic infections especially Pneumocystis jiroveci and
Cryptosporidium parvum is characteristic of the most common X-linked form of hyper IgM, as well as the autosomal recessive form of Hyper IgM caused by mutations in the CD40 gene.
Other characterisitic features include neutropenia, stomatitis, and liver disease including sclerosing cholangitis. Patients also have a higher incidence of tumors of the liver, pancreas or biliary tree and an increased susceptibility to neuroectodermal tumors. Lymphoid hyperplasia is characteristic of the autosomal recessive form of the disease (except for mutations in CD40).
Some patients with a milder form of the disease, present in adolescence with a Parvovirus-induced aplastic anemia.
Physical examination is generally not helpful in making a specific diagnosis of Hyper-IgM Syndrome, but a thorough exam is obviously an essential part of diagnosing associated infection. Patients with autosomal recessive hyper IgM, like certain other immunodeficiency syndromes, may have enlarged tonsils, adenoids and other lymphoid tissue.
Laboratory studies (discussed below) are necessary for the definitive diagnosis of the hyper IgM syndromes.
What other disease/condition shares some of these symptoms?
Recurrent infection is the hallmark of all immunodeficiency diseases. Recurrent sinopulmonary infections are seen in antibody deficiency diseases as well as in the combined (Tcell and antibody) immune deficiencies.
Opportunistic infections due to organisms like Pneumocystis jiroveci and
Cryptosporidium parvumare also characteristic of T cell immunodeficiencies like Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) or from acquired immunodeficiency due to HIV infection or immunosuppressive medications.
Neutropenia with recurrent infections can be seen in a variety of congenital and acquired conditions including Common Variable Immunodeficiency, Kostman’s Syndrome or Congenital Neutropenia, Schwachman-Diamond Syndrome, and as a side effect of medications (trimethoprim/sulfa, certain anticonvulsants, etc.)
What caused this disease to develop at this time?
The hyper IgM syndromes are caused by genetic defects in the CD40 ligand (CD154) and CD40 signaling pathway that is necessary for immunoglobulin isotype switching.
The most common form, X-linked hyper IgM, results from genetic defects in the CD40 ligand gene. Autosomal recessive forms results from defects in the gene encoding CD40 (similar disease expression to CD40 ligand defects but very rare), activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID, most common autosomal recessive defect) and Uracil-N-glycosylase (UNG). The latter two enzymes are both required for immunoglobulin isotype switching from IgM/IgD to IgG, IgA and IgE and for somatic hypermutation of the variable regions of Ig molecules.
Another form of hyper IgM syndrome results from defects in an X-linked gene encoding the NF-kB essential modulator (NEMO) causing ectodermal dysplasia with an immunodeficiency that resembles hyper IgM on immunological studies. NEMO is important for activation of the transcription factor NF-kB, which mediates signaling pathways for innate and adaptive immune systems including CD40 and other TNF-receptor family members.
Patients with defects in NEMO have a susceptibility to a wider range of pathogens including atypical mycobacteria.
The presence of a family history of X-linked hyper IgM or of an X-linked pattern of immunodeficiency (death at an early age from infection) is highly suggestive of the condition. A family history of autosomal recessive hyper IgM is less likely to be found.
What laboratory studies should you request to help confirm the diagnosis? How should you interpret the results?
The diagnosis of hyper IgM is suggested by the presence of very low to absent serum levels of IgG with elevated, normal, or even low IgM. IgA levels are also usually absent but some patients may have normal IgA levels. A hallmark of hyper IgM is failure to synthesize specific antibody to vaccines. Neutropenia may be present on CBC with differential.
Patients will have normal lymphocyte subset percentages and absolute counts with normal T cell proliferation to mitogens and variable proliferative responses to specific antigens. Absence of expression of CD40 ligand on activated T cells is highly suggestive of the X-linked form of the disease. However, normal CD40 ligand expression does not absolutely rule out the disease as some point mutations in the CD40 ligand gene may not affect cell surface expression of the CD40 ligand protein.
Genetic sequencing for one of the known gene defects will confirm the diagnosis: CD40 ligand, CD40, NEMO, AID or UNG.
Would imaging studies be helpful? If so, which ones?
Imaging studies are not generally useful for suspecting or for confirming the diagnosis but are often helpful for the evaluation of concurent infections: CXR for pneumonia and/or Pneumocytis pneumonitis; computed tomography (CT) Scan of the sinuses may be useful in diagnosing sinusitis, and CT scan of the abdomen may be necessary for evaluation of potential complications such as liver disease and/or malignancy.
Confirming the diagnosis
A history of severe recurrent infections, chronic and complicated infections, or infection with an opportunistic organizm (especially if it requires admission to a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit), should prompt consideration of a possible immune defect.
A serum immunoglobulin pattern showing low or absent IgG with low, normal or elevated serum IgM should raise the possibility of hyper IgM, especially if specific antibody levels are below detection.
The presence of B cells on lymphocyte subset analysis rules out X-linked agammaglobulinemia and the presence of normal T cell numbers and subsets with normal proliferation to mitogens rules out SCID. This then should prompt evaluation of CD40 ligand expression unless the patient is female. The absence of CD40 ligand expression in a boy would prompt sequencing of the CD40 ligand gene to confirm the diagnosis of X-linked hyper IgM. If CD40 ligand expression is normal, sequencing of the CD40 ligand gene can identify point mutations that do not affect CD40 ligand protein expression but impair its function.
If an affected male has features of ectodermal dysplasia and/or CD40 ligand expression and gene sequencing are normal, then sequencing of the NEMO gene can confirm the diagnosis of ectedermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency.
If the patient has no defect in CD40 ligand or NEMO or if the patient has lymphoid hyperplasia or is a female or has a family history of affected females, then assessment of CD40 protein expression by flow cytometry followed by sequencing for the AID or UNG genes and lastly the CD40 gene should be done to identify autosomal recessive hyper IgM syndrome.
Lastly, there are cases of hyper IgM without an identified gene defect.
If you are able to confirm that the patient has hyper IgM syndrome, what treatment should be initiated?
Even before a definitive diagnosis is made, low or absent IgG levels in the serum, associated with poor or absent specific antibody levels should prompt treatment with immunoglobulin replacement. IgG replacement can be done intravenously at a dose of 500-600 mg/Kg every 3-4 weeks or subcutaneously at a dose of 150-200 mg/Kg weekly.
Initiation of prophylactic treatment to prevent Pneumocystis should be initiated until the absence of a defect in CD40, CD40 ligand and NEMO is established. GM-CSF can be used for severe neutropenia, especially if it is associated with significant infection. In addition, a clean water supply is necessary to prevent infection with Cryptosporidium.
In terms of long term management, patients with CD40 ligand defects, NEMO defects and patients with CD40 defects may benefit from a stem cell transplant, especially if there is a matched related donor or a good matched unrelated donor available. The long-term benefit of stem cell transplantation is presumed based on the high risk of complications of sclerosing cholangitis, liver disease, and cancer and the paucity of patients older than 30 years of age in two patient registries, one from Europe and one from the United States. However, the long-term assessment of risk/benefit of stem cell tranplantation is not available yet.
What are the adverse effects associated with each treatment option?
Immunoglobulin replacement is necessary to provide immunity against the most common pathogens. The potential adverse events include tranfusion-like reactions, headache, aseptic meningitis, fever, myagias and the potential for infection by a blood-borne pathogen.
Stem cell transplantation has the potential of providing a cure for hyper IgM, however there is a risk of acute or chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and long term complications of the myeloablation regimen used.
What are the possible outcomes of hyper IgM?
The prognosis for X-linked hyper IgM, CD40-deficient hyper IgM and NEMO is very guarded. While antibody replacement reduces the frequency and severity of infections, few patients with X-linked hyper IgM live beyond 30 years of age. Therefore, stem cell transplantation is recommended when a suitable donor is available. The long-term benefit of stem cell transplantation is not determined yet as the first stem cell transplantation for hyper IgM was reported in 1993.
NEMO can also be treated with stem cell transplantation but NEMO is found in all tissues and stem cell transplantation only corrects the immunodeficiency. Other manifestations of the disease, such as enteritis that is found in some of the patients may not resolve with stem cell transplantation.
The other forms of autosomal recessive hyper IgM (caused by mutations in AID and UNG) have a better prognosis as the defect is mainly an antibody deficiency. In these cases immunoglobuloin replacement therapy should provide adequate disease management. Affected patients remain at risk for autoimmune disease, which appears to be more common in these conditions than in X-linked hyper IgM.
Antibody replacement therapy is necessary for all patients with the primary hyper IgM syndrome described above. The decision to proceed with a stem cell transplant is determined by the presence of a suitable donor, the underlying cause of the hyper IgM syndrome (CD40 ligand, CD40 or NEMO) and patient/parent preference.
What causes this disease and how frequent is it?
The hyper IgM syndromes are rare inherited defects affecting the CD40 ligand:CD40 signaling pathway resulting in failure to undergo immunoglobulin isotype switching from IgM/IgD to IgG, IgA and IgE. The exact incidence is not known but thought to be 1:1,000,000 for the most common form, X-linked hyper IgM resulting from defects in the CD40 ligand gene.
The genes that have been identified to cause hyper IgM include:
CD40 ligand, which is inherited in an X-linked recessive manner and therefore affects boys only.
CD40, which is inherited in an autosomal recessive form.
NEMO, which is activated downstream of CD40 and is inherited in an X-linked recessive manner.
AID and UNG, which are also activated downstream of CD40 and inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
How do these pathogens/genes/exposures cause the disease?
CD40 ligand is expressed on activated CD4 T cells, among other cells, which then signals B cells and other antigen-presenting cells via CD40 to activate immunoglobulin isotype switching in B cells and co-stimulatory molecules on antigen-presenting cells especially dendritic cells that promote T cell differentiation. The failure of CD40 ligand to bind and activate CD40 results in the X-linked form of hyper IgM with failure of immunoglobulin isotype switching and a T cell defects that makes affected patients susceptible to opportunistic infections and the severe complications of liver disease and cancer.
Defects in CD40 also result in a similar phenotype but affects males and females equally as an autosomal recessive hyper IgM. This condition is very rare and has been described in few consanguinous families.
Ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency is another X-linked form of hyper IgM that results from hypomorphic mutations in NEMO, which is necessary for activation of NF-kB, a transcription factor downstream of CD40 and other TNF-receptor families as well as antigen receptors on T cells and B cells, the T cell receptor and immunoglobulin, respectively as well as toll-like receptors (TLR) and IL-1 receptor family. Therefore, both innate and adaptive immunity is affected and affected patients suffer from infections by a wider range of infectious agents.
The other autosomal recessive forms of hyper IgM result from defects in AID and UNG, two enzymes necessary for immunoglobulin isotype switching in B cells. These conditions are thought to be limited to antibody deficiency without a susceptibility to opportunistic infections and the prognosis for these patients is better than the above gene defects. However, patients may be more susceptible to autoimmune disease and complications of lymphoid hypertrophy.
How can hyper IgM be prevented?
Inherited causes of hyper IgM cannot be prevented, however, complications of the disease such as opportunistic infections can be prevented by prophylactic antibiotics or use of monthly pentamidine. Antibody replacement can prevent infections and reduce mortality and morbidity, but cannot prevent cancer and other severe complications. A family history can help diagnose the disease early and initiate therapy before significant infection and its complications have occurred.
Genetic counseling of families of affected patients is important to help diagnose and treat future patients early.
What is the evidence?
Davies, EG, Thrasher, AJ. “Br J Haematol”. Update on the hyper immunoglobulin M syndromes. vol. 149. 2010. pp. 167(This paper is an overview of the molecular and clinical spectrum of the Hyper-immunoglobulin M syndromes. The specific genetic disorders that result in defective immunoglobulin class switch recombination (CSR), with or without defects of somatic hypermutation (SHM) and the mechanisms leading to defective T cell activation are reviewed. Therapies with immunoglobulin replacement therapy, bone marrow transplantation and potenial gene therapy approaches are described. PMID 20180797.)
Imai, K, Slupphaug, G, Lee, WI. “Human uracil-DNA glycosylase deficiency associated with profoundly impaired immunoglobulin class-switch recombination”. Nat Immunol. vol. 4. 2003. pp. 1023
Quartier, P, Bustamante, J, Sanal, O. “Clinical, immunologic and genetic analysis of 29 patients with autosomal recessive hyper-IgM syndrome due to Activation-Induced Cytidine Deaminase deficiency”. Clin Immunol. vol. 110. 2004. pp. 22
Ongoing controversies regarding etiology, diagnosis, treatment
The decision to undergo a stem cell transplant remains somewhat controversial as there may be significant side effects and long-term outcome data is not yet available.
Copyright © 2017, 2013 Decision Support in Medicine, LLC. All rights reserved.
No sponsor or advertiser has participated in, approved or paid for the content provided by Decision Support in Medicine LLC. The Licensed Content is the property of and copyrighted by DSM.
- OVERVIEW: What every practitioner needs to know
- Are you sure your patient has hyper IgM syndrome? What are the typical findings for this disease?
- What other disease/condition shares some of these symptoms?
- What caused this disease to develop at this time?
- What laboratory studies should you request to help confirm the diagnosis? How should you interpret the results?
- Would imaging studies be helpful? If so, which ones?
- Confirming the diagnosis
- If you are able to confirm that the patient has hyper IgM syndrome, what treatment should be initiated?
- What are the adverse effects associated with each treatment option?
- What are the possible outcomes of hyper IgM?
- What causes this disease and how frequent is it?
- How do these pathogens/genes/exposures cause the disease?
- How can hyper IgM be prevented?
- What is the evidence?
- Ongoing controversies regarding etiology, diagnosis, treatment
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A new study claiming that chocolate could reduce the risk of having a stroke will surely leave many chocolate lovers across the world with a grin on their faces. But don’t go buying cartons of the brown delight just yet, the leading study authors say.
Author and Neurologist Gustavo Saposnik of St. Michael’s Hospital in Toronto, Canada, says that while their study has shown one chocolate bar per week could reduce the risk of stroke, more evidence needs to be gathered, Business Weekly reports.
The researchers reviewed three previous studies on chocolate and its benefits, one which included 44,000 individuals, and found that those who ate moderate amounts of chocolate were 22 percent less likely to suffer a stroke, compared to those who ate none at all, MSNBC.com reports.
But which chocolate is healthier? “I’d definitely go with the dark chocolate,” Saposnik told Business Weekly.
The direct relationship between cocoa and the risk of stroke has not been found yet, and needs to be further investigated.
“This [study] does not establish cause and effect,” ABCnews.go.com reports Dr. David Katz, director of the Prevention Research Center at Yale University School of Medicine, as saying. “It might simply be that, for example, people who enjoy life have a lower risk of stroke and are more prone to eat chocolate.”
While chocolate may have some health benefits, consumers must acknowledge the consumption is to be limited. Those who gain weight from eating chocolate, which contains many saturated fats, are not doing their body any favors.
One celebrity who suffered a stroke is Dick Clark.
Image: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chocolate.jpg; Author: André KarwathTags: heart stroke study
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There’s a majesty to it and a mystery, even though it’s a form of transportation that many people think of as lesser than cars, trains, or airplanes. It has the ability to force commonality between people and it always gets someone to their destination, even if it is a little slower than other forms of transportation. It is the motorcoach.
The motorcoach has been around since the 1800’s, around the time engines were invented. The first horse-drawn carriages were started in the early 1800’s, though people likely got tired of the muck that horses dragged in the streets. When the motor came around, it was likely adopted quickly in the coaches that transported people across the city.
Today, the beautiful vehicle that inherited its legacy is the bus.
The city bus is sometimes looked at as a lesser form of transportation. It’s cheaper than owning a car, owning a truck, owning a vehicle, and slower too. It takes time for a bus to get from destination to destination, often much slower than a vehicle would. It needs to take stops. It needs passengers to board. It needs to drop off passengers.
But it has qualities that the others lack and that some may find surprising. For one, it is the most environmentally friendly vehicle around. There are some statistics that back this up. They are:
- Motorcoaches achieve 206.6 passenger miles per gallon (MPG), commuter rail gets 92.4 passenger MPG, transit buses achieve 31.4 passenger MPG, domestic airplane achieves 44 passenger MPG, personal automobiles averaged 27.2 passenger MPG, and hybrid cars 46 passenger MPG.
- Motorcoaches are 3 times more efficient in reducing CO2 output when compared to commuter rail, and 6 times more efficient than transit buses.
- Each full motorcoach has the potential of removing 55 autos from the highway, reducing congestion, cutting energy use, and reducing emissions.
- Motorcoaches emit the least carbon dioxide per passenger mile when compared to other forms of transportation.
Motorcoaches have that appeal. They are cost-effective, transporting many people per mile at a lower cost than other vehicles. They are environmentally friendly, more efficient at reducing carbon dioxide emissions than other vehicles. So much so that they have the potential at removing dozens of cars from the highway.
They are also useful for areas where there is a high degree of congestion and foot traffic. A bus in a city center can make numerous stops and drop people off at locations that aren’t far away. Buses in suburban areas wouldn’t make sense according to that reason: The areas are too far apart for a bus to be useful.
Buses are often seen in municipalities, city centers, or midtown areas. There, the buses run back and forth between the popular areas in a city. There are a lot of people in a city, with a high degree of density. The bus can traffic a lot of people there, in a short amount of time. It is more efficient.
Buses are also good for short term travel to a destination. Buses can take people from city to city. They’re useful in rural regions where people don’t have another form of transportation. People rely on buses to get around. Buses can also be chartered, meaning they can be rented to go to a certain place. This is helpful as well.
This kind of bus is called a charter bus. A charter bus is not necessarily the same as one of those buses where people go to drink and be merry. A charter bus can be taken to numerous destinations and can move people as far ranging as families and school children. A charter bus can have a specific destination. It becomes a field trip.
There are certain terms worth knowing for someone looking to charter a bus. There are certain aspects that someone needs to be aware of. They need to know how to travel comfortably on a bus, whether there is WiFi on a bus, how to rent a charter bus, what the tips on chartering a bus are, whether there can be a tour group, and more.
Riding a bus may not seem like a glamorous thing when compared to traveling by plane or train. But it is environmentally friendly and is efficient at moving a large amount of people to a destination.
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Java is a general purpose computer programming language which is similar to C++ that is concurrent, class based, and object oriented and run on all platforms which support Java without the need for recompilation. The Java technology is an
Programming Language – Java can create all kinds of applications that you would create using any conventional programming language.
Development Environment – Java technology provides large suite of tools such as compiler, interpreter, documentation generator, class file packaging tool.
Application Environment – Java Technology applications are typically general purpose programs that run on any machine where the JRE is installed.
Deployment Environment – The JRE supplied by the Java SDK contains complete set of class files includes basic classes, GUI components and so on .The another component is on your web browser.
Java Virtual Machine – It is an imaginary machine implemented by emulating software on a real machine which provides hardware specifications.
Garbage Collection – It is responsible for freeing any memory that can be freed which happens automatically at the time of java program.
Code Security – It is attained in Java through the implementation of its JRE which runs code compiled for a JVM and performs class loading, code verification and code execution.
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100 years ago tonight, over 1,500 people lost their lives as the RMS Titanic perished in the icy waters of the Atlantic. The following collections and tours on Historypin memorialize the tragic fate of the great ship.
A Tour of the RMS Titanic’s Journey
Follow this Tour to see the construction, journey and fateful end of the Titanic.
Created by Rupert Matthews
Impact of the Titanic sinking on Halifax, Nova Scotia
Flick through this collection to see the impact on the community of Halifax in Nova Scotia, Canada who helped with the rescue.
Created by Nova Scotia Archives
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Koshy, Perumal and Prasad, V.N (2007): Small and Micro Enterprises: A tool in the fight against poverty.
Download (113kB) | Preview
The present paper makes an attempt to analyze the role and contribution that Small and Micro Enterprises (SMEs) could play in eradicating poverty and attaining Millennium Development Goals. International approach to poverty eradication is largely based upon poverty eradication through economic empowerment, besides social programmes. It is well-accepted fact that poverty removal and employment generation largely depends upon economic empowerment.
Eradication of poverty is a complex issue as the development of SME itself and requires multi-pronged strategy and actions involving both macro and micro policy initiatives. MSMEs have been identified as a high potential sector for employment generation and provision of livelihood to millions of people in several countries. This is echoed by specific programmes instituted by agencies such as International Labour Organisation (ILO) and United States Agency for International Development (USAID), UNCTAD etc.
The paper attempts to analyze the experiences of some countries in addressing the issue of poverty and suggest measures that can be taken by India to enhance contribution of SMEs to poverty
|Item Type:||MPRA Paper|
|Original Title:||Small and Micro Enterprises: A tool in the fight against poverty|
|Keywords:||Small and Micro Enterprises(SMEs); Poverty; Enterprise Oriented Stratgey; Employment generation|
|Subjects:||I - Health, Education, and Welfare > I3 - Welfare and Poverty
L - Industrial Organization > L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior > L26 - Entrepreneurship
E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics > E2 - Macroeconomics: Consumption, Saving, Production, Employment, and Investment > E26 - Informal Economy; Underground Economy
|Depositing User:||Perumal Koshy|
|Date Deposited:||21. May 2010 08:51|
|Last Modified:||16. Feb 2013 03:52|
1. More on UNHCHR definition of poverty can be accessed at http://www.unhchr.ch/development/poverty-02.html
2. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development identified that on the basis of “GDP per capita, their weak human assets and their high degree of economic vulnerability.
3. This is based on NSSO data.
4. Lukas E, The Economic Role Of Smes In World Economy, Especially In Europe, http://www.uni-miskolc.hu/uni/res/kozlemenyek/2005/pdf/lukacs.doc
5. The Role of Micro Enterprise Assistance in U.S. Development Policy, By Emmy Simmons, Assistant Administrator, Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture and Trade, U.S. Agency for International Development
6. The International Labor Conference validated this idea in 1998 by adopting Recommendation No. 189 on "Job Creation in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises". This offers a vision of a vibrant, job-creating, poverty-fighting small enterprise sector. http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?R189
7. The Least Developed Countries Report 2006, Overview by the Secretary General of UNCTAD.
9. Wilfried Luetkenhorst, Chief of Cabinet and Director of the Bureau for Organizational Strategy and Learning, UNIDO, Statement at ECOSOC High-level Segment Roundtable on “Poverty eradication – making it happen”4 July 2007, Geneva .< http://www.un.org/ecosoc/docs/stats/UNIDO.pdf>
10. Heifer strategy lies in fighting poverty and hunger through livestock enterprises. They gift a cow/goat or chickens etc to poor people and the recipients have to multiply the receipts over a period of time. Two goats into four or from two cows to three or four and share additions to another poor family and to extend the chain. Heifer calls it making the recipient a donor. More on this from http://www.heifer.org
11. World Vision is involved in micro credit, micro enterprise development and thereby poverty reduction in several Afro-Asian Countries. For more see www.worldvision.org/worldvision/appeals.nsf/stable/med_home
12. Egypt: A Poverty Profile - Presentation made by Professor Mahassen Mostafa Hassanin, National NGO Commission for Population and Development at the ICSW Civil Society Forum on Poverty February 11, 1999, New York.
13. CAFPAP, Improving livelihoods through Sustainable Management and Use of Natural Resources, http://www.iucn.org/themes/fcp/publications/files/cafpap-flyer-members.pdf
15. Kenya - coordinating UN collaborative programmes in poverty alleviation
16. Institute of Manpower Research, India Year Book 2002, Manpower Profile
17. Draft report on Study on Role, Contributions and Challenges of Small Scale Service and Business Enterprises in India, World Association for Small and Medium Enterprises, WASME, 2006
18. The Economic Times, New Delhi, dated 23-3-2007, Page-8
19. Alan Patricof and Julie Sunderland, Financial Times, August 9, 2004 (FT.com )
20. Gupta DN, ‘Outsourcing potentials from local governments and PPP at local government level at WASME Seminar on Small Cyber Enterprises: Business & Market Development for Sustaninability, 20 July, 2007 . Also, See, PPP Called for E-governance at Village Level, http://www.cio.in/news/viewArticle/ARTICLEID=3643
21. See Koshy P. ICT application, Rural Cyber Enterprises and Gram Swaraj, http://www.boloji.com/s
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