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The Great Stone Face
By Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)
A Study Guide
Cummings Guides Home
Type of Work
Point of View
Plot Summary
Questions, Writing Topics
Hawthorne's Biography
Complete Text
Study Guide Prepared by Michael J. Cummings...© 2012
Type of Work and Style
"The Great Stone Face" is
a fanciful short story centering on the life of a humble New England resident who learns wisdom by gazing upon a mountain rock formation that resembles a human face with a benevolent smile.
Hawthorne completed the story in 1850. The Boston firm of Houghton Mifflin published it in 1889 in The Great Stone Face and Other Tales of the White Mountains, a collection of four Hawthorne's short stories.
.......The action takes place in a valley that the narrator says was “embosomed amongst a family of lofty mountains.” On one mountain is a huge rock formation shaped like a human face. Hawthorne does not identify the location of the rock formation, but it is well known that he saw such a formation in the Franconia Notch of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. This formation was known as the Old Man of the Mountain but was sometimes referred to as the Profile. Unfortunately, in 2003, the Old Man of the Mountain collapsed.
: The main character. He is upright, hard-working, and a benevolent presence to his neighbors. He spends his leisure hours gazing at a mountain rock formation called the Great Stone Face.
Ernest's Mother: Loving woman who tells her son about an old story predicting that a child born in the valley below the Great Stone Face will become the greatest person of his time. The story says his face will resemble the one on the mountain.
Mr. Gathergold: Wealthy merchant who is a native of the valley.
Old Blood and Thunder: Great general who is a native of the valley.
Statesman: Great orator who is a native of the valley.
Poet: Great writer who is a native of the valley.
Valley Residents
Point of View
.......The narrator presents the story in omniscient third-person point of view.
.......The tone is thoughtful and, in several instances, sentimental—as in the following passage near the end of the story
Plot Summary
.......At sunset, a mother and her son sit in front of their cottage discussing the Great Stone Face. This wonder of nature looks down from one of the mountains bordering a valley with farms, villages, and cotton factories. The rock formation is massive, with a forehead more than a hundred feet high. Viewed up close, it is a chaos of gigantic rocks. Viewed from a distance, it becomes the face of a great god ready to speak thunder. Yet it is a noble, kindly face, suggesting it holds the valley in its affections. In fact, some people attribute the prosperity of the valley to the presence of the Great Stone Face.
.......“Mother,” says the boy, Ernest, “I wish that it could speak, for it looks so very kindly that its voice must needs be pleasant. If I were to see a man with such a face, I should love him dearly."
.......His mother says that if an old prophecy comes true, they will see a man with such a face. Ernest asks her to tell him more about the prophecy. So his mother tells him what her mother told her about it when she was a child. It is an old story, one with which the Indians who once inhabited the valley heard from their ancestors. This prophecy says that a child born in the valley will one day become “the greatest and noblest personage of his time” and that his face will be the exact likeness of the Great Stone Face. Some people of the valley no longer believe in the prophecy, for they have never seen a person bearing any resemblance to the natural wonder. Nor have they heard of anyone from the valley with surpassing greatness and nobility. Others, however, continue to await the fulfillment of the prophecy.
.......Ernest says he hopes that he will live to see the great person.
.......“Perhaps you may,” says the mother.
.......Ernest grew up as a quiet, thoughtful, intelligent child devoted to his mother. He performed many chores for her and worked hard in the fields under the hot sun. Although he had no teacher to nurture his intelligence, he spent many hours observing the Great Stone Face. With its benevolent countenance, it seemed to impart to him the importance of love.
.......Meanwhile, a rumor circulates saying that the prophecy has been fulfilled in a man who left the valley years before and became a shopkeeper in distant seaport. Having a good mind for business and blessed with good luck, he worked his way into ownership of a fleet of ships that brought him ivory, furs, precious gems, tea, spices, whale oil, and other commodities that earned him vast sums of money. His name is Gathergold, but the narrator is not sure whether that is his surname or a nickname.
.......After accumulating more money than he could count in a century, he decides to move back to his native valley. He sends ahead an architect to construct for him on the site of his father's old farmhouse an opulent marble dwelling with a portico and columns in the front. When the building is under construction, its magnificence leaves the people with the impression that the rumor must be true. After completion of the mansion, servants arrive to begin preparing for their famous master, who is expected in the evening. Some time later, while Ernest is outside gazing upon the valley, a carriage comes into view with an old man looking out the window. A woman beggar and two of her children stand near with their hands out. The old man drops copper coins down to them. When people awaiting his arrival see him, they shout that he is indeed the likeness of the Great Stone Face. But Ernest notices that Gathergold does not look at all like the mountain wonder. He looks up at it and it seems to say, “"He will come! Fear not, Ernest; the man will come!"
.......Years pass. Ernest is now a young adult. He works hard and is a good neighbor but is otherwise quite ordinary except for his habit of meditating on the Great Stone Face. The people of the valley are unaware that it “had become a teacher to him, and that the sentiment which was expressed in it would enlarge the young man's heart, and fill it with wider and deeper sympathies than other hearts,” the narrator says.
.......Meanwhile, Gathergold dies after losing all his wealth, and the people realize that his face did not resemble the one on the mountain after all. His marble mansion becomes a hotel for tourists visiting the valley to see the Great Stone Face. The attention of the people then shifts to another native of the valley—an aging war hero known as Old Blood and Thunder—who decides to return to the place of his birth. Childhood acquaintances of the general testify that in his youth his face was the very likeness of the Great Stone Face. On the day he arrives, the people welcome him at a public banquet in a field surrounded by trees except for an open space that allows a view of the Great Stone Face. After the general arrives, the Rev. Dr. Battleblast pronounces a blessing. Ernest is there to get a look at the general, but the crowd that gather around him block his view. He can hear comments, however.
......." 'Tis the same face, to a hair!" says one man.
Others make similar statements, and celebratory shouts resound. All of this fanfare makes the general think he must be the long-awaited one. When he stands to give a speech, his epaulets glittering, Ernest is able to see him. But Old Blood and Thunder's face does not resemble the great stone countenance in the distance. When Ernest looks at the Great Stone Face, it seems to say to him, "Fear not, Ernest; he will come."
.......Many more years pass. Ernest is still the hard-working good neighbor he has always been—but more so. The narrator says,
Not a day passed by, that the world was not the better because this man, humble as he was, had lived. He never stepped aside from his own path, yet would always reach a blessing to his neighbor. Almost involuntarily too, he had become a preacher. The pure and high simplicity of his thought, which, as one of its manifestations, took shape in the good deeds that dropped silently from his hand, flowed also forth in speech. He uttered truths that wrought upon and moulded the lives of those who heard him.
.......However, neither he nor his neighbors realize that he is no longer just an ordinary man.
.......Meanwhile, his neighbors—having acknowledged that Old Blood and Thunder is not that man they work looking for—fix their attention on a prominent statesmen famous for his eloquent and convincing speeches. Whenever he speaks, people listen—and believe what he says.
.......“His tongue, indeed, was a magic instrument: sometimes it rumbled like the thunder; sometimes it warbled like the sweetest music,” the narrator says.
.......This native of the valley speaks on weighty subjects before politicians, princes, potentates; all the world hails him as the greatest of orators. His backers call upon him to be a candidate for the presidency of his country. And, of course, the people of the valley say he is said to be the exact likeness of the Great Stone Face. When he decides to visit the place of his birth, horsemen carrying banners and all the other people of the valley go out to greet him, including Ernest.
When he approaches in a carriage, Ernest notices that he does bear a resemblance to the Great Stone Face. “But,” says the narrator,” the sublimity and stateliness, the grand expression of a divine sympathy, that illuminated the mountain visage” was missing. As Ernest turns his glance to the Great Stone Face, it seems to say, “"Lo, here I am, Ernest! I have waited longer than thou, and am not yet weary. Fear not; the man will come."
.......Time moves on and fashions Ernest into an old man with white hair and a wrinkled forehead. However, it is Ernest who now becomes famous; for the wisdom he learns from gazing at the Great Stone Face attracts people from distant places.
.......“College professors, and even the active men of cities, came from far to see and converse with Ernest," the narrator says. ; for the report had gone abroad that this simple husbandman had ideas unlike those of other men, not gained from books, but of a higher tone. . . ."
.......When these visitors leave the valley, they look up at the Great Stone Face and realize they have seen its likeness in a human but cannot remember where or who it was.
.......By and by, a great poet from the valley gains admiration far and wide for his magnificent verses. When Ernest comes into possession of a copy of his works, he begins reading them one day at the end of his workday. Taken with their beauty, he says to the Great Stone Face, "O majestic friend, "is not this man worthy to resemble thee?"
.......The face appears to smile.
.......It so happens that the poet has heard of Ernest as a man of great wisdom and desires to meet him. One day, he travels by train to the valley and, with carpetbag in hand, and asks Ernest whether he may lodge with him for the evening. Ernest welcomes him, although he is not aware of his identity. As they converse, it is not long before the poet realizes he has never met a man quite like Ernest. He has the sublime wisdom of angels. Their conversation rides into lofty planes that enthrall both of them.
.......When Ernest asks him who he is, the poet points to the book of poems and identifies himself as the author. Ernest looks carefully at the poet, then at the Great Stone Face, but detects no resemblance. He is disappointed. When the poet asks why Ernest appears sad, Ernest tells him about the prophecy and says he thought the poet would fulfill it. The poet says he is not worthy of fulfilling it because he has not lived so exemplary a life as his poems seem to suggest.
.......At sunset, Ernest and the poet walk to an open place where Ernest regularly addresses valley people. When his listeners are all assembled, he begins to speak.
.......“It was not mere breath that this preacher uttered; they were the words of life, because a life of good deeds and holy love was melted into them," says the narrator.
.......The poet, as he listened, felt that the being and character of Ernest were a nobler strain of poetry than he had ever written.”
.......Ernest's talk deeply moves the poet. Then the poet notices that the mists around the Great Stone Face resemble the white hairs around Ernest's head. Moreover, he notices that the benevolent look on Ernest's face resembles the benevolence of the expression on the Great Stone Face. At that moment, he rises and says, “Behold! Behold! Ernest is himself the likeness of the Great Stone Face!"
The other listeners say that the prophecy has at long last been fulfilled. While walking home with the poet, Ernest hopes that “some wiser and better man than himself would by and by appear, bearing a resemblance to the GREAT STONE FACE.”
Becoming Godly
.......The Great Stone Face appears to symbolize divine benevolence overlooking creation. Those who recognize God's impress in nature and live a godly life will themselves take on an aspect of the divine. Ernest recognizes evidence of the divine around him and lives an exemplary life that allows God's light and love to shine through him.
Exalting the Humble
.......“Humble yourselves in the sight of the Lord, and he shall lift you up,” the Bible says (James 4: 9-11). Ernest does precisely that, living a humble life and never being so bold as to think that he will become worthy enough to bear the likeness of the Great Stone Face. Yet in the end he learns that it is he who fulfills the prophecy. But even then, the narrator says, he still hopes that “some wiser and better man than himself would by and by appear, bearing a resemblance to the GREAT STONE FACE.
The Ordinary as Extraordinary
.......Society extolls famous actors and athletes, rock stars, notable scientists and philosophers, wealthy merchants and entrepreneurs, and so on. Seldom, however, does the ordinary citizen of a country receive public acclaim. But these ordinary citizens often do extraordinary things, such as adopting handicapped children, rescuing trapped earthquake victims, operating soup kitchens for the needy, serving on the front lines in a war, spearheading fund drives for medical research, risking their lives as policemen and firemen, and—like Ernest—living an upstanding life while imparting wisdom to others.
.......The climax occurs when Ernest addresses his fellow valley residents and the poet recognizes that his face resembles the Great Stone Face.
Study Questions and Essay Topics
• Write an essay centering on the mountain formation that inspired Nathaniel Hawthorne to write "The Great Stone Face." The formation was in the White Mountains of New Hampshire and was known to some as The Old Man of the Mountain and to others as The Profile. It collapsed in 2003. When Hawthorne visited the White Mountains in 1840 and saw the formation, he wrote the following outline for a story in his notes: "The semblance of a human face to be formed on the side
• At what point in the story did you begin suspect that Ernest would fulfill the prophecy? Explain your answer.
• Does Hawthorne's story resemble in any way a morality play? Explain your answer.
• Why did Hawthorne name his main character Ernest? Explain your answer.
• English writer Thomas Gray wrote a famous poem about the lives of humble people. It is entitled "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard." The poem focuses on people buried in a cemetery who could have risen to greatness but never got the chance. Read this poem and reread "The Great Stone Face." Then write an essay that uses these literary works to point out that ordinary, unheralded people can sometimes be extraordinary.
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Results for: The-reflections
What is summative reflection?
A summative reflection is done after viewing or making a piece of fine art. It is a reflection on the entire piece and not just one aspect.
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The word is reflexive pronoun. A reflexive pronoun "reflects" a noun or pronoun by taking the place of the antecedent when the noun or pronoun is doing something to itself. Th (MORE)
In Science
What occurs in reflection?
A light wave hitting a reflecting surface changes direction. The angel of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
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In Physics
What are the laws of reflection?
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. 2. The reflected ray, the incident ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie on the same plane.
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Journaling tips . Here's a few of the ingredients which go into a keeping a great journal:. Journals should be written snapshots filled with sights, sounds, smells, conce (MORE)
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10 things you never knew about the ocean's deepest places
The average depth of the entire ocean is about 3.5km – that means that most of the living space on Earth is in the deep sea
Click to follow
The Independent Online
We scientists like to categorise things and the ocean depths are no exception. Depths from the surface to 0.2km is known as the “littoral zone”, from 0.2km to 3km, the “bathyal zone”, and from 3km to 6km, the “abyssal zone”. Anything deeper than that is the “hadal zone”.
1. The kingdom of Hades
The term “hadal” comes from “Hades,” which refers both to the Greek kingdom of the Underworld and the god of the Underworld himself, Hades (brother of Zeus and Poseidon). The term can also mean the “abode of the dead”. In modern times, Hades is seen as evil, but in mythology he was often portrayed as unreasonably “stringent” rather than actively malicious. Interestingly, he strictly prohibited the inhabitants of his dominion to leave, which is a rather apt analogy for hadal fauna, as these species are often confined to trenches and are rarely capable of going elsewhere.
Cusk eel at 6,500 metres. Alan Jamieson, Author provided
2. Exactly how deep is the ocean?
3. Who has explored it?
Exploring the depths.
4. How big is the hadal zone?
5. The secret behind our existence
6. What’s it like down there?
Bottom water temperatures are cold and vary between 1°C and 4°C. However, hydrostatic pressure increases linearly by 1 atmosphere (atm) for every ten metres of depth. The pressure at hadal depths therefore ranges from 600 to 1,100 atmospheres. The pressure at the deepest point is, therefore, equal to a one tonne weight being placed on the end of your finger.
7. What lives there?
8. But there are some horrors…
9. Time-shifting earthquakes
The 2011 magnitude 9.0 Tōhoku-Oki earthquake off Japan was caused by a fault rupture in the Japan Trench. The event and subsequent tsunami left about 20,000 dead or missing and affected more than 35 coastal cities. The quake was followed by 666 aftershocks that exceeded magnitude 5.0. The energy involved in high-magnitude earthquakes originating in trenches is immense. The 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake in the Java Trench caused a sufficiently massive release of energy to alter the Earth’s rotation, shortening the day by 2.68 microseconds. Similarly, the Tōhoku-Oki earthquake shifted the Earth’s axis by between 10cm and 25cm, shortening the day by another 1.8 microseconds.
James Cameron in the Challenger Deep.
10. How deep is deep?
One of the most common analogies used in trench science is “Mount Everest would fit into the Mariana Trench with a mile or so to spare”. This is true, and from an evolution and physiology perspective it is immense. Likewise, exploring these extreme depths is highly problematic.
But how far is 11km really? The Mississippi River is 11km at its widest point, Manhattan Island is twice as long as the Mariana Trench is deep, and assuming the average running speed of Mo Farah at the 2012 Olympics, he could run 11km in 30 minutes. Given how easily we can affect our planet over far larger distances, our effective proximity to these “extreme” locations means even the deepest places on Earth are no longer pristine – and remain hugely vulnerable.
The Conversation
Alan Jamieson, Senior Lecturer, Oceanlab, University of Aberdeen
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Annihilation —
New study proposes a (relatively) mundane source: a specific class of supernova.
Enlarge / That sharp red line is the high-energy radiation coming from our own galaxy, some of which is produced by the annihilation of antimatter.
Antimatter is rare in this Universe, but the Universe is a pretty big place, so even small quantities can add up fast. In our galaxy alone, there's a steady bath of radiation that indicates positrons are constantly running into their electron anti-partners and annihilating them. Over something the size of a galaxy, that means there are lots of the positrons around. Estimates have it that 9.1 trillion kilograms of antimatter are being destroyed each second.
Where's it all coming from? We don't really know, but candidates have included everything from dark matter particles to supermassive black holes. A new paper suggests a relatively unexciting source: a specific class of supernova that produces lots of radioactive titanium, which decays by releasing a positron.
While positrons are produced by radioactivity here on Earth, they run into normal electrons almost instantly, a collision that annihilates both and releases an energetic photon. The interstellar material in space is so sparse, however, that it's thought that positrons typically travel for over 100,000 years before running into anything. That's long enough to blur out any individual sources and turn a single burst of positron production into a slow background of annihilations. So even if there are objects that produce positrons, we'd have a hard time spotting them.
There seemed to be an excess of positrons near the bulge at the center of our galaxy. Since the bulge has less of our galaxy's stars than the galactic disk, that implied that stars probably weren't involved in their production. That's one of the reasons dark matter annihilations seemed to be an appealing explanation. But the photons that reach us from the annihilations don't have much additional energy beyond that produced by the annihilation itself. This implies that the positrons are relatively low-energy, which would seem to rule out dark matter collisions, as well as a variety of other exotic sources.
But, according to the authors of the new paper, the ESA's INTEGRAL mission suggested there are more positrons coming from the disk than we thought. And lots of the positrons coming from the galactic bulge appear to be generated at its central black hole. So, it appears that the production of positrons by the disk and bulge are roughly in proportion to the number of stars there. So a stellar source is back on the table.
And anti-mystery
How can a star that's filled with matter start producing antimatter? By blowing up. Supernovae produce lots of heavier elements, some of which are radioactive. And certain types of radioactive decays release positrons. In fact, three different elements known to be produced in supernovae can do so: 56Ni, 44Ti, and 26Al.
56Ni has the shortest half life of these decays with a half life of only six days. Because of this rapid decay, however, most of the positrons are released while the supernova debris are still relatively dense. As a result, they end up annihilated within the debris, contributing to the brightness of the supernova. So that's off the table.
26Al, in contrast, has a half life of over 10,000 years, enough to get it well clear of the supernova. Because it typically decays away from other radiation sources, we can actually detect the photons produced as it decays, which gives us a measure of how many positrons must be produced. The number we get is only 10 percent of the positron annihilation rate, so aluminum is off the table as well.
That leaves us with 44Ti, which has a half life of 60 years. That's long enough for supernova debris to thin out before the positrons are produced. And we can spot its decay in the debris of supernovae produced by collapsed stars. Again, however, we can track its decay using the photons released, and there isn't enough titanium in these supernova remnants to account for the galaxy's positrons. It would appear titanium has been eliminated as well.
But the authors find a way to put it back in play. There's a relatively rare class of supernova (called SN 1991bg-like) that can produce unusually high amounts of titanium. These supernovae occur when two moderate sized stars end up close enough to share a common envelope. One ends up with enough material to turn into a carbon-oxygen white dwarf; the second ends up as a ball of nearly pure helium. When the two stars later collide, models suggest that the resulting explosion should produce a lot of intermediate mass atoms, like calcium, chromium, and—critically—titanium.
We've seen titanium decay in the aftermath of these explosions, and it's estimated that the rate of these explosions are enough to supply a steady stream of radioactive titanium. The key question is whether it's enough to provide the 90 percent of the positrons that aren't produced by aluminum. Based on simplified models of fusion reaction chains, it could. But the authors call for people who run sophisticated supernova models to run simulations of this particular type of explosion.
This isn't the final word on our galaxy's antimatter, but it's a plausible explanation that's amenable to future testing, through both computer models and observations. In the meantime, an explanation involving physics we already know about has got to be preferred over anything that's purely theoretical.
Nature Astronomy, 2017. DOI: 10.1038/s41550-017-0135 (About DOIs).
Ars Science Video >
Incredible discovery places humans in California 130,000 years ago
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GEOG 496/596: Location-Aware Systems
Location-aware systems are the foundation of today’s easy access to geospatial information for everyone. A smart phone that knows where you are can provide you with an appropriate map of your surroundings without searching. Location-awareness also allows your phone to access location based services, e.g. for finding restaurants or shops in the vicinity. Location based services may also feed advertisements to your phone directing you at shops or special opportunities nearby. Geofencing applications may even reach out to you as you pass by a store or restaurant with targeted offers. Moreover, location-aware social networking apps allow you to connect with people around you or to track your friends’ or children’s locations. The collected geospatial movement information about a growing number of users world-wide poses up to now unknown potential for analysis of massive geospatial data about human behavior. All these are exciting technological developments, but there are also many challenges and caveats, the most obvious being privacy and the potential for abuse of spatial data for criminal purposes, such as burglary when the house owners are on vacation.
This course, on the one hand, introduces the technical fundamentals of location-aware systems including the smart phone technology making location-awareness possible, the spatial models and data structures developed to manage locations as part of a computer network, and the operation and structure of location-based services as supported by GI systems; on the other hand, it discusses ethical challenges of the different technologies, in particular how to protect user privacy both technically and legally.
Download preliminary syllabus.
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Principles of Philosophy
Rene Descartes
I.52–59: Substances, Modes, Principle Attributes
I.31–51: Sources of Error, Free Will, and Basic Ontology
I.60–65: Mind Body Dualism
The discussion of substance and its properties is much more complex than the discussion of eternal truths, but once all the terms are sorted out it is not that difficult to grasp. There are three terms that are crucial to Descartes' understanding of basic ontology: substance, principal attribute, and mode. A substance is just a self-subsisting thing. A principal attribute is a special property of a substance, the property that makes that substance the kind of substance that it is. ("Principal attribute" is just another way of saying "essence".) A mode is any other property of a substance.
Descartes defines a substance as a thing that does not depend on anything else for its existence. That is to say, substance is a self-subsisting thing. Strictly speaking, then, only God is really a substance, because everything else depends on God for its existence (according to Descartes' picture, not only does God initially bring us into existence, but he must continually recreate us at every instant). More loosely speaking, though, anything that depends only on God for its existence counts as a substance.
The first thing to realize is that according to Descartes there are only three substances in the world: there is God, there is mind, and there is body. Jello is not one substance and gold another; both are the same substance of body. Since a principal attribute is the property that makes a substance the kind of substance that it is, there are also only three principal attributes: we have no idea what God's principal attribute is (if he even has one), but the principal attribute of mind is thought, and the principal attribute of body is extension.
The second important thing to realize is that the distinction between substance and principal attribute is only conceptual. That is to say, we have two concepts, (i.e. "principal attribute" and "substance") but these two concepts do not actually correspond to two different things out in the world. There is no such thing as a substance without its principal attribute. Body cannot exist without extension, and mind cannot exist without thought. This makes perfect sense when you consider that the principal attribute makes the substance what it is. How could a substance exist, Descartes asks, without being any particular kind of thing? It is impossible. In fact, not only can a substance not exist without its principal attribute (a metaphysical claim), a substance cannot even be clearly conceived without its principal attribute (an epistemological claim). How can you clearly conceive of something without clearly conceiving what sort of thing it is? The relationship between principal attribute and substance, then, is extraordinarily intimate.
The strong conceptual relationship between a substance and its principal attribute is what Descartes draws on in order to prove that the essence of mind is thought and the essence of body is extension. The proof of these claims rests on an unstated premise: P is the essence of S, if and only if I can conceive of S attributing only P to it. We can understand why Descartes would feel justified in asserting this premise given the strong conceptual relationship between a substance and its principal attribute. The principal attribute (or essence) is just that property that allows you to conceive of the substance. Whatever property that, all by itself, allows you to clearly conceive of the substance, then, must necessarily be the essence of that substance. (The full proof that thought is the essence of mind, and extension of body, will come in the next section.)
A mode, on the other hand, is much less intimately connected to a substance. A substance could exist without any particular one of its modes (though it could not exist without any modes at all). For instance, a substance could exist without being square, but it cannot exist without being shaped. A mode is actually just a particular way of being the principal attribute. A principal attribute is something determinable, (i.e. the property of extension or the property of thought) and a mode is a determinate way of being extended or thought (for instance, square is a way of being extended and imagining a unicorn is a way of being thought).
Descartes' analysis of substance and principal attribute is probably the most important section of Part I. It is in defining this terminology that he lays the groundwork for his entire physics, by establishing the subject matter of that science. In defining physical substance entirely in terms of extension, Descartes is ensuring that the physical sciences can be conflated with the study of geometry. All properties of substance can be explained simply by appealing to the properties of geometric figures. It is in this discussion that we see Descartes at the height of his offensive attack on Scholastic philosophers.
Like the Scholastics, Descartes claims that substances are the most basic units of existence. Where he diverges is in claiming, first, that there are only three substances and, second, that substances and their essences have such a tight connection. According to the Scholastic view there were numerous substances, all composed of various combinations of the four elements. The essence of a substance was the property that made the substance the sort of substance that it was, but aside from that important role it was no different from other properties. The further properties of a substance did not have any connection to the essence. For example, according to the Scholastics the essence of man was his rationality. However, man could also have qualities such as "pale" and "tall" that had nothing to do with this essence. In addition, according to the Scholastics, substance could survive the loss of its essence, though naturally not as that same sort of substance. So, for instance, if a man lost his rationality he would cease to be a man, but he would not cease to be a substance. He would just be a different sort of substance. It is by strengthening the connection between essence and substance that Descartes is able to so reduce the number of substances in the world. If a substance cannot be conceived of without its essence, there are very few candidates for essence and, correspondingly, few for substance. The only things we cannot conceive of are the logically impossible.
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Daily Lessons for Teaching God Save the Child
Buy the God Save the Child Lesson Plans
Lesson 1
Objective: In Chapters 1 and 2, Spenser meets with the Bartletts whose son, Kevin, has disappeared. This lesson will discuss Spenser's potential clients, Margery and Roger Bartlett.
1) Class Discussion: Describe the meeting between Spenser and the Bartletts.
Small Group Activity: Why are the Bartletts meeting with Spenser? What is learned about the Bartletts and Kevin from this meeting?
Class Discussion: Discuss the relationship between the Bartletts and details given about Kevin. Why do Margery and Roger disagree over how they view Kevin? What might their constant arguing reveal about Kevin's disappearance? What does this meeting reveal about Spenser's personality?
Homework: What small details does Spenser notice about the Bartletts? How might these little details and Spenser's ability to notice them help with solving this case?
Lesson 2
Objective: In Chapters 1 and 2, Spenser speaks with Margery and Kevin to understand what might have happened to Kevin. This lesson will discuss the...
(read more Daily Lessons)
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Giant Lobsters From Rising Greenhouse Gases?
A comparison of lobsters. Courtesy Justin Ries
A lobster raised for 60 days at normal levels of CO2 exposure (left), and one raised at seven times that level. Courtesy Justin Ries hide caption
itoggle caption Courtesy Justin Ries
New research shows that if carbon emissions soar, we could end up with super-sized lobsters. But you'll have to strap that bib on fast; the jumbo lobsters probably wouldn't last for long.
A new study published in the journal Geology shows that if carbon dioxide emissions reach extreme levels, the changes in the world's oceans might result in lobsters 50 percent bigger than normal.
Lobsters can take carbon from the water and use it to build their exoskeletons, says marine geologist Justin Ries, who oversaw the study. The theory, he tells NPR's Guy Raz, is that lobsters are able to convert the extra carbon into material for building up their shells.
Ries is an assistant professor at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill. To conduct the study, his team built several tanks to hold marine life, and simulated high-CO2 environments at the rates predicted for 100 years from now, 200 years from now and beyond.
Lobsters, crabs and shrimp did well in the environment, according to Ries, but other things didn't — corals and other "calcifiers" like clams, scallops and oysters, for example. Unlike the lobsters, these species' shells grew thinner in the increased CO2 environments. "Actually, six of these species began to dissolve under the highest CO2 level," Ries says.
And that's why those giant lobsters might want to stay trim. Clams and other species are part of the lobster's diet. If thinner shells make them easier prey, the lobsters' food source won't last long — not good news for the predators. "Even though lobsters are building stronger shells, their populations would probably be sure to follow," Ries says.
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Baltic: Species at Risk
A rich and varied biodiversity, composed by healthy stocks of marine species, plants and their habitats is crucial for the proper functioning of the Baltic ecosystem. Due to the special conditions of the Baltic, only a handful of the so called “cornerstone” species form the basis of the marine food web. Baltic cod is one of those species for example. Helcom, the Helsinki Commission has published the HELCOM Red list of threatened and declining species of lampreys and fish of the Baltic Sea, where they red-list threatened species with high priority that are important for the ecosystem and that at the same time suffered a biomass decline.
In total, 34 species are red-listed with high priority on the Helcom list, because of severe decline mainly provoked by overfishing. Those high-priority species include thirteen different sharks and rays, as well as some highly commercialized fish species like Baltic cod, salmon and autumn spawning herring.
Furthermore, also marine mammals that were once frequent in the Baltic are threatened today. The Baltic harbour porpoise suffered severe declines and is often caught accidentally and found dying in fishing nets, chiefly gillnets.
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November 26, 2014
Homework Help: 8th Grade
Post a New Question | Current Questions
8th grade pre algerbra
problem solving investigation: draw a diagram problem: kelly is using 3-inch square tiles to cover a 4-foot by 2-foot area the tiles are 0.5 inches tall if the tiles were stacked on top of each other to create a tower, how many inches tall would the tower be?
Thursday, October 21, 2010 at 7:44pm
8th grade
Thursday, October 14, 2010 at 1:39am
8th grade
A panel of four light switches can be set in 2^4 ways. A panel of lfive light switches can be set in twice this many ways. In how many ways can five light switches be set? I got 2^4=16 16x2=32 Is this right. If not can someone help?
Wednesday, October 13, 2010 at 7:07pm
8th grade
Data plotted on a graph results in a line that slopes upward from left to right. This graph tells you that a)when one variable increases, the other variable decreases. or b) when one variable increases, the other variable increases?
Monday, October 11, 2010 at 7:16pm
what is the 8th continent?
Saturday, October 2, 2010 at 5:07pm
algebra 8th
-4.7-(-4.7) = 0 ???
Tuesday, August 31, 2010 at 9:29pm
algebra 8th
Tuesday, August 31, 2010 at 9:16pm
8th grade
if the scale of a map is 1/4inches = 1 miles. the distance between two cities on the map is 3 1/4inches. what is the acutal distance ,in miles,between the two cities.
Sunday, August 1, 2010 at 11:44pm
Those familiar with the story Animal Farm Please help me come up with a thesis for the prompt: Napoleon Continues to announce new rules that seem less than desirable. The animals seem confused and somewhat annoyed, yet none protest or dare to speak the truth. What do you think...
Monday, June 21, 2010 at 8:34pm
in triangle abc, angle c is a right angle, AC=8,Bc=15 and AB=17 a.find Sine a b.Find cosine A c.Find Sine B d. Find COsine B E. the measure of angel A f. the measure of angela b Can u tell me the answers and how to do it. Because im in 8th grade
Tuesday, May 18, 2010 at 5:58pm
valedictorian speech topic?
I'm supposed to write an end-of-the-year reflection of my middle school years(valedictorian speech).. help? my teacher choose me to write the speech, almost like a valedictorian speech... its supposed to be describing "my educational experience of 6th, 7th, and 8th ...
Sunday, May 16, 2010 at 5:57pm
8th grade
1 methods of controlling fullness. 2 what is fastening. 3 uses of fastening. 4 pictures of methods of controlling fullness. 5 what is controlling fullness.
Tuesday, May 4, 2010 at 3:04pm
8th grade
warren is going to use the $26,200 in his savings account to buy a new car. The car he plans to buy costs $24,244.33 plus sales tax, which is 4 1/4%(fractions (0.0425). How much money will warren have in his account after buying the car and paying the sales tax?
Friday, April 23, 2010 at 10:38pm
find my grade average
-10% of my grade *82 -20% of my grade *100% *100% *100% *100% *100% *100% *100% *100% *82% -30% of my grade none -40% of my grade *76% reply as soon as possible. thank you!!!!
Sunday, April 18, 2010 at 6:11pm
8th grade
write each radius from the problem situation as a power. radius of 8-inch drumhead: r = radius of 18-inch drumhead: r = radius of 16-inch drumhead: r =
Wednesday, April 14, 2010 at 8:57pm
Math 157-1
Use the data in the grade-distribution Use the data in the grade-distribution table below to construct a circle graph showing the distribution of grade types in Ike’s class. Grade Frequency A 2 B 8 C 11 D 2 F 1 How would the graph change if there were twice as many of ...
Friday, March 19, 2010 at 10:01am
classroom instruction
Thursday, February 18, 2010 at 10:37pm
Hi. My name is Samantha. I'm in the 8th grade. Lots of people have been talking to me abou specialized high school. Can you please give me some information on specialized high school(I mean like what are the good and bad things obout specialized high school)? And can you ...
Friday, February 5, 2010 at 7:29pm
8th grade algebra
A train load of cars and trucks is en route to an automobile dealer for whom you work. Before they arrive, the dealer receives an invoice showing a total of 160 vehicles. Unfortunately, the part of the invoice showing how many of each kind of vehicles has been torn off and ...
Thursday, January 28, 2010 at 8:30pm
8th grade math
Carlos and maria drove a total of 258 miles in 5 hours. Carlos drove the first part of the trip and averaged 53 miles per hr maria drove the remainder of the trip and averaged 51 miles per hr for how many hrs did maria drive
Thursday, January 28, 2010 at 7:39pm
8th grade
Laura is training her pet white rabbit, Sugar, to climb up a flight of 25 steps. Sugar can hop up one or two steps at a time. She never hops back down, only up. How many different ways can Sugar hop up the flight of steps? PLEASE HELP!!!! I'M TOTALLY LOST!!!
Monday, January 18, 2010 at 9:18pm
1st grade Math Fair
My school is planning a Math Fair. Each grade will compete with same grade team members. The rules are: TO make it fun and use Al. math strands . The problem is I dont know where or how to begin this project. Can anyone help?
Friday, January 1, 2010 at 12:30am
8th Grade Social Studies
I'm sorry, I know that you really can't give out answers but I've been trying to figure this out for a couple hours so I'm posting it anyways. (-_-') The Constitution gives the House of Representatives the authority to a. bring criminal charges against a ...
Sunday, November 15, 2009 at 11:13pm
physical science 8th grade
Copper has 2 known isotopes: ^63CU atomic mass= 62.9298 and ^65 CU atomic mass=64.9278. The average atomic mass of copper is 63.546 amu. Calculate the fraction(percent) of each of the 2 isotopes of copper
Wednesday, November 4, 2009 at 5:34pm
Use the data in the grade-distribution table below to construct a circle graph showing the distribution of grade types in Ike’s class. Grade..Frequency A......2 B......8 C......11 D......2 F......1 How would the graph in Exercise 7 change if there were twice as many of ...
Sunday, November 1, 2009 at 4:34pm
8th grade
Can you write an essay of the great wakening as told by a colonist that explains why at least one figure was popular (ig: George Whitefield), explains why someone of influence has ability to persuade, explains themes of great awakening and applies themes of great awakening to ...
Saturday, October 31, 2009 at 11:12pm
Tuesday, October 27, 2009 at 10:52am
8th grade
At a faculty costume party, each teacher from transylvania Middle School came dressed as his or her favorite creepy creature. The teachers arrived one at a time, and when a new teacher came in, each of the teachers already there lined up at the door and shook hands with the ...
Monday, October 26, 2009 at 4:44pm
8th grade math
An airplane flies from New Orleans to Atlanta at a rate of 320mph. The airplane then returns at a rate of 280mph. The total travel time is 3 hours. What is the flying time from New Orleans to Atlanta?
Tuesday, October 20, 2009 at 11:37pm
8th grade math
Tuesday, October 20, 2009 at 11:35pm
8th grade
Lori wants to go to the beach on saturday but she's not sure if she has enough gas in her car to drive there and back home. The beach is 77 miles from Lori's house but the car gets about 28 miles per gallon. How many gallons of gas does Lori need to have in her car to ...
Monday, October 19, 2009 at 11:47pm
8th grade physical science
A student measured the mass of an object and obtained the following results: 10.1 g, 11.0 g, and 10.5 g. The actual mass of the object was 10.6 g. a. What should the student report as the mass of the object? My answer: The student should report the mass as 10.5, because that ...
Tuesday, October 13, 2009 at 3:34pm
8th grade science
the length of a piece of string is known to be exactly 9.84 cm. two students measured the string. student A used a ruler marked in centimeters and got a measurement of 10 cm. student B used a ruler marked in millimeters and centimeters and got a measurement of 9.8 cm. how ...
Friday, October 2, 2009 at 1:51pm
8th grade - science
the length of a string is known to be exactly 9.84cm. two students measured the string. student A used a ruler marked in centimeters and got a measurement of 10 cm. student B used a ruler marked in millimeters and centimeters and got a measurement of 9.8 cm. which student'...
Friday, October 2, 2009 at 10:20am
8th grade math
Light travels approximately 5.87 X 10^12 miles in one year. This distance is called a light year. Suppose a star is 2 X 10^4 light years away. How many miles away is that star? Please help with detailed steps to solve problem. Thanks.
Wednesday, September 30, 2009 at 12:34pm
8th grade math
Tuesday, September 29, 2009 at 5:09pm
8th grade
According to the CIA fact book there were 1018057384 internet users in 2005. The same source states that in 2005, Canada had 22 million internet users. What percentage of internet users in 2005 were canadian? Give the answer in standard, word, expanded form and scientific ...
Wednesday, September 16, 2009 at 9:03pm
8th grade
You complete a project for your social studies class. There are 3 parts to the project, worth a total of 100 points. You get 50 out of 50 points on part A, and 23 out of 25 points on part C. The total score you received is 93 out of 100. How many points did you get on part B?
Monday, August 24, 2009 at 1:52am
Algebra 1- 8th Grade
According to the 1990 Census, the population of the United States was 2.49 x 10^8. The cost of taking the census in 1990 was 2.6 x 10^9 dollars. How much did the census cost per person in the United States?
Wednesday, April 29, 2009 at 9:52pm
Language Arts
Tuesday, April 21, 2009 at 10:03am
8th Grade Algebra
To make the Chinese dish "dragon's beard noodles," fold a 5 ft. strand of dough in half. Stretch the dough back to its original length so that two thinner strands are formed. Repeat this folding and stretching process over and over to produce increasing numbers ...
Saturday, April 18, 2009 at 2:59pm
8th Grade Algebra
You know how to solve quadratic equations using algebra, graphs and the quadratic formula. Sometimes one method of solving is more convenient than another method. Describe how you would solve each equation. Give reasons for you answers. A) 16x^2 = 1600 B) x^2 - 350 = 0 C) x^2...
Monday, March 30, 2009 at 9:34pm
8th Grade Algebra
10) a. A recipe for pizza dough says to use a 10 in. by 14 in. rectangular pan. Jake only has a circular pan with a 12 in. diameter. If Jake makes the pizza in his circular pan, will the crust be thicker or thinner? Explain. b. Suppose Jake wants to make a round pizza that is ...
Wednesday, March 25, 2009 at 8:16pm
8th grade history project
I am doing a history project on marketing inventions from the 1800s. I have to create a poster that includes a catchy slogan for a factory system. (remember that it is from the 1800s.) If you could help give me some ideas that would be great!!! thank you so much! If possible, ...
Tuesday, March 17, 2009 at 9:00pm
Science (atoms) 8th grade
Speeds up or slows down? By stirring a gas in a liquid, its solubility ____________ the dissolving process. High or low? A gas's solubility is is faster in a liqud when under __________. How do the methods of speeding the rate of solution for dissolving a solid in a liquid...
Tuesday, March 10, 2009 at 4:30pm
8th Grade Algebra
These are extra credit questions, and I just want to know how to solve them. 1) The sum of two-digits of a two digit number is 14. If the number represented by reversing the digits is subtracted from the original number, the result is 18. What us the orinal number? 2) If 27 is...
Wednesday, March 4, 2009 at 12:20am
8th Grade Algebra
Wednesday, February 25, 2009 at 10:49pm
8th Grade Algebra- Answer Check
Solve each system of equations, give the solution and state whether there are no solutions or many solutions. 1 )3x + 8y = 1 7x + 4y = 17 Answer: (3,1) 2) -3x + 5y = -7 9x + 2y = 38 Answer: (4,1) 3) 7r + 3s = 13 14r - 15s = -16 Answer: (1,2) 4) 2x - 7y = 42 4x - 14y = 64 ...
Wednesday, February 25, 2009 at 8:47pm
8th math(Algebra)
what is 8a+b=1 8a-3b=3
Wednesday, February 18, 2009 at 6:36pm
8th Grade Space and Earth Science
I have two questions about my study guide for my science test tomorrow. Thank you for any answers that I can get! How does the atmosphere give evidence for divine design? How can a satellite telephone user communicate if radio waves reflect off the ionosphere? Perspiration ...
Tuesday, February 3, 2009 at 9:44pm
8th grade algebra
You see a firefighter aim a fire hose from 4 feet above the ground at a window that is 26 feet above the ground. The equation h=-0.01d^2+1.06d+4 models the path of the water when h equals height in feet. Estimate, to the nearest whole number, the possible horizontal distances...
Sunday, February 1, 2009 at 12:24pm
8th grade
People can be left-handed, right-handed or ambidextrous. The number of boys in Canadian secondary schools who are left handed is about 1/7 the number of boys who are right-handed. About 11% of boys are left-handed. Write and solve an equation to determine what percent of boys ...
Monday, January 26, 2009 at 7:52pm
8th grade Math
Megan has at most $1500 to invest. She plans to invest some of the money in a long-term CD at 6% and some of it in a short-term CD at 3%. She wants to earn at least $75 in interest per year. Write a system of inequlites to represent the situation, and use it to find all of the...
Sunday, January 25, 2009 at 4:17pm
8th Grade Algebra: Answer Check
Find the length of the 3rd side of each right triangle. 1. 8^2+15^2=c^2 Answer: c=17 2. 5^2+b^2=13^2 Answer: b=12 3. 9^2+13^2=c^2 Answer: c~15.81 Simplify. Assume that all variables are nonnegative. { this means square root 4. {12 Answer: 2{3 5. 2{75 Answer: 10{3 6. -3{72 ...
Tuesday, January 20, 2009 at 10:42pm
8th Grade Algebra-Radicals:Answer Check
4. 3ã11 + 4ã11 Answer: 8ã11 7. 7ã2 - 2ã8 Answer: 1ã2 ?? 8. ã48 + ã75 Answer: 9ã3 9.(3ã10) Answer: 19 + 6ã10 10. ã27/64 (...
Tuesday, January 13, 2009 at 11:23pm
8th Grade Algebra-Radicals:Answer Check
Change each decimal to a fraction in lowest terms. 1) 0.4242.... Answer: 14/33 2)0.58 Answer: 29/50 3)0.14 (Repeating sign over both numbers) Answer: 14/99 Write each expression in simplest form. ( means that it is inside a square root. 1. (54 Answer: 3(6 2. (98 Answer:(14*(7 ...
Tuesday, January 13, 2009 at 10:45pm
8th grade
2 cylinders are proportional the smaller cylinder has a radius of 4 centimeters, which is half as large as the radius of the larger cylinder. the volume of smaller cylinder =250 cubic cemtimeters. what is the volume of the larger cylinder?
Sunday, December 14, 2008 at 11:22am
8th Grade Algebra1
I don't understand this question, so if anyone can answer it, that would be great! We are doing motion problems, so as you probably know, the formula is d=rt. (distance equals rate times time.) We have to make a chart to answer the following question... A roller coaster ...
Friday, November 7, 2008 at 7:06pm
3rd grade
Wednesday, October 8, 2008 at 12:58am
Friday, October 3, 2008 at 4:54am
8th grade math
the sum of three intergers is 193.The smaller two are consecutive intergers and the larger two are consecutive even intergers.What are the three intergers?
Monday, September 22, 2008 at 10:05pm
8th grade
Thursday, September 11, 2008 at 6:00pm
8th grade
Thursday, August 28, 2008 at 11:12pm
8th Grade Algebra
To find the image length, of a 4-foot-tall object in a spherical mirror with a focal length of 2 feet, L=4(2/o-2)^2 can be used, where 2 is the distance, in feet, of the object from the mirror. What is the image length of the object when it is 1.5 feet away from the mirror?
Friday, August 22, 2008 at 7:01pm
8th Grade Algebra
Friday, August 22, 2008 at 6:57pm
Business studies
Hi, my question involves listing assets and liabilities for week ending 14th of January for a plumbing company. The plumber has bought some tools on the 8th but is not paying for them until the 23rd. Would I need to list the tools as a fixed asset (as they benifit the company)...
Wednesday, June 25, 2008 at 12:59pm
A school has 6th, 7th and 8th period Social Studies classes. One student from each class will be chosen to represent the school in an essay contest. The 6th period finalists are Mike, Sara, Luis and Ed. The 7th period finalists are Ben, Eric, and Sandy. The 8th period ...
Saturday, April 26, 2008 at 9:50am
English Expression
Friday, April 18, 2008 at 12:25pm
Thursday, April 17, 2008 at 12:26pm
Science 8th grade please check (revised answer
Mr. Jones went to his doctor because for the past few days he has been having frequent burning uriation. The doctor preformed a urialysis. This was done by have the patient void into a collection container. The urine was cloudy and yellow in color. There was an unusual ammonia...
Tuesday, April 1, 2008 at 5:46pm
working with data
Sunday, February 24, 2008 at 4:45pm
8th grade math
Your uncle is three years older than your aunt. The product of their ages is 3190. What are their ages? I know the answer is 55 and 58. But I can't come up with the correct formula or equation to get the answer. I've tried 3(A+3)=3190. It doesn't come up with the ...
Thursday, February 7, 2008 at 9:52pm
Sunday, January 13, 2008 at 5:19pm
math - 8th grade
use the numbers one to nine, each one only once. now multiply a two digit number by a three digit number and get a four digit answer using each of the digits, 1-9 each only once. 12 x 345 = 6789 of course that isn't a true statement though.
Wednesday, January 9, 2008 at 11:10pm
Question: algo menos de moda que pantlaones de cuadros Answer: Unas faldas armarillo moda que los que pantalones de cuadros This one really confused me - and it is my last one. Do you accept 8th grade students for private tutoring in spanish thanks.
Tuesday, October 23, 2007 at 7:49am
A = {a1, a1 + d1, a1 + 2d1, …}, B = {a2, a2 + d2, a2 +2d2, …}. Investigate whether A + B and A x B are arithmetic or geometric sequences. If an arithmetic sequence is identified, state its common difference. If a geometric sequence is identified, state its common ...
Sunday, September 30, 2007 at 2:30pm
Is concrete a heterongeneous or homogeneous mixture? Your exact answer here:ciber00/8th/matter/sciber/matter.htm
Sunday, June 10, 2007 at 9:12pm
8th grade technology
what are good sites to study for technology final exams? This site may help you.ol/staff/whip/8thgradeproftests.htm However, your best preparation is go study your text and your notes and any handouts your teacher has given you.
Sunday, June 10, 2007 at 5:50pm
physics-energy conservation
Tuesday, May 8, 2007 at 4:41am
wat is a corresponding angle.............. in the math 8th grade is really most of the test goin to be angles In triangles, it is the angle between two specified sides. It also refers to tha angles formed when one line cuts through two or more parallel lines, as in www....
Thursday, March 1, 2007 at 9:27pm
Math - 8th grade
We are just starting this section, and I'm confused...Please help me understand how to solve this inequality: (one fifth r is less than two) 1/5r < 2 Also, simplify: (the #s are exponents) z3 . z3 x12/x3 By 1/5r you mean r/5 or 1/(5r)? z^3 . z^3 = z^6 x^12/x^3 = x^9 If ...
Wednesday, January 3, 2007 at 8:17pm
math / linear programming
Tuesday, January 2, 2007 at 6:44pm
i'm researching stonehenge for my 8th grade gifted class. where can i find a website that will show me how to build a replica of it?ages/0002-Stonehenge-Restored-plan/
Monday, December 11, 2006 at 6:27pm
science (8th grade)
Which of the following is not a characteristic of a crystal? a. The arrangement of the atoms in a crystal determines its shapes. b. A crystalline structure is always geometric. c. Crystals are classified according to their mineral content.
Wednesday, September 13, 2006 at 9:04pm
give the demensions of rectangles with the perimeters of 70 feet and length-to-width ratios of 3 to 4, 4 to 5, and 1 to 1. Ok, the perimeter is 70 and perimeter = 2(length + width) The ratio is length:with=3:4 so length = (3/4)width 70 = 2(length + width) =2((3/4)width + ...
Tuesday, September 12, 2006 at 1:54am
Chemistry Numerical
The half life period of a radioactive element is 27.96 days. Calculate the time taken by a given sample to reduce to 1/8th of its initial activity
Thursday, November 20, 2014 at 6:00am
java programming
Monday, November 3, 2014 at 2:12pm
The 4th term of an AP is 6 if d sum of d 8th and 9th term is -72 the common difference is
Saturday, November 1, 2014 at 9:36am
Monday, October 27, 2014 at 6:47pm
What is the wavelength of a photon having a frequency of 71.6 THz? So I know 1 THz = 10 to the power of 15 Hz And c= 3 x 10 to the 8th and h= 6.63 x 10 to the -34th
Friday, October 10, 2014 at 2:51am
Sunday, October 5, 2014 at 7:17pm
Saturday, October 4, 2014 at 8:58am
algebra 1
Friday, October 3, 2014 at 8:03am
a car cover 100 m in 5th second and 120 m in 8th second during its motion ?calculate the acceleration and distance covered in 20th second?
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The 8th term of a g.p is -7/32 fine it's common ration if its first term is 28
Sunday, July 6, 2014 at 9:18am
I'm an on-going 8th grader, and I'm taking a class for Algebra 2. What should I expect that is different from Algebra 1? P.S. I've taken Geometry online.
Sunday, June 8, 2014 at 11:13pm
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Lower Manhattan
Manhattan History
The name Manhattan (“hilly island” or possibly “place of intoxication”) is from the Algonquian languages of the earliest known inhabitants of the area. Legend has it that the island was purchased from the natives for $24 in beads and other such trinkets. The first European discovery of Manhattan is generally credited to English explorer Henry Hudson sailing for the Dutch, who first entered Upper New York Bay on September 11, 1609, and sailing up the lower Hudson River, anchored off the tip of northern Manhattan that night. However, the earlier Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazano explored New York harbor in 1524, and a few months later so did the Portuguese Estevan Gomez; the latter also recognized the Hudson River (calling it the Rio de San Antonio), and both, in all likelihood, saw Manhattan island while in New York Harbor.
The island was settled by the Dutch in 1624.
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Exploratorium home Exploratorium home Explo.tv
Browse programs by:
A detailed demonstration of how to make a cup speaker, including a discussion of materials needed.
The science behind the Cup Speaker activity, including how electromagnets work, and how in this activity the magnet pushes the bottom of a cup back and forth, vibrating the air and creating sound.
Our host, Stephanie Chasteen, shares some fun facts and activities having to do with the science of sound.
Learn how to build a version of a Brazilian instrument called the cuica, which demonstrates principles of sound. This podcast was created collaboratively in a teacher workshop at the Exploratorium.
This video captures the energy and excitement of traversing across the sea ice to the Offshore New Harbor Field Camp.
An introduction to the bee hummer, a simple musical instrument that sounds like a swarm of buzzing bees when you spin it around.
A detailed demonstration of how to make the bee hummer, including a discussion of materials needed, troubleshooting tips if your hummer isn't humming well, and a demonstration of how the instrument should be played.
The science behind this simple musical instrument, including the concepts of sound, vibration, and amplification.
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Gallican chant
Because of the desire of Rome to have a unified liturgical practice in the West, the Frankish kings Pippin III (d. 768) and Charlemagne (d. 814) suppressed the Gallican rite in favour of the Roman. Although no known manuscripts of Gallican chant have survived, some authentic remnants of it are found in the repertory of Gregorian chant in the liturgy for Good Friday, among them the “Improperia,” “Crux fidelis,” and “Pange lingua.” These chants embedded in the Roman liturgy help to illustrate the theory that the Gregorian chant that has come down to modern times is a synthesis of Roman and Frankish elements. Certain characteristics stand out from surviving examples of Gallican chant. There is a pull in the chants toward cadences on C, motifs frequently are built on the notes C–D–E or C–E–G, and E is often used as a reciting note.
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As early as 1740, the British merchant Malachy Postlethwayt, arguing for parliamentary subsidies for slave trade as essential to English prosperity, described the trade's "triangular nature." British ships carried manufactured goods to West Africa, where they were exchanged with local rulers for slaves. Hundreds of these slaves were packed into the ships and carried to the West Indies -- the so-called "middle passage" -- where they were sold and the proceeds used to buy sugar and rum, which the ships then transported back to England.
Marcus Rediker uses his experience as a maritime historian and his mastery of the contemporary documents to re-create all three legs of the triangle, often in the very words of the participants -- captains, seamen and slaves.
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How Do Crabs Breathe?
Crabs are somewhat similar to fish in that they are equipped with gills for breathing. The gills themselves are feathery type structures located at the top of the crab’s walking legs. They are derived from part of the jointed walking leg. In order to breathe on land, crabs must keep these gills moist so that oxygen in the air can still be absorbed. Gills work because oxygen is a very small molecule. During respiration these oxygen molecules first dissolve into a layer of moisture surrounding a thin membrane. Then these molecules, (because they are so small) cross through the membrane and enter the circulatory system (blood) of the crab. The source of oxygen can then either be used as gas in the air or already dissolved into another liquid such as the sea.
It does not necessarily matter where the oxygen originally comes from as much as that the surface of the oxygen molecules cross is wet. Crustaceans that reside in the water do not typically have trouble when it comes to keeping their gills moist. Terrestrial crustaceans can usually keep their gills wet by using fluids from inside of the body and by having their protective chambers well sealed so that very little moisture is lost. Crabs such as the hermit crab use their claws and antennae to keep themselves moist by placing water onto themselves.
Because these creatures need to keep their gills moist to breathe properly, it is important that a water source of some kind always be nearby. One of the most common reasons crabs such as the hermit crab dies in captivity is because crab owners neglect to provide them with this. The difference between marine crabs and land hermit crabs is that land hermit crabs have much smaller gills but also need air to breathe. They must be kept moist to survive but would drown if submerged completely in water. This is why it is also important when keeping them in captivity to provide a broken up piece of sponge in their water dish so that they have something to grasp onto to keep from losing their footing and falling into the water and/or drowning. If the crab’s gills become too dry, the crab will die. Another interesting fact about hermit crabs is that they carry an extra supply of water around in their shells to help keep them moist.
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Hillforts in Iron Age Britain
A 'hillfort' is the name given to a very common type of archaeological site found in Britain and other parts of western and northern Europe. Hillforts are hill tops surrounded by large walls or ramparts. Often, they also have deep ditches in front of the ramparts. Hillforts are found in different parts of Iron Age Britain: for example, southern England, the Welsh borders and southern Scotland. Hillforts at Maiden Castle, South Cadbury and Danebury can be visited today.
Many hillforts were built as fortresses. Some provided secure living space for large numbers of people, whereas others may have been empty refuges. Sometimes local communities came together for religious ceremonies and celebrations in hillforts. Archaeological excavations at hillforts such as Maiden Castle and Danebury continue to provide very important evidence for the study of Iron Age life and society.
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dill, Old World annual or biennial plant (Anethum graveolens) of the family Umbelliferae (parsley family), cultivated since at least since 400 B.C. The pungent, aromatic leaves and seeds are used for pickling and for flavoring sauces, salads, and soups. Dill water (a carminative) and oil of dill are made from the seeds. Dill was formerly used in charms against witchcraft. Dill is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Apiales, family Umbelliferae.
Fennel-like annual or biennial herb (Anethum graveolens) of the parsley family or its dried ripe fruit (seeds) and leafy tops, which are used to season foods. Native to Mediterranean countries and southeastern Europe, dill is now widely cultivated in Europe, India, and North America. The entire plant is aromatic. Particularly in eastern Europe and Scandinavia, the small stems and immature umbels are used for flavouring foods. Dill has a warm, slightly sharp flavour.
Learn more about dill with a free trial on Britannica.com.
It grows to 1 inch, with slender stems and alternate, finely divided, softly delicate leaves long. The ultimate leaf divisions are broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of fennel, which are threadlike, less than broad, but harder in texture. The flowers are white to yellow, in small umbels diameter. The seeds are long and thick, and straight to slightly curved with a longitudinally ridged surface.
Origins and history
Dill originated in Eastern Europe. Zohary and Hopf remark that "wild and weedy types of dill are widespread in the Mediterranean basin and in West Asia."
In Semitic languages it is known by the name of Shubit. The Talmud requires that tithes shall be paid on the seeds, leaves, and stem of dill. The Bible states that the Pharisees were in the habit of paying dill as tithe; Jesus is said to have rebuked them for tithing dill but omitting mercy.
In the northeastern U.S. and adjoining parts of Canada, the seed of dill is sometimes known as "meeting-seed". This expression originates with the Puritans and Quakers, who would give their children dill seeds to chew during long church meetings, due to dill's mild hunger-suppressant qualities.
In some English-speaking countries, it is sometimes called Dillby. In some Asian local languages it is called as "Shepu" or "Sowa". In Kannada it is called Sapseege soppu (ಸಪ್ಪಸೀಗೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು). The term dill weed (dillweed), to refer to a person, is sometimes used as a euphemism in the United States and Canada for more vulgar terms of contempt.
In Vietnam, dill is named "thì là". There exists a fable in which God accidentally names the plant "it is" (thì là).
In Vietnam, dill is the important herb in the dish cha ca.
Dill seed is used as a spice, with a flavor somewhat similar to caraway, but also resembling that of fresh or dried dill weed.
Dill seeds were traditionally used to soothe the stomach after meals.
External links
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Who invented the postal service?
The Greek historian Xenophon credited Cyrus the Great (who ruled in 580 to 530 BC) with the invention of the postal system, but the first document that mentions post was found in Egypt, dating back to about 2000 BC.
The Egyptian document is a will sent by a father to his son telling the latter of the bright future that awaited a scribe in government posts, according to Tour Egypt. Mail during the time of the pharaohs was probably distributed by postmen who traveled on foot. They may also have followed the paths of caravans and armies to send messages to other countries.
However, Xenophon credited Persia's Cyrus the Great with the invention of the postal system, according to Farsinet.com. Cyrus built posting stations across his empire to ensure the efficient exchange of information between him and his governors, known as satraps. Although the Egyptians invented the postal system, Cyrus may have improved upon the concept during his rule.
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Giant Crack in Africa Will Create a New Ocean
The rift in Afar, Ethiopia, that researchers say will eventually become a new ocean.
Credit: University of Rochester
A 35-mile rift in the desert of Ethiopia will likely become a new ocean eventually, researchers now confirm.
The crack, 20 feet wide in spots, opened in 2005 and some geologists believed then that it would spawn a new ocean. But that view was controversial, and the rift had not been well studied.
A new study involving an international team of scientists and reported in the journal Geophysical Research Letters finds the processes creating the rift are nearly identical to what goes on at the bottom of oceans, further indication a sea is in the region's future.
The same rift activity is slowly parting the Red Sea, too.
Using newly gathered seismic data from 2005, researchers reconstructed the event to show the rift tore open along its entire 35-mile length in just days. Dabbahu, a volcano at the northern end of the rift, erupted first, then magma pushed up through the middle of the rift area and began "unzipping" the rift in both directions, the researchers explained in a statement today.
"We know that seafloor ridges are created by a similar intrusion of magma into a rift, but we never knew that a huge length of the ridge could break open at once like this," said Cindy Ebinger, professor of earth and environmental sciences at the University of Rochester and co-author of the study.
The result shows that highly active volcanic boundaries along the edges of tectonic ocean plates may suddenly break apart in large sections, instead of in bits, as the leading theory held. And such sudden large-scale events on land pose a much more serious hazard to populations living near the rift than would several smaller events, Ebinger said.
"The whole point of this study is to learn whether what is happening in Ethiopia is like what is happening at the bottom of the ocean where it's almost impossible for us to go," says Ebinger. "We knew that if we could establish that, then Ethiopia would essentially be a unique and superb ocean-ridge laboratory for us. Because of the unprecedented cross-border collaboration behind this research, we now know that the answer is yes, it is analogous."
The African and Arabian plates meet in the remote Afar desert of Northern Ethiopia and have been spreading apart in a rifting process — at a speed of less than 1 inch per year — for the past 30 million years. This rifting formed the 186-mile Afar depression and the Red Sea. The thinking is that the Red Sea will eventually pour into the new sea in a million years or so. The new ocean would connect to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, an arm of the Arabian Sea between Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula and Somalia in eastern Africa.
Atalay Ayele, professor at the Addis Ababa University in Ethiopia, led the investigation, gathering seismic data with help from neighboring Eritrea and Ghebrebrhan Ogubazghi, professor at the Eritrea Institute of Technology, and from Yemen with the help of Jamal Sholan of the National Yemen Seismological Observatory Center.
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Forensic anthropology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Forensic archaeology)
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Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of anthropology and its various subfields, including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy,[1] in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable, as might happen in a plane crash. Forensic anthropologists are also instrumental to the investigation and documentation of genocide and mass graves. Along with forensic pathologists, forensic dentists, and homicide investigators, forensic anthropologists commonly testify in court as expert witnesses. Using physical markers present on a skeleton, a forensic anthropologist can potentially determine a victim's age, sex, stature, and ancestry. In addition to identifying physical characteristics of the individual, forensic anthropologists can use skeletal abnormalities to potentially determine cause of death, past trauma such as broken bones or medical procedures, as well as diseases such as bone cancer.
The methods used to identity a person from a skeleton relies on the past contributions of various anthropologists and the study of human skeletal differences. Through the collection of thousands of specimens and the analysis of differences within a population, estimations can be made based on physical characteristics. Through these, a set of remains can potentially be identified. The field of forensic anthropology grew during the twentieth century into a fully recognized forensic specialty involving trained anthropologists as well as numerous research institutions gathering data on decomposition and the effects it can have on the skeleton.
Modern uses[edit]
Exhumed bodies of victims of the 1995 Srebrenica Genocide in a mass grave found in 2007.
Today, forensic anthropology is a well established discipline within the forensic field. Anthropologists are called upon to investigate remains and to help identify individuals from bones when other physical characteristics which could be used to identify a body no longer exist. Forensic anthropologists work in conjunction with forensic pathologists to identify remains based on their skeletal characteristics. If the victim is not found for a lengthy period of time or has been eaten by scavengers, flesh markers used for identification would be destroyed, making normal identification difficult if not impossible. Forensic anthropologists can provide physical characteristics of the person to input into missing person databases such as that of the National Crime Information Center in the US[2] or INTERPOL's yellow notice database.[3]
In addition to these duties, forensic anthropologists often assist in the investigation of war crimes and mass fatality investigations. Anthropologists have been tasked with helping to identify victims of the 9/11 terrorist attacks[4] as well as plane crashes such as the Arrow Air Flight 1285 disaster[5] and the USAir Flight 427 disaster where the flesh had been vaporized or so badly mangled that normal identification was impossible.[6] Anthropologists have also helped identify victims of genocide in countries around the world, often long after the actual event. War crimes anthropologists have helped investigate include the Rwandan Genocide[7] and the Srebrenica Genocide.[8] Organizations such as the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe, the British Association for Forensic Anthropology, and the American Society of Forensic Anthropologists continue to provide guidelines for the improvement of forensic anthropology and the development of standards within the discipline.
Early history[edit]
Earnest Hooton, one of the pioneers in the field of physical anthropology.
The use of anthropology in the forensic investigation of remains grew out of the recognition of anthropology as a distinct scientific discipline and the growth of physical anthropology. The field of anthropology began in the United States and struggled to obtain recognition as a legitimate science during the early years of the twentieth century.[9] Earnest Hooton pioneered the field of physical anthropology and became the first physical anthropologist to hold a full-time teaching position in the United States.[10] He was an organizing committee member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists along with its founder Aleš Hrdlička. Hooton's students created some of the first doctoral programs in physical anthropology during the early 20th century.[11] In addition to physical anthropology, Hooton was a proponent of criminal anthropology.[12] Now considered a pseudoscience, criminal anthropologists believed that phrenology and physiognomy could link a person's behavior to specific physical characteristics. The use of criminal anthropology to try to explain certain criminal behaviors arose out of the eugenics movement, popular at the time.[13] It is because of these ideas that skeletal differences were measured in earnest eventually leading to the development of anthropometry and the Bertillon method of skeletal measurement by Alphonse Bertillon. The study of this information helped shape anthropologists' understanding of the human skeleton and the multiple skeletal differences that can occur.
Another prominent early anthropologist, Thomas Wingate Todd, was primarily responsible for the creation of the first large collection of human skeletons in 1912. In total, Todd acquired 3,300 human skulls and skeletons, 600 anthropoid skulls and skeletons, and 3,000 mammalian skulls and skeletons.[13] Todd's contributions to the field of anthropology remain in use in the modern era and include various studies regarding suture closures on the skull and timing of teeth eruption in the mandible. Todd also developed age estimates based on physical characteristics of the pubic symphysis. Though the standards have been updated, these estimates are still used by forensic anthropologists to narrow down an age range of skeletonized remains.[14] These early pioneers legitimized the field of anthropology, but it was not until the 1940s, with the help of Todd's student, Wilton M. Krogman, that forensic anthropology gained recognition as a legitimate subdiscipline.
The growth of forensic anthropology[edit]
During the 1940s, Krogman was the first anthropologist to actively publicize anthropologists' potential forensic value, going as far as placing advertisements in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin informing agencies of the ability of anthropologists to assist in the identification of skeletal remains. This period saw the first official use of anthropologists by federal agencies including the FBI. During the 1950s, the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps employed forensic anthropologists in the identification of war casualties during the Korean War.[12] It was at this time that forensic anthropology officially began. The sudden influx of available skeletons for anthropologists to study, whose identities were eventually confirmed, allowed for the creation of more accurate formulas for the identification of sex, age,[15] and stature[16] based solely on skeletal characteristics. These formulas, developed in the 1940s and refined by war, are still in use by modern forensic anthropologists.
The professionalization of the field began soon after, during the 1950s and 1960s. This move coincided with the replacement of coroners with medical examiners in many locations around the country.[12] It was during this time that the field of forensic anthropology gained recognition as a separate field within the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and the first forensic anthropology research facility and body farm was opened by William M. Bass.[17] Public attention and interest in forensic anthropology began to increase around this time as forensic anthropologists started working on more high-profile cases. One of the major cases of the era involved anthropologist Charles Merbs who helped identify the victims murdered by Ed Gein.[18]
One of the main tools forensic anthropologists use in the identification of remains is their knowledge of osteology and the various differences that occur within the human skeleton. During the course of an investigation, anthropologists are often tasked with helping to determinate an individual's sex, stature, age, and ancestry. To do this, anthropologists must be aware of how the human skeleton can differ between individuals.
Determination of sex[edit]
Depending on which bones are present, sex can be determined by looking for distinctive sexual dimorphisms. When available, the pelvis is extremely useful in the determination of sex and when properly examined can achieve sex determination with a great level of accuracy.[19] The examination of the pubic arch and the location of the sacrum can help determine sex.
Female pelvis. Note wide pubic arch and shorter, pushed back sacrum
Male pelvis. Note narrow pubic arch and longer sacrum.
However, the pelvis is not always present, so forensic anthropologists must be aware of other areas on the skeleton that have distinct characteristics between sexes. The skull also contains multiple markers that can be used to determine sex. Specific markers on the skull include the temporal line, the eye sockets, the supraorbital ridge,[20] as well as the nuchal lines, and the mastoid process.[21] In general, male skulls tend to be larger and thicker than female skulls, and to have more pronounced ridges.[22]
It is important for forensic anthropologists to take into account all available markers in the determination of sex due to the differences that can occur between individuals of the same sex. For example, it is possible that a female may have a slightly more narrow than normal pubic arch. It is for this reason that anthropologists usually classify sex as one of five possibilities: male, may be male, indeterminate, may be female, or female.[23] In addition, forensic anthropologists are generally unable to make a sex determination unless the individual was an adult at the time of death. The sexual dimorphisms present in the skeleton begin to occur during puberty and are not fully pronounced until after sexual maturation.[24]
Determination of stature[edit]
The determination of stature by anthropologists is based off a series of formulas that have been developed over time by the examination of multiple different skeletons from a multitude of different regions and backgrounds. Stature is given as a range of possible values, in centimeters, and typically computed by measuring the bones of the leg. The three bones that are used are the femur, the tibia, and the fibula.[25] In addition to the leg bones, the bones of the arm, the humerus, ulna, and radius can be used.[26] The formulas that are used to determine stature rely on various information regarding the individual. Sex, ancestry, and age should be determined before attempting to ascertain height, if possible. This is due to the differences that occur between populations, sexes, and age groups.[27] By knowing all the variables associated with height, a more accurate estimate can be made. For example, a male formula for stature estimation using the femur is 2.32 × femur length + 65.53 ± 3.94 cm. A female of the same ancestry would use the formula, 2.47 × femur length + 54.10 ± 3.72 cm.[28] It is also important to note an individual's approximate age when determining stature. This is due to the shrinkage of the skeleton that naturally occurs as a person ages. After age 30, a person loses approximately one centimeter of their height every decade.[25]
Determination of age[edit]
The determination of an individual's age by anthropologists depends on whether or not the individual was an adult or a child. The determination of the age of children, under the age of 21, is usually performed by examining the teeth.[29] When teeth are not available, children can be aged based on which growth plates are sealed. The tibia plate seals around age 16 or 17 in girls and around 18 or 19 in boys. The clavicle is the last bone to complete growth and the plate is sealed around age 25.[30] In addition, if a complete skeleton is available anthropologists can count the number of bones. While adults have 206 bones, the bones of a child have not yet fused resulting in a much higher number.
The aging of adult skeletons is not as straightforward as aging a child's skeleton as the skeleton changes little once adulthood is reached.[31] One possible way to estimate the age of an adult skeleton is to look at bone osteons under a microscope. New osteons are constantly formed by bone marrow even after the bones stop growing. Younger adults have fewer and larger osteons while older adults have smaller and more osteon fragments.[30] Another potential method for determining the age of an adult skeleton is to look for arthritis indicators on the bones. Arthritis will cause noticeable rounding of the bones.[32] The degree of rounding from arthritis coupled with the size and number of osteons can help an anthropologist narrow down a potential age range for the individual.
Determination of ancestry[edit]
The determination of an individual's ancestry is typically grouped into three historical groups, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. However, the use of these classifications is becoming much harder as the rate of interracial marriages increases and markers become less defined.[33] By measuring distances between landmarks on the skull as well as the size and shape of specific bones anthropologists can use a series of equations to estimate ancestry. Typically, the maxilla is used to help anthropologists determine an individual's ancestry due to the three basic shapes, hyperbolic, parabolic, and rounded, belonging to the three historical ancestries, Negroid, Caucasoid, and Mongoloid respectively.[34] In addition to the maxilla, the zygomatic arch and the nasal opening have been used to narrow down possible ancestry.[35] A program called FORDISC has been created that will calculate the most likely ancestry using complex mathematical formulas.[36] This program is continually updated with new information from known individuals to maintain a database of current populations and their respective measurements.
Other markers[edit]
Anthropologists are also able to see other markers present on the bones. Past fractures will be evident by the presence of bone remodeling. The examination of any fractures on the bones can potentially help determine cause of death as well by determining if a fracture occurred ante-mortem (before death), peri-mortem (at the time of death), or post-mortem (after death). Ante-mortem fractures will show signs of healing while peri- and post-mortem fractures will not. Peri-mortem fractures will usually appear clean while post-mortem breaks will appear brittle.[37] Diseases such as bone cancer might be present in bone marrow samples and can help narrow down the list of possible identifications.
Forensic archaeology[edit]
Forensic archaeologists employ their knowledge of proper excavation techniques to ensure that remains are recovered in a controlled and forensically acceptable manner.[38] When remains are found partially or completely buried the proper excavation of the remains will ensure that any evidence present on the bones will remain intact. The difference between forensic archaeologists and forensic anthropologists is that where forensic anthropologists are trained specifically in human osteology and recovery of human remains, forensic archaeologists specialize more broadly in the processes of search and discovery.[39] In addition to remains, archaeologists are trained to look for objects contained in and around the excavation area. These objects can include anything from wedding rings to potentially probative evidence such as cigarette butts or shoe prints.[40] Their training extends further to observing context, association and significance of objects in a crime scene and drawing conclusions that may be useful for locating a victim or suspect.[41] A forensic archaeologist must also be able to utilize a degree of creativity and adaptability during times when crime scenes can not be excavated using traditional archaeological techniques. For example, one particular case study was conducted on the search and recovery of the remains of a missing girl who was found in a septic tank underground. This instance required unique methods unlike those of a typical archeological excavation in order to exhume and preserve the contents of the tank.[39]
Forensic archaeologists are involved within three main areas. Assisting with crime scene research, investigation, and recovery of evidence and/or skeletal remains is only one aspect.
Processing scenes of mass fatality or incidents of terrorism (i.e. homicide, mass graves and war crimes, and other violations of human rights) is a branch of work that forensic archaeologists are involved with as well.[39]
Forensic archaeologists can help determine potential grave sites that might have been overlooked. Differences in the soil can help forensic archaeologists locate these sites. During the burial of a body, a small mound of soil will form from the filling of the grave. The loose soil and increasing nutrients from the decomposing body encourages different kinds of plant growth than surrounding areas. Typically, grave sites will have looser, darker, more organic soil than areas around it.[42] The search for additional grave sites can be useful during the investigation of genocide and mass graves to search for additional burial locations.
One other implement to the career of a forensic archaeologist is teaching and research. Educating law enforcement, crime scene technicians and investigators, as well as undergraduate and graduate students is a critical part of a forensic archaeologist’s career in order to spread knowledge of proper excavation techniques to other forensic personnel and to increase awareness of the field in general. Crime scene evidence in the past has been compromised due to improper excavation and recovery by untrained personnel. Forensic anthropologists are then unable to provide meaningful analyses on retrieved skeletal remains due to damage or contamination.[43] Research conducted to improve archaeological field methods, particularly to advance nondestructive methods of search and recovery are also important for the advancement and recognition of the field.
There is an ethical component that must be considered. The capability to uncover information about victims of war crimes or homicide may present a conflict in cases that involve competing interests. Forensic archaeologists are often contracted to assist with the processing of mass graves by larger organisations that have motives related to exposure and prosecution rather than providing peace of mind to families and communities. These projects are at times opposed by smaller, human rights groups who wish to avoid overshadowing memories of the individuals with their violent manner(s) of death. In cases like these, forensic archaeologists must practice caution and recognize the implications behind their work and the information they uncover.[44]
Forensic taphonomy[edit]
The examination of remains can help build a peri and post-mortem profile of the individual.
The examination of skeletal remains often takes into account environmental factors that affect decomposition. Forensic taphonomy is the study of these postmortem changes to human remains caused by soil, water, and the interaction with plants, insects, and other animals.[45] In order to study these effects, body farms have been set up by multiple universities. Students and faculty study various environmental effects on the decomposition of donated cadavers. At these locations, cadavers are placed in various situations and their rate of decomposition along with any other factors related to the decomposition process are studied. Potential research projects can include whether black plastic causes decomposition to occur faster than clear plastic or the effects freezing can have on a dumped body.[46]
Forensic taphonomy is divided into two separate sections, biotaphonomy and geotaphonomy. Biotaphonomy is the study of how the environment affects the decomposition of the body. Specifically it is the examination of biological remains in order to ascertain how decomposition or destruction occurred.[47] This can include factors such as animal scavenging, climate, as well as the size and age of the individual at the time of death. Biotaphonomy must also take into account common mortuary services such as embalming and their effects on decomposition.[48]
Geotaphonomy is the examination of how the decomposition of the body affects the environment. Geotaphonomy examinations can include how the soil was disturbed, pH alteration of the surrounding area, and either the acceleration or deceleration of plant growth around the body.[47] By examining these characteristics, examiners can begin to piece together a timeline of the events during and after death. This can potentially help determine the time since death, whether or not trauma on the skeleton was a result of peri or post-mortem activity, as well as if scattered remains were the result of scavengers or a deliberate attempt to conceal the remains by an assailant.[48]
Forensic Anthropology Lab at the National Museum of National History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.
Individuals looking to become forensic anthropologists first obtain a bachelor's degree in anthropology from an accredited university. During their studies they should focus on physical anthropology as well as osteology. In addition it is recommended that individuals take courses in a wide range of sciences such as biology, chemistry, anatomy, and genetics.[49]
Once undergraduate education is completed the individual should proceed to graduate level courses. Typically, forensic anthropologists obtain doctorates in physical anthropology and have completed coursework in osteology, forensics, and archaeology. It is also recommended that individuals looking to pursue a forensic anthropology profession get experience in dissection usually through a gross anatomy class as well as useful internships with investigative agencies or practicing anthropologists.[1] Once educational requirements are complete one can become certified by the forensic anthropology society in the region. This can include the IALM exam given by the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe[50] or the certification exam given by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology.[51]
Typically, most forensic anthropologists perform forensic casework on a part-time basis, however there are individuals who work in the field full-time usually with federal or international agencies. Forensic anthropologists are usually employed in academia either at a university or a research facility.[52]
Like other forensic fields, forensic anthropologists are held to a high level of ethical standards due to their work in the legal system. Individuals who purposefully misrepresent themselves or any piece of evidence can be sanctioned, fined, or imprisoned by the appropriate authorities depending on the severity of the violation. Individuals who fail to disclose any conflict of interests or who fail to report all of their findings, regardless of what they may be, can face disciplinary actions.[53] It is important that forensic anthropologists remain impartial during the course of an investigation. Any perceived bias during an investigation could hamper efforts in court to bring the responsible parties to justice.[54]
In addition to the evidentiary guidelines forensic anthropologists should always keep in mind that the remains they are working with were once a person. If possible, local customs regarding dealing with the dead should be observed and all remains should be treated with respect and dignity.
Notable forensic anthropologists[edit]
Name Notable for Ref
Sue Black Founding member of the British Association for Human Identification. [55]
Karen Ramey Burns Worked in the investigation of genocides as well as the identification of victims of the 9/11 terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina. [56]
Michael Finnegan Worked on the identification of Jesse James. [57]
Richard Jantz Co-developer of FORDISC. [58]
Ellis R. Kerley Worked on the identification of Josef Mengele as well as the victims of the Jonestown mass suicide. [59]
William R. Maples Worked on the identification of Czar Nicholas II and other members of the Romanov family as well as the examination of President Zachary Taylor's remains for arsenic poisoning. [60]
Fredy Peccerelli Founder and director of the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation. [61]
Kathy Reichs Inspiration for Temperance "Bones" Brennan of the television show Bones. Also the author of 19 books to date. Most on the subject of forensic anthropology. [62]
Clyde Snow Worked on the identification of King Tutankhamun and the victims of the Oklahoma City bombing as well as the investigation into the murder of John F. Kennedy. [63]
Mildred Trotter Created statistical formulas for the calculation of stature based on human long bones through the examination of Korean War casualties. [64]
Kewal Krishan Advancement of forensic anthropology in India. [65]
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b Nawrocki, Stephen P. (June 27, 2006). "An Outline Of Forensic Anthropology" (PDF). Retrieved August 21, 2015.
2. ^ "National Crime Information Center: NCIC Files". FBI. Retrieved September 27, 2015.
3. ^ "Notices". INTERPOL. Retrieved September 27, 2015.
4. ^ McShane, Larry (July 19, 2014). "Forensic pathologist details grim work helping identify bodies after 9/11 in new book". Daily News. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
5. ^ Hinkes, MJ (July 1989). "The role of forensic anthropology in mass disaster resolution". PubMed. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
6. ^ "College Professor Gets the Call to Examine Plane Crashes and Crime Scenes". PoliceOne. July 28, 2002. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
7. ^ Nuwer, Rachel (November 18, 2013). "Reading Bones to Identify Genocide Victims". The New York Times. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
8. ^ Elson, Rachel (May 9, 2004). "Piecing together the victims of genocide / Forensic anthropologist identifies remains, but questions about their deaths remain". SFGate. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
9. ^ Stewart, T. D. (1979). "In the Uses of Anthropology". Forensic Anthropology (American Anthropological Association). Special Publication (11): 169–183.
10. ^ Shapiro, H. L. (1954). "Earnest Albert Hooton 1887-1954". American Anthropologist 56: 1081–1084. doi:10.1525/aa.1954.56.6.02a00090.
11. ^ Spencer, Frank (1981). "The Rise of Academic Physical Anthropology in the United States (1880-1980)". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 56: 353–364. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330560407.
12. ^ a b c Snow, Clyde Collins (1982). "Forensic Anthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology 11: 97–131. doi:10.1146/
13. ^ a b Cobb, W. Montague (1959). "Thomas Wingate Todd, M.B., Ch.B., F.R.C.S. (Eng.), 1885-1938". Journal of the National Medical Association 51 (3): 233–246. PMC 2641291. PMID 13655086.
14. ^ Buikstra, Jane E.; Ubelaker, Douglas H. (1991). "Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains". Arkansas Archaeology Survey Research Series (Arkansas Archaeological Survey) 44.
15. ^ McKern, T. W.; Stewart, T. D. (1957), Skeletal Age Changes in Young American Males (PDF) (Technical Report EP-45), Headquarters, Quartermaster Research and Developmental Command
16. ^ Trotter, M.; Gleser, G.C. (1952). "Estimation of Stature from Long Bones of American Whites and Negroes". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10: 463–514. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330100407.
17. ^ Buikstra, Jane E.; King, Jason L.; Nystrom, Kenneth (2003). "Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology in the American Anthropologist: Rare but Exquisite Gems". American Anthropologist 105 (1): 38–52. doi:10.1525/aa.2003.105.1.38.
18. ^ Golda, Stephanie (2010). "A Look at the History of Forensic Anthropology: Tracing My Academic Genealogy". Journal of Contemporary Anthropology 1 (1).
19. ^ "Identification Of Skeletal Remains" (PDF). November 5, 2010. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
20. ^ "4 Ways to Determine Sex (When All You Have is a Skull". Forensic Outreach. October 8, 2012. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
21. ^ Hawks, John (November 15, 2011). "Determining sex from the cranium". Retrieved August 19, 2015.
22. ^ "Differences Between Male Skull and Female Skull". September 24, 2008. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
23. ^ "how do archaeologists determine the sex of a skeleton". marshtide. April 27, 2011. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
24. ^ "Male or Female". Smithsonian National Museum of National History. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
25. ^ a b "Biological Profile / Stature" (PDF). Simon Fraser University. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
26. ^ Mall, G. (March 1, 2001). "Sex determination and estimation of stature from the long bones of the arm". PubMed. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
27. ^ Hawks, John (September 6, 2011). "Predicting stature from bone measurements". Retrieved August 19, 2015.
28. ^ Garwin, April (2006). "Stature". Retrieved August 19, 2015.
29. ^ "Skeletons are good age markers because teeth and bones mature at fairly predictable rates" (PDF). Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
30. ^ a b "Young or Old?". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
31. ^ "Quick Tips: How To Estimate The Chronological Age Of A Human Skeleton — The Basics". All Things AAFS!. August 20, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
32. ^ "Skeletons as Forensic Evidence". Retrieved August 20, 2015.
33. ^ "Anthropological Views". National Institute of Health. June 5, 2014. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
34. ^ "Analysis of Skeletal Remains". Westport Public Schools. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
35. ^ "Activity: Can You Identify Ancestry?" (PDF). Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
36. ^ "Ancestry, Race, and Forensic Anthropology". Observation Deck. March 31, 2014. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
37. ^ Smith, Ashley C. (December 10, 2010). "Distinguishing Between Antemortem, Perimortem, and Postmortem Trauma". Retrieved August 20, 2015.
38. ^ "Forensic Archaeology". Chicora Foundation. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
39. ^ a b c Schultz, Dupras (2008). "The Contribution of Forensic Archaeology to Homicide Investigations". Homicide Studies 12: 399–413. doi:10.1177/1088767908324430.
40. ^ Nawrocki, Stephen P. (June 27, 2006). "An Outline Of Forensic Archeology" (PDF). Retrieved August 21, 2015.
41. ^ Sigler-Eisenberg (1985). "Forensic Research: Expanding the Concept of Applied Archaeology". American Antiquity.
42. ^ "Forensic Archaeology". Simon Fraser University. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
43. ^ Haglund, William (2001). "Archaeology and Forensic Death Investigations". Historical Archaeology.
44. ^ Steele, Caroline (2008-08-20). "Archaeology and the Forensic Investigation of Recent Mass Graves: Ethical Issues for a New Practice of Archaeology". Archaeologies 4 (3): 414–428. doi:10.1007/s11759-008-9080-x. ISSN 1555-8622.
45. ^ Pokines, James; Symes, Steven A. Manual of Forensic Taphonomy. CRC Press. ISBN 9781439878415.
46. ^ Killgrove, Kristina (June 10, 2015). "These 6 'Body Farms' Help Forensic Anthropologists Learn To Solve Crimes". Retrieved August 20, 2015.
47. ^ a b "Forensic taphonomy". December 8, 2011. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
48. ^ a b Nawrocki, Stephen P. (June 27, 2006). "An Outline Of Forensic Taphonomy" (PDF). Retrieved August 20, 2015.
49. ^ Hall, Shane. "Education Required for Forensic Anthropology". Retrieved August 21, 2015.
50. ^ "FASE/IALM Certification". Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
51. ^ "Certification Examination General Guidelines" (PDF). American Board of Forensic Anthropology. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
52. ^ "ABFA - American Board of Forensic Anthropology". Retrieved August 21, 2015.
53. ^ "Code of Ethics and Conduct" (PDF). Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology. June 1, 2010. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
54. ^ "Code of Ethics and Conduct" (PDF). American Board of Forensic Anthropology. 2012. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
55. ^ "About Us". British Association for Human Identification. Retrieved September 28, 2015.
56. ^ Shearer, Lee (January 13, 2012). "Forensic anthropologist Burns dies, a former Athens resident". Retrieved September 28, 2015.
57. ^ Hrenchir, Tim (April 26, 1999). "Scientist who confirmed grave of Jesse James to speak". Retrieved September 28, 2015.
58. ^ Jantz, R.L.; Ousley, S.D. (2005). "FORDISC 3.1 Personal Computer Forensic Discriminant Functions". Retrieved September 28, 2015.
59. ^ Burkhart, Ford (September 12, 1998). "Ellis R. Kerley Is Dead at 74; A Forensic Sherlock Holmes". Retrieved September 28, 2015.
60. ^ Herszenhorn, David M. (March 1, 1997). "William R. Maples, 59, Dies; Anthropologist of Big Crimes". Retrieved September 28, 2015.
61. ^ "Fundación de Antropología Forense de Guatemala". Retrieved September 28, 2015.
62. ^ Moredock, Janet. "Kathy Reichs". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 28, 2015.
63. ^ McFadden, Robert (May 16, 2014). "Clyde Snow, Sleuth Who Read Bones From King Tut's to Kennedy's, Dies at 86". Retrieved September 28, 2015.
64. ^ Byers, Steven N. (2011). Introduction to forensic anthropology (4th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 490. ISBN 978-0205790128. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
65. ^ "PU Prof, student's study accepted by US forensic sciences academy". Hindustan Times. February 9, 2015. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
External links[edit]
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Marble head of Athena: The so-called Athena Medici
Period: Mid-Imperial, Antonine period
Date: ca. A.D. 138–92
Culture: Roman
Medium: Marble
Dimensions: H.: 7 7/8 in. (20 cm)
Classification: Stone Sculpture
Credit Line: Rogers Fund, 2007
Accession Number: 2007.293
Only rarely is it possible to get an impression of the majesty and beauty of the statues produced in Athens during the mid-fifth century B.C.–the High Classical period. This head is from a fine Roman copy of an overlifesize statue of the goddess Athena that has long been attributed to Pheidias, the most famous artist of that era. The marble face is modeled with extreme restraint and sensibility, imparting a powerful yet youthful radiance to the expression. The eyes were once inset with colored stones. The head retains part of the frontlet and neck guard of an Attic helmet that was originally completed in wood and gilded. This combination of marble and wood, whereby the drapery and attributes such as the helmet were worked in wood and gilded while the flesh parts were carved in marble, is known as the acrolithic technique. It imitated the appearance of immensely valuable gold and ivory statues such as the great Athena Parthenos that stood inside the Parthenon in Athens and the colossal seated statue of Zeus at Olympia.
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Aden Ridge
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Aden-Sheba Ridge
The Aden Ridge is a part of an active oblique rift system located in the Gulf of Aden, between Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula to the north. The rift system marks the divergent boundary between the Somalian and Arabian tectonic plates, extending from the Owen Transform Fault in the Arabian Sea to the Afar Triple Junction or Afar Plume beneath the Gulf of Tadjoura in Djibouti.[1]
The Gulf of Aden is divided east to west into three distinct regions by large-scale discontinuities, the Socotra, Alula Fartak, and Shukra-El Shiek transform faults.[2] Located in the central region, bounded by the Alula Fartak fault and Shukra-El Shiek fault, is the Aden spreading ridge. The Aden Ridge connects to the Sheba Ridge in the eastern region and to the Tadjoura Ridge in the western region.[2] Due to oblique nature of the Aden Ridge, it is highly segmented. Along the ridge there are seven transform faults that offset it to the north.
Initiation of rifting[edit]
Extension of the Gulf of Aden rift system began in the late Eocene - early Oligocene (~35 Ma ago), caused by the northeast escape of the Arabian plate from the African plate at a rate of ~2 cm/yr, and the development of the Afar plume.[1] Extension eventually gave way to seafloor spreading, first initiated near the Owen transform fault ~18 Ma ago.[1] Seafloor spreading then propagated as far west as the Shukra-El Shiek fault at a rate of ~14 cm/yr ~6 Ma ago rifting propagated west of the Shukra-El Shiek fault until terminating at the Afar plume.[2] The Afar plume is believed to have contributed to the initiation of the Aden ridge, due to the flow of hot mantle material being channeled along the thin lithosphere beneath the Gulf of Aden.[3] Currently, the Aden Ridge is undergoing extension at a rate of ~15 mm/yr.[4]
Segmentation of the Aden Ridge[edit]
Compared to its neighboring ridges, the Aden ridge is much more segmented. The Aden Ridge is broken up by seven transform faults with ridge segments of 10 – 40 km. In contrast, the Sheba Ridge is broken by only three transform faults and the Tadjoura Ridge continues essentially uninterrupted to the Afar Plume.[4] Sauter et al. (2001) proposed that variations in the spacing of spreading cells along ridges is a result of spreading rate; i.e., larger spacing results from slower spreading rates. However, the variation in spreading rates across the Gulf of Aden, 18 mm/yr in the east and 13 mm/yr in the west, is not great enough to explain the significant variation in spreading cell length between the Aden ridge and its neighboring ridges.[4] One likely cause for the segmentation of the Aden ridge is its distance from the Afar plume. The western most region of the Gulf, where the Tadjoura Ridge is located, has an anomalously high mantle temperature due to its proximity to the Afar plume. The result of this is higher degrees of melting and magmatism below the ridge, which allows for longer spreading segments without transform faults.[4] The difference in segmentation between the Aden and Sheba ridges can be explained by varying degrees of obliquity. The ocean-continent transition (OTC) of the Sheba ridge formed parallel to the syn-rift structure, whereas the OTC of the Aden ridge formed oblique to the syn-rift structure. The former scenario is more accommodating to oblique spreading and does not require as many transform faults for stability.[4]
1. ^ a b c Leroy, S; Lucazeau, D'Acremont; Watremez, Autin; Rouzo, Khanbari (2010). "Contrasted styles of rifting in the eastern gulf of aden: A combined wide-angle, multichannel seismic, and heat flow survey". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 11. Bibcode:2010GGG....11.7004L. doi:10.1029/2009gc002963.
2. ^ a b c Manighetti; Tapponnier, Courtillot; Gruszow, Gillot (1997). "Propagation of rifting along the arabia-somalia plate boundary: The gulfs of aden and tadjoura". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 102 (B2): 2681–2710. Bibcode:1997JGR...102.2681M. doi:10.1029/96jb01185.
3. ^ Chang; Van der Lee (2011). "Mantle plumes and associated flow beneath arabia and east africa". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 302: 448–454. Bibcode:2011E&PSL.302..448C. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.12.050.
4. ^ a b c d e Bellahsen; Husson, Autin; Leroy, d'Acremont (2013). "The effect of thermal weakening and buoyancy forces on rift localization: Field evidences from the gulf of aden oblique rifting". Tectonophysics 607: 80–97. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2013.05.042.
Coordinates: 14°N 52°E / 14°N 52°E / 14; 52
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Scutum (shield) Constellation
Scutum (shield) Constellation — Location: Southern Hemisphere; Coordinates: Right Ascension: 19h; Declination: -10; Source: Astronomer Johannes Hevelius
This constellation was originally named Scutum Sobiescianum, Latin for Shield of Sobieski. Jan III Sobieski was King of Poland from 1674 to 1696.
At that time Poland was much larger than its current borders, including parts of what are now Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.
The Ottoman Empire, based in Constantinople, was pushing at Europe’s eastern borders. It already had a foothold in the Balkans and had captured parts of Ukraine.
In 1683 the Ottomans advanced further into Europe and, with allies such as Tartars, besieged Vienna, capitol of Leopold I, head of the Holy Roman Empire. Sobieski gathered an army, left his own lands, and came to lift the siege of Vienna.
He was successful, and is credited with turning the tide of the Ottoman invasion.
The defeat of the Ottoman Empire at Vienna was considered a major victory by Europeans, not only in its political but also its cultural and religious ramifications. Hevelius named the constellation in honor of Sobieski.
Click here to learn more on this topic from eLibrary:
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Document #8 Life of Lycurgus
1. What qualities, according to Plutarch, do good leaders possess?
2. What is the purpose of government?
1. Greek Terms (and their meaning, of course)
2. The reforms of Lycurgus, what they were and why they were implemented.
Life of Lycurgus by Plutarch
1. Generally speaking it is impossible to make any undisputed statement about Lycurgus the lawgiver, since conflicting accounts have been given of his ancestry, his travels, his death, and above all his activity with respect to his laws and government; and there is least agreement among historians as to when the man lived. Some claim that he was in his prime at the same time as Iphitus and was his partner in establishing the Olympic truce and games. Among those who take this view is Aristotle the philosopher, who alleges as proof a discus preserved at Olympia with Lycurgus’ name inscribed on it. But others who calculate his time by the succession of Spartan kings claim that he must have lived much earlier than the First Olympiad. The philosopher Timaeus conjectures that there were actually two Lycurguses at Sparta at different times, and that the achievements of both are attributed to a single man. The older man may have lived close to the time of Homer; there are some who think Lycurgus even met Homer in person. Xenophon, too, suggests a rather early date in a passage of his written work Nonetheless, even though this is such a muddled topic of history, I shall try to present an account of Lycurgus by following those stories which are least contradicted and from the most distinguished authorities.
2. Of Lycurgus’ ancestors, Soüs was most famous and particularly admired. Under him the Spartans both made slaves of the helots and acquired the lands of Messenia by conquest. Among the succeeding kings some were detested for ruling the people by force, while others were merely tolerated because their rule was feeble. As a result, for a long period Sparta was gripped by lawlessness and disorder. It was as a consequence of this that Lycurgus’ father, too, met his death while king. He died from being struck by a chef’s cleaver in the course of trying to stop a brawl. The throne was left to his elder son Polydectes.
3. When Polydectes also died not long after, everyone figured that Lycurgus ought to replace his brother as king. And he did serve as king until it became apparent that his brother’s widow was pregnant. As soon as he discovered this, Lycurgus declared that the kingship rightfully belonged to the child if it should turn out to be a male, and he would exercise power simply as a prodikoi: prodikoi was the term used by the Spartans for the guardians of young kings without fathers. The mother, however, in secret communication explained to him her wish to abort the baby on condition that Lycurgus would marry her and remain king of Sparta. Though he loathed her suggestion and morals, he raised no objection to the proposal and pretended to approve and accept it. He said that there was no need for her to suffer physical harm and to run the risks by taking drugs to induce a miscarriage, since he would ensure that the child was disposed of as soon as it was born. By this means he continued to mislead the woman up until the time of the child’s birth. When he learned that she was in labor, Lycurgus sent in observers and guards to be present at the delivery with instructions: should the child turn out to be a girl, it was to be handed over to its mother, but if it should be a boy, they were to bring it to him personally. It so happened that Lycurgus was eating with some distinguished Spartans when a boy was born and the servants appeared with the child. The story goes that he took him and said to those present: ‘Spartiates, a king is born to you.’ And then he laid the child in the king’s place and named him Charilaus, meaning the People’s Joy, because everyone, impressed at how high-minded and fair Lycurgus was, felt overjoyed.
4. Lycurgus had been king for eight months and admired by the citizens. Many were obedient because he was the prodikoi and had authority as guardian, but many more were devoted to him because of his personal excellence. Yet there was also some jealousy and attempts to stem his power among the relations and friends of the king’s mother who felt particularly injured by Lycurgus’ popularity. On one occasion her brother abused Lycurgus quite offensively and added that he was fully aware of Lycurgus’ intention to seize the throne and make himself king. This slander laid the ground for accusing Lycurgus of a plot to harm the boy king. Similar sorts of remarks were made by the king’s mother too. Since these caused Lycurgus distress and fear about the uncertain future, he decided to avoid suspicion by going abroad and travelling around until his nephew should come of age and have a son of his own to succeed him and inherit the throne.
5. So he left Sparta, set sail, and arrived first at Crete. Here he studied the various forms of government and associated with men of the highest reputation. He greatly admired the laws there and took note with the intention of bringing them home and putting them to use in Sparta. By his charm and friendliness, he prevailed upon one of these men whom he regarded as shrewd and statesmanlike to undertake a mission to Sparta. This man, named Thales, though a powerful lawgiver, had a reputation as a composer of lyric poetry. His songs served as arguments to evoke obedience and concord. The accompanying music and rhythms had a notably regular and soothing quality, so that those who heard them would unconsciously mellow in character. In place of the mutual ill-will which at that time prevailed there, they would instead became used to striving together for excellence. Thus in a sense Thales paved the way for Lycurgus’ instruction of the Spartiates.
6. From Crete Lycurgus sailed to Asia [Ionian coast]. Some say that his plan was to compare the frugal, tough way of life on Crete with the extravagance and luxury of Ionia, and to observe the differences in the ways of life and government, just as a physician who compares festering and diseased bodies with the healthy. It was apparently in Ionia that Lycurgus first encountered the poems of Homer. And when he observed that besides their tendencies to unrestrained indulgence they also contained political and educational elements which were no less worthy of attention, he enthusiastically had them written down and collected in order to bring them back home. Homer’s epics had already gained a certain reputation among some of the Greeks, and a few individuals had acquired fragments of the works thanks to chance, but Lycurgus was the first and most successful in making them widely known.
7. The Egyptians think that Lycurgus reached them too, and was so impressed with their system that separated the warrior class from civilians that he went home and instituted similar divisions in Spartan society. There are certainly some Greek historians who endorse these claims by the Egyptians. There are even a few who contend that Lycurgus visited both Libya and Iberia and that in his wanderings around India he talked with the Gymnosophists there.
8. The Spartans missed Lycurgus throughout this absence and often summoned him back. To them the kings, while accorded a title and an office, were in other ways not superior to the people. And in Lycurgus they recognized a natural leader with the ability to attract a following. In fact even the kings were not reluctant to see him back again. Their hope was that with his presence they would receive less offense from the people. So when Lycurgus did return to a populace in this kind of mood, his immediate intention was to sweep away the existing order and to make a complete change of constitution rather than attempt to introduce piecemeal legislation. Once he had decided on this road, Lygurgus travelled first to Delphi and after sacrificing to the god and consulting him, he returned bringing that famous oracle in which the Pythia called him ‘dear to the gods’ and ‘a god rather than a man’. Lycurgus asked for Good Order and she declared that the god Apollo granted this and further promised that his constitution would be the finest by far.
9. With this encouragement he made approaches to the most distinguished men and invited them to join in the task. Initially he conferred with his friends in secret, yet ever so gradually he won over more men and organized them for action. When the moment came, he ordered his thirty foremost men to proceed under arms into the agora at dawn, so as to shock and terrify his opponents.
10. First and most significant among Lycurgus’ numerous innovations was the institution of the gerousia. According to Plato, its combination with the kings’ executive authority and the right to an equal vote on the most important matters, produced security and sound policy for the State. For the State had been unstable, at one moment inclining towards monarchy and virtual tyranny and at another towards the people and democracy. But now by placing the senators of the gerousia in between as a kind of ballast, and thus striking a balance, it found the safest arrangement and organization, with the twenty-eight senators always siding with the kings when it came to a matter of resisting democracy, yet in turn reinforcing the people against the development of tyranny. According to Aristotle the number of senators was instituted because two of Lycurgus’ thirty leading associates panicked and abandoned the reforming enterprise. But Sphaerus claims that from the outset there were twenty-eight collaborators in the scheme. Possibly the fact that this number is reached through multiplying seven by four also has something to do with it, as well as the point that it is the next perfect number after six. Yet in my view the main reason for fixing this number was that so the total number of senators should be thirty when the two kings were added to the twenty-eight.
11. Lycurgus was so enthusiastic about the gerousia that he sought an oracle from Delphi, which they call a rhetra. Thus receiving the Pythia’s endorsement, Lycurgus related the origin and source of his constitution to Apollo. When the populace was assembled in the apella, Lycurgus permitted no one else excep the senators and kings to make a proposal, although the authority to decide upon what the latter put forward did belong to the people. Later, however, when the people distorted proposals and mauled them by their deletions and additions, the kings Polydorus and Theopompus supplemented the rhetra as follows: ‘If the people should make a crooked choice, the senators and the kings are to set it aside, that is, not confirm it, but to withdraw it completely and to dismiss the people because they are altering and reformulating the proposal contrary to what was best. Moreover these kings persuaded the city that the god Apollo had ordered this supplement to the constitution — as the poet Tyrtaeus seems to be recalling in the following lines:
Having listened to Phoebus Apollo they brought home from Pytho
The oracles of the god and his words which were to be fulfilled:
To rule in council is for the kings, who are esteemed by the gods
And whose care is the lovely city of Sparta,
And for the aged senators; but then it is for the common people
To respond in turn with straight rhetras.
12. While Lycurgus had thus incorporated a blend of elements in the constitution, Spartans after his day nonetheless still saw oligarchy as undiluted and dominant so that they created the authority of the ephors to act as a curb to the gerousia. It was apparently about 130 years after the time of Lycurgus, during the reign of king Theopompus, that the first ephors were appointed. By its renunciation of excessive authority and the related resentment, the Spartan kingship escaped the danger of suffering the fate which the Messenians and Argives inflicted upon their kings, who refused to concede anything or yield and of their authority to the popular element. Lycurgus’ skill and forsight in this respect are also seen with special clarity in any review of the civil strife and misgovernment among the Spartans’ own kinsmen and neighbors, the Messenians and Argives. Initially they had been equal to the Spartans and even possessed more land than Sparta. However, they did not prosper for long, but through the insolence of their kings and the non-cooperation of the masses they threw their institutions into complete turmoil and their states into disorder, thereby demonstrating what a truly divine blessing the Spartiate enjoyed in the man who constructed Sparta’s constitution and blended it. Yet these development came later.
13. Lycurgus’ second, and most revolutionary, reform was his redistribution of the land. There was in Sparta dreadful inequality: many destitute people without means were congregating in the city, while wealth had poured completely into the hands of but a few. In order to expel arrogance, envy, crime, luxury, and those yet older and more serious political afflictions, wealth and poverty, Lycurgus persuaded the citizens to pool all of the land and then redistribute it afresh. Then they would all live on equal terms with one another, with the same amount of property to support each, and they would seek to be first only in merit. There would be no distinction or inequality between individual Spartan citizens except for what censure of bad conduct and praise of good would determine.
14. Acting upon his word, Lycurgus distributed the remainder of Laconia to the perioikoi in 30,000 lots and divided the part subject to the city of Sparta into 9000. This was the number of lots reserved for the Spartiate. Each citizen’s lot was sufficient to provide a rent of 70 medimni of barley for a man and 12 for his wife, along with proportionate quantities of fresh produce. He thought that just this amount of food would suffice for their proper fitness and health, and that they would need no more than that. There is a story that at some later date, when on return from abroad, he was passing through the country just after the harvesting and saw heaps of grain side by side and all equal in size. He smiled and remarked to his companions that the whole of Laconia had the look of a property which many brothers have recently divided between themselves.
15. Lycurgus attempted to divide up their moveable property too, in order to remove inequalities and contrasts altogether. But when he saw the adverse reaction to outright expropriation, he went about this in a different way and devised constitutional measures against the peoples’ greed. First he declared that all gold and silver coinage was now invalid, and decreed that only iron should be used as currency; and then he assigned a low value to even a great weight and mass of this, so that a sum of ten minas required substantial storage space in a house and a wagon to move it. Once this was made legal tender, many types of crime disappeared from Sparta. For who would set out to steal, or accept as a bribe, or rob, or plunder something which could not be hidden, excited no envy when possessed, and could not even be profitably chopped up? The story is that Lycurgus doused the surface of the red-hot iron with vinegar, thus making it fragile and intractable and removing whatever other use and strength it might have.
16. After this he effected an expulsion of useless and superfluous foreign crafts. Even without banishing them, most would have probably been eliminated by the common currency, since there was no market for their products. The iron money, after all, could not be exported elsewhere in Greece and was considered a joke there rather than an object of value. Consequently it was impossible to buy any shoddy foreign goods in Sparta, and no cargo of merchandise would enter the harbors, no teacher of rhetoric trod Laconian soil, no begging seer, no pimp, and no maker of gold or silver ornaments because there were no more coins. Thus gradually cut off from the things that animate and feed it, luxury atrophied of its own accord. And those who had great possessions won no advantage because there was no public outlet for their wealth, except keeping it at home in storage. As a result, Spartan craftsmanship of everyday essential items of furniture was first rate, and the Spartan kothon or drinking cup is especially valued because of its practical use on military campaign. Dirt and twigs and other off-putting elements in water which had to be drunk were concealed by its color, while the dirt in the liquid was trapped by the lip so that what reached the mouth for drinking was cleaner. The lawgiver Lygurgus was responsible for this too, since craftsmen had been released from useless jobs and now displayed the quality of their skill in essential ones.
17. With the aim of stepping up the attack on luxury and removing the passion for wealth, Lycurgus introduced his third and finest reform, the establishment of common messes or syssitia. The intention was that they should assemble together and eat the same specified meat-sauces and cereals. This prevented Spartan men from spending spending time at home, lying at table on expensive couches, being waited upon by confectioners and chefs, fattened up in the dark like gluttonous animals, and ruining themselves physically as well as morally by giving themselves free rein to every craving and excess which demanded lengthy slumbers, warm baths, plenty of rest, and daily nursing.
18. Taking meals in common and introducing frugality in diet was a great achievement. When the rich man goes to the same meal as the poor one, he found no use for lavish table settings. It was not even possible for the rich to dine at home first and then proceed to their messes on a full stomach. Rather, the rest were on the look-out for whoever would not drink and eat along with them, and they would abuse him for having no self-discipline and for being too delicate to consume the common fare. [Perhaps something to bear in mind the next time you disparage lunch in the refectory.]
19. We are told that it was this reform above all others that roused the fury of the wealthy against Lycurgus, so that they joined together in a body to jeer at him and to express their anger. Eventually, when many of them pelted him, he ran from the agora to escape and managed to take refuge in a sanctuary. But one youth in particular, a boy named Alcander, pressed hard in pursuit and struck Lycurgus with his stick when he turned around, knocking his eye out of its socket. However, Lycurgus refused to give in and stood to confront the citizens and show them his bloodstained face and ruined eye. When they saw this they were overcome with such deep shame and sorrow that they handed Alcander over to him and escorted him home as an expression of their joint outrage. Lycurgus complimented and dismissed them, but took Alcander into his own home as a servant. Alcander, who was by no means ill-bred, did as he was instructed without a word; and by staying in Lycurgus’ house and living with him as his servant came to recognize his gentleness, his depth of soul, his ascetic lifestyle, and his inexhaustible capacity for work. In consequence, Alacander became quite remarkably attached to him and used to say to his comrades and friends that Lycurgus, far from being severe or unfeeling, was uniquely gentle and mild to others. This then was how Alcander was punished — a criminal and willful adolescent who became the most civil and responsible man. In memory of his injury, Lycurgus dedicated a shrine of Athena Optilletis (because the Dorians call eyes optilloi). It was after this incident that the Spartans gave up the habit of carrying sticks when attending the apella.
20. While the Cretan call messes andreia, Spartans call them phiditia [which has come to be transcribed as syssitia], either because they are places of friendship (philia) and kindliness or because they instill thriftiness and frugality (pheido). This may have been added to the word editia, which suggests the way of life and eating. Spartans gathered in groups of about fifteen. Every month each member of the mess contributed a certain measure of barley meal, wine, cheese, figs, and a small amount of meat and fish. Anyone who had been hunting would also send a share to the mess, for whenever anyone was back late from hunting, he was allowed to have dinner at home; the others had to be at the mess. This practice of dining together was for a long time strictly maintained in Sparta. For example when king Agis returned from the campaign in which he had defeated the Athenians, he wanted to eat at home with his wife and called for his portions; the ephors, however, refused to send them. Next day in his fury he did not carry out the required sacrifice, and they fined him.
21. The boys, too, used to frequent the messes. For them it was like being brought to a school for self-discipline, where they heard both political discussion and witnessed the kind of entertainments appropriate for free men. For their own part they grew used to making fun and joking without becoming indecent, as well as not taking offense when they were the butt of the joke. In fact this ability to take a joke would seem to be particularly Spartan in character. If a joke went too far, a man might plead with the person making it and he willingly left off.
22. The oldest member of the syssytia indicated the doors to each person entering the mess and said: ‘Not a word goes out through these.’ By all accounts anyone desiring to join a mess was vetted in the following way. Each member took a piece of soft bread in his hand and in silence threw it, like a ballot, into the bowl which a servant carried on his head. Those in favor threw the bread as it was, while those against taking the person squeezed it hard, leaving a thumb print. Should they find even one of these squeezed pieces they do not admit the would-be member because it is their wish that all should be happy in each others’ company. They refer to somebody rejected in this way as kaddished, since the bowl into which they throw the pieces of bread is called a kaddichos.
23. The food that Spartans think most highly of is called melas zomos or black broth [made of pig’s blood and vinegar]. Thus the older men do not even ask for a helping of meat but leave it to the young ones. Instead they have black broth poured out for themselves and make a meal of it. There is a story that one of the kings of Pontus even bought a Laconian cook for the sake of the broth, but after tasting it was not pleased. At this the cook declared: ‘This is broth to be savored, O king, by those who have bathed in the Eurotas.’ After moderate drinking the Spartan messmates depart without a torch. Neither for this journey nor for any other are they allowed to walk with a light, so that they should grow used to the darkness and to traveling cheerfully and fearlessly by night. This then is how their messes were organized.
24. Lycurgus did not put his laws into writing. In fact one of the rhetras is that laws should not be written. Instead, he reckoned that the guiding principles of most importance for the happiness and excellence of the state would remain securely fixed if they were embedded in the citizens’ character and training rather than written down upon paper. This approach forged a stronger commitment to such principles than the sense of compulsion induced in the young by book education. In his view it was also better that minor financial agreements should not be bound by written contracts, but that additions and deletions were to be made as circumstances require with the approval of experts. In fact he made his entire legislative reforms completely dependent upon the education of citizens.
25. Thus, as has been explained, one of the rhetras prohibited the use of written laws. Another in turn was directed against extravagance, to the effect that in every house the ceiling should be made with an axe, and the doors only with a saw, not with any other tools. There was no place for luxury or extravagance in such a rough made house. Yet another rhetra of Lycurgus banned frequent military campaigns against the same foe, so that these enemies should not grow used to defending themselves and thus become skilled in warfare. And this very complaint was later brought laid most notably against King Agesilaus, that by his constant forays and expeditions against Boeotia he made the Thebans a match for the Spartans. [Sparta was defeated by Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC.] Thus when Antalcidas saw the king wounded he remarked: ‘What a splendid tuition fee you received from the Thebans for having taught them to fight when they had neither the wish nor the knowledge to do so.’
26. Since he regarded the upbringing of children as the greatest and noblest responsibility of a legislator, Lycurgus showed special concern for matters relating to marriages and births. He showed all possible concern for women and well as the men. First he toughened the girls physically by making them run and wrestle and throw the discus and javelin. Thereby the children in the embryo would make a strong start in development while the women themselves would also bear their pregnancies with vigor and meet the challenge of childbirth in a relaxed way. He did away with prudery, sheltered upbringing and effeminacy of any kind. He made both girls and boys comfortable walking naked in processions as well as dancing and singing at certain festivals while those of the opposite sex looked on. On some occasions the girls would make fun of each of the young men, helpfully criticizing their mistakes. On other occasions they would sing the praises of those deserving them and so fill the young men with a great sense of ambition and rivalry. The. There was nothing disreputable about the girls’ nudity. It was altogether modest and their was no hint of immorality. Instead, it encouraged simple habits and an enthusiasm for physical fitness, as well as giving females a taste of masculine gallantry since they were granted equal participation in both excellence and ambition. As a result the women of Sparta helped develop and train the men.
27. There were also inducements to marry. Lycurgus placed a certain civil disability on those who did not marry, for they were excluded from the spectacle of the Gymnopaedia, because they had produced no sons for the state. The custom was to capture women for marriage, not when they were small or immature, but when they were in their prime. The so-called ‘bridesmaid’ took charge of the captured girl and first shaved her head then dressed her in a man’s cloak and sandals and laid her down on a mattress in the dark. The groom, who was not drunk but sober as always, first had dinner in the mess, then slipped in unseen and carried his bride to bed. After spending only a short time with her he departed discreetly to return to his normal barracks. And this practice continued, as he would warily visit his bride only in secret, ashamed and apprehensive in case someone in the house might notice him. His bride at the same time devised schemes and helped to plan how they might meet each other unobserved at suitable moments. This went on for an extended period of time so that many men had children before they saw their own wives in daylight. Such behavior was not only an exercise in self-control and moderation, but also meant that partners remained vigorous and fertile rather than being weakened by unrestricted sexual activity. Moreover, some lingering glow of desire and affection was always retained for both partners.
28. After making marriage as modest and orderly as this, Lycurgus showed equal concern for removing absurd, unmanly jealously. He made it honorable for worthy men to share in the production of children. Thus, if an older man approve, he might share his wife with a younger man and adopt the child as his own. Conversely, a respectable man who admired someone’s wife noted for her well-formed children and her good sense, might gain the husband’s permission to sleep with her, thereby producing fine children who would be linked to fine ancestors by blood and family.
29. First and foremost, Lycurgus considered children to belong not privately to their fathers, but jointly to the city. He wanted citizens produced not from random partners, but from the best (aristos). He observed a good deal of stupidity and silliness in other states’ rules on these matters. People intentionally breed their finest horses and dogs by paying for the best of studs, but wives they lock up and guard, claiming the right to produce only their children exclusively, even though they may be imbeciles, past their prime, of diseased. They forgot that where children are born of poor stock, the first to suffer from their poor condition are those who possess and rear them. What was thus practiced in Sparta in the interests of breeding and of the state was at that time so far removed from lax morals that there was absolutely no notion of adultery. There is a story recorded by a Spartan named Geradas, who when asked by a foreigner what the punishment for adulterers was said, ‘There is no adulterer among us.’ When the stranger replied, ‘But what is there should be one?’, Geradas answered: ‘His fine would be a great bull which bends over Mount Taygetus to drink from the Eurotas.’ The foreigner was amazed and said, ‘But how could there be a bull of such size?’ At which Geradas laughed and said, ‘But how could there be an adulterer in Sparta?’
30. The father of a newborn child was not entitled to make the decision about whether or not it should live, but rather brought it to a particular spot where the ephors sat. If after examination the baby proved well-built and sturdy they assigned it one of the 9,000 lots of land and instructed the father to rear it. If it was puny and deformed, they dispatched it to what was called ‘the place of rejection’ (apothetae), a precipitous spot by Mount Taygetus, considering it better both for itself and the state that the child should die if it was poorly endowed for health or strength. And that is why women would test their babies by washing them in wine instead of water. The effect of the unmixed wine on ailing and epileptic children is said to make the weak lose their senses and toughen the healthy. To allow free development of limbs and physique Spartan babies were not swaddled. They trained children to eat all their food and not be fussy about it, not to be frightened of the dark or of being left alone, and not to be prone to fits of temper or crying. This is why some foreigners bought Spartan wet-nurses. But Lycurgus refused to put Spartan children in the care of any tutors who had been bought or hired. Neither was it permissible for each father to bring up and educate his son in the way that he chose. Instead, as soon as boys reached the age of seven, they were distributed into the Troops. Here they were accustomed to live together and be brought up together, playing and learning as a group. The captaincy of the Troop was conferred upon the boy who displayed the soundest judgment and the best fighting spirit. The others kept their eyes on him, responded to his instructions, and endured their punishments from him, so that altogether this training, called the agoge, served as a practice in learning obedience. Boys were constantly watched by their elders in order that they might get to know each boy’s character, in particular how bold he was and how far he was likely to stand his ground in combat.
31. The boys learned to read and write no more than was necessary. Their entire education was aimed at developing smart obedience, perseverance under stress, and victory in battle. So as they grew older they intensified their physical training and cropped their hair, went barefoot, and exercised naked. From the age of twelve they never wore a tunic and were given only one cloak a year. Their bodies were rough and they knew nothing of baths or oils. They slept together by Wolfpacks on mattresses made from rough reeds. The Wolfpacks are each commanded by an Eiren, twenty years of age, and the boys are made to serve him meals like a servant. They steal what food they fetch, some of them entering gardens, others slipping into the men’s messes with a fine mixture of cunning and caution. If a boy is caught he receives many lashes of the whip, not for stealing but for proving an inexpert thief. The boys also steal what provisions they can, thereby learning how to sneak up upon a sleeping person or overcome a guard. A boy is beaten and goes hungry if he is caught. The aim of providing them with only sparse fare is that they should be driven to make up its deficiencies by resorting to daring and cunning. While this is the main purpose of their scanty diet, it is also thought that it will help them grow tall. Good looks are produced in the same way. For where lean, spare features respond to articulation, the sheer weight of obese, over-fed ones makes them resist it.
32. The care which the boys take over their stealing is illustrated by the story of one who had stolen a fox cub and had it concealed inside his cloak. In order to escape detection he was prepared to have his insides clawed and bitten out by the animal and even die. This tale is certainly not incredible, judging from Spartan boys today. I have witnessed many of them dying under the lashes they receive at the altar of Artemis Orthia.
33. As he reclined after his meal, the Eiren would tell one boy to sing, while to another he posed a question which called for a thoughtful response, like ‘Who among the men is the best?’ Or ‘What is your opinion of so-and-so’s action?’ Thereby, early on boys grew accustomed to judging excellence and to making critical appraisal of the citizens. When asked which citizen was good, or whose reputation was low, the boy at a loss for an answer was regarded as a sluggard. Answers had to be reasoned, supported by argument, and at the same time expressed with brevity and concision. A bite on the thumb was the punishment for the wrong answer. An Eiren was permitted to administer punishment without interference.
34. Boys were further taught to express themselves in a style which was at once sharp, yet at the same time attractive and suited to concise exposition of a variety of points. While in the case of iron money, Lycurgus arranged for heavy weight to be matched by low value; he did the opposite for the currency of speech. Here he developed the technique of expressing a wide range of ideas in just a few, spare words. In his scheme, boys, by staying silent most of the time, were led to give pithy, well-trained answers. By contrast the talk of the person who babbles constantly turns out vapid and mindless. When an Athenian once made a joke about how Spartan swords are so short that a circus performer could swallow them, King Agis responded that they were just long enough to reach the hearts of our enemies. While the Laconian style of speech may seem brief, in my view it certainly does penetrate to the heart of the matter and makes a forcible impression upon its hearers’ minds.
35. Judging by his recorded remarks, Lycurgus himself seems to have been a man of just a few, well-chosen words. Take, for instance, what he said about government to a person who advocated making Sparta a democracy: ‘Make your own household a democracy first.’ And his explanation about sacrifices to the person who inquired why the ones he arranged were to small and inexpensive: ‘So that we may never cease to honor the gods.’ When asked how to repel an enemy attack, he responded: ‘If you stay poor and each man among you has no desire to be greater than any other.’ And when asked why Sparta did not construct defensive walls, he said: ‘A city is fortified if it is ringed with brave men rather than bricks.’
36. Spartan distaste for over talking is demonstrated in their pointed remarks. When Charilaus, Lycurgus’ nephew, was asked why his uncle had made so few laws, his reply was that men of few words need few laws. Here are some examples of such remarks. When a man of poor character asked Demaratus who is the best of the Spartiates, he replied: ‘The one least like you.’ When some foreigner congratulated the Eleans on their fair management of the Olympic Games, Agis of Sparta inquired: ‘What is so remarkable about fair conduct on one day every four years?’ When some foreigner claimed that in his own city he was known as a friend of Sparta, Theopompus said: ‘Stranger, it would be more honorable for you to be known as a friend of your own city.’ When an Athenian politician disparaged the Spartans as uneducated, Pleistoanax replied: ‘Your point is correct, since we are the only Greeks who have learned nothing wicked from you Athenians.’ And when a man once inquired as to exactly how may Spartans there are was answered: ‘Enough, my friend, to keep undesirables out.’
37. The Spartans’ character may equally be illustrated from their humorous remarks. It was their habit never to waste words and to articulate nothing which did not in some way or other contain an idea meriting serious thought. If you consider some of the preserved sayings of the Spartans, it justifies some people’s claim that Sparta showed more devotion to the intellect than to even physical exercise. And they were no less enthusiastic about training in music and singing than they were about purity of speech. Their songs roused the spirit for energetic, effective action. In style they were plain, while their subject matter was serious and calculated to mold character. For the most part they praised those who had the good fortune to die for Sparta, condemned cowards, and promised to remain brave. Anyone who has studied Spartan poetry and the music they use while advancing upon their enemies would not think it wrong to connect music and bravery. Spartans are the most musical and at the same time the most warlike of people: ‘Fine lyre-playing matches iron weaponry,’ says one Spartan poet. At time of battle the king first sacrifices to the Muses, thereby reminding his men of their training so that they may face the dangers ahead and perform memorable feats in the fighting.
38. It was during war that the Spartans relaxed the harshest elements of the young men’s training. Before battle they groomed their hair and decorated their weapons and clothes. Adult Spartans wore their hair long; they took particular care over it in the face of danger, combing it and making it look sleek. They bore in mind one of Lycurgus’ statements that long hair makes handsome men better looking and ugly ones more frightening. Their exercises were also less demanding while on military campaign and the young men were less subject to punishment and scrutiny, with the result that for them uniquely among mankind was represented a break from the rigors of military training. Once their phalanx was marshaled together in sight of the enemy, the king instructed everyone to put on garlands, and ordered the pipers to play the Hymn to Castor. At the same time he began the marching paean, so that it was solemn and terrifying to see them marching in step to the pipes, creating no gap in the phalanx nor suffering any disturbance of spirit, but rather approaching the confrontation calmly and happily in time to the music. In all likelihood men in this frame of mind feel neither fear nor exceptional anger, believing heaven to be with them.
39. The king advanced against the enemy surrounded by those who had won honors. A story is told of one Olympic victor in wrestling who, when offered an immense sum of money, refused it. When he was asked: ‘What have you gained from your victory, Spartan?’, he replied with a smile: ‘In battle against the enemy my place will be in front of the king.’ After Spartans defeated an enemy and made them flee, they gave chase only far enough to confirm the victory and then pulled back, because in their view it was neither noble of Hellenic to butcher and slaughter men who had already yielded their ground. This practice was not just magnanimous, but it also paid off politically: it was known that Spartans killed only those who stood in their way, and spared those who surrendered, so adversaries often saw more advantage in fleeing than in standing their ground.
40. Spartiates’ training extended into adulthood, for no one was permitted to live simply as he pleased. Just as in camp, so in the city, they followed a prescribed lifestyle and devoted themselves to communal concerns. They viewed themselves absolutely as part of their polis rather than as individuals. Abundant leisure was unquestionably among the wonderful benefits which Lycurgus had conferred upon his fellow citizens. He totally banned them from involvement in manual craft, and there was no need to try to amass wealth, since riches were neither envied nor esteemed. The helots worked the land for them. Spartans thought that money-making and craft-work as only fit for slaves! As might be expected, legal disputes disappeared along with coinage, since there was no longer greed or want. So Spartans enjoyed plenty and the sense of ease which comes with simply living. Except when they went on campaign, all their time was spent with dances, festivals, hunting expeditions, physical exercise and in conversation.
41. The main function of the time spent in such activities was to bestow praise on good conduct or criticism on bad — in a lighthearted, humorous way which made correction easy to accept. In fact it was Lycurgus himself who introduced humor into Sparta’s drinking parties and dining clubs, so as to sweeten their rigorous lifestyle. Altogether, he accustomed citizens to have no desire for (nor knowledge of) a private life, but rather to be like bees, always attached to the community, swarming together around their leader, and almost ecstatic with fervent ambition to devote themselves entirely to the polis. When Pedaritus was not selected as one of the Three Hundred, he withdrew cheerfully expressing his happiness that the city possessed 300 men better than he.
42. As already mentioned, Lycurgus himself appointed Elders initially from among those who had been associated with his reforms. But later he arranged that whenever an Elder died his place should be taken by a man over sixty whose merits were regarded as most outstanding. And such a position seemed to be the greatest in the world and most worth competing for. A man was chosen not as the swiftest of the swift, nor the strongest of the strong, but as the best [aristos] and wisest of the good and wise, who as a lifelong reward for his merits had in effect sweeping authority in the state, with control over death and the loss of the rights of citizenship. The selection was made in the following way. The assembly [apella] gathered and picked men [the ephors] were shut up in a nearby building where they could neither see out nor be seen, but could only hear the shouts of those in the assembly. One by one, in an order determined by lots, candidates walked through the assembly. The men who had been shut up noted the volume of shouting without knowing the identity of any candidate, knowing each only by number. Whoever received the loudest shouting was declared elected. Then, wearing a crown, he made a round of the sanctuaries of the gods. He was followed by many young men full of admiration and praise for him, and by many young women who sang in celebration of his excellence and proclaimed his good fortune in life. He was served a meal as a sign of the city’s respect before he went off to his mess [syssition]. Here everything was as usual, except he was served a second portion, which he then donated to one of his esteemed female relatives.
43. Those who buried a dead person were not permitted to inscribe the name on the grave except in the cases of a man who died on campaign or a woman who had died while giving birth. In truth, Lycurgus left nothing undone or neglected, but incorporated into each essential function some stimulus to good conduct or disparagement of bad. He provided the city with a quantity of models which would necessarily be encountered all the time by those aiming for excellence. Consequently, he did not permit Spartans to be away from the city and travel freely, acquiring foreign habits and copying lifestyles based upon no training or types of government different from that of Sparta. He even expelled all those foreign people who poured into the city and congregated there for no useful purpose. By definition foreigners must bring in foreign ideas, and novel ideas lead to novel attitudes. Hence inevitably man emotions and preferences emerge which — if the existing government be likened to a piece of music — are out of tune with it. Thus it was the need to protect the city from being invaded by harmful practices which concerned him more than anything else.
44. In all of this there is no trace of the inequity or arrogance with which Lycurgus’ laws are charged by some people. In their view his laws are well designed to develop valor, but fail to foster justice. It may be that even the philosopher Plato was also led to this opinion of Lycurgus and his constitution because of the Spartan institution called the krypteia. Assuming this really was one of Lycurgus’ institutions, as Aristotle maintains, it’s character was as follows.
45. Periodically, the ephors chose young men who appeared particularly intelligent and dispatched them into the countryside in different directions. They were equipped with daggers and basic rations, but nothing else. By day they dispersed to obscure spots in order to hide and rest. At night they made their way to roads and murdered any helot whom they caught. Frequently, too, they made their way through the fields, killing the helots who stood out for their physique and strength. The historian Thucydides tells how those helots who had been singled out by the Spartans for their bravery were first crowned as if they had been granted their freedom, and visited the sanctuaries of the gods, but then a little later they all vanished — over 2000 of them — and nobody was able to explain how they had been eliminated. Aristotle makes further note that immediately upon taking up office the ephors declared war on the helots, so that they could be killed without guilt or religious pollution.
46. In other ways, too, the Spartans treatment of the helots was callous and brutal. They forced them, for instance, to drink quantities of unmixed wine and then bring them into the messes to show the young men what drunkenness did to a man. They also ordered them to perform songs and dances which were vulgar and ludicrous, while excluding them from the ones that were fit for free men. Later, according to reports, when Theban forces penetrated into Laconia and told the helots they captured to sing the works of Terpander and Spendon the Spartan, the helots refused, claiming that their masters did not approve. The class distinction is reflected fully in the statement that there is nothing to match either the freedom of the free man at Sparta or the slavery of the slave. In my view such ill-treatment on the part of the Spartiates only developed after the time of Lycurgus — especially after the Great Earthquake which started the Second Messenian War, when the helots posed a dire threat to the city. Personally I would not attribute such a foul exercise as the krypteia to Lycurgus; in my estimation his disposition was otherwise mild and fair.
47. Once he saw that his most vital measures had gained acceptance and that the form of government fostered by him was acquiring enough strength to support and protect itself unaided, then, like the god delighted at his universe coming into being, Lycurgus was deeply moved and pleased by the beauty and extent of his legislation now that it was in action. He longed to make sure that the system should be immortal and immutable, so he summoned everyone to an assembly and declared that while what had been established was sufficient and appropriate to secure the happiness and excellence of the state, there remained the greatest, most essential measure, which he would not disclose before visiting the oracle. Consequently they must abide by the laws laid down without dropping or changing any of them until he should return in person from Delphi. On his he return he would do whatever the god recommended. When they unanimously agreed to this and urged him to proceed, Lycurgus made the first kings and elders [senators], and the other citizens, swear that they would abide by the established constitution and continue to use it until he should return. Then he set out for Delphi.
48. Once he had reached the oracle and sacrificed to the god [Apollo], he inquired if the laws which he had laid down were of sufficient quality to secure the happiness and excellence of the state. The god replied that the quality of the laws was high and that by adhering to Lycurgus’ constitution the city would enjoy the most brilliant reputation. Lycurgus had this oracle written down and sent it to Sparta. He then made a second, personal sacrifice to the god, embraced his friends and his son, and determined never to release the citizens of Sparta from their oath, and committed voluntary suicide on the spot. He had reached the age when a choice can properly be made of whether or not to go on living; so he starved himself to death. In his opinion it was wrong for a statesman’s death to be of no benefit to his city or for the end of his life to be valueless. In his own case, after his wonderful achievements, he end real did serve to crown his good fortune. As for the citizens of Sparta, his death guaranteed them the excellent benefits which he had provided for them during his lifetime, since they ad sworn to observe his constitution until he returned. And he was not mistaken in his thinking, since Sparta occupied the front rank in Greece for good order and reputation for some 500 years thanks to her use of the laws of Lycurgus, which were not altered by any of her fourteen kings after him. The institution of the office of ephor, which came after Lycurgus, served to reinforce the constitution rather than weaken it, but though it appeared to be to the people’s advantage, in fact it strengthened the aristocracy.
49. However, during the reign of King Agis, money first poured into Sparta, and with money there developed greed. Lysander was responsible because even though incorruptible himself, he filled his polis with passion for wealth and luxury by bringing back gold and silver from the war, thereby undermining the laws of Lycurgus. Previously, while these prevailed, it was not so much the constitution of the state which Sparta followed as the lifestyle of a trained, intelligent individual. Just as the poets tell stories of Heracles roaming the world with his lion-skin and club, punishing lawless despots, so this city used to control a willingly compliant Greece with just a skytale and a cloak. She disbanded unjust juntas and tyrannies in the city-states, arbitrated in wars, and quelled civil strife, frequently without having raised a single shield, but merely with the dispatch of one envoy, to whose instructions everyone instantly responded, like bees which on the appearance of their leader cluster together and arrange themselves in order. This demonstrates how outstanding was Sparta’s good order and justice.
50. Personally I am surprised by the claim that the Spartans knew how to obey, but they had no idea how to command. Those who make this claim endorse the remark of King Theopompus, who when somebody said that Sparta was preserved by her kings’ talent for command, replied: ‘No, Sparta is preserved by her citizens’ readiness to obey.’ Men do not submit to orders from those with no ability for leadership, but such obedience is in fact a lesson taught by the commander. It is the good leader who produces good followers. Just as the object of training a horse is to produce one that is docile and responsive, so the science of kingship has the function of instilling prompt obedience in men. What the Spartans instilled in others was not just prompt obedience but a positive desire to come under their command and submit to them. It was not ships or money or hoplites that these other Greeks asked Sparta to send them, but just a single Spartan commander. Once they obtained him they treated him with respect and awe. These men they termed harmosts [military governors] and discipliners of the people, while they viewed the entire polis of Sparta as a tutor or instructor in good living and orderly government. It was this view which the humorist Stratonicus of Athens was mocking when he proposed a law which required Athenians to supervise religious processions and the Spartans to be whipped for any mistakes they made. On a more serious note, Antisthenes witnessed the conceit of the Thebans after the battle of Leuctra [Thebes defeated Sparta here in 371 BC] and remarked that they were like youngsters made cocky after giving their tutor a beating.
51. All the same it was not Lycurgus’ main aim at the time to make his city the leader of so many other cities. His view was that happiness in the life of the whole city, as in that of one individual, derives from its own merits and from internal concord. It was to this end that all of his reforms were aimed. Lycurgus brought a functioning constitution into the light of day. To those who think it impractical to follow sage theories, he has exhibited his whole city practicing philosophy, and has deservedly won greater renown than all those who have ever governed so far among the Greeks. It is for this reason that Aristotle claims the honors granted him at Sparta are slighter than he merits. He has a temple, and sacrifices are made to him every year as if to a god. And when his remains were brought back to Sparta it is said that lightening struck his tomb.
52. Aristocrates says that after Lycurgus died in Crete they burnt the body and scattered the ashes in the sea. They did this in accordance with his own request, for he wished to prevent his remains ever being brought back to Sparta, since such a return might cause the cancellation of his oath, followed by changes to the system he created at Sparta. This concludes my treatment of Lycurgus.
From On Sparta (Penguin, 1988), trans. by Richard J.A.Talbert and edited exclusively for St. Albans School by R.M. Shurmer
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Birds are less sensitive to temporary deprivation of water, when compared to the mammals, because
Options :
1. urea excretion in mammals entails a greater loss of water than that in birds.
2. the water requirement per unit weight is less in birds than in mammals.
3. absorption of water from the gut is more efficient in birds than in mammals.
4. None of these
Answer and Explanation :-
Answer: Option 2
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Module1 Os.Pdf
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Module 1: Introduction to Operating System
Need for an OS:
The primary need for the OS arises from the fact that user needs to be provided with services and OS ought to facilitate the provisioning of these services. The central part of a computer system is a processing engine called CPU. A system should make it possible for a user’s application to use the processing unit. A user application would need to store information. The OS makes memory available to an application when required. Similarly, user applications need use of input facility to communicate with the application. This is often in the form of a key board, or a mouse or even a joy stick (if the application is a game for instance).
The output usually provided by a video monitor or a printer as some times the user may wish to generate an output in the form of a printed document. Output may be available in some other forms. For example it may be a video or an audio file. Let us consider few applications.
• Document Design
• Accounting
• E-mail
• Image processing
• Games
We notice that each of the above application requires resources for • Processing information
• Storage of Information
• Mechanism to inputting information
• Provision for outputting information
• These service facilities are provided by an operating system regardless of the nature of application.
The OS offers generic services to support all the above operations. These operations in turn facilitate the applications mentioned earlier. To that extent an OS operation is application neutral and service specific.
User and System View:
From the user point of view the primary consideration is always the convenience. It should be easy to use an application. In launching an application, it helps to have an icon which gives a clue which application it is. We have seen some helpful clues for launching a browser, e-mail or even a document preparation application. In other words, the human computer interface which helps to identify an application and its launch is very useful. This hides a lot of details of the more elementary instructions that help in selecting the application. Similarly, if we examine the programs that help us in using input devices like a key board – all the complex details of character reading program are hidden from the user. The same is true when we write a program. For instance, when we use a programming language like C, a printf command helps to generate the desired form of output. The following figure essentially depicts the basic schema of the use of OS from a user stand point. However, when it comes to the view point of a system, the OS needs to ensure that all the system users and applications get to use the facilities that they need. Operating Systems/Introduction to Operating System Lecture Notes PCP Bhatt/IISc, Bangalore M1/V1/June 04/3
Also, OS needs to ensure that system resources are utilized efficiently. For instance, there may be many service requests on a Web server. Each user request need to be serviced. Similarly, there may be many programs residing in the main memory. The system need to determine which programs are active and which need to await some form of input or output. Those that need to wait can be suspended temporarily from engaging the processor. This strategy alone enhances the processor throughput. In other words, it is important for an operating system to have a control policy and algorithm to allocate the system resources.
The Evolution:
It would be worthwhile to trace some developments that have happened in the last four to five decades. In the 1960s, the common form of computing facility was a mainframe computer system....
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carriage (def 7).
a wheeled vehicle for conveying persons, as one drawn by horses and designed for comfort and elegance.
baby carriage.
British. a railway passenger coach.
a wheeled support, as for a cannon.
a movable part, as of a machine, designed for carrying something.
manner of carrying the head and body; bearing:
the carriage of a soldier.
Also called carriage piece, horse. an inclined beam, as a string, supporting the steps of a stair.
the act of transporting; conveyance:
the expenses of carriage.
the price or cost of transportation.
(in a typewriter) the moving part carrying the platen and its associated parts, usually set in motion to carry the paper across the point where the print element or type bars strike.
management; administration.
(Brit) a railway coach for passengers
the manner in which a person holds and moves his head and body; bearing
a four-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle for persons
the moving part of a machine that bears another part: a typewriter carriage, a lathe carriage
(ˈkærɪdʒ; ˈkærɪɪdʒ)
the act of conveying; carrying
the charge made for conveying (esp in the phrases carriage forward, when the charge is to be paid by the receiver, and carriage paid)
late 14c., “act of carrying, means of conveyance; wheeled vehicles collectively,” from Anglo-French and Old North French cariage “cart, carriage, action of transporting in a vehicle” (Old French charriage, Modern French charriage), from carier “to carry” (see carry (v.)). Meaning “individual wheeled vehicle” is c.1400; specific sense of “horse-drawn, wheeled vehicle for hauling people” first attested 1706; extended to railway cars by 1830. Meaning “way of carrying one’s body” is 1590s. Carriage-house attested from 1761.
In the Authorized Version this word is found as the rendering of many different words. In Judg. 18:21 it means valuables, wealth, or booty. In Isa. 46:1 (R.V., “the things that ye carried about”) the word means a load for a beast of burden. In 1 Sam. 17:22 and Isa. 10:28 it is the rendering of a word (“stuff” in 1 Sam. 10:22) meaning implements, equipments, baggage. The phrase in Acts 21:15, “We took up our carriages,” means properly, “We packed up our baggage,” as in the Revised Version.
Read Also:
• Carriage-return
(on a typewriter) the key or mechanism that causes the next character typed to appear at the left margin and on a new line. Computers. the symbol, command, or key (return) that causes the printer to be positioned or the cursor to be displayed at the left margin.
• Carriage-trade
wealthy patrons of a store, restaurant, theater, etc.; elite clientele. noun trade from the wealthy part of society
• Carriageway
a road or lane of a road for use by automobiles. Historical Examples North went down the carriageway, and Herbert reëntered the house. The Just and the Unjust Vaughan Kester A mile away was a wooden box-bridge with a carriageway on one side and the single track on the other. Harper’s Round Table, July 2, […]
• Carrick-bend
a knot or bend for joining the ends of two ropes. noun a knot used for joining two ropes or cables together
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Lecture: The Reformations and Age of Religious Wars
The Northern Renaissance
In northern Europe, the climate conditions took a long time to change, and the going was tougher. Even so, many humanist works did make their way north. There the new ideas encountered a more intellectual kind of Christianity than that found in southern Europe. Scholasticism had emerged in northern Europe, and during the 16th century the centers of what we call "Christian humanism" or "northern humanism" were England, France, and the Netherlands.
The examination and discussion of Bible stories, saints lives, and the writings of the Church fathers had long been more an occupation of northern Europeans than of those close to the Church's centers of power. You can certainly see this in northern art, particularly in the popular woodblock etchings of the time.
Art and technology: printing
Woodblock printing had become more popular with the adoption of paper as a cheaper alternative to parchment, which was made from sheepskin. With the expansion of the economy in the High Middle Ages, there was greater use of linen as well as wool. Unlike wool, linen is made from a plant. Flax was able to grow well in much of Europe. To make it into cloth requires beating its fibers to separate them, then combing the fibers with huge spiky combs hung in a wall, then spinning the very long fibers into threads before weaving. It took a lot of labor, and flax couldn't be grown everywhere, and it always had to be replanted (wool just grows back on the sheep each year). The spinning of it was a specialty. Thus linen was more expensive than wool, and it was also very fine, so the wealthy wore it as chemises and underlayers of clothing.
When they wore out, the linen garments were made into smaller items until these too were useless, then the cloth was thrown away. The linen "rag" could be treated and pounded into paper. "Rag and bone men" were entrepreneurs of trash, travelling from town to town collecting linen rags and bones (the bones were ground up and made into bone meal for fertilizer). Paper mills (run by water power) expanded, and the price of paper, made of a raw material that had to be paid for only in labor, became cheaper. The rags were shredded, treated and mashed up into a pulp over several days.The slurry was spread onto a screen and dried to produce paper sheets. A codex was easier to bind with the thinner pages that good paper mills could produce, and the resulting books were cheaper to obtain, spreading literacy.
Albrecht Dürer, although also a painter, was known for his woodblock etchings. Here's an example of a perfect northern theme, the Four Horseman of the Apocalypse (death, famine, war and pestilence):
Four Horsemen
Images like this were carved on wood and then pressed with ink onto paper. They could be displayed like a painting, or printed in copies and sold. Illustrations could be made into books. At the same time (1498) that Dürer was creating this print, a German blacksmith named Johannes Gutenberg was creating movable type.
Woodblock printing, when combined with cheap paper, made for cheaper books. Instead of copying a book by hand, one could carve each page in reverse on a plank of wood, then ink it and press it to paper. The woodblock would last for a number of printings, until the wood got pressed too often and led to blurriness. But it would produce an exact replica (unlike hand copying, which often copied over mistakes from early copied mistakes). Woodblock printing emerged in China centuries before, and they had been working there on making blocks of characters out of metal to create durable moveable type that could be reused and rearranged. That's the innovation. But it's easier to do with our letters, because (if you think waaaay back to our discussion of writing in the Ancient Peoples lecture) we have only 26 or so characters to make, versus thousands for Chinese.
printing pressGutenberg cast multiple copies of each letter and created a wooden frame for them so that letters could be rearranged. New technology meant new jobs (in this case for printsetters who could easily place the type backwards in a frame while looking at the original). Metal type lasted far longer than wood, so more copies could be made. And early printing presses were fairly portable, if you see hauling it on a wagon as portable, so they could come to towns and print off multiple copies of anything people were willing to pay for. The age of the fill-in form was here.
Check out this wonderful animated Atlas of Printing. Textual description
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Christian Humanism
Woodblock printing and moveable type thus helped the spread of ideas, including the ideas of humanism being adopted in the north. The best examples of Christian or Northern Humanism are Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More, who were friends and correspondents. Erasmus' In Praise of Folly used humor and irony to show that the Church had moved far away from its initial Christian values:
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It was possible to get away with such criticism in 1509 because the Church was far away, and the governments of northern Europe had gotten used to controlling their local churches and ignoring unpopular dictates from Rome.
Sir Thomas More (who you'll see again soon as part of the English Reformation) went further than Erasmus in imagining what society would look like if people did follow the original tenets of Christianity. The result was communal, in an ideal medieval sense, but strangely modern and socialistic at the same time:
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The important thing to understand here is that both men were dedicated to the Church and its doctrines. This was not an argument about the doctrines of the Church, or what people should believe. It was about how the Church as an earthly institution has moved away from its basic ideals, especially in the behavior of churchmen.
At the same time, the mysticism and direct contact with God that had emerged after the Black Death was still very much alive. One popular author, Thomas Thomas à Kempis, had written The Imitation of Christ back in the 15th century, saying:
The teaching of Christ is more excellent than all the advice of the saints, and he who has His spirit will find in it a hidden manna. Now, there are many who hear the Gospel often but care little for it because they have not the spirit of Christ. Yet whoever wishes to understand fully the words of Christ must try to pattern his whole life on that of Christ.
What good does it do to speak learnedly about the Trinity if, lacking humility, you displease the Trinity? Indeed it is not learning that makes a man holy and just, but a virtuous life makes him pleasing to God. I would rather feel contrition than know how to define it. For what would it profit us to know the whole Bible by heart and the principles of all the philosophers if we live without grace and the love of God? Vanity of vanities and all is vanity, except to love God and serve Him alone.
I don't think it would be going too far to say that most intellectual Christians in the north felt the same way.
The Protestant Reformation
Catholic Church practices and abuses
Now, at this point I have to change my language. I have not used the word "Catholic" very often to describe the Church, the Roman Church. It was here that the Church itself began to use the word, which means "universal", to refer to itself and its doctrines in Europe. To use the word "Catholic" is a reminder that all Christians in Europe are in its fold. But of course the term will also be used after the Reformation to distinguish it from the new Protestant churches. The Catholic Church also continues to be called the Roman Church, to distinguish itself from the Greek.
You know from the Renaissance that the Church had become a very worldly place. Bastards of popes ran around the halls of the papal palace, brothels were run for churchmen, and some popes (like Julius II) even put on armor and fought to retain their power. The problems ran very deep, though, even far from Rome.
Christ and Antichrist
Woodcut by Lucas Cranach, c. 1522, showing Jesus washing the feet of the poor, but the Pope (the "Anti-Christ") having people kiss his feet.
The Church was doing a bad job of training its bishops and priests, despite the availability of university education. Positions in the Church were often given because of nepotism or connections rather than skill. As a result, many bishops and priests were not only immoral, they were illiterate. Thus the liturgy was said in Church, but the Latin was often memorized, and often mispronounced, because the clergy didn't actually know Latin. In some ways, this fed mysticism, because the words themselves, not understood by the priest or the people, became like magical incantations. They carried no intellectual meaning. In many ways, the great intellectual analysis going on in universities, where Church texts were studied, was completely separate from the everyday duties of churchmen.
People wanted to be bishops because it could make them rich. When bishops were given diocese or territories to run, they were able to collect tithes and taxes to create extravagant ecclesiastical palaces and courts. A bishop could rule more than one benefice, a practice called "pluralism". Their territories could be far away from each other. Some bishops never visited their benefices at all, so that left everything in the hands of ignorant priests. So there was absenteesim in addition to pluralism. Without leadership locally, and with corruption at the top, ordinary people in many ways were moving further away from Christianity. More and Erasmus had good reason to criticize.
At the same time, the popes wanted a more extravagant Church at the very center -- St Peter's in Rome. Julius II hired Michaelangelo and Bernini to create beautiful representations of the Christianity they weren't really practicing. This cost money. But money could be raised with indulgences.
An indulgence was a piece of paper, sealed with the pope's seal, absolving the bearer of sins. They were first created during the Crusades, as a way to issue forgiveness to those about to die while killing the infidels in the east. According to the Church, one had to receive last rites while dying, in order to go to heaven. But even though a few priests travelled with the Crusaders, there wasn't always a priest available when you needed one, and the Church did not want people avoiding Crusades because of this. So the first indulgences were given to Crusaders.
But by the 16th century, indulgences were being sold to make money. Indulgence preachers travelled from town to town, selling them for everything from personal forgiveness to getting your father out of purgatory. You could even buy an indulgence if you knew you were going to sin next Saturday, and be forgiven in advance. The preachers could be great salesmen: "As soon as coin in coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs!"
Meanwhile, a monk turned scholar at the University of Wittenberg in Germany was having a personal crisis. He prayed and did all the acts of piety prescribed by the Church, but he didn't feel forgiven. Finally he had a revelation that salvation could be achieved only by faith. Good works (such as charity, being pious, going on Crusade, engaging in the sacraments) did not grant grace or forgiveness, even though the Church said they did. Having solved his problem, Martin Luther felt much better. Or he felt better until indulgence preacher Johann Tetzel came to town and set up his business in the town square. Luther was sickened by the idea of selling salvation, and in academic style set up a list of proposals to debate at the university. He posted them on the door of the Church, which was a kind of community bulletin board. He wrote them in Latin, but a student translated them into German, and took them to a local printing press.
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The debate never happened, but Luther's Ninety-Five Theses caused a sensation, and everyone took sides.
Spread of the Reformation
Germany was not a unified nation as it is today -- it was a collection of principalities in competition against each other. All saw political as well as spiritual opportunity in what Luther had started. One could declare oneself (and therefore ones people) to be in keeping with a more pure church that did not accept the Pope as spiritual leader. Then one could keep all the tithes and take over church land, appoint ones own bishops, and be more in keeping with pure Christianity, all at the same time. Some German princes did this, and protected Martin Luther from the Inquisition. Others stayed Catholic and became enemies of those who were "Protestant" (an epithet that stuck).
Gutenberg BibleLuther, like many other Christian humanists, believed that the key to faith was for people to be able to read the Bible for themselves. New vernacular Bibles should be based on the ancient Greek bibles, not the Latin Vulgate Bible used in the Catholic Church. The Latin bible had been copied over and over, with mistranslations and errors copied and added in each generation. Luther translated the Greek bible into German, and others did the same in their countries, until there were Bibles, printed cheaply using moveable type and paper, in the vernacular language of many countries in Europe.
Lutheranism interpreted the Bible in a particular way, and kept all the social hierarchies and many traditions of the Catholic faith. But others departed in their own direction. This is why there are many Protestant churches, and only one Catholic Church. Let's use the bread-and-wine ceremony as an example. To Catholics, when the priest blesses the bread and wine, it literally becomes the body and blood of Jesus Christ -- its actual, physical substance is transformed (transubstantiation). To Lutherans, the bread and wine, and the body and blood, co-exist in the substance once it is blessed (consubstantiation). In Zwinglism and Calvinism, the ceremony is in commemoration of the sacrifice -- the substances do not change. Or look at baptism, which Lutherans and Calvinists say must be done as a baby, but Anabaptists say can only be done as an adult.
The two most important sects to know for the 16th century are the Calvinists and Anabaptists. Lutheranism remained primarily a German version of Protestantism, travelling only where Germans travelled (like to Minnesota). Calvinism was founded by French lawyer John Calvin in Geneva, with a goal of making the city of Geneva into an ideal Christian city.
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Here the entire society was organized according to the Calvinist teachings and hierarchy, and Calvinism was international. Calvinists would be called Puritans in England, and Huguenots in France, and would travel with them all over the world. Anabaptists, instead of creating an organized church that combined or collaborated with the political state, took a more radical path. Even those who were confirmed Catholics could understand the basic church-state relationship of Lutheranism and Calvinism. But Anabaptists separated from the state completely, literally interpreting the Sermon on the Mount, and refusing military service and payment of taxes to the state. They thus had the honor of being persecuted by Protestants and Catholics alike.
So it's important not to take the effects of Protestantism too far -- it did not lead to freedom of any kind. To associate American values of freedom with our Puritan (Calvinist) forbearers is thus incorrect. They came to America to set up their own church-and-state form of Geneva, to provide religious freedom only for themselves. And there were many intelligent objections to the way Protestantism was adopted. Both Erasmus and More were against it -- they wanted true reform inside the Catholic Church, not the creation of another Church. More would die for this principle, and Erasmus would disown Martin Luther, who thanked him for starting the Reformation. Even Luther could not agree with all the implications of what had happened. In 1525, several villages of German Swabian peasants formed a federation and rebelled because their reading of the Bible said they should not be subject to their lords' domination and oppressive taxes. Luther spoke in favor of putting down the rebellion. The righteousness of the Protestants, which emerged in opposition to the obvious corruption of the Catholic Church, in itself could become oppressive.
The English Reformation
It was in England that the combination of religious and political motivations for Reformation become most obvious.
King Henry VIII was the son of the king who had ended a series of massive civil wars where the top noble families vied for power. Because of this, he was very sensitive to providing a strong male heir to succeed him.
Henry VIIIHe wasn't meant to be king - his brother Arthur was older. Arthur had been married to princess Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. When he died, the alliance with Spain was threatened, so young Henry was encouraged to marry his brother's widow. To do this, he needed a dispensation from the pope (marrying your brother's widow wasn't allowed). Pope Julius II (the one who put on armor, and hired Michaelangelo) granted the dispensation. Henry married Catherine, who gave him a daughter. She then went into menopause, and Henry had no male heir. So, being a scholar of the Bible himself and highly educated, he requested an annulment from the new pope, Clement VII, in 1527, on the grounds that he had violated God's laws in marrying her in the first place. Clement refused. By this time, the pope was dealing with the Protestant Reformation, and had no intention of granting a case based on the premise that the pope had made a mistake.
Henry's response was to break away from the Church to grant himself an annulment. He was not going Protestant, but setting himself up as the head of the Church of England. His friend and chancellor was Thomas More, the humanist, so he thought he'd have support. But Thomas, a confirmed Catholic, did not assent, for which he was beheaded as Henry solidified his power as head of the church. Henry gained support of the landed gentry by taking church lands and giving them to his supporters. Thus Parliament passed acts that made Henry the head of the church, dissolved the monasteries and other church lands, and broke England away from Rome.
Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn, who bore him another daughter. According to Catholics, his first daughter, Mary, was the heir. Anne Boleyn's daughter, Elizabeth, was automatically a Protestant since she would be a bastard according to the Catholic Church. But neither was male, and Anne Boleyn got involved in conspiracies, so Henry had her condemned and married Jane Seymour, who finally bore him a son, Edward. Edward was sickly, and ruled as a teenager under strongly Protestant advisers, who tried to rout out Catholicism from England. On his death, his Catholic sister Mary took over. She married Philip II (his Most Catholic Majesty) of Spain, and persecuted Protestants until her death five years later. Anne Boleyn's daugher Elizabeth became queen, and although she didn't allow Catholics in high positions and arrested some who conspired against her, in general she preferred keeping the nation together to keeping religion pure.
Thus it is very difficult to separate political and religious motivations in the English Reformation. The Anglican Church to this day continues Catholic-style ceremony with a mildly Protestant theology.
The Catholic or Counter Reformation
There is a dispute over whether what the Catholic Church did in the 16th century should be called the "Catholic" Reformation or the "Counter" Reformation. Which you choose tells me your point of view. The "Catholic Reformation" implies that the Church was already engaged in serious reforms by 1517, which I believe it was. "Counter Reformation" implies that what they did was in reaction to the Protestant Reformation, without which they would not have cleaned house.
Images over literacy
The 16th century was the era of Baroque Art, which was the art of the Catholic Reformation. Clearly much was being created before 1517 - Bernini's extraordinary work was done under commission to Pope Julius II, who died in 1513. Humanism in general had caused problems for the Church, because the encouragement of pre-Christian ideas and the mass production of books meant that people were exposed to new ideas, much like had happened during the 13th century with new knowledge from the east.
The Protestant Reformation emphasized literacy in order to read the Bible in ones own language. But not everyone was literate, and most people didn't have time to become literate. The Catholic Church had long used imagery to teach ordinary people - paintings, stained glass, illuminations. Pictures can tell extensive, complex stories. In many ways, the cathedrals of the Middle Ages were huge picture books, its windows and paintings telling the stories of Christianity and teaching Christian ethics and morality. The massive construction and decoration of St Peter's and other churches in Rome during the Renaissance continued this tradition using the new techniques of perspective (remember Masaccio's Trinity?).
Bernini's work in particular is associated with the Catholic Reformation. I'll use one example, in conjunction with the story. Teresa of Avila was a mystic, and in times of outside threat the Church has welcomed mystics so long as they were not heretics. Her communion with God, unlike Joan of Arc's, was not just voices. It was intensely visceral, almost sexual. Some say not "almost":
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Bernini's statue of this moment, created 1647-52, shows this emotional contact.
St Teresa
Such imagery and stories emphasized an emotional, spiritual, mystical connection between the individual worshipper, saints and God. This was the one element of the Protestant experience that explained the popularity of Reformed religion. People in the 16th century wanted a closeness with God, and Protestants got this from reading Scripture. The Catholic emphasis on imagery was more open to the larger population, and the art it created was inspiring and beautiful. The drama of the human experience was more significant in this tradition than the intellectual aspects of life, and thus it appealed to many people.
Church reforms
Pope Paul III gets much of the credit for the reforming of the Catholic Church in terms of doctrine and regulations. In addition to instituting the proper education of bishops and priests, and outlawing all clerical abuses, Paul and the Councils with whom he worked (especially the Council of Trent in 1545) developed a number of new elements designed to clarify Christianity and provide stability.
New Orders
Paul instituted new orders of monks, friars and nuns. The two most famous are the Ursuline nuns, who established monasteries in faraway places like New Orleans, and the Jesuits. The Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, created an order of fearless "soldiers of Christ". His book Spiritual Exercises took them to the edge of death in the form of meditations, creating an inner, Stoic strength that could answer any threat. The Jesuits went out among pagan tribes in the Americas, and among civilized cultures like China and Japan, winning souls for the Catholic Church.
The Inquisition
The foundation here was in the crusades against the Cathari and other heretics in the 12th century. In the 13th century the Dominican order organized it more effectively. The Inquisition was instrumental in the destruction of the Knights Templar (to whom elites owed lots of money after the Crusades) and the condemnation of the Beguines (a lay order of women who lived in imitation of Jesus). Paul strengthened the order and gave it more authority to persecute heretics. The focus was on Jewish and Muslim converts, and on sorcery in an effort to root out devil-worship and other threats to orthodoxy among the people of Europe.
Index of Prohibited Books
A list was made of books that good Catholics were not supposed to read. It of course included works by Luther and Calvin, but you can see all the titles here, since it was added to over the years and was in effect until 1966. What's important here is that the list acknowledges the impact of books on people, the influence that writing has on the mind and heart.
Sublimus Dei
This 1537 document by Pope Paul outlawed the enslavement of native Americans, and focused on their peaceful conversion. He declared the natives to be rational people with souls, when others had argued that they were beasts who should be enslaved. Some see this document as the beginning of a shift in the understanding of native peoples and eventually slavery itself.
Lessons of History
1. Printing and paper technology played a major role in the Reformations.
2. The English Reformation is a model for the combination of religious and political motivations during this era.
3. The Catholic Reformation focused on images to make Catholic teaching accessible, and new rules to clean up the Church.
Age of Religious Wars
You should see a button for audio below. If you do not, please use another browser. The audio is me reading the lecture. You will need to read the documents and view the music videos from this page.
I've changed the title of this lecture a number of times. Should I emphasis the Wars of Religion, as if they dominated everything? The economic changes caused by colonialism? The scientific achievement that later leads to a different way of looking at the world? include Shakespeare? or should I just make sure the politics take us to 1648, the end of the class? We'll keep the title for now.
Economic change
Throughout history (<- look out! a badly-phrased theme!), periods of free-for-all economic expansion are often followed by some level of contraction and control, as some figure out how to profit at the expense of others.
Spanish coinsThere is no question that the 16th century experienced economic expansion -- it was the era of exploration and colonization. You may recall that what the Spanish found in Mexico was a lot of gold and silver. This was mined and transported to Europe. As it entered Spain, it caused inflation of prices. But Iberia was not a commercial or industrial area -- Spain and Portugal were still mostly agricultural. This meant that since they had to import most manufactured goods from the north, most of the gold and silver was exported out of the area. Much went to the manufacturing areas of northern France, England and the Netherlands. Ultimately, trade with Asia meant that most of the gold and silver from the New World ended up in China (an interesting parallel to today).
The "price revolution" was also caused by population increase, as the population began to recover some after the first rounds of the plague. There may not have been enough going on agriculturally to feed the entire population, so food prices increased.
sheepSince the price of woollen goods was also increasing, lords who wanted to profit from price increases looked for ways to raise more sheep and control the profit. Some began to focus on "enclosure", the practice of commandeering the common land used by peasants to graze their animals or raise extra food. Enclosure made life more difficult for the peasants. Some historians believe that it was enclosure that began to dismantle the medieval manorial system of mutual responsibility between peasant and lord. Commerce began to replace these responsibilites.
Saxony wheelEntrepreneurs also took advantage of people's need for money, and the labor they could provide in the countryside. The cloth industry is again the best example. An entrepreneur might buy raw wool, and take it to the cottage of a peasant who knew how to spin, or even one who had one of the new spinning wheels. Collecting the spun yarn a week later, he could then take it to someone who had a loom, and did weaving in their home. Then on to a dyer, and a fuller, and so forth, until he marketed the finished cloth.
Products made with this "putting out" (or domestic) system could be made much more cheaply than in guild-controlled towns, so the guilds could be impacted in any area where people could produce items at home for sale. Specialty processes that needed high-level equipment, like press printing, metalworking, silk spinning and wire-drawing remained town and guild-dominated.
At the same time as this commercial expansion, states were changing also. The competition for colonies, the battles for succession like the Hundred Years War, the ongoing conflict among the Italian city-states, and the new conflicts between Protestant and Catholic meant that more money was going into funding armies. The state needed to control its own money, and spend it in a way that would benefit the government during a time of change. Taxation systems were codified, and trade regulated. Instead of waiting to see how things would go (as brick-and-mortar businesses have done today in response to the internet), 16th century governments moved quickly to create systems of tariffs. Innovations like double-entry bookkeeping, which were beneficial to merchants, also helped governments.
Realizing the impact of gold and silver (bullion) leaving a country, policies were enacted designed to keep bullion in the country. The idea was that there was only so much wealth in the world, and that wealth was gold and silver. So for a country to prosper, they needed to export high-value goods, and import cheap goods or raw materials, preferably from colonies the country controlled. That way the home country would become wealthier. Governments established trade barriers such as tariffs and duties designed to encourage domestic industry and make imported goods more expensive. The most important way they controlled trade, however, was by chartering companies to monopolize trade in a particular area. These companies would come to not only dominate trade in the colonies, but even control and govern the colonies themselves.
Arts and Music
The arts and music from 1500-1648 reflected not only a sophistication we commonly see in commercial society, but a beauty that seems to fit with the ochre colors used by its artists. The Baroque masterpieces date from this time, but my favorite picture for the era captures the "battle" between Carnival (the party side of life) and Lent (the life of religion). It's Pieter Brueghel's work, from 1559.
Carnival vs Lent
This age is one of adjustment to new commercial and religious models at the same time. And the same conflict we saw with Savanarola in Renaissance Florence, the vanity of worldly goods versus a life dedicated to God, is here in this painting. Calvinists solved the problem by viewing worldly success as a sign of God's favor, the origin of the "Protestant work ethic".Parmagiano
This is also the time of the transition away from the Renaissance style of art, toward something we call "Mannerism". Mannerists imitated the High Renaissance styles, but they also responded to the new trends in society and politics. The style is deliberately artificial. My favorite mannerist painting is Parmigiano's Madonna and Child with Angels (1534-40), known for obvious reasons as the Madonna with the Long Neck. This style is supposed to add sophistication through a certain lack of balance and proportion (those elements so prized in Renaissance art as a re-emergence of the classical style). Rather like the Hellenistic styles added drama to move away from Greek statis, Mannerism moved away from the perfect proportions of the Renaissance.
Another example would be Tintoretto. Here's a comparison between the Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci and that of Tintoretto.
Leonardo's Last Supper
Notice how balanced and peaceful Leonardo's version is.
Tintoretto's Last Supper
Notice how dramatic, offset, unbalanced, and boldly contrasted Tintoretto's is.
Music developed a certain sound during this time, and many samples are available (you can hear it at a Renaissance Faire). It's surprising that Thomas Tallis was patronized by both Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth in England, given the difference in religion. His most famous work, and one of the most beautiful ever, is Spem in Allium (1570), which is rumored to have been written for Queen Elizabeth I's birthday.
Sheet music [pdf]
The transition to Mannerism here can best be heard in the work of Gesualdo, who wrote madrigal music with chromatic harmonies.
Presumably the latter is more sophisticated. Rembrandt's Night Watch
Artists of the Baroque era did not only work for royal and church patrons. As more money was concentrated into the hands of the middle classes, we find artists working for wealthy middle-class patrons as we enter the 17th century. Here's a great example from 1642 (right), Rembrandt's The Shooting Company of Frans Banning Cocq (known as The Night Watch).
The men make up a kind of high-level neighborhood watch group, guarding each others' warehouses in Amsterdam to prevent theft. They expected the portrait to show all of them clearly, lined up, but instead it didn't even though each man paid Rembrandt the same amount.
Women and Witchcraft
We know that the Inquisition had more power in the 16th century to eliminate "sorcery" from Europe. At the same time, women in ordinary culture were gaining a more active role in public life. I see the two facts as coming up against each other and leading to witch hunts.
The Hammer of Witches was a guidebook for inquisitors, written back in 1486. It gives us a strong indication of how the issue was seen. Notice how in 1486 it is assumed that the witch is male:
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But such handbooks were more in demand in the 16th century, as there seemed to be an upsurge in witchcraft and other satanic practices.
We know that the population in general expanded during the 16th century, while food production had not yet caught up. As a result, the age at marriage tended to be later because land was scarce, and agrarian couples could not marry until they had land to support them. Later marriage tends to mean that women in particular get a chance to develop their own personalities before marrying. In addition, the era saw a demographic imbalance: there were about 110-120 women for every 100 men. We know that such gender imbalance causes change. When men outnumber women, men tend to compete with each other through flashy fashions and showing off their wealth. When there are more women than men, it leaves more women unmarried, and therefore in need of tending to their own affairs.
Certainly we know that there were social objections to women being strong and independent. One good example can be seen in Hic Mulier (the Mannish Woman) from 1620, which objects to the revealing fashions. In some cases, fashions that reveal the body can indicate dependence, as in men showing off their women. But here the objection is to single, independent women dressing this way.
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witch kissing Devil on behind
Francesco Maria Guazzo,
The Obscene Kiss, 1608
The victims of witch hunts in the 16th and 17th centuries were predominantly female. They tended to be widows or single women, often on the outskirts of society or in professions where they had a lot of contact with men (tavern owner, shopkeeper). The predilection to accuse females was so strong that some feminist historians accuse the Church of "gendercide". While that seems to be going a bit far, society might have been using witchcraft to cleanse itself of perceived sins, including those that involved killing fellow Christians because they believed differently than ones own church.
Such trials also revived the concept of women in general as representing the base and earthly Eve, rather than the virginal Mary. Women were seen as more gullible to the wiles of the Devil, more inherently susceptible to witchcraft than men. You can see the witches in the image on the right kissing the behind of the Devil, a satanic practice. Women had societies that men could not enter. The activities that had always been dominated by women, such as childbirth and herbology, were now seen as suspect. Midwives, for example, were accused of infanticide when a baby died.
Now here we get into the question of whether witchcraft actually existed. Certainly many believed it did, and not just ignorant people. And certainly there were people who claimed to worship the Devil, and who met with others to engage in Black Sabbaths and other practices viewed with suspicion by nominal Christians. But studies of witchcraft trials during this era suggest not only gender issues, but also competition for land, commercial rivalries, sexual jealousy, political conflict, psychological derangement, fear of change, and other explanations for what happened. Each case seems to provide its own peculiar combination of local crisis, but all seem to have one. People don't go hunting for witches when they are happy and secure.
Witch hunts didn't really end until the popularization of the scientific method, near the end of the 17th century. (If you've studied American history, our Salem witch trials of 1692 are very late, well after Europe stopped.)
circulatory system drawingBut that doesn't mean there wasn't scientific advancement in the 16th century. Examples would include the work of Ambroise Paré (1510-1590), an expert in surgery and forensic pathology. He developed the idea of ligatures for closing off arteries in amputations, and lancing infant gums when teeth refused to erupt, causing infection. We also have Vesalius (1514-64), who created detailed anatomical woodcut illustrations for his students. He also publicly dissected a body and arranged its skeleton for later study. His work on the vascular and circulatory system is the foundation of today's cardiovascular medicine.
And of course we can't forget Copernicus, the Polish mathematician who published his work just before his death in 1543. Copernicus revised everyone's understanding of astronomy by moving the sun to the center of the system. Before his work and for some time afterward, the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian system was what everyone knew: it had the earth, immovable, at the center, with stars and planets stuck onto crystalline spheres that revolved around the earth in perfect circular orbit. This system was easy to understand and intuitive -- it looks like what you see when you look up at the sky. The trouble was that each new object discovered in the sky, if it moved in a different way, required that another sphere be added to the system. Copernicus saw this as cluttered and mathematically unpleasant. Putting the sun in the middle simplified things. But because the Ptolemaic-Artistotelian system was supported by Church doctrine, Copernicus did not publish until he knew he was dying. Even then, it would take Galileo and his telescope to show that Copernicus was correct (and doing so brought Galileo before the Inquisition in 1615).
Religious Wars and Toleration
I won't lecture much here about the wars themselves - we know that Protestants and Catholics had at each other throughout the 16th century and well into the 17th. In fact, the Thirty Years War marks the end of this class precisely because it marks the end of war fought to save the souls of other people.
It's harder to talk about tolerance, and harder to find it manifesting itself in history. We do have an example of legal tolerance in the Edict of Nantes (1598).
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We can see this kind of thing as state-sanctioned toleration, for which it is hard to find previous examples. That may testify to the new power of the state, which can decree something as broad as tolerance for a certain group of people. Eras of tolerance tend to end with war. The Edict would be revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV. who at the time was at war with several powers in Europe.
30 Years War ChartThe Thirty Years War is a marker for us because it ended very differently from how it began, and the reason is important. It began when Protestant lords of Bohemia and Austria rebelled against an effort by the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II to enforce Catholicism throughout the empire. The Protestants called on Protestant countries (England, the Netherlands, Sweden) for assistance, and the Catholics called on Spain and the pope, as well as Catholic German principalities like Bavaria. So it begins as a war of religion, just like others.
But even previous "religious wars" had political elements. The Revolt of the Netherlands had begun in 1566 as the Protestant Dutch (the dominant group in the Netherlands) rebelled against his Most Catholic Majesty Philip II of Spain, who became their overlord. This war is thus partly nationalist (Dutch versus Spanish) as well as religious.
Similarly, the French Wars of Religion, which had begun in 1562, was also a class war between the commercial Hugenots (French Protestants) and the Catholic rulers. There Protestant activity was considered treasonous, threatening the control of the French king.
During the Thirty Years War, there appears to be an actual switch to purely political and nationalist motivations. In the first stage of the war, the Catholics won and Ferdinand II secured the Holy Roman Empire under Catholicism. Then the Swedes invaded on behalf of the Protestants, and a Spanish army met them and forced the Protestants out of southern Germany. This seemed to surround France with Hapsburg powers, which France had feared for some time. France then declared war on Spain in 1635. Both countries were Catholic -- the issue was now political.
Sweden, France, Spain and Austria thus battled on German soil in a brutal free-for-all, trying to destroy things that might be of use to the enemy and forage for food and supplies as they could. Huge damage was done and many civilians, especially in Germany, were killed. Eventually France and Sweden (one Catholic, one Protestant) were victorious.
The stage was thus set for wars about a country's territory, power and control rather than religion. But it didn't make war any more kind than it had been before.
Lessons of History:
1. Price increases caused changes in the 16th century economy.
2. Art and music of this time represent a shift from Renaissance values and styles to something more sophisticated and not as classical.
3. Witch huntings was exacerbated by demographic and the gender issues those created, as well as economic and social shifts.
4. The Thirty Years War began as a religous war but ended as a modern political war.
Creative Commons License
The text by Lisa M. Lane is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License.
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The voice audio by Lisa M. Lane is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License.
Other materials used in this class may be subject to copyright protection, and are intended for educational and scholarly fair use under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the TEACH Act of 2002. This page has been checked for web accessibility using WAVE.
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The Gothic Novel: what is it?
The gothic novel developed in the 18 century like the product of social inequity. The concept of Sublime also influenced the Gothic novel through the work of Edmund Burke, the terror is Sublime. The most constant features of Gothic novels were: great importance given to terrifying description, ancient setting, use of supernatural being, very complicated plot and a sense of mystery pervading everything. Besides the most important incident in Gothic novel take place during the night because darkness is a powerful element used to create an atmosphere of gloom.
There is a link with the medieval novels: the protagonists want to go over the human limits to control the nature. The Gothic novelists aimed aim to shock the reader.
Frankenstein - Mary Shelley
Frankenstein is a clear example of an overreacher. This novel is told by different narrators: Walton informs his sister, Frankenstein informs Walton, the monster informs Frankenstein. Thus the entire novel presents three different points of view. The form of this novel is epistolary. The most important theme of the novel is the overreacher, in the characters of Walton and Frankenstein.
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> Shelley's Ghost for teachers
Shelley's Ghost for teachers
Suggested classroom activities based on the content of Shelley's Ghost online
As part of this online exhibition we have created some free activity sheets targeted at Y7-13 pupils to illustrate just some of the many ways that this unique content can be used to enrich learning in the classroom. All activities are summarised below and are downloadable in PDF format. Please use and distribute this content freely.
We would also welcome all your stories and feedback on using Shelley's Ghost and any of these activities in your teaching.
Vindication of the Vindication
Summary: Read a passage of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Rewrite it as an article for the national media, from the point of view of a modern feminist.
Suggested groups: Y12-13
Download 'Vindication of the Vindication' (PDF)
It's all Greek to Shelley!
Summary: Shelley famously died with a copy of Sophocles in his pocket. What influence did ancient Greek literature have on him? Read the poem Epipsychidion and at least one other Shelley poem. Write a short account of how Greek language, literature and culture is used in these poems. You should consider similarities and differences.
Suggested groups: Y11-12
Download 'It's all Greek to Shelley!' (PDF)
Summary: People such as William Blake illustrated their own poetry, in such a way that the illustrations were part of the poem. Choose one of the poems in the exhibition and illustrate it yourself.
Suggested groups: Y9-13
Download 'Illustrations' (PDF)
Editing Frankenstein
Summary: An unknown woman called Mary Shelley has come to you with drafts of a crazy new novel she’s calling Frankenstein. You would like to help the young idealist, especially as her mother is a famous writer whose work you admire, so you suspect the novel will be good. You decide to take her under your wing. Go through the first couple of pages to give her corrections and feedback so that she can go away and improve the rest of the novel. You might like to compare any drafts of different versions of the text she gives you, so that you can suggest which the best versions are.
Suggested groups: Y11-12
Download 'Editing Frankenstein' (PDF)
Frankenstein needs filling in
Summary: In a world where Mary Shelley was never famous, you come across the manuscript of Frankenstein. You decide it would make good reading for the general public, but, frustratingly, one page has been partly torn out and covered in coffee stains. Looking carefully at the pages either side of the gap (lacuna), try to write a missing page of your own, so that the audience will not realise there is a problem.
Suggested groups: Y11-13
Download 'Frankenstein needs filling in' (PDF)
Frankenstein transcription
Summary: You are a servant copying out the manuscript of Frankenstein in order to send a spare copy to another printer. Transcribe a page of Mary Shelley’s original manuscript and compare it with the printed version. Comment on the differences.
Suggested groups: Y12‐13
Download 'Frankenstein transcription' (PDF)
Object dialogue
Summary: Perform a monologue or dialogue from the point of view of objects in the exhibition. What has the mirror in Mary Shelley’s travelling case seen of love and life? Who has worn the hair necklace? Can the necklace speak with Mary Shelley’s voice? Did the rattle know that its owner would be famous? Has it stayed with Percy throughout his life, a childhood comforter watching his progress? Can we imagine the voice of Sophocles or his characters speaking to Percy and inspiring him as he carried the book in his pocket, with lines of verse declaiming his death as he drowned?
Suggested groups: Y10
Download 'Object dialogue' (PDF)
A response to Ozymandias
Summary: Write your reply to the statue, as though you were the stranger passing by.
Suggested groups: Y10 or 12
Download 'A response to Ozymandias' (PDF)
Reworking poetry
Summary: Take a short poem or an extract of a poem and re‐configure it. This could be as simple as putting the existing words into a new order. It might also include summarising it down or expanding into a limerick / rap / haiku / new verse form. Ozymandias may be used as a relevant part of the syllabus. For extension activities, however, other poems might make better choices.
Suggested groups: Could be tailored to Y7‐13. Target group Y11 English
Download 'Reworking poetry' (PDF)
A defence of poetry
Summary: Many people have written about poetry in order to defend it as a meaningful genre and explain why it remains valuable to the author’s time. Reading Mary Wollstonecraft’s On Poetry and Percy Shelley’s A Defence of Poetry. How well do these work as a defence of poetry? Write your own piece to defend poetry. You should write either a short poem (under 20 lines) or a comment piece in newspaper style (maximum 200 words).
Suggested groups: Y10‐13
Download 'A defence of poetry' (PDF)
Modern day meetings?
Summary: Construct an online dating profile for Mary Shelley based on the information you can glean from her letters, writings, possessions and portraits in the exhibition. Some questions to think about: What does she like to do? What does she like to read? How friendly does she seem? What physical characteristics does she have?
Suggested groups: Y9‐11
Download 'Modern day meetings?' (PDF)
From daughter to mother
Summary: Read the letters to / from Mary Shelley and Mary Wollstonecraft. Write your own letter from daughter to mother.
Suggested groups: Y11‐13
Download 'From daughter to mother' (PDF)
Swiss gloomth
Summary: Mary Shelley came up with the idea for Frankenstein when staying in the Swiss village of Cologny, which overlooks Lake Geneva, in the company of people such as Lord Byron. Read the Byron correspondence and look at Percy’s sketches of Lake Geneva, for example. The Neo‐Gothic genre of which Frankenstein forms a part is heavily dependent on ideas of ‘gloomth’ to set the atmosphere. A new travel agency has asked you to write a 400 word description of the place to go in their new brochure of inspirational literary locations. Research and write a piece on the literary importance of this Swiss location.
Suggested groups: Y11‐12
Download 'Swiss gloomth' (PDF)
Object details
Bodleian Libraries
Broad Street
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5 Physical Characteristics of Water | Water Management
Some of the major physical characteristics of water are as follows: 1. Suspended Solids 2. Turbidity 3. Colour 4. Taste and Odour 5. Temperature!
Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the senses of sight, touch, taste or smell. Suspended solids, turbidity, colour, taste and odour and temperature fall into this category.
1. Suspended Solids:
Suspended solids in water may consist of inorganic or organic particles or of immiscible liquids (oils or greases). Inorganic solids such as clay, silt and other, soil constituents are common in the surface water. Organic materials such as plant fibres and biological solids (bacteria, algae cells etc.) are also common constituents of surface waters.
These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosive action of water flowing over surfaces. Suspended water is rarely a constituent of ground water because of the filtering capacity of soil. Domestic waste water usually contains large quantities of suspended solids that are mostly organic in nature. Wide varieties of suspended impurities of either organic or inorganic nature may result from industrial use of water.
Suspended water has the following impacts:
(a) Suspended matter is aesthetically displeasing and biological degradation of the organic matter may result in the form of harmful by-products.
(b) The suspended matter provides adsorption sites for harmful chemical or biological organisms which may adversely affect the flora and fauna of the stream.
(c) Upon settling down the suspended particles suffocate the organisms inhabiting the bottom of aquatic habitats.
(d) The suspended matter reduce the light thereby result in reduced photosynthesis & a corresponding loss in food production, which in turn affects the life of the consumers depending on the aquatic flora for their nutritional requirements.
2. Turbidity:
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water. Because absorption and scattering are influenced by both size and surface characteristics of the suspended material, turbidity is not a direct quantitative measurement of suspended solids.
For example one small pebble in a glass of water would produce virtually no turbidity. But if this small pebble were crushed into hundreds of particles of colloidal size, a measurable turbidity would result, even though the mass of solids had not changed.
Most turbidity in surface water results from the erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock fragments and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable fibres and micro-organisms also contribute to turbidity. Household and industrial waste water may contain a wide variety of turbidity producing materials. Soaps, detergent and emulsifying agents produce stable colloids that result in]turbidity.
Turbidity has the following adverse impacts on the quality of water:
(a) The colloidal material associated with turbidity provides adsorption sites for chemicals that may be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odours and for biological organisms that may be harmful.
(b) Turbidity may impart a brown or other colour to water in natural water bodies depending upon the light absorbing properties of the solids and may interfere with the light penetration and photosynthetic reactions in streams and lakes.
(c) Accumulation of turbidity causing particles in porous stream beds results in sediment deposits that can adversely affect the flora and fauna of the stream.
3. Colour:
Pure water is colourless but water in nature is often coloured by foreign substances. Water, whose colour is partly due to suspended matter, is said to have apparent colour. Colour contributed by dissolved solids that remain after removal of suspended matter is known as true colour.
The tanning, humic acid etc. present in the organic debris (leaves, wood, weeds etc.) impart a yellowish brown colour to water as it comes in contact with them. Iron oxide cause reddish water and manganese oxides cause brown or blackish water.
Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, food processing, pulp and paper production, chemical production, and mining, refining and slaughter house operations may add substantial colouration to water in receiving streams.
Colour has the following impact on water quantity:
(a) Coloured water is not aesthetically acceptable to the general public.
(b) Highly coloured water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, paper making, beverage manufacturing, dairy production and other food processing and textile and plastic production.
Thus, the colour of the water affects its marketability for both domestic and industrial use.
4. Taste and Odour:
Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human use may impart perceptible taste and odour. These include minerals, metals and salts from the soil, and products from biological reactions and constituents of waste water.
Water tastes bitter when contaminated with alkaline impurities and salty when the impurities are metallic salts. Biological decomposition of organic debris impart a characteristic taste and odour of rotten eggs which is mainly due to hydrogen sulphide. Growth of algae, micro-organisms, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia give an obnoxious odour to water making it unfit for use.
The impact of taste and odour on water quality is:
(a) Consumers find taste and odour aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons. Because water is thought of as tasteless and odourless, the consumer associates taste and odour with contamination and may prefer to use a tasteless, odourless water that might actually pose more of a health threat.
(b) Odours posed by organic substances may pose more than a problem of simple aesthetics since some of those substances may be carcinogenic.
5. Temperature:
It is one of the most important parameters in natural surface water systems I he temperature of surface waters governs to a large extent the biological species present and then- rate of activity. Temperature has an effect on most chemical ructions that occur in natural water systems.
Temperature also has a great effect on the solubilities of gases in water. The use of water for dissipation of waste heats in industry and the subsequent discharge of the heated water may result in dramatic temporary change in receiving streams.
Increased temperature of water has the following impacts:
(a) Cooler waters usually have a wide diversity of biological species .At lower temperatures, the rate of biological activity i.e. utilisation of food supplies growth reproduction etc. is slower. Biological activity increases with increase in temperature (double with an increase of 10 °C).
(b) Some aquatic organisms die due to increased temperature (e.g. cold water fishes like trouts). Fishes are affected dramatically by temperature and by dissolved oxygen levels, which are a function of temperature.
(c) The oxygen saturation percentage decreases and. therefore, the dissolved oxygen level (DO level) is reduced. Low DO level coupled with high temperatures result in increasing the metabolic activity of micro-organisms thereby resulting in the reduction in the availability of oxygen leading to anaerobic conditions.
(d) The toxicity of chemical pollutants increases with increased in temperature.
(e) Growth of algae is accelerated and becomes problematic when the algal cells cluster to form mats.
(f) Most chemical reactions involving dissolution of solids are accelerated by increased temperatures. The solubility of gases, however, decreases at elevated temperatures.
(g) The viscosity of water increases with decreasing temperature. The maximum density of water occurs at 4 °C, and density decreases on either side of that temperature. Both temperature and density have a subtle effect on plank tonic micro-organisms in natural water system.
Rise in the temperature of water (and air) to a harmful level due to heat from I power plant, automobiles, industries etc. is called thermal pollution.
Thermal pollution may be controlled by dry towers. A cooling tower passes cool air over pipes containing hot water (thermal power plants) transferring heat to the air.
This is called indirect cooling in contrast to the direct cooling in which water is pumped from the river and after being used only once for cooling purposes it is at once returned to the sea or river instead of using the same water again and again before finally dissipating it into the water bodies resulting in a significant rise in the temperature of the water.
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No Free Lunch: the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Why is it easier to mess up your bedroom than to make it tidy? Why does a warm cup of tea cool off in your living room?
Why doesn't a 500-calorie cheeseburger you've eaten turn into 500 calories of you? These examples reflect one of the fundamental
laws of nature: the second law of thermodynamics. In this course students will learn about this most important of laws with hands-on
experiments in the laboratory using physical and biological systems. We will design our experiments, make predictions, carry out the
experiments, and analyze our results. An understanding of this law has implications for our own personal behavior, the behavior
of our society, and the behavior of our species.
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Results for: Plains-zebra
How do zebras die?
Most zebras normally die because of old age. Once they have reproduced and grown old they die. They can also die with a lack of food. As zebras live in the savanna and its (MORE)
What is an extinct zebra?
The Quagga is an extinct animal that lived in Africa and is much like the zebra but only has stripes on its hindquarters. Another animal similar too the Quagga is an Okapi and (MORE)
How do zebras attract female zebras?
The do the same as horses they do every trick they know of like kicking with the back of there legs as high as they can to show of what they can do, really they do every thing (MORE)
In Biology
How have zebras adapted?
Zebras have adapted by - Stripes to camouflage them in long elephant grass Strong teeth to chew the tough grass Big ears to keep the heat out Thin fur to keep c (MORE)
In Zebras
How tall can zebras get?
About 4 to 5 feet at the shoulder (12 to 15 hands.) There are, however, different breeds of zebras, like the Grevy's zebra which is larger than the more common Grant zebra.
Thanks for the feedback!
Why is the zebra endangered?
Because of habitat distruction, pollution, and poaching. Zebras are large, wild horses and live in Africa. The Grevy's zebra is the largest horse in the world, so it wou (MORE)
How do zebras sleep?
Zebras usually sleep or doze standing up during the day; some may be brave enough to lay down for a few minutes or so for some real deep REM sleep. Usually some of the her (MORE)
In Zebras
Is the zebra a ruminant?
No. A zebra has the same digestive system as a horse, donkey or rabbit, which are called pseudo-ruminants or hind-gut fermentors. They ferment their digesta in their huge cecu (MORE)
Thanks for the feedback!
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What are Functions? A Short and Simple Explanation
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Subtracting 22 on both sides leads to:
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Divide by -4.91:
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And apply the square root:
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Graph of f(t) = -4.91t² + 22
The Placebo Effect – An Overview
– Michael Specter
A Little White Lie
Experimental Evidence
Results of Kaptchuk et al. (2010)
Results of Amanzio et al. (2001)
Don’t Forget Your Lucky Charm
Recurrence Relations – A Simple Explanation And Much More
Recurrence relations are a powerful tool for mathematical modeling and numerically solving differential equations (no matter how complicated). And as luck would have it, they are relatively easy to understand and apply. So let’s dive right into it using a purely mathematical example (for clarity) before looking at a real-world application.
This equation is a typical example of a recurrence relation:
x(t+1) = 5 * x(t) + 2 * x(t-1)
At the heart of the equation is a certain quantity x. It appears three times: x(t+1) stands for the value of this quantity at a time t+1 (next month), x(t) for the value at time t (current month) and x(t-1) the value at time t-1 (previous month). So what the relation allows us to do is to determine the value of said quantity for the next month, given that we know it for the current and previous month. Of course the choice of time span here is just arbitrary, it might as well be a decade or nanosecond. What’s important is that we can use the last two values in the sequence to determine the next value.
Suppose we start with x(0) = 0 and x(1) = 1. With the recurrence relation we can continue the sequence step by step:
x(2) = 5 * x(1) + 2 * x(0) = 5 * 1 + 2 * 0 = 5
x(3) = 5 * x(2) + 2 * x(1) = 5 * 5 + 2 * 1 = 27
x(4) = 5 * x(3) + 2 * x(2) = 5 * 27 + 2 * 5 = 145
And so on. Once we’re given the “seed”, determining the sequence is not that hard. It’s just a matter of plugging in the last two data points and doing the calculation. The downside to defining a sequence recursively is that if you want to know x(500), you have to go through hundreds of steps to get there. Luckily, this is not a problem for computers.
In the most general terms, a recurrence relation relates the value of quantity x at a time t + 1 to the values of this quantity x at earlier times. The time itself could also appear as a factor. So this here would also be a legitimate recurrence relation:
x(t+1) = 5 * t * x(t) – 2 * x(t-10)
Here we calculate the value of x at time t+1 (next month) by its value at a time t (current month) and t – 10 (ten months ago). Note that in this case you need eleven seed values to be able to continue the sequence. If we are only given x(0) = 0 and x(10) = 50, we can do the next step:
x(11) = 5 * 10 * x(10) – 2 * x(0) = 5 * 10 * 50 – 2 * 0 = 2500
But we run into problems after that:
x(12) = 5 * 11 * x(11) – 2 * x(1) = 5 * 11 * 2500 – 2 * x(1) = ?
We already calculated x(11), but there’s nothing we can do to deduce x(1).
Now let’s look at one interesting application of such recurrence relations, modeling the growth of animal populations. We’ll start with a simple model that relates the number of animals x in the next month t+1 to the number of animals x in the current month t as such:
x(t+1) = x(t) + f * x(t)
The factor f is a constant that determines the rate of growth (to be more specific: its value is the decimal percentage change from one month to the next). So if our population grows with 25 % each month, we get:
x(t+1) = x(t) + 0.25 * x(t)
If we start with x(0) = 100 rabbits at month t = 0 we get:
x(1) = x(0) + 0.1 * x(0) = 100 + 0.25 * 100 = 125 rabbits
x(2) = x(1) + 0.1 * x(1) = 125 + 0.25 * 125 = 156 rabbits
x(3) = x(2) + 0.1 * x(2) = 156 + 0.25 * 156 = 195 rabbits
x(4) = x(3) + 0.1 * x(3) = 195 + 0.25 * 195 = 244 rabbits
x(5) = x(4) + 0.1 * x(4) = 244 + 0.25 * 244 = 305 rabbits
And so on. Maybe you already see the main problem with this exponential model: it just keeps on growing. This is fine as long as the population is small and the environment rich in ressources, but every environment has its limits. Let’s fix this problem by including an additional term in the recurrence relation that will lead to this behavior:
– Exponential growth as long as the population is small compared to the capacity
– Slowing growth near the capacity
– No growth at capacity
– Population decline when over the capacity
How can we translate this into mathematics? It takes a lot of practice to be able to tweak a recurrence relation to get the behavior you want. You just learned your first chord and I’m asking you to play Mozart, that’s not fair. But take a look at this bad boy:
x(t+1) = x(t) + a * x(t) * (1 – x(t) / C)
This is called the logistic model and the constant C represents said capacity. If x is much smaller than the capacity C, the ratio x / C will be close to zero and we are left with exponential growth:
x(t+1) ≈ x(t) + a * x(t) * (1 – 0)
So this admittedly complicated looking recurrence relation fullfils our first demand: exponential growth for small populations. What happens if the population x reaches the capacity C? Then all growth should stop. Let’s see if this is the case. With x = C, the ratio x / C is obviously equal to one, and in this case we get:
x(t+1) = x(t)
The number of animals remains constant, just as we wanted. Last but not least, what happens if (for some reason) the population gets past the capacity, meaning that x is greater than C? In this case the ratio x / C is greater than one (let’s just say x / C = 1.2 for the sake of argument):
x(t+1) = x(t) + a * x(t) * (- 0.2)
The second term is now negative and thus x(t+1) will be smaller than x(t) – a decline back to capacity. What an enormous amount of beautiful behavior in such a compact line of mathematics! This is where the power of recurrence relations comes to light. Anyways, let’s go back to our rabbit population. We’ll let them grow with 25 % (a = 0.25), but this time on an island that can only sustain 300 rabbits at most (C = 300). Thus the model looks like this:
x(t+1) = x(t) + 0.25 * x(t) * (1 – x(t) / 300)
x(1) = 100 + 0.25 * 100 * (1 – 100 / 300) = 117 rabbits
x(2) = 117 + 0.25 * 117 * (1 – 117 / 300) = 135 rabbits
x(3) = 135 + 0.25 * 135 * (1 – 135 / 300) = 153 rabbits
x(4) = 153 + 0.25 * 153 * (1 – 153 / 300) = 172 rabbits
x(5) = 172 + 0.25 * 172 * (1 – 172 / 300) = 190 rabbits
Note that now the growth is almost linear rather than exponential and will slow down further the closer we get to the capacity (continue the sequence if you like, it will gently approach 300, but never go past it).
We can even go further and include random events in a recurrence relation. Let’s stick to the rabbits and their logistic growth and say that there’s a p = 5 % chance that in a certain month a flood occurs. If this happens, the population will halve. If no flood occurs, it will grow logistically as usual. This is what our new model looks like in mathematical terms:
x(t+1) = 0.5 * x(t) if a flood occurs
To determine if there’s a flood, we let a random number generator spit out a number between 1 and 100 at each step. If it displays the number 5 or smaller, we use the “flood” equation (in accordance with the 5 % chance for a flood). Again we turn to our initial population of 100 rabbits with the growth rate and capacity unchanged:
x(4) = 0.5 * 153 = 77 rabbits
x(5) = 77 + 0.25 * 77 * (1 – 77 / 300) = 91 rabbits
As you can see, in this run the random number generator gave a number 5 or smaller during the fourth step. Accordingly, the number of rabbits halved. You can do a lot of shenanigans (and some useful stuff as well) with recurrence relations and random numbers, the sky’s the limit. I hope this quick overview was helpful.
A note for the advanced: here’s how you turn a differential equation into a recurrence relation. Let’s take this differential equation:
dx/dt = a * x * exp(- b*x)
First multiply by dt:
dx = a * x * exp(- b * x) * dt
We set dx (the change in x) equal to x(t+h) – x(t) and dt (change in time) equal to a small constant h. Of course for x we now use x(t):
x(t+h) – x(t) = a * x(t) * exp(- b * x(t)) * h
Solve for x(t+h):
x(t+h) = x(t) + a * x(t) * exp(- b * x(t)) * h
And done! The smaller your h, the more accurate your numerical results. How low you can go depends on your computer’s computing power.
Einstein’s Special Relativity – The Core Idea
It might surprise you that a huge part of Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity can be summed up in just one simple sentence. Here it is:
“The speed of light is the same in all frames of references”
In other words: no matter what your location or speed is, you will always measure the speed of light to be c = 300,000,000 m/s (approximate value). Not really that fascinating you say? Think of the implications. This sentence not only includes the doom of classical physics, it also forces us to give up our notions of time. How so?
Suppose you watch a train driving off into the distance with v = 30 m/s relative to you. Now someone on the train throws a tennis ball forward with u = 10 m/s relative to the train. How fast do you perceive the ball to be? Intuitively, we simply add the velocities. If the train drives off with 30 m/s and the ball adds another 10 m/s to that, it should have the speed w = 40 m/s relative to you. Any measurement would confirm this and all is well.
Now imagine (and I mean really imagine) said train is driving off into the distance with half the light speed, or v = 0.5 * c. Someone on the train shines a flashlight forwards. Obviously, this light is going at light speed relative to the train, or u = c. How fast do you perceive the light to be? We have the train at 0.5 * c and the light photons at the speed c on top of that, so according to our intuition we should measure the light at a velocity of v = 1.5 * c. But now think back to the above sentence:
No matter how fast the train goes, we will always measure light coming from it at the same speed, period. Here, our intiution differs from physical reality. This becomes even clearer when we take it a step further. Let’s have the train drive off with almost light speed and have someone on the train shine a flashlight forwards. We know the light photons to go at light speed, so from our perspective the train is almost able to keep up with the light. An observer on the train would strongly disagree. For him the light beam is moving away as it always does and the train is not keeping up with the light in any way.
How is this possible? Both you and the observer on the train describe the same physical reality, but the perception of it is fundamentally different. There is only one way to make the disagreement go away and that is by giving up the idea that one second for you is the same as one second on the train. If you make the intervals of time dependent on speed in just the right fashion, all is well.
Suppose that one second for you is only one microsecond on the train. In your one second the distance between the train and the light beam grows by 300 meter. So you say: the light is going 300 m / 1 s = 300 m/s faster than the train.
However, for the people in the train, this same 300 meter distance arises in just one microsecond, so they say: the light is going 300 m / 1 µs = 300 m / 0.000,001 s = 300,000,000 m/s faster than the train – as fast as it always does.
Note that this is a case of either / or. If the speed of light is the same in all frames of references, then we must give up our notions of time. If the light speed depends on your location and speed, then we get to keep our intiutive image of time. So what do the experiments say? All experiments regarding this agree that the speed of light is indeed the same in all frames of references and thus our everyday perception of time is just a first approximation to reality.
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<urn:uuid:3341c877-749d-432a-aa43-a5d2e40a2990>
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History Of Veal
History of Veal
In one of the oldest civilizations, about 2500 BC, the Sumerians are documented to have penned up and subdued the wild cattle that roamed the plains of Mesopotamia. .
Among the Sumerians, veal was a luxury, often consumed by those who could afford to lose a work (milk or draft) animal, in order to satisfy their taste buds.
Wealthy nobles and priests of ancient Sumeria and Babylonia ate veal and drank wine at elaborate banquets, portrayed in great detail on mosaics and bas-relief sculptures. Cattle, otherwise, worked until they became too old and were eventually killed for beef.
Biblical References to Veal
There are many biblical references to the enjoyment and use of young calves.
When God came to inform the patriach of the Jewish people, Abraham, that he would have a son, Abraham ran to the herd and selected a calf, tender and good, and gave it to the servant who hurried to prepare it. …and they did eat. Genesis 18:7 and 18:8.
According to Exodus 32 of the Old Testament, the Jewish people created a golden calf despite being prohibited directed by God from praying to false idols.
In the New Testament, feasting on the fatted calf conveyed an air of luxurious indulgence meant to mark a momentous occasion. In the story of the return of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15), veal was served.
The New Testament also tells us that veal was served at The Wedding Feast (Matthew 22), confirming its importance as a long-standing tradition for matrimonial celebrations.
Veal in European History
The taste for the tender meat of young animals was passed on to the Romans, who gourmandizing reached the point where the Emperor Alexander Severus (222-235AD) had to issue a decree forbidding the slaughter of young calves, since the breeding stock was being deprived.
Veal mentions appear in the history books over the centuries and among them some debates are still raging about who is credited with introducing veal and certain recipes.
A question exists as to who really created Wiener Schnitzel. While the Viennese (from Austria) are credited with this classic veal dish, the Milanese (from Italy) claim that as far back as 1134, when a banquet was given for the canon of Milan’s ancient Church of Sant’ Ambrogio, the menu included “lombolos cum panitio,” breaded veal scallops.
The Italians are also sometimes reported to have introduced veal into France via Catherine de’ Medici, the Italian-born Queen of France who reined from 1533 to 1589. It appears that Catherine did like veal, which was natural for anyone who came from Florence where veal was considered so luxurious that it was decreed if veal was served at a wedding dinner, no other meat could appear on the same menu. While Catherine did bring many Italian artists, poets, musicians, and dancing masters to France, historians counter that several veal recipes were located in France at least a century and a half (late 1300’a) prior to Catherine ascending to the French throne.
In England, two fifteenth-century cookbooks offer recipes for veal dishes; and one for a veal pasty appeared in The Forme of Cury, the date is 1378.
During the mid-1700’s, veal was immortalized by the Jean-Baptiste Oudry, in his still life oil on canvas painting entitled Veal depicted a Quarter of Veal along with wine and fruit.
The famous French writer and philosopher, Voltaire, used an offer of veal stock instead of traditional fatty sauces, called gravy, to entice his friend to come and visit him, during the mid-1700’s. Voltaire wrote to his friend Saint-Lambert, “Come to Ciety [where Voltaire was living] where Madame du Chatelet [his cook] will not let you be poisoned. There is not a spoonful of gravy in her cooking: everything is made with blond de veau [obtained by boiling veal shanks in water with carrots, onions, celery and a chicken carcass. We will live one hundred years and you will never die.” [Voltaire did live to be 84.]
Veal USA
Information on the U.S. Milk-Fed Veal, recipes, nutrition, and more!
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Geography of Venice
A look into the geography of Venice and its islands, transportation within the lagoon, and how floods affect the Venetian historic center.
As a city, Venice occupies an exceptional location in a lagoon on the Adriatic Sea.
Throughout the centuries, the Venetians have built their place by driving piles of oak and alder in the sandy soil, and on top of these foundations, they built houses and palaces, struggling against the continual movement of the tides.
In addition to the historic center (plus Giudecca), major islands within the lagoon include:
Lido, Murano, Burano, Torcello, San Michele (Island City Cemetery), San Erasmo, Mazzorbo, The Vignola Certosa San Francesco del Deserto, San Giacomo in Paludo, San Servolo, and San Lazzaro degli Armeni.
The city is crossed by a total of 177 canals (the largest of which is the Grand Canal), 455 bridges (usually arched to allow boats), over 118 islands.
Venice’s historic center is divided into six districts or ‘sestieri’:
• San Marco, Cannaregio and Castello on the left bank of the Grand Canal, and
• Santa Croce, San Polo and Dorsoduro on the other side.
In terms of city center, the district of San Marco and its St. Mark’s Basilica are considered the heart of the city.
Of the geography of Venice districts, Castello covers the entire south-eastern part of Venice, with its name linked to the presence of a legendary castle which was there.
The Cannaregio district, meanwhile, occupies the area between Rialto Bridge and the railway station.
Its name comes from the straight channel that traverse the district. On the other side, Santa Croce and San Polo are named after two churches, the first of which has been destroyed, the other not.
Dorsoduro’s name, meanwhile, is due to the altitude of sestiere, which is higher than the others.
Consequently, during episodes of “acqua alta” (high water levels), it is less frequently flooded.
The historic center is entirely pedestrianized, canals, including the main one, Grand Canal ending at the Giudecca Canal and the lagoon around the city, acting as routes for the various boats that are the means of public transport.
Venice is a unique city where one moves almost exclusively on foot, but there are also water taxis – small motorized boats carrying eight to ten people – and gondolas – small & light rowing boats.
Other, larger boats, are intended primarily for commercial transportation.
Geography of Venice Italy
PHOTO: Satellite picture of the geography of Venice.
The location of city center of the Venice in the Geography of Venice and its lagoon is such, that most of the transport of persons and goods is by water.
The location is also why the city, in the twenty-first century, remains the only large city to be free of cars and trucks to this day.
One of the traditional ways of transportation is by the Venetian gondola, although they are primarily used by tourists or for special occasions (ceremonies, weddings and funerals), with a cost of the gondola rides one of the reasons behind its limited usage.
Nowadays, Venice has only about 425 gondolas left in use.
Local Venetians mainly use water buses, called vaporetti, managed by ACTV, for traveling the islands within the main channels, and traghetti, which are gondolas with two rowers, allowing pedestrians to cross the Grand Canal on a few places without bridges.
In fact, for the Geography of Venice, sea and the lagoon remained the only existing means of transport in Venice until the nineteenth century, and the construction of a railway bridge.
When that link was taken into use in 1846, it allowed train connections to Venice-Santa Lucia train station, built in 1860, from rest of the European continent.
Quickly after inauguration, the station became a popular terminus for travelers from European capitals, as it leads right up to the heart of the city, close to the Grand Canal.
Later, in 1933, a road link, the Liberty Bridge (Ponte della Liberta), was also established, leading to a large parking lot on within an artificial island of Tronchetto, on the northern outskirts of Venice.
In terms of air traffic, Venice is served by the airport of Venice – Marco Polo, named in honor of the city’s most famous historical citizen.
The airport is located on the edge of the lagoon, but within the continent. To get from the airport to the historical center, you must either take rental car, a bus, taxi, water taxi, or a water bus.
The buildings of Venice are constructed on wooden pillars, which are exposed to the tides, especially between autumn and early spring.
Geography of Venice includes that the city is, in fact, periodically flooded, by what Venetians call ‘acqua alta’.
There are several things explaining this natural phenomenon, including tides caused by moons gravity, effect of sirocco winds from Africa, preventing the lagoon from emptying, with high tides succeeding each other.
Acqua Alta conditions have always existed, but is in recent decades, the floods have become more severe under the combined influence of several causes of climate and human activity.
The consequences of these floods are important in the daily lives of people, who must leave the lower levels of houses and use elevated walkways to move.
Important consequences also include the deterioration of monuments and habitats that follows from the harmful products to the stone and brick.
Today, the accurate measuring of Venice’s subsidence has not been established, and its evolution is still a controversial subject.
The latest initiative, launched by a consortium of Italian industrialists, is to build 78 movable gates within three passes of the lagoon to protect the city.
During normal tide, these gates / drawbridges are filled with water and submerged.
When tides are greater than one meter, an injection of compressed air evacuates the water, allowing the gates to stop the water inflow and close the passage, separating the lagoon from the sea.
This project, called MOSE, began in 2003 and the work is expected to continue until 2014.
MOSE is controversial especially given its costs and doubts among scientists on the efficiency of this system would have, perhaps being useful for onlye very high tides.
The project, in addition, will not solve the other major problem of the city, waves in the lagoon.
Apart from floods, Venice has a climate that is a rather humid all year long, with very moist summers. Winters are cold, on the other hand, with frost and fog in January.
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Engineered Leukosomes Prevent Inflammatory Response
Injection of nanoparticles into the body triggers an inflammatory response caused by blood components accumulating on their surface. Now, a team of nanomedicine and regenerative medicine scientists have described how specially-engineered nanoparticles (leukosomes) injected into mice can prevent the formation of a layer of biomolecules, called the protein corona, around their surface.
In a 2016 study, Ennio Tasciotti, Ph.D, senior author and director of the Center for Biomimetic Medicine at Houston Methodist Research Institute and team created these leukosomes and evaluated their ability to treat localized inflammation. Leukosomes are able to target inflamed tissues because their design mimics immune cell membranes.
Investigating Leukosomes
To provide more information on the properties of these leukosomes, the team decided to investigate their protein corona in vivo. Most of the insight previously gained into the protein corona was been obtained using in vitro experiments, which have been shown to only minimally reproduce in vivo phenomena.
Claudia Corbo, Roberto Molinaro, Francesca Taraballi, Naama E. Toledano Furman, Kelly A. Hartman, Michael B. Sherman, Enrica De Rosa, Dickson K. Kirui, Francesco Salvatore, and Ennio Tasciotti
Unveiling the in Vivo Protein Corona of Circulating Leukocyte-like Carriers
ACS Nano 2017 11 (3), 3262-3273 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b00376
Image: Circulating white blood cells, commonly known as leukocytes (large yellow clusters), lining an inflamed vessel wall along with leukosomes (small yellow speckles). Credit: Houston Methodist
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"url": "http://reliawire.com/engineered-leukosomes/"
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The Immigration Nation
Australian Government poster — "The South...
Image via Wikipedia
If Australia is the immigration nation, then Scotland is the emigration nation. Until the 1990s, Australia was second only to Israel in terms of the number of migrants it took in per capita. Conversely, from the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century, Scotland’s level of population loss through emigration was one of highest in Britain and Europe. For much of this time Scotland has had too many people; Australia not enough.
The first period of Scottish immigration to Australia was the initial settlement and convict period. The beginnings of settlement in Australia attracted about 5200 Scots between 1788 and 1832, while the transportation era brought out nearly 9000 Scottish convicts between 1788 and 1868.
When the famous Scottish explorer Thomas Mitchell found the vast pastoral land of ‘Australia Felix’ in the late 1830s, Scots came in droves; over 31% of all Scottish emigrants chose Australia as their destination in the late 1830s. Between 1833 and 1850, a total of about 23 000 eager Scottish migrants came to Australia.
In the early 1850s, gold was discovered in Australia, and this attracted record amounts of settlers to Australian goldfields. Throughout the 1850s, approximately 90 000 Scots came to Australia, and many of them were searching for fortunes in famous gold towns such as Ballarat, in Victoria. Because of the goldrush, Australia was a hugely popular destination for Scots and in 1853, for example, half of all Scottish emigrants went to Australia. Within this period of history was also the emigration of large numbers of Highlanders, who had been evicted from their small farms in Scotland and sent on boats to the New World – North America and Australasia.
Over the next fifty years from 1860 to 1914, the Australian colonies consolidated their populations and grew their economies, and over 175 000 Scots came to Australia. Important years for the relationship between Scotland and Australia were from 1860 until 1864, when 59% of Scottish emigrants selected Australia as their destination, and from 1875 to 1879 when 44% chose to come to the Antipodes.
This was mostly due to the economic boom in Australia that peaked in the 1880s, which offered urban Scots gainful employment, good living conditions, and the opportunity to own a house of their own in the suburbs. The boom was over by the 1890s, and somewhere between 35-40% of Scots in Australia decided to head home and try their luck back in Scotland again.
From 1914 until 1939, around 61 000 Scots came to a growing Australian nation. They contributed their skills to Australia’s industrial development in this period, and gave lives in the First World War. When Europe was recovering from the war in the 1920s, between 18% and 25% of Scottish emigrants sought opportunities for a better life in Australia. Their hopes were soon dashed when the Great Depression hit Australia particularly hard in the early 1930s. Not surprisingly, immigration almost entirely stopped during the recession.
The next great period of Australian immigration was the postwar era, which changed the demographic make up of Australia from a mostly British population to a vibrant multicultural society. In the forty years between 1940 and 1980, 172 000 Scots came to Australia. Many of our Australian readers were part of this historic period of mass immigration. The number of immigrants to Australia was exceptional – after Second World War, net migration was over 100 000 people in some years. Just under 900 000 came from Britain between 1956 and 1960 alone.
From 1980 up until the present day between 45 000 and 50 000 Scots have migrated to Australia. The most recently arrived Scots have been part of a new, unprecedented, but mostly unheard of immigration revolution. There were eight years between 1949 and 1980 in which net migration was larger than 100 000 people, but since 1995 there have only been two years in which net migration was not over 100 000 people.
Since 1788, around 600 000 Scots have come to Australia for reasons that have changed over the years. Their numbers have fluctuated, often linked with the changing fortunes in Scotland and in Australia. Today, over two million Australians say that they have Scottish ancestry. Scotland, the emigration nation, has certainly given many of her sons and daughters to Australia, the immigration nation.
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<urn:uuid:18e25468-d209-4a45-b62a-d90621bc03c3>
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{
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"url": "https://thescottishaustralian.wordpress.com/2011/10/01/the-immigration-nation/"
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Big Bear's quest to get fair treatment for his people was ultimately betrayed
Chief Big Bear
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Big Bear, a Cree chief at the time of the extermination of the buffalo, was renowned for his determination to negotiate a fair treaty for his people with the Government of Canada while it implemented a starvation policy for control.
Mistihai’muskwa (1825-1888) delayed signing for four years to see if Canada would honour the treaty it had made with other Crees, Saulteaux, Dakota and Dene in present-day central Saskatchewan and Alberta.
By then, in 1882, the buffalo population had collapsed from unregulated overhunting caused by demand for meat and hides from settlers and traders. The resulting starvation and lack of hides for clothing and shelter created a crisis for the plains people, who were still indignant over Canada paying Hudson’s Bay Company $1.5 million in 1869 for eight million square kilometres of land as if it were Canada’s to buy.
The government exploited the people’s growing desperation and negotiated treaties that gave Canada unfettered use of the land in exchange for addressing some of the problems, promising food during famine, no interference with traditional hunting, land for their exclusive use and help adopting farming to replace their lost way of life.
Big Bear’s peaceful appeals to negotiate better terms and treatment were ignored; he signed the treaty to prevent more starvation deaths, but the government withheld food to force him onto a reserve it had chosen for his people.
Frustrated warriors among his followers murdered nine settlers at Frog Lake and burnt Fort Pitt in 1885. Six warriors were hanged as a result.
Big Bear was held accountable for their actions, was convicted of inciting rebellion and served two years at Stony Mountain Penitentiary. He died soon after his release.
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"url": "http://thestarphoenix.com/news/saskatchewan/canada-150-big-bear"
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File Compression or Data Compression
Last Updated: Jan 19, 2017 @ 9:30 am
What is file compression?
To compress a file means to make it smaller by converting its data into a different format. Usually it is put into an archive format such as .zip, .tar, or .jar. Media, such as images, videos, and audio can be compressed as well.
How does file compression work?
Compression comes in two forms: lossy and lossless. Lossy compression removes bits it deems unnecessary to reduce file size, often resulting in lower quality music and video. Lossless keeps all the information of the original file, but usually can’t make files as small as lossy compression.
While compressed files are smaller, the stipulation that they must first be decompressed means they require more computing resources to use. A smaller video file that’s compressed requires more CPU power for a computer to play than a larger, uncompressed file, for example.
Back to Glossary
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"url": "https://www.expressvpn.com/internet-privacy/internet-security-technical-glossary/file-compression/"
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Until recently, attempts to store information in DNA strands have only been able to reach a fraction of the theoretical maximum storage capacity. A new method developed by Yaniv Erlich and Dina Zielinski of the New York Genome Center goes much further towards this goal. Based on a class of computer code called a fountain, the researchers were able to approach the so-called Shannon capacity while protecting against data corruption. As a result, they were able to store 2.14 × 106 bytes of information (including a full computer operating system, a short French film from 1895, a $50 Amazon gift card, a Pioneer plaque and a 1948 work by Claude Shannon, after compression) in DNA oligonucleotides, which they could then perfectly retrieve using a process that allows 2.18 × 1015 retrievals. The results indicate that perfect data storage and retrieval is feasible at a density of 215 petabytes per gram of DNA, improving on previous work by an order of magnitude.
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"url": "http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/68423"
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Traditional Form - Intermediate
(Displaying 41 - 50 of 69 lessons)
Legends: Heaven Lake 1/1+
This lesson describes Heaven Lake, the beautiful Chinese tourist attraction.
Legends: Hou Yi the Archer 1/1+
This lesson tells the folktale of Hou Yi, the famous archer who saves the ancient world from catastrophe and is given a gift that will ensure his immortality.
Legends: Meng Jiang Nü 1/1+
This text tells the famous Chinese folktale of Meng Jiangnu.
Legends: Mulan 1/1+
This text summarizes a folk story about a young girl who went to war.
Legends: Story of A Clever Child 1/1+
This is a story about an exemplary child who is often recounted in Chinese elementary school texts and storybooks.
Literature: Confucian Canon: The Four Books and Five Classics 1/1+
The Four Books and Five Classics are important works of the Confucian Canon. This text lists the titles of Confucian Classics in Chinese.
Literature: Four Great Chinese Masterpieces 1/1+
This list of the Four Great Chinese Masterpieces, their authors, and the time periods when they were written, provides information about some of the most famous novels in all of Chinese literature.
Locations 1/1+
This text is a message from the Chinese colleague of an American moving to Shanghai, making suggestions for where she should live.
Magazine Survey 1/1+
This section of a survey is modeled from other surveys distributed to magazine readers.
Names: Chinese Names 1/1+
This is a highly-contextualized short text on how Chinese names are formed. It contains certain common discourse structures, plus high-frequency characters, while teaching a brief historical and cultural lesson about Chinese names.
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"url": "http://readchinese.nflc.umd.edu/?lang_id=2&lev_id=2&page=5"
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The Origins of the Sitar
A Plucked String Instrument of Indian Origin
(c) C Squared Studios / Getty Images
A sitar is a plucked string instrument common to Classical Indian music, particularly in the Hindustani (northern Indian) classical traditions. Mechanically, the sitar is a fairly complicated musical instrument. It bears sympathetic strings — strings which are tuned, but not plucked and instead simply vibrate and hum when the strings nearby are played — as well as movable frets and over 20 strings!
Origins of the Instrument and How It's Played
The sitar is typically played by balancing the instrument between the player's opposite foot and know. For instance, a left-handed player might hold it against his right foot and stretch it over his left knee.
The player then uses the mezrab, a metallic pick, to pluck individual strings, adjusting tone with a thumb which remains on the fretboard.
Although more adept players can employ some techniques to give the performance flair, many of the frets are already preset to play microtonal notes, allowing the seamless and flowing transition between knows the sitar is most known for.
Application in World Music
It wasn't until the rapid globalization of music in the 1950s through present-day that the sitar truly went global. As early as the 1950s, rock artists like Ravi Shankar began using the instrument on world tours to give a bit of flair to their music, sparking a newfound interest in this popular Indian instrument.
This led to the 1960s short-lived fad of using sitars in Western pop music. The Beatles famously used a sitar on their hit songs "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)," "Within You Without You" and "Love You To" in the late 60s and the Rolling Stones used one on "Paint it Black."
The psychedelic rock community especially liked the Middle-Eastern-sounding melodies the sitar could produce. The Doors famously used mostly Indian scales in their albums, often using other instruments along with the sitar to provide a groovy, enchanting backing track to their brand of trippy rock.
Today, electronic musicians, pop artists, world music ensembles and even Youtube-famous guitarists use the sitar to evoke Middle Eastern melody in their performance.
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"url": "https://www.thoughtco.com/sitar-instrument-3552878"
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Were the Years 1924-29 a period of economic stability? (Weimar Republic)
Unit 5: Stresemann Years of the Weimar Republic
Economic Stability
Most Historians argue that 1924-29 were years of slow growth and "relative stagnation" in the German economy. Some suggests that the main reasons for this were that trade union power kept wages high and therefore squeezed profits and middle class income and that Weimar economy was structurally weak and generally unstable before 1929.
1 of 7
Foreign Investment
Between 1924 and 1929 there was significant monetry stability, which was paticularly important to thise classes who had suffered because of the hyperinlation of 1923. The Dawes plan initiated a significant influx of foreign capital paticularly the USA. Yet such policy had its potential dangers, a downturn in the world economy could lead to the rapid withdrawl of such investment.
2 of 7
Delay of Reparation payments
The growth in avaliable capital was also due to the delaying of payments at the highest rate stipulated by the Dawes plan, thereby stimulating some inward capital investment. Yet the collapse of the econmy in 1929 is often seen as the catalyst for increasing economic discord and polarisation of employers and labour.
3 of 7
Industrial Unrest
The period of 1924 to 1929 was a period of economic growth, yet the term stability us an inappropriate one to apply, in Particular with industrial relations. The main problem for many Germans was to adjust to a period of relative normality in comparison to recent years of turbulence.
· For Employers the main issue was to claw back the initiative that they felt they had lost from 1918 to 1923. In 1923, the legislation of 1918 that enforced an 8 hour day was altered to allow employers to institute a 10 hour day in some circumstances.
· The union demands for higher wages in this period were resisted by employers to the extent that between 1924 and 1932 around 76,000 cases were brought to arbitration.
4 of 7
A Period of Social Change? The Constitution
The foundations of the German welfare state were laid at the end of the 19th century. What made the Weimar period different was that the concept of a German welfare state was enshrined in Hugo Preuss’s constitution. These are some examples:-
· The Family lay at the heart of Germany and it was the responsibility of adults to protect and nurture young people
· Religious freedom was guaranteed
The need for an inclusive welfare state was made even greater by the impact of war. The Reich Relief Law provided the framework for support and in 1927 the labour exchanges and unemployment insurance law introduced unemployment insurance.
5 of 7
Housing and Public Health
Before the First World War the state had built public housing. By 1929 the state was spending 33 times more on housing than it had in 1913. The effect of the house building programme was to improve the quality of homes for many Germans.
Better Health insurance meant better medical provision and a reduction in deaths from certain diseases.
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The role of women and the debate about their status was an important aspect of society in Weimar Germany. The proportion of women who worked outside the home during the Weimar period remained roughly the same as before 1914.
The most obvious chance was in the growing number of women in new areas of employment such as the civil service, teaching or social work. However social attitudes to women working were generally conservative and the vast majority of women who had worked full time in so called men’s jobs during the war gave up this job when the war was over. Condemnation of the so-called Doppelverdiener (Second Earners) increased after 1924 when men were laid off. Many women were unfairly dismissed under the Law Governing the Legal Status of Female Civil Servants, yet most Germans accepted the legislation.
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For example, some colonial organisms, such as bryozoa (especially the Cheilostomata) have relatively large colonies, but are classified on the basis of fine skeletal details of the tiny individuals of the colony. Most bryozoan specialists would consider themselves paleontologists, rather than micropaleontologists, but many micropaleontologists also study bryozoa.
Calcareous microfossils
Calcareous [CaCO3] microfossils include Coccoliths, Foraminifera, Calcareous dinoflagellates, and Ostracods (seed shrimp).
Phosphatic microfossils
Siliceous microfossils
Siliceous microfossils include Diatoms, Radiolaria, Silicoflagellates, phytoliths, some scolecodonts ("worm" jaws), and spicules.
Organic microfossils
Sediment or rock samples are collected from either cores or outcrops, and the microfossils they contain extracted by a variety of physical and chemical laboratory techniques, including sieving, density separation by centrifuge, and chemical digestion of the unwanted fraction. The resulting concentrated sample of microfossils is then mounted on a slide for analysis, usually by light microscope. Taxa are then identified and counted. The very large numbers of microfossils that a small sediment sample can often yield allows the collection of statistically robust datasets which can be subjected to multivariate analysis. A typical microfossil study will involve identification of a few hundred specimens from each of ten to a hundred samples.
Applications of Micropaleontology
Microfossils are especially noteworthy for their importance in biostratigraphy. Since microfossils are often extremely abundant, widespread, and quick to appear and disappear from the stratigraphic record, they constitute ideal index fossils from a biostratigraphic perspective. In addition, the planktonic and nektonic habits of some microfossils gives them the added bonus of appearing across a wide range of facies or paleoenvironments, and having near-global distribution making biostratigraphic correlation even more powerful and effective.
Microfossils also provide some of the most important records of global environmental change on long-timescales, particularly from deep-sea sediments. Across vast areas of the ocean floor the shells of planktonic micro-ogranisms sinking from surface waters provide the dominant source of sediment and they continuously accumulate (typicaly at rates of 20-50m/million years). Study of changes in assemblages of microfossils and of changes in their shell chemistry (e.g oxygen isotope composition) are fundamental to research on climate change in the geological past.
In addition to providing an excellent tool for sedimentary rock-body dating and for paleoenvironmental reconstruction -- heavily used in both petroleum geology and paleoceanography -- micropaleontology has also found a number of less orthodox applications, such as its growing role in forensic police investigation or in provenancing archaeological artefacts.
External links
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Voices for liberty in the ancient world
The earliest recorded voices for liberty were in ancient Greece.
It didn’t seem like a place where important things were likely to happen because as historian Herodotus (c.484-c.430 B.C.) remarked, “Greece and Poverty have always been bedfellows.” Greece is rocky and without rain for long periods, often unable to provide more than grazing for goats. But the people had an independent spirit.
The great Greek scholar Gilbert Murray reflected, “In Greece alone men’s consciences were troubled by slavery, and right down through the centuries of decadence, when the industrial slave-system ruled everywhere, her philosophers never entirely ceased protesting against what must have seemed an accepted and inevitable wrong.” Murray added, “The Greeks were not characteristically subjectors of women. They are the first nation that realized and protested against the subjection of women.”
To be sure, we don’t know much about ancient Greek authors because so much has been lost over the centuries. “Between us and them,” Murray explained, “there has passed age upon age of men...who sought in the books that they read other things than truth and imaginative beauty, or who did not care to read books at all. Of the literature produced by the Greeks in the fifth century B.C., we possess about a twentieth part; of that produced in the seventh, sixth, fourth and third, not nearly so large a proportion. All that has reached us has passed a severe test and far from discriminating ordeal. It has secured its life by never going out of fashion for long at a time.”
Fortunately, surviving Greek literature does include some wonderful voices for liberty. A fear of slavery and passion for liberty were expressed in the 6th book of Homer’s Iliad about 750 B.C. Hector was about to go to war, and his wife Andromache expressed terror that he would be killed. Hector replied:
“That is nothing, nothing beside your agony
when some brazen Argive hales you off in tears,
wrenching away your day of light and freedom!
Then far off in the land of Argos you must live,
Laboring at a loom, at another woman’s beck and call.”
Thucydides, in his History of the Peloponnesian War, written around 400 B.C., reported the text of a funeral oration by Pericles, leader of Athens. Pericles referred to personal freedom in Athens, at least for those who weren’t slaves. Pericles said, “Not only in our public life are we liberal, but also as regards our freedom from suspicion of one another in the pursuits of everyday life; for we do not feel resentment at our neighbor if he does what he likes.”
Aeschylus (c. 525-455 B.C.) was the pioneering playwright of tragedies. Aeschylus was believed to have been born around in Eleusis, a city near Athens. He was a soldier who fought against the Persians at Marathon (490 B.C.) and Salamis (480 B.C.). At the time, the Persians controlled the biggest empire in Central Asia, and so these were great victories for the Greeks, and their confidence was expressed in their plays.
Until Aeschylus came along, plays involved a single actor who portrayed various characters (using masks), and chorus danced. Aeschylus introduced a second actor and dialogue, and he made the chorus part of the dramatic action. As was customary, Aeschylus performed in his own plays. Of the more than 90 plays he is believed to have written, only seven survive.
Like other Greek playwrights, Aeschylus didn’t write about contemporary situations. Rather, he drew on mythology, portraying struggles among gods and ancient Greek heroes. Perhaps this was a politically safer way to offer commentary. Shakespeare and the great German playwright Friedrich Schiller did the same thing, making their plays about other people and different eras than their own.
Prometheus Bound, believed to date from Aeschylus’ later years, is the work of greatest interest from the standpoint of liberty. It isn’t much of a play, in terms of the story, but it does express quite a protest against tyranny. Because Prometheus gave human beings the gift of fire, defying the will of Zeus, he had Prometheus chained to a remote mountain. Prometheus was helpless before Zeus, yet he boldly predicted that Zeus was doomed: “in his crashing fall shall Zeus discover how different are rule and slavery.”
Scholar David Grene wrote, “Prometheus is, politically, the symbol of the rebel against the tyrant who has overthrown the traditional role of Justice and Law. He is the symbol of Knowledge against Force. He is symbolically the champion of man, raising him through the gift of intelligence, against the would-be destroyer of man.”
Sophocles (496-406 B.C.) was the most successful Greek playwright. A younger contemporary of Aeschylus, he was born in Colonus, a village near Athens, the son of a factory owner, who by some accounts made armour. Apparently, he was able, well-educated and well-liked, and he became an associate of the great Greek political leader Pericles. In 468, he emerged as a name to reckon with when one of his tragedies won top prizes at the Dionysia, the most famous Greek drama festival, celebrating the god of the countryside. At each festival, three dramatists were selected to do their plays, and judges awarded first, second and third prizes. The ruins of the theatre building suggest audiences as large as 15,000 people. Altogether, Sophocles wrote 123 plays and won first prizes at 18 Dionysia festivals, more than Aeschylus (12) or Euripides (4). Initially, Sophocles performed in his own plays, but reportedly because he had a weak voice, he stopped doing this. Ancient sources suggest he might have written 123 plays, and seven survive.
In Antigone, which Sophocles wrote when he was past 50, the heroine defied her father the king, saying:
“Your edict, King was strong.
But all your strength is weakness itself against
The immortal unrecorded laws of God.
They are not merely now: they were and shall be,
Operative for ever, beyond man utterly.”
Euripides (c.480-406 B.C.) was one of the Greatest Greek dramatists writing tragedies. He is believed to have come from the island of Salamis. The year after his birth Athens won the Persian war, and although much of the city was in ruins, the people had preserved their independence. Athens led the Delian league of Greek city states resisting further Persian threats, but by 440 Athens had emerged as an empire which threatened the independence of others. Sparta, Corinth and Thebes began to resist Athenian rule, which led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). This proved devastating for Athens. Four years before Athens was defeated, Euripides left the city to become an exile in Macedon which is where he died. Fifteen of the 17 surviving plays date from the Peloponnesian War era, and they deal with issues of war.
Presumably because war prisoners were enslaved, and many of the enslaved were women (male prisoners commonly being put to death), Euripides wrote much about slavery and women. He protested the bad treatment of women. For instance, in Medea the heroine said:
“Surely, of all creatures that have life and will, we women
Are the most wretched. When, for an extravagant sum,
We have bought a husband, we must then accept him as
Possessor of our body. This is to aggravate
Wrong with worse wrong. Then the great question: will the man
We get be bad or good? For women, divorce is not
Respectable; to repel the man, not possible.”
Euripides’ play Hecabe showed how the pressures of war drive people to barbaric cruelty. Hecabe and other women prisoners subdued Polymestor, who had killed her son during the Trojan War, and they put out his eyes and killed his two sons.
During the Peloponnesian War, Athenian forces captured Melos, killed all the men and sold women and children as slaves. Apparently to protest these atrocities, Euripides wrote Trojan Women, about women who, after the Trojan War, awaited their fate as prisoners of the victorious Greeks. This must have been a shocking play for Greek audiences, because Greek warriers won their most famous victory in the Trojan War. Homer’s great epic The Iliad told how Agamemnon’s armies captured Troy. Yet Euripides portrayed the Trojan War as unrelieved misery. The messenger Talthybius announced that Troy’s former queen Hecuba would be the slave of Odysseus, Ithaca’s king; Cassandra would be a slave of Agamemnon; and Andromache would be the slave of Pyrrhus, Achilles’ son. These women would be sex slaves of the men who had killed their loved ones.
Hecuba wailed:
“A lying man and a pitiless
Shell be lord of me, a heart full-flown
With scorn of righteousness.”
And Andromache:
“Forth to the Greek I go,
Driven as a beast is driven.”
Cassandra vowed:
“Go I to Agamemnon, Lord most high
Of Hellas! I shall kill him, mother;
I shall kill him, and lay waste his house width fire
As he laid ours.”
The most poignant moment in the play was when the Greeks decided they must kill Andromache’s little boy Astyanax, because he was the son of the brave warrier Hector. It was feared that if he lived, he would grow up and lead a counter-attack against the Greeks.
Euripides’ protest was ignored. Athens persisted with the war, sending a big expedition to Sicily, and the expedition was wiped out. Later, of course, Sparta defeated Athens and sacked the city.
The only surviving complete texts of Old Greek Comedy are those by Aristophanes (c.448-385 B.C.). He was born too late to have known the glory days of Athens, and he grew up amidst the crises of the Peloponnesian War. He was a masterful satirist who ridiculed the intellectuals and politicians who brought all the trouble. Altogether, he is believed to have written more than 40 plays of which 11 have survived.
In Lysistrata, the heroine gathers together the wives of soldiers on both sides of the war and proposes a radical way to stop it: "we must give up -- sex...the men are all like ramrods and can't wait to leap into bed, and then we absolutely refuse -- that'll make them make peace soon enough, you'll see."
One woman asked, "And if they hit us and force us to let go?" Lysistrata replied: "Why, in that case you've got to be as damned unresponsive as possible. There's no pleasure in it if they have to use force and give pain. They'll give up trying soon enough. And no man is ever happy if he can't please his woman."
Later challenged by a magistrate, Lysistrata explained: "we women got together and decided we were going to save Greece. What was the point of waiting any longer, we asked ourselves. Well now, we'll make a deal. You listen to us -- and we'll talk sense, not like you used to -- listen to us and keep quiet, as we've had to do up to now, and we'll clear up the mess you've made." And they did.
After the golden age of Greek theater, some of the texts were translated into Latin and preserved. They were largely forgotten for more than a thousand years. The process of rediscovering them began in Italy during the 15th century. The great Dutch-born scholar Desiderius Erasmus produced fresh Latin translations of a number of Euripides' plays. Later, there were Spanish, French and English translations of plays by Sophocles as well as Euripides. Eventually Aeschylus and Aristophanes were rediscovered, too. The plays were performed, and many of the greatest names of European literature, including Jean Racine, Pierre Corneille, Voltaire, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Eugene O'Neill and T.S. Eliot, wrote works pursuing themes in Greek plays. Greek themes also inspired composers like Christoph Wilibald Gluck, Hector Berlioz, Richard Wagner, Richard Strauss and Igor Stravinsky.
Here we see the extraordinary power of ideas to transcend their times, take a life of their own and influence future generations.
P.E. Easterling, The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
James C. Hogan, A Commentary on the Complete Greek Plays: Aeschylus (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
James C. Hogan, A Commentary on the Plays of Sophocles (Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991).
Gilbert Murray, Aeschylus, The Creator of Tragedy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940).
Gilbert Murray, Aristophanes, A Study (New York: Oxford University Press, 1933).
Gilbert Murray, Euripides and His Age (New York: Henry Holt, 1913).
Gilbert Murray, The Literature of Ancient Greece (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956).
Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic (New York: Galaxy, 1960).
Rex Warner, Men of Athens (London: Bodley Head, 1972).
Additional articles and links:
Wall Street Journal calls The Triumph of Liberty -
"a literary achievement"
Voices for liberty in the ancient world
The man who helped finance the American Revolution
Ancient Roman contributions to private property rights
How toleration developed in modern Europe and America
The story of Magna Carta
The best of H.L. Mencken, witty American defender of liberty
Photobooks and photo calendars created online
How and where photo products like individual calendars and books can be created easy.
How private enterprise created modern Japan
Runaway slaves!
The strange battle for the U.S. Bill of Rights
Why has liberty thrived in the West?
This is where enough people stuck out their necks for liberty.
"Honor is a harder master than the law"
Liberty as a woman
Private initiative spurred vital discoveries throughout history
Political liberty impossible without economic liberty
Thomas Jefferson in perspective
How markets nurtured our civilization
Most dramatic orator in the American antislavery movement
Socialism's greatest enemy
They created the first modern agenda for liberty
William S. Gilbert's wicked wit for liberty
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Block Devices
The block device API provides an interface for access to block-based storage. You can use a block device to back a full file system or write to it directly.
You can find the full C++ API here.
Here is an example that uses a block device:
SD block device example
Block device operations
A block device can perform three operations on a block in a device:
• Read a block from storage.
• Erase a block in storage.
• Program a block that has previously been erased.
Note: The state of an erased block is undefined. NOR flash devices typically set an erased block to all 0xff, but for some block devices such as the SD card, erase is a NOOP. If a deterministic value is required after an erase, the consumer of the block device must verify this.
Block sizes
Some storage technologies have different sized blocks for different operations. For example, NAND flash can be read and programmed in 256-byte pages, but must be erased in 4-kilobyte sectors.
Block devices indicate their block sizes through the get_read_size, get_program_size and get_erase_size functions. The erase size must be a multiple of the program size, and the program size must be a multiple of the read size. Some devices may even have a read/program size of a single byte.
As a rule of thumb, you can use the erase size for applications that use a single block size (for example, the FAT file system).
Utility block devices
mbed OS contains several utility block devices to give you better control over the allocation of storage.
• With the slicing block device, you can partition storage into smaller block devices that you can use independentally.
• With the chaining block device, you can chain multiple block devices together and extend the usable amount of storage.
• mbed OS comes with support for storing partitions on disk with a Master Boot Record (MBR). The MBR block device provides this functionality and supports creating partitions at runtime or using preformatted partitions configured separately from outside the application.
Example block devices
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83 terms
Respiratory System
nasal cavity
the areas above the oral cavity and continuous with the sinuses of the skull; described as the opening to the respiratory system
functions of nasal cavity
lined with ciliated columnar epithelium and mucus secreting goblet cells; "filters" incoming air; moisten incoming air and warms incoming air; holds olfactory (smell) sensory epithelium
components of nasal cavity (nasal bones)
skull bones that form the bridge of the nose
components of nasal cavity (nasal septum)
a perpendicular bony plate that separates the nose into the right and left sides
components of nasal cavity (nasal conchae)
scroll-like bony processes that project medially into the nasal cavity; function to increase the surface area of nasal epithelium
components of nasal cavity (nostrils/nares)
openings to the nasal cavity to conduct air inward and outward during breathing
phraynx (throat)
the posterior continuation of the oral and nasal cavitities; composed of muscle and walls lined with ciliated epithelium and mucus secreting goblet cells; serves a a passageway for the respiratory and digestive tracts
subdivisions of pharynx (oropharynx)
directly continuous with oral cavity
subdivisions of pharynx (nasopharynx)
directly continuous with nasal cavity
subdivisions of pharynx (laryngopharynx)
most posterior and includes the openings to the esophagus and the trachea (glottis)
subdivisions of pharynx (lymph glands)
within the phraynx there are several masses of lymph glands that function in defense; tonsils (palatine tonsils in the oropharynx), adenoids (pharyngeal tonsils in the nasopharynx), lingual tonsils (near the root of the tongue in the oropharynx)
the windpipe or major airway of the respiratory system; structure is maintained by supporting rings of cartilage
function of trachea
conducts air to and from the lungs as it opens into the pharynx; filters incoming air by having a ciliated and mucus secreting epithelial lining
function of trachea (ciliated epithelial lining)
rhythmic beating of the cilia transport any particles up and out of the airway; particles conducted up to pharynx are swallowed or coughed out
cartilaginous structure at the opening of the trachea; also called the voice box; houses the vocal cords
the opening of the larynx/trachea in the laryngopharynx; described as the slit-like opening between the vocal cords
cartilage structure (epiglottis)
flap-like laryngeal cartilage that overlays the glottis that prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing
cartilage structure (thyroid cartilage)
upper and lower cartilage of the larynx that forms the "adam's apple"
cartilage structure (cricoid cartilage)
smaller and lower band-like cartilage of the larynx
vocal cords
strands of ligaments of connective tissues covered by laryngeal epithelium in the walls of the larynx; vibrate as air passes through the larynx to produce sounds; vibrations vary with thickness and length
the major airways that continue from the trachea as it bifurcates towards the right and left lungs
major multilobed organs of the respiratory system; described as "spongy" tissue created by air sacs; incorporates the pulmonary circulation; site for carbon dioxide and oxygen exchanges
bronchial system
as each bronchus enters the lung it branches into a network of smaller and smaller tubes (bronchioles) until reaching cell level for gas exchanges with blood capillaries (air sacs)
air sacs
terminal ends of the bronchioles at the cell level; gas exchange; simple one layer
refers to wall structure of air sac in proximity to blood capillaries for gas exchange
thoracic cavity
chest cavity or thorax; includes the right and left pleural cavities that house the lungs; also includes the interpleural cavity that houses the trachea, major heart vessels, and esophagus; also includes the pericardial cavity that houses the heart
epithelial membrane that envelopes the pleural cavities; consists of a parietal and visceral component
parietal pleura
part of the pleura that lines the walls of the pleural cavities
visceral pleura
part of the pleura that unfolds to cover the surface of each lung within the pleural cavities
processes that are described on the cellular level and on the organismic level
cellular respiration
metabolic processes that involve the oxidation of glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP as well as CO2; occurs in the cell's mitochondria
organismic respiration
processes that involve the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen across cell membranes that may be defined as internal or external
internal respiration
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occurs between blood capillaries and cells in the general body organs and tissues
external respiration
exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen that occurs between pulmonary blood capillaries and teh alveolar walls of air sacs in the lungs
pulmonary system
pulmonary circulation pathway between the heart and the lungs and the function of external respiration; includes the pulmonary vessels and bronchial system within the framework of the lungs
pulmonary artery
major artery that transports deoxygenated blood from the right ventricles to the lungs
pulmonary capillaries
cell level vessels derived from the incoming pulmonary artery that are associated with the air sacs; for carbon dioxide; oxygen exchange during external respiration
pulmonary vein
major vein transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
blood gas transport
refers to the forms in which oxygen and carbon dioxide are "carried" in the blood; approximately 5 liters of blood pass through the lungs per minute
oxygen transport
most of the oxygen transported in oxygenated blood is chemically bound to the hemoglobin in red blood cells
carbon monoxide poisoning
the gas carbon monoxide has a greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen and when present, will bind faster than oxygen to hemoglobin
carbon dioxide transport
most carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) which form through chemical blood reactions as carbon dioxide reacts with water in plasma
regulated by authonomic functions of the nervous system and chemical feedback mechanisms; involves the mechanical processes of inspiration and expiration
mechanical process by which oxygen (air) is drawn into the respiratory system through the oral and nasal cavities and directed into the air sacs of the lungs
mechanical process by which carbon dioxide and water vapor (air) are drawn out from the air sacs of the lungs and directed out through to the oral and nasal cavities
thoracic pressure
the air pressure in the thoracic cavity relative to the outside atmospheric pressure is involved in the mechanics of breathing
changes in pressure
an increase in thoracic cavity size lowers the thoracic cavity pressure and a decrease in thoracic cavity size increases the thoracic cavity pressure relative to the atmosphere; controlled by the diaphragm, intercoastral muscles, and abdominal muscles
breathing muscles
contractions and relaxation allow the thoracic cavity to change overall size
sheet of dome-shaped skeletal that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities; contraction lowers the position of the diaphragm which increases the thoracic cavity size; relaxation returns diaphragm to its dome-shaped position which decreases the thoracic cavity size
intercostal muscles
external and internal muscles between the ribs; contract to move the position of the rib cage which affects thoracic cavity size
abdominal muscles
relaxation allows organs such as the liver and stomach to lower as the diaphragm contracts and lowers
(inspiration mechanics) thoracic cavity changes
thoracic cavity pressure must increase relative to the atmosphere pressure so that air will move inward from higher perssure (outside) to lower pressure (inside)
(inspiration mechanics) diaphragm
contracts and lowers position from its dome-shaped position to increase overall thoracic cavity size
(inspiration mechanics) intercostal muscles
intercostals contract to move rib cage upward and outward to increase thoracic cavity size
(inspiration mechanics) abdmoninal muscles
relax to allow body orgams to lower as the diaphragm lowers into the abdominal cavity
(expiration mechanics) thoracic cavity changes
thoracic cavity pressure must increase relative to the atmosphere pressure so that air will move outward from higher pressure (inside) to lower pressure (outside)
(expiration mechanics) diaphragm
relaes and resumes its upward dome-shape position to decrease the thoracic cavity size
(expiration mechanics) intercoastal muscles
intercostals relax to return rib cage inward and down to decrease the overall thoracic cavity size
(expiration mechanics) abdominal muscles
contract to hold body organs up in positions under the diaphragm
altered breathing
During activities such as singing and speaking, the breathing pattern changes. There are explosive movements of air into and out of the lungs during sneezing, coughing, and laughing. In addition, hiccups result from the involuntary spasms of the diaphragm muscle.
neutral controls
breathing is controlled by involuntary and volutnary components of the autonomic, peripheral, and central nervous systems
medulla oblongata
brain centers that regulate breathing mechanics
cerebral cortex
conscious voluntary inputs from higher centers in the cerebral cortex; allows for some volutnary control over breathing
vagus nerve
carnial nerve; transmits sensory information from the lungs and thoracic cavity to centers in the medulla oblongata
phrenic nerve
motor nerves that center the diaphragm; autonomic motor responses from the medullary centers
intercostal nerves
motor nerves that enters the intercostal muscles that control the movement of the rib cage; autnomic motor responses from medullary centers
carbon dioxide feedback
chemical receptors monitor bicarbonate levels; the medulla oblongata breathing centers receive chemical information that affects the rate of breathing; decreased breathing rate allows more carbon dioxide to remain in the blood system which faster breathing reduces carbon dioxide content
lung volume
the capacity of the lung with regard to air volume associated with breathing
instrument used to measure air volume in lungs during breathing patterns
tidal air (300-500 cc)
amount of air exchanged during normal and relaxed adult breathing
expiratory reserve (1000-2000 cc)
amount of air that can be forced out f the lungs after a normal relaxed exhalation
inspiratory reserve (1500-3000 cc)
amount of air that can be forcibly taken into the lungs after a normal relaxed inhalation
vital capacity (2500-6000 cc)
sum total air volume of tidal air and expiratory reserves
residual air (1000-1500 cc)
volume of air that cannot be exhaled; remains in the lungs after all forced exhalation
hypernea; forced breathing or involuntary increase in the rate and/or depth of breathing which may be due to excessive CO2 in the blood or a deficiency of CO2 also described as abnormal "rapid breathing"
condition related to a lack of oxygen, may also be referred as hypoxia; may be local or systemic; may result from inadequate supply of oxygen to respiratory system or the inability of blood to carry oxygen to tissues
condition characterized by a "bluish" coloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to an excessive amount of deoxygenated blood in blood vessels of the skin
infection of the lungs from bacteria, virus, chemical pollutant, or physical gent that results in inflammation of alveoli and pooling of fluids in spaces normally filled with air
condition in which there is difficulty in breathing, labored breathing, or uncomfortable breathing; alsodescribed as shortness of breath that may be caused by anxiety, stress, or heart condition
condition of inflammation of the epithelial lining of the nasal passages usually accompanied by swelling and nasal discharge
repiratory condition in which alveolar walls lose elasticity, decreased gas capacity and eventual destrution of the air sacs; may be associated with bronchial infection or inflammation
swelling of repiratory tract due to allergen
swelling of bronchial tube due to allergen, infection, viral infection
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The Reis Transmitter 1862-1872
The Reis Transmitter (developed before A.G. Bell invented the telephone)
The instrument shown was developed by Philipp Reis in the early 1860s and was used as the transmitter, the companion piece for his telephone receiver. He was then an instructor in physics (or natural philosophy, as it was then called) in Friedrichsdorf, Germany.
This enigmatic instrument was condemned by the courts as a non-telephone, incapable of transmitting speech, because it was based on a “false theory.” Yet, at the same time, it was acknowledged by many engineers and scientists as the first device to carry the human voice. So what is the story behind this unusual telephone.
The instrument went through several design phases, the model shown being the last version. However, the principle of operation was essentially the same in all cases. In this version, a platinum contact was glued to the center of a parchment diaphragm. Directly above this contact, resting by gravity, was a second platinum contact. In operation, these contacts where connected to a battery and Reis’ receiver, forming a simple series circuit. Words spoken into the mouthpiece caused the diaphragm to flex up and down in step with the vocal sounds and vary the pressure (and thus the resistance) on the closed contacts, consequently modulating the current to the receiver. Or did those same sounds cause the contacts to actually separate, i.e., open and close? This was the crux of the argument, and this is where the court’s deadly “false theory” comes in.
During the late 1870s it was widely held that articulate speech could not be transmitted by abrupt, make and break currents; that such speech could be reproduced only by smooth, continuously varying currents. In Reis’ written account of how his telephone worked, he described it as a “make and break” system, with the contacts opening and closing. He explained it that way because it was the only mode that made sense to him, based on the electrical knowledge of his day. Unfortunately, he was wrong. Although his transmitter could and often did operate in that manner, it could also operate in the so-called loose contact variable pressure mode (now known as the microphone mode) and transmit true, articulate speech. The only problem was that Reis never learned of this, having died in 1874, shortly before the microphone principle was discovered. But Reis’ make and break description was fatal to his claim that he could transmit the human voice. In the peculiar logic of the courts, it couldn’t transmit articulate speech, despite testimony to the contrary, because it was based on a false theory (i.e., Reis’ own description).
There is no question that a Reis transmitter was a tricky and temperamental instrument, and that some were much better than others. The main problems were the parchment diaphragm (see Centennial Transmitter) and the metallic or platinum contacts. Metallic contacts, although capable of operating in microphone mode, cannot compete with carbon in that application. When made with carbon contacts, the Reis transmitter is essentially the same in function and principle as any of the other carbon transmitters that dominated the telephone industry for over a century.
This page was written by A. Edward Evenson, Author of the book The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876 available at
Return to Early Telephone Instruments OR
Return to Telephone History Webpage
Interested in old telephones? Check out the Antique Telephone Collectors Association
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Monday, September 21, 2015
Renaissance Etiquette and Manners
Etiquette and manners were a response to the violence and crude behaviors run rampant in burgeoning European cities. They were the means of reinforcing social order and distinguishing the privileged class from everyone else. It was at the dinner table, that these newly defined codes of conduct were especially important.
Italy was one of the leaders of the 16th century and 17th century cultural revolution, and that included table manners. Italian poet Giovanni della Casa advised in "Galateo," his 1558 book on manners: "One should not comb his hair nor wash his hands in public... The exception to this is the washing of the hands when done before sitting down to dinner, for then it should be done in full sight of others, even if you do not need to wash them at all, so that whoever dips into the same bowl as you will be certain of your cleanliness."
Taking into account that one's hands were also one's "utensils" for hundreds of years, this advice was truly of utmost importance. In his study on the social customs of this period, sociologist Norbert Elias noted that "In good society one does not put both hands into the dish. It is most refined to use only three fingers of the hand. ... Forks scarcely exist, or at most for taking meat from the dish."
Some of the earliest known uses of forks with food occurred in Ancient Egypt, where large forks were used as cooking utensils. The personal table fork was most likely invented in the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, where they were in common use by the 4th century, though the origins may even go back to Ancient Greece, before the Roman period. By the 9th century, according to records, a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use in Persia within some elite circles. By the 10th century, the table fork was in common use throughout the Middle East. Forks were originally viewed by most in Western Europe, as excessively refined. Forks were also viewed, in the case of men, as a sign of effeminacy.
The custom of Western Europeans using table forks as dining implements began in Italy. They were at first a hit, but forks were slow to catch on in Northern Europe. The use of forks in to get food from plate to mouth didn't didn't gain wide acceptance in Northern Europe until the 17th century—and even then, only the well-to-do could afford them.
Spoons were communally used—making the etiquette of eating soups a delicate matter. "If what is given is rather fluid," Dutch theologian Erasmus of Rotterdam writes, "take it on a spoon for tasting and return the spoon after wiping it on a napkin.
Some human behaviors were deemed permissible at the dinner table. On passing gas, Erasmus wrote, "If it is possible to withdraw, it should be done alone. But if not, in accordance with the ancient proverb, let a cough hide the sound." Most modern etiquette books advise that "civilized folk will protect others from any sounds or smells that may be displeasing."
This isn't to say that all Renaissance manners are indeed outdated. On respecting fellow diners' personal space, Giovanni Della Casa wrote, "It is also an unsuitable habit to put one's nose over someone else's glass of wine or food to smell it." And Erasmus advised, "It is rude to offer someone what you have half eaten yourself; it is boorish to redip half-eaten bread into the soup."
Even modern science shows that a great means of spreading bacteria, is re-dipping partially-eaten foods. It certainly gives you an idea of what Renaissance society was trying to improve upon—and how far we've come since that time period. –Some of our sources;, 2011 and
Etiquette Enthusiast, Maura J. Graber is the Site Moderator for Etiquipedia© Etiquette Encyclopedia
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You need to have JavaScript enabled to view this video clip.
Traditional methods of planting, growing, harvesting and processing on a modern small-scale family farm in India.
This clip is from:
First broadcast:
27 September 2007
Classroom Ideas
This clip could be used to highlight the economic activity and trade in India. Present the children with some cardamom spice - allow them to smell it. Can they identify it? Where do they think it comes from? Play the clip and ask the pupils to concentrate on the journey of the cardamom from pod to plate. Presented with a blank grid, ask the pupils to plot the main stages of the spice's journey (planting, fertilising, harvesting, drying, grinding, packaging, shipping, cooking). Allow the pupils to present their thoughts and compare with others in the group. Alternatively, pupils could place cards into the correct chronological order to illustrate their understanding.
This clip also features in:
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From Children's Rights Wiki
Jump to: navigation, search
Alphabetical Country Selector
Links to Country specific information:
International Regional National Action Organisations Resources
Persistent violations
• Discrimination against indigenous children in education[1]
• High rate of chronic malnutrition among indigenous children[2]
• Trafficking of children separated from their family (the CRC further stipulates that in spite of a new law, it remains “concerned at the tolerance of trafficking, which has led to underreporting and impunity”[3]
• Violence against street children[4]
• Persistence of child labour in hazardous spheres[5]
1. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Universal Periodic Review
2. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
3. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Human Rights Committee, UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
4. UN Human Rights Committee, UN Committee Against TortureCorporal punishment is not prohibited in the home (UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, Univesral Periodic Review
5. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
A Central American country situated between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, Guatemala borders Mexico, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. Its recent history is plagued by a succession of military coups and a brutal civil war that lasted 36 years until 1996. With the subsequent transition to democracy, Guatemala has taken steps towards addressing historic human rights abuses, most notably placing its former president on trial on genocide charges. Other enduring human rights issues include discrimination against indigenous and minority groups and extrajudicial executions of children which largely remain in impunity.
The Republic of Guatemala is located in Central America and borders Mexico to the north and west, Belize and the Gulf of Honduras to the east, Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The exact origin of the country's name is not known, but one theory holds that it comes from the expression 'land of the trees' in the Mayan-Toltec language.
The country's capital is Guatemala City.
Population and language
Guatemala is the most populous country in Central America, with 13,686,000 inhabitants, of whom 6,834,000 are under 18. Guatemala has a diverse racial and cultural heritage and is home to many indigenous peoples, including some 21 different Mayan groups, which collectively make up more than 50 per cent of the population. [1]. Spanish is the main official language and is spoken by the majority (60 per cent). However, 23 Mayan languages are also officially recognised and commonly spoken by 40 per cent of the population.
History and Politics
Guatemala came under the control of the Spanish Crown from 1523 until the Declaration of Independence in 1821. However, the United States has a history of exerting political influence in Guatemala, primarily through the United Fruit Company (today known as Chiquita Brands International).
The Company backed a military coup in 1952, stoking fears of communism in the country, to oust Jacobo Arbenz Guzman, whose agrarian reform programme threatened the Company's economic dominance. The programme aimed to redistribute wealth and end semi-feudal practices, proposing to expropriate any uncultivated land, including 40 per cent of that owned by the United Fruit Company.
Following the coup, Guatemala suffered a string of authoritarian governments and social and military revolutions, culminating in a 36-year internal armed conflict in which approximately 40-50,000 people disappeared and 250,000 were killed.
One of the most brutal moments in the country's conflict was the massacre of 200 people in the village of Dos Erres by counter-insurgents who claimed villagers were harbouring insurgents. In a landmark trial, four former army officers trained by the CIA were sentenced for their role in the atrocity in August 2011.
The 1996 Peace Accords marked an end to the conflict and delivered a package of agreements on agrarian reform and human rights, including to bolster the rights of indigenous peoples.
The Peace Accords created a more favourable climate for foreign direct investment, although a significant divide persists between rich and poor as a consequence of unequal distribution of wealth.
The country's main agricultural exports are coffee, sugar and bananas. Industrial activities include sugar processing, tobacco and textile manufacturing. Exports are geared primarily to the US and other Central American markets. Remittances from migrant workers in the US make up about 10 per cent of GDP.
Guatemala is part of the Dominican Republic-Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR).
Media and civil society
Guatemala has a strong civil society movement which has grown as a result of the nation's turbulent history and in response to disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes to which it is prone.
However, Reporters Without Borders has noted that the country is a dangerous place for journalists to look into cases of corruption or links to the civil war, and highlights that the murders of journalists generally pass without investigation.[2]Guatemala ranks 77 out of 178 in Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index 2010, with one being the most free.
Human rights and children's rights
The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has noted that chronic malnutrition affects some 80 per cent of the indigenous population of Guatemala (paragraph 40), and reiterated concerns expressed by other UN treaty bodies about the 'alarming' level of discrimination against indigenous peoples.The UN body has also expressed particular concern about violence against children, in particular the high number of extrajudicial executions of children and the lack of investigation into such cases by the authorities.
In addition, the country has come under international criticism in the past for widespread illegal inter-country adoptions in which members of the judiciary were complicit, leading to the suspension of such adoptions until laws were tightened in 2007.
1. Minority Rights Group International, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Guatemala: Maya, July 2008
2. Reporters Without Borders, Guatemala page
Quick Facts
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18 Ιουλ 2012 (πριν από 5 χρόνια και 3 μέρες)
1.337 εμφανίσεις
Richard H.G. Parry
Although the shear strength expression proposed by Coulomb (1776) for masonry, brick and earth, made
up of cohesion and friction components, is still in general use today, it was not until Terzaghi (1936)
presented the principle of effective stress that it could be used with confidence in most soils and soft or
jointed rocks. The Griffith (1921, 1924) crack theory, while inadequate in itself, has provided a starting
point for developing empirical expressions for the shear strength of hard intact rocks. Many factors
influence the shear strength of soils and rocks, such as drainage conditions, rate of strain or shear
displacement, degree of saturation, stress path, anisotropy, fissures and joints. A brief review is attempted
here of the more salient advances which have been made in understanding and quantifying the influence of
these various factors.
Throughout the five thousand years or more that humans have been concerned with works of construction
some assessment of rock and soil strengths have had to be made, at least by responsible builders, to ensure
that they were adequate to serve the purpose, either in their natural state or as constructional materials in
their own right. Until the 20th Century such assessments were necessarily qualitative, based mostly on
experience or rule of thumb. The problem is that soil and rock come in an infinite number of guises, and
while experience and rule of thumb may often have sufficed in the past, there were no doubt many instances,
mostly long forgotten, when they proved inadequate and even misleading, leading to failures. The advances
in understanding the strength of engineering materials which occurred in the 19th Century did not extend to
soils and rock masses. A fundamental understanding of the strength of soils and soft rocks had to await an
understanding of effective stress, first expressed formally by Terzaghi in 1936 and for which he is justifiably
regarded as the Father of Soil Mechanics. A different, more empirical approach has been required in the
case of hard rocks for which it is recognised that their strength is dominated by the presence of
2.0 COULOMB 1776
In 1773 Coulomb read his paper to the French Academy of Sciences which, after being refereed by his
peers, was published by the Academy in 1776. He proposed an expression for the shear resistance of
masonry, brick and earth of the form:
s = ca + (1/n) N (1)
in which he visualised the frictional component to conform to Amonton's Law with N as the normal force
and 1/n the coefficient of friction, and the cohesion c to be the resistance of solid bodies to the simple
separation of their parts, giving a total cohesive or adhesive force of ca where a is the area of rupture. He
related cohesion to tensile strength and showed by experiment for a "white stone" that the shear fracture
force directed along the plane of rupture was slightly greater than the tensile fracture force perpendicular to
the rupture plane, but the difference was very small and he chose to neglect it.
Cambridge, UK.
In modern geotechnical terms the Coulomb equation is written in the form:
= c + σ
tanφ (2)
where τ
is the shear strength per unit area, c is the unit cohesion, σ
is the normal compressive stress on the
shear plane and φ is the angle of shearing resistance. The values of c and φ for a soil depend on many factors
including stress path, stress level, drainage conditions and strain rate. Although widely used for soils, the
Coulomb equation is less used in rock mechanics as strength envelopes often show strong curvature.
Coulomb applied the shear strength parameters to studying the strength of an axially loaded vertical
masonry pier and to earth pressures on retaining walls. He examined first a masonry pier with cohesive
strength only and showed correctly that the least strength was given by a rupture plane at 45° to the pier axis.
He repeated his analysis for a masonry pier having both cohesive and frictional strength and showed that the
minimum strength was given by a rupture plane with angle x to the horizontal, where x is given by:
tan x = [(1 + n
- n
It is now usual to use φ rather than n, giving the much simpler expression:
x = (45° + φ /2) (4)
In analysing earth pressure on a vertical retaining wall Coulomb first considered the stability of a triangle
of earth behind the wall, deducing correctly that the geometry of the triangle giving the maximum pressure
was determined by the friction alone and was not influenced by the cohesion. Assuming the soil to have
both cohesion and friction, and assuming zero friction between the wall and the soil, he obtained the
expression for the maximum horizontal force on unit length of the retaining wall:
= mh
- clh (5)
where h equalled the height of the earth behind wall and, in modern terms, putting γ equal to the unit weight
of earth:
m = 0.5γ tan
(45 - φ /2) (6)
l = 2tan(45 - φ /2) (7)
In an example illustrating the use of his expression Coulomb assumed a coefficient of friction of unity,
which he considered to be the angle of repose and he took cohesion to be zero for "newly-turned soils
(Heyman 1972 translation). This presumably included any reworked soil.
3.0 CULMANN 1866, MOHR 1882.
Clear graphical representation of stress and shear strength has played an important role in their
understanding in relation to soils and rocks. Culmann (1866) first used the stress circle in considering
longitudinal and vertical stresses in horizontal beams during bending. His exploitation of the stress circle
included the establishment of a point on the circle, now known as the pole point, allowing the stresses on a
plane at any specified inclination to be found by drawing a line through this point parallel to this plane. Such
a line met the circle again at the required stress point. This gave him a simple means for plotting principal
stress trajectories for a beam.
Aware of the fact that the currently favoured failure criterion, based on the maximum strain criterion of
Saint-Venant, did not give good agreement with experiments on steel specimens, Mohr (1882) promoted the
use of a failure criterion based on limiting shear resistance, and proposed that stress circles should be drawn
to give a full understanding of stress conditions at failure. As an illustration of the shear stress criterion,
Mohr used the example of cast iron tested to failure in compression, in tension and in pure shear. Drawing
failure envelopes just touching the compression and tension circles, he showed that the failure stress in shear
was given by the radius of a circle with its centre at the origin of stresses and just touching the two
envelopes. These values agreed satisfactorily with experimental observations.
Although the motivations of Coulomb and Mohr towards developing a failure criterion were very
different and on different materials, the end point was much the same: a stress dependent criterion based on
shear resistance, familiar to geotechnical engineers as the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
Heyman (1972) cites a number of workers in the 18
and 19
centuries who appear to have been
primarily concerned with setting up classical solutions for the thrust of soils as an intellectual exercise, rather
than with any practical application. Although some included cohesion in their analyses, the bulk of the work
avoided the difficulties this introduced, assuming cohesionless behaviour and a friction angle equal to the
angle of repose. This clearly led to difficulties in interpreting the behaviour of clays which were known to
be able to stand on steep, or even vertical, faces.
In his memorandum on Landslides in Clays, Collin (1846) recognised that soils may have both frictional
and cohesive (sometimes referred to as adhesive) components of strength as evidenced in the passage:
"The force of cohesion of clay plays an important role in the equilibrium of soils although so far the
geometricians who have established the proper formulas to determine the conditions of the equilibrium of
clayey soils have neglected this factor, which one might just as well neglect as gravity or friction".
Collin himself apparently considered that friction played little part in the strength of clays, with remarks such
as "... the mathematical formula for stability must include two forces, one of constant gravity and the other of
cohesion...". He warned that this cohesive strength could be greatly diminished by the infiltration of water,
by freezing and thawing and other factors, or could simply diminish with time.
Collin carried out tests on long 40 mm square-section specimens of clay compacted to different
consistencies (presumably different moisture contents, although these are not given) in which a central
section was pulled out at right angles to the axis of the specimen thus shearing on two parallel surfaces 50
mm apart. Collin's memorandum was concerned with the reality and shape of slip surfaces and he made no
attempt to use measured shear strengths to analyse the slips. His purpose in carrying out the tests was to
show the influence of soil consistency (ie moisture content) and time or loading rate effects on the cohesive
Rankine (1876) coped with the problem of cohesion in clays by stating that "...the adhesion of earth is
gradually destroyed by the action of air and moisture, and of changes in the weather, especially by alternate
frost and thaw; sothat friction is the only force that can be relied upon to produce permanent stability". He
considered the adhesion, however, to be "...useful in providing temporary stability in the execution of
earthworks, enabling the side of a cutting to stand for a time with a vertical face for a certain depth below its
upper edge". This still led him to incorrect assumptions, such as stating the angle of repose for a "damp
clay" to be 45°.
In discussing the stability of rock cuttings, Rankine stated that the permanence of cohesion in firm, sound
rock, such as igneous and metamorphic rocks without fissures, may be depended upon and cuttings made
vertical or nearly so. He warned, however, that sedimentary rocks containing clay, such as shale, even if
hard when cut may soften with time; and that sandstones and limestones could have variable strengths. He
also observed that sedimentary rocks in the side of a cutting were more stable when the beds were horizontal
or dipping away from the cutting, than when they dipped into the cutting.
The lack of understanding of clay strength and the anomalous, and often incorrect, results obtained by
applying formulae based on an angle of repose led practising engineers to rely on their judgement and
experience when dealing with this material. This led to frequent failures in construction works. In an
attempt to clarify the relationship between normal pressure and shear strength in clays, Bell (1915)
constructed an apparatus consisting of a brass cylinder 3 inches (76 mm) internal diameter, which could be
filled to a depth of about 5 inches (127 mm) with clay and loaded axially by means of a plunger. The mid-
portion of the cylinder consisted of a brass ring which could be translated laterally by a measured force, thus
shearing the cylinder of soil on two parallel faces 3 inches in diameter. Tests were made under different
axial stresses and, as the tests were essentially undrained (and for reasons now clearly understood), his plots
of shear resistance against normal pressure showed substantial zero intercepts and low angles of inclination,
generally less than 6.5°. Higher values were obtained with stiff sandy clay and dry very stiff boulder clays,
probably as a result of unsaturation or cavitation in the clay. While these tests confirmed that it was not
appropriate to apply an angle of repose to clay, they did not clarify the true behaviour of clay and the role of
pore water pressure in the soil.
Citing earlier experiments by Osborne Reynolds (1885), Casagrande (1936) observed that during shear
deformation dense sand expanded and very loose sand reduced in volume. Under large shear deformation a
unique critical voids ratio was reached, and in the case of dense sand the applied shear stress reached a peak
before dropping to a lower ultimate value at the critical voids ratio. Casagrande also realised that the critical
voids ratio depended upon the static pressure applied to the soil. Taylor (1948) introduced the concept that
the strength of dense sand consisted in part of internal rolling and sliding friction between grains and in part
of interlocking. In the shear box he proposed the interlocking portion s
of the strength to be given by:
.A.Δh = σ.A.Δt (8)
where A is the area of the test specimen, σ is the applied vertical pressure, Δh is an incremental horizontal
shear displacement at failure and Δt the corresponding increase in thickness of the specimen. For a sample
of dense Ottawa sand tested in the shear box he found the interlocking portion to make up 26 per cent of the
total shear strength.
Rowe (1962,1969) proposed a dilatancy rate D for granular materials such as sand given by:
D = ( 1 - dv/dε
) (9)
where v is volume decrease per unit volume and ε
is the major principal strain in a compression test and
minor principal strain in an extension test. Applying minimum energy principles Rowe derived an expression
for principal stress ratio σ′
at failure:
( 1 - dv/dε
) tan
(45 + φ′
/2) (10)
The friction parameter φ′
depends on relative density, pressure and stress path and has a magnitude in the
< φ′
< φ′
, where φ′
is individual particle slip friction and φ′
is the frictional strength at critical
state. At the densest state up to peak φ′
and at its loosest state (critical state where dv/dε
= 0),
= φ′
Rowe introduced the theoretical finding by Horne (1965) that the maximum value of ( 1 - dv/dε
) is 2 (ie
dv = -dε
and thus dv/dε
= -1), giving 1≤ ( 1 - dv/dε
) ≤ 2. The upper limit for sands in triaxial compression
= 2 tan
(45 +φ′
/2) (11a)
and the lower limit (critical state value) for sands in triaxial compression is:
= tan
(45 + φ′
/2) (11b)
In plane strain, φ
= φ
for any packing, so the upper limit for sands in plane strain becomes:
= 2 tan
(45 + φ′
/2) (12a)
and the lower limit for sands in plane strain becomes:
= tan
(45 + φ′
/2) (12b)
Rowe observed that the limiting dilatancy rate of 2 was not necessarily reached by dense packings.
In order to illustrate the influence of dilatancy rates Rowe considered the case of Mersey River quartz
sand for which φ
= 26° and φ
= 32°. Applying Equations 11a and 11b for triaxial compression:
= 5.1, thus φ′
= 42°
and (φ′
- φ′
) = (φ′
- φ′
) = 10°.
Applying Equations 12a and 12b for plane strain φ′
= 47°, (φ′
- φ′
) = 15° for Mersey River sand.
After analysing results from 17 different sands tested in 12 different laboratories Bolton (1986) proposed
the use of a dilatancy index I
, given by the best fit relation ship:
= I
(10 - ln p′) - 1 (13)
The experimental data yielded the following best fit relationships (Figure 1):
Triaxial compression: (φ′ - φ′
) = 3I
(in degrees) (14a)
Plane strain: (φ′ - φ′
) = 5I
(in degrees) (14b)
All conditions: -(dε
= 0.3I
It can be seen in Figure 1 that (φ′
- φ′
) for triaxial compression (given by I
= 1) is 10° and 16° for plane
strain, which correspond closely to the values derived by Rowe for Mersey quartz sand.
After studying many case records of earth dam and foundation failures in Europe and the USA, Terzaghi
recognised the inadequacies of existing soil classifications and put in hand an experimental programme
lasting 7 years. This culminated in 1925 in his book Erdbaumechanik and a series of articles in Engineering
News Record. His strength tests consisted of compressing 20 mm and 40 mm cubes of soil at various
moisture contents. His realisation in these articles of the importance of pore water pressure in determining
soil behaviour led to his formal statement in 1936 of the principle of effective stress, in which he states that
the effective principal stress is the difference between the total principal stress and the neutral stress (now
called the pore water pressure).
In his 1925 articles Terzaghi stated that frictional resistance in soils was produced by the difference
between the externally applied stress and the hydrostatic excess. He also stated that when load was applied
to a clay a large part was taken by the pore water and hence there was no large additional frictional
resistance, and furthermore if a clay was not in hydrostatic equilibrium it could demonstrate an angle of
friction anywhere between zero and the normal value.
He appears to have been much
less clear about cohesion in clays
and some of his comments are
confusing. For the most part he
refered to "cohesion" or "apparent
cohesion", as the internal
resistance arising from pressure
exerted by the surface tension of
the capillary water. In modern
terms this is the unconfined
(undrained) strength of a
saturated clay. In a rather
obscure comment he contrasts
"apparent cohesion" with "true
cohesion" produced by the
internal friction.
In an unpublished MIT Report
(1930) Casagrande and Albert
concluded from a series of direct
shear tests on Boston blue clay
that consolidation can take place
during a shear test and the
measured strength depended upon the rate of load application. In the first systematic investigation of shear
strength using the triaxial test, Jurgenson (1934) showed shear strength for remoulded Boston blue clay to be
independent of total normal stress if no consolidation was allowed; and he also concluded that the higher
resistances obtained in slow tests were caused by partial consolidation of the soil.. He concluded too, as did
Casagrande and Albert, that previous history influenced soil strength. In a discussion on Jurgenson's paper,
Casagrande (1934) distinguished, perhaps for the first time, the relationship between the Mohr-Coulomb
strength envelopes for quick (undrained) tests and slow (drained) tests (Fig.2).
With the principle of effective stress firmly established (Terzaghi 1936) researchers directed their
attention to separating the true cohesion and true friction components of the shear strength of clays. A
proposal by Tiedeman (1937) that the true cohesion was proportional to the maximum consolidation pressure
was criticised by Hvorslev (1937) on the rather flimsy basis that it gave friction angles greater than indicated
by the inclination of observed failure planes, and on the stronger evidence that all samples under the same
normal stress, and having the same maximum consolidation stress history, would have equal strengths.
Observations did not support this. Hvorslev also pointed out that this criterion also ignored volume changes
during shear.
On the basis of shear box tests on Wiener Tegel and Klein Belt clays, Hvorslev (ibid) proposed a true
cohesion component of strength c
depending only on water content at failure, and he related this cohesion to
the "equivalent pressure p
", that is the value of pressure for that water content given by the unique
relationship between water content and consolidation pressure for the soil when normally consolidated,
giving the shear strength expression:
= c
+ (σ
– u) tanφ
= κ
+ σ′
where κ is a constant, u is pore pressure at failure and φ
is the true friction angle. Dividing Equation 15
throughout by p
gives the advantage of a non-dimensional plot of τ
/ p
vs σ′
/ p
with abscissa κ and slope
. Terzaghi (1938) supported these findings in a paper on the Coulomb equation.
An outstanding contribution to the
understanding and usage of the shear
strength parameters for clays was made
by Skempton in his study of a slip in
the soft clays of the west bank of the
Eau Brink Cut near King's Lynn in
Norfolk (Skempton 1943). Skempton
performed both total stress and
effective stress slip circle stability
calculations and showed that, although
both gave factors of safety close to
unity, the critical slip circles differed in
location as shown in Figure 3, with the
effective stress circle approximating
more closely to the estimated location
of the actual slip surface than the total
stress circle. Referring to the undrained
shear strength as the "existing shear
strength", Skempton measured this on
sealed specimens in a triaxial cell
(together with some confirmatory tests
in direct shear) and showed it to be
essentially independent of applied cell
pressure as already demonstrated by
other workers. He measured the
effective stress cohesion and angle of
friction in drained direct shear box
tests, but pointed out that while it was
appropriate to use these in analysis they
were not fundamental strength
parameters. The fundamental Hvorslev
parameters were difficult to determine
in the laboratory and unsuitable to use
in the field with existing analytical
methods. Skempton also showed that
the measured inclination of failure
planes in undrained triaxial tests was
determined by the true angle of internal
friction and not by the (zero) angle of
shearing resistance measured in the undrained tests, which explained why the critical slip circle given by the
total stress analysis of the field slips differed considerably in location from the critical circle given by the
effective stress analysis and from the actual slip surface.
In a supplement to a report on the influence of strain rates Taylor (1944) discussed various other factors
which would modify the shear strength expression for clays, the basic form of which he gave for a normally
consolidated clay as:
s = σ′ tanφ (16)
where σ ′ is the intergranular pressure normal to the failure surface and φ is the true friction angle. For
overconsolidated clays (Taylor used the term precompressed) he introduced the concept of intrinsic stress p
arising from the observation that overconsolidated specimens in the shear box at failure under drained
conditions had a voids ratio less than normally consolidated specimens of the same clay under the same
applied pressure. The intrinsic pressure was taken to be the pressure increment along the failure line for the
normally consolidated clay on an e - σ ′
plot corresponding to the voids ratio difference. This gave the shear
strength expression:
s = (p
+ σ′ )tanφ (17)
Taylor further suggested the possibility of including a term for soil density in the strength equation which,
together with p
tanφ, comprised the Hvorslev true cohesion term c
For consolidated undrained tests on normally consolidated clays Taylor gave the expression for shear
s = σ
where σ
is the consolidation pressure and φ
is an apparent friction angle. He illustrated
the differences between drained and
consolidated undrained strength envelopes by
means of the diagram in Figure 4, the
portions of the envelopes deviating from a
straight line through the origin giving the
strengths for overconsolidated specimens.
Taylor drew attention to a number of points
with respect to this diagram, notably that for
normally consolidated specimens the
consolidated undrained strengths were about
half the drained strengths for the same
consolidation pressure, the envelopes
crossing over where the drained test
underwent no volume change, and at lower
pressures than this the consolidated
undrained strengths could be much higher than drained strengths because of expansion of the drained
specimens during shear (and the development of high negative pore pressures in the undrained tests,
although Taylor does not state this). Taylor also commented on the relative flatness of the consolidated
undrained envelope for overconsolidated specimens (again reflecting the development of high negative pore
pressures during shear).
The Triaxial Shear Report prepared by Rutledge (1947) contained the results of a large number of triaxial
tests carried out between 1940 and 1944 in three American laboratories. Observations from the tests on
undisturbed, saturated clays led to the American Working Hypothesis, that for normally consolidated clay
the strength at failure depended only on water content and that water content itself was a function solely of
major principal effective stress for clays of the type tested (Chicago and Massena clays). Similar findings
were reported by Bjerrum (1950).
By relating strains to effective stress changes during shear and assuming zero volume change, Skempton
(1948) derived for undrained triaxial compression tests on saturated clays the expression:
Δu = A(Δσ
- Δσ
) + Δσ
where Δu is the pore pressure increment caused by the applied major and minor total principal stress
increments Δσ
and Δσ
respectively, and A is a constant. In a subsequent paper Skempton (1953) modified
this expression to include the constant B for soils which were not fully saturated, thus:
Δu = B[Δσ
+ A(Δσ
- Δσ
)] (19b)
where B is the relationship between pore pressure change and an applied isotropic total stress change Δσ
Skempton showed that A = 1/3 for a soil behaving as an isotropic elastic material. He also listed values of A
at failure ranging from -1/2 to 0 for heavily overconsolidated clays up to +1/2 to +1 for normally
consolidated clays (up to +1.5 for clays of high sensitivity).
The earlier work of Taylor on energy expended at failure was taken up for clays by Gibson (1953), who
postulated that the Hvorslev "true friction angle" comprised the sum of the resistance arising from frictional
interaction between grains and a strength related to the rate of volume change of the test specimen. He
proposed a modified form of the Hvorslev expression for drained shear box tests:
= c
+ σ′
+ σ′
is the work expended at failure to expand the specimen against the applied stress σ′
. He found
to have a value ranging from 3° to 26° for a number of clays tested in the shear box. Cylindrical
specimens of each soil, 76 mm in height and 38 mm diameter submitted to unconfined axial compression at
constant strain rate, showed the angles of failure planes as they developed to reflect good agreement with the
true angle of friction φ′
(identical to φ′
for undrained conditions).
A basic weakness in the attempts by Hvorslev and others in the early studies was the fact that the peak
shear strength, while important to engineers, was a transient point on the stress strain curve which varied
with a number of factors such as applied stress path and boundary conditions. It was not a fundamental state
of the soil. A full understanding of soil strength needed the establishment of a fundamental "shear state" in
the soil as a platform from which to view any other state during shear including, and most importantly, the
condition of failure, usually taken to be the point of maximum deviator stress. With interest concentrated on
peak strength, little attention was given to post-peak behaviour and to the fact that under sustained shearing a
specimen might be expected to achieve an ultimate "steady state" condition. One problem discouraging such
studies was the often considerable distortion of the test specimen in the post-peak phase or even in reaching
peak strength.
In order to understand the influence of factors such as overconsolidation ratio and stress path on the
behaviour of clays a basic reference state in shear was required and this was provided by the critical state
concept (Roscoe, Schofield and Wroth 1958, Parry 1958), although not known by this name when first
proposed. The basis of the critical state concept is that under sustained uniform shearing, a unique condition
of e vs p′
and q′
vs p′
is achieved
as shown in Figure 5, regardless of the test type and initial stress history
of the soil, where e is voids ratio, p′
is mean effective stress and q′
is deviator stress at critical state. In
Figure 5 the paths AB, FB are undrained tests, ACD, FGH are consolidated undrained tests and ACE, FGJ
are consolidated drained compression tests.
The critical state strength expression is usually written:
= Mp′
where M is a constant for a particular soil.
Combining equation 21 with the Mohr-Coulomb failure
expression (assuming c′ =0) gives for:
Triaxial compression: M = (6sinφ′
)/(3 - sinφ′
) (22a)
Triaxial extension: M = (6sinφ′
)/(3 + sinφ′
) (22b)
The ratio of critical state deviator stress in extension (E) to compression (C) is thus given by:
(C) = (3 - sinφ′
)/(3 + sinφ′
) (23)
Equation (23) gives undrained shear strength ratios reducing from 0.8 for φ′
= 20° to 0.68 for φ′
= 35°.
These ratios accord well with peak strength ratios observed by many experimentalists, commonly in the
range 0.6 to 0.9, confirming the strong influence exerted by the basic critical state condition even where a
peak strength is experienced before the soil reaches critical state. Theoretical plane strain strengths lie
intermediate between triaxial compression and extension values which is also in accord with observations.
Most natural soils and even laboratory reconstituted soils do not deform uniformly during shearing owing
to a lack of uniformity in the soil structure and the manner in which the boundary forces are applied to the
test specimen. This obviates the possibility of the soil reaching a true critical state. In the field, too, failure
and the mode of failure when it occurs is likely to be governed by specific weaknesses in the soil structure.
Thus, the adoption of strength parameters for design or analysis becomes a matter of judgement, based on
experience, a sound knowledge of the site conditions and selection of the most relevant laboratory or field
tests to determine strength parameters. A particular case is residual strength (Skempton 1964) where large
displacements can occur in the field along a well defined failure surface, which, in some cases, may be a pre-
existing failure surface. It is considered to have particular relevance in stiff heavily overconsolidated clays.
Residual strength parameters cannot be determined in the triaxial test and require the use of a ring shear or
several reversals of a shear box.
The influence of soil structure in natural sedimented clays was examined by Burland (1990) in the light of
the soil in a reconstituted state, the strength and compressibility for which he refers to as the "intrinsic"
properties. In order to compare natural and reconstituted states of a soil, he introduces a normalising
parameter I
, termed the "void index", such that:
= (e - e∗
)/ (e∗
- e∗
) (24a)
= (e - e∗
where e is voids ratio, e∗
and e∗
are voids ratios for the reconstituted soil under consolidation pressures
of 100 kPa and 1000 kPa respectively.
In Figure 6 values of I
for a number of natural sedimented clays (e = e
) are plotted against effective
overburden pressure σ′
and the best fit regression line through these points termed the sedimentation
compression line (SCL). The separation of the SCL from the intrinsic compression line (ICL) is a measure of
the enhanced resistance of a naturally deposited clay over that in its reconstituted state. Over the region
shown in Figure 6 the effective overburden carried by the reconstituted clay is approximately five times that
carried by the equivalent reconstituted clay and would be much greater for highly sensitive and quick clays.
Plotting shear strength against normal effective stress for two heavily overconsolidated natural clays, low
plasticity Todi clay and high plasticity London clay, Burland shows the intact strength envelope to lie above
the intrinsic strength envelope as expected. Normalising the applied stresses by dividing by the Hvorslev
equivalent stress he shows the intact drained and undrained surfaces to again lie above the intrinsic Hvorslev
surface. He also noted for these two clays that their strengths dropped quickly after peak to achieve a
reasonably stable value after only a few millimetres further displacement, and he terms this the "post-rupture
strength", as opposed to the residual strength which will only be achieved after much greater displacements.
The post-rupture envelope lies close to the intrinsic critical state envelope at low stresses and below it at high
Despite the great attention which has been given to the effective strength shear strength parameters c′ and
φ′ for clays, and the many papers written on the subject, there are still uncertainties about the basic nature of
these sources of strength and the appropriate values to adopt for design and analysis. This applies
particularly to c′, as a measured φ′ value, although it may be stress path and stress magnitude dependent, is
usually regarded as reliable, providing the appropriate test is performed to evaluate it. It is much more
difficult to decide on the right value of c′ to adopt. It is embodied in Critical State theory that c′ = 0 and
although in practice most natural clays, particularly if initially moderately to heavily overconsolidated (i.e.
on the "dry" side of critical state), do not achieve a true critical state, it is common for c′ = 0 to apply at large
strain or shear displacement (e. g. at the residual state).
Effective stress strength envelopes for peak strength conditions, particularly for drained tests on
moderately to heavily overconsolidated clays, are likely to exhibit a zero stress cohesive intercept. This may
simply arise from the linear extension of a portion of a curved envelope, or may have a specific physical
meaning. In most cases the overriding contribution will come from interlocking of the densely packed
particles leading to dilation, but some contribution to the cohesion intercept may come from interparticle
bonding, at least in natural undisturbed clays.
True cohesion has been attributed by various writers to interparticle electrical forces (e.g. Lambe 1953,
Rosenquist 1955) and interparticle bonding through the coalesence of modified "rigid" water layers
surrounding the particles (Hvorslev 1937, Terzaghi 1941, Grim 1948, Haefeli 1951). The possible existence
of some form of interparticle attraction or bonding is supported by the fact that effective stress tensile
strengths have been measured in natural heavily overconsolidated London Clay (Bishop and Garga 1969)
and in a natural soft lightly overconsolidated clay (Parry and Nadarajah 1974). In the latter case effective
stress tensile strengths up to 8 kPa were measured in undrained triaxial compression and extension tests,
while effective stress cohesion intercepts ranged from 3 kPa to 11kPa for specimens at different orientations.
These relative magnitudes are of interest in view of Coulomb's assumption of tensile and cohesive strengths
having essentially the same magnitude. Whatever the origin of the effective stress cohesion intercept, it
remains a major uncertainty what value should be used in design in any particular circumstance. While
putting c′ = 0 is common, and no doubt often justified, it will be overconservative in some instances.
A study by Taylor (1944, 1948) of the
influence of strain rate on measured
undrained shear strengths showed that
for Boston blue clay tested in the triaxial
cell the strength increased by about 6 per
cent for every tenfold increase in axial
compression rate from about 0.0003%
per minute up to 1.0% per minute.
Some early studies of strain rate effects
on clays were made by Casagrande and
Shannon (1948, 1949) and Casagrande
and Wilson (1951). Unconfined and
undrained triaxial tests were performed
with failure times ranging from 0.015
seconds to 30 days. The reports by
Casagrande and Shannon describe, in
general, tests performed at rates faster than normal laboratory rates, while the report by Casagrande and
Wilson describes creep tests at rates slower than normal laboratory rates. Tests were also performed at
normal laboratory rates (2 to 10 minutes to failure) for comparison purposes. Quick undrained tests on a
wide range of natural clays and on reconstituted kaolin mostly showed linear increases in strength with
reducing log-time to failure, with a few showing increases at an increasing rate. The increases ranged from
1.07 to 1.44 for one (order of magnitude) time cycle and 1.38 to 2.20 for four time cycles. There appeared to
be no correlation between these rates and the plasticity of the soil. In the slow tests the strength decreases
with increasing time to failure were fairly constant, ranging from 4 percent to 10 percent per time-cycle over
four time cycles.
A series of fast tests on a number of clays, mostly on unconfined specimens, were performed by Whitman
(1957) with failure times ranging from 5 minutes to 0.005 seconds. All clays showed linear increases in
strength, ranging from 3% up to 15% per time-cycle up to three reducing time-cycles, with sharper increases
in the fourth and fifth time-cycles. Similar behaviour as shown in Figure 7 was reported by Richardson and
Whitman (1963) for undrained triaxial compression tests on reconstituted, overconsolidated Buckshot clay
= 62, w
= 24).
Slow triaxial compression tests performed on undisturbed specimens of Fornebu clay (w
= 36-59, w
15-34) by Bjerrum, Simons and Torblaa (1958), consolidated under isotropic pressures up to 400 kPa,
showed a marked drop of 40% in strength over the first time-cycle from 10 minutes to 100 minutes to failure,
with subsequent drops of only about 6% per time-cycle up to 500 hours to failure as shown in Figure 8.
Although it has long been recognised that all soils are anisotropic in their behaviour either as a result of
their stress history and applied stress during shear, or fabric anisotropy built in during their formation, little
or no account is usually taken of this in design and analysis and basic textbooks on soil mechanics give it
scant coverage. This, despite the fact that much has been written on the subject. In an early paper on this
subject Casagrande and Carrillo (1944) distinguished between induced anisotropy due exclusively to strains
arising from the applied stresses, and inherent fabric anisotropy termed inherent anisotropy. They derived
graphical and analytical solutions for shear strength in the case of induced anisotropy for (a) purely cohesive
material and (b) purely frictional material, assuming in both cases the principal strengths (maximum and
minimum) occurred on principal stress planes and varied elliptically between these extremes. For a cohesive
soil with inherent anisotropy they considered the case where the principal strengths did not occur on the
planes of the principal stresses. Assuming isotropic Hvorslev strength parameters for a one-dimensionally
normally consolidated clay, Hansen and Gibson (1949) derived an expression for undrained shear strength
for any orientation of the failure plane. They concluded from this analysis that in the field the greatest
undrained strength would be mobilised in the case of active earth pressure and the least in the case of
passive pressure, with other types of failures, such as circular slides, lying between these two extremes.
Duncan and Seed (1966) concluded that, as a result of initial stress anisotropy and principal stress rotation in
the field, the effective stress strength parameters
and pore pressure parameters would vary with
orientation of the failure plane and account should
be taken of this in applying the otherwise valid
Hansen and Gibson analysis.
Assuming a cross-anisotropic elastic material
Henkel (1971) derived expressions for effective
stress paths for three types of undrained tests: (a)
triaxial tests on vertical specimens (b) triaxial tests
on horizontal specimens and (c) plane strain tests
on vertical specimens with zero strain in one of the
horizontal directions. He showed that these
coincided well with the initial linear portion of
experimental stress paths for heavily over-
consolidated London clay assuming a horizontal
stiffness equal to 1.6 times the vertical stiffness.
The influence of stress path on the peak shear
strength of an anisotropic soft clay can be seen in
Figure 9. Consolidation tests by Wesley (1975) on
vertical and horizontal specimens of Mucking
Flats clay (w
= 56, w
= 25) showed a vertical
stiffness about twice the lateral stiffness.
Theoretical elastic effective stress paths are shown
in Figure 9 (broken lines) for undrained triaxial
compression and extension tests on vertical and
horizontal specimens of a soil with vertical to
horizontal elastic moduli in the ratio of 2:1. The
stress paths for Mucking Flats clay observed by
Wesley and shown in Figure 9 correspond closely
to these and it can be seen that directions of the
stress paths determine the points at which the
specimens reach the failure envelope and thus
determine the peak undrained strengths. The actual
values of peak shear strength c
are given below:
Vertical specimens: Compression 16.3 kPa,
Extension 9.2 kPa.
Horizontal specimens: Compression 11.7 kPa,
Extension 11.8 kPa.
As noted previously undrained extension tests on
isotropic laboratory prepared specimens usually give
shear strengths of about 0.7 to 0.8 times the
compression values. The influence of anisotropy in
the Mucking Flats specimens is to exaggerate this
difference in vertical specimens and suppress it
altogether in horizontal specimens
An example of the effect of fabric anisotropy on
drained shear strength can be seen for heavily
overconsolidated Oxford Clay (w
= 70%,
= 25%) in Figure 10. Oxford Clay is an upper
Jurassic deposit outcropping in South-East England
and estimated to have been under 900 metres of overburden in the past. It is strongly laminated in the
horizontal direction to the extent that pieces of clay defoliate on drying like the leaves of a book. In order to
determine design parameters for reservoir excavations, drained direct shear box tests were performed to
measure peak and residual strengths of specimens with the shear plane vertical (V), horizontal (H) and at 30°
to the horizontal (I). The results for tests with a normal applied stress of 350 kPa are shown in Figure 10, and
it can be seen that the H and I tests gave comparable results, but the strength was much higher for the V test.
In a study of short-term failures of deep excavations in heavily overconsolidated London Clay (w
= 95,
=30) an Eocene deposit thought to have been under some 150 metres of sediments in the past, Skempton
and LaRochelle (1965) found back-calculated undrained shear strengths from the slips to be only 55% of the
values measured on 38 mm dia by 76 mm long triaxial specimens in the laboratory. They attributed about
20% of the reduction to time effects associated with pore water migration and the remainder to the presence
of fissures, which would have greatly influenced the mass behaviour of the clay, but would have had little
influence on small test specimens consisting essentially of intact clay. It was also found that 100 mm dia
triaxial test specimens gave undrained shear strengths about 10% lower than 38 mm dia specimens.
Marsland (1972) showed that the undrained laboratory measured strength of London clay was influenced by
the shapes, roughnesses and inclinations of fissures in the test specimen (cut from blocks). Noting also the
importance of the ratio of fissure spacing to specimen diameter in determining laboratory undrained
strengths, he plotted non-dimensionally against this ratio the ratio of laboratory strengths to those deduced
from various large scale field tests, using both his own data and data from Imperial College (Figure 11). He
showed that undrained shear strengths measured on specimens with a small diameter relative to fissure
spacing could be almost five times those from specimens with a large diameter relative to fissure spacing.
In three-phase unsaturated clays, with both air and water in the voids, the shear strength may be
determined very largely by the high suction in the water phase rather than external pressures. Total suction
is made up of osmotic or solute suction and matric suction. Solute suction is the negative gauge pressure to
which a pool of pure water must be subjected to achieve equilibrium through a semi-impermeable membrane
with a pool containing a solution identical to the soil water. Matric suction is the negative gauge pressure
relative to external gas pressure on soil water to which a solution identical to the soil water must be subjected
to achieve equilibrium with the soil water through a permeable barrier. The effective stress equation is
usually expressed in terms of matric suction only (Bishop 1959, Aitchison 1960, Bishop etal 1960):
σ′ = (σ - u
) + χ (u
) (25)
leading to the expression for shear strength τ
f :
= c′ + [σ
- u
+ χ (u
)] tanφ′ (26)
where u
is pore air pressure in
excess of atmospheric pressure and
- u
) is matric suction. In
practice this expression has been
little used owing to the problem of
assigning values to the coefficient
χ and to the extreme difficulty of
measuring directly the large
negative values of pore water
pressure, greatly exceeding
atmospheric pressure in magnitude,
which often exist in unsaturated
clays. Recent work, however, offers
hope that the direct measurement of
large matric suction may become
possible ( Ridley 1993, Gan and
Fredlund 1997).
Fredlund and Morgenstern
(1977) showed that the shear
strength of unsaturated soils could
be described by any two of three
state variables (σ - u
), (σ - u
and (u
), based on which a
linear shear strength equation was
proposed by Fredlund etal (1978):
= c′ + (σ
- u
)tanφ′ + (u
Using a curve fitting technique on results from a residual unsaturated soil with low suctions, Abramento and
Carvalho (1989) concluded that tanφ
should be treated as a variable with respect to suction.
The problems of measuring in the laboratory the shear strength parameters for unsaturated soils has
limited the use of equations such as (26) and (27) and has led to the use of indirect methods of assessing their
strength using saturated shear strength parameters and the soil-water characteristic curve, defined as the
relationship between the soil suction and the volumetric water content θ
(the ratio of the volume of water to
the total volume of soil). An expression of this form was proposed by Lamborn (1986) based on a
micromechanics/thermodynamic model and in a more general non-linear form by Vanapalli etal (1996):
= c′ + (σ
- u
)tanφ′ + (u
) (Θ
in which Θ is the normalised water content of the soil θ
is the saturated volumetric water content and
κ is a fitting parameter used for obtaining a best fit between the measured and predicted values. A
comparison between the measured and predicted shear strength function for a glacial till based on the soil-
water characteristic curve is shown in Figure 12 (Fredlund 1998). An alternative equation not using the
fitting parameter κ has been proposed by Vanapalli etal (ibid):
= c′ + (σ
- u
)tanφ′ + (u
a -
)tanφ′ [(θ
where θ
is residual volumetric water content estimated from the soil-water characteristic curve. Equations
28 and 29 are designated University of Saskatchewan Procedures 1 and 2 respectively.
Direct shear box tests performed on three compacted, unsaturated soils by Escario and Juca′ (1989), at
constant vertical stress, gave a plot of shear strength versus suction with an initial slope of tanφ′, then
gradually flattening until a maximum was reached. Adopting an empirical approach, the authors found that
the variation of shear strength with suction could be represented by an ellipse of 2.5 degrees up to the
It should logically be possible to fit the stress-strain behaviour of unsaturated soils within a critical state
framework and suggested approaches for doing this have been published (eg Alonso etal 1990. Wheeler and
Sivakumar 1995). The basic framework is made up of four state variables namely mean net stress
p = [(σ
)/3 - u
], deviator stress q, suction s = (u
) and specific volume v. Limited experimental
data on compacted kaolin has given encouragement to continue this line of research, but as pointed out by
Wheeler and Sivakumar their elastic-plastic approach requires the determination of three elastic constants
and six parameters which vary with suction, and a realistic simplified model will be needed for the method to
have practical applications.
Unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests performed in 1958 on cores of Melbourne mudstone for the design
of the Kings Bridge foundations established, apparently for the first time, the importance of moisture content
in determining the strength and deformation characteristics of a soft rock (Parry 1963,1972). A Silurian
deposit, Melbourne mudstone consists predominantly of siltstone with interbedded claystones and
sandstones. All the test specimens were initially tested under a confining pressure of 690 kPa (roughly
equal to the total overburden pressure) and in some cases the specimens were subjected to multi-stage testing
at confining pressures of 1725
kPa, 3450 kpa and occasionally
6900 kPa. Fourteen of the
twenty multi-stage tests showed
undrained angles of shearing
resistance close to zero, while
the other six showed angles of
shearing resistance up to 23°,
probably reflecting structural
features in the rock. It was
concluded that the mudstone
could be regarded as a φ
= 0
material. A site specific
correlation was found between
the shear strength of the
mudstone and its moisture
content (Figure 13), which was
subsequently confirmed for
other sites in Melbourne (eg
Parry 1972, McDonald and
Jellie 1991). Full use was made
of this correlation in fixing the
founding level for the
foundation caissons in the
highly variable, and almost
vertically bedded, mudstone, lying under about 30 metres of soft recent sediments. The φ
= 0 behaviour of
soft rock has been observed by other workers (eg Akai etal 1981).
Subsequent research on Melbourne mudstone at Monash University has confirmed the primary role of
moisture content, and consequently effective stress, in determining its strength and deformation
characteristics (Chiu and Johnston 1980, 1984). While confirming the strong similarity in its behaviour to
that of soils, particularly heavily overconsolidated clays, these workers have drawn attention to differences in
behaviour, such as the curvature of the effective stress Mohr-Coulomb envelope for both drained and
consolidated undrained tests, exhibiting a slope of 34° up to a normal effective stress of 10 MPa, reducing to
22° at 60 MPa, although this may be a consequence of the very high pressure range rather than inherent
differences between soil and soft rock behaviour.
The Griffith Crack Theory for brittle materials (Griffith1921,1924) provided for a number of workers a
basic conceptual model for the strength of rocks, but although giving a parabolic plot of shear strength
against normal pressure, which corresponds well with many experimental observations, it has not proved to
be a good quantitative model. Attempts to modify the theory
by introducing friction on the cracks (McClintock and
Walsh 1962) and extending it from a plane compression
model to three dimensions (Murrell 1963, 1965) have had
only limited success. Consequently Hoek and Brown
(1980), recognising the parabolic nature of the strength
envelope, proposed an empirical strength criterion for hard
rock masses given in the normalised form:
= σ
+ (m σ
+ S)
where σ
are the major and minor principal stresses
divided by the unconfined uniaxial compressive strength σ
For intact rocks the empirical factor m ranges from about 7
for carbonate rocks to 25 for coarse grained polyminerallic
igneous rocks, but may have values as low as 0.001 for
highly disturbed rock masses. The value of S ranges from 0
for jointed rock masses to 1.0 for intact rock. The special
cases of unconfined compressive strength σ
and uniaxial
tensile strength σ
for a rock mass can be found by putting
= 0 and σ′
= 0 respectively into Equation 30. The
general case and special cases are depicted in Figure 14. A
more convenient form of the general equation for slope
stability calculations, expressed in terms of shear strength,
was derived by Bray (Hoek 1983).
Widespread use of Equation 30, sometimes in relation to
unsuitable materials such as very poor quality rocks, has led
to modifications by the authors (Hoek 1994, Hoek etal 1995,
Hoek and Brown 1997) in which the square root power is replaced by a more general parameter a, the value
of which, together with the value of S, is fixed according to the Geological Strength Index GSI, introduced
by the above authors as a system for estimating the reduction in rock mass strength for different geological
conditions. For better quality rock masses GSI can be estimated from the Rock Mass Rating (Bieniawski
1976), but for poorer quality rocks physical appearance alone has to be relied upon.
Johnston and Chiu (1984) and Johnston (1985) presented an alternative expression for intact rock:
= (Mσ′
/B + 1)
where M and B are constants which, for a wide range of clay soils and rocks can be reasonably represented
B = 1 - 0.0172(log σ
M = 2.065 + 0.276(log σ
where σ
is in kPa. Putting σ′
= 0 in Equation 31 gives the uniaxial compressive strength σ
= σ
and the
ratio of uniaxial compressive strength to uniaxial tensile strength is given by putting σ′
= 0, σ′
= σ
/ σ
= - M / B (33)
Equation 31 is capable of representing a wide range of geomaterials. As σ
→ 0, B→ 1 and M→ 2.065,
implying a virtually linear envelope with φ′ = 20° for soft normally consolidated clay. In stiff heavily
overconsolidated clays, typically σ
= 200 kPa, giving B = 0.9 and thus a slightly curved envelope, while in
hard rocks, typically σ
= 250 Mpa and B = 0.5, which is the familiar parabolic form.
Based on published data, Hoek and Brown (1980) found the measured strengths of rock test specimens to
be influenced by specimen size and suggested the expression:
= σ
where σ
are uniaxial compressive strengths for test specimens with diameter d mm and 50 mm
Representation of a range of geomaterials by an expression such as Equation 31 poses the question
whether soils and rocks can be encapsulated within a common critical state framework. Attempts to do this
inevitably encounter the problem that rock behaviour, particularly strength, is strongly influenced by
structural defects which militate against the uniform deformation in shear required to reach a true critical
state. Nevertheless some qualified success has been reported for soft rocks (Chiu and Johnston 1984,
Johnston and Novello 1985) and for hard rocks (Gerogiannopoulos and Brown 1978, Michelis and Brown
1986). Soft sedimented rocks such as Melbourne mudstone and Ohya tuff (Adachi etal 1981), in which the
water content has a dominating influence, exhibit behaviour identical to very heavily overconsolidated soils,
and even the non-linear critical state line on a plot of deviator stress against mean effective stress ( Novello
and Johnston 1995), which is a reflection of a friction angle reducing with increasing applied stress, can also
occur with soils taken to the same high test pressures normally applied in rock testing. Novello and Johnston
also found that a form of critical state behaviour could be identified in hard rocks, assuming the brittle to
ductile transition with increasing applied stress in the rock to be equivalent to the change from
overconsolidated to normally consolidated shear behaviour in soils, and the strength in the ductile plastic
state to be of a cohesive, rather than a frictional, nature. Gerogiannopoulos and Brown introduced work
absorbed by brittle fracture mechanism in addition to friction, together with normality at peak strength, to
formulate an equation able to represent peak and residual strengths for a wide range of brittle strain softening
rocks (Brown and Michelis 1978). By exploiting the experimental observation that the plastic strain vector
had an approximately constant inclination for both work softening and work hardening materials Michelis
and Brown (1986) developed a general expression for intact or granular materials in which the relative scale
of their size to the spacing of discontinuities was such that the mass could be regarded as isotropic and
If a rock joint is infilled with granular or cohesive material weaker than the rock itself this material will
strongly influence the strength, whereas the strength along a clean joint will be governed by the basic smooth
rock to rock friction φ′
, plus dilatancy depending on the roughnesses of the surfaces and usually represented
by angle i. A simple expression embodying this concept was suggested by Patton (1966):
= σ′
tan (φ′
+ i) (35)
As the effective normal stress σ′
increases the failure occurs increasingly through the asperities, giving a
curved relationship between τ
and σ′
as observed by a number of workers (eg see Jaeger 1971).
An empirical expression for saturated joints based on Equation 35 was presented by Barton (1973):
= σ′
tan [(JRC)log
) + φ′
] (36)
where JRC is the joint roughness coefficient, JCS is the joint wall compressive strength (saturated) and φ′
the residual friction angle (wet, drained). Simple empirical methods were given for evaluating φ′
from φ′
using the Schmidt hammer test and for
evaluating JRC from tilt tests using core
sticks. Magnitudes of JRC range from zero
for smooth planar surfaces to about 15 or 20
for very rough surfaces. Refinements to
Equation 36 have concentrated mainly on
attempts to evaluate the effects of scale and
normal stress magnitude on the dilatancy
portion of the equation.
Barton and Choubey (1977) deduced
from a study of 136 joint samples that the
total friction angle (arctan τ
) could be
estimated by these methods to within about
1° in the absence of scale effects. However,
they concluded that scale effects were
important in determining values of JCS and
JRC, both values decreasing with increasing
length of joint. Citing tests by Pratt etal
(1974) on quartz diorite which showed a
drop in peak shear strength of nearly 40%
for rough joint surfaces with areas ranging
from 0.006 m
to 0.5 m
, and adopting
JRC = 20, they concluded that these tests
indicated a fourfold reduction in JCR for a
fivefold increase in joint length from 140
mm to 710 mm. Tilt tests by Barton and
Choubey (ibid) on rough planar joints of
Drammen granite showed JRC values to
decrease from 8.7 for 100mm long joints to
5.5 for 450 mm long joints. ISRM (1977)
recommendations for assessing joint
roughness are based largely on the methods
proposed by Barton and Choubey (ibid).
Ten "typical" roughness profiles ranging
from JRC = 0-2 to 18-20 shown in Figure
15 are presented in this ISRM report.
Based on limited laboratory tests Barton
and Bandis (1982) proposed the scale correction for JRC given by:
Where L
refer to laboratory scale (100 mm) and in-situ joint lengths respectively.
In an attempt to reduce the degree of empiricism
in quantifying joint roughness a number of workers
have introduced fractal geometry (Mandelbrot
1983), seeing an analogy between coastal
irregularities and rock joint roughnesses. A straight
line linking the end points of a joint with length L
can be divided into a number N
of equal chords
each of length r (=L/N
). If this chord length is
stepped out along the joint profile (eg by means of
dividers) the number N of segments it measures will
be greater than N
by an amount exceeding unity
according to the roughness of the joint. The fractal
dimension D, which is given by the expression:
D = - log N / log r (38)
can be evaluated from the slope of a log-log plot of
N against r. For practical usage it is necessary to
convert this value into a quantity which can be used
in design or analysis and one approach has been to try and establish a partly or wholly empirical relationship
between JRC and fractal dimension (Turk etal 1987, Lee etal 1990). Lee etal established an empirical
expression relating the two giving the plot shown in Figure 16. It will be noted that fractal dimension values
for rock joints are not greatly in excess of unity and it is necessary determine the value to at least four
decimal places. Nevertheless the value is operator dependent, as shown by published values of 1.0045 (Turk
etal 1987), 1.005641 (Lee etal 1990) and 1.0040 (Seidel and Haberfield 1995) for the "standard" ISRM joint
JRC = 10-12.
Adopting a more fundamental approach,
and assuming gaussian distribution of chord
angles θ, Seidel and Haberfield (1995)
derived a relationship between fractal
dimension and the standard deviation of
asperity angle s
≈ cos
(1 -
) /
) (39)
which plots as shown in Figure 17. It can
be seen in Figure 17 that s
increases with
D, which expresses the divergence from a
straight line and with N, the number of
opportunities for divergence. As asperity
height is a function of chord length and
angle, an expression for the standard
deviation of asperity height can be derived
from Equation 39:
≈ ( N
- N
By generating random profiles for s
values and comparing these to the ISRM profiles for different ranges
of JRC in Figure 15, Seidel and Haberfield established a subjective basis for predicting JRC from fractal
geometry and showed, in addition, the possibility of the fractal approach providing conceptual models for the
effects of normal stress on shear behaviour of joints and the scale-dependence of joints
Krahn and Morgenstern (1979) drew attention to the difference in residual strength between soil and a
rock joint. The residual strength is independent of the original state in a soil whereas the residual strength
(preferred term ultimate frictional resistance) of a rock joint, as shown by their tests with limestone, is related
to the initial surface roughness and surface alterations which take place during shearing.
.Owing to their complex nature and the impossibility of submitting identical samples to a systematic
series of tests, natural filled rock joints present unique problems in assessing their shear strength,
compounded by the fact that not only are there the normal problems of determining the strengths of both the
rock and the filling, but also the interaction of the two. Consequently systematic research has been confined
to model studies, often using materials such as plaster or concrete in place of rock and a variety of artificial
or reconstituted soils as fillers. Although some patterns of behaviour have emerged, there is also much
conflicting evidence (Toledo and de Freitas 1993) probably arising in part from differences in model joint
preparation, but more particularly from the behaviour under shear of the infill material. If it is a silt or clay
the degrees of dissipation of pore pressures generated during joint displacement, which profoundly influence
its behaviour, are governed by the rate of displacement and boundary conditions such as rock type and
confining conditions.
Much of the research on the shear strength of filled rock joints has concentrated on the influence of joint
wall roughness, expressed as asperity height a, compared to the thickness t of the fill material. An example
of the influence of the relative thickness t/a for a series of tests on clay infilled sandstone joints is shown in
Figure 18 (Toledo and de Freitas ibid ), and Figure 19 shows a strength model presented by the same authors
embodying in a general way their own observations and those of a number of other researchers, embracing
mica filler and plaster as rock (Goodman 1970), kaolin clay and concrete blocks (Ladanyi and Archambault
1977), kaolin and hard gypsum rock (Lama 1978), oven dried bentonite and gypsum rock (Phien-Wej etal
1990) and fillers of kaolin, marble dust and fuel ash with plaster and cement as rock simulating joint
The inset diagram in Figure 18 shows the infill soil providing the initial resistance to joint displacement
and reaching a peak τ
at small displacement, followed by a decline in strength depending on the
brittleness of the infill soil, then an increase in strength with increasing displacement brought about initially
by a flow of infill material from highly stressed to low stressed zones leading to contact of the rock
asperities and a second, higher, peak strength τ
depending on the rock properties. The decline in joint
strength with increasing t/a is seen in Figure 18 up to about t/a = 1, after which the strength remains
essentially constant. It is noticeable that the peak rock strength still exceeds that of the infill at t/a = 1.
These features are incorporated into Figure 19, but it is noticeable that in this generalised model the critical
thickness at which the soil peak reaches its minimum may be less than the asperity height for clayey infill
and greater than asperity height for granular infill. A further feature of Figure 19 is the division of the
different thicknesses into three ranges as proposed by Nieto (1974), namely interlocking in which the rock
surfaces come into contact, interfering when there is no rock contact but the joint strength exceeds that of the
infilling and non-interfering when the joint strength equals that of the filler.
The formulation of the principle of effective stress by Terzaghi made possible a fundamental
understanding of the shear strength of soils and soft rocks. This was insufficient in itself, however, as the
strength of these materials in the field may be influenced by many other factors such as degree of saturation,
rate of loading, loading history and loading stress path, physical anisotropy, and the presence of fissures and
joints, and other imperfections, in a soil or rock mass. Much of the research work and writings of the 20th
Century have concentrated on understanding and quantifying these influences, as well as furthering the
understanding of fundamental strength behaviour and introducing improved laboratory and field methods of
measuring shear strength. Mohr stress circles and the Mohr-Coulomb envelope have proved invaluable in
providing an instantly comprehensible representation of stress and strength conditions. The critical state
concept has proved useful in understanding soil behaviour, although most soil test specimens do not reach a
true critical state because of imperfections in the specimens and in the test methods. There is evidence that
critical state may also apply to some limited extent to the behaviour of rocks. In the case of hard rocks the
Griffith crack theory, while inadequate in itself, has provided a conceptual starting point for developing
realistic empirical expressions for the commonly observed curved shear strength envelope. Rock joints, even
if clean, present a problem in assessing their frictional properties, but the introduction of fractal geometry
may allow quantitative assessments of joint strength to be made, including scale effects. If infilled, the
strength may be influenced by the strength of both the rock and the joint infill and also by the interaction
between them.
I am indebted to Professors Del Fredlund and S K Vanapalli for helping me to comprehend the mysteries of
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Northwestern researchers examine mechanical bases for the emergence of undulatory swimmers
How do fish swim? It is a simple question, but there is no simple answer.
Researchers at Northwestern University have revealed some of the mechanical properties that allow fish to perform their complex movements. Their findings, published on June 13 in the journal PLOS Computational Biology, could provide insights in evolutionary biology and lead to an understanding of the neural control of movement and development of bio-inspired underwater vehicles.
"If we could play God and create an undulatory swimmer, how stiff should its body be? At what wave frequency should its body undulate so it moves at its top speed? How does its brain control those movements?" said Neelesh Patankar, professor of mechanical engineering at Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science. "Millennia ago, undulatory swimmers like eels that had the right mechanical properties are the ones that would have survived."
The researchers used computational methods to test assumptions about the preferred evolutionary characteristics. For example, species with low muscle activation frequency and high body stiffness are the most successful; the researchers found the optimal values for each property.
"The stiffness that we predict for good swimming characteristics is, in fact, the same as the experimentally determined stiffness of undulatory swimmers with a backbone," said Amneet Bhalla, graduate student in mechanical engineering at McCormick and one of the paper's authors.
"Thus, our results suggest that precursors of a backbone would have given rise to animals with the appropriate body stiffness," added Patankar. "We hypothesize that this would have been mechanically beneficial to the evolutionary emergence of swimming vertebrates."
In addition, species must be resilient to small changes in physical characteristics from one generation to the next. The researchers confirmed that the ability to swim, while dependent upon mechanical parameters, is not sensitive to minor generational changes; as long as the body stiffness is above a certain value, the ability to swim quickly is insensitive to the value of the stiffness, the researchers found.
Finally, making a connection to the neural control of movement, the researchers analyzed the curvature of its undulations to determine if it was the result of a single bending torque, or if precise bending torques were necessary at every point along its body. They learned that a simple movement pattern gives rise to the complicated-looking deformation.
"This suggests that the animal does not need precise control of its movements," Patankar said.
To make these determinations, the researchers applied a common physics concept known as "spring mass damper" -- a model, applied to everything from car suspension to Slinkies, that determines movement in systems that are losing energy -- to the body of the fish.
This novel approach for the first time unified the concepts of active and passive swimming -- swimming in which forcing comes from within the fish (active) or from the surrounding water (passive) by calculating the conditions necessary for the fish to swim both actively and passively.
Contact: Megan Fellman
Northwestern University
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Achy Joints and Muscles All Over. Why?
An overview of joints and muscles
Joints represent body parts where bones intersect. Joints facilitate movement of bones. Knees, hips, elbows and shoulders are examples of joints in the body. On the other hand, muscles are soft tissues made of fibers. They are located on the bones and contribute to about half of the body’s weight.
They allow movement of the body, maintain posture, stabilize and strengthen joints and generate heat to maintain a normal body temperature.
What contributes to aching of joints and muscles?
Aching of joints and muscles is not uncommon. All individuals experience achy joints and muscles at one point or another in their lives. There are numerous factors and conditions that trigger muscle and joint aches.
Simple lifestyle habits-walking or standing or engaging in intense physical exercise for prolonged hours- can cause aching muscles and joints. In this case, getting adequate rest and treatment can alleviate achy muscles and joints. However, in other circumstances, severe medical conditions such as lupus, anemia, and leukemia can cause long term aching of muscles and joints.
When this is the case, it is essential to get proper medical diagnosis to determine the reason why your muscles and joints ache. To get a clear picture of what causes aching of joints and muscles, let us look at several factors that can be possible triggers.
1. Arthritis
Literally speaking, arthritis refers to joint inflammation. Individuals who suffer from arthritis experience swollen and sore joints and achy muscles. A common type of arthritis is Osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease).
This type of arthritis causes the joints surfaces to wear and tear. The American College of Rheumatology articulates that osteoarthritis mostly occurs in adults who are above 40 years. The condition targets joints such as hips, hands, knees and wrists. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is another type of arthritis that gradually deforms the joints.
The Arthritis Foundation asserts that RA is common in many people especially women. In America alone, RA affects more than one million individuals. RA causes buildup of fluid in the joints as well as inflammation and pain.
2. Common infections: malaria, Lyme disease, common flu and cold
These infections also activate muscle and joint pain by causing inflammation. They weaken the body’s immune system making it unable to fight off other infections. When the immune system becomes weak, the body is forced to work extra hard to counteract these infections.
In the process, the entire body including muscles and joints is likely to ache. It is therefore necessary to seek medical treatment for such infections to prevent aching of muscles and joints.
3. Lupus
According to medical experts, close to 90% of people with lupus are likely to encounter both joint and muscle pain. In most cases, people with lupus complain of joint pain and stiffness as their first symptoms. Joints in the wrists, hands and feet stiffen and become so painful that moving them becomes a nightmare.
At times, the pain is so severe that performing routine tasks-putting on clothes, standing up- becomes a problem. So, how does lupus cause painful joints? Lupus leads to inflammation in the entire body. This means that the thin lining surrounding the joints changes in size (grows and thickens). What follows is swollen and pain joints.
The muscles are also affected when lupus manifests. It is believed that most people who suffer from lupus also experience muscle aches especially between the hip and knee and the neck and elbow.
4. Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)
This is a condition that results in extreme fatigue and weakness irrespective of the amount of rest or sleep one gets. Since the body feels exhausted, chances are that muscles and joints in the entire body will be stimulated to ache.
5. Fibromyalgia
This is a chronic condition whose underlying cause is not exactly known. It is often associated with physical trauma and common infections. The severity of this condition differs from one person to another.
It causes irregular sleeping patterns, psychological distress as well as extreme muscle aches. The condition at times goes hand in hand with the occurrence of lupus thus aggravating muscle inflammation. When muscle inflammation occurs, the muscles become swollen and reddened.
6. Vitamin D deficiency
When the body is not supplied with enough Vitamin D, a condition known as Hypocalcemia occurs. In other words, a situation in which there is low blood calcium level manifests. Low calcium in the body means the improper functioning of organs such as muscles. The end result is aching of such organs.
7. Dehydration
Our bodies need enough water in order to function in a healthy and normal way. When your body is not well hydrated, it is unable to competently execute processes such as breathing. This in turn translates to pain in body organs such as joints and muscles.
8. Trauma
Trauma is regarded as one of the factors that leads to pain in the muscles and joints. Trauma can be in form of accidents and injuries from sporting activities. In the event of a trauma, the muscles are subjected to extreme stress which causes fibers to wear out. Damage of joint surfaces also occurs.
The traumatic event can also cause damage ligaments and tendons which also leads to aching of muscles and joints. For instance, an automobile accident, can cause pain in muscles and joints in the neck.
9. Stress
What happens when you are stressed out? The immune system responds in a negative way. Your immune system is deprived of the power to respond accordingly to inflammation. Your body becomes weak and is not in a position to effectively protect itself against diseases and infections.
As a result, body aches such as muscle and joint aches happen. This is because the body becomes very vulnerable to inflammation and all sorts of illnesses. If you attribute your achy joints and muscles to stress, make an effort to significantly reduce stress.
In summary, a wide array of factors and medical conditions cause achy muscles and joints. Although some factors do not cause severe muscle and joint pains, they should not be ignored.
When you constantly experience muscle and joint pains together with severe symptoms, do not hesitate to seek medical attention.
The earlier a diagnosis is done, the better the chances of full recovery.
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More than 2,000 years ago, a powerful leader built a fortress on India’s holiest river -- the Ganges. King Yayati set up the fort to help guard his territory.
Today, ruins are all that remain of the old structure. The area along the Ganges River is now an industrial city called Kanpur. Workers there collect stones from the ruins to build simple homes. These shelters, called shanties, sit on top of what once was the king’s fortress.
The Ganges stretches over 2,700 kilometers across India. It begins high up in the Himalayan Mountains and eventually empties into the Bay of Bengal.
The Ganges has seen empires rise and fall. It has seen countless wars, kings, British colonial rulers, independence, and the rise of Hindu nationalism as a political movement.
In India, the Ganges is far more than just a river. It is religion, industry, farming, and politics.
To Hindus, the Ganges is known as “Ganga Ma” -- meaning Mother Ganges. It is the center of spiritual life for more than a billion people. Every year, millions of Hindu pilgrims visit temples and other holy places along the Ganges. The word “pilgrimage” means traveling to a special place for an important, often religious, reason.
The river is a source of water for millions of people. To drink from the Ganges is to bring luck. For many Hindus, life is considered incomplete if they do not bathe in the river at least once in their lifetime. Its waters are believed to wash away sin.
But all is not well with the Ganges. Pollution has left much of it dangerous to drink. Large amounts of untreated wastewater are being added to the river every day. Another source of pollution comes from water used by manufacturers of cloth and leather products.
Criminal groups illegally remove sand from the riverside. They use it to feed India’s seemingly endless need for concrete, a common building material.
Hydroelectric dams were built along waterways emptying into the Ganges. These dams are needed to supply power to India’s growing economy. But some Hindus are angry. They say the machinery has compromised the purity of the river.
The Ganges starts at the Gangotri Glacier. Its ice provides almost half the river’s water. Over the past 40 years, the ice has been melting at a frightening rate. The glacier is now shrinking about 22 meters every year.
For thousands of years, the glacial ice melt has guaranteed that India’s dry plains get enough water, even during the driest months. The rest comes from smaller waterways that flow down the mountains.
As the Ganges flows across the plains, its once clean water becomes dirty. The mineral-rich water begins collecting waste and pollution from the millions of people who depend on it. Millions of liters of waste products -- along with heavy metals, agricultural chemicals, human bodies, and animal remains -- enter the Ganges every day.
This has made it one of the most polluted rivers in the world. Indian officials have tried to limit the pollution in some places, but large parts remain dangerously unhealthy. Still, to Hindus, the river remains religiously pure.
Every year, tens of thousands of Hindus bring the bodies of their loved ones to be cremated at the Ganges, in the city of Varanasi. A Hindu who dies there or whose remains are destroyed by fire alongside it, is also freed from that cycle of birth and death.
After Varanasi, the Ganges continues eastward through endless farmland as it nears the coast. It eventually splits off into ever-smaller rivers. The biggest of these rivers, the Hooghly, flows south toward the sea.
It passes through Kolkata, the largest city in eastern India. Once known as Calcutta, the city is now home to nearly 15 million people. Finally, the Ganges River empties into the Bay of Bengal.
For the end of this story, however, we travel back up to the Gangotri Glacier. There a Hindu holy man named Mouni Baba makes his home. He spoke with The Associated Press.
“Human existence is like this ice,” he said. “It melts and becomes water and then merges into a stream. The stream goes into a tributary which flows into a river and then it all ends up in an ocean. Some remain pure while others collect dirt along the way. Some help mankind and some become the cause of its devastation.”
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Most large rivers are formed from many tributaries. Each tributary drains a different watershed, carrying runoff and snowmelt from that area. Each tributary's watershed makes up the larger watershed of the mainstem.
The Missouri River's massive watershed, for example, is created by the watersheds of dozens of tributaries extending from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada, through seven states in the Upper Midwest of the U.S. The Missouri, in turn, is the largest tributary of the Mississippi River, which it meets at a confluence in St. Louis, Missouri. The Mississippi River watershed is the fourth-largest in the world.
A "left-bank tributary" or "right-bank tributary" indicates the side of the river a tributary enters. When identifying a left-bank or right-bank tributary, a geographer looks downstream (the direction the river is flowing).
The Euphrates River, the longest river in southwestern Asia, stretches 2,700 kilometers (1,678 miles). The tiny streams that feed the Euphrates originate in the mountains of eastern Turkey. These streams become the Balikh and the Sajur Rivers, which join the Euphrates at different confluences in Syria. The Balikh is a left-bank tributary of the Euphrates, while the Sajur is a right-bank tributary.
Sometimes, tributaries have the same name as the river into which they drain. These tributaries are called forks. Different forks are usually identified by the direction in which they flow into the mainstem.
The Shenandoah River, for example, flows through the U.S. states of West Virginia and Virginia. It has two long tributaries, the North Fork and South Fork, which meet at a confluence in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.
The opposite of a tributary is a distributary. A distributary is a stream that branches off and flows apart from the mainstem of a stream or river. The process is called river bifurcation.
At the Continental Divide in the U.S. state of Wyoming, the small North Two Ocean Creek bifurcates into Pacific Creek and Atlantic Creek. The water from each of these distributaries flows into the ocean for which it is named.
Classifying Tributaries
There are two leading methods geographers and potamologists (people who study rivers) use to classify tributaries.
The first method lists a river's tributaries starting with those closest to the source, or headwaters, of the river. The earliest tributaries of the Rhine River, for example, include the Thur River of Switzerland and the Ill River of Austria. The Rhine, one of the longest rivers in Europe, has its source in the Alps and its mouth in the North Sea.
The second method lists a river's tributaries by their flow. Small streams are identified with low numbers, while larger tributaries have higher numbers. The Tshuapa and Kasai Rivers are both left-bank tributaries of the Congo River, the deepest river in the world. The Tshuapa is a smaller river, and has a lower tributary ranking, than the Kasai.
People and Tributaries
Human activity in tributaries is often responsible for polluting the mainstem. The river carries all the runoff and pollution from all its tributaries.
Rivers with tributaries that drain land that is not used for agriculture or development are usually less polluted than rivers with tributaries in agricultural or urban areas.
Development, not size, determines the pollution of rivers. The Amazon River, with the largest drainage basin in the world, is much cleaner than the Hudson River, for instance. Tributaries to the Amazon flow through undeveloped regions of the Andes Mountains and rain forests in Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. The Hudson River flows through one of the largest urban areas on Earth, New York City.
The Ganges has more than a dozen tributaries, including the Alakananda and Bhagirathi, above.
Three Rivers
The Allegheny and Monongahela rivers are tributaries of the Ohio River. The confluence of these rivers is in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Three Rivers is the name of a neighborhood in Pittsburgh, as well as the sports stadium used by the Pittsburgh Steelers and Pittsburgh Pirates until 2000.
Spiritual Tributary
People have built many great cities at points where tributaries join major rivers. In India, Allahabad is a city of more than 1 million people built where the Yamuna and the Saraswati rivers join the Ganges River. Allahabad is considered one of the holiest places in the Hindu religion, and some believe it is where Brahma, the god of creation, offered his first sacrifice after creating the world.
stream that feeds, or flows, into a larger stream. Also called a tributary.
divide or split into two branches.
place where two rivers join and flow together.
point or area that separates which directions a continent's river systems flow.
stream that branches off from the main stem of a river or other flowing fluid.
in the direction of a flow, toward its end.
drainage basin
branch or tributary of a river, usually having the same name as the river itself.
water that is not salty.
source of a river.
largest river or channel in a watershed or drainage basin.
area of the United States consisting of the following states: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.
to begin or start.
introduction of harmful materials into the environment.
person who studies rivers.
division of a country larger than a town or county.
a system of spiritual or supernatural belief.
primary cause of something.
large stream of flowing fresh water.
overflow of fluid from a farm or industrial factory.
water supplied by snow.
body of flowing water.
stream that feeds, or flows, into a larger stream.
developed, densely populated area where most inhabitants have nonagricultural jobs.
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Natural Disaster - Glen Levy
Subject(s): Math
School: Glen Levy
Grade Level: 7th grade
Author(s): Flowers
Synopsis: Your city has just been hit by a tornado leaving mass destruction. There is not a building still standing in sight. The surrounding towns are facing the same issues and so in order to keep your family safe a temporary shelter must be built. Although the buildings have been destroyed materials can be salvaged to build your shelter.
Driving Question: Will our communities withstand natural disasters? How did the need to construct ancient buildings lead to the discovery of mathematical principles? And how can these principles be used to build temporary shelter after the disaster has occurred?
To learn more about this project, click here: _NaturalDisaster-GlenLevy.pdf
Thank you!
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An analysis of the albert einsteins general theory of relativity and a brief biography of a german b
Ulm, Germany, 14 March ; d. Princeton, New Jersey18 April physics. For the original article on Einstein see DSB, vol.
He retired from teaching in order to develop their theoretical research exclusively. Albert Einstein and the theory of relativity The theory of relativity, developed primarily by Albert Einstein, intended originally to explain certain anomalies in the concept of relative motion, but in its evolution has become one of the most important theories in the physical sciences, and has been the basis for physicists to demonstrate the essential oneness of matter and energy, space and timeand the equivalence between the forces of gravitation and the effects of the acceleration of a system.
Albert Einstein The theory of relativity as Einstein put it had two different formulations. The first is that which corresponds to two papers published in in the Annalen der Physik. It is known as the theory of special relativity and deals with systems that move one with respect to the other with constant speed and may be even equal to zero.
The second, called general relativity theory this is called the work of at which made itdeals with systems moving at variable speed. Special relativity theory The postulates of special relativity are two.
The first says that all motion is relative to anything else, and therefore the ether, which had been considered during the 19th century as average propagator of light and the only thing quite firmly of the universe, with absolute movement and not determinable, was out of place in physics, since no longer is it needed such media whose existence effective In addition, not had been able to determine by any experiment.
The second postulate asserts that the speed of light is always constant with respect to any observer. Of their theoretical premises obtained a series of equations that had important consequences and even some disconcerting, as the increase of the mass with speed.
Einstein in the laboratory of Pieter Zeeman Amsterdam, c.
Particle accelerators, which gets an increase in mass, are clear experimental proof of the theory of special relativity. The theory also States that in a system moving with respect to an observer is verified a dilatation of the time; put another way, time passes more slowly in the system in motion.
This is clearly illustrated by the famous twins paradox: Theory of general relativity The theory of general relativity refers to the case of movements that occur with variable speed and has as a fundamental postulate the equivalence principle, according to which the effects produced by a gravitational field are equivalent to those produced by the accelerated movement.
The revolutionary hypothesis formulated by Einstein was caused by the fact that the theory of special relativity, based on the principle of the constancy of the speed of light which is the movement of the reference system which is measured as was demonstrated in the experiment of Michelson and Morleydoes not match the theory of Newtonian gravitation: If the force with which two bodies are attracted depends on the distance between them, to move one should change instantly the Force felt by the other, i.
After several failed attempts to accommodate the gravitational interaction with relativity, Einstein suggested that gravity is not one force as the other, but it is a consequence that space-time is warped by the presence of mass or energy, which is the same.
Then, bodies like the earth does not move in closed orbits because there is a force called gravity, but they move in as close to a straight line, but in a spacetime which is distorted by the presence of the Sun.
Einstein in his Studio c. However, in contrast to Minkowski space and because of the gravitational field, this universe is not Euclidean. Thus, the distance between two adjacent points of space-time in this universe is more complex than in the Minkowski space. Planetary orbits very similar to that obtained with the mechanics of Newton are obtained with this theory.
An effect that early corroborated the theory of general relativity is the deflection that suffer the rays of light in the presence of gravitational fields.Criticism of the theory of relativity of Albert Einstein was mainly expressed in the early years after its publication in the early twentieth century, on scientific, pseudoscientific, philosophical, or .
Watch video · Albert Einstein (March 14, to April 18, ) was a German mathematician and physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity. In , he won the Nobel Prize for physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Einstein's Blackboard is a blackboard which physicist Albert Einstein (–) used on 16 May during his lectures while visiting the University of Oxford in England.
The blackboard is one of the most iconic objects in the collection of the Museum of the History of Science in Oxford.
For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics, and one of the most prolific intellects in human history. Albert Einstein was a German-born physicist who developed the general theory of relativity.
Criticism of the theory of relativity - Wikipedia
He is considered one of the most influential physicists of the century. . Theory of Relativity and the Special Theory of Relativity by Albert Einstein Particularly, the General Theory of Relativity describes the curvature of space and time as directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present.
Albert Einstein - Wikipedia
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"edu_score": 3.875,
"fasttext_score": 0.5882431268692017,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9642204642295837,
"url": "https://nomufunuve.lausannecongress2018.com/an-analysis-of-the-albert-einsteins-general-theory-of-relativity-and-a-brief-biography-of-a-german-b-29122bs.html"
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Science World
Contains Ads
In science world app
1. Daily Life Science Queries
2. Interesting Science Facts
3. Science Quizzes
4. Option to put Questions in favourite Section
1.How are planes protected from lightning strikes?
Ans: A plane’s metal fuselage is effectively a Faraday Cage, safely conducting the current from where the lightning strikes to where it exits. But lightning can potentially induce secondary currents in cabling beneath the aircraft’s skin. So, for added protection, wiring and computers are electrically screened. The latest aircraft, like the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, are made of less conductive composite materials. Conductive fibres are woven into the skin to guide lightning safely around the plane’s body.
2. Why do people behave differently in a crowd?
Ans. They may wish to fit in by imitating others feel constrained by being observed, become excited by the noise and actions of the crowd, or may respond to local conditions and culture. An odd example is that in different countries pedestrians step right or left when meeting others on a crowded street. This is unrelated to which side of the road they drive on and appears to emerge spontaneously and then stick in each culture. Perhaps the most worrying behavior is when people feel less responsible for helping someone in trouble when there are others around. This ‘bystander effect’ is quite rare but more likely the larger the crowd.
3.Why do some people sweat more than others?
Ans. Receptors in the skin detect changes in the external temperature and pass this to the hypothalamus region of the brain, which can make the body sweat in response. An overweight person is better insulated and has a smaller surface area to volume ratio. Their core temperature will be higher for a given external temperature, simply because it’s harder for them to dump excess metabolic heat, and they will sweat more as a result. Fit people also sweat more than normal. This is because their bodies have become conditioned to start sweating sooner in response to exercise, for optimum cooling.
4. Why do humans show affection by kissing?
Ans. It’s not just humans that enjoy a smooch; lots of animals have courtship behaviours involving the mouth. Pigeons touch beaks, cats and dogs nuzzle each other, male fruit flies lick the females. At the most basic level, kissing is just a way of tasting and touching a potential mate, as part of the process of assessing suitability.
In primates though, kissing might also be a behaviour that has transferred from maternal feeding. We depend for our first meals on our ability to suckle, and the positive feedback mechanisms that evolved to encourage infants to do this last into adulthood. Kissing triggers lots of hormone changes, including raising oxytocin levels – the hormone that creates a sense of attachment.
Kissing is virtually universal in all human cultures, so it’s possible that it is instinctive.
My all apps can be find on Play Store by searching GKtalk Imran.
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Additional Information
January 3, 2017
Current Version
Requires Android
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Offered By
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"url": "https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.gktalk.science_world"
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Java packages are used to organize our code and to avoid naming conflicts. Packages strongly resemble folders like the ones found in file directory. Every package has a unique name so that class names can still be duplicated and still be used properly if you import it from the right package. There are two kinds of packages, the built-in ones and the ones you can create yourself.
You have one of these on the way too.
You have one of these on the way too.
Creating a Package
Create a package using the package keyword, and then the name of the package. Ensure that this is the top of the file.
package devices;
public class Phone {
private String name;
public Phone(String name) {
= name;
public int getName() {
return name;
This class now lives inside the devices package.
Importing a Class
You can import a class of your chosing by using the import keyword and specifying the exact package and class name:
import java.lang.Math;
That, for example, imports the Math class only. This makes everything from Math available in whatever class you imported it into.
Importing a Package
If you find yourself using multiple classes from the same package, you can just import an entire package to get all the classes inside available:
import java.lang.*;
This imports all the classes inside the java.lang package.
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"fasttext_score": 0.6317287087440491,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7986526489257812,
"url": "https://sabe.io/classes/java/packages"
}
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verb (used with object), rec·og·nized, rec·og·niz·ing.
3. to perceive as existing or true; realize: to be the first to recognize a fact.
5. to acknowledge formally as entitled to treatment as a political unit: The United States promptly recognized Israel.
7. to acknowledge or treat as valid: to recognize a claim.
8. to acknowledge acquaintance with, as by a greeting, handshake, etc.
10. Law. to acknowledge (an illegitimate child) as one’s own.
1. not able to be recognized or identifiedtiny unrecognizable fragments
verb (tr)
2. to accept or be aware of (a fact, duty, problem, etc)to recognize necessity
4. mainly US and Canadian to grant (a person) the right to speak in a deliberative body, debate, etc
9. (intr) mainly US to enter into a recognizance
adj.1817, from un- (1) “not” + recognize + -able. Related: Unrecognizably. v.early 15c., “resume possession of land,” back-formation from recognizance, or else from Old French reconoiss-, stem of reconoistre “to know again, identify, recognize,” from Latin recognoscere “acknowledge, recall to mind, know again; examine; certify,” from re- “again” (see re-) + cognoscere “know” (see cognizance). Meaning “know again, recall or recover the knowledge of, perceive an identity with something formerly known or felt” first recorded 1530s. Related: Recognized; recognizing.
Leave a Reply
46 queries 1.348
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"fasttext_score": 0.07345700263977051,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9417667984962463,
"url": "https://www.liberaldictionary.com/unrecognizable/"
}
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3DS Max Chapter Eight Quiz
After reviewing Chapter Eight in the textbook or in the video tutorials, please answer the questions below. Use complete sentences and be thorough with your answers, this is a graded assignment and you must receive a grade of 80 percent or better on this quiz to move on to the next chapter.
Name: *
Question ONE: What is a MATERIAL in 3DS Max? How are they used? *
Question TWO: Describe how to apply a MATERIAL to an object. *
Question THREE: You have just converted your 3DS Max object to an Editable POLY. You would like to apply different MATERIALS to different polygons on your object. What is the FIRST STEP in this process? Describe. *
Question FOUR: What does the SPECULAR effect do to a material object? How can you modify it? *
Question FIVE: Can you make a MATERIAL TRANSPARENT in 3DS Max? Describe. *
Never submit passwords through Google Forms.
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"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.9931559562683105,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8942874073982239,
"url": "https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdAzYgrR2K9vKLROEftdF7i1HdKP61EqRmAs1diurLwJsygcg/viewform"
}
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GCSE: Customs & Festivals
Picture of Santiago Sacatepequez by gringologue [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)%5D, via Wikimedia Commons
The Spanish speaking world is full of a variety of festivals. From the perilous San Fermín to the picturesque Fiesta de los Patios en Córdoba or contemplative Semana Santa. If you look further afield you will find El Día de Los Muertos/El Día de La Muerte, and El Yipao in Colombia.
AQA refers to this topic as “customs and festivals in Spanish speaking countries/communities”.
Pearson/Edexcel refer to it as “celebrations and festivals”.
WJEC refer to it as: “festivals and celebrations”.
The ideas discussed in this blog and inevitably the language used will unavoidably favour the exam board I’m currently preparing my students for. Nevertheless the ideas themselves should be applicable to any exam board and adaptable to languages other than Spanish.
It is worth considering how a module like this one might be examined. It could be tested by all four skills
• Speaking: any of the three elements could include something related to this topic. Your sample assessment materials should give you an idea.
• Writing: write about a festival/celebration you went to or would like to go to
• Listening: listen to an account of Carnival and answer questions (AQA SAMS)
• Reading: same as above but text on page
Here are some activities I have tried over the course of teaching this module.
This was an idea from a colleague of mine and one of the best MFL teachers I know. The ultimate aim is that students produce a VLOG (video-blog) in which they describe a Spanish festival. A growing number of the students I teach want to be “Youtubers” so they welcomed this idea. Students were told they can appear in the VLOG if they choose or they could do something similar to Tio Spanish. The main rule was that it was them doing the talking. The structures I wanted the students to be using included the following:
it celebrates, it takes place in, it is, there is/are, you can see, you can, it starts, it finishes, it lasts, it is one of the most … , it has, it involves, it includes, I would like to go, because it looks, i would recommend it because it is.
Part 1: 2-3 lessons of controlled listening, reading, speaking and writing practice ensued trying to recycle these structures as much as possible. I had been reading quite a bit over half-term and wanted to try out some new ideas. One source of ideas was The Language Teacher ToolkitThe Language Teacher Toolkit. Another was the Language Gym Blog. A number of these formed part of the lesson and I wrote a number of texts that recycled the target structures above.
Part 2: I took the students to the ICT room. They researched key details about a festival from a selection I had produced. No-one did La Tomatina because that was on the scheme of work for subsequent weeks. After that students produced a script using as many of the target structures as possible.
Part 3: They handed in their scripts, which I marked. They then corrected and improved it based on feedback they were given so that their VLOG recording is grammatically sound. As part of this, they also had to underline any words that they felt were tricky to pronounce. Those that finished this redrafting process worked with me on how to pronounce the words. Others were directed to Voki. Whilst not perfect, it will do the job.
Part 4: Students are currently recording their vlogs.
Festivals that match interests.
Sometimes it is worth investigating a little more to find out some more festivals out there. UK textbooks tend to emphasise la tomatina or navidad. I think the former because it captures the imagination and the later because students can relate to it. One student was quite motivated by the fería de caballos in Jerez. Another really enjoyed looking into la mistura peruana (Peru’s food festival). Día de amistad (South America) was perceived to be a great idea by another student and they wondered why we don’t have it here.
Android Game
This was a way of practising the key vocabulary around festivals. Here’s how it works: Frodo draws 9 dots on a whiteboard in a 3×3 pattern. Frodo then joins up 4-5 of the dots consecutively like an Android phone password.
On the screen have 9 squares with phrases in. These correspond to the 9 dots.
Sam’s job is to crack Frodo’s password. Sam says the phrases on the screen trying to guess where Frodo’s password starts. Frodo can only respond “si” when Sam has guessed the first one. Even if he has said other parts of the pattern up to this point, he must get the first one.
The main aim here is repetition of vocabulary and familiarisation with the target structures. You should advise students beforehand not to use their actual phone password. You would think it might not need saying, but it does.
Trapdoor with lives
Trapdoor seems to be a staple of MFL teacher PowerPoints on TES.
Danielle was kind enough to let me use this example of trapdoor. You should visit her site: Morganmfl
The prevailing methodology seems to be that students restart when they get it wrong and go back to the beginning. A slight twist I have tried recently is giving students a number of lives. They then have to reach the end alive. This means that they have a greater chance to use all of the vocabulary on the activity. I tend to base the number of lives on 1-2 guesses per section.
For festivals I used the idea of a past tense account of the festival including the following vocabulary:
I went to, we went to, my friends and I went to, we participated in, we threw, a lot of, we ate, we drank, it was, we are going to go again, because it is, we are never going to go again,
Mastermind with lives
Image result for mastermind board gameAgain using the same principal as the trapdoor activity above. Students have to guess what their partner is thinking. They can only tell their partner how many they get right. Place a table on the board with 3-4 columns. The original game to the left uses four. Personally, I prefer three for MFL lessons. One student writes the target phrases in their book. The other tries to guess the phrases that they have written. This can be made quicker by giving students a number of lives. It also means both students are likely to get a go. Students seem to enjoy this one.
TL Questions and TL answers
By Carlesboveserral [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)%5D, from Wikimedia Commons
This module has been great for training students to respond to target language questions with target language answers. Using the AQA book, we covered la tomatina. I wrote text about la tomatina from the point of view of “Marcos” who attended la tomatina. There were then 8 TL questions with relatively simple answers in the text. Part of the activity was to train pupils to look for language that is similar to the verbs in the question.
If this is the answer, what is the question
In the subsequent lesson, I jumbled up the TL questions and TL answers and asked students to match them. The answers were on the left of the slide and questions on the right. To increase the level of challenge in this activity, you could have students create the questions themselves.
Four Phrases One festival
Have four boxes of text on the screen. Three of the boxes all partly describe a festival. The final box should have some details that do not correlate with the others. Students need to work out the festival as well as which box does not help them. The idea behind this was to give them practice of filtering out the distractors when looking at higher level reading texts. Depending on the level of your class you can make this as subtle as you feel is right.
I’m not quite sure where I would be without a set of 6 sided and 12 sided dice in lessons. Aside from the rather popular “one pen one die” activity, you can do a variety of things.
Improvisation – students make a sentence based on prompt. You could add a minimum word count to stretch them.
1. Where was the festival?
2. What was it about?
3. What did you see?
4. How was it?
5. Who did you go with?
6. What did you like most?
Roll, say, translate – Hugh rolls the dice and says the sentence. Zac translates into English.
1. se celebra en abril
2. tiene lugar en Sevilla
3. hay muchas casetas
4. empieza dos semanas después de la Semana Santa
5. la gente baila sevillanas, bebe manzanilla y come tapas
6. Quiero visitarla porque parece bonita
Extreme Snakes and Ladders
File:Snakes and ladders1.JPG
By Druyts.t [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)%5D, from Wikimedia Commons
I’ll be honest with you; it is not extreme but the name seems to have an effect on classes. Find a snakes and ladders board. Set sentence-making challenges for anyone who lands on a number ending in 1,3,5,7,9. You could also add a snake stopper and ladder allower. These should be tricky tasks.
1 Where was the festival?
3 What was it about?
5 What did you see?
7 How was it?
9 Who did you go with?
Snake Stopper: make three sentences about a festival that includes the words … , … and …
Ladder Allower: Describe a festival you wouldn’t go to and why
If you have managed to read this far then well done! Feel free to tweet any ideas to @everydaymfl or leave a comment below.
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Ardez. Photo/Foto: TES.
Steinsberg Castle in Ardez
The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) passed over the Swiss territory, with a few exceptions, including the destruction of Allschwil by Swedish troops in 1632 and the systematic destruction of villages in Lower Engadine (Unterengadin) by Habsburg troops during the Bündner Wirren (1618-1639). For centuries this region was a battlefield between the Counts of Tyrol and the Habsburgs on the one hand and the local rulers and the Bünder alliances from 1367 on the other. The villages of Ardez and Ftan (Protestant since the Reformation) also underwent this fate in 1499 and 1622. The tower of Steinsberg Castle is the memory of the fortification which was built in the twelfth century by the Swabian Lords of Frickingen (Überlingen, Lake Constance/Bodensee). With the extinction of the Swabian dynasty in 1268, Ardez and Ftan became involved in the ambitions of Habsburg (the legal successors of the Counts of Tyrol), the Bishop of Chur and local rulers, especially the monasteries Marienberg and Müstair. Ardez was rebuilt after 1622 and never destroyed again.
Today, the village is an open-air monument with the castle’s tower as an eye-catcher. This tower is in turn 1 600 meters surpassed by the mighty Bündner mountains. Ardez lies at an altitude of 1400 meters. The Catholic Church is also impressive and was built in 1871, more than three centuries after the Reformation. The Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848 recognised freedom of religion. Ardez reluctantly gave in to pressure by the government in Bern. It symbolises the fact that the Swiss Federation and the Constitution and not the cantons or municipalities have the last say in these matters. The mountains have witnessed all these human activities, including the first settlements in the Bronze Age. (Source and further information:
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"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.02203381061553955,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9416757822036743,
"url": "https://www.swiss-spectator.ch/steinsberg-castle-in-ardez/"
}
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03091nas a2200253 4500008004100000245009600041210006900137300001200206490000700218520236000225653001002585653001702595653001602612653001202628653001302640653001102653653001702664100002202681700002202703700002302725700002302748700002302771856004302794 2020 eng d 00 aIntroduced land mammals and their impacts on the birds of the subantarctic Auckland Islands 0 aIntroduced land mammals and their impacts on the birds of the su a247-268 0 v67 3 a
Since the European discovery of the Auckland Islands, at least ten species of land mammals have been introduced there. Most arrived in the first half of the ninteenth century during periods of exploitation by sealers and whalers, followed by short-lived Māori and European settlements at Port Ross. Several species required multiple introductions before becoming established. For those populations that naturalised, cattle (Bos taurus) occupied Enderby Island and were eradicated by 1993, goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) remained restricted to the northern end of Auckland Island and were eradicated by 1991, while pigs (Sus scrofa) spread across the entire Auckland Island and remain there today. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) established on Rose and Enderby Islands, and were eradicated in 1993. Cats (Felis catus) and mice (Mus musculus domesticus) were both first recorded in 1840 on Auckland Island and remain there today. Rats (Rattus spp.) have never established on the Auckland Islands. Collectively, cattle, goats, sheep (Ovis aries), pigs, and rabbits transformed habitats and altered ecosystem processes, and suppressed tussock, megaherbs, and woody vegetation on Auckland, Enderby, Rose, Ewing, and Ocean Islands. Cats and pigs are together responsible for the extirpation or major reduction of surface-nesting and burrowing seabird colonies, and ground-nesting land birds from Auckland Island. Before dying out on Enderby Island, pigs had similar impacts there. Mice have altered invertebrate community composition and are likely responsible for lower abundancies of wētā (Dendroplectron aucklandense) and large weevils (Curculionidae) on Auckland Island. Disappointment Island remained free of introduced mammals, while on Adams Island they had only fleeting and minimal impact. Humans also had direct impacts on birds through hunting for consumption, with large surface-nesting seabirds severely affected around Port Ross. The Auckland Island merganser (Mergus australis) was driven to extinction by presumed mammal predation and well-documented museum collecting. Eradication of pigs, cats, and mice from Auckland Island and Masked Island (Carnley Harbour) would remove the last introduced mammals from the New Zealand subantarctic region.
10 abirds 10 aconservation 10 aeradication 10 aimpacts 10 ainvasive 10 amammal 10 asubantarctic 1 aRussell, James, C 1 aHorn, Stephen, R. 1 aMiskelly, Colin, M 1 aSagar, Rachael, L. 1 aTaylor, Rowley, H. uhttps://notornis.osnz.org.nz/node/4475
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Gustav II Adolf [Gustavus Adolphus] – Formative Years
Gustav II Adolf was born in Stockholm on 9 December 1594. He was the oldest son of King Karl IX and Kristina of Holstein-Gottorp, though Karl was not yet king when Gustav was born. The king was Sigismund (crowned in 1593), King Karl’s nephew. Being the son of a royal duke and duchess, Gustav II Adolf had an opulent and sheltered upbringing. There were no indications that he would be a future king, as the Swedish crown was in a different branch of the family when he was born—his father, Karl IX, was not crowned king until 1604. Gustav Adolf had private tutors for every aspect of his education, and he was no idle child, being gifted with a considerable intellect combined with a great eagerness to learn.
It is reported that by the time Gustav was twelve he spoke perfect German—not surprising since his mother was a German princess—and was fluent in Latin, Italian, and Dutch. He also showed early signs of becoming an inspiring orator.
But it was in the study of diplomacy and military affairs that he really excelled. Young Gustav apparently read everything he could lay his hands on dealing with military art and science, and Maurice of Nassau became his hero. He was a strong athlete and became adept at horse riding and the use of various weapons. He displayed an early contempt for physical danger, a trait we find repeated in his later life and which eventually led to his death.
There was a truce in the Dutch War of Independence in 1609 and, according to Colonel Dupuy, many veterans from that war came to Sweden seeking employment in the Baltic wars. Gustav paid great attention to their description of the new method of warfare introduced by Maurice. These conversations and his own readings profoundly affected his life.
Sigismund was deposed by the Riksdag in 1599 and his uncle Karl became de facto king. Sigismund, the rightful heir, refused to accept the parliamentary decision engineered by his uncle, declared war in early 1600, and hostilities soon commenced in Livonia. This war, interrupted occasionally by truces, was to last until 1629.
Karl IX’s formal period as king was relatively short (1604-1611), but he began to have Gustav Adolf participate in the affairs of state at an early date. Gustav often attended meetings of the Council of State and met many foreign diplomats. In 1609, at the age of fifteen, Gustav took over the administration of the duchy of Vestmanland. The following year, he pleaded with his father to be allowed to participate in an expedition to Russia. His father refused.
The Polish-Swedish conflict was suspended after 1605 due to the implosion of the Russian government beginning with the death of Tsar Boris Godunov and ending with the reign of Michael Romanov in 1613—referred to as the Times of Trouble. A succession of pretenders claimed to be Dimitrii, the last Riúrik prince, who had actually died in 1591. Both Poland and Sweden took advantage of the Russian turmoil to grab Russian territory. Sigismund intervened in the Russian power struggle in 1609 by supporting a group of rebellious nobles who had besieged Tsar Vasilii Shuiskii in Moscow. Sigismund’s intent was to make his son Wladyslaw the new tsar.
The besieged tzar requested help from Sweden. In return for the help he promised to cede control of the disputed region on the Gulf of Finland to Sweden. Karl IX agreed and dispatched a corps under Field Marshal Jacob de la Gardie.
De la Gardie’s troops, in cooperation with troops loyal to Tsar Shuiskii, relieved the Russian capital and forced the rebels to retreat. After the success at Moscow, de la Gardie marched with his Russian allies to the rescue of the fortress of Smolensk, which was besieged by a Polish army. However, halfway between Moscow and Smolensk, the Russo-Swedish army was badly defeated at the battle of Klushino on 4 July 1610 by a much smaller Polish force under one of Poland’s greatest commanders, Field Marshal (hetman) Stanis-law Zolkiewski.
Zolkiewski thereupon marched on Moscow, captured the city and deposed Tsar Vasilii (Basil). Having sustained a serious defeat at Klushino and with Russia now under virtual Polish control, King Karl IX decided that the wisest course of action was to withdraw northward. He also decided that with the turmoil going on in Russia, this was the right time to seize some of the properties promised by Vasilii for Swedish help. De la Gardie captured the region around Kexholm as well as the city of Novgorod.
There may also have been a dynastic motive by Karl IX, similar to that of his nephew Sigismund. The Swedish historian Nils Ahnlund (1889–1957) writes that in the early summer of 1611, the Russian national militia assembled in Moscow, despairing of the chances of its native rulers, had chosen Gustav Adolf of Sweden as their tsar and grand duke. When Jacob de la Gardie concluded a treaty with the authorities in the captured city of Novgorod, Karl IX is referred to as the protector of the city and it was indicated that one of his sons would become tsar. It appears that Karl IX, who was trying to cope with the progress of the Poles, was surprised by the Russian offers.
Anhlund maintains there is evidence to show that in the summer of 1612 Gustav Adolf was still considering the Russian offers, possibly for tactical reasons in dealing with his Polish enemy. In the end he decided that it was not a good idea because of Sweden’s and Russia’s conflicting interests.
However, Karl IX had a younger son Karl Filip who might rise to the challenge. Gustav Adolf was not too enamored of this idea either. He realized that the conflicting future interests of Russia and Sweden had the potential to create animosity between himself and his younger brother. He undoubtedly had the Polish situation in mind where he was fighting his cousin.
Nevertheless, the project was apparently favored by Queen Kristina. Considerable time passed, however, before Karl Filip headed to Russia. An event which took place before he reached the Russian frontier, however, destroyed any hope of establishing a junior Vasa line in Moscow. This event was the election of Michael Romanov as tsar in 1613—and he was to rule Russia until 1645. Sweden continued her struggle against Russia until the Peace of Stolbova in 1617.
THE KALMAR WAR (1611–1613)
Kristian IV of Denmark decided to take advantage of Sweden’s deep involvement in Russia and Livonia to settle old scores. It was a crafty move on the part of Kristian since all of Karl IX’s best troops were in the Baltic region and these could not be brought back to Sweden if the powerful Danish fleet could blockade the ports in the eastern Baltic from where it was logical they would embark. Kristian also appears to have known that Karl IX had come down with apoplexy. What we do know is that Gustav Adolf considered the attack treacherous and that he and Kristian IV remained bitter rivals until Gustav died in 1632.
Let us take a quick look at the reasons for this war, which began just forty-one years after the bloody Northern Seven Years War had been settled by the Treaty of Stettin. This treaty was a defeat for Sweden’s King Erik in virtually every area. The Treaty of Stettin only led to bitterness for the losing side and increased ambition on the part of the winning side.
As a result, the leading power in the Baltic at the beginning of the seventeenth century was the kingdom of Denmark-Norway. Even if the distant territories of Iceland and Greenland are left out, the kingdom covered an immense area from northern Germany to the extremity of the European continent. The total length of the coastline was huge, providing easy access to both the Atlantic and the Baltic. To the south, the duchies in Jutland added a considerable German-speaking population. The nearby secularized bishop -rics of northern Germany were attainable objectives for the ambitious Oldenburg dynasty. The entrance to the Baltic was completely in Danish hands, and this not only brought great wealth into the royal coffers but gave the Danes great leverage with the western maritime powers. The islands of Gotland and Ösel, off the southeast coast of Sweden, were controlled by Denmark and posed a threat to Sweden, since they were stepping stones to the eastern Baltic, and locations facilitating naval control of the Baltic.
Norway’s contribution to the union was first and foremost the Norwegian genius for seamanship—their seamen provided the backbone for the navy as well as the merchant marine. The deep-sea fishery and the large export of timber benefited from high demands in an extensive market. Norway’s northern coast made it possible to control trade coming from the White Sea. Meantime, there was only one power that Denmark-Norway needed to reckon with and that was Sweden, including Finland.
Sweden, on the other hand felt surrounded. The area to the west and north was controlled by Norway as well as two provinces east of the Scandinavian watershed. Conflict from there could reach the Baltic and separate the northern part of Sweden from the southern. Norway’s geography also posed problems for Sweden’s hoped-for outlet to the Arctic Ocean. To the east Sweden faced two great powers: Orthodox Russia and Catholic Poland. To the south she had to contend with Denmark, which occupied a large portion of the Swedish mainland, and the German Hansa League across the southern Baltic.
The mining industry had for centuries been one of Sweden’s most important resources, but its full potential was far from being realized. Agriculture was undependable; in some years surpluses were produced while in others the country had to rely on imports. Sweden and Finland were extensively forested but their exploitation was mainly for domestic use and little was left for export. Swedish shipping was in no way comparable with that of Denmark-Norway. Sweden had no outlet to the west except for a sliver of land around the fortress and harbor of Älvsborg.
King Karl IX’s policy of extending Swedish and Finnish territories to the Arctic Ocean as a way to interrupt Russian trade from the White Sea and provide the Swedes with an outlet to the Atlantic raised alarm bells in Den mark. This was at least one reason for Kristian IV’s surprise attack on Sweden in 1611 that led to the two-year conflict known as the Kalmar War. There were many other animosities between the Scandinavian countries that the leaders could use to stir up the masses. The rivalries between the two kingdoms were the single greatest force determining their relations in the seventeenth century.
The surprise Danish invasion from Skåne and Norway found Karl IX in sickbed. He had to gather whatever forces he could locally since most of the Swedish army was fighting in Russia and Livonia. While the king prepared to move to relieve the besieged Kalmar Castle he put his son Gustav Adolf—not yet 17 years old—in command of the forces in East Gotland.
Kristian IV had made good preparations before the attack, even concluding an alliance with Poland and Russia. The heavily fortified city of Kalmar was key to the defense of southeastern Sweden, and in August Kristian sailed into Kalmar. The Danes stormed and captured the town but were not able to take Kalmar Castle.
Gustav Adolf was not content to sit in East Gotland, and on his own initiative he assembled a small militia force and crossed to the island of Öland where the Danes had left only a small force. As a consequence, the Danish garrison, unprepared when the Swedes under Gustav Adolf appeared, withdrew to Borgholm Castle but was soon compelled to surrender.
The Swedish commander of Kalmar Castle surrendered despite the approach of a relieving force under Karl IX. Kristian I V, seeing that the Swedes had been able to assemble a militia army, realized that his earlier hopes of an unopposed march through southeastern Sweden had been frustrated. With winter approaching, Kristian left a garrison to hold Kalmar and withdrew the rest of his army to prepare for the 1612 campaign.
Gustav Adolf had returned from Öland and planned additional offensive action. He led his small force into the Danish province of Skåne—apparently only intending a quick raid. However, the Danish commander of the border fortress of Christianopol became nervous and sent an urgent message to Kristian requesting reinforcement by about 500 cavalry. The message never reached its destination because it was intercepted by the Swedes. Gustav Adolf saw an opportunity and grabbed it. He dressed a force of his militia to look like Danish cavalry and approached the fort after dark. The Danes, believing it was the force they had requested, opened the gates and after a short fight the fortress was captured, ending the war’s first season with a success for the Swedes.
King Karl IX died a few weeks after the 1611 campaign came to a close. Swedish law required that a king had to be 24 years old before taking full control of the government. Gustav Adolf was not yet 17 so that a Regency Council, composed of his mother, Gustav’s first cousin Duke John of East Gotland, and six nobles from the Council of Ministers, was therefore appointed. However, within two months the Riksdag amended the succession law, allowing Gustav to become king at the age of 17. Eight days after his birthday he became king of Sweden.
Gustav’s first act in January 1612 was to appoint Axel Oxenstierna, age 28, as chancellor. It was a wise choice and Oxenstierna remained at Gustav’s side until the king’s death in battle. Thereafter, Axel took over the direction of affairs in Germany while also serving as guardian for Gustav’s underage daughter Kristina. Oxenstierna’s calm demeanor was a perfect match for a king who could be both impetuous and high strung.
Along with the crown, Gustav Adolf inherited three ongoing wars: against Denmark; against Poland; and against Russia. The opponents all enjoyed a considerable superiority over Sweden in power and it was obvious that he had to prioritize his efforts. He decided correctly that the war against Denmark was the most dangerous to Swedish interests and he gave that conflict the highest priority. He was eager to bring that conflict to an acceptable solution as quickly as possible.
Denmark began the 1612 campaign with the distinct advantages of having captured the cities of Kalmar and Älvsborg, the latter being Sweden’s only outlet to the west. King Kristian IV may also have thought that he had another advantage: a young and inexperienced king on the Swedish throne. These real or perceived advantages may explain why he declined an offer of mediation by King James I of England.
Gustav, rather than trying to recover the two lost cities in protracted siege operations, decided to take the war into Danish territory. He made his bold decision to invade Skåne against the advice of most of his advisers. His immediate objective was the town of Helsingborg, and here he displayed two weaknesses that were to repeat themselves several times in his campaigns in Poland and Germany: failure to acquire adequate intelligence about enemy movements and to take adequate security measures. Before reaching their objective, the Swedes were surprised by a sudden Danish attack. The result was an obvious Swedish defeat forcing Gustav to make a quick withdrawal. After this sharp setback, Gustav decided to try his luck against Norway.
No significant gains were made there either, but in a pattern that was to repeat itself often, the king’s recklessness in leading from the front almost cost him his life. In a cavalry skirmish on a frozen lake, his horse fell through the ice. Since he was wearing body armor, he was rescued only with great difficulty. Gallantly leading from the front is a great troop motivator and something that Gustav Adolf repeatedly practiced. In so doing, however, he put his whole command in danger of becoming leaderless and thus losing battles—as happened during both the Polish and German campaigns. A leader’s place in battle is where he can best control the action directed at winning and saving lives. Only when all resources have been committed in a set course of action and where the outcome hangs in the balance should a leader become personally involved so as to tip the scale in his favor.
While Gustav was campaigning in Norway, King Kristian IV prepared a bold stroke against Stockholm, the Swedish capital. To deceive Gustav as to his intention he made it appear that he was preparing for action against the fortress of Jönköping near the Norwegian frontier. This was a very believable feint as it would have placed the Danish army on Gustav’s line of communication to Sweden. Kristian was hoping that by moving against Gustav’s rear he could prevent him from interfering with the main operation against Stockholm.
It was a brilliant strategic move on the part of Kristian but its execution was not that spectacular. Gustav, as Kristian had hoped, moved to protect Jön köping while the main Danish force of 8,000 men, loaded on 30 ships, sailed against Stockholm without interference from the badly outnumbered Swedish navy. Kristian disembarked his troops successfully at a location only 19 kilometers from the capital.
When the news of the Danish threat to the capital reached him, Gustav quickly assembled a small force of 1,200 mercenaries and undertook a grueling forced march of circa 400 kilometers to the capital, accomplishing this task in less than a week. When he arrived in Stockholm, Kristian had advanced only 10 kilometers from his landing site and no significant encounters occurred. After Gustav’s arrival, Kristian simply returned to Denmark.
This inconclusive two-year war was coming to an end without either side scoring any spectacular gains. The Swedes had overrun the two Norwegian provinces of Jämtland and Härjedalen but had not crossed the watershed, and most importantly, Gustav’s hopes of driving the Danes out of southern Sweden had not come to fruition; in fact the capture of the two cities of Kalmar and Älvsborg had increased Danish holdings and robbed Sweden of her only outlet to the west. Both sides were therefore ready to call it quits and they accepted an offer by England and Holland, eager to maintain a balance of power in the north, to mediate a peace treaty. This mediation led to the signing of the Treaty of Knärad on 19 January 1613.
The terms of this treaty were more advantageous to Denmark than Sweden. Gustav Adolf had to renounce his father’s policy of seeking an outlet to the sea in northern Norway and even to return the two conquered provinces to Norway. All of Sweden’s attention was devoted to reclaiming the lands around the mouth of the Göta River which provided the only outlet to the west. The treaty returned Kalmar and Älvsborg to Sweden but at a very heavy cost—1,000,000 riks-dollars to be paid in three installments, and the first installment had to take place before a Danish withdrawal. This was a steep price to pay for a relatively poor nation also involved in two other wars, but assurance of financial assistance from Holland cemented the deal. In fact, Holland was so eager to preserve a balance of power in the north that she concluded an alliance with Sweden in 1614. This also demonstrates that both Holland and England considered Denmark-Norway the preeminent power.
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Occupation affix particles in Chinese
Daniel ZHPY
In most of the world's languages, you can turn a word into its respective occupation by adding affixes to it. However, as Chinese doesn't conjugate, we attach an additional character to a word instead to form that corresponding job. One aspect in which Chinese differs from English when forming occupation words is that in English, what suffix is used depends mainly on the origins of words, but in Chinese people choose occupation particles based on the properties and characteristics of that job. Here're some practically and frequently used occupation particles in Chinese.
家, with its original meaning of a family or a clan, can be extended to refer to a particular philosophy, theory or ideology. Hence, when it's used to form an occupation word, that occupation would be usually related to a professional skill, interest or talent. For example:
-文学家: a person who has been educated on literature — a litterateur.
-画家: a person who is professional in drawing — a painter.
-科学家: a person who has professional knowledge about science — a scientist.
-音乐家: a person who is well-educated and professional in music — a musician.
-美食家: a person who is passionate and authoritative in appraising foods — a gourmet.
It's good to note that when two different occupation words are derived from the same origin, the one with 家 added often has a higher level of profession, authority or recognisation. For instance, 歌手 and 歌唱家 are both people who take singing as their jobs, but 歌唱家 is definitely regarded as an artist while 歌手 is probably just a public performer or a pop song singer.
Another interesting fact is that when we come to players for specific musical instruments, the only two that are conventionally named with 家 are 钢琴家, a pianist and 小提琴家, a violinist.
师 originally means a teacher or an adviser. When a job is named with 师 attached, it refers to people who are well-trained or experienced in a particular area. The difference between it and 家 is that a 师 may not necessarily have the profession or talent. Here're some examples:
-教师: a person who is trained to teach others — a teacher.
-厨师: a person who is trained to work in a kitchen — a cook.
-理发师: a person who is trained to manage people's hair — a barber.
-会计师: a person who is trained to account money — an accountant.
手 means hands, thus referring to people who have high skills or talents, but only in a small area. Unlike 家, a XX手 usually doesn't have an overall profession in a general field, but in a much more specific section. It is very often seen in players of a particular instrument. For example:
-鼓手: a person whose task is to play the drums — a drummer.
-吉他手: a person who plays the guitar — a guitarist.
-小号手: a person who plays the trumpet — a trumpeter.
-舵手: a person who is responsible for managing and controlling the helm — a helmsman.
工 means originally work or labour. Hence it is usually used to name those jobs that need hard labour or manual processes. For example:
-技工: a person hired to manage technical issues — a technician.
-水管工: a person paid to repair waterpipes — plumber.
-电工: a person paid to check and fix electrical devices — an electrician.
-油漆工: a person who paints buildings — a painter.
匠 basically means a craftsman, so it is used for any job related to crafting and designing. Though it also involves laborious processes often, it's different from 工 as the labour is done in order to craft or make a certain object or artefact. For example:
-木匠: a person who uses woods to do handicrafts — a carpenter.
-铁匠: a person who crafts metal objects — a blacksmith.
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当前位置：主页 > 毕业论文 > 英语论文 > 英美文学 > >
Abstract:This article generally analyses the marriage of Bingley and Jane. The author thinks that Bingley and Jane have many similarities in their characters, which lead them to a successful marriage although they all lack strength in their marriage. The author also points out that Bingley and Jane married for love, not for the money, status or good looks. So the combination of them is really a blessed and happy marriage.
Key words:Marriage,Love,Interests,happy
Jane Austen (1775-1817), who was born at Steventon on December 16, 1775, was one of the greatest novelists in England. She was the youngest of seven children in her family. She received most of her education at home. Her family are all fond of reading books, which influenced her very much. Her reading extended little beyond the literature of the eighteenth century, and within that period she admired Dr. Johnson particularly. And later she was delighted with both the poetry and prose of Scott. She died on July 18, 1817, and was buried in the cathedral in Winchester. She totally wrote six novels in her life. Among the six novels, Pride and Prejudice has been valued as the most successful and popular masterpiece. In this novel, Jane Austen mainly described the ordinary life of the Bennets . She told us four different marriages to show the readers that different people have different attitudes towards love. And also she expressed her own viewpoints on marriage that a combination based on love and similar interests is a happy and perfect marriage. In her opinion, the money-oriented marriage and sex-oriented marriage are not successful although the people can live together. The theme is narrow, but she showed us a beautiful tableau of the England people’s life of her own time. It seems that she had a talent to describe the ordinary life of people.
Because of the lack of her experiences and knowledge, the characters in Pride and Prejudice are all of her own social class: The ladies and gentlemen of the landed gentry. And also, in every conversation, there was at least one lady.
“The conversations of ladies with ladies, or of ladies and gentlemen together, are given, but no instance occurs of a scene in which men only are present.”2
Most parts of the story are the intricacies of courtships and marriages between the members of her class, which are great attraction to many readers.
Among all the marriages in this novel, the combination of pleasant Bingley and mild Jane is the most blessed and happy one. The couple has similar interests and they insisted on pursuing their true love, which lead them to a happy and perfect marriage.
Mr. Bingley was a good looking and gentlemanlike person whose revenues were about 5,000 pounds a year. As a young man who had good breeding, he was cordial and simple with easily-led disposition. With this character, he never appeared dissatisfied. He was easy to approach and constant in love although he was very rich. However, he lacked strength and independence in his marriage, which was a grievous defect of him. In the novel, Bingley was popular with almost everybody in everywhere. He had a pleasant countenance and easy unaffected manners. It is easy to find that he was agreeable both in appearance and character. The first appearance of Bingley was the time when he “returned Mr. Benner’s visit, and sat about ten minutes with him in his library.”3But the exact time when the readers began to know him was some days later. At the first ball at Netherfield, he was shown to everybody and the readers began to make acquaintance of his personality through his behavior.
Of course these personal strength won Jane’s admiration. She thought that he was just what a young man ought to be. In her eyes, Mr. Bingley was a sensible, good-humored, lively young man. And she had never seen anyone who had so many advantages with perfect good breeding! He was just her Mr. Right! At that ball,
“Bingley’s attentions to Jane had given rise to a general expectation of their marriage. He spoke of it as a certain event, of which the time alone could be undecided.”5
Mr. Bingley also noticed Jane at that night. He fell in love with Jane at their first ball and their romance flourished quietly and steadily. His affection towards Jane was obviously sincere andunaffected. It was obvious that when Jane suffered a trifling cold, he was worried about her. His anxiety and attention to her was evident. For example, when Elizabeth said that she couldn’t leave her sister because Jane’s illness was worse, “Bingley urged Mr. Jones’s being sent for immediately.”6 and “Bingley was quite uncomfortable.”7 The following sentences also are the evidences:
It is not difficult for the readers to find Bingley’s real concern and affection towards Jane from these details. He was cordial and constant in his love.
As a pleasant and modest person, Mr. Bingley was far from the man who was strong and determined. This is his merit but also his demerit. His cordial and simple character leads to his quiet romance with Jane. But his weak and easily-led character leads to his parting with Jane. So when their romance went smoothly, he suddenly departed from Jane, which nearly ends his happy love and marriage.
Generally speaking, his departure from Jane was caused by the relationship between him and Darcy. They were good friends although they were different in character. Between them there was a very steady and constant friendship. Bingley was endeared to Darcy by the easiness, openness and ductility of his temper. It is no doubt for Darcy that Bingley had the firmest reliance. For Darcy, he wanted to help his friend. In his opinion, it is impossible for Jane to love Bingley. So he persuaded Bingley not to take Jane in marriage. This point can be found from his letter to Elizabeth:
“Her (Jane) look and manners were open, cheerful, and engaging as ever, but without any symptom of peculiar regard, and I remained convinced from the evening’s scrutiny, that though she received his attentions with pleasure, she did not invite them by any participation of sentiment.” 9
For Bingley, he had an easily-led temper. He was so modest and pliable that he had no opinion about his own marriage. No matter how obvious his attachment to Jane was, he believed Darcy’s representation of Jane’s indifference was true. Because Mr. Bingley’s two sisters didn’t like Jane, they thought Mr. Bingley should choose Georgiana(Darcy’s sister) as his wife. So they also disagree with Bingley about his marriage with Jane. Under the influences of his sisters and Mr. Darcy, Bingley began to doubt Jane’s affection to him. Finally, he thought Jane didn’t love him, so he left her without saying good-bye. Later, when all the misunderstandings clarified, he came back to Jane at Darcy’s assistance. Bingley’s indecisive character determines his happiness and results that his life was controlled by others.
Jane was the first children in her family. She was a kind and mild girl who was the most beautiful one among her sisters. As an introverted girl, she is constant in her love but lacks strength and self-confidence. She didn’t want others to know her love to Mr. Bingley, so she pretended that she had nothing to do with him. Compared with other girls, she was the most mild, kind, modest and almost perfect girl in this novel. Sometimes she was a little innocent. In her eyes, everybody is perfect. She never saw the ugly fact of life even she was deceived. Her character is vividly showed in many parts of the novel. “Compliments always take you (Jane) by surprise, and me (Elizabeth) never”10 and
“Oh, You (Jane) are a great deal too apt you know, to like people in general, you never see a fault in anybody, all the world are too good and agreeable in your eyes. I (Elizabeth) never heard you speak ill of a human being in my life.” 11
According to this, readers can find that how kind and innocent Jane was. And also it is quite natural for Jane to fall in love with the pleasant and simple Bingley. She met him at the ball, and after then, she adored Bingley very much. But with her introverted and tranquil disposition, Jane controlled her passion too much, which nearly consumed her felicity. Although she loved Mr. Bingley after the ball, she had no courage to express it. She cherished her feelings towards him, but she chose to conceal it. She didn’t display her true feelings. On the contrary, she controlled her passion to the best of her ability, lest anyone find it. She only showed genteel pleasure and politeness although her heart was fluttering with romantic passion. In a sense, her attitude towards love was passive.
According to the above, Darcy thought that though Jane was pleased with Bingley, she didn’t love him. He thought Jane’s
In his eyes, Bingley was involved in an unavailable love. So after then, he made great efforts to separate Bingley from Jane.
After Bingley’s departure, Jane suffered great distress. She was very depressed. But because of the defect of her character, she pretended to be all right and said nothing about her sadness. Here, readers can find that her weakness and obedience had been thoroughly exposed.
In the novel, Bingley and Jane never stopped pursuing their true love although there were so many obstacles between them. Fortunately, with the help of Darcy and Elizabeth, they finally got married and had a happy life. Bingley and Jane had many similarities in their characters, which is the main reason to the success of their marriage. They possessed personal attractiveness and dignity, social graces, and a measure of good sense. They all had good breeding, but lacked insight, strength, and self-confidence. They didn’t show their insides easily to the publics because they cared the social criticism too much. For Jane, she always concealed her true feelings, which gave others a illusion that she didn’t love Bingley. For Bingley, he yielded easily to criticism of Jane’s social position and easily accepted the suggestions of his sisters and Darcy, which almost consumed the felicity between Jane and him. In manner of speaking, the outside forces facilitated their marriage.
According to the relationship between Bingley and Jane, love and similar interests are the basic factors of a successful and happy marriage. With many similarities in character, people can understand each other easily. Most important of all, the couple with similar interests can live together with a happy life, because there are understandings, helps and supporting between them. They don’t care the defects of their partners and even they don’t see any faults in each other. Just as the old saying going, “Birds of a feather flock together, people of a mind fill into the same group.”
1. Walter Scott, "The Journal of Sir Walter Scott," March, 1826.
2. W. F. Pollock, "Fraser's Magazine," January, 1860
3. Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, (Hohhot: Inner Mongolia People’s Press, 2002) 10.
4. Ibid. 12.
5. Ibid. 238.
6. Ibid. 49.
7. Ibid. 49.
8. Ibid. 66-65.
9. Ibid. 239-238.
10. George Sainsbury, Prefaces and Essays, (London: Macmillan and Co., Limited, 1933.) 194.
11. Ibid.194.
12. Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, (Hohhot: Inner Mongolia People’s Press, 2002) 239.
Austen Jane, Pride and Prejudice, Hohhot: Inner Mongolia People’s Press, 2002.
Sainsbury George, Prefaces and Essays, London: Macmillan and Co., Limited, 1933.
Scott Walter, "The Journal of Sir Walter Scott," March, 1826.
Pollock W. F., "Fraser's Magazine," January, 1860
李宏伟, 幸福，在高不可攀处吟唱——《傲慢与偏见》的婚姻透视，山西大学师范学院学报,2000年02期。
杨琴, 评简·奥斯汀在《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观，扬州职业大学学报，2004年02期
魏立婷，《傲慢与偏见》内容提要， http://www.ms555.cn/wg/a/aosiding/amyp/001.htm
魏立婷，《傲慢与偏见》作品赏析， http://www.ms555.cn/wg/a/aosiding/amyp/002.htm
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Obstructive Sleep Apnea
The most common sleep disorder is obstructive sleep apnea which is a respiratory disorder characterized by shallow breathing or cessation of breathing during sleep.
According to the National Center on Sleep Disorders, sleep disorders affect Americans of all ages, including about 25% of children between the ages of 1 and 5 years and approximately 50% of adults over the age of 65. Although it most commonly affects middle-aged and older adults, anyone can develop obstructive sleep apnea. It is estimated that as many as 18 million Americans suffer from sleep apnea, yet up to 95% of these cases go undiagnosed and untreated.
Obstructive sleep apnea is a disorder in which muscles relax during sleep, causing the soft tissue in the back of the throat to collapse and block the upper airway, momentarily cutting off breathing.
The most noticeable sign of obstructive sleep apnea is loud snoring. As the upper airway collapses, breathing becomes more difficult and noisy (snoring). Many people don't think of snoring as a sign of something potentially serious, and not everyone who snores has obstructive sleep apnea. However, obstructive sleep apnea can be a potentially serious sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.
For a person with sleep apnea, breathing stops from 10 to 60 seconds at a time, and these attacks can occur up to 120 times per hour during sleep. As a result, oxygen levels in the bloodstream fall, which in turn may lead to high blood pressure, stroke, heart attack and/or abnormal heart rhythms. If breathing stops for even 5 to 10 times per hour, the health consequences may be severe.
When breathing becomes impaired, the brain responds to the lack of oxygen by arousing the body from sleep which restores normal breathing. You can awaken abruptly with a transient shortness of breath that corrects itself quickly. You may also make a snorting, choking or gasping sound upon awakening. This pattern can repeat itself five to 30 times or more each hour, all night long. As a result of these disruptions, your ability to reach the desired deep, restful phases of sleep is impaired, leading to excessive daytime sleepiness.
Other signs and symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea may include awakening with a dry mouth or a sore throat, morning headache, or becoming drowsy or falling asleep while driving.
• Obesity: More than half of patients with obstructive sleep apnea are overweight. Fat deposits around the upper airway, obstructing the airway and impairing breathing.However, not everyone who has obstructive sleep apnea is overweight. Thin people can develop the disorder as well.
• Diabetes: Obstructive sleep apnea is three times more common in people who have diabetes.
• High blood pressure: Nearly 50% of people with sleep apnea also have hypertension.
• Anatomical features: Narrow throat, large tonsils or adenoids, large neck circumference
• Nasal congestion. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs twice as often in those who have consistent nasal congestion at night.
• Smoking and alcohol consumption
Persons most likely to develop sleep apnea include those who snore loudly and are overweight, have high blood pressure, or have a physical abnormality of the nose, throat or other parts of the upper airway.
• Cardiovascular problems. Sudden drops in blood oxygen levels that occur during obstructive sleep apnea increase blood pressure and strain the cardiovascular system, which raises the risk of coronary artery disease, heart failure and stroke. The more severe the obstructive sleep apnea, the greater the risk of high blood pressure. Especially if there is underlying heart disease, these repeated multiple episodes of low blood oxygen could lead to sudden death.
• Motor vehicle accidents and occupational accidents: People with sleep apnea are at twice the risk of having a traffic accident.
• Cancer: Patients with severe sleep apnea are 4 to 5 times more likely to develop cancer than those who do not have the sleep disorder.
• Diabetes
• Memory decline and dementia
• Depression
There are several ways to treat sleep apnea including CPAP therapy which utilizes a CPAP device to keep the airway open or oral appliance therapy which involves the use of an oral appliance to thrust the jaw forward during sleep. Certain lifestyle and behavioral changes, as for example, weight loss, may also alleviate the condition as well as surgery.
For more information or to schedule an appointment, please call one of our offices or fill out an online request for an appointment.
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Nine atomic wells: Instructor's Guide
Main Ideas
The wave state of an electron in a periodic can be approximated as a linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO). The LCAO states have physical similarities with the normal modes of a periodic system.
The coefficient of each atomic orbital in an LCAO state can be described by an envelope function.
Evaluating the envelop function at the center of a unit cell tells us the coefficient of the atomic orbital associated with the particular unit cell.
Even though the envelop function is continuous, we are only concerned with the value of the envelop function at discrete points in space.
Students' Task
Estimated Time: 15 minutes
Act out the time evolution of two different LCAO states.
Prerequisite Knowledge
This activity is designed to complement "Emulating Waves in a Periodic System".
• Nine student volunteers
• A long blackboard behind the students.
Activity: Introduction
The red line in the figure above represents the real part of a LCAO wavestate at an instant in time. This is a single electron wavestate that is spread over many potential wells. Student volunteers will keep track of the time dependent coefficients (complex numbers) that multiply each atomic orbital in the LCAO.
Ask for nine volunteers to be “coefficients in a quantum wavestate, even more fun than being atoms in a crystal!” and have them stand at the front of the room (about two feet in front of the black board and one arm's width apart from one-another).
Draw a potential well behind each student. Establish that there is an atomic orbital associated with each well. Denote the atomic orbitals |1>, |2>, |3> etc. Each atomic orbital will play a role in the LCAO state. Denote the repeat distance of the system, a. Establish a sign language for complex numbers: Your left arm points straight out representing exp(iφ) on a complex plane.
On the board, write the equation: SUM OVER j {(exp(i*2πx/8a - ωt)|j>}. Ask the students to act it out this LCAO.
On the boards, write the equation: SUM OVER j {(exp(i*2πx/4a - ωt)|j>}. Ask the students to act it out this LCAO.
Activity: Student Conversations
What determines the value of ω in the LCAO.
Do you expect ω to be the same for both states that were acted out?
What happens if we super impose a left moving LCAO and a right moving LCAO with the same wavelength?
Activity: Wrap-up
Personal Tools
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A Mushroom (or toadstool) – seta – is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source.
Mushrooms are not plants! They need water for their ‘fruit’ to grow. Mushrooms have no skin so they can lose water to the atmosphere very easily and if the body of the Mushroom is submerged in water it is comparable to drowning.
Mushroom describes a variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems.
With most Mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills.
Identification of the Mushroom can often be accomplished by using a Mushroom guide. Many species seem to appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. In reality all species of Mushrooms take several days to form. The cultivated Mushroom and the common field Mushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size and slightly expanded they are called buttons.
The most common Mushroom is the cultivated white Button Mushroom that has a stem, a cap and gills on the underside of the cap. These gills produce microscopic spores that help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface. There are many poisonous Mushrooms and edibility may be defined by criteria that include absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma. One of the world’s deadliest Mushrooms, the Death Cap, is said to have been behind the death of the Roman emperor Claudius in 54AD. Although they taste pleasant and resemble many safer varieties of Mushroom, just 1oz is enough to kill a human. Some Mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in others and old or improperly stored specimens can cause food poisoning. Here in Spain there a numerous wild Mushrooms that we may find not to our taste, but the Spanish love them! Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw. As a rule all wild Mushroom species should be cooked thoroughly before eating. Many species can be dried and re-hydrated by pouring boiling water over the dried Mushrooms and letting them steep for approximately 30 minutes.
Mushrooms are a low-calorie food eaten cooked, raw or as a garnish to a meal and are an excellent source of B vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid. They are also an excellent source of the essential minerals. Some Mushrooms or extracts are used or studied as possible treatments for diseases, such as cardiovascular disorders. Research is under way to find their potential to modulate immune system responses and inhibit tumour growth and potential anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic properties. Mushrooms have long been thought to hold medicinal value, especially in traditional Chinese medicine.
Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibres. The chromophores of Mushroom dyes are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colours, and all colours of the spectrum can be achieved.
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Radiation astronomy/Molecules/Quiz
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Molecular radiation astronomy is a lecture as part of the radiation astronomy department course on the principles of radiation astronomy.
You are free to take this quiz based on molecular radiation astronomy at any time.
Suggestion: Have the lecture available in a separate window.
Enjoy learning by doing!
1 Complete the text:
A white beam source focused on a sample, upon striking the sample has photons whose energy matches the
in order to excite the molecules of the sample, while the other photons transmit unaffected and give the sample the
2 True or False, The density distributions of a solid or unit of condensed matter involving more than atoms or molecules is not discrete like a spectral density but continuous.
interstellar atoms
interaction of radiation with molecules
organics of interstellar origin
interstellar precursors
4 True or False, The focus of the Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite is five spectral lines from water, isotopic water, isotopic carbon dioxide, molecular oxygen, and neutral carbon.
5 The orange band from molecular calcium chloride is observed in the spectra of many stars of what type?
6 True or False, The Earth's atmosphere does not transmit green radiation between 480 and 500 nm in wavelength because of water vapor.
7 Complete the text:
One of the reasons why detection of
is controversial is that although
molecules, even something relatively small like
8 True or False, Molecular lines for H2O in the spectra for Vega are likely from water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere or the accretion disk around Vega.
9 Chemistry phenomena associated with astronomy are
at least three-quarters of the human genome
10 Which chemical phenomenon are associated with the Earth?
quartz is the second most abundant mineral
an atmosphere containing CO2
green, red, blue, and yellow airglow
the production and escape of hot H+ ions
oxygen emissions
helium ions
11 Complete the text:
Condensed noble gases, most notably liquid
and liquid
, are excellent radiation detection
12 Yes or No, The number of molecules of a compound per a molecule of hydrogen is called the mixing ratio.
13 Complete the text:
Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below:
Interstellar comet - A
Neutrals - B
Geminga - C
star formation region - D
Local Hot Bubble - E
H II regions - F
Ring Nebula - G
molecular cloud - H
supernova remnant - I
Messier 17 - J
empty space - K
M57 The Ring Nebula.JPG
Messier 17.jpg
Local bubble.jpg
The star formation region NGC 6559.jpg
Mira the star-by Nasa alt crop.jpg
484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg
14 Chemistry phenomena associated with star-forming regions are
silicate dust
hydrogen molecules
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
15 True or False, Airglow is the emission of light by atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere after they are excited by X-ray radiation.
16 Which of the following is likely to apply to a solar binary?
a high relative velocity between the solar system and the cometary medium of a passage through a molecular cloud
none of the captured bodies may localize in the Oort cloud
none of the captured bodies localize near the Sun
some captured bodies may localize near Jupiter
the Jupiter system may be a control group
17 Which of the following are characteristic of a binary formed via gravitational fragmentation?
the local Jeans length
the local speed of sound
the mean molecular weight
the electron neutrino
the mean particle density
1. A sense-around system needs to incorporate detection of all forms of radiation.
See also[edit]
External links[edit]
{{Radiation astronomy resources}}
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Vibrio Gram Negative Bacteria Structure And Classification Biology Essay
Vibrio is a genus of Gram-negative bacterium which has a curve rod shaped construction. On footing of the type of species, the bacteriums can be either S-shaped or comma-shaped. They are facultative anaerobes, which mean they can prolong without O. They are extremely motile beings, normally dwelling of a individual polar scourge to travel. This scourge is surrounded by a sheath uninterrupted to the outer membrane of the cell wall. The bacteriums lose their scourge once they become endosymbionts with other beings ( fish, calamari. Some Vibrio species, such as the Vibrio cholera, are able to bring forth three polyoses that relate to cell surface – lipopolysaccharide, capsule and rugose exopolysaccharude. The lipopolysaccharide bed and the capsule both aid in the turning away of sensing by the host immune system. The rugose polyose helps the bacteria survive in aquatic environmental when foods are lacking.
Vibrios are one of the most common micro-organism found in H2O across the universe. They live in both marine and fresh H2O home grounds and associate themselves in a symbiosis with fish and other aquatic life. The thought of symbiosis is good for Vibrio species as it lets them to distribute their virulent strains. An illustration is Vibrio cholera. Vibrio cholera is found in coastal countries of algal bloom. Surfeit of algal bloom such as phytoplankton and zooplankton has a immense sum of effects on nutrient and H2O safety because Vibrio cholera attaches itself to little crustaceans called Copepods which help distribute the Cholera disease. Another illustration is the relationship between V fisheri and its usual host ( a calamari ) . The host expels 90 % of the V fisheri each twenty-four hours and this allows the offspring to obtain the endosymbionts that they need. Not merely is symbiosis involved, some Vibrio species are known to be zoonotic. This means are able to skip from species to species to guarantee that they are widely distributed. Shellfish is an illustration that can host Vibrio species which may do people ill.
Furthermore, non all Vibrio species are known to be infective. Infective species are normally found in contaminated parts that provide hapless H2O purification systems. Furthermore, it is besides the issue of sewage spillage and untreated sewerage that can distribute Vibrio species. It is these H2O systems that create a primary tract between worlds being hosts for these infective strains and exposing Vibrio-induced diseases. The co-existence of both infective and non-pathogenic strains in H2O enchances familial diverseness for the Vibrio species. This produces an advantage for Vibrio species as the cistron transference between different species could take to new modified virulent strains. Some Vibrio species that are infective could besides construct a parasitic relationship with the host, typically impacting fish, toads and eels.
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Dormancy is a common stage amongst Vibrio species. Normally, they survive on warm climes and hibernate during cold climes. The ability of the bacteriums to be hibernating in parts exhibiting colder clime provides an advantage, because it ensures that the beings will last in a assortment of clime. For microbiologists and public wellness functionaries, this trait causes annoyance and trouble for the obliteration of Vibrio species as they possess greater ecological tolerance degrees.
The Vibrio species exhibit two types of metamorphosis, they are the respiratory and the fermentative metamorphosis. Oxygen is the cosmopolitan negatron acceptor in Vibrios. Vibrios reproduce really merely, through nonsexual reproduction. The optimal temperature for cell map is 37 grades with an optimal pH of 8.2 which is somewhat basic in nature.
The isolation and culturing of Vibrio species has been enhanced by the development of Culture media which are extremely selective for Vibrios. In general footings, Vibrio species can be synthesised in either a liquid or solid media. The differentiation between these two mediums is the liquid media will enable the synthesis of Vibrio species with polar scourge that are sheathed with the outer membrane of the cell wall, on the other manus the solid media will synthesize scourge that are n’t sheathed. Vibrios obtain such simplistic growing factor demands that they besides can be grow in a man-made media with glucose as a exclusive beginning for C and energy. Due to the nutritionary versatility, every Vibrio species will devour alone sums of C and energy beginnings bring forthing a huge sum of individualized metabolic diverseness. Furthermore, since Vibrios are typically know as marine micro-organisms, it is besides good to supply a growing media of extra 2-3 % NaCl or a sea H2O base for optimum growing.
The most normally used media to synthesize the growing of Vibrios is a selective media called TCBS ( Thiosulfate Citrate Bile Salts Sucrose Agar ) . Besides classified under the blood agar civilization media, TCBS is extremely selective in Vibrio species found in cholera, diarrhea and nutrient toxic condition. This agar was developed by Kobayashi, who modified the original selective medium by Nakanishi. TCBS Agar can supply high selectivity to Vibrios when combined with assorted components and growing media. For illustration, when combined with a TTGA Agar ( Tellurite Taurocholate and Gelatine Agar ) , it is considered significantly good in turning Vibrio cholera. Characteristic visual aspects of the settlements help in the designation of V cholera isolates when grown on selective medium such as TCBS agar ; nevertheless, when the sample contains other autochthonal vibrios from Marine beginnings, the designation could be hard and may necessitate particular processs. Preliminary designation may be achieved by proving for glucose agitation in Kligler Fe agar, nitrate decrease to nitrite, oxidase production, comparative growing on alimentary agar with and without salt, and in Moeller ‘s stock incorporating lysine and ornithine decarboxylases and arginine dihydrolase.
Accomplishment in insulating and culturing Vibrios is besides successful when utilizing enrichment media. Although enrichment media is non peculiarly utile for the isolation of V.cholera from fresh diarrheal stool, it is utile for insulating Vibrio species from symptomless bearers or patients in late recuperation. To insulate Vibrio cholera from nutrient and H2O samples, it requires the combination of alkalic peptone H2O for primary enrichment and tellurite-bile salt stock for the secondary enrichment. For isolation of Vibrio cholera from seafood, the stuff is normally homogenised and inoculated into the enrichment stock. However, such homogenates frequently contain repressive substances and may retard the expected growing of the beings. It is recommended that the seafood samples should be cut into little pieces, added to 10 times the volume of enrichment stock, shaken smartly for 1-2 proceedingss or homogenised, the pieces removed and so the stock incubated at 35 grades celcius. Vibrio species associated with human infections will merely turn in enrichment stocks associated with about 1 % NaCl ( excepting Vibrio cholera, Vibrio mimicus and some strains of Vibrio metschnikovii ) . Sheep blood agar, an enrichment media, is used to find biotypes of Vibrio cholera. By utilizing this peculiar agar, it tests for haemolysin production that will divide the strains of Vibrio cholera.
There are assorted environmental, medical and biotechnological deductions in the research of Vibrio species. An application of biotechnology is the use of non-toxic B-units of Vibrio cholera. When this is attached to a fluorescent protein they can be used to observe nerve cells. Nerve locations can be detected in vivo ( the organic structure ) . This usage of non-toxic Vibrio cholera merchandises can be utile in the operating room when little nervousnesss need to be visualised. A current research of Vibrios is the thought of quorum detection. This is a communicational system between Vibrio cholera bacteria utilizing molecules called autoinducers. This system enables cells to organize a specific map or cistron look as a group.
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Page principale
Extra Exercices
Grammar > Articles, Prepositions and Quantifiers > Prepositions of Place / Position 1
Click on each blank space to choose the correct preposition of place or position to complete the text.
The dog is the table.
Freddie is standing Bob and Jerry.
Bob is standing Freddie and Jerry.
Please put the scissors the drawer.
I found the book the shelf.
The pictures are the shelves.
The shelves are the pictures.
My cat loves to sit the window.
The briefcase is the desk.
The bank is the grocery store and the supermarket.
Where are my glasses? They’re the desk.
The woman stood the man in line, at the bank.
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The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol 13
Author: John Morley | Date: A.D. 1755
Voltaire Directs European Thought From Geneva
A.D. 1755
To set an exact date as marking the culmination of the vast influence of Voltaire upon the world is not easy. He was the chief leader, the most prominent and central figure, of that wide-spread intellectual revolt which extended from France over Europe during the middle of the eighteenth century. The spirit of doubt, questioning all ancient institutions, challenging them to prove their truth, arose everywhere, at times mocking, bitter, and superficial, or again earnest, thoughtful, deep as the deepest springs of human being. It has become almost a commonplace to say that Voltaire and his chief successor, Rousseau, caused the French Revolution.
Francois Marie Arouet, who himself assumed his literary name, Voltaire, was born in 1694. He was recognized as among the foremost writers of France at least as early as 1723, and Frederick the Great of Prussia established a friendship with him which resulted in Voltaire’s living at the Prussian court as king’s chamberlain for nearly three years (1750-1753). It was largely due to Voltaire’s influence that the celebrated French Encyclopedia, the first volume of which appeared in 1751, took its tone of scepticism, of cold, scientific criticism. It preached heresy and revolution. The publication was repeatedly stopped by the government, but was encouraged by Madame Pompadour and others, and finally finished in 1765.
Meanwhile Voltaire, who had been repeatedly exiled from the French court for the daring of his writings, settled near Geneva in 1755 and resided there during his active and fiery old age. The beginning of this residence has, therefore, been selected as marking the acme of his power. From his mountain chateau his writings poured like a torrent over the surrounding countries. Wherever there was oppression, his voice was raised in protest; wherever there was falsity, his rapier wit assailed it. He held correspondence with and influenced most of the crowned heads of Europe. He became the hero of his countrymen. Christianity, and especially Catholicism, served only too often as his subjects of assault, but he was never, as his enemies called him, an atheist.
In 1778, an old man of eighty-three, he ventured to return to Paris to see the production of his last tragedy, Irene. Tremendous was the enthusiasm. Paris, grown more Voltairean than Voltaire himself, went mad in its reception of its teacher. The excitement proved too much for his feeble frame, and he died in the full tide of his triumph.
Yet Voltaire was the very eye of eighteenth-century illumination. It was he who conveyed to his generation in a multitude of forms the consciousness at once of the power and the rights of human intelligence. Another might well have said of him what he magnanimously said of his famous contemporary, Montesquieu, that humanity had lost its title-deeds, and he had recovered them. The fourscore volumes which he wrote are the monument, as they were in some sort the instrument, of a new renaissance. They are the fruit and representation of a spirit of encyclopedic curiosity and productiveness. Hardly a page of all these countless leaves is common form. Hardly a sentence is there which did not come forth alive from Voltaire’s own mind or which was said because someone else had said it before. His works as much as those of any man that ever lived and thought are truly his own. It is not given, we all know, even to the most original and daring of leaders, to be without precursors, and Voltaire’s march was prepared for him before he was born, as it is for all mortals. Yet he impressed on all he said, on good words and bad alike, a marked autochthonic quality, as of the self-raised spontaneous products of some miraculous soil, from which prodigies and portents spring. Many of his ideas were in the air, and did not belong to him peculiarly; but so strangely rapid and perfect was his assimilation of them, so vigorous and minutely penetrative was the quality of his understanding, so firm and independent his initiative, that even these were instantly stamped with the express image of his personality. In a word, Voltaire’s work from first to last was alert with unquenchable life. Some of it, much of it, has ceased to be alive for us now in all that belongs to its deeper significance, yet we recognize that none of it was ever the dreary still-birth of a mind of hearsays. There is no mechanical transmission of untested bits of current coin. In the realm of mere letters Voltaire is one of the little band of great monarchs, and in style he remains of the supreme potentates. But literary variety and perfection, however admirable, like all purely literary qualities are a fragile and secondary good which the world is very willing to let die, where it has not been truly begotten and engendered of living forces.
There are things enough to be said of Voltaire’s moral size, and no attempt is made in these pages to dissemble in how much he was condemnable. It is at least certain that he hated tyranny, that he refused to lay up his hatred privily in his heart, and insisted on giving his abhorrence a voice, and tempering for his just rage a fine sword, very fatal to those who laid burdens too hard to be borne upon the conscience and life of men. Voltaire’s contemporaries felt this. They were stirred to the quick by the sight and sound and thorough directness of those ringing blows.
The old-fashioned nomenclature puts him down among sceptics, because those who had the official right to affix these labels could think of no more contemptuous name, and could not suppose the most audacious soul capable of advancing even under the leadership of Satan himself beyond a stray doubt or so. He had perhaps as little of the sceptic in his constitution as Bossuet or Butler, and was much less capable of becoming one than De Maistre or Paley. This was a prime secret of his power, for the mere critic and propounder of unanswered doubts never leads more than a handful of men after him. Voltaire boldly put the great question, and he boldly answered it. He asked whether the sacred records were historically true, the Christian doctrine divinely inspired and spiritually exhaustive, and the Christian Church a holy and beneficent organization. He answered these questions for himself and for others beyond possibility of mis-conception. The records he declared saturated with fable and absurdity, the doctrine imperfect at its best, and a dark and tyrannical superstition at its worst, and the Church was the arch curse and infamy. Say what we will of these answers, they were free from any taint of scepticism. Our lofty new idea of rational freedom as freedom from conviction, and of emancipation of understanding as emancipation from the duty of settling whether important propositions are true or false, had not dawned on Voltaire.
He had just as little part or lot in the complaisant spirit of the man of the world, who from the depths of his mediocrity and ease presumes to promulgate the law of progress, and as dictator to fix its speed. Who does not know this temper of the man of the world, that worst enemy of the world? His inexhaustible patience of abuses that only torment others; his apologetic word for beliefs that may perhaps not be so precisely true as one might wish, and institutions that are not altogether so useful as some might think possible; his cordiality toward progress and improvement in a general way, and his coldness or antipathy to each progressive proposal in particular; his pygmy hope that life will one day become somewhat better, punily shivering by the side of his gigantic conviction that it might well be infinitely worse. To Voltaire, far different from this, an irrational prejudice was not the object of a polite coldness, but a real evil to be combated and overthrown at every hazard. Cruelty was not to him as a disagreeable dream of the imagination, from thought of which he could save himself by arousing to a sense of his own comfort, but a vivid flame burning into his thoughts and destroying peace. Wrong-doing and injustice were not simple words on his lips; they went as knives to the heart; he suffered with the victim, and consumed with an active rage against the oppressor.
To Voltaire reason and humanity were but a single word, and love of truth and passion for justice but one emotion. None of the famous men who have fought, that they themselves might think freely and speak truly, has ever seen more clearly that the fundamental aim of the contest was that others might live happily. Who has not been touched by that admirable word of his, of the three years in which he labored without remission for justice to the widow and descendants of Calas-" During that time not a smile escaped me without my reproaching myself for it as for a crime"? Or by his sincere avowal that of all the words of enthusiasm and admiration which were so prodigally bestowed upon him on the occasion of his last famous visit to Paris in 1778, none went to his heart like that of a woman of the people, who in reply to one asking the name of him whom the crowd followed gave answer, "Do you not know that he is the preserver of the Calas?"
The same kind of feeling, though manifested in ways of much less unequivocal nobleness, was at the bottom of his many efforts to make himself of consequence in important political business. We know how many contemptuous sarcasms have been inspired by his anxiety at various times to perform diplomatic feats of intervention between the French government and Frederick II. In 1742, after his visit to the Prussian King at Aix-la-Chapelle, he is supposed to have hinted to Cardinal Fleury that to have written epic and drama does not disqualify a man for serving his king and country on the busy fields of affairs. The following year, after Fleury’s death, when French fortunes in the war of the Austrian succession were near their lowest, Voltaire’s own idea that he might be useful from his intimacy with Frederick seems to have been shared by Amelot, the secretary of state, and at all events he aspired to do some sort of active, if radically futile, diplomatic work. In later times when the tide had turned, and Frederick’s star was clouded over with disaster, we again find Voltaire the eager intermediary with Choiseul, pleasantly comparing himself to the mouse of the fable, busily striving to free the lion from the meshes of the hunter’s net.
How shall we attempt to characterize this movement? The historian of the Christian church usually opens his narrative with an account of the depravation of human nature and the corruption of society which preceded the new religion. The Reformation in like manner is only to be understood after we have perceived the enormous mass of superstition, injustice, and wilful ignorance by which the theological idea had become so incrusted as to be wholly incompetent to guide society, because it was equally repugnant to the intellectual perceptions and the moral sense, the knowledge and the feelings, of the best and most active-minded persons of the time. The same sort of consideration explains and vindicates the enormous power of Voltaire. France had outgrown the system that had brought her through the Middle Ages. The further development of her national life was fatally hindered by the tight bonds of an old order, which clung with the hardy tenacity of a thriving parasite, diverting from the roots all their sustenance, eating into the tissue, and feeding on the juices of the living tree. The picture has often been painted, and we need not try to paint it once more in detail here. The whole power and ordering of the nation were with the sworn and chartered foes of light, who had every interest that a desire to cling to authority and wealth can give in keeping the understanding subject.
The glories of the age of Louis XIV were the climax of a set of ideas that instantly afterward lost alike their grace, their usefulness, and the firmness of their hold on the intelligence of men. A dignified and venerable hierarchy, an august and powerful monarch, a court of gay and luxurious nobles, all lost their grace because the eyes of men were suddenly caught and appalled by the awful phantom, which was yet so real, of a perishing nation. Turn from Bossuet’s orations to Boisguillebert’s Detail de la France; from the pulpit rhetorician’s courtly reminders that even majesty must die, to Vauban’s pity for the misery of the common people;1
from Corneille and Racine to La Bruyere’s picture of "certain wild animals, male and female, scattered over the fields, black, livid, all burned by the sun, bound to the earth that they dig and work with unconquerable pertinacity; they have a sort of articulate voice, and when they rise on their feet they show a human face, and, in fact, are men." The contrast had existed for generations. The material misery caused by the wars of the great Louis deepened the dark side, and the lustre of genius consecrated to the glorification of traditional authority and the order of the hour heightened the brightness of the bright side, until the old contrast was suddenly seen by a few startled eyes, and the new and deepest problem, destined to strain our civilization to a degree that not many have even now conceived, came slowly into pale outline.
There is no reason to think that Voltaire ever saw this gaunt and tremendous spectacle. Rousseau was its first voice. Since him the reorganization of the relations of men has never faded from the sight either of statesmen or philosophers, with vision keen enough to admit to their eyes even what they dreaded and execrated in their hearts. Voltaire’s task was different and preparatory. It was to make popular the genius and authority of reason. The foundations of the social fabric were in such a condition that the touch of reason was fatal to the whole structure, which instantly began to crumble. Authority and use oppose a steadfast and invincible resistance to reason, so long as the institutions which they protect are of fair practicable service to a society. But after the death of Louis XIV, not only the grace and pomp, but also the social utility of spiritual and political absolutism, passed obviously away. Spiritual absolutism was unable to maintain even a decent semblance of unity and theological order. Political absolutism by its material costliness, its augmenting tendency to repress the application of individual energy and thought to public concerns, and its pursuit of a policy in Europe which was futile and essentially meaningless as to its ends, and disastrous and incapable in its choice of means, was rapidly exhausting the resources of national well-being and viciously severing the very tap-root of national life. To bring reason into an atmosphere so charged was, as the old figure goes, to admit air to the chamber of the mummy. And reason was exactly what Voltaire brought; too narrow, if we will, too contentious, too derisive, too unmitigatedly reasonable, but still reason. And who shall measure the consequence of this difference in the history of two great nations: that in France absolutism in church and state fell before the sinewy genius of stark reason, while in England it fell before a respect for social convenience, protesting against monopolies, benevolences, ship-money? that in France speculation had penetrated over the whole field of social inquiry, before a single step had been taken toward application, while in England social principles were ap plied before they received any kind of speculative vindication? that in France the first effective enemy of the principles of despotism was Voltaire, poet, philosopher, historian, critic; in England, a band of homely squires?
Facsimile of the formal declaration prepared by Frederick the Great for Voltaire’s signature
Voltaire, there can be little doubt, never designed a social revolution, being in this the representative of the method of Hobbes. His single object was to reinstate the understanding in its full rights, to emancipate thought, to extend knowledge, to erect the standard of critical common-sense. He either could not see, or else, as one sometimes thinks, he closes his eyes and refuses for his part to see, that it was impossible to revolutionize the spiritual basis of belief without touching the social forms, which were inseparably connected with the old basis by the strong bonds of time and a thousand fibres of ancient association and common interest. Rousseau began where Voltaire left off. He informs us that, in the days when his character was forming, nothing which Voltaire wrote escaped him, and that the Philosophical Letters (that is, the Letters on the English), though assuredly not the writer’s best work, were what first attracted him to study, and implanted a taste which never afterward became extinct. The correspondence between Voltaire and the Prince of Prussia, afterward the great Frederick, inspired Rousseau with a passionate desire to learn how to compose with elegance, and to imitate the coloring of so fine an author.2
Thus Voltaire, who was eighteen years his elder, gave this extraordinary genius his first productive impulse. But a sensibility of temperament, to which perhaps there is no parallel in the list of prominent men, impelled Rousseau to think, or rather to feel, about the concrete wrongs and miseries of men and women, and not the abstract rights of their intelligence. Hence the two great revolutionary schools, the school which appealed to sentiment, and the school which appealed to intelligence. The Voltairean principles of the strictest political moderation and of literary common-sense, negative, merely emancipatory, found their political outcome, as French historians early pointed out, in the Constituent Assembly, which was the creation of the upper and middle class, while the spirit of Rousseau, ardent, generous, passionate for the relief of the suffering, overwhelmed by the crowding forms of manhood chronically degraded and womahhood systematically polluted, came to life and power in the Convention and the sections of the Commune of Paris which overawed the Convention.
"It will not do," wrote D’Alembert to Voltaire as early as 1762," to speak too loudly against Jean Jacques or his book, for he is rather a king in the Halles."3
This must have been a new word in the ears of the old man, who had grown up in the habit of thinking of public opinion as the opinion, not of markets where the common people bought and sold, but of the galleries of Versailles. Except for its theology, the age of Louis XIV always remained the great age to Voltaire, the age of pomp and literary glory, and it was too difficult a feat to cling on one side to the Grand Monarch, and to stretch out a hand on the other to the Social Contract. It was too difficult for the man who had been embraced by Ninon de l’Enclos, who was the correspondent of the greatest sovereigns in Europe, and the intimate of some of the greatest nobles in France, to feel much sympathy with writings that made their author king of the Halles. Frederick offered Rousseau shelter, and so did Voltaire; but each of them disliked his work as warmly as the other. They did not understand one who, if he wrote with an eloquence that touched all hearts, repulsed friends and provoked enemies like a madman or a savage. The very language of Rousseau was to Voltaire as an unknown tongue, for it was the language of reason clothing the births of passionate sensation. Emile only wearied him, though there were perhaps fifty pages of it which he would have had bound in morocco.4 It is a stale romance, he cries, while the Social Contract is only remarkable for some insults rudely thrown at kings by a citizen of Geneva, and for four insipid pages against the Christian religion, which are simply plagiarized from Bayle’s centos.5 Partly, no doubt, this extreme irritation was due to the insults with which Jean Jacques had repulsed his offers of shelter and assistance, had repudiated Voltaire’s attempts to defend him, and had held up Voltaire himself as a proper object for the persecutions of Geneva. But there was a still deeper root of discrepancy, which we have already pointed out. Rousseau’s exaggerated tone was an offence to Voltaire’s more just and reasonable spirit; and the feigned austerity of a man whose life and manners he knew assumed in his eyes a disagreeable shade of hypocrisy.6 Besides these things, he was clearly apprehensive of the storms which Rousseau’s extraordinary hardihood had the very natural effect of raising in the circles of authority, though it is true that the most acute observers of the time thought that they noticed a very perceptible increase of Voltaire’s own hardihood as a consequence of the example which the other set him.
The rivalry between the schools of Rousseau and Voltaire represents the deadlock to which social thought had come; a deadlock of which the catastrophe of the Revolution was both expression and result. At the time of Voltaire’s death there was not a single institution in France with force enough to be worth a month’s purchase. The monarchy was decrepit; the aristocracy was as feeble and impotent as it was arrogant; the bourgeoisie was not without aspiration, but it lacked courage and it possessed no tradition; and the Church was demoralized, first by the direct attack of Voltaire and the not less powerful indirect attack of the Encyclopedia, and second by the memory of its own cruelty and selfishness in the generation just closing. But Voltaire’s theory, so far as he ever put it into its most general form, was that the temporal order was safe and firm, and that it would endure until criticism had transformed thought and prepared the way for a regime of enlightenment and humanity. Rousseau, on the contrary, directed all the engines of passion against the whole temporal fabric, and was so little careful of freedom of thought, so little confident in the plenary efficacy of rational persuasion, as to insist upon the extermination of atheists by law. The position of each was at once irrefragable and impossible. It was impossible to effect a stable reconstitution of the social order until men had been accustomed to use their minds freely, and had gradually thrown off the demoralizing burden of superstition. But then the existing social order had become intolerable, and its forces were practically extinct, and consequently such an attack as Rousseau’s was inevitable, and was at the same time and for the same reasons irresistible. To overthrow the power of the Church only was to do nothing in a society perishing from material decay and political emasculation. Yet to regenerate such a society without the aid of moral and spiritual forces, with whose activity the existence of a dominant ecclesiastical power was absolutely incompatible, was one of the wildest feats that ever passionate sophist attempted.
Two sayings which characterize the two speakers are recorded of this time. The one is that of Louis XV, who with all his odious vices, his laziness, and unkingly seclusion, was not devoid of intelligence. "All this," he said, "will last as long as I shall," and his forecast was justified: the "deluge" came long after he had gone to his account; and the phrase stands against him as an expression of his base selfishness, which saw the coming troubles without caring about them, because he believed that they would not come in his day. The other saying is that of Voltaire, who, in 1762, exclaimed in an ecstasy of hope and prophecy, "Happy the young men, for they shall see many things." And yet those youths were mostly gray-headed when the "many things" began, and not a few of them lost those gray heads, instead of looking on as interested spectators of a new order of things.
The writers of this time, whatever their faults, form the true aristocracy of France: the rest of the nation, sinking lower and lower, left their superiority all the more marked and uncontested. The series of great writers of the age may be said to begin with Montesquieu, though Voltaire had published his (Edipus in 1718, and the Lettres Persanes did not appear till 1721. Montesquieu, a man of noble birth, was brought up as a lawyer. We trace in him accordingly an aristocratic and legal tone of mind, which naturally took pleasure in England and the law-abiding conservatism of her constitution, as it appeared to him in the middle of the eighteenth century. Like so many of his fellows, Montesquieu chafed under the influence of a corrupt clergy, and declared against them, with the philosophers. This was almost the only point he had in common with Voltaire, whom he heartily disliked. We may say that he represents the aristocratic and constitutional resistance to the state of things in France, while Voltaire is champion of liberty of thought and tolerance. Montesquieu resists the Jesuit influences of his day on conservative grounds alone; Voltaire resists them by resting on the enlightened despotism of his time, and appealing to it, rather than to the laws or constitution of his country. Lastly, at a later day, Rousseau, sworn foe to society, from which he had suffered much, the sentimentalist, enemy of aristocracy and monarchy, instinctively antagonistic to the legal temperament, speaks directly to the people, even as Montesquieu had spoken to the educated and the well-to-do, and Voltaire to kings; and they, stirred to the heart by his appeals, elected him the prophet of their cause, believed in him, and at his bidding subverted the whole fabric of society.
Montesquieu’s great work, the Esprit des Lois, which followed his Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness and Fall of the Romans (1734), and appeared in 1748, forms an epoch in French prose style. He and Voltaire are the two parents of modern French prose literature. The Esprit des Lois was far more greedily read in England than in France. Society there had little taste for so solid a work; they vastly preferred the lively sparkle of the Persian Letters; the book was perhaps too clearly influenced by an admiration for the Constitution of England, and by a love for liberty, face to face with the weak arbitrary despotism which was dragging France to a catastrophe.
If Montesguieu is the advocate of political freedom, Voltaire is the champion of tolerance and freedom of conscience; and that, in his day and with his surroundings, meant that he was the deadly foe of the established faith, as he saw it in its acts in France. When we regard this apostle of toleration, and watch his pettinesses and vanity, note him at kings’ courts, see him glorifying Louis XIV, that great antagonist of all tolerance, whether religious or political or social, we are inclined to think that the most difficult of all toleration is that of having to endure its champion and to try to do him justice.
Voltaire was no deep thinker: he had amazing cleverness, was very susceptible of the influence of thought, and unrivalled in expression. We shall expect to find him taking color from what was round him, nor shall we be astonished if that color is dazzling and brilliant. Five successive influences marked his earlier life. First, his education under the Jesuits, which gave him an insight into their system; secondly, his introduction to the irreligious and immoral society of the fashionable abbes of the day, which showed him another side of the official religion of the time; thirdly, the beneficent friendship of the Abbe de Caumartin, who set him thinking about great and ambitious subjects, and led him to write the Henriade, and probably also to begin projecting his Siecle de Louis XIV; fourthly, the enforced leisure of the Bastille, whither he went a second time in 1726 for having resented an insult put on him by a coarse nobleman, one of the Rohans; lastly-thanks to the order for his exile-his sojourn in England after release from the Bastille, and his friendship for the chief writers and thinkers of this country. Hitherto he had been a purely literary man; henceforth he was fired with an ambition to be a philosopher and a liberator. Certainly France was unfortunate in the education she gave this brilliant and wayward child of her genius.
There was hardly a Frenchman of eminence in this period who did not either visit England or learn the English language, many doing both. And one so bright and receptive as Voltaire could not fail to notice many things. He could see how free thought was: he could make a contrast between the respect paid to letters in London, and their degradation under Louis XIV and later; he saw Newton and Locke in places of honor, Prior and Gay acting as ambassadors, Addison as secretary of state; he reached England in time to see the national funeral given to the remains of Newton. Bolingbroke took him in hand; he was astonished to find a learned and literary noblesse; Locke was his true teacher.
He went back to France another man, after three years’ absence: above all, he carried with him the then popular English way of thinking as to the supernatural, and became a somewhat cold, common-sense deist, opposed to the atheism of some and the dull bigotry of the established creed in the hands of others. God was to him conscious creator of the world, and only faintly, if at all, its ruler; he recognized the need of a deity as a starting-point for his system, though he did not feel the need of his care and presence in life; not God our Father, only God our Creator.
He brought over with him a great ripening of humane feelings: this is his noblest quality and parent of his best acts. When we see him as a champion of oppressed Huguenots, combating wrong and ill-doing with all the vehemence of his fiery soul, we find a common ground, which is lost sight of as we contemplate his equally hot attacks on Christianity, or his dwelling in kings’ courts, or his panegyrics on great sovereigns who had so fiercely crushed down that liberty of thought of which he was the life-long defender.
In his (Edipus he had assaulted priestcraft with not undeserved severity; we must always remember what he saw around him. In his Henriade (1725), perhaps almost unintentionally, he had glorified Henry IV at the expense of the Great Monarch. After his stay in England we have his Brutus (1730), an attack on kingcraft, and his Zaire (1732), a Parisian Othello, both based on Shakespeare. From this time onward he plunges into a supple and dexterous, if sometimes rather disingenuous, strife with a superior power. Throughout, the poet and man of taste struggles against the philosophic freethinker: he loves the surface impressions, perhaps the reflective illusions; "his sentiments are worth more than his ideas." The English Letters of 1735, written some years before, and now issued with much hesitation, created a great storm: they boldly attacked the royal power, the clergy, the faith; they were burned by the hangman; and Voltaire had to go into voluntary exile for a while. There his literary activity was unwearied: many of his works were written, or at least sketched, during the next five years. Strange problem of the human mind. While he here composed his Mahomet and other serious works, he also wrote his scandalous Pucelle; as if he could not rest without destroying all nobility of sentiment and faith in heroism. While Jeanne d’Arc is the helpless victim of his shameless attack, he is also busy with his Siecle de Louis XIV, a hero apparently more to his taste’ than the great Maid of Orle’ans.
The influence of Voltaire on opinion grew slowly but steadily through these years: no one more sedulously undermined the established faiths. It was in these years that he enjoyed a passing favor at the French court, whence his febrile energy, his roughnesses, his want of the true gloss of courtiership, soon lost him the good-will of his old friend Madame de Pompadour. He then tried Berlin, finding it equally untenable ground; eventually he withdrew to Ferney in the territory of Geneva, whence he kept up incessant war against all the injustices which touched his heart. His defence of Calas, of Servin, of the luckless Lally, all date from this time. In these days he animated the Encycloaedists with his spirit, encouraging them in their gigantic undertaking, the "Carroccio of the battle of the eighteenth century." It was a huge dictionary of human knowledge, written in direct antagonism to all belief in spiritual powers or religion. It sold incredibly, and the effect of it on society was immense. This great edifice, "built half of marble, half of mud," as Voltaire himself said, had as its chief architects Diderot and D’Alembert. Nothing contributed more to undermine the foundations on which all institutions, and not least royalty, were built.
A little later than Voltaire came Rousseau, "the valet who did not become a cardinal." His influences are also later, and touched society far more widely. Voltaire had spoken to society; Rousseau spoke to the heart of the people. He was above all things a sentimentalist, this son of a Genevan clock-maker. Society treated him harshly; and he avenged himself by making fierce war on society. The savage state is the best-society being revolting in its falseness and shallow varnish: all men are naturally equal and free; society is nothing but an artificial contract, an arrangement by which, in the end, the strong domineer over the weak; the state of nature is divine: there is a Garden of Eden for those who will cast society behind them. Sciences and arts, civilization and literature, Encyclopaedist included, are hateful as corrupters of mankind; all progress has been backward, if one may venture to say so-downward, certainly. Rousseau embroidered these paradoxes with a thousand sweet sentiments: he shut his eyes to history, to facts, to the real savage, the very disagreeable "primitive man," as he may yet sometimes be seen. "Follow nature" was his one great precept: then you will scourge away the false and conventional, and life will grow pure and simple; there will be no rank, no cunning law devised to keep men from their rights, no struggle for life, no competition. All France panted and groaned to emulate the "noble savage"-with what success, we know.
These were the chief literary luminaries of this time: and they all helped to pull down the fabric of the old society. That society, however, little understood the tendency of things; to a large extent it became the fashion to be philosophic, to be free-minded, to attack religion: with pride in their rank, and cold scorn for their humbler brethren, and high-bred contempt for their clergy, and ruinous vices sometimes made amusing by their brightness and their vivacious vanity, the French upper classes thought it great sport to pull merrily at the old walls of their country’s institutions, never dreaming that they could be so ill-ordered as to fall down and crush them in their ruin.
1Vauban and Boisguillebert are both to be found in Les Economists Financiers du XVIIIième Siècle, published by Guillaumin, 1851.
2Confessions, pt. i. liv. v. Date of 1736.
3OEuvres, lxxv. 182.
4Corr. 1762. OEuvres, lxxv. 188.
5OEuvres, lxvii, 432.
6Condorcet, 170.
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Chicago: John Morley and George W. Kitchin, "Voltaire Directs European Thought from Geneva," The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol 13 in The Great Events by Famous Historians. Lincoln Memorial University Edition, ed. Rossiter Johnson (Harrogate, TN: The National Alunmi, 1926), Original Sources, accessed July 11, 2020,
MLA: Morley, John, and George W. Kitchin. "Voltaire Directs European Thought from Geneva." The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol 13, in The Great Events by Famous Historians. Lincoln Memorial University Edition, edited by Rossiter Johnson, Harrogate, TN, The National Alunmi, 1926, Original Sources. 11 Jul. 2020.
Harvard: Morley, J, Kitchin, GW, 'Voltaire Directs European Thought from Geneva' in The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol 13. cited in 1926, The Great Events by Famous Historians. Lincoln Memorial University Edition, ed. , The National Alunmi, Harrogate, TN. Original Sources, retrieved 11 July 2020, from
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Definition of Freshening in Cows
By Jane Meggitt
Ablestock.com/AbleStock.com/Getty Images
Cows freshen after a calf's birth. Freshening occurs when milk production begins. She's then a "wet" cow, as opposed to "dry," non-milk-producing animal. Although nature intends the milk for the newborn calf, that's not the typical human use. The dairy calf might suckle the colostrum, the initial milk chock-full of nutrients and antibodies, but after 48 hours regular milk production starts and cow and calf are separated.
Cow gives birth to their calves after a nine-month gestation. Usually, dairy breed heifers give birth to their first calf at age 2, so that's when they freshen and join the herd. Beef breed heifers might give birth initially at the same age, but their calves might nurse off their mothers. In the dairy breeds, male calves are usually destined for feedlots, while the females are fed commercial milk replacer and raised for future milk production.
When the cow freshens for the first time and becomes part of the milking herd, her life undergoes a lot of changes. Instead of living in a herd of cows her age, she's probably in a mixed-age herd, perhaps including her own mother. These older cows rule the roost in the herd. She must adjust to the twice or thrice daily routine of milking, which includes udder cleaning and hook-up to the milking machine. She's also exposed to a lot more human contact than in her earlier life.
Cows produce the most milk within four to six weeks after calving. Depending on the breed, a cow might produce between 4 to 12 gallons daily. Most cows are milked for approximately 300 days before being given time off to prepare for the next calving. Professional dairies keep careful track of each cow's daily milk output. Cows whose production is substandard are culled from the herd.
Drying the Cow
Dairy cows are bred by artificial insemination not long after calving, in preparation for next season's calf. She's generally allowed to "dry" about seven months into her pregnancy. By that time, her milk production is lower, so drying usually consists of cutting back on milking and the amount of grain fed. When she stops producing milk, dairy farmers continue feeding her large quantities of hay or keep her on pasture. Allowing a two-month dry period before her next calving lets her mammary glands rest and prepare for the new baby and subsequent freshening.
Photo Credits
• Ablestock.com/AbleStock.com/Getty Images
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UNH researchers find northern forests have lost crucial cold, snowy conditions
Credit: MaxPixel
Researchers say that people tend to view cold and snowy weather as burdensome. Yet winter is important for many ecosystems that influence water, wildlife, forests and people. For instance, cold temperatures help prevent the spread of diseases like Lyme disease and West Nile virus through insects like ticks and mosquitoes, as well as help manage insects that are detrimental to trees, like the hemlock wooly adelgid and eastern pine beetle.
A deep and long-lasting snowpack also insulates soils from frigid air temperatures, which prevents roots from freezing, promotes soil nutrient cycling and provides wildlife habitat for burrowing animals. Snow cover is as important to the economy and culture of the northern forest as it is to its ecology, especially for timber harvest, maple sugaring, winter recreation activities like skiing and ice skating, and hunting and fishing essential for indigenous peoples.
“What makes our work unique is that we considered the human effect of climate as well as the ecological or meteorological aspects,” said Contosta. “For example, we looked at “mud days,” when temperatures are above freezing and no snow cover is present, which can impact not only forest soil nutrients but also loggers who are not able to reach certain areas that can only be harvested with deep snow.”
Researchers say much of what is understood about the effects of climate change on ecosystems is based on research conducted during the growing season. Researchers say it’s more common to hear about summer climate like drought index or heating degree days. They feel more research needs to be done during the so-called ‘dormant’ season to fill in the key gaps about how forest ecosystems respond to climate change.
This study was funded by the Northeastern States Research Cooperative (NSRC), with additional support to the Hubbard Brook Research Foundation from the Canaday Family Charitable Trust, the Lintilhac Foundation and the Davis Conservation Foundation.
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Robbin Ray
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Published: Dec. 18, 2019 By
The way nutrients and drugs move within the body has more in common with space-bound rockets and jets than you might think.
Jim Brasseur
Jim Brasseur, research professor of Aerospace Engineering Sciences
“It's a mechanics problem,” said Jim Brasseur, research professor of Aerospace Engineering Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder. “What pharmaceutical scientists refer to as ‘drug delivery’ involves the mechanical process of release and transport of drug molecules into intestinal fluid motions that are driven by human physiology.”
Brasseur, who has degrees in aeronautical and astronautical engineering and science, is researching something much smaller than planes and rocket engines: the release, transport and absorption of drug molecules in the human digestive tract.
The movement of fluids (liquids and gases) is physics, and that is just as true for a small tablet releasing drug molecules in the human intestines as it is for a large air vehicle flying at 30,000 feet.
“The release, transport and absorption of drug molecules is essentially a mathematical mechanics problem,” he said.
Pharmaceutical Research
Brasseur has recently been named guest professor of computer-based pharmaceutical mechanics at Sweden’s Uppsala University, which has one of the top international pharmaceutical science departments. He is collaborating with researchers at Uppsala University and AstraZeneca, a major pharmaceutical company with research facilities in Gothenburg, Sweden.
As guest professor, Brasseur is a member of the “SweDeliver” Consortium, with a focus on the development of oral drug delivery methods for biologics, a class of drugs that currently must be injected directly into the bloodstream. An example is insulin for diabetics.
“The peptide and protein molecules in biologics are too large to naturally pass through the intestinal wall lining (epithelium) to be absorbed into the bloodstream. That is why diabetics have to use syringes. It is not a fun existence. If intravenous injections could be replicated with oral delivery, that would be huge - I have heard it referred to as ‘the holy grail’ for biologics,” Brasseur said.
Seeking Answers
The team is conducting research into the interplay between the fluid dynamics of the gastrointestinal system and the transport of a specific type of molecule called “transient permeability enhancers,” or TPE. These molecules temporarily make it possible for larger peptides and proteins to pass through the intestinal lining. One source of these molecules is sodium caprate, which is found naturally, for example, in milk.
They hope to answer a number of important practical questions that have limited TPE use up to now.
“How should the delivery of TPE be designed together with biologics in tablets? Should the TPE be in one tablet and the drug in another and you swallow both simultaneously? Should you wait between taking the first and second tablets? How long? How do the coatings of the tablets affect the timing and how should they be designed? We don’t really understand the timing issue at all,” Brasseur said.
Many of these questions come back to the physics of fluid dynamics. When you swallow a tablet and it breaks down in your digestive tract, the drug particles and the drug molecules move throughout your intestines. The drug molecules must reach the intestinal lining and pass through to be absorbed into the blood and be transported to different parts of your body. However, the muscle contractions in your intestines that drive transport are highly variable and the effects of TPEs last for only a limited time (tens of minutes).
The release, transport and absorption of drug molecules is essentially a mathematical mechanics problem.
Computational Laboratory
The team wishes to develop what they refer to as a “computational laboratory” – high-resolution computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models of the motion of intestinal fluids through the gut.
This framework will be applied to evaluate the relative timings of the caprate and biologics drug molecules arrivals at the intestinal lining to understand and maximize the impact of TPE molecules on drug absorption of biologics.
Engineers have been developing such fluid models for aerospace systems for decades. Similar research applied to human physiology and function is a central part of cardiovascular and pulmonary biomedical engineering research, but has not been as prominent in drug delivery development.
Testing Pharmaceuticals
“Most new drugs approved today are variants on old drugs. Part of what the FDA requires is testing to prove the rate of release of drug molecules is safe compared to an existing drug. This is done using benchtop testing devices. The most commonly used system quantifies the rate of drug dissolution within a beaker filled with liquid and a spinning impeller (paddlewheel),” Brasseur said.
The FDA needs data to show that the rate of dissolution of the new drug is sufficiently similar to the old one to be safe. This testing approach has been used for decades, but there is an obvious flaw: “The fluid flow dynamics in the device bears no relation to fluid dynamics in the intestinal tract,” Brasseur said.
Think of it this way: when making a strawberry smoothie, you mix the ingredients in a whirring blender until they’re uniform. If you instead simply ate the raw ingredients unblended, they are eventually digested in your stomach to a similar consistency as the smoothie in a blender, but no one would argue the process is the similar.
Drug Transport
Brasseur’s work will focus on the development of physiologically correct CFD models of the intestines, especially the impact of intestinal contractions on the movement of TPEs and biologics molecules.
These models will be paired with molecular dynamics models of the impact of TPEs on the intestinal epithelium and the transport of biologics molecules across the epithelium into the blood stream. It is no easy task, requiring computationally-expensive simulations with supercomputers.
Brasseur’s research in drug transport and absorption originated in a series of events during his postdoctoral research at Johns Hopkins University in the 1980s.
“I was working in turbulence and fluid dynamics. My advisor was famous in that field, but also liked to dabble in different things. He would have meetings with medical researchers from Johns Hopkins Hospital who specialized in swallowing disorders. It had nothing to do with turbulence, but I was sitting in on these meetings and I got interested,” Brasseur said.
Before long, part of his own research evolved to focus on the physiology and mechanics of the gastrointestinal system, which eventually lead to research programs in gastro-intestinal pharmaceutics. The new research program with Uppsala University is in its early stage, but the hope is that this program will lead to major new discoveries and developments in the pharmaceutical science of biologics drug absorption.
“This is fundamental science. It could be a decade or two, but to develop a better understanding of the gastro-intestinal transport and oral absorption of biologics would be very exciting,” Brasseur said. “If we can make any advances at all in understanding how to design feasible oral delivery of biologics, it could have a huge impact.”
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"url": "https://www.colorado.edu/engineering/2019/12/18/fluid-dynamics-research-could-pave-way-intravenous-injections-be-replaced-pills"
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Who is this lesson for?
This lesson is suitable for pupils in Key Stage 3.
What is included in the lesson?
The teaching resources include a lesson plan, a presentation, worksheets, and suggested activities. The topic of head injuries is explored in greater depth than in Key Stage 2.
1. ensure the safety of themselves and others
2. identify when a casualty has a head injury
3. give first aid to a casualty who has a head injury
4. seek medical help if required.
Related first aid advice and techniques...
Head injuries in adults
Eye injuries - eye wounds
All eye injuries are serious as they can affect the casualty’s vision. Find out what to look for and what to do.
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"language_score": 0.9483797550201416,
"url": "https://www.sja.org.uk/get-advice/key-stage-first-aid-lesson-plans/key-stage-3-first-aid-lesson-plans/ks3-head-injuries-first-aid-lesson-plan-and-teaching-resources/"
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2019-10-16T16:21:20Z (GMT) by Paola A. Olaya Arenas
Chapter 2. Hundreds of recent studies have voiced concern over the negative impacts of non-target pesticides on pollinator health. However, pesticide loads are highly variable across agricultural landscapes and it is unclear whether pollinators exhibit behavioral responses (e.g., aversion) that mediate their exposure risk under realistic foraging environments. We tested whether monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) adults and larvae base their oviposition and foraging decisions, respectively, on the presence and concentration of pesticide residues on their milkweed host-plant, Asclepias syriaca. Using a two-year dataset that quantified pesticides on milkweeds bordering corn or soybean fields, we simulated field-realistic levels for six of the most commonly detected pesticides—one insecticide, two herbicides, and three fungicides—either alone or in combination. These laboratory and greenhouse manipulations experimentally paired an untreated control with the pesticides at their mean or maximum concentrations. Butterflies placed fewer eggs on milkweeds treated with a cocktail containing all six pesticides, but only when applied at their maximum-detected concentration, resulting in ca. 30% less oviposition compared to the untreated control. Neonate (1stinstar) larvae also showed a preference for pesticide-free leaves in paired disc assays for most compounds tested, with feeding aversion observed at both mean and maximum concentrations. Later instars did not show a comparable behavior reaction to pesticide presence or concentration, but this could be partially due to the feeding-deterrent properties of the acetone solvent used. Our data provide evidence that monarchs are capable of adaptively adjusting their oviposition and foraging behaviors based on which pesticides are present on their host-plants. Yet, for gravid females, this impact was only observed at higher than average concentrations, meaning that in the field eggs are likely placed on milkweeds regardless of pesticide presence in most cases. Thus, it is unlikely that monarchs behaviorally regulate pesticide exposure risk by avoiding contaminated plants.
Finally, in Chapter 3 we used a no-choice experiment to evaluate the effects of continuous exposure to field-realistic pesticide concentrations on monarch butterfly larval and pupal development time, pupal weight, adult longevity and survival. Most monarch life stages were relatively unaffected by continuous exposure to the six pesticides tested. A negative effect in wing development and length was observed when larvae were exposed to the fungicides pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin and the mix of all six pesticides tested. Larval stage had higher mortality than the pupal stage and instars 2 and 5 were relatively more vulnerable. The negative effect on wing span and wing development could negatively impact migration, reproduction in the short-term and population at long-term. Strategies to reduce contamination by pesticides of non-target plants and insects should be considered to protect diversity and maintain ecosystem integrity in the landscape.
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"fasttext_score": 0.08885949850082397,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9313205480575562,
"url": "https://hammer.figshare.com/articles/thesis/PESTICIDE_EXPOSURE_RISK_AND_DEVELOPMENTAL_CONSEQUENCES_FOR_MONARCH_BUTTERFLIES_IN_AGRICULTURAL_LANDSCAPES/8859620/1"
}
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On January 23rd 2020, it was announced that 3D printing had given a voice to the 3,000-year-old mummified remains of the ancient Egyptian Nesyamun. He worked as a scribe and a priest at the Karnak Temple Complex during the reign of the pharaoh Ramses XI, and the inscriptions on his coffin proclaimed that his dying wish was to be able to speak in the afterlife. The researchers’ work was published in the journal nature, marking the first time that the voice of a dead person had been recreated this way. In 2013, Royal Holloway, University of London electronic engineer David Howard created a device the uses 3D printed vocal tracts to create specific vowel sounds. Named the Vocal Tract Organ, it served as the inspiration for the project.
In September 2016, CT scans were done on Nesyamun’s remains that showed enough of his throat remained undamaged to enable the dimensions of his vocal tract to be measured. From this, a computer model of it was made, from which a physical replica was 3D printed. This was used to replace the horn in a loudspeaker similar to the sort used on ice cream vans. Next, the modified loudspeaker was connected to a computer that synthesized the sound of an artificial larynx. The resulting sound from the replica vocal tract represented a vowel that fell between the “e” in “bed” and the “a” in “bad,” making it reminiscent of the sound of a bleating sheep.
Unfortunately, Nesyamun’s tongue had atrophied and his soft palate was missing, making it unlikely that the researchers would be able to recreate running speech this way. Nonetheless, the researchers hope to have Nesyamun speak full sentences by modifying their computer model, for example by approximating the size and movement of his tongue and the position of his jaw. Previous efforts to recreate the voices of ancient humans include 5,300-year-old Ötzi the Iceman, whose mummified remains were discovered in the Italian Alps in 1991. However, in this case his voice was approximated via digitally recreated vowel sounds.
Disclaimer: Featured image of “Tuts Tomb Opened” is in the public domain in the United States. This applies to U.S. works where the copyright has expired, often because its first publication occurred prior to January 1, 1925, and if not then due to lack of notice or renewal.
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"url": "https://www.3drapidprint.co.uk/index.php/2020/02/12/3d-printing-gives-voices-to-ancient-egyptian-mummy/"
}
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So What is Sustainability, Really?
Sustainability has been a hot topic over the last few years within a variety of industries, political debates, and personal behaviors.
But what is sustainability?
Sustainability is the relationship between human action and nature. It is the constant search for a balance between the two, with an emphasis on resilience and future stability. It is an aim to change behaviors, both personal and systemic, and nudge society towards positive change. It is an action plan to reduce uneven societies, protect the environment, and still develop. It is, in short, a huge challenge faced by humankind right now.
The term “Sustainable Development” was first coined in 1987 at the United Nations by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Brundtland (she went on to be the Director General of the World Health Organisation from 1998 – 2003). It is often defined as “meeting the needs of today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (The Brundtland Commission, 1987). It was in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, at the Environment and Development Conference, where attending countries committed to sustainable projects in a variety of different areas and levels of the society (Agenda 21). Currently, the United Nations is working towards Agenda 2030 and promoting 17 sustainable developments goals (SDGs) within a number of sectors and scales.
There are many ways to describe the term “sustainability” and methods that can be applied to achieve it depending on the industry and context. At its core, however, it can be synthesized in three interdependent pillars: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and social sustainability.
Environmental sustainability (planet)
Nature is suffering due to significant impact by human actions. Oceans are being polluted by huge amounts of waste, forests are disappearing, air quality is reduced, and the temperature of the planet continues to rise.
As a result, environmental sustainability is related to the rate of resources used on the planet – both renewable resources, such as wind and solar radiation, and non-renewable resources, such as many minerals that are close to be extinguished. It also refers to the high pollution rates and production that comes from a number of industries, as well as individual behaviour regarding these resources.
Economic sustainability (profit)
Economic sustainability relates to long-term development in order to maximize usability and reduce environmental and social impact, as well as defining levels of production. Under this pillar, different methods can be explored and exploited in order to economically sustain both businesses and countries.
There are two terms used within the subject:
Cradle to Cradle (C2C)
and circular economy. C2C is a concept based on recycling through design, where the recycled cost is lower than a new material cost. It views materials as nutrients within a metabolism, and using them in this way creates a waste-free system.
Circular economy aims to reuse the waste of a company and/or product as a resource for another company and/or product. These two concepts have different backgrounds, but both move towards circular consumption and waste reduction. Consumption is, in fact, part of our daily life, but it is up to us to understand how we design, buy, use and discard our products. Do you know where the products you buy come from? Or where are they discarded? And more importantly, how are our governments or international organizations implementing progressive systems that enable transparency and reuse?
Social sustainability (human)
Unfortunately, social sustainability still receives less attention in public and political debates than environmental and economic sustainability. Under social sustainability are topics such as social equality, gender equality, human rights, and citizen participation, among others. It considers how individuals, communities, and societies relate to each other.
From a global perspective, social sustainability includes environmental and economic perspective. Social sustainability’s overall aim is for everyone’s wellbeing. It works toward a structure that can support social life, social health, education, nutrition, and community. Sustainability is more of a social process than anything else.
Thinking holistically for the present and future
The pillars mentioned above are interdependent and complement each other. It is important to understand what is currently occurring in both societies and on the planet, and to be aware of what we are consuming, building, and discarding. We must understand how ecosystems respond to our actions. Nature is very rich, and we must to take care of it – it is an organism that needs to be healthy to survive.
This same principle applies to our societies and their economies. We need to start thinking and acting holistically, as individuals, businesses, and governments. We must be critical of what is happening at the moment, avoid past mistakes and properly plan the future.
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Pedia News
Pleura Anatomy
Pleura Anatomy
The thoracic cavity lies within the walls of the thorax and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The cavity contains the right and left lungs, each surrounded by a serous membrane called the pleura. Between the lungs is a central partition, the mediastinum, which includes the heart and great vessels, the trachea and the oesophagus. Superiorly, numerous mediastinal structures enter or leave the root of the neck through the superior thoracic aperture (p. 322). Inferiorly, important structures including the aorta, inferior vena cava and oesophagus pass between the mediastinum and the abdomen through openings in the diaphragm (p. 203).
The pleura surrounds the lungs and lines the walls of the thoracic cavity and is subdivided into visceral and parietal parts. The visceral layer covers the surface of the lung and is continuous with the parietal layer around the mediastinal attachment of the lung at the lung root. The parietal layer covers the lateral aspect of the mediastinum, the upper surface of the diaphragm and the inner aspect of the chest wall (Fig. 2.17). Although the parietal and visceral layers are normally in contact, a space, the pleural cavity (Fig. 2.18), exists between them and contains a thin film of serous fluid. The fluid ensures close apposition of the two pleural surfaces and reduces friction during respiratory movements. Injury or disease may produce an accumulation of air (pneumothorax) or fluid (pleural effusion) within the pleural cavity, causing the lung to collapse.
Removal of the anterior chest wall has exposed the internal thoracic vessels and costal part of the parietal pleura, through which the lungs are visible.
Parietal pleura
The parietal pleura is named according to the surfaces it covers. Thus, the mediastinal pleura conforms to the contours of the structures forming the lateral surface of the mediastinum and is innervated by sensory branches of the phrenic nerve. Inferiorly, the diaphragmatic pleura clothes the upper surface of the diaphragm. The central portion receives sensory branches from each phrenic nerve, while the periphery is innervated by lower intercostal nerves. The pleura covering the inner surface of the thoracic wall is called the costal pleura and is innervated segmentally by the intercostal nerves (Fig. 2.17).
The periphery of the diaphragm slopes steeply downwards towards its attachment to the thoracic wall, creating a narrow gutter, the costodiaphragmatic recess. Within this recess, which is particularly deep laterally and posteriorly, the costal and diaphragmatic parts of the pari- etal pleura lie in mutual contact.
The parietal pleura extending into the root of the neck is called the cervical pleura and is innervated by the first intercostal nerve. It is applied to the undersurface of a firm fascial layer, the suprapleural membrane, which prevents upward movement of the apex of the lung and pleura during ventilation (Fig. 7.15).
Surface markings of the parietal pleura Because the parietal pleura is reflected from the thoracic wall onto both the mediastinum and the diaphragm, a line of pleural reflection can be mapped out on the body surface. Traced from its upper limit, approximately 2.5 cm above the medial third of the clavicle, this line descends behind the sternoclavicular joint.
This cervical pleura may be accidentally perforated when a central venous line is being placed in the subclavian vein. The pleural reflection line approaches the midline at the level of the manubriosternal joint. On the right, the pleural reflection descends vertically to the level of the sixth costal cartilage, while on the left, the heart displaces the pleura laterally (Fig. 2.17) so that from the fourth to the sixth costal cartilages, the line of reflection lies just lateral to the edge of the sternum. This displacement exposes part of the pericardium underlying the medial ends of the fourth and fifth intercostal spaces. Traced laterally from the sixth costal cartilage, the surface marking is the same on each side, crossing the eighth rib in the midclavicular line and the tenth rib in the midaxillary line.
Posteriorly, the parietal pleura continues horizontally, crosses the twelfth rib 5 cm from the midline and continues medially for a further 2.5 cm. Thus, a small area of parietal pleura lies below the level of the twelfth rib.
Transverse section at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra showing the arch of the aorta and the bifurcation of the trachea. Inferior aspect.
Visceral pleura
The visceral pleura (Fig. 2.18) is continuous with the mediastinal parietal pleura around the root of the lung. Structures entering or leaving the hilum of the lung occupy the upper part of this pleural sleeve, the lower part consisting of an empty fold of pleura, the pulmonary ligament (Fig. 2.25). The visceral pleura firmly adheres to the surface of the lung and extends into the depths of the fissures. Unlike the parietal layer, the visceral pleura does not have a somatic innervation.
Surface markings of the visceral pleura Since the visceral pleura covers the surface of the lung, its surface markings coincide with those of the lung (p. 41).
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Animal Idioms - Matching and Gapfill Activity
This worksheet introduces seven common idioms with an animal theme. Students need to match the idioms and the definitions, and then fill the gaps in a paragraph where the idioms have been used in context. A teacher's guide with the answer key is included on the second page. Find more original worksheets and teaching related articles at
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"url": "https://m.busyteacher.org/24378-animal-idioms-matching-and-gap-fill-activity.html"
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Rise of Islam
3. Students should know that the book of Islam is called the “Koran”.
4. Students should know that followers of Mohammed are called Moslems (or Muslims).
Possible Lesson Plan:
1. Open with prayer.
2. Tell the story of Mohammed – have pictures of deserts and camels to show:
At first, the Arabic people laughed at Mohammed and plotted to get rid of Mohammed. But, Mohammed heard of the plot to kill him, and ran away with his wife and friends. He fled to the town of Medina. The word for “flight” in Arabic is “hegira”; his journey is called the “Hegira” by his followers to this day. For awhile Mohammed taught his new ideas in the city of Medina. He called his new religion Islam and his followers were called Moslems. But soon, Mohammed was not happy to have only the followers who liked his new teachings. He told all of his followers that they would go right to heaven if they were killed following him in battle. They began to force people in Arabia and in other lands to become Moslems or die. Soon, Mohammed and his followers conquered all of Arabia. Mohammed died, but his followers continued to fight wars to conquer lands for their new ideas. They traveled to Persia, to all of northern Africa, to Spain and to France, conquering the Christian lands, until they were stopped in France by the great warrior, Charles the Hammer, at the Battle of Tours. They even conquered Jerusalem and the Holy Land where Jesus had taught and lived! Soon they were at the doorstep of Constantinople, the capital of the great Christian Byzantine Empire built by the Emperor Constantine 400 years before.
1. Play a learning game: Hangman – Choose some important words from today’s lesson. Draw a gallows with little lines under it for each letter of the word. Students take turns guessing a letter that might be in the word you have chosen. If the letter is in the word, write it on the correct line. If not, draw a body part. Will the man get hanged before the word is uncoded? Some potential words:
Mohammed Mecca Moslem
Medina Islam Hegira
1. Make a Salt Map: Mix salt dough. Color some blue (for water), some light yellow (for Moslem lands), and some green or red (for Christian lands). Take the map on the next page. Glue onto a firm base – piece of cardboard, lid of box, Styrofoam plate. Have students fill in outlines with dough, reviewing all the time what the various geographical features are. Where is the Nile River? Where is Arabia? Put little flags on toothpicks to mark Mecca and Medina, Constantinople and Rome.
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"url": "https://orthodoxsundayschool.org/book/export/html/491"
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Buddha means “the Awakened one” or “Enlightened one. Lord Buddha, Siddhartha Gautam was a spiritual teacher from ancient India and the founder of Buddhism. The Buddha image portrays the traditional figure of the meditative Yogin, transcendent in his mental powers yet very much a part of this world. Many a time, he is surrounded by images of radiance and abundance, the sun disc and the trees, and supported by lions, emblems of his royal position. While his placement atop a lion throne, and the presence of two attendants holding chowries, serve to emphasize his regal position, at the same time, his Yogic posture, humble robe and gestures of reassurance embody the spiritual nature of his message. This image remained the primary source for subsequent figures of Buddha through Asia. One of the consistencies of Buddhist art in India was the retention of this essentially human image, even when it was surrounded by an array of figures and images of wealth and abundance.
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"url": "http://www.devmaya.com/products/statues/"
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Photo of Bryant Platt
Bryant Platt digs a hole to install seismometers at a home in southern Kansas. Seismometers are in the foreground.
Observational Studies
In response to sudden changes in seismicity that are potentially induced by human activity, the USGS may deploy temporary seismic stations to better understand the earthquakes. These deployments typically consist of 2-15 seismometers placed in the immediate vicinity of the seismicity.
Temporary seismic stations allow us to accurately pinpoint the location of the seismicity including small earthquakes that are not recorded by permanent US seismic networks. With the high-quality data from temporary seismic stations we are able to precisely locate the seismicity, identify activated fault structures, determine the faulting style of the earthquakes, and monitor for migration of the seismicity with time. All of these characteristics help us understand if the earthquakes are induced and the physical processes causing them.
The catalog of earthquakes generated by the temporary seismic stations provides key data for basic research to understand the mechanics of induced earthquakes. Scientists commonly use computer models to simulate the physical processes believed to be responsible for inducing earthquakes to better understand why they occur and how they might be prevented. The USGS also uses the observations from these seismic networks to inform forecasts of earthquake hazard due to induced earthquakes.
As part of these observational studies, the USGS works closely with scientists at local universities, state geological surveys, state regulatory agencies, and other scientific institutions. Working with these partners is critical for our work. They bring local knowledge and understanding of these areas, and complement the technical capabilities of the USGS. Local partners frequently assist or lead our deployments of temporary seismic stations, as they are often able to deploy the instrumentation more quickly than scientists from the USGS offices in California, Colorado, and New Mexico. Local homeowners are also critical for our studies, as they often host our seismic monitoring equipment.
Map of Central U.S.
Map of current USGS temporary seismic deployments to monitor potentially induced earthquakes.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9389486908912659,
"url": "https://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/induced/studies.php"
}
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Stem Cell Gurus
Stem Cell Gurus
You can scroll the shelf using and keys
“Skin Gun”
National Geographic Video
National Geographic video shows how a simple idea backed by stem cell research allows victims of severe burns to heal in merely days.
Embryonic Stem Cells
ESC Poster
Embryonic stem cells are derived from a very early stage embryo known as a “blastocyst” – a cluster of cells that resemble a hollow, microscopic sphere. Unlike adult stem cells, which are restricted to producing limited cell types, embryonic stem cells have the potential to generate every cell type in the body.
The advantages of ESCs are:
Make cell lines
Turn into many tissues (pluripotency)
No rejection if personalized cell line
Generate tumors (cancer) when injected into animals
Control of differentiation and cell division
Ethical issues
Limited number of cell lines
Rejection potential if from a different donor
Learn about Stem Cell Lines
We love what is doing to educate students through interactive activities. Check out the three activities here:
Create a Stem Cell Line
Repair a Heart with Stem Cells
Stem Cell Transplant
Photomicrograph of Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Here is a Scanning Electron Micrograph of Mesenchymal Stem Cells as mentioned in the previous post. This is an accurate 3D representation of what they look like. Remember, MSCs can become many different kinds of cells like marrow cells, muscle, bone, cartilage and more. They are known for being long and branch-like.
This image was colorized and used with permission from the National Center for Regenerative Medicine in Cleveland, OH.
The Mesengenic Process
Mesenchymal stem cells are considered multipotent because they differentiate (or become) a variety of cell types. They go on to create cells found in bone marrow, bone, cartilage, tendon, muscle and fat as seen above in the Mesenchymal Stem Cell Breakdown Chart above.
Learn the Basics!
Learn the basics about Stem Cells here:
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Study Guides (238,083)
Canada (114,909)
Geography (117)
GG231 (20)
Rob Milne (14)
GG231 Final Exam Notes RISKS AND DISASTERS .docx
10 Pages
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Wilfrid Laurier University
Rob Milne
Risks & Disasters Final Exam Notes Landslides: Three types of movement: Fall o Moves through air, lands at base of slope o Triggered by vibration, ice or vegetation o Rapid process Slide o Movement in contact with underlying surface o Ex. Rockslide, translational slide slump, slip Flow o Plastic or liquid movement in water and sometimes air o Mass breaks up and flows during movement o Ex. Solifluction, mudflow, debris flow, debris, snow avalanche Landslides are mainly a result of a change in the forces on the slope: Driving forces o Uplift and erosion o Cause the rock material to move faster down slope Resisting forces o Acts as friction force that is against the motion of rock materials Geographic Distribution: distribution of landslide-prone materials in Canada: Landslides are most common in mountainous areas, the St. Lawrence Lowland, and river valleys on the western interior plains (British Columbia, Yukon and Alberta) Materials particular prone to land sliding include lacustrine and marine silts and clays, cretaceous shales, Quaternary volcanic rocks. Three factors are expected to increase the occurrence of landslides in some areas of the world in this century: Urbanization and development will increasingly expand into landslide-prone areas Tree cutting will continue in landslide-prone areas Changing global climate patterns will result in increases in precipitation in some regions Prediction and Warning of Landslides: slopes and seismic activity o consider over steepened slopes enhanced by seismic activity geology and structure o consider soluble rocks or those weakened by water, bedding planes surface water build up o consider the water conditions and springs, pools of standing water topographic and vegetation features o consider scarps, old landslides, hummocky and young vegetation accelerated creep o consider equipment embedded in slope, vegetation stems, and cracked road surfaces Techniques for Preventing Landslides: slope drainage o interceptor drains, capture runoff and take away from slope, repair pipes and wells by draining or pumping water out slope reduction o reduce instability by introducing benches and terraces, remove falling material engineering to resist mass movement o armour surface with concrete, crushed rock to reduce erosion engineering to mitigate damage o netting or wire fencing, rock sheds or tunnels Case Study: California The 2005 landslide that took place in La Conchita, California started as a slump and then turned into a flow that buried 30 homes and killed 10 people. The landslide took place above the sensors that were put in place after the 1995 landslide; therefore a warning was not able to be put in place. Social adjustment would be the best approach because even though sensors were put in place after the 1995 landslide, they still were unable to provide a warning to the residents. Also imputing engineered techniques like netting or wired fences would cost a lot of money, and would not necessarily work due to the fact of how steep the slope is and how weak the sedimentary rocks are. La Conchita is a part of the “landslide capitals” in southern California and the sea cliff that is exposed consists of older landslide deposits and weakly cemented sedimentary rocks with little shear strength. With heavy rainfall, it is likely that a landslide may occur in the future. more landslides are likely to occur as uplifts of 4 to 6 meters occur every thousand years, and these uplifts occur when landslides take place. With the steep surface, low shear strength and large amounts of water, it is likely that these landslides will continue. Contributing factors: o Presence of steep, high slopes o Presence of weak rocks o Presence of numerous historic and prehistoric landslides o Periodic prolonged and intense rainfall Solutions: o Stabilize the slope o Change the land use o Install an effective warning system Floods: Drainage Basin: Region drained by a single stream. Each stream thus has its own drainage basin that collects rain and snow. A large river basin, such as the Red river basin, is made up of hundreds of small watersheds drained by smaller tributary streams. Flash Floods: Often associated with intense rainfall events such as those that occur with convective thunderstorms Usually account for most flood-related deaths since they are highly unpredictable and little warning is possible. o Example: Big Thompson Canyon in Colorado Regional Floods: Often cover large areas in extensive river valleys with flat topography Occur following periods of prolonged rainfall or large snowmelt o Example: Mississippi River flood of 1993 o In Canada, southern Manitoba Discharge: The volume of water that moves through a cross-section of a river per unit of time It is calculated by multiplying the cross-sectional area of the water in the channel by the flow velocity, and is commonly reported in units of cubic metres per second. Three channel patterns: Braided o Large number of intersecting active channels Anastomosing o Two or more channels and intervening stable islands where sediment is temporarily stored Meandering o Single channel shaped like a snake Use of hydrograph: A hydrograph is made by installing a recording gauge to: Obtain a continuous record of the water level (or stage) This record is then used to produce a (b)stage-time graph Field measurements at various flows provide a (c) stage-discharge graph o Combining stage-time graph and stage-discharge graphs make the final hydrograph Flood Prediction: In managing the flood hazard it is important to determine the frequency of flooding. Planning and land use are often dependent on the predicted interval of flood events. Often, the bigger the flood the longer the return interval. Floodplains can be mapped based on a 20-year, 50-year, or 100-year flood. Magnitude & Frequency of floods: Smaller floods may be produced by less intense storms that occur more frequently, and larger floods produced by intense storms may happen less frequently. Recurrence interval: Determined by the following equation and plotted to create a discharge-frequency curve: o R = (N+1) M Channelization: The modification of the stream channel such as straightening or deepening. This often occurs in urban areas where the stream is fitted to the built structures. Channelization can have a number of impacts of the stream channel: o Increase the possibility of flash floods Which are shorter duration and larger in volume o Increase in frequency Wildfires: Processes that initiate fire: Natural o Lightning strikes Human o Combination of intention and accident Limiting factors: Fuel o Plant material, human material and structures Oxygen o Found in the atmosphere Heat o Includes lightning and human sources General phases of wildfires: The fire process has been broken down into a series of phases. These phases include: Pre-ignition o temperature and water content favour ignition o preheating and pyrolysis (dividing fuel molecules and creating fuel gases for ignition) exists Combustion o ignition can be caused by lightning, volcanic activity or humans o combustion liberates energy and is dependent on a fuel source Heat Transfer occurs through o conduction (molecules) o radiation (electromagnetic waves) o convection (heated gases, temperature differences) Extinction occurs when combustion ceases and there is insufficient heat or fuel to sustain combustion. Role of wind: cold front winds (high speed winds) help produce large scale wildfires localized winds with high pressure air masses may move the fire down mountain-sides fires are also encouraged by warm dry wind that increase temperature to 25°C with low humidity cooler winds sucked into the base of the fire and growth continues Development of Fire maps to predict risk: These are based on accounts of current and antecedent weather, fuel types, and both live and dead fuel moisture Related maps determine lightning ignition, Haines Index (potential for wildfire growth), and weather maps among others Ecological Role of fire in the forest: When lightning hits dry fuels, grass, the result is fire. Lightning sparks regular burning Over millions of years pants and animals have evolved with fire Creative, life-giving force Adjusted their life cycles and existence to the rhythm of fire Many species that depend on fire Burns to the ground every few decades, then grows back from the roots Produces a whole new crop of seedlings Native Americans used fire to burn their crops and promote seed growth for newer crops Management strategies & results: Education Codes and regulations Fire insurance Fire management: changing attitudes: A greater recognition of the role of fire in maintaining ecosystems and the danger of allowing too much fuel to build up in forest and prairie ecosystems. Control programs shifted to letting natural fires burn and only controlling human-initiated fires. Disease: Spread of Disease: Population is not immune and includes carriers Susceptibility to disease increases through conditions such as malnutrition Transmission Rates: Physical events such as sewer and water main rupture resulting in fecal contamination Lack of routine programs of disease control which spread endemic diseases such as cholera Overcrowding in refugee camps which increases human contact and poor sanitation Terminology Outbreak: simultaneous, related occurrence of several cases Epidemic: uncontrolled outbreak of communicable (infectious or contagious) disease Pandemic: international or wide-travelling simultaneous epidemics of the same condition Epidemiology: study of distribution and determinants of health-related events in human population The agent: the disaster The environment: that which it affects The host: affected people Bubonic Plague: General Causes o This disease is spread by rodents completing a cycle of bacillus spread from fleas to rats and onto humans. Symptoms o It is characterized by a swelling of the lymph nodes, infection, and pneumonia leading to high fever, delirium, vomiting, bleeding, and finally death. Vulnerability o There were no noticeable groups that had greater vulnerability. o All were affected with no specific target although there were incidences of persecution for groups such as the Jewish and Gypsy populations as they were believed to be the carriers of the disease. Cholera: Overview o Cholera is a water-borne disease that comes from sewage and contaminated rivers often within urban and rural water supplies. o Cholera is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae and is transmitted by contaminated food or water. o Often mild and without symptoms, but can be very severe. Role of Geography o Mapping techniques were used to find the source of the disease. GIS in controlling disease o For locating the source and tracking the spread of epidemics. Aids: Causes o It is transferred through exchange of infected body fluids including blood and semen Symptoms o An assortment of disease manifestations related to the failure of the immune system Vulnerability o It was originally believed that vulnerability was limited to homosexual activity, intravenous drug use and haemophiliacs. Today the vulnerability is linked more to poverty. Global patterns o Bird Flu and Influenza Pandemics: Overview o This disease became evident in 1997 when there was a large death of poultry in Hong Kong with 100% mortality. It was combated by killing all of the poultry. The most recent outbreak began in 2003. General characteristics o Wild birds worldwide carry the viruses in their intestines but usually do not get sick from them. It is very contagious among birds but the H5N1 virus does not usually infect humans. Recently, there have been human cases of H5N1 infection in Thailand and Vietnam. o In general the spread of the H5N1 virus from person to person is rare and the spread has not continued beyond one person. Presently, the death rate is about 70% or in other words, more than two-thirds of those that become infected die. o To date there have been about 100 deaths, primarily
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Republication from
Boulder, Colorado, USA: Geological knowledge is essential for the sustainable development of a “smart city”—one that harmonizes with the geology of its territory. Making a city “smarter” means improving the management of its infrastructure and resources to meet the present and future needs of its citizens and businesses. In the May issue of GSA Today, geologist Donatella de Rita and classical archaeologist Chrystina Häuber explain this idea further by using early Rome and Naples as comparative examples.
The authors describe Rome prior to Republican Times as a smart city because its expansion did not substantially alter the natural features of the area, and natural resources were managed to minimize environmental risks. Rome, which had at that time an economy based on agriculture, developed on small hilltops, and its position on the Tiber alluvial plain ensured fertile soils and easy commerce between river banks. Farms were plentiful, even inside the city walls, ensuring the self-sustenance of the city. Rome was also favored by an abundance of water resources, such as the Tiber and Aniene Rivers, and several natural springs inside the city walls.
In contrast, during the same period, Naples was exposed to more geological hazards and had fewer natural resources. Naples was located within an easily defendable bay, and as such its economy was dominated by sea trade. The rugged geomorphology of Naples’ interior territory significantly limited agriculture and diversification. Rather than being able to expand outward, Naples mostly grew vertically, using as foundations the natural marine terraces bordering the coast. Geomorphology, therefore, played a key role in constraining the importance of Naples to the Roman Empire, according to de Rita and Häuber.
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Who Invented the Blackboard
A blackboard also referred to as a chalkboard is a reusable writing surface upon which text or drawings are made with chalk. The boards are generally made of thin and soft sheet of slate stone in black or dark grey. Modern versions of these blackboards are available in green and brown and are referred as green board or brown board.
History of the blackboard can be traced from 18th century. Blackboard was invented by James Pillans in the year 1800 and it was introduced in the US education system in the year 1801. He was a headmaster in a high school at Scotland. Students in the school used slates with wooden frame for writing and the wooden frame protected the slates from breaking. Once, he took the slate and hung it on the walls to teach and this brought him an idea of creating the black board. Mr. George Baron, a Maths teacher carried this idea to US.
Who Invented the Blackboard Who Invented the Blackboard
Blackboards are still used in teaching, even though their use has been diminished in few wealthier countries. However, blackboards or chalkboards have few disadvantages like they produce dust based on the quality and the amount of chalk used. Many find it causes an allergic reaction, which has lead to decrease in its popularity.
Blackboards are also used at homes, specifically in the kitchen for writing shopping lists, messages, etc. However, these are mostly replaced by white boards in today’s world.
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Human Intentionality and Speech Act
Our mind is composed of the accumulation of knowledge or skill that results from direct participation in events or activities. This is what-so-called experience. Using knowledge, we can think about something; using skill, we can do something; and during thinking about and/or doing something, we may undergo an emotional sensation or be in a particular state of mind (we feel something). Searle (2004) mentioned three types of conscious experiences: thinking about something, intentionally doing something, and feeling a sensation. These three experiences are called human intentionality, which is a technical term used by philosophers to refer to capacity of mind by which mental states refer to, or are about, or are of objects and states of affairs.
When one is hungry (feeling a desire to eat), he will probably think about, for instance, tenderloin steak (thinking about a delicious meal), and in turn go to a restaurant (intentionally doing something). At the restaurant, he says something like “I’d like to have tenderloin steak” to the waiter. The utterance “I’d like to have tenderloin steak” is used by the speaker to convey a certain desire conceptualized in his mind. Furthermore, he does more than uttering “I’d like to have tenderloin steak;” he also does something–ordering or requesting the waiter to get him tenderloin steak. This kind of language use is referred to as speech act. Put simply, speech acts refer to the actions performed via utterances (see Grundy, 2008, Searle, 1969, Yule, 1996).
There are three levels on which speech acts could be analyzed. They are, as Austin (1962) distinguished, (1) the act of saying something, (2) what one does in saying it, and (3) what one does by saying it. These three levels are dubbed as the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, and the perlocutionary act respectively. For example, when one says “it’s hot in here,” we may analyze his utterance on the basis of these levels. In terms of locutionary aspect, the utterance “it’s hot in here” denotes that the ambient temperature is higher than normal or than that desirable to the speaker. However, the illocutionary function of “it’s hot in here” could be an indirect request for the addressee to open the window or turn on the AC. When the addressee gets the speaker’s illocutionary meaning and opens the window, this is what-so-called perlocutionary act–the actual effect.
Further reading:
Grundy, P. (2008). Doing pragmatics (3rd ed). London: Hodder Education.
Searle, J. R. (2004). Mind: A brief introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
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Organisational Behaviour
Chapter I Organisational Behaviour
Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • The importance of the human element in the organisation • Industrial psychology Contents 1.1 Organisation 1.2 Major Classifications of Organisations 1.3 Major Factors Influencing an Organisation 1.4 Organisational Behaviour 1.5 Some Fundamental Concepts in Organisational Behaviour 1.5.1 Every Individual is Different 1.5.2 Every Individual is a Complete Person 1.5.3 All Behaviour has Cause-Effect Relationship 1.5.4 Every Individual has Self-esteem 1.5.5 An Organisation is a Social System 1.5.6 Mutual Interests are Inter-dependent 1.5.7 A Total View of the Organisation 1.6 Why is the Study of Organisational Behaviour Important for Managers? Summing Up Self-assessment
1.1 Organisation An organisation is a human construct, made by people. It is not built by bricks and stones, or by furniture and fixtures, or by plants and machinery alone. It is the people who make or mar an organisation. A group of people travelling in a bus from one place to another, a group of people watching a movie for three hours, a large number of people attending an election campaign speech of a political leader do not form an organisation. They form a crowd or a mob. An organisation requires people with purpose, goals and objectives. Thus, comprehensively we can say that: “An organisation is a group of people working together to achieve the common organisational goal (viz. production of goods or services with the help of the given resources i.e. people, machines and materials).” Some examples of an organisation are: family, school, college, cricket team, foot-ball team, hockey team, university, factory, bank, hospital, hotel, municipal corporation, a state electricity board, a water supply board, telephone exchange, government, army, navy, air force, etc. 1.2 Major Classifications of Organisations The following are the major classifications of organisations: a. Industrial Sector v/s Agricultural Sector
Organisational Behaviour
Public Sector v/s Private Sector Joint Sector v/s Co-operative Sector Capital intensive Labour intensive Public Limited Private Limited Manufacturing Sector Service Sector Large Scale Small Scale, etc.
1.3 Major Factors Influencing an Organisation The a. b. c. d. e. following are the factors that influence an organisation: People Size Technology Environment Management
1.4 Organisational Behaviour Every individual has 24 hours a day. Worldwide research has shown that an average person spends about 6 to 8 hours a day in sleep. Out of the remaining 18 hours, more than 8 hours are spent in working and travelling for work. This means that one gets less than 8 hours for one's personal and private life with family and friends. In other words, we spend about 33% of our life sleeping; about 50% of our life working and the rest about 17% of our life for personal pleasures. If we study the daily routine of a person working in an organisation, we find that he spends more than 33% of his life in the organisation, less than 33% of his life sleeping and less than 33% of his life with his family, friends, relatives and for his personal hobbies, etc. With the increasing problems of accommodation, transport and communication in major urban areas in the country, one has to spend at least an hour per day travelling to and fro,the workplace. The entire routine of life has become so mechanical that man seems to have become an extension/accessory to the machine, if not the machine himself. This has resulted in a tremendous amount of stress and strain on the individual, affecting the physical as well as the mental health of the person. The subject of Organisational Behaviour deals with that part of our life, which we spend working, which is also called ‘On-the-job' life. Interestingly, our ‘offthe-job’ life is inter-related and inter-dependent on the ‘on-the-job’ life and vice-versa. Generally, it is observed that those who are comfortable ‘on-thejob' are happy ‘off-the-job' also. Organisational behaviour has been defined by: a. b. Keith Davis: As a study of human behaviour at work. Fred Luthans: As understanding, prediction and control of human behaviour in the organisation.
Organisational Behaviour
c. d.
Stephen Robbins: As a study that investigates the impact, individuals, groups and structure have on human behaviour within the organisation. S. K. Kapur: As a systematic study of actions and reactions, the people working in an organisation in order to improve the overall organisational performance.
1.5 Some Fundamental Concepts in Organisational Behaviour Research studies in organisational behaviour all over the world show that the ‘On-the-job' performance of an individual depends upon the ‘Off-the-job' life. In other words, less than 66% of the life ‘off-the-job’ has a great influence on the more than 33% life ‘on-the-job’, affecting performance. Think over the following statements: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Similar machines behave similarly under similar conditions Different machines behave differently under different conditions Similar machines behave differently under different conditions Different machines behave differently under similar conditions Different people behave differently under different conditions Different people behave differently under similar conditions The same people behave differently under different conditions The same people behave differently under similar conditions.
Thus, it will be observed that in a modern business organisation, managers must understand not only the organisational ‘str ucture', but also the organisational ‘culture'. Obviously, the organisational structure is different from the organisational culture. The organisational structure can be shown by an organisational chart or the ‘Organogram', but organisational culture cannot be shown on paper. It has to be seen, felt and experienced by the people within as well as by the people out. Organisational culture is formed by the organisational behaviour of the people over a long period of time. Human behaviour is universal like the gravitational force. Human behaviour is a highly complex process. A systematic understanding of human behaviour involves the ability to understand the ‘why' of behaviour. In modern business/commercial organisations, it is essential for ever y manager to develop an ability to understand not only the reasons for the past behaviour of his people, but also to predict, change or control the future behaviour to the extent possible. Some of the important fundamental concepts of organisational behaviour are as follows: 1.5.1 Ever y individual is different Every person is different with respect to his/her age, education, knowledge, skills, attitude, physical health, mental health, personality, etc. Therefore, each person should be treated separately while managing people. A uniform management style will not be applicable to all employees.
Organisational Behaviour
1.5.2 Ever y individual is a complete person Every individual is a complete person viz. he comes to work everyday with his head, hands and heart representing knowledge, skills and attitude respectively. The employee has his/her individual knowledge, skills, attitude, opinions, views, likes-dislikes, family background, social background, biases/ prejudices, etc. People spend more than half their lifetime in the organisations for which they work. Naturally, they expect to be happy on-the-job as well as off-the-job. 1.5.3 All behaviour has Cause-effect Relationship Human behaviour has a reason behind it. Every person behaves as per his/ her thought process and believes that the behaviour is correct, because the person has certain beliefs and faith. It is necessary for managers to understand these beliefs and faiths of the people and also the cause-effect relationship behind the behaviour, if they want to be effective in their managerial functions. 1.5.4 Ever y individual has self-esteem People are different from machines and materials. They can think, smile, laugh; they have feelings and emotions. They have self-respect and prestige. They are live entities, unlike machines or tools and equipment. Therefore, they should not be treated like machines or materials. They expect their due respect in day-to-day activities. 1.5.5 An organisation is a social system As Keith Davis remarks, an organisation is a social system. Therefore, the organisational behaviour of people depends upon the social and psychological values and systems. People have social as well as psychological needs. Their organisational behaviour depends upon their social status, social roles, and social groups. As a result within every formal organisation, there exists an informal organisation, which influences the formal organisation to a large extent. 1.5.6 Mutual interests are inter-dependent As organisation needs people, people too need the organisation. The organisation wants to fulfil its objectives of production of goods and services. The employees working in an organisation have their personal goals, for example, individual career goals, family goals, etc. There is interdependence of interests. It is necessar y that these are ‘complementar y' and not ‘contradictory'. 1.5.7 A total view of the organisation When all the above aspects of organisational behaviour are taken into consideration, we can have a total view of the organisation.This includes: the organisational structure, the management-employee relationships, the interpersonal and the inter-group relationships, the total personality of the employee, and the organisation as a total system. This helps managers
Organisational Behaviour
understand human behaviour in the organisation. In turn, this results in the necessary co-ordination between the three major factors viz., organisation, management and employees. Thus, understanding organisational behaviour of people is an extremely important matter for future managers. 1.6 Why is the study of Organisational Behaviour important for managers? With the growing number of organisations, rapidly changing technologies and increasing complexity of organisational structures, the importance of people in the organisations cannot be over-emphasised. At the beginning of the industrial revolution, people were considered ‘commodities' that could be ‘hired' and ‘fired' but, during the last 100 years, things have changed very fast. Both, the employers and the employees have realised that the relationship between them is not that of ‘Master-Servant', but like ‘Partners in progress'. Therefore, understanding people has become important, if not more important, as understanding machines and materials. People are called ‘Human Resources' because they are not commodities, but have become resources. Managements have become aware that they have to treat their employees as human beings and not as machines or materials. Therefore, understanding the ‘Organisational Behaviour’ of their employees has become extremely important for the managers of tomorrow. In the modern world, organisations are becoming increasingly complex with rapidly changing technology. As a result, organisations are demanding more and more from their employees. People are living resources with feelings, emotions and responses unlike machines or commodities. They cannot be treated like machines or materials but need psychological treatment. Hence, the study of organisational behaviour is of utmost importance today.
Summing Up In this chapter we have discussed what constitutes an organisation, the major classifications of organisations and factors influencing an organisation. Despite the advancement in technology, the importance of people in an organisation cannot be undermined. Hence the study of organisational behaviour is very important to managers in order to understand people and manage them. Self-assessment a. Fill in the blanks 1. 2. 3. 4. _____________ are a major factor influencing an organisation. Every person behaves as per his/her _____________ . The interests of employees and the organisation are _____________ People are called ____________ because they are not commodities.
Organisational Behaviour
b. State whether the following are true or false 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Organisational culture is written and described on paper. An organisation has a common goal. An organisation is a kind of social system. The same people behave differently under similar conditions. Understanding organisational behaviour of people is an extremely important matter for future managers. Organisational behaviour deals with the part of our life that is called ‘on-the-job-life'. Each person should be treated the same way while managing people.
1.3. Geography.1. etc. These various approaches to the study of Organisational Behaviour have given rise to different Models.1 The Inter-disciplinary Approach 2.1 The Autocratic Model 2.3 The Supportive Model 2.3 The Inter-relationship between Personal Life and Work Life 2.1. 2 Models of Organisational Behaviour 2.2 Work Life Summing Up Self-assessment 2. 7/MITSOT .2. Mathematics.2 The Custodial Model 2. Economics. Anthropology.2 The Human Resources Approach 2.3.1. Sociology.1 Approaches to Organisational Behaviour Organisational behaviour of people can be studied from various angles.2. for example. Philosophy. An organisation consists of dif ferent factors viz.1 The Inter-disciplinar y Approach This approach is based on the fact that human behaviour is a result of the interaction and interdependence among the different aspects of human life. Some of the important approaches and models are briefly described below: 2. These angles are called the Approaches to Organisational Behaviour.5 The SOBC Model 2. size. Histor y. Different experts have studied the subject of organisational behaviour from different angles. Law. Psychology. it is necessary to understand the interactions between the various aspects of human life.1 Personal Life 2.1.4 The Collegial Model 2.Approaches and Models of Organisational Behaviour Chapter II Approaches and Models of Organisational Behaviour Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • Different approaches to Organisational Behaviour • Various models of Organisational Behaviour Contents 2. the str ucture. technology and the people. In order to study the organisational behaviour of people.2.1 Approaches to Organisational Behaviour 2.4 The Contingency Approach 2.2.3 The Systems Approach 2.2. Ergonomics.
1.1 The Autocratic Model This model is based on the assumption that authority is central to results. Each sub-system can affect the whole system. Therefore. and job security is the main employee orientation. managerial orientation. an organisation is a social system with many different sub-systems. Each situation demands special thinking and decision-making followed by an action. People work for want of money. this approach depends heavily upon the experience of managers. 2. since they believe that their survival and growth depend upon the organisation. We cannot prescribe one best way for universal application.2 Models of Organisational Behaviour 2. Thus. Employees obey their superiors for their authority because their job security plays an important role in terms of the negative motivation. A number of variables affect organisational efficiency. People behave as they do mainly because of their basic needs for existence.Organisational Behaviour 2. survival and growth.2 The Custodial Model This model is based on the assumption that organisational behaviour depends upon economic resources. The systems approach also helps in the ‘synergy' effect. 2. Involvement and participation of people yields better results. job security is the main employee orientation. Employees have creativity that needs to be explored.1. Every major system consists of sub-systems and sub-sub-systems.2 The Human Resources Approach This approach is based on the assumption that people are resources and not commodities that can be bought and sold like other resources. Not many situations repeat and as a result every situation is unique. 2. The growth and development of the organisation depends upon the training and development of the people working for the same.1. every decision and action is situation oriented. The 8/MITSOT .3 The Systems Approach This approach is based on the assumption that like a human body. A systematic study can help the cost-benefit analysis. People must accept the authority of their superiors and obey their instructions.4 The Contingency Approach This approach is based on the assumption that every organisation and every situation is different.2. 2. In other words. for example machines and materials. Employees need guidance and counselling for their growth ‘on-the-job' as well as ‘off-the-job'. Obedience of the subordinates can be due to two reasons: respect for knowledge and authority of their superiors or fear of punishment in case of disobedience. The management should suppor t rather than control people. the systems approach considers the organisation as a large system. Obedience is the main employee orientation. While money is the main managerial orientation.2.
that may be overt or covert. Therefore. The main need of the employees is self-actualisation. Thus. as teamwork is the main managerial orientation. they must be encouraged to participate in decisionmaking.3 The Supportive Model This model is based on the assumption that management means leadership. 2.2.5 The SOBC Model This model is based on the assumption that. the managers in future have to understand the organisational behaviour of their employees in terms of the SOBC model since it is based on the very practical philosophy of human behaviour that ‘ever y human behaviour is caused and follows the cause-effect relationship’.4 The Collegial Model This model is based on the assumption that generally employees are selfdisciplined and exhibit responsible behaviour. The basic needs of the employees are self-esteem and recognition.2. If this need is satisfied. It is in terms of a response in terms of a particular behaviour.2. They show an initiative and drive for performance through their involvement and participation in the organisational activities. they show enthusiastic performance. social. What we see is the consequence of the behaviour shown by the organism due to a stimulus. They have cognitive mediators with physiological existence. 2. environmental. The management must build teams. Employees are performance oriented and need support for their initiative and drive for per formance. Consequences are expressed as the results. 2. physical. This model can be diagrammatically shown as follows: Stimulus (Cause) > Organism (Individual) > Behaviour (Actions) > Consequences (Results) The Stimulus is the cause that may be overt or covert. etc. Behaviour is expressed in terms of actions that may be overt or covert. all behaviour is caused. The Organism can be an individual or a group. technological. This encourages involvement and par ticipation from the subordinates. status and recognition for their performance. 9/MITSOT . The management plays the role of supportive leadership. positive or negative and can have effects on environmental dynamics and their application. psychological. The management knows better about the welfare of its people and takes the role of guardian and custodian of the people and their wealth. The employees need support.Approaches and Models of Organisational Behaviour basic need of the employees is job security for which they offer passive cooperation to their superiors.
for example. perceptions. Thus. attitude.Organisational Behaviour Parameter Basis Managerial orientation Employee orientation Employee psychology Employee needs Performance results Level of morale Autocratic Power Authority Obedience Custodial Economic resources Money Job security Supportive Leadership Support Performance Collegial Partnership Teamwork Responsibility Dependence Dependence on boss on the organisation Survival and subsistence Minimum Compliance Participation Self-discipline Maintenance Self-esteem and recognition Selfactualisation Passive Efficient and Effective co-operation above average and efficient Satisfaction Motivation Commitment Table 2. etc. challenges in the job. interests. personal motivation. own personality. career prospects. authority-responsibility relationship. job description. beliefs. educational background. working conditions. etc.2 Work Life The work life of an employee consists of various factors. the organisational structure. procedures.1 Personal Life The personal life of an employee consists of various factors. the organisational culture. inter-personal communication and relationships with superiors.3 The Inter-relationship between Personal Life and Work Life A large amount of research in the organisational behaviour of employees at all levels in different organisations all over the world has revealed that an employee's personal life and work life are inter-related and interdependent. Therefore. policies. 2. subordinates. for example. knowledge. social interactions.3. skills.3. hobbies. friend-circle. in the light of the various approaches and models described above. it is extremely important and necessary for managers to understand the various aspects of organisational behaviour. values. relatives. 2. health. communication. family background. aptitude. it will be seen that the organisational behaviour of an employee is a result of a constant and continuous 10/MITSOT .1 Summary of Models of Organisational Behaviour 2. it is obser ved that the employee's ‘on-the-job' performance depends upon his ‘off-the-job' life. In other words. colleagues.
Fill in the blanks The human resources approach is based on the assumption that people are __________. __________ is central to results. the management plays the role of supportive ______ __. Self-assessment a. State whether the following are true or false An Autocratic organisation is based on power and a supportive type organisation is based on economic resources. 3. 1. 3. those who are happy ‘on-the-job' are happy ‘off-the-job'. Generally speaking. The human resources approach assumes that people are resources not commodities whereas the systems approach assumes that the organisation is a social system with many different subsystems. In the supportive model. The systems approach helps in the synergy effect. The SOBC model is based on the assumption that every behaviour is _________. although the converse may not hold true. Summing Up In this chapter we have discussed the inter-disciplinary approaches to the study of Organisational Behaviour. Behaviour is expressed in terms of action. The interrelationship between personal life and work life cannot be overlooked. 1. b. 4.Approaches and Models of Organisational Behaviour interaction between personal life and work life. 11/MITSOT . 2. 2. not ________________. 4. There are also several models of Organisational Behaviour. The basic needs of an employee are self-esteem and recognition as per the autocratic model of organisation. Hence it is extremely important for managers to understand the various aspects of organisational behaviour in the light of various approaches and models discussed in this chapter. The autocratic model is based on the theory that.
grouped and co-ordinated for the successful achievement of the organisational goals. The organisations.4 Major Elements of Organisational Design 3. the organisational culture.” It is easier to design an organisation at the conceptual or embryonic stage. 12/MITSOT . Committee Organisation.2 Dimensions of Organisational Design 3. Thus. Functional Organisation. An organisation.7 What is Organisational Culture? 3.1 Organisational Design 3. Therefore.6 What is Organisational Structure? 3. Line and Staff Organisation.10 Factors Affecting Organisational Culture 3. It is observed that almost all organisations.Organisational Behaviour Chapter III Organisational Design and Culture Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • Various designs of an organisation Contents 3. Organisational structure and organisational culture are different.3 Determinants of Organisational Design 3. that have taken care of designing their structures properly during the initial stages. but at the same time interrelated and interdependent. which are large today. An organisation just born and is very young c.11 Assessing Organisational Culture 3. Organisational Designing is the basis for organisational structure viz. etc. in its conceptual or embryonic stage b.9 Characteristics of Organisational Culture 3.8 Projection of the Organisational Culture 3. Line Organisation. Matrix Organisation.1 Organisational Design Organisations can be broadly classified on the basis of their age: a.12 Changing Organisational Culture Summing Up Self-assessment 3. are facing comparatively less problems of organisational behaviour as compared to the others. in words of Stephen Robbins. organisational designing is of vital importance in shaping organisational behaviour and in turn.5 Factors Influencing Organisational Redesigning 3. Organisational Design may be defined as: “A process of determining as to how tasks are divided. more than 25 years old. An organisation. were started as very small organisations many years ago.
as the organisation grows older. the activities and bring them under certain departments that can be directly managed by the departmental heads so that the organisation can be managed efficiently and effectively. sectionalisation. e. Ownership (Public/Private/Joint/Co-operative) Size (Small/Medium/Large. However. modernisation. 3. capital investment. changes in: the products/services. automation. number of people. evaluation of alternatives) Environment (internal v/s external) 3. quantity and quality.Organisational Design and Culture than at a later stage. etc.4 Major Elements of Organisational Design a. b. it becomes increasingly difficult to design or redesign the organisation structure.2 Dimensions of Organisational Design Basically. 2. 3. departmentalisation. Obviously. objectives. Departmentalisation As the organisation grows it becomes necessary to divide the work group. c. d. modern organisations review the design/structure once every five years and redesign and readjust the organisation to cope with changing situations. It creates a feeling of autonomy and job satisfaction among employees. market demands and consumer preferences. b. The horizontal dimension relating to decentralisation. systems and sub-systems.3 Determinants of Organisational Design The major determinants of organisational design are as follows: a. computerisation) Strategy (goals. Division of labour based on work specialisation helps to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisation. It permits utilisation of specialisation and expertise of people. short term/long term. there are two dimensions of organisational design: a. divisionalisation. The vertical dimension relating to the hierarchy of the managerial levels of superiors and subordinates. sales turnover) Technology (old or new. Departmentalisation may be defined as ‘a process of dividing the various activities into dif ferent depar tments for proper administration of the organisation.' A few advantages of proper departmentalisation are as follows: 1. for example. methods and procedures. 13/MITSOT . b. Work Specialisation This is based on Taylor's concept of Scientific Management. Both Fayol and Taylor have suggested ‘division of labour' among employees as per their knowledge and skills.
Organisational Behaviour 3. In this process. people. 4. 5. Therefore. It becomes necessary to 14/MITSOT . It helps the training. Each department consists of one head and some subordinates who have to work as a team and achieve the departmental goal with the given resources viz. organise. In both these situations. Generally. development and job rotations of managers c. centralisation may be defined as ‘a systematic and consistent reservation of authority and decision making at a central point in the organisation. d. organisational behaviour becomes a more complex subject. This requires the manager to plan. Chain of Command Organisational communication is an extremely important factor for the success or failure of an organisation. if the number is too small. supervision and control becomes difficult. communicate. It facilitates performance appraisals by managers. It helps fix the authority-responsibility relationship of the managers. Thus. the quantity and quality of the finished product/service and the resources available to complete the task in a given time limit. centralised authority and decision-making can manage it but. the span of control may be defined as ‘the number of subordinates that can be efficiently and effectively managed by the superior for the optimum performance of the work team’. supervision and control become too strict and critical. control and co-ordinate all his activities as well as those of his subordinates. as it grows into a large-scale organisation. organisational communication requires a chain of commands to flow downwards/upwards/lateral. direct. One manager has to look after a number of functions. In the absence of a proper chain of commands for organisational communication to flow. each department consists of different numbers of people depending upon the nature of work. supervise. On the other hand. the performance of the team may not be satisfactory. it has to decentralise activities in order to cope with the changing demands of the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisation. the span of management should be optimum for an optimum performance. lead. Thus. machines and materials. activities are decentralised and the organisation is divided into different divisions or departments to perform certain specialised tasks that ultimately contribute to the organisational goals. If the number of people to be supervised is too large. Centralisation v/s Decentralisation As long as the organisation is small it can be managed by a small group of managers. In such an organisation there is centralisation of authority and decision-making as a result of which a few managers have the authority to take decisions and give instructions to their subordinates. motivate. Span of Control In large-scale organisations.' As long as the organisation is small.
Organisational culture relates to the perception. attitudes. Organisational structures can be created and changed overnight. It shows the positions of the people. government officers. directing. which is called as Organisation Char t. morale and motivation. organising. etc. suppliers. the treatment given to outsiders viz. 15/MITSOT . their span of control. Organisation structure can be any one of the following: a. Organisational structure is mechanistic and can be shown on paper. the organisational culture is to be experienced by actually working in the organisation.6.1 Difference between Organisational Structure and Organisational Culture Organisational culture is dif ferent from organisational str ucture. values. c. e. But. interpersonal communication. decentralisation may be defined as ‘a process of dividing organisational activities into dif ferent autonomous divisions/depar tments/sections. contractors.6 What is Organisational Structure? An organisation can be depicted by a line diagram. physically and functionally ' 3. The organisation char t shows the organisational structure. b. d. their status/designations.Organisational Design and Culture decentralise many functions like planning.5 Factors influencing Organisational Redesigning Changes • • • • • • • • • • In the knowledge requirements In the technology and the consequent skill requirement In the knowledge of human behaviour From centralised to de-centralised structures From vertical and tall to horizontal and flat organisations In emphasis from command control to consensus self-control From instability and uncertainty to mechanistic systems From generalisation to specialisation in management From product orientation to function orientation From mechanistic approach to human behaviour approach 3. the sense of belonging among employees. authority-responsibility relationships. interpersonal relationships. staffing. etc. etc. but organisational culture cannot be changed overnight. Thus. cooperation and co-ordination among employees at different levels. Line Organisational structure Functional Organisational structure Line and Staff Organisational structure Committee Organisational structure Matrix Organisational structure 3. controlling. It has to be built up over a period of time. customers.
Organisational culture has been defined by: a. d. Generally organisational culture flows from the top to the bottom. beliefs. It plays an extremely impor tant role in organisational image building. perceptions. Schneider and Snyder: As a process of manifestation of the perceptions. Individual culture is a result of the impact of parents + family + education + work experience + friends + society.7 What is Organisational Culture? What is culture? It is observed that during the 21st century. b. etc. traditional culture v/s modern culture. goodwill and reputation. c. rural culture v/s urban culture. customs that are shared by the groups and resulting into the individual and group behaviour of the people working in the organisation over a period of time. large scale culture v/s small scale culture. It is not developed overnight. etc. agrarian culture v/s industrial culture. world culture has been changing very fast as a result of the fast changing national and regional cultures. values and attitudes of the employees form the core of organisational culture. traditions. values and attitudes of the members of the organisation. Forehand and Gilmer: As a set of characteristics that differentiate one organisation from another and are relatively enduring over a period of time and influence the behaviour of the people in the organisation. Some of the indicators of organisational culture are as follows: Lack of knowledge Lack of skills Negative attitudes Resentful service Lack of accountability Red tapism Bureaucracy Lack of discipline Lack of cleanliness/housekeeping Poor Quantity and Quality More bureaucratic culture 16/MITSOT . It takes a long time to develop. manufacturing sector culture v/s service sector culture. We find Eastern culture v/s Western culture. The perceptions. Taguiri and Litwin: As a relatively enduring quality of the internal environment that is experienced by its members. Group culture is the sum total of the individual cultures. 3. there is public sector culture v/s private sector culture. It has to be felt and experienced by the people over a period of time. Edgar Schiene: As the sum total of the knowledge.Organisational Behaviour Thus. that influences their behaviour and can be described in terms of a set of values. attitudes. culture is an abstract concept that varies from organisation to organisation and from time to time. It also helps to improve the morale and motivation and the sense of belonging among employees. values. Similarly.
values. m. g. l. b. ceremonies. festivals.9 The a. f. following are the factors that may affect organisational culture: Organisational context Organisational structure Organisational processes Physical environment Values. rewards. j. Characteristics of Organisational Culture following are the characteristics of Organisational Culture: Pragmatic policies Strategic planning Decentralisation and Delegation Individual autonomy Participation in decision-making Risk tolerance Integration with the organisational goals Management support Innovation and creativity Self-esteem and identity Control systems Communication systems Conflict management Reward system 3. organisational culture is projected at three levels as follows: a. etc. d.10 Factors Affecting Organisational Culture The a. c. c.Organisational Design and Culture Adequate knowledge of the job Adequate skills for the job Positive attitudes Cheerful service Less bureaucratic culture Accountability Responsibility Better discipline Better cleanliness and housekeeping Efficiency and Effectiveness Better Quantity and Quality 3. h. norms and systems 17/MITSOT . philosophy. k. b. c. 3. b.8 Projection of the Organisational Culture According to Edgar Schiene. d. appreciation. role models. Code of Uniform. rituals. i. n. Level III: Common assumptions of the management about the employees. e. Level II: Shared values and beliefs among the employees in the organisation. Level I: Company Logo. e. Trade Mark.
c. A lot of research has gone into the assessment of organisational climate though. may be managed by a centralised authority. 7. like character building. According to Rensis Likert. it is difficult to measure it in any units as in Physics. Some employees may be comfortably happy working in the organisational climate. 4. which takes a long time. Delegate to improve autonomy Change from autocratic to participative style of management. Leadership style Morale and Motivation Organisational communication Interaction-Influence process Decision making Goal setting Control 3. but as it grows bigger in size and scale it has to decentralise authority for the efficient functioning of the organisation. 5. Therefore. like fast food! It is a longterm process. while some others may not be so happy. if small. b. Some of the changes that can bring about a change in organisational culture are as follows: a. 3. which depends upon the beliefs. the dimensions. g. j. but culture can only be experienced.12 Changing Organisational Culture Organisational culture is not a matter of minutes. The structure can be seen on paper. Develop a positive attitude towards the organisational goals Summing Up In this chapter we have discussed organisational design.11 Assessing Organisational Culture Organisational culture and climate are abstract areas of experience. changing organisational culture requires sustained efforts by all. 6. Chemistry. It is a subjective concept.Organisational Behaviour 3. An organisation. Treat employees as individuals Respect individual identity and self-esteem Improve organisational communication Give training and development inputs at all levels Review systems and procedures Improve leadership and team building Give rewards and incentives in due recognition and appreciation. f. It demands conviction. i. commitment and competence. 18/MITSOT . e. h. the determinants and the major elements of organisational design. d. 2. Biology or Mathematics. perceptions and values nurtured by the concerned employees. organisational climate can be assessed on the basis of the following 7-point scale: 1. Every organisation has a culture which is different from its structure.
Organisation culture is different from organisation structure. 3. 1. State whether the following are true or false Departmentalisation helps fix the authority-responsibility relationship of managers.Organisational Design and Culture There are several factors working at several levels which project the culture of an organisation. Self-assessment a. An organisation can be depicted by a line diagram which is called the ________________________. We have also discussed how to assess and change the culture of an organisation. 19/MITSOT . Fill in the blanks Generally organisation culture flows from ___________ to _____________. b. 2. 2. Organisation culture is not a subjective concept. 1.
1 Perception 4.1 Terminal Values 4. tiger. your co-passengers on a journey.2 The process of perception 4.5 Developing perceptual skills 4. Why does this happen? The answer lies in the ‘Perception' of people. objects or situations. During the further 15 to 20 formative years in primary school. etc. Watching a clear sky with white clouds. 20/MITSOT . After completion of formal education.7 What is Value? 4.9 Manifestations of Values 4. Some interpersonal interactions are satisfactory and produce positive results.10.10 Types of Values 4. every individual lives with his/her parents or the family for the first five years of his/her life. One has perceptions about one's own parents.11 Classifications of Values (Allport and Associates) (TASRPE) Summing Up Self-assessment 4.10. secondary school. Contents 4. teachers.2 Instrumental Values 4.Organisational Behaviour Chapter IV Perception and Values Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • What is perception and the importance of perception. under-graduation and post-graduation. there are many people with whom one interacts and creates perceptions. It will also give an idea of social perception. colleagues and subordinates. while some may see shapes of birds.3 Internal factors affecting perception 4.4 External factors affecting perception 4. etc. elephant. while some others are not satisfactory and produce negative results with stress and tensions for either of the parties or for both of them. some of us see the shapes of animals like horse. outsiders.1 Perception Generally. friends. Every person has to interact with other individuals in his/her life on-the-job as well as off-the job. your superiors/colleagues/subordinates are some of the examples of the effects of your perception. The first impressions of your teachers.8 Sources of Values 4. one starts with a career either in employment or self-employment during which one has to deal with many people including superiors.6 Perception and personality 4. which are the cognitive years of life.
contrast effect. first impression.g. perceptual errors. implicit personality. taste. continuity. d. expectations.). figure ground principle. impression management.Perception and Values Thus. motion. ‘the way you look at people/objects/situations in the world. proximity. halo effect.g. perceptual defence. characteristics of the perceiver/perceived. h.g. etc. relevancy principle. organise and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. contrast. etc. perception may be defined as: a. Registration: The individual registers the stimulus and its gravity. attribution. similarity. 4. closure. constancy. motivation. g. 21/MITSOT b. size. checking and reacting to the sensory stimuli or data so as to form a meaningful and coherent picture of the world. repetition. negative or neutral. defence. appearance. Response : The individual gives the response in terms of a reaction. Perceptual selection : The individual selects the data e. familiarity.' c. touch. sight. covert feelings emotions. stereotyping. etc. which can be positive. intensity.g. the process of perception takes the following stages: a. Confrontation with the Stimulus: The individual comes face to face with another individual/group/situation/problem. b. etc. projection. c. Evaluation and feedback : The individual evaluates the strengths and weaknesses in a situation and gives a quick feedback to the sensory and motor mechanisms for the next step.' ‘an active psychological process by which individuals receive. e. self-fulfilling prophecy. Perceptual grouping : It is a process through which certain aspects of thedata are screened/filtered e. f. Depending upon the mutual interaction between the stimulus and the individual. Pollyanna-Nietze effect. status. interpreting. Perceptual organisation : It is a process through which the incoming information is organised and patterned in a systematic manner e. attitudes.g. organising.' ‘a process of receiving. novelty. i. the reaction of the individual to thestimuli can be: behaviour. context.2 The process of perception Generally. etc. etc. e. role of the central nervous system. smell. Interpretation: The individual tries to understand the real meaning of the situation and to interpret it for the effects. hearing. Observation : The individual uses his/her sensory tools to observe the stimuli (e. selecting. .
The higher the learning. which has an effect on perception. Expectations : This is the greatest factor that affects one's perception. colleagues and subordinates. 22/MITSOT . the perception is favourable. it is distorted and not so favourable. c. Good values result in good perception. Interests : The individual's interest in people/situations affects perception either favourably or otherwise. teachers. Learning : Learning is a continuous process. status. e. d. his perception is likely to be more positive than of one who is less learned. Moreover. If expectations are fulfilled. Therefore. If otherwise. situations or the people in whom the individual is interested create a positive perception.Satisfaction or dissatisfaction of these needs also af fects the perception of the individual. f. while bad values result in bad perception. Thus. Generally. people having a good educational background are more likely to have a more logical /rational perception as compared to those without such background.mates and friends play an important role. viz. Every individual has certain social needs in terms of a sense of belonging to a group. Family background: A good family background cultivates good perception. because a learned person can look at the world from an enlightened point of view. people see what they expect to see. Psychological needs: Every individual has certain psychological needs in terms of self-esteem. Generally. people keep on modifying their perceptions of the world through the process of learning. superiors. the better is the perception. objects. recognition. good and bad are relative terms and it all depends upon the b. Educational background: Educational background plays an important role in forming perceptions of people. Values : Perception and value always go hand-in-hand. All interactions at all these three levels affect perception through experience.3 Internal factors affecting perception The following are some of the internal factors that may affect perception: a. Generally. ego. class. In this regard. g. i. Every employee has to interact with 3 different levels. A bad family background breeds bad perception.Organisational Behaviour 4. Individuals with fairly satisfied social needs have better perceptions than those with dissatisfied social needs. etc. appreciation. parents. Satisfaction or dissatisfaction of these needs affects the perception of the individual. brothers and sisters play an impor tant role in forming perceptions in the early stages of life of every individual. Work experience : Work experience refers to the ‘on-the-job' life in the organisation. h. Social needs : Man is a social animal. Of course.
a judge. Familiarity : Familiarity with the other person/object/situation helps positive perception. prime minister. For example. j. a very loud noise of an explosion. people with high status are perceived with respect/ reverence and therefore listened to. a doctor. Generally. On the contrary. attract attention and affect perception. a full page advertisement. are better placed due to their high status. a manager. an object coming at a very high speed towards you. This means that those individuals who are more familiar with each other have better perceptions about each other than those who are not. it is negative or distorted. f. etc. Intensity : The intensity of an individual/object/situation relates to the force with which it approaches you e. Size: The size of the stimulus (person or object) affects perception. Personality and perception are mutually interdependent. a strong odour. fat and lean. a known person is given preference for appointments. etc. c. very fair woman with a very dark man. how you talk/walk and whether your body language sends positive signals or negative signals. for example. the intensity of the stimulus determines the attention and the perception of the individual. values and attitude. etc. dark shirt and white pant. d. people with good personalities have good perception and vice. black and white. Attract attention and affect perception. how you are dressed. people without any substantial status in society are not perceived favourably. Contrast: A contrast between the person/object and the background affects perception. Status in the organisation/society affects the perception of the individual. g. an accident on the road.versa. Otherwise. bold and normal v/s italic and underlined. a very fat person arriving at a party or a very thin and lean patient in a hospital. a very bright light glaring at you. for example. A president. a Nobel laureate etc. a governor. a good friend in a large group is noticed first.g. External factors affecting perception 4. Appearance : ‘Your face is your fortune'. Status : Generally. 23/MITSOT b. Motion: A moving person/object is noticed rather than a stationary one. Your first impression depends upon your appearance viz. a minister. an advocate. bigger machines. an actor/actress. e. larger pictures. Many times a handsome man or a beautiful woman with a smile are given preference over others due to positive perception.4 The following are some of the external factors that may affect perception: a.. a person speaking loudly with emotionally charged words. Appearance matters in developing a perception. In other words. a black spot on a white paper. Personality : Personality is the total result of an individual's perception. a socialworker. tall husband and short wife.Perception and Values individual's background as per the above factors. .
headline news of riots. monotony brings boredom and overconfidence that result in the lowering of efficiency. c. a trapeze. job content improve the perception of the job thereby improving efficiency. b. are more attractive than the non-flashing ones. an elephant riding a bicycle in the circus. d. c. a dog obeying the master's instructions. monkeys doing acrobatics at the command of their master. arson and killings. flashing neon signs. The messages that are repeated frequently are perceived better than those that are given only once. it is difficult to have a very logical and rational perception in day-to-day work life.5 Inspite of a lot of research and training inputs in the field of perception. repetitive failure of a particular product in the market. constant rejection of jobs for quality. Repetition : This principle states that a stimulus that is repeated gets more attention than the one that appears only once. but can perceive grey areas. b. repeated absence of an employee. repetitive failures in one subject. Developing perceptual skills i. h. f. e. d. 4. for example. Novelty : An unusual sight is always noticed and perceived more quickly than a usual/routine matter. a parrot picking an envelope for the astrologer. successive victories at Wimbledon. Secure people perceive others as warm individuals and not as indifferent.Organisational Behaviour More particularly. A change in the job design. The objects that are moving or changing attract more than those which are stationary. Self-accepting people perceive themselves as accepted and liked by others. Self-accepting people have faith in their individuality and perceive things favourably. Sometimes. etc. Thoughtful people do not make extreme judgements about others. 24/MITSOT . etc. g. Make accurate self-perception Enhance self-esteem Be empathetic Avoid perceptual errors Encourage free communication Have positive attitude Practice good impression management 4. a tiger walking in the middle of the street in a city. a clown in a circus doing acrobatics. frequent failures of a particular machine. for example. others tend to distrust others. Some of the suggestions for developing perceptual skills may be mentioned as follows: a. consistent losses in business. a cobra dancing on a tune of the flute.6 Perception and Personality The following are some of the rules of perception and personality: a. for example. a person/object moving at a very high speed is noticed quickly in perception. frequent job changes.
situation to situation. Some of the expressions of an individual's values can be one or more of the following forms: a. they are manifested through the behaviour of the individual and the groups.) 4. That is why understanding the meaning of ‘Value' is important for the study of Organisational Behaviour. friends. Workplace (superiors. c. i. customers. Values represent the basic conviction that a specific mode of conduct is acceptable or otherwise. h. policies. etc. Freedom Pleasure Mutual respect Honesty Obedience Equality Peace Co-operation Harmony 25/MITSOT . teachers. b.9 Manifestations of Values Values are not constant. economics. Family (parents. etc. subordinates. they keep on changing from person to person. philosophies. time to time. Society(schools. religious organisations. Values may not be always written down or expressed. etc. d. b. Values can be expressed by words. 4.Perception and Values e. f. colleagues. actions and behaviour. good and bad. an object or a situation which enables distinguishing between the right and the wrong.) d.' Values provide the standards of competence and morality Transcend specific objects/situations/persons Are relatively permanent and resistant to change Are most central to the personality of an individual Shape and determine behaviour in a group/society 4. g.7 What is Value? Values are a dominant force that shape and determine the individual personality and behaviour. Self-accepting people also accept others easily as compared with the non self-accepting ones. Individual values may be different from group values. But. Values have a great influence on the perceptions. ideologies. attitudes and motivational patterns of people. c. brothers and sisters) b. ‘The wor th of a person.) c. Thus. e. suppliers. a Value may be defined as: a. d. class-mates. Government (politics. place to place.8 Sources of Values Values of individuals/groups come from different sources: a. Individual values contribute to the group values. Human values are manifested in various ways. f. e.
co-operation. application. af fection. help. Capability c. quality. size.11 Classifications of Values (Allport and Associates) (TASRPE) The following are the classifications of values: a. propor tions. a. l. The following are some examples of instrumental values. etc. Honesty h. cost-benefit. Theoretical Values: discovering the truth through a critical approach and reasoning. A sense of accomplishment c. e. Religious Values: religion. values can be broadly classified as follows: 4.10. Social recognition h. A secure life d. The following are some examples of terminal values: a. c. love. shape. Health and Safety e. money. Cleanliness and Housekeeping d. 26/MITSOT . A happy retired life e. k. through which the ultimate goals are achieved. Freedom and independence f. b. d. Economic Values: exchange. faith. influence. through which ultimate goals in life are sought to be achieved. A world of peace j. Political Values: power. control. Truth and non-violence 4. Co-operation g.1 Terminal Values Terminal values are those. Logic and Rationality j. Social Values: ser vice. etc. f. balance of trade. etc. Courage f.2 Instrumental Values Instrumental values are those.Organisational Behaviour j.10. Democracy Discipline Mutual trust 4. Aesthetic Values: form. traditions. Politeness and Courtesy 4. Self-actualisation i. Pardon i. etc. A comfortable life b. culture. harmony. Ambition b. human relations. leadership. usefulness. Self-esteem g.10 Types of Values According to Rokeach. colour. custom.
Status. 1. ___________ of the stimulus determines the perception of the individual. 4. The messages that are given only once are perceived better than the messages that are repeated frequently.Perception and Values Summing Up This chapter helps you to understand the impor tance and definition of perception. 4. affecting perception. Fill in the blanks The way one looks at people/ objects/ situations in the world is called _____________ _____________ is the total result of an individual's perception. 3. internal and external. 2. Self-assessment a. Values of individuals/groups come from different sources. cultural background affect internal factors. We have seen that values are not constant. Learning is a ______________process. 2.e. and they are a dominant force that shape and determine the individual personality. Values are constant. educational. It also talks about social perception. 5. 3.. 5. Individual values are different from group values. i. There are several factors. Satisfaction of social needs affects the perception of the individual. Financial. _____________ values are the means through which ultimate goals are achieved. 27/MITSOT . b. every person has to interact with other individuals in his life. 1. appearance and familiarity are some of the external factors affecting perception. State whether the following are true or false The reaction of the individual cannot be neutral. values and attitude.
objects or situations. Attitudes are formed through experience. perceptions and values’. It is based on the individual' s own experience and interpretations of the same leading to opinions and behaviours. Both their bodies and minds are flexible for moulding. It is an individual's characteristic way of responding favourably or unfavourably to people. say upto 5 years of age have no attitude of their own.4 Functions of Attitude 5. They are like ‘pots on the potter's wheel’.1 What is Attitude? 5.9 Attitude at a Glance Summing Up Self-assessment 5. group. object or situation’. Attitude predisposes people to respond to people. Attitude is the result of the individual's beliefs. Attitude can be described as the way people feel about something. objects. ‘Attitude is the combination of one's beliefs.8 Significance of Attitude in Organisational Behaviour 5. b. they start developing attitude.1.1 Definitions of Attitude a.7 Manifestations of Attitude 5. ‘Attitude is the basic foundation of human behaviour’. An individual's behaviour is a function of his/her attitude. environment in certain ways. It is a pre-disposition of the individual to evaluate people. after they start going to the school. d.1 What is Attitude? ‘Attitude is the frame of mind’. objects or situations’. objects or situations.3 Components of Attitude 5.6 Characteristics of Attitude 5.1. ‘Attitude is a learned pre-disposition to respond consistently in a favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given individual. perceptions and values. ‘Attitude is a frame of mind that influences individual behaviour’.Organisational Behaviour Chapter V Attitude in Organisational Behaviour Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • What attitude is and how does it affect the organisation. It is observed that small children. e. as you desire. 28/MITSOT .1 Definitions of Attitude 5. events. 5.5 Factors affecting Attitude 5. But. c.2 Theories of Attitude 5. Contents 5. ‘Attitude is the mental posture in response to people.
Attitude has 4 functions: knowledge.3 Components of Attitude Some of the components of attitude are: a. Social judgement can mediate for a change in attitude. ego and value expression. e. Inconsistent cognition is unpleasant. A change in an individual's attitude is possible through learning and de-learning.g. Cognitive Consistency Theories These theories are concerned with inconsistencies. Incongruity leads to changes in attitudes.Attitude in Organisational Behaviour 5. Individuals try to reduce the unpleasantness. 5. knowledge and evaluation about an object. which arise between the related beliefs. The focus is on evaluation of the source with associative or dissociative assertion. A change in attitude happens when there is an imbalance in the system. Congruity Theor y (Osgood and Tannenbaum): This theory is based on the fact that congruity is a stable state. Balance Theory (Heider and Newcomb): This theory is based on the individual's desire to keep the cognitive elements in harmony. Changes in theef fective components produce changes in the cognitive components. Functional Theory (Katz and Kelman): This theory is based on the assumption that attitudes and efforts are related to the motivation of the individual. while imbalance results in stress and pressures. Social Judgement Theory (Sheriff and Hoveland): This theory is basedon the assumption that attitudes can produce distortions.2 Theories of Attitude The concept can be explained with the help of various theories based on the basic insights of the process of formation of attitudes. c. There is a constant effort to bring about a balance between the two. These theories can be broadly classified as follows: a. d. Working conditions and social relationships also affect attitudes. utility. Interpersonal persuasive communication plays an important role in changing attitudes. b. Cognitive Dissonance Theor y (Leon Festinger): This theor y is based on the study of various types of attitudes. cognitive element and environmental element)and the individual's attempts to change either of the two. Affective Cognitive Consistency Theory (Rosenberg): This theory is based on the interrelationship between Values and Attitudes. It highlights the disagreement between two cognitions (e. These theories are further sub-classified as follows: a. Cognitive component This component of attitude represents the opinions and beliefs of the 29/MITSOT . Balanced cognitions are more stable and pleasurable than the imbalanced ones Balance means harmony. f.
6 Characteristics of Attitude The following are some of the characteristics of attitude: a. c.5 Factors affecting Attitude The following are some of the functions that may affect attitude: a. b. b. 5. b.7 Manifestations of Attitudes a. This is based on the pre-disposition to act.4 Functions of Attitude Basically. e. Job involvement : This measures the degree to which the individual identifies with the job and considers performance level as important. Valence (the degree of favourableness or unfavourableness to the object) Multiplicity (different perceptions and values create different attitudes) Need relationship (basic/security/social/psychological/selfactualisation) Centrality (represents the importance of the object and resistance to change) 5.Organisational Behaviour individual. attitude has the following functions a. c. b. Family background Early socialisation Educational background Work experiences Group affiliation Personal experiences 5. c. d. Job satisfaction : Generally. It determines and controls the actual reactions and behaviour of the individual. This is based on the real or assumed knowledge about the object and is generally governed by a rational process of thinking and action. negative or neutral towards the object. This is based on non-rational commitments and can be positive. This helps in decisionmaking. an individual employee who has a positive attitude has a high level of job satisfaction. Knowledge function Adaptive function Ego-defensive function Value-expressive function 5. b. d. interpersonal communication and group relationships. f. Behavioural component This component of attitude represents the intention to behave in a particular way. c. 30/MITSOT . Af fective component This component of attitude represents the emotional segment of the individual. d.
education and work experience. e. that determines the organisational behaviour of the people. d. f. the study and understanding of the concept of attitude is the most important part of organisational behaviour. Attitude is a very important concept in human psychology. strong feelings (affective component) and behaviour (action component). o. Attitude is reinforced by beliefs (cognitive component). j. f.8 Significance of Attitudes in Organisational Behaviour The study of Organisational Behaviour is based on the principles of human psychology. Determines goals Reconciles contradictions Organises facts Affects Employer-Employee relations Affects Health/Safety/Welfare Determines loyalty and integrity Facilitates communication Affects organisational change Creates/avoids conflicts Affects inter-personal relationships Influences morale and motivation Facilitates learning Affects job satisfaction Affects job performance Determines organisational culture Affects organisational efficiency and effectiveness Affects the quality of life 5. managerial. b. i. c. q. b. d. c. n. lower employee turnover and a positive attitude. g. This results in a high level of commitment and loyalty to the organisation.9 Attitude at a Glance a. since it is the attitude of the people at all levels in the organisation viz. m. This is also a manifestation of positive attitude. Organisational Commitment : This measures the identification of individual goals with those of the organisation. 5. Attitude is often based on limited knowledge/information/experience. k. Attitude is an inseparable part of human nature and is normally dormant. Attitude becomes apparent through speech or behaviour in response to an individual. object or situation. super visor y and workers/ operators/ clerical staff. Attitude is acquired through early socialisation. In other words. etc. e. c. l. This concept is studied from many different angles. Attitude can be rational or irrational irrespective of the individual's intelligence.Attitude in Organisational Behaviour High level of job involvement is related to fewer absences. because it affects the following: a. p. 31/MITSOT . h.
clerical staff. 4. 2. it can be changed by the same process and reversed (de-learning). Organisational commitment is a manifestation of _________ . 5. _______________ component of attitude represents the emotional segment of the individual. In organisational behaviour. Attitude is rationalised and justified by the individual by (often subconsciously) selective illustrations and experiences. 4. Group affiliation does not affect attitude. 32/MITSOT . Attitude appears logical to the individual holding it.. 2. knowledge and evaluation. Attitude is learned over a period of time. k. object or situation favourably or unfavourably. Attitude can be rational or irrational irrespective of the individual's intelligence. An individual employee who has a positive attitude has a high level of job satisfaction. Therefore. 3. Attitude can be described as the way people ____________ about something. i. Attitude based on rational consideration of facts is comparatively easier to change rather than the one based on strong emotional bias and opinions. j. and personal experiences. work. managerial. State whether the following are true or false 1. Attitude has a bearing on the individual's thinking or behaviour. h. The factors that affect attitude are family. 3.Organisational Behaviour g. _______________ is based on the individual's desire to keep the cognitive elements in harmony. this concept is studied at all levels since it concerns people at all levels in the organisation. There are several components to attitude. etc. Self-assessment a. Cognitive consistency theories are concerned with the inconsistencies which arise between beliefs. viz. Summing Up Attitude is an individual's characteristic way of responding to a person. supervisory. b. l. Congruity is an unstable state. education. Fill in the blanks 1. but illogical/ inconsistent to a neutral observer. Valence is one of the characteristics of attitude. Opinion and emotion based attitude is more intense in expression and attachment.
Internal awareness of the self as a force c. Personality is a combination of many factors and qualities in an individual. But. Thus.2 Major determinants of Personality 6.4 Types of Personality 6. all good personalities are attractive. Why? Because. actions and reactions of an individual to other individuals. d.5 Personality and Organisational Behaviour Summing Up Self-assessment 6. 33/MITSOT .’ c.’ ‘A Personality is to some extent like all other people.' ‘The total existence of a person -the assemblage of the qualities. cultural and social factors. Each of these factors has certain sub-factors.Personality Chapter VI Personality Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • What personality is and its relevance in the organisation Contents 6. we use the word ‘Personality' for attractive men or women. Organisation of measurable traits (inner and outer) 6.physical. which contribute to the shaping and moulding of the personality. attractiveness is necessary. with a distinctive individuality. groups or situations.1 What is Personality? 6. There is no doubt that attractiveness is an important factor of a personality. Appearance and behaviour b. the concept of personality includes: a. Thus. attractive people cannot be said to have good personalities. personality is a result of many factors like biological. Stephen Robbins: ‘A sum total of the effect. mental and moral that set one apart from another. but not the only sufficient condition for being a good personality. situational. b. Personality may be defined as: a.' Gordon Allport: ‘The dynamic organisation within an individual whose psychological systems determine the unique adjustments with the environment.3 Personality Traits (Cattel's Traits Test) 6. In other words.1 What is Personality ? Many times. like some other people and like no other people.2 Major Determinants of Personality Thus.
customs d. facial. Family factors The following are some of the family factors that deter mine personality: a. Physical characteristics and rate of maturing: Physical appearance is extremely important. b. Heredity: Determined at conception. can be manipulated by ESB for reducing stress and increasing creativity. warm. Independence and aggression c. d. molecular structure of genes located in the chromosomes. muscle composition. Every individual-situation interaction is different 34/MITSOT . money f. Competition and co-operation d. work. b. sex. organisations. Basic discipline e. non-caring. temperament. Beliefs. caring and stimulating atmosphere c. reflexes. non-stimulating atmosphere d. SBP: Planning on the left and Managing on the right (Henry Mintzberg). energy levels.Organisational Behaviour Thus. Situational factors The following are some of the situational factors that determine personality: a. biological rhythm. the personality of any individual can be analysed on the basis of the following factors: a. Every individual is different c. the left and the right hemispheres control specific characteristics. physical stature. Social status c. family. Traditions. Cultural factors The following are some of the cultural factors that determine personality: a. Towards self. c. Loving. ESB: Pleasurable v/s Painful areas. values and attitudes e. Every individual is a complete person b. Every situation is different d. Early formative years b. Social culture b. Social factors The following are some of the social factors that determine personality: a. Biological factors The following are some of the biological factors that determine personality: a. Brain: Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split Brain Psychology (SBP). society. attractiveness. e. Family atmosphere b. Cold. children exposed to social situations mature faster than those who are not. perceptions.
n. h. g. i. l. f. b. A Chronic sense of time urgency Impatience High achievement orientation Strong competitive drive High ambition level Aggressive behaviour Quick in responses Quick decision making and actions Fast speech and walk Low level of tolerance B Easy going Passive Lack of achievement orientation Lack of competitive drive Lack of ambition Submissive behaviour Slow decision making and actions 35/MITSOT . j. d. g. e.4 Types of Personality A Personality can be broadly classified as Type A or Type B on the basis of the following characteristics: Type a. j. c. Type a. following are some of the common personality traits: Reserved v/s Outgoing Less intelligent v/s More intelligent Emotionally unstable v/s Emotionally stable Dominant v/s Submissive Serious v/s Happy-go-lucky Expedient v/s Conscientious Bold v/s Timid Tough v/s Sensitive Trusting v/s Suspicious Practical v/s Imaginative Shrewd v/s Forthright Self assured v/s Apprehensive Experimenting v/s Conservative Self-sufficient v/s Group dependent Controlled v/s Uncontrolled Tense v/s Relaxed 6. o. c. e. f. h. Different situation > Different demands > Different behaviour > Personality 6. c. b. d. d. e.3 Personality Traits (Cattel's Traits Test) The a. f. k. m.Personality e. p. i. g. b.
leadership.5 Personality and Organisational Behaviour The personality of the employee and organisational behaviour are inter-related and inter-dependent. aggressive. like change. deferential to superiors. etc. active. performance. luck/chance/ coincidence Affected attributes: motivation. excitement. Introversion v/s Extroversion Introverts: turn inwards. etc. tough-minded. unsocial. rigid. exploitative to subordinates. organisational behaviour of the employee depends upon the attitude and the personality of the individual. quick-tempered. twist and turn facts to influence others. Cer tain factors that need consideration to understand organisational behaviour of employees may be mentioned as follows: a. lack of tact/sensitivity/adaptability. Machiavellianism (Niccolo Machiavelli) Tendency to manipulate others for own goals. job satisfaction. Locus of Control Internal Locus of Control: Degree of belief that the individual is the master of his/her own fate and can control and shape future events. are quiet. love quiet atmosphere. d.Organisational Behaviour h. care-free. As attitude is at the core of the personality. Authoritarianism Love authority. 36/MITSOT . ends justify the means. emotional distance. lively. which is controlled by external forces. manipulation to their advantage. Slow speech and walk High level of tolerance Restrained in responses 6. authority. enjoy parties. for example. reflective. are sociable. External Locus of Control: Degree of belief that they are pawns in the hands of their fate. Need Patterns Achievement: Affiliation: Autonomy: Dominance: Need to achieve goals Need for co-operation with others Need for freedom to make decisions Desire to exercise authority c. j. resistant to change. intellectual. stressmanagement. tell jokes. try to gain control. e. judgmental. pragmatic. b. introspective. are impulsive. like to interact with others. i. Extroverts: turn outward. etc.
We have seen in this chapter that the personality of an employee and organisational behaviour are inter-related. importance. There are several factors that need to be considered to understand the individual's behaviour in an organisation which are adequately dealt with in this chapter. Self-assessment a. Summing Up Personality is often confused with good looks. Tolerance for ambiguity The degree of tolerance to uncertainty. social. i. ability to change without undue stress. Striking contradictions in public and private and ability to play multiple/contradictory roles. 4. j. normality leads to effective management. but in this chapter we have seen that it is only one of the attributes of an individual's personality. h. Self-monitoring Ability to adjust with external factors. and capable of working in a turbulent environment. Personality is a combination of many factors and qualities in an individual. ______________ leads to workaholism. g. balance between work and home results in a rational manager. family. cultural. 3. 2. __________________ is the ability to adjust with external factors. subsequent actions for moderate risks. etc. Aggressive behaviour is one of the characteristics of the___________ personality. Risk-taking Time taken for decision-making. The personality of an individual is determined by biological. etc. indicator of: capability. Work-ethics orientation Extremity leads to workaholism. logical and rational decision-making. 1. job satisfaction. success. Self-esteem The degree of liking/disliking the self. and situational factors. 37/MITSOT . Fill in the blanks ____________ is one of the social factors.Personality f.
38/MITSOT . Customs is one of the cultural factors that determine personality. Individuals with Type B personality are restrained in responses. 2. State whether the following are true or false 1. The concept of personality does not include internal awareness of the self.Organisational Behaviour b. 3. 4. Attractiveness is an important factor of a personality.
while others are not? Why is it that in some organisations.5 7. they are not happy? Why is it that there are many people in this world. the former organisation is efficient and effective. people seem to be happy.6 7. running a business. people do not work with interest and satisfaction? In the ultimate analysis. The following definitions will make the concept clearer: a. Contents 7.2 7.7 7. who have a lot of money to enjoy material happiness.10 7. but are still very happy and contented with their lives? Why is it that in one organisation. why is it that there are many people. It is more important to understand as to ‘Why do people work?' than ‘Why people do not work?' The morale of the people is an extremely important factor in the success or failure of organisations. while in another. be it waging a war against the enemy.4 7. manufacturing a product or providing a service to society.' 39/MITSOT . while the latter one is not. Oxford Dictionar y: ‘Morale is the prevailing mood and spirit conducive to willing and dependable performance. but who are still not satisfied and happy? On the contrary.1 Morale Why is it that some organisations are successful.9 7.Morale and Motivation Chapter VII Morale and Motivation Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • How morale can affect productivity in an organisation. who do not possess a lot of money.13 7.8 7.3 7. while in spite of all the facilities in some others.11 7.14 Morale Some Indicators of Morale Major Determinants of Morale (Alexander Leighton) Some Suggestions to Improve Morale Morale and Productivity Motivation Importance of Motivation Mechanism of Motivation Motivation and Frustration The Basic Theories of Motivation Abraham Maslow's Theory Frederick Herzberg's 2-Factor Theory David McClelland's Theory Douglas McGregor's Theory Summing Up Self-assessment 7. satisfied and contented with their work. people work sincerely and feel happy in doing so.12 7.1 7.
employee welfare facilities. Confidence of the individual members in organisational efficiency e. willingness and confidence of an individual or a group to accomplish a task. following are the suggestions that may help in improving morale. which varies from person to person. Sound organisation structure Proper manpower planning Systematic and scientific recruitment and selection procedure Appropriate training and development programmes Systematic and scientific performance appraisal system Efficient and effective organisational communication system Sympathetic employee counselling 40/MITSOT . g. cleanliness and housekeeping.) 7. g. the following are the major determinants of morale. Confidence of the individual members in their fellow workers d.' Dale Yoder: ‘Morale is the degree of zeal. a. c. enthusiasm.Organisational Behaviour b. 7. Working conditions (e. Edward Flippo: ‘Morale is the mental condition or attitude of an individual or a group which determines their willingness to co-operate or otherwise. j. f. time to time and situation to situation. b. e. wage/salary. job security. Confidence of the individual members in leadership c. i.4 Some suggestions to improve Morale The a. d.' Morale is a dynamic concept. c. f. etc. which describes the level of favourable or unfavourable attitude of the employees towards all aspects of their work. h. following are some of the indicators of morale: Absenteeism/Indiscipline Grievances Lack of communication Poor listening Lack of confidence Aggression/frustration Lack of mutual trust/faith Lack of co-operation High accident frequency rate Low efficiency/effectiveness (Note: The above list is not exclusive/exhaustive and may vary from place to place) 7.g. Morale is a group phenomenon. d. c. work environment. b. future prospects.3 Major determinants of Morale (Alexander Leighton) According to Alexander Leighton.2 Some Indicators of Morale The a. Confidence of the individual members in the organisational goals b. e.
7 Importance of Motivation a. This means that productivity should always rise as the morale improves.’ Performance = (Ability X Motivation) 7.’ March and Simon as ‘a function of needs and drives that makes a person take action to achieve the desired goals. Generally. k. l. Michael Julius as ‘a process of stimulating the self or subordinates to get into the desired course of action. 41/MITSOT . c. To a large extent. 7. e. b. Although it is true that “Money makes the mare go’’ in modern business organisations. people work not only for money. d. Money is only a means to satisfy wants. The manager has to communicate and lead and also motivate his subordinates to work. Individual motivation is very important for group motivation. but not willing. b. the success of the manager's leadership abilities depends upon his ability to motivate his people to work. which in turn. Motivation is a force or an impulse which makes a man move physically and mentally to achieve certain goals. If and when the employees are able. j. leads to high productivity.’ Dubin as ‘a force or impulse that moves a person to start and continue an action to accomplish a certain goal. Happiness and job satisfaction are functions of not only money but also needs and drives. it is observed that high motivation leads to high job satisfaction and in turn to higher efficiency. Motivation involves: the influence of the leader.6 Motivation In any organisation.Morale and Motivation h. money is not the only motivating factor and has its own limitations. Motivation has been defined by: a. Proper grievance handling procedure Rational wage and salary structure Proper delegation of authority Assurance of job security Fair and just reward/punishment system 7. c. Morale and productivity are inter-related and interdependent. the ability of the follower and the perception of both about each other. Motivation is something beyond that. but also for job satisfaction and happiness. it is necessary to motivate them. Individual motivation plays an important role in group motivation. i. high morale leads to high job satisfaction. Employees' performance is a result of their abilities and willingness . Motivation is the force that moves a person physically and mentally to achieve goals.5 Morale and productivity Generally.
Compromise : The individual realises the fact that he has to adjust with the situation and give up some of the benefits in the short run in order to achieve some long-term benefits. there is an urge to satisfy the need. 7. Motives are expressed as needs. which results in the drive. anxiety. . d.9 Motivation and frustration Every individual carries a set of inner motives and drives which influence behaviour. Aggression: A reaction to a situation wherein one's motives are blocked. the defence mechanism is triggered into action. in actual practice. the drive continues to work until the need is satisfied and the 'goal' is achieved.Organisational Behaviour f. causing oneself to turn against the barriers in terms of verbal or physical injury to the object. Withdrawal : Leaving the field in which frustration. with a ‘give and take' attitude.adjusting reaction. The behaviour is repeated again and again even though all the cues indicate that the response is not appropriate to the situation. drives or impulses within the individual. These rewards can be monetary or nonmonetary incentives. an individual is motivated to work to achieve certain goals in order to satisfy some of his needs. tangible or non-tangible. 42/MITSOT . person or group causing the barrier. Ultimately. In organisational behaviour. This can be seen in terms of a change in needs or goals. either physically or psychologically. This leads to ‘Fr ustration'. But. wants. Need > (Deprivation) Drive > (Direction) Barrier Blockade (Overt/Covert) > Goal (Achievement) 7. Whenever a person is frustrated. Therefore a feeling of deprivation of a need is the starting point of motivation. Managers should be able to provide an environment in which appropriate goals and incentives are available to subordinates to satisfy their needs. Individuals differ not only in their ‘ability to perform'. but also in their ‘will to perform'. Goals are sometimes referred to as the rewards hoped for. maintaining a persistent non. or conflict is experienced. Fixation : An unreasonable stubbornness. c. b.a need which is not satisfied. It involves (influence of the leader + ability of the followers + role perception of both). Generally. Then. it is not that simple and the individual almost always meets with some barriers in achieving his goals. This follows a ‘Need-->Drive->Goal' cycle. Every individual has/should have some goals to achieve. frustration is manifested in one or more of the following behaviours: a.8 Mechanism of Motivation All motivation in life starts with a need.
job security. Douglas McGregor. Peter Drucker. not only by money alone.g.Morale and Motivation 7. quality. d. c. His studies show the hierarchy of needs as follows: a. shelter. e. sense of belonging to a group.: food. the method of doing jobs and the system of financial compensation for work.10 The Basic Theories of Motivation Basically. who proved that the output of employees does not depend only on extrinsic factors like working conditions alone.g. can be organised on five different levels. near Chicago (US). Basic/physiological needs (e. friendship. who believed that people are motivated to work. Self-actualisation and fulfilment (e. which motivate them to work. an American psychologist found that work motivation of human beings arises from the hierarchy of needs. but also on the intrinsic factors of satisfaction of their social and psychological needs.) Psychological needs (e. Traditional theor y This theory is based on Scientific Management by F W Taylor who advocated that it is the manager's prerogative to decide the quantity. family security. work itself is the motivation) Maslow has classified these human needs into five levels. sex. ego. the needs of human beings. The lower order needs are primarily satisfied externally by economic 43/MITSOT . responsibility. appreciation.g. Human Relations Theor y This theory is based on the research studies of Elton Mayo and Associates at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Co. According to him.e. self-esteem. air. clothing. etc. The Human Resources Theory This theory is based on the studies conducted by 20th century management experts including Abraham Maslow. b.g.) Social needs (e. b. while the next three levels i. etc. affection. achievement and meaningful work. He regards these needs as proponent in the sense that as one need is satisfied. the next need level comes into play.) Security needs (e. protection from hazards. 7. Frederick Herzberg. c. etc. recognition. the social. the physiological needs and the security/safety needs can be considered as lower order needs. achievement. David McClelland. The first two levels i. acceptance. attention. etc. but also by the satisfaction of their higher order needs for authority. According to Abraham Maslow. etc). a person is motivated due to his desire to satisfy his various needs.e. the theories of motivation can be classified as follows: a. water.11 Abraham Maslow's Theor y Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). status. autonomy. psychological and self-actualisation needs can be considered as higher order needs.g.
His findings are based on his survey of more than 200 managers in 11 different industries in the Pittsburg area.1 Abrahan Maslow's Theory Maslow's theory has received wide recognition due to its intuitive logic and ease of understanding. skills. attitudes. Subsequent research in this field shows that differences in castes. but are inter-related. traditions. etc. mainly because of the inter-dependent and overlapping nature of the various needs. it still influences the behaviour of the individual. religions. inter-dependent and overlapping. it is obser ved that even if a need is completely satisfied. perquisites. this model does not take into account the individual differences in the intensity of the various needs. The various needs identified by Maslow are not exclusive of each other. creeds. etc. knowledge. each higher level need emerging before the lower level need disappears. bonus. 7. languages.. play a very major role in determining the priority of the needs of people in different countries. etc. education. while the higher order needs are satisfied internally through social and psychological rewards like acceptance by the group or job satisfaction. cultures. customs. There are no watertight compartments between the needs. This phenomenon can be shown as follows: Figure 7. that particular need ceases to be a primar y motivator.12 Frederick Herzberg's 2-Factor Theor y Frederick Herzberg has extended the work of Maslow and developed a different model as a result of his research in work motivation. Thus. 44/MITSOT .Organisational Behaviour rewards like wages. environment. and the next higher order need begins to dominate. allowances. When the peak of a need is passed. However.
He has further extended the applicability of Maslow's theor y to actual organisational situations. Their presence highly motivates the person. drawing the attention of the managements that they should pay attention to the ‘Motivating Factors' also along with the ‘Maintenance Factors'. Possibility of growth f. the Motivational Factors are directly related with the job itself and therefore are ‘content-oriented'. but also for the intrinsic motivational factors. Company policy and administration f. Both. Recognition c. Maslow refers only to the needs or motives. On the contrary. Motivating Factors (Intrinsic/Satisfiers) a. Status b. Inter-personal relationships b. there are some differences: a. There are two sets of factors in motivating a person: Motivating Factors as ‘Satisfiers' and Maintenance Factors as ‘Dissatisfiers': a. Therefore. Herzberg has made a very valuable contribution in the field of work motivation and job satisfaction. But. Quality of supervision g. while Herzberg deals with the goals or incentives. all needs and their satisfaction do not motivate employees. Salary c. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is sequentially ordered in terms of importance. Their presence prevents dissatisfaction and maintains a certain minimum level of motivation. Any reduction in these factors can affect motivation and reduce the performance level of the person concerned. 45/MITSOT . Maslow and Herzberg have contributed some of the fundamental principles of work-motivation of people. Job security d. give due recognition and responsibilities. This can be considered a further modification of Maslow's theory. Advancement d.Morale and Motivation According to Herzberg. Maintenance Factors (Extrinsic/Dissatisfiers) a. Their presence does not significantly motivate the person. managements should try to review organisation structures. People do not work only for the extrinsic maintenance factors alone. b. Work itself According to Herzberg. Working conditions e. while Herzberg's model does not have any sequential preference. Responsibility e. the Maintenance Factors are ‘context-oriented'. Achievement g. in modern business organisations. Personal life b. but their absence does not cause dissatisfaction. make job contents more meaningful and challenging. but their absence can cause dissatisfaction. provide a sense of achievement.
a Professor of Industrial Administration at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA). but also by assumptions and generalisations of the managements about their employees. 2) a. there are three types of needs that motivate a person as follows: 1) a. until it is relatively unsatisfied. b. This can be done on the basis of either of the two sets of assumptions as Theory X and Theory Y as follows: 1) Theor y X a. generalisations and hypotheses by the management relating to human behaviour in organisations. while Herzberg thinks that only intrinsic factors of the higher order need serve as motivators. e. b. prefer to be directed and want. d. described organisations as psychological entities that can be effectively managed by their assumptions about motivation. Most people lack ambition. According to Douglas McGregor.14 Douglas McGregor's Theor y Douglas McGregor. e. 7. d.Organisational Behaviour c. b. human nature and behaviour. job security. e. c. motivation implies certain assumptions.13 David McClelland's Theor y According to David McClelland. above all. Need for Achievement (nAch) High desire for achievement Moderate risks Pre-occupation with the task Satisfaction of accomplishment Need for immediate feedback Need for Affiliation (nAff) A desire to belong to a group A desire to interact with others A desire to be liked by others A desire to make routine jobs more bearable A desire to live and work together Need for Power (nPow) A desire to control others A desire to manipulate others Political orientation Leadership to influence others High nPow with negative orientation v/s Low nPow with positive orientation 7. 3) a. if he can. c. b. 46/MITSOT . Maslow believes that any need can be a motivator. He found that people are not motivated by unsatisfied needs and drives alone. An average human being has inherent dislike for work and will avoid it. c. dislike responsibility. d.
b. High morale. controlled and threatened with punishment to get better results from them. An in-depth study of the several theories of motivation will give ample insight on how to keep your employees motivated. _____________ are sometimes referred to as the rewards hoped for. 47/MITSOT . The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination. Summing Up The morale of the work force is very crucial in an organisation.Morale and Motivation c. not only to accept. Motivation is the force that moves a person physically and mentally to achieve goals. the organisation should make sure that their staff is motivated. The individual's behaviour in an organisation is an indicator of the morale of the organisation. f. It determines the success or failure of an organisation. we have seen. but also to seek responsibility. not narrowly. 4. The ______________ of people is an extremely important factor in the success or failure of organisations. e. under proper conditions. c. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing out efforts towards organisational goals. To keep morale high. ingenuity and creativity in the solutions of organisational problems. motivational factors are directly related with the job itself and therefore are __________. According to Herzberg. Morale is a ______________ phenomenon. The degree of commitment to objectives is proportional to the rewards associated with the achievement. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. the intellectual potentialities of a human being are only partially utilised. Under conditions of modern industrial life. 3. b. is widely. distributed among the population. Maslow has classified human needs into ____________ levels. which in turn leads to high productivity. The average human being learns. leads to high job satisfaction. Self-assessment a. Most people must be directed coerced. 5. 2. Man exercises self-direction and self-control in the service of the objectives to which he is committed. which describes the level of favourable or unfavourable attitude of employees towards all aspects of their work. Theor y Y a. d. Fill in the blanks 1.
Morale varies from person to person. Working conditions do not determine Morale.Organisational Behaviour b. 3. time to time and situation to situation. According to Douglas McGregor. 2. State whether the following are true or false 1. The various needs identified by Maslow are exlusive of each other. the degree of commitment to the objectives is propor tional to the rewards associated with the achievement. 5. 4. 48/MITSOT . Herzberg deals with goals or incentives.
2.11 Functions of a group 8.Morale and Motivation Chapter VIII Group Dynamics Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • How a group functions in the organisation Contents 8. Initially.5 What is a group? 8.9. So. over a period of time.7 Advantages of groups 8.1 A Needs Approach 8.2 Approaches to inter-personal relationships 8.9. peers and colleagues and subordinates.10 Characteristics of a group 8. intergroup relationships are a result of inter-group communication. we must first understand the meanings of inter-personal relationships.8 Disadvantages of groups 8.9.1 Inter-personal Relationships 8.9.2. but. Whenever we work in any organisation.2 Storming 8. people have to come together to accomplish organisational goals.4 Performing 8. Inter-personal relationships are a result of inter-personal communication. Organisational goals and objectives cannot be achieved unless and until all 49/MITSOT .6 Why do people join groups? 8.9. in order to understand the subject of Group Dynamics.3 Basis of inter-personal relationships 8.12 What is Group Dynamics? 8.9 Stages of group development 8. Groups are a result of inter-personal relationships.3 Norming 8.4 The factors influencing inter-personal relationships 8.1 Inter-personal Relationships In any organisation. groups and the relevant aspects of work groups. However.2 An Exchange Approach 8.1 Forming 8.13 Important factors of Group Dynamics Summing Up Self-assessment 8.5 Adjourning 8. they become less formal and work with more familiarity with each other. This gives rise to work groups and work teams and these interactions are called ‘Group Dynamics'. the inter-relationships are formal. we have to deal with different people at dif ferent levels: seniors.
a dominant person gets along well with a submissive person wherein both the individuals feel that the relationship is mutually rewarding. values. cognitive dissonance. disapproval. reliability v/s dishonesty. criticism. some needs are already satisfied and work as only maintenance factors. etc. rudeness. etc. security. perception. sincerity. if there is no co-operation among the employees. Inter-personal relationships can be basically studied from two approaches: 8. 8. greed.1 A Needs Approach This approach is based on Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. repetitive exposure. honesty. punishment. Personal qualities: Like physical attraction. c. 8.2 Approaches to inter-personal relationships It is interesting to observe that certain individuals are attracted to certain individuals and not others. It is also not possible to do so. e. anxiety. Life is ‘give and take’ in organisational behaviour. There is also a Complementary Needs theory. 8.2. personal appearance. social and psychological. while some other needs are not and work as the really motivating factors (Frederick Herzberg's 2-factor theory of needs). hostility. An individual may be attracted to another. Familiarity : Of closeness.g.4 Factors influencing inter-personal Relationships There are various factors that affect inter-personal relationships among employees as briefly described on the next page. In other words. 8. loyalty. if the needs are satisfied e. Proximity : As in physical togetherness.Organisational Behaviour the people working in the organisation understand and appreciate the same.g. This requires good inter-personal relationships. etc. etc. information. status. Emotional identity : Which is positive feelings v/s negative feelings > relationship > behaviour > evaluation > judgement b. people subconsciously think of the exchange value of relationships and continue with the same as long as rewards outweigh the costs.2. frequency of interaction. there is an exchange relationship. while the costs can be in the form of: conflict. reward-cost relationship. etc Similarity : In beliefs. interests. 3 Basis of Inter-personal Relationships a. frustration. money. goods. d. 50/MITSOT . Sometimes. The rewards can be in the form of: love. This means that individuals consider the cost involved v/s the rewards in return for maintaining a relationship. services etc. which states that needs are mutually complementar y e. which are the basis of cooperation for the achievement of organisational goals.2 An Exchange Approach This approach is based on the observation that there is a Rewards v/s Costs relationship.
The behaviour is reciprocal with that of others. thoughts. Satisfaction of mutual needs becomes the basis of mutual attraction.Morale and Motivation a. it is not possible to establish inter-personal relationships. Role of rewards Inter-personal relationships depend upon the rewards that accompany behaviour. Reciprocity Generally. Naturally. But. in business organisations. the child obser ves the way parents interact and behave with others within the family as well as outside the family. recognition. Norms and Rules An informal relationship does not have many strict norms or rules of behaviour. help. which is sometimes a barrier. Self-identity Every person is different and has an individual identity of his/her own. b. Selfidentity includes ‘I' and ‘Me'. feelings. co-operation. games and other material things. It is the basis of self-esteem. etc. they can be in the form of appreciation. it is observed that people have a tendency to treat others as they are treated. Communication is a vehicle to convey ideas. views. etc. Adults are attracted mainly due to physical and mental characteristics. ‘Reaction is equal and opposite to action' . without proper communication. toys. Teenagers are attracted towards each other due to hobbies. Role of parents Generally. Probably that is why it is called informal. etc. emotions. The rewards are not necessarily in the form of money. apology. every person spends the first few years with one's parents. sentiments. e. similarity of cultures. g. games. During this period. c. d. Inter-personal communication is the core of inter-personal relationships. one's behaviour is very highly influenced by one's own parents during the formative years of life. there are certain norms and rules of behaviour that are important in the inter- 51/MITSOT . Children are attracted due to colours. etc. opinions. f. studies. Basis of attraction People are attracted towards each other due to various reasons. Self-identity plays an important role in developing inter-personal relationship with others. Interpersonal relationships are strengthened or weakened according to these rewards that exist between individuals. Self-esteem leads to self-respect. Communication The communication ability between individuals is an extremely important factor that decides the nature of inter-personal relationships between them. customs. traditions.
Group decisions are delayed. It helps to detect clues for the other person's behaviour or expectations. we find that there are other reasons too for people joining groups.’ Raymond Cattell: ‘A collection of individuals in which existence of all is necessary for the satisfaction of individual needs. appreciation. property security. h. b. b. recognition. acceptance. c.5 What is a Group? A group can be defined as: a.8 Disadvantages of groups The a. People join groups for the satisfaction of their psychological needs e. Some of them may be mentioned as follows: a. status.: job security. 8. etc. b.g. b.’ Krech and Crutchfield: ‘Two or more individuals forming a social unit with specific roles and explicit psychological relationships among themselves. Social intelligence Social intelligence means the intelligence required to behave properly in social groups.’ Otto Klineberg: ‘Two or more individuals who interact and influence each other for a certain time. d. sense of belonging. attention. e. Robert Bales: ‘A number of persons engaged in interaction with each other with face-to-face communication. friendship. Groups have hazy responsibilities.: affection. c.6 Why do people join groups? Man is a social animal and he likes to be associated with Groups.Organisational Behaviour personal relationship. ego.g. Groups can experience domination by a few members.: self-esteem. But. 8. Groups facilitate problem solving. c. family security. People join groups for the satisfaction of their security needs e. c. d. Groups exert pressures on members to conform to group norms. d. etc. 8. 52/MITSOT following are the disadvantages of a group: Group activities are more time consuming. following are the advantages of a group: Groups give better knowledge and information . on deeper scrutiny. Groups have the benefit of collective wisdom. . They reduce uncertainty and improve predictability of behaviour.g.’ 8. Group decisions are better accepted by the members of the group.7 Advantages of groups The a. People join groups for the satisfaction of their social needs e. Group decisions have a better legitimacy. etc. e.
members develop a closer relationship. Norms and values are shared among members. After the task is over.10 Characteristics of a group The a.5 Adjourning Normally ‘Performing' is the last stage in many groups which continue to function. 8. any group goes through the following stages to form and work: 8.4 Performing After the forming stage. the group gets ready to perform. e. d. job.3 Norming Once the above two stages are over.1 Forming In the initial stages of group formation. There is interaction with each other. 8.9. 8. interpersonal communication. the nature of the task to be accomplished. property. etc. etc. c. 8.9. number of people involved. structure. objectives and tasks. the temporary groups are dissolved. requirement of special skills. family. there is resistance by some members to the formation of the group mainly due to lack of inter-personal communication. etc. In case of any deviation of behaviour by any member. b. There is a better group cohesiveness with a sense of group identity. There are common goals. there is a feeling of uncertainty about the purpose. following are the characteristics of a group : Two or more individuals come together to work. capability about themselves.11 Functions of a group The following are the functions of a group: a. It becomes fully functional and actually performs tasks.9. There is a sense of belonging.9 Stages of group development Groups in an organisation are not formed overnight. leadership.2 Storming A little later. there is an effort towards correction of behaviour. There are common expectations.Morale and Motivation 8. the complexity of the job. Satisfaction of security needs of the members: self. 8. Generally. organisational culture. 8.9. etc.9. But sometimes some groups are formed temporarily for particular tasks or projects that are time bound. belongings. They take time depending upon the organisational structure. 53/MITSOT .
affiliation. Very strict rules and regulations do not permit group dynamics to flourish. Liberal policies may facilitate group dynamics. objectives. etc. organised and conducted for the achievement of common goals.' ‘Implies common thinking. c. Satisfaction of social needs of the members: love. strict policies restrict the same. rewards. Satisfaction of psychological needs of members: ego. 8. b. d. but. d. A healthy and co-operative organisational culture helps group dynamics. As a result. Organisational policies/strategies Organisational policies and strategies play an important role in developing group dynamics in favour of or against the organisation.Organisational Behaviour b. Satisfaction of achievement-needs of members: sense of goals.' ‘A process through which members interact with each other for the accomplishment of common goals.13 Important factors of Group dynamics a. Group dynamics may be defined as: a. affection. c. consensus decisions and consistent actions for common goals. job satisfaction. Rules and Regulations Administrative rules and regulations are the manifestations of organisational policies and procedures. 54/MITSOT . e. Organisational culture Organisational climate is a result of the organisational culture. but also their morale and motivation. sense of belonging. etc. etc. But cut-throat competition among employees and mutual distrust between superiors and subordinates can mar group dynamics.12 What is Group Dynamics? Group dynamics is a series of interactions between people working in the organisation. ‘The interaction between members of the group in a social situation. flexible ones help. e. Satisfaction of cognitive needs of the members: sense ofidentity/ recognition/values/beliefs. Physical working conditions The working conditions of employees have an effect not only on the health and safety of the employees. this also affects group dynamics. But. self-esteem. c. appreciation.' 8.' ‘A process of change to adopt new ideas/ knowledge/ methods/ systems for development. d. b.' ‘The way in which a group is formed.
55/MITSOT . Adequate quantity and quality of resources help group dynamics to work in favour of efficiency. self-identity. etc. there is inter-personal communication which leads inter-personal relationships. Management attitude Management attitude towards group dynamics can var y from ‘Dictatorial to Democratic'. When people come together. such as the role of parents. people are not interested in working in groups. equipment and materials are the main resources for employees to work and produce results. g. they lead to interpersonal conflicts. Authority-responsibility relationship Authority should be commensurate with responsibility and both of them should be balanced for successful effects of group dynamics. This is a chain of actions and reactions. If they are not cordial enough. In case of inequilibrium groups cannot be effective.Morale and Motivation e. Summing Up In the very first chapter we understood that an organisation is made up of people and not bricks. Several factors influence inter-personal relationships. which affect group dynamics negatively. leads to high job satisfaction leading to higher organisational efficiency. j. machines. The growth and development of group dynamics depends upon the attitude and style of management. tools. Limitations to resources People. Organisational communication Organisational communication is an extremely important factor for the success of group dynamics in an organisation. f. group dynamics suffers. basis of attraction. Inter-personal conflicts Inter-personal relationships are very important in group dynamics. They lead to inter-group relationships. h. Otherwise. reciprocity. In cases otherwise. Open communication channels facilitate group dynamics to the favour of organisational efficiency. Motivation of the members High morale leads to high motivation which in turn. A too autocratic style of management may not allow group dynamics to function and a too democratic style of management may not help group dynamics bring organisational benefits. which affect group dynamics. i.
1. 4. the rewards can be in the form of love. Group decisions are quick. Group activities are ____________ consuming. etc. Abraham Maslow's theory is based on a reward vs. State whether the following are true or false Inter-personal relationships are a result of inter-personal communication. Organisational policies and strategies play an important role in developing group dynamics in favour or against the organisation. 56/MITSOT . High morale leads to high _____________. 5. 2. cost relationship. b. Self-esteem leads to self-respect.Organisational Behaviour The inter-personal relationship between individuals leads to the formation of groups which has its own advantages and disadvantages. 1. Self-assessment a. ____________ policies may facilitate group dynamics in an organisation. People join groups for the satisfaction of their social __________________. 3. 3. 2. Group dynamics is a series of interaction between people working in the organisation. In the exchange approach theory. 4. 5. status. Fill in the blanks Management's attitude towards group dynamics can vary from dictatorial to _____________. money.
1 Conflict An organisation is a group of people working together to achieve common organisational goals systematically and scientifically with the help of given resources viz. people.7 A functional Conflict (wanted/constructive) 9.8 A dysfunctional Conflict (unwanted/destructive) 9. Therefore. ideas etc. If the concerned individuals themselves through mutual discussions can resolve these differences. Whenever two or more people with different family backgrounds. Conflict has been defined as: a. educational backgrounds and cultural differences interact with each other. But. machines and materials. perceptions. Therefore.Conflict Management Chapter IX Conflict Management Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • Conflicts • How to resolve conflicts Contents 9.’ 57/MITSOT . Chung and Meggison: ‘A struggle between incompatible needs / wishes/ideas / interests of people. opinions.9 Managing conflicts 9. many times these differences between individuals and groups cannot be resolved by themselves so easily and take the shape of a conflict which needs to be intervened in by superiors for its resolution.1 Conflict 9. In other words.4 Types of Conflicts 9. whenever two or more people come together in connection with some work. any disagreement between two or more people is the first step of the process of a conflict. there is bound to be some difference of opinions. and practically all aspects of organisational behaviour. values. the stage is set for potential conflict.5 The traditional view of a Conflict 9. it is necessary to understand certain fundamental concepts about conflicts. without intervention by superiors and within a reasonable time frame. a conflict situation is a result of differences in ideas.10 Johari Window 9. views. beliefs.3 Factors involved in a Conflict 9.2 Sources of a Conflict 9. Generally.6 The modern view of a Conflict 9. attitudes. it is always desirable.11 Conflict resolution outcomes Summing Up Self-assessment 9. views. etc.
g. stress.4 Types of conflicts a.3 Factors involved in a conflict a. anxiety. group goals v/s organisational goals) Values (e. organisational view of employees and vice-versa) Emotions (e.g. b. which leads to stress.’ c. sincere and honest v/s insincere and dishonest) 9. individual values and group values. emotions v/s tasks) Behaviour (e. c. There is a goal conflict or a role conflict. e. anxiety. IQ v/s EQ of the employees.2 Sources of conflict A conflict can arise due to various reasons.g. e. difference between: individual goals and group goals. inter-departmental co-operation and co-ordination. differences in opinions/ perceptions.) Conflicting behaviour (e. personal values v/s group values) Cognition (e. leader v/s followers. Generally.Organisational Behaviour b. performance appraisal.g. Antecedent conditions (e. perception.g.’ Stephen Robbins: ‘A process in which an effort is purposefully made by an individual/group to block the efforts made by another individual group which results in frustrating the accomplishments of the other's goals and furthering interests. b.g.) Affective states (e. lack of communication. educational backgrounds. Inter-personal conflict This type of conflict is seen when two or more individuals having different family backgrounds. 9. hostility.g. strain. awareness etc. Goals (e. A situation in which there is a difference of opinions/ ideas/views/interests /efforts of two or more individuals/groups creating tensions for either or both. traditions v/s systems.g. b. ranging from passive resistance to overt aggression) 9. strain. etc. as a result of deliberate interference and emotional hostility with another's goal achievement. c. beliefs. etc. d. individual goals v/s group goals. resources. Kilman and Thomas: ‘A condition of objective incompatibility between values/goals.) Cognitive states (e. values. etc. attitudes. old methods v/s new methods. a conflict arises due to incongruity in: a. d.g. short term planning v/s long term planning. work backgrounds interact with 58/MITSOT . Intra-personal conflict This type of conflict is manifested when an individual is confronted with a personal problem and the individual is in a dilemma regarding a decision on or a solution to the problem. tension etc.g. recruitment v/s promotions.
c. It supports and organisational goals and improves the performance of groups. traditional view of a conflict can be briefly summarised as follows: Conflict is bad. b. Scapegoats are unavoidable as a result of a conflict. d. In this situation. application of systematic and scientific problem solving techniques and consensus decision making in organisations. boat-rockers and prima-donnas. the group faces a situation in which group members are not clear about group goals and values. c. 9. etc. This results in stress and tension in the group. d.7 A functional conflict (wanted/constructive) A functional conflict is the one that is based on logical and objective thinking. 9. b. views. values. A conflict at an optimum level can be good for growth. negative and must be avoided at any cost. Therefore.6 The modern view of a conflict The a. e.5 The traditional view of a conflict The a. but must be managed properly.Conflict Management each other and when there is a difference between their ideas. 9. Many times there are differences within the group about the goals or the means to achieve them. A conflict is caused by trouble-makers. values. 59/MITSOT . e. A functional conflict is constructive. progress and development. Intra-group conflict This type of conflict occurs within a group and is concerned with the group. attitudes etc. two rival groups within a trade union. opinions. innovation and the progress of the organisation in the long run. A conflict can be resolved by formal authority/command. d. c. beliefs. bringing the defence-mechanism into action and pseudo solutions. Inter-group conflict This type of conflict is commonly seen between two or more groups whenever there is a difference between goals. This results in stress and tension between the concerned groups leading to lack of understanding and cooperation in organisational activities. affecting cohesiveness and co-operation in the group. such a conflict can help communicate decisions accordingly to all concerned and bring about creativity. etc. perceptions. A conflict can be resolved by delay in decision-making. views. modern view of a conflict can be briefly summarised as follows: A conflict is a natural and inevitable phenomenon of life. A conflict is an inevitable part of change. A conflict need not be avoided or encouraged. This is common between the management and union. wherein there is disagreement between groups. innovation and organisational development. A conflict depends upon the physical and structural factors of the system.
It improves perceptions and attitudes of the concerned people. It provides for a system of checks and balances within the organisation. rational and objective thinking by members . It obscures organisational goals and hinders the performances of groups. team building. e. there cannot be a standard formula for resolving all conflicts in business organisations. i. e. Therefore. d. A dysfunctional conflict is destructive. lack of systematic and scientific problem solving techniques and diversity in decision making by the members of the group. It creates stress and strain on individuals/groups. But how can this be achieved? As every individual is different. h. It discourages creativity and innovation. It hampers systematic and scientific problem solving. i.Organisational Behaviour Some of the major features of a functional conflict may be summarised as follows: a. having accepted the fact that in modern organisations conflicts between people are inevitable. b. c. Decision-making is replaced by infighting. It helps in systematic and scientific problem solving. It helps in identifying problems and settling differences through discussions. g. organisations too change from time to time. It adversely affects overall organisational performance. care should be taken that (i) the number of conflicts are kept at a minimum (ii) conflicts are kept at a functional and rational level and (iii) conflicts do not hinder overall organisational efficiency and effectiveness. It implies illogical and subjective thinking. every organisation too is different. c. g. The manager concerned would 60/MITSOT . f. f. jeopardising growth and development. It reduces co-operation between members of the group. It implies logical. j. 9. It focuses on short-term goals at the cost of long-term goals. d. The goals of the team are not clear to all concerned. It creates a lack of mutual trust among the members of the group. As people change from time to time. It promotes creativity and innovation of individuals/ groups. Some of the more important features of a dysfunctional conflict may be summarised as follows: a. h. b.9 Managing a conflict Thus. It encourages group cohesiveness and better team-work. It clarifies the goals to all concerned. such conflicts are harmful to organisational leadership. It helps to improve the morale and motivation of people. Every situation is different. emotional outbursts. 9. growth and development in the long run. Therefore. It improves the overall organisational performance.8 A dysfunctional conflict (unwanted/destructive) A dysfunctional conflict is one that is based on illogical and subjective thinking. j.
Compromise Life is ‘Give and Take'. Each party to the conflict gives up something of value. strengthening of the resources can help resolve the conflict. it is the goals that may cause a conflict. Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the co-operation of each of the conflicting parties. h. A face-to-face meeting of the conflicting parties to identify problems and resolving them through open discussions may help resolve the conflict. In case the conflict is caused due to a scarcity of resources (e. which involves playing down dif ferences and emphasising common interests between the conflicting parties. Using behavioural change techniques to alter attitudes and behaviour can help resolve the conflicts. f. materials. In such cases. it is a compromise (Win-Win situation). e. However. Problem solving This is an art. Smoothening This is the second step. This involves withdrawal from/suppressing of the conflict. In other words. b. 61/MITSOT . Some of the suggestions for achieving this goal may be summarised as follows: a. c. Authoritative command Sometimes some conflicts cannot be resolved by any of the above methods/ techniques. g. etc). science and technique. people. a large number of studies in this area have revealed certain basic principles of conflict management.Conflict Management have to apply a contingency approach while resolving a conflict between two or more individuals/groups. to achieve something else and thus helps to resolve the conflict amicably. Altering human variables Perceptions. d.g. Avoidance This is the first and perhaps the best way to avoid a conflict. values and attitudes can be changed by training and development programmes for employees. Super-ordinate goals Sometimes. Strengthening of resources This is the third step. the management has to use its formal authority to resolve conflicts. machines.
creating coordinators.g. Therefore. etc.personal conflict. there are certain structural defects in the organisational structure itself that cause conflicts frequently. potential. etc. communication. Such individuals make good friends and good leaders. the individual is known to the self as well as to others. talents. The model can be graphically presented as follows: a. bad habits. inabilities/incapacities. personality.Organisational Behaviour k. job evaluation. the greater is the individual's contact with the real world. forceful. aptitudes. b. job rotation. Altering structural variables Sometimes. Sometimes. 9. The larger this area.10 Johari Window This model was developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham after whom it is called Johari Window. bad mannerisms/etiquette. e. job re-design. Their social interactions are without any bias or prejudice.g. The model is based on the assumption that every individual has 4 quadrants of his/her personality and all the quadrants need to be considered during interaction. This model facilitates the understanding of inter-personal relationships and conflicts in organisational contexts. These can be also some of the strengths of the individual e. interaction is marked with openness and compatibility with little chance of an inter. The individual's blind spots can be certain weaknesses e. It is a highly popular framework for analysing the dynamics of inter-personal behaviour and resolving inter-personal conflicts. Blind Self In this area. an individual irritates others unintentionally due to certain blind spots in perception.g. This shows the extent to which two or more persons can give and take. the individual is blind to certain traits/qualities in the self which are known to others but not to the self. work together and enjoy common experiences. In such a case. The individual's usual tendency is to feel good when he realises 62/MITSOT . changing the formal organisational structure and interaction patterns may help the resolution of the conflict. Open Self In this area.
c. motivation. This gives rise to the potential for an inter-personal conflict. Undiscovered self In this area. Understanding conflicting situations and resolving them is very crucial for the management of any organisation. emotions. Win-Win: Both the parties aim at solving the problem. Hidden self In this area.11 Conflict resolution outcomes The resolution of any interpersonal conflict situation can be described as follows: There can be 4 possibilities of conflict resolution outcome: a. ideas etc. rather than beating others. are neither known to the individual himself nor to the others. The hidden self corresponds to the closed drawers containing personal secrets relating to the individual's fears. affection. b. certain feelings. Lose-Lose: Both the par ties lose. depending upon various factors. but not to others. which are known to the Individual. This part of the individual's personality is undiscovered and therefore provides for a potential inter-personal conflict. The true feelings and attitude towards others remain a secret for others. etc. there are bound to be differences in opinions. d. Then secondly. others who interact with him should learn and understand. the individual should try and find out the undiscovered part of his personality. Thus.Conflict Management his blindness about the strengths. phobias. but not to others. troubles. views. because they don't want to compromise. depending upon various factors. hatred. etc. anger. Firstly. Win-Lose: One party wins and the other loses. An interaction in this area is highly explosive. The individual always tries to hide them for fear of being exposed and rejected by others. emotions and motivations are known to the individual. 9. Many a times these differences are not resolved amicably by employees and the management has to step in. but he feels bad when he is told by others about his weaknesses and he resists to accept the same. c. feelings. d. complexes. Lose-Win: One party loses and the other wins. love. The Johari Window developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham is a very popular framework for analysing the dynamics of inter-personal behaviour and resolving inter-personal conflicts. 63/MITSOT . Summing Up Whenever two or more people come together in connection with some work. there is potential inter-personal conflict.
The Johari Window is used for analysing the dynamics of ______________. A conflict is a ___________ and __________ phenomenon of life. 2. 3. 64/MITSOT .Organisational Behaviour Self-assessment a. rational and objective thinking is called functional conflict. Logical. State whether the following are true or false Withdrawal is the best way to avoid a conflict. 3. Fill in the blanks Conflict is a condition of ____________ incompatibility between values and goals. b. 2. Modern view of a conflict is bad and negative. 1. 1.
17 Functions of leadership 10.’ 65/MITSOT .14 Autocratic leadership 10. Thus.8 The Two-Dimensional Model 10.5 The Traits Theory 10.10 The Situational theories 10. In other words. the success or failure of an organisation depends largely upon leadership.22 Characteristics of effective teams 10.16 Laissez-faire leadership 10.4 Theories of leadership 10.15 Democratic leadership 10.11 The Contingency theories 10.2 Importance of leadership in business organisations 10. leadership may be defined as: a.1 Leadership Every organisation needs management and management needs leadership.3 Evolution of leadership 10. There are many examples of organisations. which have failed for want of effective leadership and there are many more examples of organisations which have gone from losses to profits due to effective leadership.18 What is team-building? 10.19 The main objectives of team building 10.24 Building effective teams Summing Up Self-assessment 10.13 The Life Cycle Theory 10.12 The Path-Goal theory of leadership 10.6 Some traits of effective leadership 10.Leadership Chapter X Leadership Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • Various types of leadership • Team-building Contents 10.9 Rensis Likert's 4-Systems approach 10.23 Values of a team 10. Keith Davis: ‘The ability of a person to persuade others to seek achievement of group goals efficiently and effectively.7 The Behavioural Theories 10.1 Leadership 10.20 The pre-requisites for developing effective teams 10.21 The process of team building 10.
f. guide and inspire them towards the organisational goals. This requires leadership qualities in the manager. helps to build work teams . leadership also has evolved through stages. c. e. Some of the major factors of impor tance of leadership in business organisations may be summarised as follows: a. Some of the major landmarks in the evolution of leadership may be summarised as follows: a. A good manager must be a good leader since he has to get work done from his people. c. Some of the major features of this stage of leadership are as follows: a. e. helps to create confidence among members. d. 10.’ 10. b. While dealing with his subordinates. Stogdill: ‘The process of influencing and helping others to work enthusiastically towards task related objectives.Organisational Behaviour b. d. Dictatorial style of working Autocratic and centralised decision making Force to obey instructions of the superior Fear of job insecurity Unwilling acceptance by followers b. c. motivates group members. The Mechanistic stage This is the second stage of evolution of leadership based on organisational structures. M. helps to improve organisational efficiency. Leadership qualities in the manager play a very important role in achieving goals. b. The Coercive stage This is the first stage of evolution of leadership based on authority and power of the leader. technology and scientific management.’ Robert Tannenbaum: ‘The art and science of influencing and motivating a group of people in a given situation towards common organisational goals. It It It It It It helps to build up the group.2 Importance of leadership in business organisations An organisation requires management to achieve organisational objectives including economic performance. Some of the major features of this stage of leadership are as follows: a. inculcates discipline. b.3 Evolution of leadership A large number of research studies all over the world have shown that like organisation and management. 66/MITSOT Increasing complexity of organisational structures Rapid changes in technology . R. he has to communicate.
d. e. Likert. appreciation. Vroom.5 The Traits Theor y In the early stages of organisational development. b. The major theories of leadership may be enlisted as follows: a. b. recognition. e. d.4 Theories of leadership During the last century. It banks upon the personal qualities of the leader It draws on the influence of the charisma of the leader There is an emotional bond between the leader and the followers There is loyalty by the followers Inter-personal relationships among members of the group are better 67/MITSOT .g. Based on Hawthorne experiments by Elton Mayo and Associates Psychological factors play a vital role in organisational behaviour Extrinsic factors of motivation e. Traits Theory (by Ordway Tead and Chester Bernard) Behavioural Theories (by Stogdill. c. Katz and Kahn) Contingency Theories (Fiedler's theory. b. e. The Psychological stage This is the third stage of evolution of leadership based on the psychological factors in human behaviour. Path-Goal theory. It is a traditional theory It is based on the belief that ‘Leaders are born and not made' It is based on the assumption that physiological and psychological traits of leaders determine the success or failure of leadership a. Some of the major features of this approach are as follows: a. motivation. Some of the major features of this stage of leadership are as follows: a.Leadership c. c. c. Strengths a. Emergence of scientific management Efficiency as a function of working conditions Influence of material factors on behaviour c. e. etc. This theory is based on the assumption that leadership depends upon the traits of successful leaders. Rewards are more effective than punishment Participation ensures more commitment to the task 10. different management experts have developed various theories of leadership. d. b. c. Life-Cycle theory. it was believed that ‘Leaders are born'. d.Yetton theory) Leader-Member Exchange Theory Managerial Grid 10.
l. h. Initiating Structure Dimension: The degree to which the leader considers goal attainment vis-à-vis feelings of the people. i. Knowledge of the job/task Intelligence Self-respect Self-confidence Courage Logical thinking Rational/scientific judgement Decision-making Communication ability (oral and written) Creativity Initiative and drive Problem-solving ability High morale and motivation Positive attitude Authority and responsibility Flexibility in approach Conviction and commitment Impressive personality 10. m. o. p. b.6 Some traits of effective leadership a. k. which is based on human behavioural studies of different people in organisations. It believes that the success or failure of leadership depends not only upon the traits of the leader. the tasks and the feelings of the people. the leader and the followers. There is consideration for the behaviour of both.Organisational Behaviour b. 10. e. d. c. b. Strengths a. a. q. r. b. g. c. b.7 The Behavioural Theories This is the second approach to leadership. There is better planning and delegation of authority.8 The Two-Dimensional Model (Ohio State University) a. The traits are not exhaustive/universal There is a lack of consideration to the variety of internal situations There is a lack of consideration to other external variables There is a lack of scope for development of followers There is a possibility of exploitation of followers 10. Weaknesses a. but also upon the behaviour of the leaders and the followers in an organisational context. f. c. n. e. There is better team-building and group performance. There is consideration to both. d. j. Consideration Dimension: The degree to which the leader considers the feelings of the people vis-à-vis the task. d. There is better organising and utilisation of resources. 68/MITSOT . e.
10. e. c. f. there are 4 systems in which leaders operate. b. b. b. c. Goal setting is done in consultation with members Decision-making also by consultation with members Organisational communication is better Job involvement.Leadership b. f.9 Rensis Likert's 4-Systems approach According to Rensis Likert. e. c. d. f. rewards and punishment are fair Delegation of authority is with moderate control Good performance and productivity System 4: Participative Leadership a. b. e. d. These four systems can be briefly summarised as follows: System 1: Exploitative Autocratic Leadership a. e. Interpersonal relationships vary from time to time and task to task. d. e. Gap in perceptions of the leader and the followers may affect group performance. Organisational Behaviour is also a function of psychological factors. Group Dynamics play an important role. Goal setting and decision making are done by total participation by members Organisational communication is fairly wide-spread Participation results in involvement and co-operation There is extensive delegation of authority Fair control with positive discipline Performance is excellent 69/MITSOT . d. b. d. Inter-personal conflicts may affect group performance. f. The goal setting is centralised The decision making is also centralised The control on behaviour is too strict There is limited downward communication There is fear of punishment for disobedience There is lack of mutual trust System 2: Benevolent Autocratic Leadership a. Weaknesses a. c. c. Goal setting and decision-making mostly centralised Fair amount of downward communication There is punishment along with occasional rewards The control systems are mostly centralised Condescending mutual trust exists Better morale and motivation System 3: Consultative Leadership a.
b. Leader clarifies the path to the subordinates to achieve goals. Strengths a. Some of the major features of this approach are as follows: a. c. Leader position power: The degree to which the leader has the formal authority in his position in the organisation. Some of the major features of this approach are as follows: a. Task-structure relationship: The degree to which job descriptions are clear to all concerned members. performance and job satisfaction. Demands re-organisation of resources whenever the situation changes. b. Scope for training and development of new leaders. d. a. Leadership is a result of a particular situation. b. Leader’s behaviour is acceptable to subordinates so far as it is a source of inspiration and satisfaction.12 The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership (by Martin Evans and Robert House) a.11 The Contingency Theories (by Fred Fiedler) This approach is similar to the ‘Situational' approach in the sense that a contingency is an emergency situation which demands special qualities in the group and its leadership. A Leader in one situation may not be a leader in another situation. 10. b. Weaknesses a. there cannot be a universal prescription for leadership. Leadership is unstable and continues as long as the situation continues. Therefore.10 The Situational Theories This is a more practical oriented approach based on the assumption that situations vary from time to time and that every situation is different and demands different treatment by leaders. Leader-member relationship: The degree of acceptance of the leader by the members of the team. c. Leadership is a function of variables in a situation. Frequent changes in the situation af fect leadership and group performance. Team-building is temporary and needs change as the situation changes. c. 10. Leader’s behaviour has an impact on subordinates' motivation. b. a. Directive Leadership The leader gives directions to the subordinates who know exactly what is expected of him. Situational leaders are more effective. Planning is shor t term and ignores the long term ef fects on the organisation.Organisational Behaviour 10. 70/MITSOT . e. b. c.
d.13 The Life Cycle Theor y (by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard) This approach is based on research studies conducted by Hersey and Blanchard on leadership during the latter half of the 20th century. Supportive Leadership The leader is friendly. Task orientation and Relation orientation work together.1. ability and willingness to take responsibility. One of the most popular and widely practised theories.Leadership b. Some of the major features of this approach are as follows: a. b. approachable. Maturity. Figure 10. suppor tive. This theor y believes that the success of leadership depends upon the maturity level of the work group. c. Achievement Leadership The leader sets up challenging goals and shows confidence in his subordinates' ability to achieve goals. d. concerned with the subordinates' needs. Close similarity to the situational or contingency approach. c. The Hersey-Blanchard approach to leadership 71/MITSOT . Leadership style depends upon the maturity level of the work group. 10. Participative Leadership The leader asks for suggestions from subordinates before the decision-making. e.
decision maker. It provides for a strong centralised authority. c. May offer more complex problems of conflict management jeopardising organisational efficiency. negative motivation. c. It provides for better discipline.15 Democratic Leadership This leadership is based on the assumption that participation during the planning stage and in decision-making is the key to the success of leadership. d. Demerits a. It provides for better job satisfaction for mediocre subordinates.. afraid of exposure. It improves overall productivity due to better communication and co ordination in the group. e.14 Autocratic Leadership This leadership is based on the belief that authority is the basis for successful leadership. Generally this kind of leadership is disliked by subordinates because of an urge for participative decision-making . c. e. criticism for mistakes. Possible lack of motivation leading to frustration among subordinates. e. Strict Autocrat: strict discipline. b. It helps better organisational stability by reducing employee turnover. b. It encourages participation by members in decision making. appreciative. etc.Organisational Behaviour 10. c. Benevolent Autocrat: understanding employees. etc. Merits a. Decision-making is decentralised and allows sharing of responsibility. positive motivation. Some of the sub-classifications of autocratic leadership are as follows: a. indecisive.. In this case decision-making is centralised in the leader and the subordinates have to follow instructions. Incompetent Autocrat: lack of knowledge. penalties for disobedience. It permits quick decision-making. 72/MITSOT . lack of self-confidence. It encourages participation and thereby motivates followers. Appreciation of ideas and suggestions of members ensures motivation. 10. b. d. Lack of succession planning and development of the future leadership. b. It provides for better job security for subordinates. d. Merits a. Excessive dependence upon such leadership can cause loss of individual identity in an organisation.
Sometimes. by subordinates. There is a lack of guidance and direction by the leader . d. In other words. there are three basic functions of leadership summarised as follows: 73/MITSOT . d. There is lack of accountability. some employees may prefer an open tyranny of an autocrat. c. programmes and procedures. It helps team-work. in turn. 10. in modern business organisations. Merits a. discipline and control and responsibility for the quantity and quality of the output. c. c. There is no day to day interference by the leader. e. Consensus decision-making always takes time which. e. 10. Other functions like: decision making. f. It allows self-motivation and training. rather than covert tyranny of the group. g. Learning takes place by trial and error. b.16 Laissez-faire Leadership This leadership is based on the assumption that the leader is supposed to give only information and guidance to members of the group. There is a tendency to avoid responsibility. Demerits a. It allows sharing of responsibility. etc. it would be clear that organisational leadership has evolved through the 20th century and has attracted the attention of social scientists and human psychologists as well.Leadership Demerits a. There is poor discipline and control. f. irrespective of the fact that they belong to the manufacturing sector or to the ser vice sector. Group performance is more by accident rather by design. due to a lack of a thorough understanding of problems. Participation does not become meaningful in large and complex organisations. b. In case of emergencies. Similarly. delays the achievement of results. It helps inter-personal relationships among members. All the research and the resultant theories of leadership have given rise to three basic leadership styles as described above. are taken care of by the subordinates. Group members enjoy the freedom of decision making. decision making is difficult. Therefore.17 Functions of leadership From the above discussion. participation may be used to manipulate subordinates. the leader has a very minor role to play. b.
b. Australian Airlines. b. c.18 What is Team-building Twenty-five years ago. e. when the tasks require multiple skills. c. Setting standards Building team spirit Motivating the group Ensuring communication Training the group Maintaining discipline. etc. 74/MITSOT . Attending to personal problems Understanding individuals Utilising individual abilities Appreciating good performance Motivation towards higher contribution 10. John Deere. Shenandoah Life Insurance Co. Hewlett and Packard. judgement and varied experience. introduced teams in production shops it made news! It is because nobody was doing it. d. d. becomes news. Florida Power and Light.. etc. Toyota. Texas Instruments. Chrysler. Emerson Electric.Organisational Behaviour Task needs a. Apple Computers. Johnson & Johnson. e. Today it is just the opposite. Shiseido. Motorola. to name a few. d. which does not use teams. when companies like Volvo. The organisation. c. As organisations restructure themselves to compete more effectively. Dayton Hudson. How do we explain the current popularity of teams? Evidence shows that teams outper form individuals. e. Federal Express. f. they have turned to team building for better utilisation of the employee's talents. 3 M. b. Individual needs a. AT&T. General Foods. Pick up any business periodical today and you will find how teams have become an essential part of business organisations like: General Electric. Defining the task Making a plan Allocating work and resources Controlling quantity and quality Checking performance Group needs a. Teams are found to be more flexible and responsive to changes than individuals and the traditional departments of permanent work-groups.
Leadership An organisation. Thus. responsive and creative than traditional departments or any other forms of permanent work groups in an organisation. To utilise employee's talents collectively. To bring people together to work. According to Pauline Barrett: A team is NOT a. The other objectives are as follows: a. b. A collection of individuals who happen to have the same job in the same department. Therefore. 10. b. an individual manager cannot possibly achieve anything all alone by himself/ herself. To improve inter-personal relationships. Therefore. A collection of individuals who happen to have the same line manager. b. defining individual as well as group goals. especially when the task requires multidisciplinary knowledge. This calls for not only successful leadership in guidance and motivation. This is possible only if the manager succeeds in team building. a process of bringing together members of a work group. e. the main objective of leading a group of people in an organisation is to build effective teams. multiple skills. Success stories of modern business organisations show that work teams outperform individuals. To achieve organisational goals more efficiently and effectively. Identifying organisational goals clearly Providing necessary resources Undertaking actual task assignments Designing rewards/incentives for the results Providing whole-hearted support 75/MITSOT . He has to work with the people and get things done for the desired results. b. judgement and varied experience.20 The Pre-requisites for developing effective teams The following are the pre-requisites for developing effective teams: a. d. A collection of individuals who happen to have the same work place. It is also found that work teams are more flexible. c. but also an ability for team building of the subordinates. 10. e. d. To set goals and priorities more realistically. by definition. c. but a Manager must possess leadership qualities to manage his people and tasks in order to achieve desired results. and achieving the desired output. is a group of people who come together to achieve common goals. c. team building may be defined as: a. Team building utilises the employees' talents more efficiently and effectively. a group whose members have complementary skills and are committed to a common purpose or a set of performance goals for which they hold themselves responsible.19 The main objectives of team building A leader may not possess managerial qualities. in modern business organisations.
There is a climate of mutual trust and support. Ensure provision of all resources. There is participation in decision-making. Encourage mutual respect. It improves inter-personal communication. b. There is a commitment to high performance standards. f.23 Values of a team The a. It encourages better creativity and innovation. The organisational communication channels are open. f. It expands job skills. Encourage commitment to hard work. f. 10. There is commitment of full contribution to the goals. j. e. It increases employee job satisfaction. g. following are the steps in the process of team building: Identification of the problem Collection of data Analysis of the data Planning action Implementation of decisions Evaluation and feedback 10. Individual differences are handled tactfully. Develop good inter-personal relationships. It ensures commitment to goals. f. c. There is a commitment to implementation of decisions. d. c.Organisational Behaviour 10. h. Procedures are consistent with the goals and tasks. following are the characteristics of effective teams: Goals and values are clear to all. Keep organisational communication channels always open. g. b. following are the values of a team: It helps members to understand goals clearly. d. It creates organisational flexibility. 76/MITSOT . d. Create a cordial and co-operative climate for sporting criticism. e. g. 10. There is a willingness to share data/information. e. Select the right number and the right type of people on the team. i. j. It helps to improve organisational efficiency. i. It improves employee motivation. j. h. Clarify objectives to all concerned.21 The process of team building The a. Develop a good leader for the team. b.22 Characteristics of effective teams The a. i. h. Prioritise problems and tasks. Set rational and realistic goals. c. k. c. d. b. e.24 Building effective teams a. It generates a better sense of belonging.
State whether the following are true or false A team is a collection of individuals who happen to have the same work place. 77/MITSOT . 2. The success and fortune of an organisation depends largely on leadership. The Traits Theory was developed by ___________ and ____________. Employees need to be motivated from time to time. There are several theories of leadership developed by management experts. 1. Self-assessment a. 1. The chapter also discusses the objectives. Leader-member relationship is a part of the Contingency Theory. Fill in the blanks The Dictatorial style of working is a feature of the ___________ stage of leadership. A good manager must be a good leader. 2. Strong centralised authority is one of the merits of _____________ leadership. b. and pre-requisites for teambuilding. Implementation of decisions is a process of team building. 3.Leadership Summing Up Every organisation needs management and management calls for leadership. 3.
Some people exhibit stress. etc. while some people keep it ‘bottled up' and do not reveal it.1 What is Stress? 11.2 What are the basic causes of stress? 11.Organisational Behaviour Chapter XI Stress Management Learning Objectives Reading this chapter would enable you to understand: • What is Stress? Its causes.3 Organisational stressors 11. which they cannot fulfil and which lead to a breakdown.1 What is Stress? Stress means different things to different people. while at the other end it is a life-destroyer.5 Psychological consequences of Stress 11. The word stress seems to have originated from the French word ‘destresse' which means ‘to be placed under narrowness or oppression'. stress represents those challenges.4 Physiological consequences of stress 11.7 Coping with stress 11. Doctors talk about stress in terms of psychological mechanisms. stress is a life-saver. ‘an individual's reaction to a disturbing factor in the environment’ 78/MITSOT .1 Individual strategies 11.1 Individual stressors 11.6 Stress management 11. consequences. which excite us and keep us on our toes. and if not prevented. sources • Stress Management • How to cope with stress ? Contents 11. Thus. at one end. At the other end of the scale. engineers in terms of load bearing. At one end of the scale. Stress can be prevented. stress represents those conditions under which individuals have demands made upon them.2 Organisational strategies Summing Up Self-assessment 11. psychologists in terms of behavioural changes. respectively. Stress may be defined as: a. Thus. In its middle english form.7. has to be managed properly. Stress is a natural and an inevitable part of life.7.3. It is accompanied by anxiety.3.3. Stress is not simply anxiety.3 Sources of Stress 11. leaving us with the two words: ‘stress' and ‘distress' which mean something ambivalent and unpleasant. it was therefore ‘distress' and over the centuries the ‘di' was lost through slurring.2 Group stressors 11.
potential stress becomes an actual stress. a. Stress can be manifested in different ways: sleeplessness. lack of concentration. When they are coupled with uncertainty of the outcome. e. psychological and other behavioural problems. 11. b. there are people who seem to have the ability to adjust. people who are chronically overstressed. cope with and to stay in control of their workload and also to handle job frustrations without becoming worn-out. apprehensions. head-aches. They may become irritable. loss of interest. h. External demands / Expectations What are the demands? Are they real or virtual? What are the sources of the demands? Can we control them? If yes. having ways of taking the rough with the smooth. c. b. which is often a motivator since it helps the individual to achieve peak performance. a. lack of energy.Stress Management b. loss of self-confidence. On the contrary. c. b. ‘an adaptive response to an external situation that results into physiological. These people have an ability to handle stress. where competing demands and pressures cannot be escaped. etc. backaches. Stress is said to be positive when the situation offers an opportunity to gain something. and renewing their energy and resources so that work life brings pleasure. loss of memory. anxiety. miserable and self-absorbed. d. psychological and behavioural deviations' Stress can manifest itself in both a positive and a negative way. satisfaction and reward to them as well as to others. are no fun to work with. f. a. Eustress is positive stress. keeping a sense of humour. loss of appetite.2 What are the basic causes of stress? Stress is always associated with ‘demands' and ‘constraints'. d. high blood pressure. Distress is negative stress when it is associated with a host of physiological. For many professions. Thus. stress is intrinsic to the job itself. how' and to what extent? What are the strengths and weaknesses in the demands? What are the opportunities and threats in the demands? What would happen if the demands are not met? Personal capacities How do we react to the demands? Is it necessary to modify our reactions to the demands? Can we differentiate between the real and virtual demands? Can our reactions/responses benefit us in the long run? 79/MITSOT . indecisiveness. g. Demands can be called strong expectations and expectations can be called mild demands. tension. irritable or depressed.
Unrealistic task demands: Job design. excessive demands v/s limited personal capacity. unrealistic goals/ targets. shortage of essential staff. In order to be successful in managing day-today stress. it is necessary to understand the major sources of stress. At times.Organisational Behaviour When the demand is way below the capacity. But. lack of proper training. Many times too much of stress can have serious consequences for the individual. poor self-image. feeling under-valued feeling unable to say ‘No' to any demand and not working productively. organisational stress comes from some common sources. Lack of authority: inability to take decisions. informal groups/grapevine. non-cooperative peers/colleagues. lack of adequate working capital. we may feel over-stretched. training. lack of delegation. sense of belonging. 11. Individual stressors Group stressors Organisational stressors 11. job evaluation.3 Organisational stressors a. too much interference. Poor interpersonal relationships : very strong/unsympathetic/ dominating boss.3. social support. etc. job analysis. etc. 11. feeling of powerlessness. Poor leadership: lack of self-confidence. etc. lack of communication facilities. inter-group conflicts. c. It can develop into a living nightmare of running faster and faster to stay at the same place. Role conflicts: lack of role clarity. b. lack of appreciation. b.3 Sources of stress There are many sources of individual stress. c.1 Individual stressors a.2 Group stressors a. intra-personal/inter-personal role conflicts. ethical dilemmas. b. b. lack of infrastructural facilities. Intra-organisational factors: improper organisational structure. 80/MITSOT . the sheer volume of work can be overwhelming. etc. vision. Some of them are ‘on-the-job' while some others are ‘off-the-job'.3. etc. hostile subordinates. decision-making. etc.3. team building Perfectionism: unrealistically high expectations. inflexible superiors. d. role overloading. Group dynamics: lack of group cohesiveness. insistence on working with zero defects. 11. rumours. When the demand is way above the capacity. which can be broadly classified as follows: a. we may feel under-stimulated. etc. The sources of personal stress may vary from person to person and time to time. Managing stress is to balance between external demands and your personal capacity to cope with them.
Lack of organisational communication: lack of proper systems. etc. b. i. lack of planning. training. frequent changes in policy. review and revision. poor promotional value of the job. lack of proper job evaluation. g. f. b) a. d. ventilation. etc. which happens automatically. h. priorities. f. b. etc. They gear up the body to respond to challenges. too many meetings. i. 11. Short-term ef fects Speeding up of reflexes Improved performance Increased muscle function Lower load for the digestion system Stomach troubles Cooling of muscles Increased breathing rate Reduced sensitivity to minor injuries Reduction in allergic reactions Reduced sexual desire/activity Long-term effects Loss of weight High/Low Blood pressure Delayed blood clotting Cardiovascular disorders Arteriosclerosis Exhaustion 81/MITSOT . e. d. etc. d. etc. social status of the job.Stress Management c. c. too rigid rules and regulations. clarity of goals. either by standing firmly on the ground and hitting back hard or by prompt and strategic withdrawal. This is called the ‘Fight' or ‘Flight' response. Some of the common physiological consequences of stress may be briefly summarised as follows: a) a. g. etc. Unnecessar y/outdated procedures: too much and unnecessary paper work. grapevine/rumours Unscientific per formance appraisal system: lack of scientific systems. j. f. proper control.4 Physiological consequences of stress The body's reactions to stress-demands are useful. adequate data. The human body has evolved over thousands of years to meet external threats and challenges. frequent emergencies. rationality. e. Uncertainty and insecurity : lack of job security. Unsatisfactor y working conditions: inordinately long working hours. illumination. excessive noise/heat. lack of natural sunlight. e. too many records and returns. Unclear job descriptions: lack of proper job analysis. c. h. Poor career prospects: organisational status of the job. too much bureaucracy. interference with natural circadian rhythm. unpredictable changes.
Organisational Behaviour
g. h. i. j. k. l.
Heart attack Diabetes Damage to the kidneys Lower resistance of the immune system Depression in sensory perceptions/responses Impotency/Sterility
11.5 Psychological consequences of stress It is observed that the physiological effects of stress have a co-relation with the psychological effects and vice-versa. Some of the common psychological consequences of stress may be briefly summarised as follows: a) Cognitive effects a. Decrease in concentration resulting in diminishing powers of observation, b. Increase in distractibility resulting in loss of the thread of the thinking process, c. Deterioration of memory in the short, as well as long term reducing the span of the memory for recalling and recognition of even familiar things, d. Reduction in the response speed, e. Increase in error rate resulting in snap and hurried decisions and errors in manipulative and cognitive tasks, f. Deterioration in planning and organising, disabling the mind to assess accurately existing and future conditions, g. Increase in delusions and thought disorders resulting into reduced, powers of objectivity, reality testing and a confused thought process. b) Emotional effects a. b. c. d. e. Increase in tension, reducing the ability to relax by switching off worries and anxiety, Increase in Hypochondria: imaginary complaints and lack of feeling of well-being and good health, Changes in personality traits: indifferent attitude, untidy and slipshod, over-anxiety, over-sensitivity, hostility, defensiveness, etc. Moral and emotional behaviour: sexual behaviour, emotional outbursts, lower spirits, a sense of powerlessness, etc. Fall in self-esteem: a feeling of incompetence, worthlessness, lack of status in groups or the society at large, etc.
c) Behavioural effects a. b. Increase in problems of speech: stuttering, stammering, hesitancy, etc. Diminishing interest and enthusiasm: abandoning short-term goals and life objectives, dropping of hobbies, disposing of cherished possessions, drop in energy levels, etc. Increase in absenteeism: real or imaginary illnesses, false excuses, etc. Increase in drug abuse: alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, etc. Disturbance in sleep patterns: either lack of sleep or disturbed sleep.
c. d. e.
Stress Management
f. g. h. i. j.
Cynicism: an increasing tendency to be over-critical and sarcastic about superiors, colleagues, clients, customers, events, etc. Ignorance of new developments: new people, new systems, new methods, new products, new technology are ignored. Superficial problem-solving: temporar y and stop-gap solutions are offered, lack of detailed thinking, lack of follow-up, a ‘giving-up' tendency. Lack of self -confidence: decrease in confidence level, avoiding responsibilities or passing the buck, etc. Unexpected and bizarre behavioural patterns: odd mannerisms, unpredictable and uncharacteristic behaviour, use of meaningless phrases, threats of suicide.
Physiological and psychological effects of stress go hand-in-hand and are complementary. They vary from organisation to organisation, situation to situation, time to time and person to person. It is found that some people collapse at the first signs of stress, while others have a great strength to cope with a very high level of stress and do not show any symptoms. We can learn from such people, the secrets of their success in coping with stress and avoiding a breakdown in their personalities. 11.6 Stress management It is not possible to eliminate stress completely from our day-to-day working life. But, it is, possible (and also necessary) that we learn to manage stress and its effects on our body and mind. In this process, we have to cope with stress and to keep the physiological and psychological effects at minimum levels to avoid their ill effects on our performance. This process is called Stress Management, which consists of mainly 3 stages: a. Mobilisation Mobilisation is a simple decision to do something. There is always a better way of doing things. Studies show that more than 60% of the people who find their jobs stressful have no stress management programme of any kind, because they fail to recognise this fact of life. We must understand this basic rule to cope, with stress and mobilise ourselves with changed ways of looking at life. b. Knowledge Knowledge of the problem and the sources of stress is the key to stress management. It is said that ‘a problem well-defined is half-solved'. We must ask ourselves: What is the real problem? What are the stressors? What is the main source of stress? Are those unmanageable? What must be done about them? What is preventing me from doing something about the excessive stress? c. Action This is the final stage in stress management. If things which are preventing us from doing them, are within our control, we have to decide whether the
Organisational Behaviour
action should be immediate or in future. If things are beyond our control, we may have to ignore or adapt to the stressors. Of course, our action depends upon the intensity and the source of the stressors. 11.7 Coping with stress Stress can be managed mainly by the following strategies: 11.7.1 Individual strategies a. Time management Most of us are poor in time management with the resultant feeling of work overload, skipping schedules and the attendant tension. The truth is that, if we can manage our time efficiently and effectively, we can accomplish twice as much as we can otherwise. Some of the basic principles of time management are: a. Preparing a list of the daily activities to be attended to, b. Prioritising the activities as per their importance and urgency, c. Re-scheduling activities as per priorities, d. Following up the schedule of activities for early completion, e. Checking up activities and taking corrective actions (if necessary). It is observed that effective time management results in: better physical health, better mental health, relaxed feeling in action, higher motivation and enthusiasm, higher efficiency, better job satisfaction, etc. b. Physical exercise It is rightly said that ‘there is a sound mind in a sound body '. Physical exercise at any age is a must. It helps people to cope with stress. It is for this reason that people of all ages are seen taking a morning walk, jogging, swimming, playing outdoor games like badminton, tennis, etc. c. Relaxation There are many ways of relaxation at the end of a hectic day of work and stress. We can relax through meditation, hypnosis, biofeedback, yoga, etc. Whatever the method, the main objective is that one must be deeply relaxed, where the person feels totally relaxed from body sensations. At least 15 to 20 minutes a day of deep relaxation releases tension and provides a pronounced a sense of peace of mind. This practice causes significant changes in blood pressure, heart rate, sleep, concentration, memory, etc. d. Social support Man is a social animal. After the basic needs and security needs are satisfied, an individual needs social support with a sense of belonging. It is observed that social support plays an important role in relieving stress of the individual, because the person gets friends, colleagues, listeners, and confidence builders who help in networking and thus relieving harmful stress. This also helps to control the ill effects of stress, by virtue of giving vent to one's feelings,
Recruitment/Selection/Placement Certain jobs are more stressful than others in an organisation. job enrichment. b. with a least stressful environment for all. job descriptions. grapevine. job analysis. c. so that they can be better prepared to take up stressful jobs. Organisational Communication This consists of various factors like: oral and written communication. All these factors contribute to the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisation. 11. The organisational structure should be simple to understand and easy to follow. Individuals differ in their response to stress situations. job rotation. it is advisable that Yoga and Meditation should be followed under expert guidance for the maximum benefits for reduction stress. help to reduce work stress. Individuals with comparatively less experience with an external locus of control tend to be more stress prone. There are many different aspects of Yoga. networking. On the contrary. fears and frustrations to others. Too many levels of hierarchy and too much bureaucracy in dayto-day working can cause avoidable stress for all employees at all levels. etc. who can understand and possibly try help him/her out. job evaluation. Yoga Yoga is said to be the most effective way to relieve stress. e. 85/MITSOT . job specifications. etc. communication. when equally open for all employees. work-study. It is necessary to give some kind of induction training to new employees in order to orient them to the new organisational culture. downward.2 Organisational Strategies a. These factors should be borne in mind while recruiting people. Yoga has been used in many countries for centuries. which in turn af fect the employees in their work related stress. However.Stress Management emotions. upward and lateral communication. which are said to be ver y useful to manage work-stress. are some of the modern tools and techniques for attracting and retaining good employees in an organisation. interpersonal and inter-group communication. Job related activities Job re-design. job enlargement. d. Organisational communication with downward and upward channels.7. Organisational Structure Organisational structure should be properly designed in order to have appropriate authority-responsibility relationships among employees. people with more experience with an internal locus of control may adapt better to high stress jobs with a better performance. It helps to have smooth organisational communication for faster decision making.
which can be caused by apprehensions about changes if any.Organisational Behaviour e. in others headache. b. This helps to reduce the number of stressed employees and others may be relieved to some extent. c. so that they are updated in their knowledge. loss of memory. f. By this process. scientific and periodic performance appraisal system in force for all employees. Both these are skilled and sensitive jobs and need qualified and competent staff to do the job of counselling successfully. Stress can manifest in many ways. etc. Employee Counselling Employee counselling can be classified in two parts: on-the-job counselling and off-the-job counselling. The causes of stress are physical and often psychological. 86/MITSOT . Mediocre/below average performers should be given a clear idea for their need for improvement within a stipulated time limit. Summing Up In a highly complex and demanding world today. For some it causes sleeplessness. The objectives of employee counselling can be three-fold: a. but also in terms of improvement in overall organisational productivity. high blood pressure. There are individual and organisational strategies. g. Extraordinary performers should be rewarded extraordinarily. at least from unnecessary and avoidable stress. most people are highly stressed. to improve overall organisational efficiency to reduce employee stress. Training and Development Appropriate training and development programmes should be organised for employees at all levels from time to time. This automatically reduces the possibilities of stressful situations. Average performers should be given counselling and necessary training inputs for improvement. and to improve employee efficiency Employee counselling. Performance Appraisal There should be a systematic. It is very important to know how one can cope with stress. It also leads to irritability and low self-esteem. can yield very good results not only in terms of reducing employee stress. loss of appetite. both the management and the employees know as to how well they are doing and how well they should do. This helps both the management and the employees to reduce the gap between job requirements on the one hand and capabilities of the employees on the other. if properly done. A careful study of these strategies can sufficiently arm you to manage stress in your personal and professional life. skills and attitudes towards their jobs and the organisation.
and if not prevented. Stress is always associated with ______________ and _______________. 5. 1. 3. Increase in absenteeism. Employee counselling should be given priority in every organisation. 2. Yoga is said to be the most effective way to relieve ______________. 3. Stress can manifest itself in a _______________ and a ___________ way. 87/MITSOT .Stress Management Self-assessment a. 4. 1. Sources of _________ stress may vary from individual to individual and time to time. has to be managed properly. real or imaginary illness. 2. 4. To manage stress it is not necessary to understand the problems. 5. b. Performance appraisal of an employee should be done once every two years. State whether the following are true or false Stress can be prevented. Fill in the blanks ___________________ is positive stress. false excuses are psychological consequences of stress.
you begin to ponder the basic difference between them. “I don't know”. replies Kulkarni with an obvious note of irritation in his voice. to the point where you can now predict the exact lines Joshi and Kulkarni will utter. while Kulkarni so bold and daring? What makes them see the world through such different eyes? You continue thinking about questions as the meeting drags on and on. Mr.Organisational Behaviour Annexure I Case Study I It's Thursday afternoon. “We'll never get anything if we simply wait. and you are at a staff meeting held to discuss the development of a new product. As usual. says Joshi. 88/MITSOT . You have to take chances sometimes.” The discussion continues.” “Oh.. and on…. two officers in the product development division have totally opposite views on the issue. As you sit listening to their statements. so the conversation is quite intense. Joshi and Mr. You have withnessed this same scene over again. Why is Joshi so conservative and cautious. and market research on product acceptance is pretty high. with Joshi urging caution and Kulkarni pushing for boldness. come on Joshi”. you know. It will require a major investment in terms of equipment and production facilities. Kulkarni. “it's a big chunk of money.
But just for a couple of days”. you think as you look up from your desk. You know this is the peak of our busy season!” “Well. he says cheerfully. We are way behind on that Satara project. “O.Annexure Annexure II Case Study 2 “Oh no”. “I can't possibly spare them now. I need your help. Then all at once. Gandhi and Dalvi to join our group for a couple of weeks?'’ You are shocked. finally. “Hello Vijay”. says “thanks”. This is more like it. After he leaves. “how is my favourite engineer today?” For a couple of minutes. “If you can't spare all three. You certainly haven't seen the limit yet ! 89/MITSOT . settle for a little” tactics. At these words. and beats a hasty retreat.” he says. Ajay. Ajay greets you with a big smile. “It's Ajay Godbole. Ajay smiles.K. he comes to the point. “Look Vijay. you sit quietly for a moment. “Oh no. what a request. it hits you : he has done it again ! When will you ever learn ? Ajay sets you up beautifully with him “ask for a lot. “I guess we can spare him. Here comes trouble”. you and Ajay exchange small talk and then. how about Gandhi for just a couple of days?” You experience great relief.” you mumble without much enthusiasm. How about sending Deshpande. (Just how many ways does he know of getting what he wants). Unaware of your thoughts.’’ you reply.
A major one occurred during your first staff meeting. But are you going to like it over a long haul? Can you adjust to this different work culture. one that is well known in the Mumbai-Pune industrial area.D. it has turned out just as you expected. at one point. after an uncomfortable pause. 90/MITSOT . it is submitted to the Chairman and Managing Director. you realise that there have been some real surprises. This is called sending your proposal through the proper channels. In some ways. then we forward such a proposal for approval to the Deputy General Manager. the Divisional Manager set you straight. In short. Just six weeks ago. After his approval it is sent to the General Manager and the G. further sends it to the Executive Director. the meeting ground to a halt and everyone stared at you in disbelief. Several issues were discussed and. Your salary is high. you accepted a position with a large public sector company. In this new company. you have to explain the situation in detail and the reasons for your decision. we don't do things that way around here. This is a new pattern for you and will certainly require some adjustment. Finally. But looking back over your first month. Joshi. You have to submit the same before a committee and if it is accepted by the members of the committee. To your surprise.and as you ease into your company bus on the national highway and head for home. and the company's brand new headquarters are very pleasant. it is processed further to take the approval of highest authority. First we discuss the matter in the staff meeting and prepare a proposal which is agreed collectively.’’ In other companies where you have worked. “listen. you had sufficient freedom and authority to take decisions and implement these as early as you wished.Organisational Behaviour Annexure III Case Study 3 Today marks the end of your first month in a new job.M. accepts the proposal. When the E.Decisions are taken only in this manner. You are still pondering over such questions as you turn into the driveway of your home. you have discovered that working for a Public Sector Company really is different. you find yourself thinking about your new position. you described a decision you had reached on handling a special problem. too.
has a Western India Divisional office at Mumbai and a branch at Pune. Rajesh. The team worked overtime and the very next day that is Wednesday afternoon. I know the President would want to know this during our meeting on Friday. the branch manager. a team of seven members started working on the assigned task. We need it all within two days.’’ Shweta on the other hand informed Mr. “find out how many people work in our Pune branch. Ashish promptly passed on the message to Rahul. Pune branch that the President wants personnel records of all the branch employees to be sent to the Divisional office at the earliest. an Electronic company having its multi-locational branches and headquarters at Delhi. he only wanted Ashish to let him know the total number of employees in Pune. Pai. 2. the data arrived at the Divisional office in two large boxes sent by special courier. Mr. Immediately.Annexure Annexure IV Case Study 4 Remcon Limited. Is it a case of distortion in communication ? Give a suitable name to the case. The original query was turned into a huge project involving many people. told Ashish. 1. and I want to be prepared”. Pai was astonished to see the arrival of this consignment. Read the case and discuss the implications. On Tuesday morning Mr. the Secretary. Within half an hour. Rahul called the Pune branch and told Shweta the Secretar y there. which is around three hundred fifty six. “our president has asked for a complete list of all the people who work in our in Pune branch. 3. the Divisional Manager. 91/MITSOT .
Salunke on the other hand pressed Mr. he would be willing to join back immediately and didn't want to lose his permanent job. 1. A few weeks later the HR Manager.Organisational Behaviour Annexure V Case Study 5 In Pune. The grapevine report also stated that Gaikwad was earning some extra money on this electrical project. Gaikwad said that his wife had called him that evening and told him that at the local supermarket. which was higher than his present regular earning. Mr. If under the contract of employment. Mr. Mr. and this was to be mailed to Mr. 3. he dictated a “Notice of hearing concerning dismissal action” to his secretar y. 2. and the penalty for such an act could lead to his dismissal. Can you trace any evidence in this case that both the management and employees make use of the grapevine for their own benefit? Discuss. Gaikwad called Mr. Gaikwad has actually taken leave to work for another construction project at Satara. Salunke investigated the case in person and ensuring that the grapevine information was correct. Gaikwad to tell him how he knew about his dismissal notice. Salunke up at his residence and told him that he had heard of the notice of dismissal being sent to him. a maintenance employee. this was not acceptable. If you were in Mr. His act of taking leave for personal reasons and working for another organisation for any hidden purpose was contrar y to the contract of employment with the Horizon Construction Company. Gaikwad by Registered Post to his local residence. What action should Salunke take in this case ? Discuss. Mr. Mr. Gaikwad of the Horizon Construction Company had applied for three months leave of absence for personal reasons. The same night. as it was in accordance with the Company as well as Union policy. Salunke’s place. Mr. The request was granted. 92/MITSOT . would you be able to suppress such grapevine leaks. and he actually did the additional job to get some extra money which he needed. he was not aware of the legal implications. Salunke heard through grapevine that Mr. the mother of their friend's son had told her about this dismissal order.
Rahul does an adequate job and is very conscientious. He does well whatever has been assigned to him. Despite having the burden of his own family and ailing parents. Rakesh and Rajni report to him. He is so far allowed to have his own way as long as he meets the minimal standard of performance. The previous boss also felt that Rakesh never seemed to be satisfied and was always interested more in fringe benefits.” Money motivates him and he is always ready to change his job for a rise in his income. but all attempts to get him to do more have failed. He has good interpersonal relationships and is liked by others.Annexure Annexure VI Case Study 6 After successful completion of management education. Nikhil has been selected by a company and made in-charge of a department where Rahul. In his present job he will happily work for even sixty hours a week if he is compensated well with money. Anil. His former employer remarked that while he performed excellently in his job. He sincerely believes that the job is simply a means of financing his family's basic needs and nothing more than that. he was arrogant. Rakesh has a forceful and driving personality. He maintains a high degree of loyalty to his organisation. adamant and argumentative and so was happy to get rid of him. He is unable to maintain good interpersonal relationships. The key of the success of his department is dependent upon the motivation of his subordinates and Nikhil needs to ensure that his subordinates are highly motivated. He. He has a higher than average record of absenteeism. He does not tend to do anything independently. 93/MITSOT . Unlike Rahul he responds well to the company's rules etc. Anil is in many respects the opposite of Rahul. He enjoys family life enormously and his wife and their only son are central to his life. He is of the opinion that what the company can offer him does not inspire him at all. Overall. His greatest drawback is that he lacks initiative. as he is shy and not very assertive when dealing with people outside the department. Rahul is the type of employee who is rather hard to figure out. he has prepared a brief summary profile on each of these four subordinates. Rakesh is very assertive and known for his ‘‘job-hopping tendencies. He has personal charm and his nature is friendly and sociable. Otherwise he really works hard for the company and expects that the company should fulfil his desire for money. on his part has decided to proceed systematically and as a first step. he once left his job suddenly only due to a dispute that he was not given a salary rise as per his desire. but is neither creative nor dependable on his own. He constantly needs the assurance and support of his seniors to confirm that his actions are correct.
she disposes with innovative and creative ideas.Organisational Behaviour Rajani is creative. Rajani lacks a sense of humour and has sharp up-swings and down-swings to her moods. She consistently and constantly craves attention and demands praise from others. As long as others praise her. She is highly self-centred and strives for instant gratification of her needs and desires. What long-term plans can you suggest to Nikhil for motivating all these four subordinates? 4. 1. 3. On the other hand she is excessively emotional. In accordance with the above profiles of the four employees. Suggest a suitable name to the case. She bears an exaggerated sense of self-importance and tends to live in a dream world. She talks only about herself. artistic and a genius. 2. how should Nikhil proceed further in his task and keep his subordinates highly motivated. Her moody temperament heavily af fects her day-to-day performance. She likes to grab all the credits for every success and in case of any failure she tries to push the responsibility on to other colleagues. 94/MITSOT . It is difficult for other people to get along with Rajani especially when she is not made the focus of their attention. Explain all the four employees’ motivation in terms of various models of motivation.
Explain classification of values. 4. 5. Describe various approaches to organisational behaviour. 4. 2. 5. 5. 3. 4. How can changes be implemented in the organisational culture? Chapter IV Perception and Values 1. 2. Distinctly dif ferentiate between various models of organisational behaviour. 3. Define perception and explain its process. Define organisational design and explain its dimensions. Chapter V Attitude 1. 3. What are the factors that affect perception? What do you understand by the perceptual skill? Explain. What are the major factors that influence an organisation? What do you understand by an organisation? What are the different classifications of an organisation? Why is the study of organisational behaviour important to all managers? Chapter II Approaches and Models of Organisational Behaviour 1. 3. 95/MITSOT . Chapter III Organisational Design and Culture 1. 2. 2. Define attitude and explain its characteristics. Explain the factors that affect organisational culture. Describe the interrelationship between ‘Personal Life' and ‘Work Life'. Define Organisational behaviour and explain it's fundamental concepts. Explain the different factors that affect organisational redesigning. Define values and explain their sources. 4. 5. What is organisational culture? Explain its characteristics. 2. What are the different models of organisational behaviour? Diagrammatically explain the SOBC model of organisational behaviour. What do you understand by organisational structure? Explain the different types of organisational structures.Study Questions Study Questions Chapter I Organisational Behaviour 1. Explain various components of attitude.
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs. Chapter VII Morale and Motivation 1. 5. 4. 2. 3. 5. Define conflict and explain its sources. 4. What do you understand by ‘locus of control’? Explain its attributes. Explain with a diagram. 5. What do you understand by Interpersonal Relationships? Explain. 3. What are the various factors that are involved in a conflict? Explain. What are the various approaches to interpersonal relationships? Explain factors that influence interpersonal relationships. What are the various indicators of morale in an organisation? What suggestions do you have to improve morale? What is motivation? Describe its mechanism. 3. What are the various theories of attitude? Explain various factors that affect attitude. What are the various types of conflict? 3. Explain the significance of attitude in organisational behaviour. Chapter VIII Group Dynamics 1. Define personality and explain its determinants. 5. 2. What are the various stages of group development? Explain different factors of group dynamics. Describe the Johari Window and explain how it resolves interpersonal behaviour. 2. What do you understand by the two-factor theor y? Explain with comparison to Maslow's theory. 4. 4. 2. What are the various need patterns? What do you understand by the personality test? Describe at least two tests. 5. Chapter IX Conflict Management 1.Organisational Behaviour 3. Chapter VI Personality 1. What are the various types of personality? Explain. Explain various methods of managing conflict. 96/MITSOT . 4.
3. 2. 3. Explain the various functions of leadership. What is team building and what are its objectives? Chapter XI Stress Management 1. Define Leadership and explain its importance in a business organisation. 4. Describe the Heresy Blanchard model of leadership with the help of a diagram. Describe the psychological effects of stress. 2. What is stress? Explain various sources of stress. 5. 4. Explain the physiological effects of stress. State various theories of leadership and explain any two of them.Study Questions Chapter X Leadership 1. What are the individual strategies in managing stress? 97/MITSOT .
1. leadership b. 1. false true true true true true false Chapter II Approaches and Models of Organisational Behaviour a. people 2. 2. true 3. 1. resources. 7. true 3. thought process 3. 1. authority 3. 4. 6. 1. bottom 2. 5. False 98/MITSOT . commodities 2. interdependent 4. 3. true 2. True Chapter III Organisational Design and Culture a. false 4.Organisational Behaviour Answers to Self-assessment Chapter I Organisational Behaviour a. caused 4. true 2. organisation chart b. human resources b. top. 1.
Instrumental b. false 99/MITSOT . false 4. true 4. Intensity 5. 1. false Chapter VI Personality a. true 2. 1. Extremity b. 1. feel 2. balance theory 3. true 5. type A 3. true 3. attitude 4. 1. false 3. Affective b. true 5. 1. true 2. personality 3.Answers to Self-assessment Chapter IV Perception and values a. continuous 4. A custom 2. false 2. false 3. 1. perception 2. Self-monitoring 4. true 4. false Chapter V Attitude a.
True 100/MITSOT . 1. true 4. 1. time 5. inter-personal behaviour b. false 3. 1. inevitable 3. democratic 2. 1. Liberal B. false 3. true 4. motivation 3. group 3. objective 2. true Chapter VIII Morale and Motivation a. 1. morale 2. true 5. Goals 4. five 5. false 5. false 3. content-oriented b. natural. needs 4. 1. false Chapter IX Conflict Management a. true 2. true 2. true 2.Organisational Behaviour Chapter VII a.
coercive 2. stress 4. personal b. true 5. 1. positive. Eustress 2. true 3. negative 5. 1. 1. constraints 3. demands. Chester Bernard 3. true 2. false 2. Ordway Tead. autocratic b.Answers to Self-assessment Chapter X Leadership a. true Chapter XI Stress Management a. 1. true 3. false 101/MITSOT . false 4.
4.Stephen Robbins Organisational Behaviour . 2.Hellriegel and Slocum 102/MITSOT . Ashwathapa Organisational Behaviour .K. 3.Keith Davis Organisational Behaviour .Organisational Behaviour Further Reading 1. 5. Organisational Behaviour .Fred Luthans Organisational Behaviour .
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October 26, 2009
Please remember that our schedules can be fluid and topics may be changed. We will let you know by e-mail if we have a topic change from this list. Thanks!
Mini Page activities meet many state and national educational standards. Each week we identify standards that relate to The Mini Page's content and offer activities that will help your students reach them.
Happy Birthday, 'Sesame Street'! — Issue 44 — Oct. 31-Nov. 6, 2009
This week's standard:
Students understand the ways that stories, music and artistic creations serve as expressions of culture. (Social Studies: Culture)
1. Use newspaper words and pictures to make a birthday card for "Sesame Street."
2. Circle all the "Sesame Street" toys in newspaper ads. Check your favorite toy.
3. Ask friends to tell you their favorite "Sesame Street" character. Which character got the most votes?
4. In which country can children (a) see "Sesame Street" without electricity,
(b) watch it on a special cart, and (c) see a character with a health problem?
5. Write the names of five "Sesame Street" characters down the side of a piece of paper. What news stories would interest each character? Explain your choices.
Helping Wounded Warriors — Issue 45 — Nov. 7-13, 2009
This week's standard:
Students understand how physical, social and emotional environments influence personal health.
(Health: Health promotion and disease)
1. Use newspaper words and pictures to make a "welcome home" card for a service person.
2. Find a pet in the classified ads that would be a good companion for a returning service person. Draw a picture of the pet with a service person.
3. Circle three things in the newspaper that make you feel better when you are unhappy.
4. How do each of these help people who need artificial body parts: (a) digital pictures, (b) different versions of a leg, and (c) microchips?
5. Write an adventure story about a person whose artificial body part gives the person superpowers.
Understanding Diabetes — Issue 46 — Nov. 14-20, 2009
This week's standard:
Identify common health problems of children. (Health Promotion and Disease
1. Draw a large plate on a piece of paper. Paste newspaper photos of healthy foods on your plate.
2. Make a "Take Care of Yourself" poster. Show things people with diabetes do to stay healthy.
3. Circle toys and sports items in the newspaper that would keep you active.
Put stars by your favorite three.
4. How are these important for people who have diabetes: (a) blood glucose meter,
(b) pump, (c) shots, and (d) insulin pen?
5. Use the Internet to learn about famous people who have diabetes. How do these people manage their lives? How do they help other people with diabetes?
Traveling for the Holidays — Issue 47 — Nov. 21-27, 2009
This week's standard:
Students demonstrate respectful and caring relationships in the family, workplace and community.
(Family and Consumer Science: Interpersonal Relationships)
1. Draw a picture of yourself in school. Share with your family.
2. Draw a backpack on a piece of paper. Paste newspaper pictures of items you could take in your backpack for a long trip.
3. Choose three comic strip characters. Tell why you would like to take them on a trip with you.
4. Using three separate columns, write three things you could do (1) at home to prepare for a trip, (2) on the trip itself, and (3) as a guest.
5. Write a short story about taking a trip to visit relatives. Include tips you learned from today's Mini Page.
Issue 47
Nov. 21-27
Traveling for the Holidays
Traveling during the holiday seasons can be hectic. The Mini Page reminds kids about how to help their families as they travel, including ideas for being a good guest in someone else’s home and using table manners.
Issue 48
Nov. 28-Dec. 4
Pennies for Peace
The Mini Page profiles Pennies for Peace, an organization that allows American students to collect pennies and give their time to help schoolchildren all across the world.
Issue 49
Dec. 5-11
Visit a Tree Farm
Christmas trees have been a symbol of winter, Christmas and rebirth for centuries. In this issue, The Mini Page shares some history of this favorite tradition and how the trees we bring into our homes start out at a tree farm.
Issue 50
Dec. 12-18
Mmmmm, Cookies!
In this sweet issue of The Mini Page, Rookie Cookie shares some favorite cookie recipes for baking and sharing with friends and family.
Issue 51
Dec. 19-25
Star Bright
The Mini Page talks with an expert at the Smithsonian Institution Air and Space Museum about the bright star reportedly seen by the magi and what kind of celestial event it might have been. We also explore the significance of the winter solstice (Dec. 21) for ancient people.
Issue 52
Dec. 26-Jan.1
Let It Snow
What if you wanted to go figure skating, play hockey, snowboard or ski, but there was no ice or snow? Not to worry. The Mini Page looks at the creation of artificial ice and snow.
Daily American Articles
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The Info List - Gupta Script
--- Advertisement ---
(i) (i)
The GUPTA SCRIPT (sometimes referred to as GUPTA BRAHMI SCRIPT or LATE BRAHMI SCRIPT ) was used for writing Sanskrit
and is associated with the Gupta Empire
Gupta Empire
of India
which was a period of material prosperity and great religious and scientific developments. The Gupta script was descended from Brahmi and gave rise to the Nāgarī , Sharada and Siddham
scripts. These scripts in turn gave rise to many of the most important scripts of India, including Devanagari
(the most common script used for writing Sanskrit
since the 19th century), the Gurmukhi script for Punjabi Language
Punjabi Language
, the Assamese script , the Bengali script
Bengali script
, and the Tibetan script
Tibetan script
* 1 Origins and Classification * 2 Inscriptions * 3 Alphabet
* 4 Gupta Numismatics * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 External links
Brahmi and its descendent scripts.
The Gupta Script was descended from the Ashokan Brahmi script
Brahmi script
, and is a crucial link between Brahmi and most other scripts in the Brahmic family of Scripts, a family of alphasyllabaries or abugidas . This means that while only consonantal phonemes have distinct symbols, vowels are marked by diacritics, with /a/ being the implied pronunciation when the diacritic is not present. In fact, the Gupta script works in exactly the same manner as its predecessor and successors, and only the shapes and forms of the graphemes and diacritics are different.
Through the 4th century, letters began to take more cursive and symmetric forms, as a result of the desire to write more quickly and aesthetically. This also meant that the script became more differentiated throughout the Empire, with regional variations which have been broadly classified into three, four or five categories; however, a definitive classification is not clear, because even on a single inscription, there may be variation in how a particular symbol is written. In this sense, the term Gupta script
Gupta script
should be taken to mean any form of writing derived from the Gupta period, even though there may be a lack of uniformity in the scripts.
The surviving inscriptions of the Gupta script
Gupta script
are mostly found on iron or stone pillars, and on gold coins from the Gupta Dynasty. One of the most important was the Allahabad Prasasti . Composed by Harishena , the court poet and minister of Samudragupta , it describes Samudragupta’s reign, beginning from his accession to the throne as the second king of the Gupta Dynasty and including his conquest of other kings.
a i u ṛ e o
k kh g gh ṅ
c ch j jh ñ
ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ
t th d dh n
p ph b bh m
y r l v
ś ṣ s h
The study of Gupta coins began with the discovery of a hoard of gold coins in 1783. Many other such hoards have since been discovered, the most important being the Bayana ( situated in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan
) hoard, discovered in 1946, which contained more than 2000 gold coins issued by the Gupta Kings. Many of the Gupta Empire’s coins bear inscriptions of legends or mark historic events. In fact, it was one of the first Indian Empires to do so, probably as a result of its unprecedented prosperity. Almost every Gupta king issued coins, beginning with its first king, Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I
The scripts on the coin are also of a different nature compared to scripts on pillars, due to conservatism regarding the coins that were to be accepted as currency, which would have prevented regional variations in the script from manifesting on the coinage. Moreover, space was more limited especially on their silver coins, and thus many of the symbols are truncated or stunted. An example is the symbol for /ta/ and /na/, which were often simplified to vertical strokes. Das Buch der Schrift (Faulmann) 141
* Brahmic scripts
Brahmic scripts
* Lipi – writing scripts in Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts
Similar scripts
* Bhattiprolu script * Kadamba script * Telugu-Kannada script * Pallava script
Pallava script
* ^ Sharma, Ram. 'Brahmi Script' . Delhi: BR Publishing Corp, 2002 * ^ A B C Srivastava, Anupama. 'The Development of Imperial Gupta Brahmi Script' . New Delhi: Ramanand, 1998 * ^ Fischer, Steven Roger. 'A History of Writing' . UK: Reaktion, 2004 * ^ Bajpai, KD. 'Indian Numismatic Studies. ' New Delhi: Abhinav Publications 2004
* Carl Faulmann (1835–1894), Das Buch der Schrift, Druck und Verlag der Kaiserlichen Hof-und Staatsdruckerei, 1880
* (in
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Teaching Experiment: Earthquakes 3
Our hand-n-arm model in the previous lesson oversimplifies things, of course.
If you went out to the subduction zone off the southern shores of Alaska, and took a submarine down into the ocean to look at it, you wouldn’t see much. The ocean floor is covered in silt and other sorts of debris. What you would see is that muddy bottom dives deep into what we call the Aleutian Trench. It’s the spot where the two tectonic plates come together as the North American plate rides up over the Pacific Plate. While the Pacific is shoved down, it curves down a bit, but the ragged edge of the other plate is curled under. The top layer of the earth’s crust, at least in Alaska, is much stiffer than what’s below it. You aren’t likely to see the glacial movement of the earth’s crust because it’s such small increments over such a massive scale.
Sometime over the past few centuries, there was a 600 mile arc where the two plates caught on each other. The pressure began to build. It works best if you envision that state of Alaska as one massive stoneware plate. If you actually spent some time in Alaska, you could readily see that the whole state is just a bunch of mountains with a thin cover of alluvial deposits here and there. The thickness of this underlying stone shield varies, as does the density and composition, but it’s still pretty much one big piece. On that massive scale, it can flex a little, but not much.
As the southern edge of this stone shield was pulled under, it didn’t curl easily. The stress was spread northward more than 300 miles. So for a couple hundred of those miles, the surface of the stone shield was bent down lower than normal. A hundred miles or so farther north behind that dip, it was bulging upward. This big plate wasn’t quite stiff enough to tip the whole thing up off the earth’s mantle, but the pressure was trying to do something like that. The rest of that massive stone shield was just too heavy. Sooner or later, something had to give. Instead of popping loose at the edge where all the action was taking place, it broke up in the deepest corner of this arc.
That break was just enough to let the pressure off so the plate could shift around just a little. The part that was bent down came loose from the catch and popped back up to its normal place, and the bulging part farther back from the edge fell back down into its normal place. That explains the image here that I borrowed from the USGS, mapping some aspects of that Bad Friday Earthquake. You really should click on it to get a closer look at the details (CTRL-click to open it in another browser tab). The red star over Prince William Sound is the breaking point, the epicenter of the actual earthquake.
American colonization of Alaska took place long after this pressure began building. They invested a lot of resources in infrastructure that was actually resting on a time bomb they couldn’t possibly know about. So from their point of view, a big chunk just popped up out of nowhere, but the part they were living on is what dropped down. It made a terrible mess of all that stuff they had built on the Alaskan rock and soil. Anchorage was the biggest improved area in those parts, and it suffered massive damage. It’s not that the rest of this area didn’t see some radical changes, but so very much of this state is not actively used by humans, so you aren’t going to read about the parts where people rarely set foot.
As you can see from the map, earthquakes don’t always center right on top of the subduction zone where you might expect them to be.
About Ed Hurst
One Response to Teaching Experiment: Earthquakes 3
1. forrealone says:
I, too, have been interested in/fascinated by earthquakes since i was a youngster. Living on Saipan in the Mariana Islands when i was little presented us with occasional earthquakes and tidal waves (tsunamis now) in the area. So because of that interest, i requested and receive earthquake emails from the USGS if they are greater than 6.0. Those of lesser magnitude are so frequent throughout the world that i would be getting notifications by the minute!
I appreciate your method of explaining the activity. For those who are not “students” of seismological activity, it helps one to understand the underlying mechanisms at play.
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Thursday, December 5, 2013
So How Exactly Does Smoking Affect A Fetus
How Does Smoking Affect a Fetus?
How Does Smoking Affect a Fetus?
Smoking during pregnancy is never a good idea, as it can severely affect the unborn child. The nicotine in cigarettes can cause artery spasms. Because blood is sent to the placenta via these arteries, these spasms can reduce the amount of oxygen and nutrients that the baby receives. As a result of nutrient and oxygen deficiency, the child is more likely to have a low birth weight. In fact, women who smoke heavily are twice as likely to give birth to a baby weighing less than 5 ½ pounds. Additionally, smoking can also increase the risk of premature delivery, which can lead to health conditions such as metal retardation, cerebral palsy and even death. The good news, however, is that women who stop smoking by the end of their second trimester drastically reduce their risk of having a premature or low birth weight baby.
Complication Risks
In addition to premature birth and low birth weight, smoking is also proven to cause pregnancy complications. Women who smoke during their pregnancy are twice as likely to encounter heavy bleeding during their delivery. This severe bleeding is usually a result of placental abruption, which occurs when the placenta separates from the uterus prematurely. The baby's oxygen and nutrient supply is cut off as a result of this separation, which may lead to major problems in both the mother and her child. In order to minimize the risks for both patients, doctors will often choose to perform a cesarean section if they believe the mother is experiencing placental abruption.
Effects of Carbon Monoxide
The carbon monoxide found in cigarette smoke may also harm an unborn child. When a person smokes, he or she inhales carbon monoxide, which then replaces oxygen and is carried through the blood stream via blood red cells. As a result, the fetus does not receive any oxygen and will make more red blood cells in an effort to increase the oxygen supply. If the fetus makes too many red blood cells, however, its blood may become too thick and cut off the blood supply to the unborn child's organs, resulting in death.
Long Term Effects
Although some women who smoke may give birth to a healthy baby, due to the long term effects of smoking, the child may develop health problems in the future. Recent studies indicate that children who were exposed to cigarettes during pregnancy are far more likely to develop learning disabilities and brain malformations. So even if your child is born with no abnormalities, future health problems may occur.
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Anything that a pregnant woman ingests into her body travels to the baby by way of the blood stream. When a pregnant woman smokes, her body and lungs absorb the nearly 2,500 different chemicals pr...
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Child putting together a toy
Occupational Therapy Services
Does your child need occupational therapy?
An occupational therapist (OT) is a trained professional who evaluates and then helps children with sensory integration, feeding skills, motor development, environmental exploration, play skills, adaptive behavior, and interaction between the child and others.
An OT referral may be indicated if the child demonstrates the following:
What is Sensory Processing and Sensory Integration?
Sensory Processing (sometimes called sensory integration or SI) is a term that refers to the way the nervous system receives messages from the senses and turns them into appropriate motor and behavioral responses. Whether you are eating an ice cream cone, sitting on the beach, or driving a car, your successful completion of the activity requires processing sensation or “sensory integration".
A sensory processing disorder (SPD), formally known as “sensory integration dysfunction”, is “ a condition that exists when sensory signals don’t get organized into their appropriate responses.” When these signals aren’t efficiently processed the brain has what amounts to a neurological traffic jam that prevents certain parts of the brain from receiving the information needed to interpret sensory information correctly. A person with SPD finds it difficult to process and act upon information received through the senses which creates challenges in performing countless every day tasks. Motor clumsiness, behavioral problems, anxiety, depression, school failure, and other impacts may result if the disorder is not treated effectively. The Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) Foundation research finds that 1 in 20 children are affected by these symptoms enough to impact participation and function in everyday life*.
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Sunday, November 15, 2015
We Were Brothers by Barry Moser
If brothers can have such animosity that they fail to actually discuss their differences until they're in their sixties, it's no wonder countries and people worldwide can't find common ground. Barry Moser addresses the first issue, that of brothers, in his memoir, We Were Brothers.
Artist and illustrator Barry Moser was born in the same Jim Crow South in Chattanooga, Tennessee, as his older brother, Tommy. They were only three years apart, but Tommy stayed in the south, while Barry went to New England. They both lived with the same racist culture, one in which their mother's childhood friend, Verneta, was not welcomed at the front door when company was in the house, until the night the Ku Klux Klan paraded through town. This story of a family, a neighborhood, and two brothers asks a question that puzzles Moser to this day. Why did he leave the south, especially to escape its racism, while his older brother stayed, expressing racist comments until Barry had the temerity to call him on it?
Moser traces it back to feelings of inferiority in his family. They grew up racist. The boys were both poor students in school, bullied there and later in military school. Was racism a way for men who felt inferior, who feared for their status, to feel better about themselves? Barry Moser says they grew up racist, taught that black folks were never as good as them, although his mother wouldn't have survived the death of her first husband if it hadn't been for Verneta. He admitted they were brought up to respect an individual black person. "But as far as our family was concerned the black race was show, shiftless, and ignorant."
Barry Moser admits his memoir is based on his memories. His brother is gone, dead of cancer, and his memories might have been different. But, in examining the animosity between the two, and their feelings about race, he searches for answers. How could two brothers, growing up in the same environment, grow so apart?
We Were Brothers is a thoughtful book. It's actually a collection of vignettes, small episodes in the lives of two brothers. But, the writing is enhanced by beautiful sketches by Moser, portraits of the family members in the book. Maybe men who are brothers won't be surprised at the occasional viciousness of the fights between Barry and Tommy. It struck me as sad. And, in the context of world events, although the two brothers reunited before Tommy's death, the book doesn't elicit a great deal of hope. Maybe people can unite, but there were years and years of hatred, viciousness and fights before they find common ground.
We Were Brothers by Barry Moser. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. 2015. ISBN 9781616204136 (hardcover), 186p.
FTC Full Disclosure - Library book
1 comment:
Nan said...
It seems to me that there are quite a few mysteries, and other fiction books, that deal with animosity among brothers. My father and one of his brothers were so completely different that they barely spoke. I guess it is like you say, 'you can choose your friends...'
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