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What are fractals?
Fractalarts ImageFractal Definition: A geometric pattern that is repeated (iterated) at ever smaller (or larger) scales to produce (self similar) irregular shapes and surfaces that cannot be represented by classical (Euclidian) geometry. Fractals are used especially in computer modeling of irregular patterns and structures found in nature.(1)
Relative to this art form fractals are a unique, digital art form using mathematical formulas to create art with an infinite diversity of form, detail, color and light. In simple terms, a fractal is a graphical representation of a mathematical equation. The formula used for a particular image determines how each pixel in the image is formed and colored. (Pixels are simply little squares which are the smallest display elements that make up the images you see on a computer monitor or television.) A typical fractal image contains millions of these pixels!
These complex images of extraordinary beauty can arise out of fairly simple mathematical formulas, and then by selectively modifying these formulas, changing coloring algorithms, etc. one can create unique compositions previously unseen to the human eye.
Relative to science, fractals are essentially geometric shapes or forms that are represented in natural objects, from a fern leaf or tree, to a spider web or snowflake, to larger phenomena such as clouds, hurricanes, or even galaxies in space. The discovery of fractals allowed for defining irregular shapes which could not be defined, or represented before by mathematics. One could define (or model mathematically) a square, rectangle, triangle etc., but one could not define. or model, the irregular shape of a cloud formation, or tree outline, or coastline. From perfect symmetry like a snowflake, to irregular shapes like a tree canopy, fractal geometry can measure and reproduce these unique shapes that are found throughout nature, mathematically.
One very common fractal shape or form, found in both fractals & throughout nature, is the spiral. This is one of the most common forms represented in the fractals one sees frequently on the internet, and this mathematical shape is pervasive throughout nature as well. Is there a connection between the mathematics and science, and creation? Fractals have been called the "Thumbprint of God", perhaps they are! The examples below are representive of this spiral form, on several levels of scale, from the microscopic, to galaxies in the universe.
Fractalarts ImageFractalarts ImageFractalarts Image Fractalarts ImageFractalarts ImageFractalarts Image
What is unique about fractals? Many things! But one amazing, characteristic aspect of fractals, is that they are infinite! A fractal is infinite in two distinct senses, the macro level, and the micro level. Fractals extend to infinitely large values of their co-ordinates, outwards in all directions from the center. It would be like starting at the very center of the universe and then moving outward to try and find the end of the universe!
Fractals also have infinite detail, in that one can zoom (magnify) in or out without limit (at least in theory) to show ever increasing detail within the image. This feature is one of the key aspects of fractals, whether relative to exploring fractals as an art form, or as found in nature.
Another distinguishing feature of fractals is it's property of self-similarity; an arbitrary region of a fractal looks very similar (but not necessarily identical) to the entire fractal. Just as DNA stores all the information that for each of us, all the information for a fractal is contained in its "parent" image.
Fractals, in art and nature, can range from beautiful symmetry to the chaotic, from a perfectly symmetrical snowflake to a massive chaotic thunderhead cloud. But regardless of their symmetry, or level of chaos, fractals are everywhere we look and I hope the beauty of fractal art captivates your imagination, as they have mine!
1. fractal. Dictionary.com. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fractal.
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The history of the early mapping of the southern polar regions presents a continual debate between observation and reason, between solely reporting what mariners encountered and turning those partial observations into a general understanding of the region. Henricus Hondius, working in about 1639, abandoned the older concept of terra australis [section 1] for recording a few scattered islands reported by explorers [item 31]. Not that the mariners’ observations were necessarily accurate: Hondius depicted a single chain of islands running across the Pacific from New Guinea to the Straits of Magellan, whose existence was affirmed by a Spanish explorer in 1576. But, for Hondius, the Antarctic itself was nothingness.
The great French geographer Guillaume Delisle (1675–1726) followed suit in 1714, tracing the paths of different explorers across the South Seas. But his son-in-law Philippe Buache (1700–1773) had more conceptual interests and hypothesized, once again, a southern continent [item 32 (on the other side of this wall)]. Buache undermined his father-in-law’s respect for hard data by adding to Delisle’s map of the south pole, within the web of explorers’ tracks, the label Terre Australis Antarctiques Soupçonnées (“Suspected southern Antarctic continent”) [item 33].
The pair to Hondius’s map of the Arctic [item 17 in section 2]. But without economic activity to report, Hondius filled the spandrels with images of the indigenous peoples from South America (and one penguin).
31. Henricus Hondius
Polus Antarcticus
Amsterdam, ca.1639
Even as some geographers scrupulously followed the evidence provided by explorers and other mariners, and so left the Antarctic blank [see item 22, to your left], others continued to speculate about polar regions. In particular, Philippe Buache combined mariners’ observations of ice floes and historical evidence (he traced the extent of terra australis on maps by Ortelius [item 4 in section 1] and others) with his own ideas of the organization of the ranges of mountains around the globe, to hypothesize an Antarctic “Land yet Undiscover’d” embracing a “Frozen Sea as supposed.” Buache thought this southern continent to be analogous to northern Asia, and suggested that it would have similar great rivers: to stress this he also superimposed a heavily shaded outline of Siberia.
32. Philippe Buache
“Chart of the Antarctic Polar Circle, with the Countries adjoining, According to the New Hypothesis of M. Buache”
From: Gentlemen’s Magazine (London, 1763)
Philippe Buache updated his father-in-law’s original 1714 map. It was subsequently reprinted, after Buache’s death, by the Parisian publisher Jean-Claude Dezauche.
33. Guillaume Delisle and Philippe Buache
Hémisphere Méridional pour voir plus distinctement les Terres Australes
Paris: Jean-Claude Dezauche, ca. 1785
Explorers who sailed southern waters relied in large part upon observations of the stars to determine their latitude. Like those who raced for the North Pole, those who would reach the South Pole had to know the stars in order to know when they had, in fact, reached the pole. Boynton’s star chart shows the stars and broad areas of each constellation in the southern sky. The older constellations are figured, such as Lupus (the wolf) and Centaurus. But the southern constellations were recent creations and manifested astronomers’ interests: telescopium (the telescope); triang. aust. (southern triangle); or, across the celestial south pole, octans (the octant).
34. G. W. Boynton
“Circumjacent the South Pole”
From: Bradford Duncan, The Wonders of the Heavens (Boston: American Stationers Company, 1837)
Eventually, after the careful charting of the edges of Antarctica by James Cook, Charles Wilkes, and others [section 5], nineteenth-century geographers had sufficient observations to refute earlier suppositions. This tour du force, made on the eve of the race to the South Pole [sections 6 and 7], presents known areas of land (brown), open water (blue), the extent of winter drift ice (green), permanent ice (white), and in the very center the Unerforschtes Gebiet (the unknown region).
35. Augustus Petermann
From: Stieler’s Hand-Atlas (Gotha: Justus Perthes, 1890), 7
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Pin Me
Spanish Lesson Plan: The Imperfect Indicative Tense
written by: Eric W. Vogt • edited by: Rebecca Scudder • updated: 1/20/2012
This is the easiest tense to learn to conjugate in the whole language - only three irregular verbs. So why do students often have trouble using it? Is it the preterite's fault? Find out how to teach this tense without reference to the preterite at first...
• slide 1 of 1
The Spanish Imperfect: The Easiest Tense
The preterite in Spanish almost always corresponds to a simple past-tense verb in English, e.g., he spoke (habló). The imperfect aspect in English however is expressed as a verb phrase. Thus, the imperfect aspect is expressed as either he was speaking or he used to speak, and also he would speak, but only, only when it can be substituted by used to speak (hablaba). The English auxiliary verb would is dangerous for English speakers who are learning Spanish because it must be rendered either as a true conditional (hablaría -- used in tandem with a hypothetical, or contra factual expressed by the imperfect subjunctive), imperfect (hablaba, as above) or the imperfect subjunctive (hablara). So it's important to mean what you say... and say what you mean!
Tell them that the imperfect is going to be a breath of fresh air because there are only three irregular verbs -- and they will learn them before I even show them how to do the regular forms -- because they are so easy.
First, I tell them that the imperfect is the tense they will need at least 90% of the time whenever, in English, they would say "was or were + Verb-ING" or "used to + Infinitive Verb." I tell them that this is the "90%" rule and that if they follow it, when making decisions on a quiz, they are likely to get a 90% if they follow it, however blindly. They tend to like those odds.
• Author's more than 20 years of experience teaching and translating Spanish.
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Nevada, United States
Goldfield, mining ghost town, seat (1907) of Esmeralda county, southwestern Nevada, U.S., in desert country south of Tonopah. It was the site of a gold rush that began in 1902 and lasted until 1918. In 1910 the production of ore reached an all-time high, valued at more than $11 million. Federal troops were stationed in the town during a bitter labour struggle (1907–08) between the miners and the operators. After 1918 Goldfield’s population declined rapidly from an estimated 40,000 in 1910 to fewer than 200; a fire in 1923 destroyed much of the town’s original centre. The 200-room Goldfield Hotel was closed except for a brief period during World War II when it accommodated servicemen at an air force station located a few miles north; the imposing structure stands empty today. To the southeast is the vast Nellis Air Force Range and Nuclear Testing Site. Tourism keeps the 400 people still living in Goldfield in business.
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A Patent, often referred to as a "First Title Deed", is a certificate issued by Federal, State and foreign governments transferring land to an individual. In effect the government acted as the seller in a land transaction.
To secure a Patent a person had to either pay cash for the land or furnish proof of why the land should be granted (given) to them. The federal and state governments have sold or given away a lot of land over the years. The US Government has from the Colonial Period to the early 20th Century issued over 5 million federal land grants and patents and the original 13 colonies, Texas and Hawaii issued several thousands more.
The giving of the right to land was called a Grant. A grant did not transfer ownership to an individual piece of property. Rather a grant could be used in exchange for a patent. Normally a grant entailed requirements that had to be met before a patent was issued. For example: A grant for a homestead could not be exchanged for a patent until the person had lived on, and improved the land, for a period of 5 years. Grants were also used by governments conferring the right to sell land to an individual, a company, or an agent, allowing them to retain a portion of the profits while not owning the land.
You will often find the terms Patent and Grant used interchangeably. But they are not actually the same thing. A Grant conferred a right and a Patent is a piece of paper that is in essence a deed.
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Elephant Reproduction
Birth and Care of Young
Courtship and Copulation
When a female elephant (or ‘cow’) is ready to mate – which can happen at any time of year and under any circumstances – she sends out an infrasonic signal that is heard by males (or ‘bulls’) up to many tens of miles away. Upon receiving this signal, they begin to travel toward it; this can take a day or two, but thankfully elephants have no breeding season and can remain fertile for a relatively long period of time.
When they arrive, they will fight. These fights look rather fierce from the outside, with clashing tusks and deafening trumpets and rampaging bulk, but really they’re almost entirely for show: it is relatively rare for a bull to actually become injured during one of these fights, and they are amongst the most gentle courtship battles ever observed in nature.
What is most interesting is what happens next, though. Usually, the cow will then approach the winner and rub her body affectionately up against his, thereby accepting him as a mate. If she does not do this, however, the rejected victor simply leaves and the remaining elephants fight again – continuing the process until a pairing has been made that suits the cow. Once the decision is made, the other males go back to their own ranges and the winners copulate.
The Gestation Period
Once the mating is complete, the bull usually remains with the herd for a few hours to eat and socialise before himself returning to his usual haunts. A bull who stays with a matriarchal herd for longer after mating is rare, but they have been observed occasionally in safari parks and wildlife ranges.
Elephants have the longest gestation period in nature, and carry their young inside them for nearly two full years. During this time, they are mostly able to carry out their usual tasks and duties without interruption – though there is some evidence that a herd will travel with a pregnant cow in the middle, to protect her from anything that might think they can take advantage of her reduced speed and agility.
African Elephant - Loxodonta africana
African Elephant with her calf
Labour, Birth and Newborn Calves
All mammals have painful births, and elephants are no exception. They manage better than some, however; they rarely die during childbirth. While a cow is labouring, the other elephants in her herd tend to gather around her and touch or caress her gently with their trunks.
It’s almost unheard of for more than one calf to be born at a time, and this newborn calf can immediately stand up under his or her own power and walk a few faltering steps on its not so little feet. Even newborn, the calf will weigh something in the region of 260 lbs. They need to be this large for good reason, however; elephants are tall animals, and babies need to be able to reach their mother to feed on milk.
Early Childhood
The life cycle of an elephant is actually remarkably similar to that of a human, in some ways. The calf will begin to eat some solid food at about six months of age, but will continue to supplement their diet with mother’s milk till somewhere between the ages of two and three.
From just a few days old, the calf will be able to walk well enough to keep up with the herd on their travels. They are kept to the middle of the group, however – to protect them from potential predators, who are generally far more interested in a calf than they ever would be in an adult elephant.
Calves are great fans of play behaviour, both with the adult elephants who raise them and with any other calves they might meet. Most playing takes place in or around water, with elephants splashing and squirting and generally messing about while drinking, bathing and cooling off from the heat of the sun.
Asian Elephant - Elephas maximus
Asian Elephant and their newborn
Sometime between the ages of eight and twelve, young elephants begin to diverge according to sex. Juvenile cows will remain with the herd, usually all their lives – and by the age of 15 they have usually made their first mating call and begun their own reproductive life. Young bulls, on the other hand, almost always leave the herd – sometimes reluctantly. If they have brothers or know of other calves departing for pastures new at this time, they will usually join together and form a ‘bachelor herd’ for a while. These herds are not usually lifelong, and eventually almost all bulls become solitary and spend much of their time alone.
It is often not until the elephants reach this stage in their lives that their mother will mate again, though some choose to reproduce once more sooner than this. They never copulate before their calf is fully weaned, however.
Elephant Reproduction Related Articles
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literaturearticles, news
Articles in literature
Khmer Romanization
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Khmer romanization refers to the representation of the Khmer (Cambodian) language using letters of the Latin (Roman) alphabet. Romanization of Khmer is usually applied to Khmer proper nouns such as names of people and geographical names as in a gazetteer.
Khmer Numerals
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Khmer numerals are characters used for writing numbers for several languages in Cambodia, most notably Cambodia's official language, Khmer. They date back to at least the oldest known epigraphical inscription of the Khmer numerals in 604 AD, found on a stele in Prasat Bayang, Cambodia, located not far from Angkor Borei.
Khmer Grammar
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Khmer grammar is generally a Subject Verb Object (SVO) language with prepositions. Although primarily an isolating language, lexical derivation by means of prefixes and infixes is common.
Word order
Khmer Dialects
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Dialects are sometimes quite marked. Notable variations are found in speakers from Phnom Penh (which is the capital city), the rural Battambang area, the areas of Northeast Thailand adjacent to Cambodia such as Surin province, the Cardamom Mountains, and in southern Vietnam.[4] The dialects form a continuum running roughly north to south. The speech of Phnom Penh, considered the standard, is mutually intelligible with the others but a Khmer Krom speaker from Vietnam, for instance, may have great difficulty communicating with a Khmer native to Sisaket Province in Thailand.
Khmer Script
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The Khmer script (អក្ខរក្រមខេមរភាសា; âkkhârâkrâm khémârâ phéasa, informally aksar Khmer; អក្សរខ្មែរ) is used to write the Khmer language which is the official language of Cambodia.
Khmer Language
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Khmer (ភាសាខ្មែរ), or Cambodian, is the language of the Khmer people and the official language of Cambodia. It is the second most widely spoken Austroasiatic language (after Vietnamese), with speakers in the tens of millions. Khmer has been considerably influenced by Sanskrit and Pali, especially in the royal and religious registers, through the vehicles of Hinduism and Buddhism. It is also the earliest recorded and earliest written language of the Mon-Khmer family, predating Mon and by a significant margin Vietnamese. As a result of geographic proximity, the Khmer language has influenced, and also been influenced by; Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and Cham many of which all form a pseudo-sprachbund in peninsular Southeast Asia, since most contain high levels of Sanskrit and Pali influences.
News in literature
Cleveland High students donate $2100 to PCL Cambodia project
Google News - Mon, 2013-05-13 16:33
CLEVELAND HIGH SCHOOL students from Melissa Adams' sports marketing class and Athena Davis' AP Holocaust literature class teamed up to organize and market the Run For Cover 5K to benefit People for Care and Learning's Build a City project. catched
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, , , ,
Matronalia (or Matronales Feriae) was a festival celebrated in Ancient Rome on March 1 every year in honour of Juno in her role of Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth (“Juno who brings children into the light”). Prior to the reform of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar, this was the first day of the new year.
At home, women were expected to prepare a meal for the household slaves and received gifts from their husbands and daughters. Roman husbands, however, were expected to offer prayers for their wives.
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About Haplocanthosaurus
Haplocanthosaurus was discovered by John Bell Hatcher in 1901, near Canyon City, Colorado, USA. This type of dinosaur lived for many millions of years and was found throughout the Earth. Like other Sauropods, Haplocanthosaurus breathed through nostrils found in the top of its head. This large animal spent its time lumbering slowly in search of food. Large sauropods would have required a tremendous amount of food to feed their monstrous metabolisms.
What is this dinosaur’s name?
How do I pronounce Haplocanthosaurus?
What does the name Haplocanthosaurus mean?
Single Spiked Dinosaur
How long was Haplocanthosaurus?
70.00 feet 21.00 meters
How heavy was Haplocanthosaurus?
40000.00 pounds 20000.00 kilograms
What dinosaur class was Haplocanthosaurus assigned to?
What did Haplocanthosaurus eat?
How many years ago did Haplocanthosaurus live?
150,000,000 Years Ago
In what period did Haplocanthosaurus live?
Late Jurassic
Where did Haplocanthosaurus live?
Colorado, North America, Wyoming
Haplocanthosaurus Picture Image
Haplocanthosaurus's Time
Years Ago
Haplocanthosaurus Map
Haplocanthosaurus's size
0 kg
Dinosaur Period Arrow
The totally free children’s learning network
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Factorising algebraic expressions with powers
Recognising letter terms as possible factors
The starter activity helps students to understand factors are not restricted to numerical terms but could also include letters (or unknowns).
To help with this I have included some possible factor pairs of 36x2y. When I first taught this one student made an interesting point of including 72x2 and 1/2 y as a factor pair. Algebraically this works but we would not typically include fractions or decimals when finding the factor pairs of a number.
factorising algebraic expressions with powers
I ask students to work on mini-whiteboards to write at least 5 factor pairs of the term 40ab2c. For the purpose of this activity factor pairs involving fractions and decimals are encouraged as this comes up later in the lesson. A couple of the higher ability students include factor pairs such as 40abd and bcd-1 which I applaud.
Factorising algebraic expressions with powers
When factorising terms involving powers students need to understand the basic rules of indices. As we work through the first couple of examples I write out each term as a product of the highest common factor. For example,
r3t + rt2
r3t = rt × r2
rt2 = rt × t
rt(r2 + t)
6w2y – 8wy2
6w2y = 2wy × 3w
– 8wy2 = 2wy × - 4y
2wy(3w – 4y)
8u3c2 – 20u2c
8u3c2 = 4u2c × 2uc
– 20u2c = 4u2c × -5
4u2c (2uc – 5)
I work through the first questions in this way and ask the class to attempt the next two on mini-whiteboards with similar working out. After this students work in their exercise book to match the equivalent expressions.
Complex factorisations for the most able
As students work independently through the questions on the third slide I challenge the most able to factorise expressions similar to those in the extension. I remember a similar question appearing in the final GCSE paper a couple of years back. The examiner's report noted most students didn't have a clue.
To factorise 16(f + d)2 + 8f + 8d most students only recognise 8 as a common factor. We discuss the need to factorise 8f + 8d and rewrite the expression as 16(f + d)2 + 8(f + d). It is now easier to see 8 and (f + d) are both common factors. 16(f + d)2 + 8f + 8d factorises to 8(f + d) (2f + 2d + 1).
Linking factorising algebraic expressions with powers to perimeter and area
In the plenary we investigate factorising the algebraic area of a rectangle to find possible perimeters. I ask everyone to include taking out the highest common factor for one of their solutions.
factorising algebraic expressions with powers
The plenary takes about 8 minutes with students working in pairs on mini-whiteboards.
Supporting the less and challenging the most able
For the less able students I emphasise the need to find the highest common denominator as they quite often only partially factorise by taking out the numerical factor.
For more able students I include problems involving negative powers such as 18x-2y + 27xy-2 = 9xy(2x-3 + 3y-3) This requires a greater understanding of the rules of indices.
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Mr Mathematics Blog
How to Draw a Venn Diagram to Calculate Probabilities
Calculations with Percentages
Proving Geometrical Relationships using Algebra
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Bluff shelters should be preserved not only because they are a warehouse of information for archeologists who seek knowledge about the past. They should also be preserved because they are sacred spaces. Contemporary Native American tribes such as the Osage and Caddo Nations feel a strong historical connection to Ozark bluff shelters, and that they have a responsibility to help protect these sites which may be affiliated with their ancestors. At least two different archeological aspects of these sites speak to their spiritual dimension—use of the shelters as the final resting place for the ancient dead and the presence of rock art which is associated with ritual practices.
Burials of the Ancestors
Bluff shelters and caves have unique qualities that Native Americans have long recognized.
Many bluff shelter sites across the Arkansas Ozarks contain human burials. For thousands of years Native Americans sometimes buried their dead in bluff shelters and caves in the Ozark Mountains. Researchers Jerry Hilliard and Devon Pettigrew have noted that in the late prehistoric (i.e., Late Woodland and Mississippian), these sites continued to be used as burial places but with notable differences. For instance, large bluffs overlooking the White River came to be specifically used as mortuary houses and the people who were interred here seem to have a special status. Artifacts made of marine shell, imported from the Gulf Coast, were buried with multiple individuals in some bluffs and caves along the White River and its tributaries. These items, because they are rare in the Ozarks, are assumed to belong to people who played an important role within their society. Some burials in the White River bluff shelters are interpreted as litter burials because the 1930s University of Arkansas Museum crew field records noted occurrence of cedar poles underlying burials and woven mats found over and under individuals. The presence of what appear to be litters, marine shell, and multiple individuals interred in “set-aside” repositories at sites like Edens Bluff and Putnam certainly indicate an elaborate burial program during the late prehistoric period in the Ozarks, at least along the Upper White River and in the vicinity of the ceremonial mound centers.
For Native Americans in the Mississippi period, the bluff shelters were already historic sites. Bluff shelters and caves have environmental characteristics that naturally preserve perishable goods and remains for long periods. Native Americans in the prehistoric Ozarks recognized the preservative qualities of these dry bluffs as documented archeologically in the discovery of numerous covered pits with foodstuff and textiles such as cached seed bags. By the time people began building mounds in the Ozarks, generations of their ancestors had used the bluffs leaving behind artifacts that were discovered by these new residents as they cleaned shelter floors, prepared hearths, and dug storage pits. Some of these tools, like ancient dart points and knives, were reused and perhaps even kept as heirloom objects because they were so different. Thus the bluff shelters in the Ozarks may have been historic landmarks even in the prehistoric period. Bluff shelters may have been chosen as specialized burial locations because of a desire to bury relatives at a place where the ancestors once resided and also buried their dead. Bluffs, caves, and shelters, especially those overlooking the major rivers, may have become a place of pilgrimage for the purpose of ritual interment in the prehistoric Ozarks.
In addition to providing a connection to their history, bluff shelters had other attractions as a location for burying the dead. Bluff shelters and caves have unique qualities that Native Americans have long recognized. Geologically they may contain underground features like niches, caves, tunnels, streams, or springs as well as overhangs with grotto-like formations, high passages, niches, and visually interesting patterns on walls and overhangs created by erosion. They provide habitats for various interesting animals, like bats, bears, snakes, salamanders, unusual cave insects, cliff swallows, and many other species. These elements of caves, bluffs, and rock shelters have characteristics easily invested with meaning central to the cosmology and world view of the Native Americans who long occupied the Ozarks, thus making them strong candidates to become sacred places. Many Native American belief systems divide the spirit world into an above world and a below world that have different, sometimes opposite, characteristics. Underground places like caves may have been perceived as symbolically appropriate for burial sites.
Rock Art & Ritual
Not all rock art depicts the supernatural or is a part of ancient rituals. Some rock art depicts naturalistic images from everyday life, like the paddlefish and fish trap pictographs from Rock House Cave. Other examples are more abstract or geometric. However, some rock art seems to be associated with the performance of ritual activities that express the mythological and cosmological beliefs of Native American communities. Some of this ritual rock art is associated with the aforementioned burial sites—such as Edens Bluff, Brown Bluff, Putnam, Peterbottom Cave, and Hulet Cave. Still other examples, especially north of the Arkansas River and in small isolated shelters, have been interpreted as connected to the prehistoric ritual life of Native Americans. Dr. George Sabo’s interpretation of the human figures at The Narrows as a depiction of a dance honoring a Native American creation myth is one such example.
The main panel of anthropomorphs at The Narrows shelter, image enhanced to contrast figures. The work of Dr. George Sabo interprets this panel as a possible depiction of a dance honoring a Native American creation myth.
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Alphabet filter:
Want to find out what does the word corner mean? We gathered all the possible definitions of the word corner on our website. Our definition dictionary is updated all the time with new definitions and is ready to help you.
Part of speech: Noun
An angle; the point where two lines, sides, or edges meet; a secluded place; a remote point; as, the corners of the earth.
Part of speech: Verb
To drive into some position of difficulty from which there is no escape: corner the market, to buy upstock or property, so as to obtain exclusive control or possession of it.
Part of speech: Adverb
Usage examples "corner":
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I always say, “The Nose Knows!”
On this day in 1832, Charles Darwin traveling aboard the HMS Beagle landed on the shores of Rio de Janeiro as part of a five-year trip. His Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, which emerged as a result of his journey on the Beagle, remains one of the most important scientific discoveries of the 20th century.
Darwin was born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. He attended Edinburgh University as a young man to become a doctor, but discovered quickly that he couldn’t stand the sight of blood or suffering. He decided to become a clergyman in the countryside instead, so that he could more fully pursue his interest in natural history.
Before he could complete his religious studies, he was approached by the Captain of the HMS Beagle, Robert Fitzroy, who sought an unpaid companion for the trip. Darwin agreed, seeing opportunity to catalog animals and plants on the journey. Later, Darwin discovered that he almost missed his chance in the history books, detailing the ordeal in one of his letters: “Afterwards, on becoming very intimate with Fitz-Roy, I heard that I had run a very narrow risk of being rejected, on account of the shape of my nose! He was an ardent disciple of Lavater, and was convinced that he could judge a man’s character by the outline of his features; and he doubted whether anyone with my nose could possess sufficient energy and determination for the voyage. But I think he was afterwards well-satisfied that my nose had spoken falsely.”
Darwin and Fitzroy landed at port in Rio in April of 1832, and stayed until June. At the start of the trip on land, Darwin recorded the midday temperature in the shade as a sweltering 104 degrees Fahrenheit. He took ill at one point but was cured overnight by “cinnamon and port wine.”
In one day, he collected 68 different species of beetles. One of the most memorable moments of the stop came when he came across a parasitic wasp laying eggs inside a live caterpillar, to be eaten alive by the grubs after hatching. This event single-handedly challenged Darwin’s belief in God; he wrote to fellow naturalist Asa Gray: “There seems to me too much misery in the world. I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent and omnipotent God would have designedly created the [parasitic wasp] with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of caterpillars.”
Darwin himself sampled many of the animals he encountered on the islands that he visited. He ate armadillos, iguanas, giant tortoises, agouti rodents (“the best meat I ever tasted”), a puma with “veal-like” meat, and a large bird called a rhea, which Darwin had been looking for desperately before realizing that he had been dining on it.
Darwin finally reached the famous Galapagos Islands three years later, in 1835. Then, in 1859, he published his seminal book On the Origin of Species. Those looking through the prolific library of Darwin at the time of the theory’s development will encounter endless marginalia detailing his thought process. On the final page of his copy of Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which argued for an archaic view of evolution, Darwin scribbled a single line: “If this were true, adios theory.”
Reposted from Writer’s Almanac.
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< Previous: Property observers Next: Mutating methods >
Structs can have functions inside them, and those functions can use the properties of the struct as they need to. Functions inside structs are called methods, but they still use the same func keyword.
We can demonstrate this with a City struct. This will have a population property that stores how many people are in the city, plus a collectTaxes() method that returns the population count multiplied by 1000. Because the method belongs to City it can read the current city’s population property.
Here’s the code:
struct City {
var population: Int
func collectTaxes() -> Int {
return population * 1000
That method belongs to the struct, so we call it on instances of the struct like this:
let london = City(population: 9_000_000)
Hacking with watchOS
< Previous: Property observers Next: Mutating methods >
Click here to visit the Hacking with Swift store >>
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"url": "https://www.hackingwithswift.com/sixty/7/4/methods"
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Whistling coqui
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Whistling coquí
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Eleutherodactylidae
Genus: Eleutherodactylus
Subgenus: Eleutherodactylus
Species: E. cochranae
Binomial name
Eleutherodactylus cochranae
Grant, 1932
Eleutherodactylus ramosi Rivero, 1959
The whistling coquí, Cochran's treefrog, or Cochran's robber frog (Eleutherodactylus cochranae) is a species of frog native to Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, and the British Virgin Islands.[1][2] This nocturnal insectivore is also referred to as the coquí pitito in Puerto Rico. Their distinctive song is a single, rising whistle, which is repeated and followed by three clicking sounds.
The whistling coqui measures between 0.6 and 0.7 inches, but the females can grow to 0.9 in long. Their physical coloration is gray, tan, or gray-brown. Their dorsa have a unique pattern of fine lines that resemble two reverse parenthesis {)(}. Their venters are white, gray, or creamy yellow. Their legs are brown with small toe pads, and they have dark, fine lines on the midline of their snouts. Their throats and thighs are distinctive for their speckled, small brown spots. See references for picture website.
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The whistling coqui is usually found sleeping in the refuge of tree bromeliads (where it also lays its eggs) and coconut husk piles during the day. Several inhabit the southwest flank of the Luquillo Mountains and Guanica’s dry forest in Puerto Rico, as well as humid areas of Puerto Rico such as Utuado, Cayey, and the Caribbean National Forest. Overall, they range from the Puerto Rican islands (except Mona and Monito) to St. John, St. Thomas, and the British Virgin Islands (except Anegada). The whistling coqui is found in semiarid, wooded areas, such as the dry forest of Guánica and the humid areas of Utuado, Cayey, and Luquillo. They find and use trees, such as bromeliad plants, and leaf litter to hide from predators during the day. Depending on their area, they are found as high as three feet from the ground in trees.
Males use their songs as mating calls from about three feet from the ground in trees, and are usually heard before dusk and after dawn. Their reproduction, as most of the Leptodactylidae family, skips the tadpole phase. Their eggs are laid in humid areas, and the froglets emerge and continue their lives.
1. ^ a b Neftalí Rios-López (2010). "Eleutherodactylus cochranae". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2010: e.T56515A11488661. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-2.RLTS.T56515A11488661.en. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
2. ^ Frost, Darrel R. (2014). "Eleutherodactylus cochranae Grant, 1932". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
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Human Sacrifice in the Aztec Empire
After the Sala (Room) Teotihuacan, the next major exhibit is the Sala Mexica.
The empire from Mexico’s central plateau which we call the Aztec Empire, was actually comprised of many different groups of people and emerged around the 13th Century CE (is that before or after the year 0?). The museum refers to the empire as the Mexica, but the Aztec people did found the empire’s capital city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan in the 14th Century CE. The empire grew to dominate much of the region that we call Mesoamerica.
The Mexica empire located its main cities on Lake Texcoco by constructing manmade islands called chinampas. These islands gave the Mexica people more land for their cities as well as for growing crops. They used the waterways between the islands like streets, so it was easier to trade and communicate between cities.
OI000439 (1).jpg
The Mexica empire was focused heavily on militarism and warfare. Its main gods were gods of war and the ceremonies around capturing of prisoners and human sacrifice were central to everyday life.
OI000435.jpgOI000436.jpgOI000434.jpgThe images above show a rock used in sacrifice. The rock was found at the edge of the pyramids. The person to be sacrificed was placed lying face-up over the rock so that his chest arched up, making it easier for the priests to take out his heart.
OI000432.jpgAbove: a knife used in human sacrifice.
The nobles in society formed two prestigious military societies — the eagle warriors and the jaguar warriors. OI000430.jpgOI000429.jpgThe symbol of the Eagle warriors!
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Infographic Template Galleries
Created with Fabric.js 1.4.5 Jacques Cartier Jacques Cartier Born in St. Malo France in 1491 Died September, 1557 When Cartier found his so called "riches" he gave them to the king. they turned out just to befools gold and pyrite. Cartier's first voyage was April 20, 1534. His task was to find the Northwest Passage. His second voyage was on May 19,1535. His task for this voyage was to look for riches in a legendary kingdom.His third voyage was on May 23, 1541. His final task was to start a French colony. Cartier never found the Northwest Passage or the Legendary city. He didn't start a French colony. On one of Cartier's many voyageshe and his men saw the Mi'kmaq tribe.they were frightened because they wereoutnumbered by the Mi'kmaq. Cartier helped find Canada and namedit "Kanata". Cartier was important to the world because he was very brave going places no one had ever been. Imagine going through treacherousvalleys, mountains, rivers and not knowing what you're going to find. Although Cartier failed most of his tasks he was still a big part in helping our world become what it is today. For example if he hadn't been brave enough to go exploring in parts of the world that no one dared to go, no one would know about those parts of the world today, no one else would have been inspired by Cartier's bravery and would of never finished what he set out to do. That is why our European explorers are so important.
Create Your Free Infographic!
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Course Description
450.650 - Cultural Eras:The 1960s
The Sixties. A collage of events, people, sights, sounds, and ideas immediately come to mind. These powerful visual representations in many ways define the history of the '60s. In this course we will consider the images, memories, history, and legacy of the '60s through an interdisciplinary exploration using literature, art, history, politics, music, and film. Cultural identity located within defining events provide the focus. Black, white, Vietnamese, astronaut, protestor, gay, journalist, soldier, woman, man, young, old. How do people see themselves within the context of larger cultural events and changes that many have labeled revolutionary? We will examine the major themes through a focus on some of the major social dramas of the period and the cultural rhetoric employed to articulate meaning including: landing on the moon, the assassination of Malcolm X, the Tet Offensive and My Lai, Woodstock, and the 1969 Stonewall Riots.
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"url": "http://advanced.jhu.edu/academics/graduate-degree-programs/liberal-arts/course-description/?courseID=650"
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Sicel language
Sicel language, language spoken by the ancient Siculi (Sicels) in Italy and Sicily. The language is known from four inscriptions dating from the 3rd century bc and from several coins dating from the 6th and 5th centuries bc.
After the Greek settlements in Sicily, the Siculi became Hellenized and substituted Greek for their original language. Scholars believe Sicel to have been an Indo-European language, primarily on the basis of the word esti, “is” (Latin: est; Greek: esti), and the grammatical endings of some words.
Sicel language
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Sicel language
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"language_score": 0.9110521078109741,
"url": "https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sicel-language"
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Cold war era nuclear tests encouraged impressive impact on space weather
Cold war era nuclear tests encouraged impressive impact on space weatherThe cold war between the United States and USSR that was conducted to tests high-altitude nuclear explosion 250 miles above the surface lasted for 45 years. According to the new study, the tests activated the changes in Earth’s magnetic environment similar to those resulting from naturally-occurring space weather, when the sun gives out high-energy particles streaming towards the magnetosphere. It has also caused a commotion. Cold War-era tests upsurged temporary radiation belts around the Earth and gave rise to artificial auroras that are visible on the equators and not on the poles.
Earth is surrounded by Van Allen radiation belts zones of highly charged particles. It has caused major damages to several satellites that were orbiting at a lower altitude and the electrical grids on the ground. These high-altitude explosions created an ‘extreme example’ of wonders caused by the sun. The tests were associated with the strained utility grids in Hawaii and satellite disturbance.
Space weather, a phenomenon in which radiation and high-energy particles from the sun constantly interact with the geomagnetic field of the Earth. The test first created a massive, expanding fireball of plasma followed by geomagnetic disturbance. These disturbances slanted Earth’s magnetic field lines thus creating an electric field. This helped the space agencies to think how to protect astronauts in Low Earth Orbit.
Co-author Phile Erickson, an assistant director at MIT’s Haystack Observatory said, “The tests were a human-generated and extreme example of some of the space weather effects frequently caused by the sun. If we come to know what exactly happened in somewhat controlled and extreme event that was caused by one of these man-made events, we can more easily understand the natural variation in the near-space environment.”
The tests caused geomagnetic storms detected from Sweden all the way to Arizona, with two high-speed waves of particles traveling at the speed of 1,860 miles per second and almost 500 miles per second.
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The Washington Monument was built to honor the first president, George Washington, but work did not begin until more than 50 years after his death. It took 40 years to finish the monument thanks to its size, delays caused by the Civil War and other issues. The monument -- a gateway for talking about the first president and the historical period around its construction -- is one of the most recognized landmarks in the United States. Students can build a model of this monument as part of a unit about U.S. history or patriotism.
Papier-mache can be an appropriate project for kids of all ages. Build a frame out of strong wire with a heavy gauge and cover it with the glue-soaked strips of paper. Get complete coverage to create a sturdy tower. Once the paper and glue are dry, paint the monument white. Add a ring of small flags around the base, and the model is complete. If you prefer a less messy paper project, use construction paper. Cut a long rectangle, and crease the paper into four, thin sections lengthwise. Cut the top of each section to a point. Fold the rectangle together, creasing the sides as you go. Tape or glue it together. Fold in the triangular pieces at the top so that they meet in a point and tape them together. Mount the monument on a base and add the flags.
Carved Plastic Foam
Older children who can handle a craft knife can create a model out of plastic foam. Use floral foam or craft foam that can be easily carved. Find a narrow rectangular shape that needs minimal carving. Use a craft knife to fine-tune the form of the monument until you create the right shape and size. Taper one end of the rectangle so that it has a slightly wider base. This will be more like the actual monument and provide a stronger base on which the model can stand. Carve the top into a triangular point. Imagine a small pyramid on top of a large, rectangular pillar. Cover the foam in paper or paint it with a thick foam paint to create a smoother surface, or leave the foam bare -- but if you do, use white foam.
Wooden Blocks
Toddlers and preschool-aged children can make a monument out of wooden blocks. You can buy plain, wooden blocks in a variety of sizes, but 1- or 2-inch blocks are ideal for this project. Stack the blocks to build the tower, and glue them together. The children can use a glue stick to hold the blocks together as they stack them, or provide assistance with a white craft glue. A glue stick will provide a temporary hold to build the monument, but white glue will create a longer-lasting bond if you want to preserve the monument. At the top, glue a small pyramid shape. Once all the glue is dry, paint the monument with water-based white paint. Mount it on a piece of foam board or craft foam. Print small U.S. flags and tape or glue them to toothpicks to create the base.
Edible Materials
Creating a monument from edible materials allows you to learn a bit about history while also enjoying a tasty treat when you are finished. Square marshmallows are the best materials for the project, but you can also use regular, jumbo marshmallows. Put a little decorator icing in a bag, and dab a bit of icing onto the end of each marshmallow as you stack them on top of each other. The icing works like glue. However, you won't be able to stack the marshmallows very high before they spill over. For more support, add toothpicks to the center of each marshmallow as you stack them. Cut a marshmallow into a pyramid shape to create the top of the monument. Use red, white and blue decorator icing to create the small flags on the base. Put the icing directly on the plate, or decorate small graham crackers for the flags.
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To Kill a Mockingbird; Loss of Innocence
To Kill a Mockingbird; Loss of Innocence
in To Kill a Mockingbird
To kill a mockingbird, wrote by Harper Lee is a novel that shows the prejudice, discrimination and racial segregation in the mid 1930’s, the time of the great depression. Harper cleverly gets across many themes in the novel such as social class, injustice, racial segregation and the strong influence on gender. A key theme is the loss of innocence especially to our main characters Jem and scout. Jem slowly loses it over time in the book as he matures into a young man however he is pushed along the way by some of the life experiences he endures.
The main one been the point when he is distraught at the fact that Tom Robinson is found guilty at the trial, Throughout the trial, Jem watches with great interest, and is convinced that based on the evidence, there is no way the jury can convict Tom. So when the verdict comes back as guilty, Jem feels as though he’s been physically attacked. Judge Taylor was polling the jury: “Guilty… guilty… guilty… guilty… ” I peeked at Jem: his hands were white from gripping the balcony rail, and his shoulders jerked as if each “guilty” was a separate stab between them.
While Jem’s certainty about the trial’s outcome is receiving these blows, the verdict also seems to be a broader attack on things Jem thought were true: that the legal system is just, that innocent men are acquitted, that Maycomb is a community of good, fair-minded people. After the trial, Jem struggles to figure out why people are so eager to divide into groups and hate each other. Scout says that people are just people, but Jem isn’t so sure. “That’s what I thought, too,” he said at last, “when I was your age.
If there’s just one kind of folks, why can’t they get along with each other? If they’re all alike, why do they go out of their way to despise each other? Scout, I think I’m beginning to understand something. I think I’m beginning to understand why Boo Radley’s stayed shut up in the house all this time… it’s because he wants to stay inside. ” (23. 117) The Tom Robinson trial makes Jem lose his faith in humanity.
Will he ever get it back? Is there a way to acknowledge all the evil people do and be able still leave the house? Atticus might have something to say about that. Jem is unconscious for the conclusion of the novel, so he doesn’t have the same moment of revelation that Scout does, but perhaps his waking up will also be a kind of rebirth. this is where we see Jem show his feelings most. Scout From the beginning, is more terrified of Boo than Jem or Dill are. While the two older boys push at the edges of their fears by attempting to make indirect contact with Boo, Scout hangs back, not wanting to bring the monster’s wrath down upon them.
When she does get drawn into their schemes, she pays for it with sleepless nights. Every night-sound I heard from my cot on the back porch was magnified three-fold; every scratch of feet on gravel was Boo Radley seeking revenge, every passing Negro laughing in the night was Boo Radley loose and after us; insects splashing against the screen were Boo Radley’s insane fingers picking the wire to pieces; the chinaberry trees were malignant, hovering, alive. (6. 84) In Scout’s fevered mind, Boo expands into a dangerous world, where every sound signals a threat.
And later, when Scout realizes that it was Boo who brought her a blanket, she’s nearly sick, as if realizing that she had just walked along the edge of a cliff in the dark and only survived by chance. While part of Scout’s fear of Boo she shares with any kid who ever thought there was a monster under the bed, it also seems linked to a fear of unknown dangers lurking in the seemingly familiar. As time passes and Scout faces down more real threats, her fear of Boo lessens.
He lurks in her imagination not as a monster but as a neighbor, who feels familiar even though she’s never actually laid eyes on him. But I still looked for him each time I went by. Maybe someday we would see him. I imagined how it would be: when it happened, he’d just be sitting in the swing when I came along. “Hidy do, Mr. Arthur,” I would say, as if I had said it every afternoon of my life.
“Evening, Jean Louise,” he would say, as if he had said it every afternoon of my life, “right pretty spell we’re having, isn’t it? “Yes sir, right pretty,” I would say, and go on. It was only a fantasy. (26. 5-6) This shift in Scout’s interest in Boo reflects her growing experience with different kinds of people; having seen the likes of Bob Ewell, poor Boo doesn’t offer much in the way of chills anymore. Having faced the evil of real people, perhaps Scout doesn’t see the unknown as scary in itself. Or perhaps her changing view of Boo has something to do with post-trial shifts in her ideas about community, and what makes for good neighbors.
When Scout finally does meet Boo, it causes yet more upheaval in how she thinks about not only him and her community, but also herself. Neighbors bring food with death and flowers with sickness and little things in between. Boo was our neighbor. He gave us two soap dolls, a broken watch and chain, a pair of good-luck pennies, and our lives. But neighbors give in return. We never put back into the tree what we took out of it: we had given him nothing, and it made me sad. (31. 23) Seeing Boo makes Scout see herself differently, and she’s not entirely pleased with what she sees.
This moment of self-examination suggests that Atticus stopped too soon with his advice that putting yourself in another person’s shoes allows you to understand them better – it also has the potential to let you understand yourself. While Scout may be exaggerating a bit when she thinks, “as I made my way home, I thought Jem and I would get grown but there wasn’t much else left for us to learn, except possibly algebra” (31. 31) – what about calculus? – she has learned a great deal, not just this evening, but over the four years of the book. The question is, what will she do with this knowledge? What kind of person will it enable her to beco.
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Philosophy Lexicon of Arguments
Screenshot Tabelle Begriffe
Proximal theory, philosophy: theories of learning or language acquisition are called proximal, which assume that the meanings to be learned are to be located at the nerve endings of the learning subject. It is assumed that the meanings are not "in the head," as the formulation of H. Putnam states (H. Putnam, "The Meaning of Meaning”. In Philosophical Papers, Vol 2. Mind, Language and Reality, Cambridge, 227). The counterpositions to the proximal theory are summarized under the concept of distal theories. These assume that meanings are to be settled on the surfaces of the objects. Distal theories proceed from a social learning, proximal theories from a subject-centric language acquisition. See also distal theories, language acquisition, meaning, meaning theory, twin earth.
Author Item Summary Meta data
Books on Amazon
Joelle Proust Das intentionale Tier in D. Perler/M. Wild (Hg) Der Geist der Tiere Frankfurt/M. 2005
Perler, I, 227
Proximal/Proust: primitive creatures such as the lumpfish (sea snails) react to a proximal state of the receptors.
I 227
Proximal/Proust: e.g. Snail: a snail can only process information when there is contact with its receptors.
Distal: Birds and mammals need no contact with their receptors. Therefore, they can develop completely different spatial terms! (VsQuine).
I 228
Space/Animal/Thinking/Proust: intuitive, space is a kind of empty framework for possible perceptual content.
The relation which is of interest to us is the occurrence at the same place, i.e. the equivalence class for all perception experience that affect the same localization in the environment.
Proust: this relation is interesting because it does not presuppose either the concept of space or the concept of a concept. It is purely logical.
Proust: the occurrence in the same place is also essential as a basis for the recognition of objects.
I 229
Definition Calibration/Proust: Calibration is adaptation of an auditory pattern to a visual. ((s) Coordination of sensory impressions.)
Proust: this mechanism is essential to correct the sensory inputs.
Link to abbreviations/authors
Send Link
> Counter arguments in relation to Proximal Theory
Ed. Martin Schulz, access date 2018-02-17
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Saturday, October 30, 2010
Create a Temperature Bar Graph
Have your child keep track of the temperature in several major cities, or the average temperature of your city for the last 12 months, and have them prepare a bar chart. You can print out this blank bar graph to make it easier.
Then have them answer the following questions:
1. What city (or month) was the hottest?
2. What city (or month) was the coldest?
3. Which two had the closest temperatures? What was the difference?
4. Which two had the greatest difference? What was the difference?
For more bar graph practice, try this worksheet.
No comments:
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January 12, 2018 · Education · (No comments)
Horse Aids
Anthony Kristovich III
What are horse aids ?
Horse aids help as a mode of communication between the rider and the horse. It is like a direction to the horse where the rider applies physical pressures which create a shape and direct the horse to change gait, move left or right. As the rider and the horse progress in their training, they combine several aids with more subtle variations to move around with complex actions.
How are aids different than cues ?
Horse Aids are different than horse cues. A Horse’s response to voice commands, clicks or bumps to make a certain move is Cues. Cues are a different communication system than aids. But, the problem is that the riders who communicate to their horses by cues are working with a short vocabulary while horse aids have a vast vocabulary with minute variations to have different meanings. Hence, to get the horse to the next level, one needs a better mode of communication and a better vocabulary for a horse to understand.
Natural Vs Artificial Aids ?
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Natural aids define as physical influences on horse’s body applied by the rider. They include rider’s legs, weight, hands, the seat or weight aids etc. Whereas artificial aids are the whips and spurs to which most people are familiar with. Artificial aids are actually used as in conjunction with the natural aids to reinforce the action.
Natural aids: Natural aids consist of legs, seat, hands, rein or weight aids. These aids are put together into ways of pressure that the horse feels and moves according to the rider. As the rider can vary the pressure of any aid, the expertise of the rider is defined by the ease with which the rider could communicate with the horse. The meaning of the aid can have hundreds of variations of shape to the horse.
Leg aids are used mainly as driving aid which asks the horse to move a hind leg forward. It can be applied with varying degrees of pressure and different sequence to move a different shape. When pressure is applied with a single leg it is called a unilateral leg aid, whereas with both legs it is called a bilateral leg aid.
Weight aids are when a rider droops lower to apply more weight to make the horse feel heavier. Or, unburdening or lightening the horse seat bones to make the saddle feel lighter. These too can be unilateral or bi-lateral. They help the horse to rebalance more over one foot and take a shape towards left or right.
Rein aids are applied by the hands and elastic wrists while the elbow and shoulder joints stay flexible.
Artificial Aids: Artificial aids include the whips, spurs and voice commands. At many times the voice is used more as a cue than as an aid but having many different meanings. In horse industry, many have a misconception about the whips and spurs. They are just a way or the language to reinforce leg aids that the horse already understands. They should be applied with a degree of pressure which does not startle the horse or raise his excitement. Timing is also critical while using artificial aids to communicate with the horse.
What are Horse gaits ?
Horse gaits refer to the movement of the horse either by training or naturally. It can be a walk, trot, canter or a gallop. There are several other movements that require special training and a high level of communication between the horse and its rider.
Natural Gaits: Most horses have four types of natural gaits. Though, some breeds have more gaits which are sometimes natural or trained.
Walk: the work is a 4-step movement. A horse always has two or three hooves on the ground. The walk is slower than other type of gaits, but is more steady and comfortable. Naturally, a horse moves his right hind leg first followed by his right fore leg. The walk gait is then continued by moving left hind and later left fore leg moves.
Trot: A steady 2-step movement, trot is a combined diagonal leg movement of the horse. In between these springs, there are moments when all the hooves of the horse are in mid-air. The horse moves ahead its right hind leg
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Street vs. Road
English Vocabulary
In your town or city you may wonder why some streets are called streets and others are called roads. Historically there was a difference between a street and a road which is still relevant today.
What is a street?
Street = a paved public road that only appears in a city or town, not in rural areas.
Usually there are shops/stores or houses along both sides of a street which facilitates public interaction.
Example sentences with Street:
What is a road?
Road = a route or way on land between two places that has been paved to allow travel by transport.
According to the OECD, a road is "a line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their own wheels,"
Traditionally a road was a way to travel between two points, usually other towns or distant places. Over time, a road that once connected two towns or villages that were close to each other is still called a road even though now those two towns or villages became part of the same larger city. That is why roads are normally long and important routes in a city.
Example sentences with Road:
The difference between Street and Road
Nowadays you may hear people informally use the word road as a synonym of street. This is fine and people will understand what you are talking about if you use either of the words. A street however normally has shops/stores or houses along both sides of it which facilitates public interaction. A road may also have buildings on either side though its main function is as a transportation route, a way of getting from one place to another, especially between towns. Outside of the city they are called roads.
Road can also be used to talk about the actual construction (materials) of a road or street. When a street (or road) is being repaired, it is called road works, not street works.
The difference between STREET and ROAD in English
What is an avenue?
Avenue = a straight street (or road) with trees planted along both sides. Avenues are typically wider than streets, sometimes having more lanes and therefore more traffic.
In some cities in the US that are based on a grid system, streets and avenues are the same with the difference that streets run from west to east while avenues run north to south. Note that in other US cities this may be reversed and the streets go north to south and the avenues from west to east. Thus in city centers (downtown), you will almost never find two avenues that intersect.
Example sentences with Avenue:
Alleys, Boulevards, Lanes, and more
An alley is a narrow passageway between or behind buildings. Often there is only enough space for a one vehicle in an alley or for none at all (just for pedestrians).
A boulevard is a wide tree-lined street, similar to an avenue though with a grass median strip (with trees and/or grass).
A court is a short street that ends in a cul-de-sac.
A cul-de-sac is a street that is closed at one end. Sometimes the end of the street has a large round paved area (from above it has the shape of an old light bulb) making it easier for vehicles to turn around and go back out.
A highway is a major public road, usually connecting towns and cities. In some countries UK, NZ etc, the word motorway is used instead of highway.
A lane is a short narrow street usually without a sidewalk/footpath.
A path is not normally paved and is dedicated to pedestrians, not vehicles.
A pedestrian street is a street that has been closed to road vehicles. They are paved and you can only walk along them.
Giving Directions
When giving directions, sometimes people leave out the Street part of a street name. For example:
Next Activities
See our vocabulary notes about Places in a City.
If you found this English Vocabulary about Street vs. Road interesting or useful, let others know about it:
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The Lonely School Girl
Tina is a 9-year old girl who lives in Seattle. When her father gets a new work in Chicago, the whole family needs to relocate. Tina and her siblings are so sad. They will surely miss their friends and teachers. Tina gives gifts to her friends so they can remember her.
On her first day in the new school, Tina is afraid. She doesn’t know anyone. A group of girls smiles at her but she is so shy to smile back.
Tina is very good at Mathematics. One day, she sees a classmate crying. Her name is Kate. She fails her Math exam. Tina offers to teach Kate.
The two go to the library and start studying. They do this every day. Finally, Kate is so happy because she gets good grades in her Math exam.
Tina’s family goes home to Seattle to have a short vacation. Her friends are so excited to see her again. Tina tells them the places she visits in Chicago. She also tells them about her close pal, Kate, and how they get along well.
Tina is not lonely anymore.
Comprehension Questions
1. Why were Tina and her siblings sad?
2. What was Kate’s problem?
3. How did Tina help Kate?
4. What does Tine tell her friends in Chicago?
Discussion Points
1. Have you helped someone in your class? How?
2. Do you consider yourself friendly?
3. How do you make friends?
Matching Type
_____1. relocate a. do or give something to another
_____2. sibling b. friend
_____3. fail c. move to another place
_____4. offer d. brother or sister
_____5. pal e. make a mistake or not passing an exam
Completing Sentences
Tina’s family ____________ to Chicago. She and her ___________ will surely miss her friends. Tina meets Kate who ________ her Mathematics exam. Tina _________ her help to Kate. The two are the best of __________.
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Part of speech:
Part of speech: noun
An elongated icicle like form in which certain minerals are deposited. As from the roof of a cave.
Part of speech: adjective
Share it on:
Usage examples "stalactite":
1. The caverns often branch off in different directions through the rock, widening and contracting their dimensions, and the roofs and floors are covered with stalactite. - "The Student's Elements of Geology", Sir Charles Lyell.
2. An icicle is a stalactite of frozen water; these were of lava, shaped just like large icicles. - "Scenes in the Hawaiian Islands and California", Mary Evarts Anderson.
3. Where stalactite meets stalagmite there are pillars: where stalactite meets stalactite in fissures long or short there are elegances, flimsy draperies, delicate fantasies; there were also pools of water in which hung heads and feet, and there were vacant spots at outlying spaces, where the arched roof, which continually heightened itself, was reflected in the chill gleam of the floor. - "The Purple Cloud", M.P. Shiel.
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Gigantism and Its Implications for the History of Life
Gigantism and Its Implications for the History of Life
• Geerat J. Vermeij
Gigantism—very large body size—is an ecologically important trait associated with competitive superiority. Although it has been studied in particular cases, the general conditions for the evolution and maintenance of gigantism remain obscure. I compiled sizes and dates for the largest species in 3 terrestrial and 7 marine trophic and habitat categories of animals from throughout the Phanerozoic. The largest species (global giants) in all categories are of post-Paleozoic age. Gigantism at this level appeared tens to hundreds of millions of years after mass extinctions and long after the origins of clades in which it evolved. Marine gigantism correlates with high planktic or seafloor productivity, but on land the correspondence between productivity and gigantism is weak at best. All global giants are aerobically active animals, not gentle giants with low metabolic demands. Oxygen concentration in the atmosphere correlates with gigantism in the Paleozoic but not thereafter, likely because of the elaboration of efficient gas-exchange systems in clades containing giants. Although temperature and habitat size are important in the evolution of very large size in some cases, the most important (and rare) enabling circumstance is a highly developed ecological infrastructure in which essential resources are abundant and effectively recycled and reused, permitting activity levels to increase and setting the stage for gigantic animals to evolve. Gigantism as a hallmark of competitive superiority appears to have lost its luster on land after the Mesozoic in favor of alternative means of achieving dominance, especially including social organization and coordinated food-gathering.
Introduction: Where, When, and How to Be a Giant
There is something alluring and faintly threatening about giants. Dinosaurs and other gigantic fossils have fired the popular imagination, and there is no shortage of speculation about how these animals lived. Nevertheless, scientific inquiry has focused almost entirely on the particulars of individual cases of gigantism rather than on the phenomenon of very large size in general. This lack of study of gigantism throughout life's realm has to do with the nagging possibility that very large organisms owe their enormous size to unique intrinsic traits or that they represent mere statistical outliers of a size distribution that ranges over 14 orders of magnitude. In this latter view, giants reflect little more than random variation requiring no further explanation. However, it has long been known that very large plants and animals are functionally unlike their smaller counterparts: They are more likely to be top consumers or producers, to tolerate a greater range of environmental conditions (at least in the case of animals), to maintain internal homeostasis more effectively, to be less vulnerable as adults to lethal predation, to compete more successfully for mates (again mainly in animals) and to be more prone to extinction during times of crisis [13]. Gigantism is thus a functionally distinct and ecologically important condition that is both enabled by resources and compelled by natural selection. The distribution of maximum size in time and space can therefore inform our understanding of major patterns in the history of life.
In order to explain gigantism, it is necessary first to document its distribution, and then to consider possible factors that either make gigantism possible or that propel lineages to very large body sizes. By identifying and characterizing giants from different times, places and clades, we can ask which circumstances are conducive to the evolution and maintenance of exceptionally large organisms.
My emphasis on one extreme end of the size distribution of organisms is a deliberate attempt to move away from considerations of the whole size distribution [47] or of mean or optimal size in a clade [6]. Combining organisms of all sizes into analyses of spatial patterns or historical trends introduces unacknowledged functional heterogeneity, introducing artifacts and complicating interpretations of results [3]. Though easily quantified, mean size in a clade or an assemblage is about as meaningful as, say, mean color or modal shape. The idea that there is an optimal size of species is untestable and unsupported by evidence: organisms large and small exist and propagate because they work adequately in the ecosystems they occupy. Moreover, selection is not uniform for all species, and certainly not for very large and very small species. By concentrating on giants, I can focus on the conditions that favor one ecologically important trait.
Here I survey giants—the largest-bodied species in their ecological category or clade—throughout the Phanerozoic eon in ten terrestrial and marine trophic and habitat types, and examine the enabling and selective factors that collectively can account for observed patterns in very large body size. I argue that selection in favor of extreme gigantism is due largely to competitive interactions and to a lesser extent to predation, and that evolving ecological interdependencies between primary producers and consumers created the conditions that enabled some lineages of competitively superior animals to achieve exceptionally large size after the Paleozoic era. I also consider the vexing question why Mesozoic terrestrial vertebrates attained greater maximum sizes than their later Cenozoic counterparts.
Definitions and Analysis
Data on the sizes, spatial and temporal distribution, metabolic properties, trophic roles and phylogenetic position of extremely large organisms were gathered from the literature. I considered the following trophic categories of animals: terrestrial and marine apex predators (consumers of other large animals), terrestrial and marine herbivores (animals that consume attached macroscopic photosynthesizers, mainly plants and seaweeds), solitary marine photosymbiotic animals, marine chemosymbiotic animals, plankton-feeding non-symbiotic animals on the seafloor, and plankton-feeding pelagic (mid-water) animals. In addition, I consider patterns of gigantism over time in several major clades including molluscan classes, several groups of arthropods, and several vertebrate clades. Data for seaweeds and plants are insufficient, but gigantism in photosynthesizing organisms is also briefly discussed. I did not consider fungi or colonial marine animals.
By necessity, one species must be the largest member of its clade, trophic level or ecosystem either at a particular time or for all time. I define a local giant as the largest-bodied species in a particular place or interval of time. Species that are the largest members of their ecological (trophic and habitat) category at the global spatial scale and/or throughout the Phanerozoic eon are called global giants.
In the literature, maximum size is estimated either in linear units or as body mass. I have taken these estimates directly from published sources without further converting them to a common standard with the full realization that inferences of size often involve extrapolation from particular body parts, and that differences in shape make direct comparisons difficult. Ideally, size estimates should be based on the mass of metabolizing tissues, but that standard is rarely achieved even for living species.
In the analyses to follow, I purposely avoid a statistical treatment. The reason is simple: statistics describe the properties of and differences between distributions of populations with respect to one or more variables such as body size; whereas this paper is explicitly about the extreme end of a distribution, namely, the maximum body size within ecological, temporal or phylogenetic categories. It is therefore meaningless to ascertain whether there are statistically significant differences among categories given that each category is represented by a single point (global Phanerozoic-level giant) or up to three points (era-level giants). For similar reasons, I have eschewed discussions of Cope's Rule, the purported (and sometimes demonstrated) trend within clades and among replacing clades toward larger body size. Cope's Rule is usually tested by examining the entire size distribution within a clade over time. I would argue that the evolutionary trajectory of size within lineages is independent of that in other lineages, and that the obvious size increase leading to the largest member of a category has nothing to do with trends in other lineages or in the size distribution of the clade as a whole. Finally, I have resisted providing quantitative correlations between era-level or Phanerozoic-level gigantism and the various enabling and selective factors thought to favor very large size. Not only are precise estimates of the various factors and of the trends in those factors not well constrained, but a correlation summarized by a single number imposes a false sense of precision and obscures important caveats and variations whose recognition informs and qualifies interpretations.
For both living and fossil giants there is considerable uncertainty in the measurement of size [8, 9]. Moreover, maximum size varies within and among sites and between males and females, and is subject to the vagaries of sampling. To simplify matters, I report the largest measurements for the largest species in its category under the rationale that an individual of this very large size was able to grow and survive in at least some conditions in which the species existed.
Establishing the Identity of Giants
Different body proportions between very large animals introduce some ambiguity into the determination of the largest species in a given category. For example, the putatively photosymbiotic Late Cretaceous rudist bivalve Titanosarcolites reaches a larger linear dimension (1 m) than the living Tridacna gigas (137 cm), but its body was likely much smaller for a given shell volume. I have therefore opted for T. gigas as the largest known solitary photosymbiotic animal. The largest Paleozoic bottom-dwelling sedentary suspension-feeders (the brachiopod Gigantoproductus and the hyolith Macrotheca) have greater linear dimensions than the largest (200 mm) Permian bivalve [9]. I have accepted the former two taxa as the largest in their category even though brachiopod tissues occupy a small fraction of the internal shell volume and the hyolith is a slender tubular animal.
The largest cephalopod in linear dimension is an unnamed Middle Ordovician straight-shelled endoceratid estimated to have been 8 to 9 m long [10, 11]; but the Late Cretaceous ammonoid Parapuzosia seppenradensis, with a coiled instead of a straight shell, had a diameter estimated between 2.55 and 3.5 m, which translates to a length of ~19 m if the shell were uncoiled [12, 10], comparable to the length of the living shell-less giant squid Architeuthis dux (19 m). The most massive living cephalopod known is the colossal squid Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, whose mass (500 kg) considerably exceeds the 200 kg of A. dux [13]. It is likely that one of the two living species mentioned should be considered the largest species, because the body chamber in which most of the animal's mass is concentrated in shell-bearing cephalopods is much shorter than the shell as a whole. Paleozoic giant cephalopods are without doubt the largest shell-bearing animals that have ever lived, but their tissue mass is likely to have been smaller than that of the largest living cephalopods, which lack an external shell.
Even for insects there is some ambiguity. The largest living beetle Titanus giganteus (length 17 cm) is smaller in linear dimension than the largest Carboniferous dragonfly (wingspan 71 cm) [14], but it may well exceed the fossil species in body mass. In this case I accept the fossil Meganeuropsis permiana as the largest insect.
Results and Discussion
Gigantism Over Time
Table 1 and Fig 1 show that the largest animals of the Phanerozoic in all ten ecological (trophic and habitat) categories are of Mesozoic or Cenozoic age. All Phanerozoic-level global terrestrial giants occur from the mid-Cretaceous to the Late Cretaceous, but the entire 100-million-year span from the Late Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous is marked by extreme gigantism in dinosaurs (sauropods, ornithischians, theropods, ceratopsians and hadrosaurs), crocodylians and turtles [5, 1518].
The increase in maximum size is in line with overall trends toward greater size over time. In the Ediacaran period, the largest organisms so far known are the frond-like erect osmotrophic Charnia, reaching a height of 2 m above the seafloor [19, 20] and the sediment-feeding organism Nilpenia rossi, with a diameter of 30 cm [21]. The largest animals of the succeeding Early Cambrian period are predatory anomalocarids, which reached a length of 1 to perhaps 2 m [22]. The category of very large, mobile filter-feeders was ushered in during the early Ordovician with anomalocaridids almost 1 m long [23, 24]. The maximum height of sedentary suspension-feeding animals above the seafloor was 50 cm for Early Cambrian sponges [25], rising to 1 m or more for Late Silurian and later Palaeozoic crinoids [26]. Mean and maximum body sizes increased from the Middle to the Late Ordovician and again from the Silurian to the Devonian in brachiopods [27], and from the Late Ordovician to the Early Devonian in deep-water arthropods, echinoderms, and brachiopods [28]. Maximum size among pelagic apex predators rose steadily from their first post-Permian appearance in the Early Triassic to at least the Early Cretaceous [29]. At the largest timescales, Payne and colleagues [30] documented two stepwise increases in maximum size, the first at 1.9 Ga coinciding with the origin of the eukaryotic cell and the second beginning 0.6 Ga with complex animal multicellular organization. All available evidence indicates that decreases in maximum size during and immediately following mass extinctions were temporary and that they did not significantly slow the upward trend in maximum size of organisms in most ecological categories.
Plants likewise show a general upward trend in maximum size. During the Palaeozoic, there was an increase in known maximum tree height from 8 m in the Givetian stage (385 Ma) of the Middle Devonian [31] to 40 m in the Famennian stage (365 Ma) of the latest Devonian [32] and 48 m in upland forests of the Bolsovian stage of the Late Carboniferous [33]. Osborne and Beerling [34] suggested on the basis of physiological models that high levels of CO2 in the atmosphere should have enabled very tall trees to grow throughout much of the world during the Cretaceous, especially in the tropics and temperate coastal regions. The tallest living trees (the southeast Australian Eucalyptus regnans, 114.5 m; and the Californian redwood Sequoia sempervirens, 115.6 m) [35] reach greater heights than any known fossil species, although the record is far from perfect. Extraordinarily long vines, such as the 240 m long palm cited by P. W. Richards [36] from an Indonesian rain forest, indicate the potential for land plants other than trees to achieve great size. The largest marine plants (the brown laminarialean kelps Macrocystis pyrifera and Nereocystis luetkeana from the northeastern Pacific, reaching lengths of 45.6 and 40 m respectively) [37] are also geologically young. Molecular phylogenetic studies show that these species are derived members of their clade, and that they are no older than Middle Miocene [38, 39]. In fact, brown and red algae with large foliose thalli date back only to the Early Cretaceous [38].
The size increases that ultimately led to era-level gigantism were neither monotonic nor uniform. Large-bodied species suffered selective extinction during all known major crises [1, 4043] and were conspicuously absent on land for 8 to 10 m.y. after the end-Permian extinction [1, 44]. Extremely rapid size increases after the unstable Early Triassic, however, resulted in Middle Triassic herbivorous and predatory vertebrates that exceeded their Permian counterparts on land in size [1, 17, 45]. Giant marine ichthyosaurs rivaling the size of Late Paleozoic open-water predators had evolved 3 to 4 m.y. after the first appearance at 284 Ma of marine reptiles [29, 46, 47].
Such rapid attainment of large size notwithstanding, extreme gigantism at the era or Phanerozoic scale required a much longer time to evolve [17]. My analysis of the ages of era-level giants in Table 1 indicates that the interval from the last mass extinction to the age of the largest era-level species is approximately 77 +/- 22 m.y. for the Paleozoic (8 categories), 98 +/- 40 m.y. for the Mesozoic (10 categories), and 59 +/- 11 m.y. for the Cenozoic (10 categories). It should be noted, however, that the intervals are not normally distributed. Considering only Phanerozoic-level giants, these animals appeared 124 +/- 17 m.y. after the last mass extinction for the Mesozoic (4 categories) and 63 +/- 2 m.y. for the Cenozoic (6 categories).
Traits that have been hypothesized to enable gigantism existed long before maximum size was realized. Long necks, which perhaps predisposed sauropod dinosaurs to become gigantic [16], already characterized the clade Sauropodomorpha during the Late Triassic, at least 100 m.y. before the mid-Cretaceous global giants in this clade of herbivores existed. The zooplankton-straining baleen, which is associated with gigantism in living balaenopterid mysticete whales, evolved some 30 Ma during the Late Oligocene, long before mysticetes became very large in the Pleistocene [4850]. Chemosymbiotic mytilids originated as small (less than 50 mm long) bivalves during the Late Eocene, 35 m.y. before they achieved the enormous sizes of some living species [5153]. The photosymbiotic bivalve Tridacna gigas appeared in the Late Miocene, 15 to 20 m.y. after the genus Tridacna first appears in the fossil record in the Late Oligocene [54]. One-way respiratory ventilation, which perhaps permitted gigantism in dinosaurs and pterosaurs [16, 55], characterizes diapsid reptiles generally [56], and therefore preceded global gigantism in these diapsid clades by as much as 200 to 230 m.y.
Taken together, these data imply that the circumstances leading from large size to out-sized gigantism are either highly unusual or exceptionally long lasting. Either way, enabling factors and selection for large size must coincide and mutually reinforce each other.
Trophic Levels, Land and Sea
Burness and colleagues [57] showed that the largest herbivorous terrestrial vertebrates are 5 to 33 times more massive than their predatory counterparts, the factor of difference depending on whether comparisons are for endotherms or ectotherms. This maximum-size advantage of herbivores has held throughout most of the history of terrestrial ecosystems. Exceptions are the intervals from the Silurian to the earliest Permian and from the Anisian to the Norian epochs of the Triassic [58, 59], when predators exceeded herbivores in maximum size. The Paleocene epoch may also be an exception if the gigantic snake Titanoboa cerrejonensis (length 13 m, estimated mass 135 kg) [60] was at least partly a terrestrial predator.
The largest marine animals from the Early Cambrian onward have been pelagic, either apex predators or zooplanktivores (Tables 1 and 2). Herbivores have been the largest bottom-dwelling marine animals since at least the Late Oligocene, with the evolution of desmostylians and the Early Pliocene replacement by large sirenians [61, 62], and perhaps since the Late Cretaceous if some sea turtles were herbivorous at that time [63].
Table 2. Largest Phanerozoic members of major clades not already listed in Table 1.
It is striking that, at the level of global Phanerozoic gigantism, maximum size in the three terrestrial categories was achieved in extinct taxa, whereas that in 6 of the 7 marine categories was not reached until the Late Neogene (Table 1). Although the numbers are too small to permit an evaluation of statistical significance, the difference between marine and terrestrial global gigantism is all the more surprising in view of the much longer history of marine multicellular animals.
Phylogeny.—Before considering whether extreme giants exhibit general properties and whether particular circumstances favor their evolution, it is important to ascertain to what extent historical contingency (the effects of initial conditions, including membership in particular clades) explains the distribution and characteristics of era-level giants. Of the 20 era-level giants (predators, herbivores and open-water planktivores) considered in Table 1, 17 (85%) are vertebrates, 2 (10%) are molluscs and 1 (5%) is an arthropod. For the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, the dominance of vertebrates is 93% (13 of 14 species). The single clade Diapsida accounts for 4 Mesozoic and 1 Cenozoic era-level giants, whereas the clade Therapsida + Mammalia accounts for 8 species (2 in the Paleozoic, 6 in the Cenozoic). Table 1 records 13 cases of succession from one era-level giant to another within the same ecological category of mobile animals, albeit with a long time gap between pairs. All 13 represent shifts among major clades.
For sedentary marine era-level giants (chemosymbiotic, photosymbiotic and benthic suspension-feeding shell-bearing animals), 8 of 9 (89%) are molluscs (7 bivalves and one hyolith) and 1 is a brachiopod. The 5 cases of successive era-level giants in the same ecological category of sedentary animals all represent switches from one major clade (including among bivalve clades) to another.
These data indicate that, although a few class-level clades dominate the ranks of era-level giants (diapsids in th~ Mesozoic, mammals in the Cenozoic, and bivalves in both eras), there is no evidence that extreme gigantism is retained within a clade in successive eras. Paleozoic marine brachiopods and cephalopods and flying insects became era-level giants, as did Mesozoic ground-dwelling and marine diapsids, but they have not done so during the Cenozoic despite persisting as class-level clades. Clade membership is important not because a clade has properties conducive to the evolution of large size, but because individual species acquire traits and live under circumstances that are compatible with gigantism.
Productivity.—In order to maintain a very large body, an animal must have access to sufficient food within its reach. There should therefore be a general correspondence between maximum body size and the productivity of the environment, the rate at which accessible food becomes available. For any given level of productivity, maximum body size will increase according to the area or volume of habitat that is sampled for food, as long as the energy expended does not exceed the potential energy gained. Very large animals with high food requirements should therefore be highly mobile or, if sedentary, be able to pump large amounts of water in order to avoid local depletion [64].
Earlier work indicated that regional-scale primary productivity in the coastal benthos is positively correlated with maximum body size in herbivorous molluscs, and that nearshore planktic productivity correlates with maximum size in suspension-feeding bivalves and gastropods [3, 65, 66]. Today's largest marine herbivores (sirenians) live(d) in highly productive kelp forests and seagrass meadows where the standing stock of primary producers is high and accessible. Coral reefs are also productive but have lower standing stocks of photosynthesizers, which are usually toxic photosymbioses or calcareous algae that are not readily consumed. Herbivores on reefs are notably small compared to those in kelp and seagrass beds. In the open ocean, planktivores and apex predators integrate productivity on a basin-wide or even global scale [67, 68].
Although regional and global marine primary productivity in the past cannot be estimated directly, evidence from many sources indicates a general rise through the Phanerozoic, with large increases from the Cambrian to the Ordovician, during the Devonian, in the later Mesozoic, and the Late Neogene [3, 23, 66, 69]. The Late Mesozoic (Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous) could represent a peak in planktic productivity as indicated by the evolution of very large deposit-feeding nerineoidean gastropods which reached lengths of 50 cm beginning in the Late Jurassic [70], and by a size maximum in suspension-feeding bivalves in the Late Cretaceous (Table 1) and of suspension-feeding gastropods (Gigantocapulus schmitti, length 400 mm) [71, 72]. Globally high planktonic productivity coincided with times of widespread uplift, volcanism and attendant high rates of chemical weathering and sediment input from the land [7375]. These inputs of nutrients were magnified by increasing rates and intensities of bioturbation and other forms of nutrient cycling (73–75]. In short, global and era-level gigantism in organisms relying on a planktonic food supply seems to coincide with peaks in planktic productivity as indicated by independent evidence, although precise correspondences are still beyond the resolution of currently available data.
Primary production on the seafloor might have remained low until the evolution of seagrasses in the Late Cretaceous (Campanian stage) and of large temperate-zone brown algae in the Late Paleogene. Certainly no large animal that can be inferred to have been herbivorous occurred in the sea before the Late Jurassic (Table 2).
A special class of primary producers/consumers comprises marine animals containing microbes capable of fixing carbon from inorganic sources. Such symbiotic associations have frequently led to gigantism [7680]. Most shell-bearing chemosymbiotic animals, which house methanotrophic and/or sulfide-oxidizing bacteria, have greatly reduced or eliminated their reliance on suspended food in favor of feeding on their symbionts, but chemosymbiotic bathymodioline mytilid mussels and all photosymbiotic bivalves augment suspension-feeding or particle-feeding with nutrition from their symbionts [79]. Known or suspected photosymbiotic bivalves were the largest bottom-dwelling suspension-feeders of their time during the Silurian, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) and Late Miocene to Recent [80]. This may also have been the case in the Late Eocene if the poorly known Somalidacna lamellosa from Somalia (length 450 mm) [81] was photosymbiotic, because this species reached a size similar to that of the more or less contemporaneous Antarctic nonsymbiotic Perna sp. [82, 83]. Chemosymbiotic shell-bearing animals rarely reached sizes as great as those of the largest contemporary suspension-feeders or photosymbiotic counterparts, but they are still very large. Because of their unique trophic status, I have treated these symbiotic animals in categories separate from other ecological groups. As many authors have emphasized, symbiotic associations can also occur in very small-bodied animals [76, 77].
The correspondence between maximum size of herbivores and primary production and size of land plants remains to be documented in detail but appears to be weak or negative. Evidence from leaf-vein densities and properties of the vascular system indicates that mid-Cretaceous to Recent angiosperms (especially eudicots and grasses) became more productive than other fossil and living land plants [84]; yet the largest herbivores (sauropods) existed at times when these productive plants had not yet achieved ecological dominance. Indeed, the consistently low protein content of Mesozoic vegetation [85] enabled or even propelled lineages of large-bodied dinosaurs to become gigantic as a means of acquiring enough nutrients from a low-quality food [85]. The largest Cenozoic herbivores are mammals in grasslands and savannas, which can be productive but which fall short of the productive capacities of some forests. Maximum sizes and metabolic rates of forest-dwelling herbivorous mammals are lower than those in more open environments [86]. Large ground-dwelling herbivores cannot easily maneuver among large, closely spaced trees, and are unable to reach canopy leaves and branches. Herbivores that live in or fly among trees are limited in maximum size in comparison to their ground-dwelling counterparts.
Climate.—Opposing arguments make contrasting predictions about the climates under which gigantism evolves. High oxygen solubility and low oxygen demand in cold water should make polar regions and the deep sea (and deep cold lakes) ideal for the establishment of gentle giants [87]. The huge Early Ordovician anomalocarids and trilobites from Morocco and Portugal, which at that time were situated at high southern latitudes, were explained by the low temperatures in which they lived [23, 88]. On the other hand, although the demand for oxygen increases at higher temperatures, so do diffusivity of oxygen and general activity levels [89]. In addition, the largest animals in all trophic and habitat categories maintain a high body temperature either by producing copious body heat or by living in a warm place.
On the whole, the evidence indicates that climate plays an indecisive role as an enabling factor for extreme gigantism. An analysis of the climatic distribution of the Cenozoic-level giants listed in Table 1 shows that 3 are tropical (including Bathymodiolus boomerang, associated with hydrothermal vents), 2 are from cold regions and 2 are widespread. Two of these species are the largest global members of their respective clades. When these two species are added to the list of largest living members of the clades considered in Tables 2 and 3, I considered a total of 35 species belong to 32 clades (with 3 clades each represented by 2 largest species). Of the 35 species, 22 (63%) are tropical, 10 (29%) are from cold climates, and 3 (8.6%) are climatically widespread. This distribution pattern is similar to the pattern for all species regardless of size.
Table 3. Largest living species in major clades not listed in Tables 1 and 2.
This conclusion is supported by analyses of gigantism in fossil and living mammals, although the authors of these studies expressed their results differently. According to these authors, maximum size in terrestrial mammalian lineages are concentrated in time during the warm Middle Eocene, the cooler Oligocene and the variably warm and cool Pliocene to Recent interval [7, 90, 91]. A problem with these and many other studies is that differences in mean global temperature, such as between the Eocene and Pleistocene, obscure the fact that tropical conditions have always existed during the Phanerozoic. Global cooling with the advent of widespread glaciation in the Pleistocene affected the tropics, but many living giants such as surviving elephants, rhinoceroses, snakes, turtles, lizards, crocodiles, insects, spiders, crabs, hermit crabs, stomatopods, horseshoe crabs, recently extinct ground sloths, and extinct South American giant rodents are tropical in distribution.
In any case, the largest Eocene mammals are smaller than their later counterparts of the Late Oligocene and Pleistocene.
Among land plants, the tallest trees occur at temperate latitudes [92, 93], whereas the longest vines are tropical. Marine plants also reach maximum sizes along temperate shores.
Metabolism and Oxygen.—The single most important trait that affects the body size of organisms is metabolic rate. Two metabolic categories of very large animals can be distinguished: (1) the so-called gentle giants, animals with low metabolic demand, sluggish habits, slow growth and often long lifespans; and (2) active animals with high metabolic rates and energy requirements, thermal control and rapid growth. Giants of the two groups are adapted to contrasting circumstances.
Animals in the first category are local giants such as the colossal squid [13] and other Antarctic animals [94, 95] (isopods, pycnogonids and nudibranchs), deep-water crustaceans in Lake Baikal [96], and tortoises on oceanic islands [97]. These animals occupy cold or unproductive environments where threats from metabolically active species are low or intermittent.
All the largest members of trophic and habitat categories throughout the Phanerozoic belong to the second group of highly active animals. Even among sedentary bottom-dwelling suspension-feeders, it is the species with the strongest ciliary currents generated by the filtering gills that achieve the largest sizes [3]. The large terrestrial and marine reptiles of the Mesozoic were likely mesotherms, which maintained high body temperatures by virtue of their large size [1, 98106] and whose metabolism approached that of endotherms.
At first glance, this pattern does not make sense. Heat production, high activity levels and rapid metabolism are costly and should therefore place constraints on the attainment of large body size. However, these traits make it possible for large animals to cover great distances quickly in search of valuable but widely scattered resources [2, 107]. The equivalent for current-generating suspension-feeders is to sample large volumes of water. Active ventilation relieves limits on large size in arthropods and vertebrates [108, 109].
Large active animals require abundant oxygen together with effective means of distributing it throughout the body. This truism led to the hypothesis that gigantism in Late Paleozoic arthropods on land was made possible by oxygen levels in the atmosphere that were 20% to perhaps 33% higher than today's [110113]. Successive episodes of oxygenation of the atmosphere in the latest Neoproterozoic, Late Cambrian and Devonian [30, 114116] coincided with the evolution of more active animals and with increases in maximum size. Note, however, that the largest Paleozoic members of major marine clades (Cephalopoda, Trilobita, Eurypterida and Placodermi) lived before the Late Paleozoic oxygen peak [117]. The post-Paleozoic history of oxygen remains controversial. Some models [118] indicate a secondary maximum in oxygen during the mid-Cretaceous, roughly coinciding with global gigantism in terrestrial herbivores; but other models [119] indicate a low point in oxygen at that time. The available qualitative evidence suggests that gigantism at the Phanerozoic scale in ecological categories is not closely correlated with oxygen levels [117]. The early evolution of efficient one-way ventilation in diapsid reptiles [56] could have made vertebrate physiology and maximum size less strictly limited by oxygen concentrations and enabled very large size to develop even at modest oxygen levels [16].
Habitat Size.—Very large mobile animals with large appetites require extensive home ranges and wide species-level geographic distributions in order to maintain viable populations. This is especially true for animals such as mammals with very long gestation times [120, 121]. Cenozoic endotherms therefore reached maximum sizes on the largest land masses [57, 90J. The mega-continents of the Mesozoic could have enabled gigantism in dinosaurs and pterosaurs [16], but it is notable that the Late Paleozoic to Early Triassic supercontinent Pangaea did not support land animals anywhere near as large as later Mesozoic or Cenozoic vertebrates. Conditions in the interior of Pangaea were likely too dry and too unproductive [122] to support very large land animals.
In the sea, very large vertebrates have significantly larger species-level geographic ranges than their smaller counterparts [123]. All Cenozoic-level giants in this category occur in more than one ocean basin.
The effect of habitat size on gigantism is not apparent in sedentary organisms such as bottom-dwelling suspension-feeders, seaweeds and land plants. These organisms can maintain higher population densities than mobile gigantic vertebrates. The tallest trees—redwoods from southern Oregon to central California and Eucalyptus regnans from southeastern Australia—occupy notably small geographic areas. The large brown alga Macrocystis pyrifera today occupies both the North Pacific and parts of the Southern Ocean, but it (and its large size) originated in the North Pacific on the American side, as did the nearly equally large Nereocystis leutkeana. The largest living gastropods, hermit crabs, bivalves (in 3 habitat categories) and asteroids (Tables 13) are also geographically limited to small ranges.
In short, although the extent of suitable habitat correlates with maximum sizes in vertebrates that are already large and that have high metabolic rates, the causal link between gigantism and geographic range is indirect. The species-wide property of geographic range is at best an inconsistent indicator of, and enabler for, the attainment of local or global gigantism.
Predation and Competition.—The factors considered above—productivity, climate, oxygen and habitat size—belong to the category of enabling factors [74J, agencies that permit but do not compel very large body size to evolve. Agencies that select in favor of large size propel some lineages toward gigantism to the extent that the enabling factors allow [74]. Given that large size often confers advantages in competition and in defense against lethal predation, it is reasonable to propose that predators and competitors are the primary agents selecting for large size in some lineages. Extreme gigantism would then imply that such selection is either extremely intense or highly consistent for very long periods of time. Note that most lineages will not be subject to such intense or enduring selection either because their representatives fail as competitive dominants or are severely limited by trade-offs with other important functions [74]. Incidentally, this same argument casts doubt on the generality of Cope's Rule (see Methods).
Predation (the consumption of part or all of an organism by an animal) is a universal ecological interaction and selective agency. Many victim species grow to a refuge in large size from predation, indicating the antipredatory benefit of large size. The observation that the largest terrestrial herbivores reach greater maximum sizes than their predatory counterparts at most times (see above) is consistent with such selection. The 5-fold or greater disparity between the maximum size of herbivores and predators, however, indicates that predation is unlikely to be the only, or even the most important, agency favoring extreme gigantism. In the unusual case of human superpredators, no species exploited by us in the wild can reach a size refuge, so that large size has become a liability for victim species everywhere [124128].
Competition in the strict sense (individuals or groups attempting to acquire or defend resources without consuming each other) is also universal. Dominance in competition for food, shelters or mates in animals and for light and water in trees is often associated with large size [2, 129132] and, unlike predation, does not diminish even at very large size. Predation may therefore have been important early in the evolution of size increase in lineages that ultimately became gigantic at the era or Phanerozoic level, but competition likely pushed these lineages to their maximum size. I speculate that competition for mates will have been especially important for large terrestrial and marine vertebrates.
General Discussion
Having considered the factors that either enable or compel large body sizes to evolve, I now ask how these factors can explain the observed historical pattern in era-level and Phanerozoic-level global gigantism. In particular, (a) what distinguishes the post-Paleozoic interval (especially the second halves of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras), during which all ecological categories witnessed the evolution of their largest representatives, from the Paleozoic? and (b) what accounts for the retreat from global gigantism of terrestrial animals during the Cenozoic while maximum size in most marine categories reached its peak during the Late Cenozoic?
Part of the answer to the first question resides in differences in the rate, access to, and fate of primary production for which consumers compete. During the Late Paleozoic, tropical conditions and abundant oxygen would seem ideal for the evolution of gigantism; but evidence from leaf venation indicates that terrestrial productivity was low [84] even though at least some lycophytes (tree club mosses) had carbon-concentrating mechanisms [133]. Terrestrially generated production was buried rather than rapidly decomposed or consumed by large herbivores before the Early Permian, and much of it was in the form of indigestible organic compounds [134]. The interdependencies among producers, herbivores and decomposers that made nutrients accessible within terrestrial systems in later eras were not yet in place before the Permian [74]. These interdependencies began to develop during the Permian, but were temporarily disrupted by the end-Permian catastrophe. Their reappearance and greater development by Middle Triassic time provided conditions for more productive plants and larger consumers to evolve. These terrestrial shifts would have affected marine ecosystems as well, especially when worldwide tectonic activity and the colonization of marine soft-bottom environments by Late Cretaceous angiosperms enhanced nutrient supply and cycling [74].
Global size maxima in terrestrial ground-dwelling herbivores and predators and flying animals (all diapsid reptiles) in the later Mesozoic have been attributed to efficient one-way ventilation in the respiratory system [16, 55], a low protein content of forage for herbivores [85], and in the case of herbivorous sauropods to a very long neck, which enables these giants to reach food over a large area and height range without moving the entire body [16]. The long neck, in turn, was made possible by the habit of most diapsids of swallowing large chunks of food whole {16]. Mammals employ the less efficient in-and-out breathing with the use of a diaphragm, and chew food in the mouth, for which strong neck and masticatory muscles are necessary, limiting the length of the neck [16]. Both of these mammalian traits place more stringent limits on maximum size than in diapsids.
These constraints might collectively explain the smaller maximum sizes of Late Paleozoic and Cenozoic terrestrial animals, but two lines of argument cast doubt on the scope of this explanation. First, some marine mammals are exceptionally large despite their inefficient breathing and short necks. Second, neither the respiratory nor the chewing constraints apply to birds; yet no Cretaceous or Cenozoic bird comes close to the great size of Late Cretaceous flying pterosaurs. Important as traits such as a long neck, one-way ventilation and specialization to a low-protein plant diet might be for enabling very large size to evolve, they do not suffice to explain the smaller maximum sizes of Cenozoic as compared to Mesozoic giants on land, especially given that higher primary productivity characterized Cenozoic ecosystems. They also do not account for the observed distribution and characteristics of marine global giants.
An intriguing possibility is that gigantism as a means of achieving competitive superiority has lost its luster relative to alternative pathways of becoming a top consumer. One such alternative is social organization, and in particular cooperative hunting, in which individuals form cohesive groups that are highly effective in collective resource acquisition and defense. In particular, group hunting by relatively small predators makes even very large prey vulnerable. This form of collective predation has become relatively widespread among carnivoran mammals during the Late Cenozoic. The use of weapons has enabled our own highly social species to bring down animals of any size. Individual gigantism has in effect been replaced on land by gigantism at the group level. Large individual size will still be advantageous in competition among adults, but animals the size of Mesozoic giant sauropods, hadrosaurs and ceratopsians might be vulnerable targets for more agile Cenozoic endothermic predatory mammals, especially for cooperatively hunting ones.
Even in the sea, where social organization remains much less common than on land, there is evidence of replacement over time of a gigantic solitary apex predator (the Middle Miocene to Late Pliocene shark Carcharocles megalodon, length 18 m) by the much smaller (7 m) Pleistocene to Recent cooperatively hunting killer whale Orcinus orca [135, 136]. The much later appearance of Phanerozoic level giants in the sea than on land can therefore perhaps be ascribed to the absence of sociality not only in bottom-dwelling marine suspension-feeders, photosymbiotic and chemosymbiotic animals, but also in most large vertebrates. The reasons for this difference in group competition and defense between marine and terrestrial ecosystems remain obscure.
A second possible explanation for the spatial and temporal distribution of global giants resides in the three-dimensional structure of habitats. For mobile animals, global gigantism is achievable only in productive uncluttered environments such as the open ocean, savanna or grassland vegetation, the air space above the forest canopy, or surface waters above subtidal kelp and seagrass beds. Three-dimensionally complex habitats such as reefs or the forest understory require alternatives to very large size, or at least gigantism on a much smaller scale such as that of ground-dwelling Carboniferous arthropods. The increased cover of closed forests after the Cretaceous [137] can go some way toward explaining the absence of Phanerozoic-level ground-dwelling giants during the Cenozoic. In this connection it is interesting that Steller's sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), the largest known marine herbivore, apparently fed largely in the canopy of North Pacific kelp forests [138].
The history of life is a complex tale of changing circumstances that are influenced by, and that influence, patterns of natural selection as well as the enabling factors that determine how far natural selection can go in any particular direction. In the case of global gigantism, both the tectonically controlled inputs of essential resources and the evolved ecological interdependencies that regulate how these resources are recycled through the biosphere explain why the largest animals in each of 10 trophic and habitat categories evolved after the Paleozoic era. Global gigantism as a means of achieving competitive superiority requires not only intense and sustained selection for large size, but also an ecological infrastructure that provides enough oxygen, food and stability of supply to make this possible. How such gigantism evolves and in which clades depends on physiological and anatomical innovations that are useful first in small-bodied animals in defense and feeding. Effective alternatives to extremely large size, particularly including coordinated food-gathering, became common on land but remain relatively scarce in most marine ecosystems. This difference between land and sea is also manifested by the much tighter link between primary productivity and gigantism in marine ecosystems than in terrestrial ones.
Although this paper is concerned with one trait—very large size of organisms—it illustrates the importance of evaluating fossil and living organisms in their ecological contexts and roles for understanding large historical trends. Organisms and their traits are products of interactions, which change over time as external triggers and internal regulatory mechanisms change. They are not abstractions, but real things and real properties that function in the evolving biosphere.
I have received many useful suggestions on various aspects of this paper from Egbert G. Leigh Jr., Ryosuke Motani and Nicolas D. Pyenson. I am very grateful to Alyssa Henry for technical assistance and for tracking down literature sources and reading these to me.
Author Contributions
Analyzed the data: GJV. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: GJV. Wrote the paper: GJV.
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185. 185. Hennemann FH, Conle OV. Revision of Oriental Phasmatodea: the tribe Pharnaciini Günther, 1953, including the description of the world's largest insect, and a survey of the family Phasmatidae Gray, 1835 with keys to the subfamilies and tribes (Phasmatodea: “Anareolatae": Phasmatidae). Zootaxa 2008; 1906: 1–311.
186. 186. Richards AM. A comparative study of the biology of the giant wetas Deinacrida heteracantha and D. fallai (Orthoptera: Henicidae) from New Zealand. J. Zool. London 1973; 169: 195–236.
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190. 190. Heiss E, Natchev N, Gumpenberger M, Weissenbacher A, Van Wassenbergh S. Biomechanics and hydrodynamics of prey capture in the Chinese giant salamander reveal a high-performance jaw-powered suction feeding mechanism. J. Roy. Soc. Interface 2013; 10: 2012.1028.
191. 191. Greer AE. On the maximum total length of the salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). J. Herpetol. 1974; 8: 381–384.
192. 192. Greene HW. Snakes: The evolution of mystery in nature. Berkeley: Univ. California Press; 1997.
193. 193. Clauss M, Frey R, Kiefer B, Lechner-Doll M, Loehlein W, Polster C, et al. The maximum attainable body size of herbivorous mammals: morphophysiological constraints on foregut, and adaptations of hindgut fermenters. Oecologia 2003; 136: 14–27. pmid:12712314
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.09120875597000122,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8366243243217468,
"url": "http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0146092"
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Surinam Cockroach
This cockroach burrows into leaf litter, mulch or loose soil during the day and emerge after dark to feed on vegetation and other plant matter. All that is needed to establish a new population of roaches is a single unmated female. These roaches never mate because Surinam cockroaches infestations are entirely made up of females. Unfertilized eggs develop into fully functional adult females that are genetic clones of their mothers.
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.09799134731292725,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.951483964920044,
"url": "https://www.protechpest.com/2012/09/12/surinam-cockroach/"
}
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Aesthetically Evolved Images
A pixel is a rectangular area of color and is the smallest area of color that a computer monitor can display. Digital images are made up of thousands, sometimes millions, of pixels arranged in a 2D plane. Pixels are very small and so when the image is displayed on a computer monitor we do not normally see the individual pixels. In the image below, a digital picture has been magnified and a grid placed over the top. Each grid square contains a single pixel of the original image.
Each pixel is a block of solid color. The color of a pixel can be represented in a number of ways. From our perspective these are all equivalent and can be reduced to the canonical Red-Green-Blue mixture representation. Now consider that each pixel can be referenced via its x and y coordinates. In digital images the point of reference is usually taken as the upper left, so that the x coordinate increases left-to-right and the y coordinate increases top-to-bottom. Using this idea, the image below shows a 4x4 square of "pixels" with their x and y coordinates written in the form (y,x).
Now we know that the color of a pixel is determined by its red, green, and blue components and that we can assign coordinates to pixels. The core concept behind evolving images (using the methodology I did), is that we can generate pictures by making the red, green, and blue color components of each pixel, a function of its coordinates. That is, the color of each pixel is a function of its position. Aesthetic evolution is nothing other than the "breeding" of the underlying functions of the "most pretty" images for thousands of generations, in a way analogous to the selective breeding of livestock.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.2974725365638733,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9124533534049988,
"url": "https://www.m2mthings.com/ae"
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[nəʊ] [noʊ]
• v.了解；知道；认识
• n.知情
knowable knower knew known knowing knows
1. vt. & vi. 知道,懂得 have sth in one's mind or memory as a result of experience or learning or information
2. vt. & vi. 认识,了解,熟悉 be acquainted with; be familiar with
know : 知道, 了解 ...
在 《会展英语词典》 中查看更多...
know : 了解, 认识 ...
在 《金融术语英语词典 》 中查看更多...
1. the fact of being aware of information that is known to few people;
"he is always in the know"
"I know that the President lied to the people"
"I want to know who is winning the game!"
"I know it's time"
2. know how to do or perform something;
"She knows how to knit"
"Does your husband know how to cook?"
"I know that I left the key on the table"
"Galileo knew that the earth moves around the sun"
"She doesn't know this composer"
"Do you know my sister?"
"We know this movie"
"I know him under a different name"
"This flower is known as a Peruvian Lily"
"I know the feeling!"
"have you ever known hunger?"
"The holocaust survivors have lived a nightmare"
"I lived through two divorces"
"We do not recognize your gods"
7. have fixed in the mind;
"I know Latin"
"This student knows her irregular verbs"
8. have sexual intercourse with;
"This student sleeps with everyone in her dorm"
"Adam knew Eve"
"Were you ever intimate with this man?"
9. know the nature or character of;
"we all knew her as a big show-off"
10. be able to distinguish, recognize as being different;
"The child knows right from wrong"
11. perceive as familiar;
"I know this voice!"
用作动词 (v.)
1. What do you know about us?
2. I know what happened.
3. Excuse me, do you know how to play chess?
4. I've known Tom for years.
用作名词 (n.)
1. Somebody in the know told me he's going to resign.
2. A friend who is in the know says she already left the country.
用作动词 (v.)
用作不及物动词 S+～(+A)
1. I honestly don't know.
2. How could I know?
3. Spring had come before I knew.
4. Who knows, perhaps they don't wish to come.
5. Don't you know?She has been laid up for the last four days.
6. “The meeting has been put off.” “Yes,I know.”
“会议延期了。”“ 我知道。”
7. This, you know, is what I have in mind.
8. There's no need to break the news gently,I've known for some weeks.
1. She never got to know any of her neighbours though many years she stayed there.
2. He knew all the surrounding fishing grounds like the palm of his hands.
他对周围的渔场全都了如指掌 。
3. He knows English and French.
4. Who knows most says least.
5. To know everything is to know nothing.
6. He knew poverty and sorrow in his early days.
7. They had never known modern medical care.
8. “He teaches English at a nice school called The Chen Jinglun.”“I know it.”
9. 用于be ～ed结构
10. A friend is never known till needed.
S+～+wh-to- v
1. We all don't know how to start the engine.
2. Alf doesn't know how to appreciate favours.
3. I really don't know which to choose, because they are both very nice.
4. The truly free man is he who knows how to decline a dinner invitation without giving any excuse.
5. You know where to get in touch with them, don't you?
1. They know they are working for themselves.
2. They knew they could never have what city folks had.
3. You know that I am not a prejudiced man.
4. He knows that this is quite true.
1. Do you know where the conference is to be held?
2. Do you know who was Napoleon?
3. Do you know what I mean?
4. God knows why they did it.
5. I haven't been out anywhere since I don't know how long.
6. I don't know whether you like flowers.
7. She wants to know if she is right.
用作宾补动词 S+～+ n./pron. +(to be/as) n./adj. / prep. -phrase
1. I know him to be an American.
2. We know him to be honest.
3. I've never known you so cheerful.
我从来没看见你这样高兴 。
4. They never knew him so excited before.
5. They knew themselves to be in a difficult position.
6. You may know this film as Never Give an Inch －its British title.
7. 用于be ～ed结构
8. The actress likes to be known as May Diamond, although it is not her real name.
9. The African lion is known as the king of the forest.
10. Mr. White is known in the town as a good family doctor.
S+～+ n./pron. +to- v
1. We've never known him to do anything unjust.
2. I never knew him to act without thinking.
3. 用于be ～ed结构
4. He was known to have taken part in the Long March.
用作动词 (v.)
be known to
1. 为…所熟知 be well known by
Mrs. Hall is well known to all the family, and I am certain that she will make a good servant in your house. 那家人都很了解霍尔太太的为人,我敢肯定,她在你家一定会成为一个听话的仆人。
The actor is well known to us. 我们熟知这个演员。
He is known to everyone in this university. 在这所大学里,人人都知道他。
This should be made known to the whole country. 要让全国都知道这事。
It is known to all that theory comes from practice. 理论来自实践,这是尽人皆知的。
2. 名字被记录在案 have one's name recorded by officials
Your new neighbour is known to the police, so you'd better lock your door. 你那位新邻居在警察局挂了号,你最好把门锁上。
know about (v.+prep.)
1. 知道,了解 be aware of sb/sth know about sb/sth
I happened to know about him.我正巧了解一些有关他的情况。
We know about magnetism by the way magnets act.我们通过磁铁的作用知道磁性是怎么一回事。
As for your hope of winning the first prize,I don't know about that.至于说到你在希望获头奖,对此我没有多大把握。
know sth about sb/sth
Do you know anything about astronomy?你懂天文学吗?
He knows some damaging facts about the firm's dealings.他知道该公司在经营中的一些丑事。
David certainly knows a thing or two about car engines.戴维肯定对汽车发动机非常在行。
I'll let you know all about it later on.以后,我全让你知道此事。
know apart (v.+adv.)
1. 能够区别 be able to recognize the difference between two or more things or people know sb/sth apart
The two brothers are so much alike that even their own mother hardly knows them apart.这兄弟俩长得如此相像,甚至他们的母亲也很难识别。
know backwards (v.+adv.)
1. 熟知; 精通 have learned very thoroughly know sth backwards
Every actor ought to know his lines backwards before he goes on stage, as nervousness may make him forgetful.所有演员在上台前都应当把台词记得滚瓜烂熟,因为一紧张就容易忘词。
You can't fool me; I know the whole story backwards.你骗不了我,这件事我了解得清清楚楚。
know best (v.+adv.)
1. 最了解 have the best informed opinion; be the best judge of sb/sth know best
No, you really ought to stay in bed, remember,Mother knows best!不,你真应当卧床静养。记住,母亲说得最有道理!
know sb best
Doctors should ask nurses their opinion, after all, they know the patients best.医生应当征求护士们的意见,毕竟护士最清楚病人的情况。
know better (v.+adv.)
1. 更明白事理,没愚蠢到… be wise enough not to do it know better
You ought to have known better!你怎么这么糊涂呢!
He ran away from school.He ought to have known better.他从学校逃跑,他本来就应该知道那是不对的。
know better than to-v
She is old enough to know better than to spend all her money on clothes.她长大了,应该懂得不该把所有的钱都花在衣服上。
I thought you knew better than to go to such places as that.我原以为你不至于糊涂到会上那些地方去。
You ought to know better than to go swimming on such a cold day.你应该知道，这样冷的天是不该去游泳的。
You ought to know better than to damage the state property.你应该知道损坏国家财产是不对的。
He ought to know better than to come into the house without knocking at the door.他该懂得不敲门是不能进屋的。
She certainly knows better than to tackle such problems by herself.她那么明智的人当然不至于自个儿去解决这类问题。
They knew better than to come to my front door.他们挺聪明的,没有跑到前门去。
know by (v.+prep.)
1. 根据…认出〔了解〕 recognize sb/sth because of sight or sign; tell sb know sb/sth by sth
You will know the house by its tall chimneys.看到那些大烟囱你就会认出那所房子。
I have never met our new neighbors; I simply know them by sight.我从未接触过我们的新邻居,只见过面。
I know that poem by heart.我可以背诵那首诗。
Shall I let you know by letter or by word of mouth?我写信告诉你还是口头通知你?
Let me know it immediately by telephone.马上打电话通知我。
用于 be ～ed 结构
You must keep repeating the lines until they are known by heart.你必须反复朗读这几行,一直到能背诵为止。
know fine (v.+adv.)
1. 很了解 know well know fine (that-)clause
I know fine that he's not to be trusted.我很清楚他是不可信的。
We know fine that's a good idea.我们很清楚那是个好主意。
know for (v.+prep.)
1. 知道,认识,以…而出名 have information about sb or sth for a length of time know sth for sth 常用于be ～ed结构
It is known for its handicraft products.这地方因出产手工艺品而闻名。
The place is nationally known for its melons and fruit, especially its seedless grapes.这里的瓜果,尤其是无核葡萄驰名全国。
2. 认识到(某人)是 recognize sb as being a certain kind of person know sb for sb
I know you for a thief and a liar!我算认识你了,一个又偷又骗的家伙!
know from (v.+prep.)
1. 辨别,分辨 be able to tell the difference between sb/sth know sb/sth from sb/sth
You'd better first know a friend from an enemy.你得首先分清敌友。
They're twins and it's almost impossible to know one from the other.他们是孪生子,旁人几乎无法辨别。
He doesn't know a knife from a fork.他连刀叉也分不清。
Don't listen to him, he doesn't know a hawk from a handsaw.别听他的,他什么也分不清。
We must learn to know good from evil.我们要学习区分善恶。
It's important for one to be able to know right from wrong.对一个人来说,能分辨是非非常重要。
know of (v.+prep.)
1. 知道,听说 be aware of the existence of; hear of know of sb/sth
I don't know the writer, but I know of him.我不认识这个作家,但我是晓得他的。
Do you know of any oil-filling station around here?你知道这一带有加油站吗?
What do you know of this theatre company?这个剧团的情况你知道些什么?
“Has he gone to Shanghai?”“ Not that I know of.”“他到上海去了吗?”“据我所知他并没有去。”
He would wish that he had never known of it.他但愿自己根本不晓得这件事。
I know of a shop where you can buy things like that.我听说过有一家商店,在那里,你可以买到那些东西。
I know of his books, but I haven't read any of them.我听说过他写的书,但一本也没有读过。
用于 be ～ed 结构
Such a kind of thing has never been known of before.这种事情以前闻所未闻。
know through (v.+adv.)
1. 非常了解 understand sb/sth perfectly know sb/sth ⇔ through
He thought he knew his wife through, until she deceived him.在妻子骗他之前,他一直认为自己非常了解她。
know one's job〔what one is doing〕
1. 懂行,在行 be able to do sth; be well done
He is a conscientious man and knows his job. 他很认真负责,也很懂行。
The pupils handled the tools well, seemed to know what they were doing. 小学生们工具掌握得很好,看起来很会干。
She knew what she was doing and soon put us to scales and exercises. 她很在行,立即让我们练习起音阶和练习曲来。
用作动词 (v.)
～+名词 ～+副词 ～+介词
• I knew I had guessed right about those missing hours.
出自：Scott Fitzgerald
• The Fanners were known as good landlords.
出自：J. Mortimer
• The art of dressing is to know what you look good in.
出自：Sunday Times
1. know的基本意思是“知道”“认识”“听说”,指直接了解某事物,也可表示“领会,懂得”,指通过体验或传授而获得知识。
2. know既可用作不及物动词,也可用作及物动词。用作及物动词作“知道,懂得”解时,可接表示事物的名词、代词、带疑问词的动词不定式、that或疑问词引导的从句作宾语,也可接以“(to be/as+) n./adj./prep. -phrase. ”或动词不定式充当补足语的复合宾语。作“认识,了解”解时,可接表示人或物的名词作宾语。know可用于被动结构。know接to be作宾语补足语时, to be常可省略,但当to be表示的时间先于know表示的时间时,须用不定式的完成式,且不可省略。
3. 在对话回答语中,如know的宾语表示的是整个事实(如that-clause),则宾语可省略; 如know的宾语是一个具体事物,则通常以it代替之。
4. know是表示思想状态的动词,指思维活动的结果,通常不用于进行体。
5. 有些学者把know of和know about视为同义词。例如:I know about〔of〕 it long ago.(Palmer)我很久以前就听说过这件事了。
6. 口语中表示“不知道”,可说I don't know。不过这听起来显得不温和、不友好,不如说I have no idea。
7. know有时可用作名词, in the know表示“知情的,消息灵通的”。
know, know about, know of
这三者都有“知道,了解”的意思。它们的区别是:know 表示直接地知道,熟知；而know of 是间接得知(听人讲过,从书报上看过等); know about指知道关于某事的情况。例如:
I know of him, but I don't know him personally.我听说过他,但不认识他。
It is better to know one thing than to know about ten thousand things.熟知一事要比略知万事要好。
know by, know to
1.know to的意思是“为大家所了解”, know by的意思是“被大家所熟知”。现代英语中be known to较少使用。例如:
• He's known to everybody here.
• 这里的人都熟悉他。
• He's known by everybody here.
• 这里的人都了解他。
2.know by的主动形式往往用于表示认识人〔事物〕的手段或标准。例如:
We know a judge by the clothes he wears.我们可以根据他穿的衣服认出法官。
know, learn, understand
这组词都有“了解”的意思。它们的区别是:know指对某一事物的直接了解或通过体验、传授获得知识; learn意为“听说”“得知”,强调对某一具体事物从“不知”到“知”的变化; understand指对某事物的性质、规律、意义等都十分了解,而且还指了解它所包含的其他意义和关系,其程度要比know了解得更深、更广。例如:
How had he learned that secret?他怎么得知这个秘密的?
They were greatly surprised to learn the news.听到这个消息,他们都很吃惊。
Do you understand the difficulty of my position?你了解我处境的困难吗?
know, realize
realize指全面透彻地了解,语气比know强; know指知道、懂得、会做某事,不如realize了解得透彻、全面。例如:
So far as I know, he's abroad.据我所知,他在国外。
know, recognize
前者指“认出”,表瞬间动作; 后者指“认识”,表持续动作。
I don't know, I wonder
know learn comprehend understand
• know:know普通用词，多指通过学习、经验或他人传播而得到知识，含直接知道的意味。
• learn:learn通常指通过他人而获得消息或情况，侧重从不知到知的变化过程。
• comprehend:comprehend侧重熟悉了解的过程。
• understand:understand指对事物已有彻底的认识，不仅知其性质、含义和细节，而且了解其内外的关系。
1. 他对物理学了解一点。
He is knowing something about physics.
He knows something about physics.
2. 她知道怎样做蛋糕。
She knows to make cakes.
She knows making cakes.
She knows how making cakes.
She knows how to make cakes.
• ☆ 直接源自古英语c的nawan，意为知道。
know : 知道，明白 ...
在 《外研社英语词典》 中查看更多...
• know:know v. 知道, 了解, 认识, 熟悉, 认出, 分辨, 确信 英英解释:名词know:1. the fact of being aware of information that is kno…
应用 附录 查词历史
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Common Core: 11th Grade English Language Arts : Textual evidence to support claims about implicit and explicit meaning: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.11-12.1
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All Common Core: 11th Grade English Language Arts Resources
Example Questions
Example Question #1 : Reading: Literature
Passage adapted from Othello by William Shakespeare (1604)
IAGO: Three great ones of the city,
In personal suit to make me his lieutenant,
But he; as loving his own pride and purposes, 5
Evades them, with a bombast circumstance
Horribly stuff'd with epithets of war;
And, in conclusion,
'I have already chose my officer.' 10
And what was he?
Forsooth, a great arithmetician,
One Michael Cassio, a Florentine,
A fellow almost damn'd in a fair wife;
That never set a squadron in the field, 15
Nor the division of a battle knows
More than a spinster; unless the bookish theoric,
Wherein the toga’d consuls can propose
As masterly as he: mere prattle, without practise,
Is all his soldiership. But he, sir, had the election: 20
And I, of whom his eyes had seen the proof
At Rhodes, at Cyprus and on other grounds
Christian and heathen, must be be-lee'd and calm'd
By debitor and creditor: this counter-caster,
He, in good time, must his lieutenant be, 25
From the language of the passage, which of the following is a reasonable inference to draw about the speaker?
Possible Answers:
He is near retirement
He is well-educated
He is older than Michael Cassio
He is young, but unduly experience and accomplished for a soldier his age
Correct answer:
He is older than Michael Cassio
The key here is to look at the overall tone and language of Iago's speech, as well as the limitations placed on your inferences by the literal content of what he's saying. Iago certainly emphasizes his experience and refers to himself as Othello's "ancient," so the answer choice characterizing him as "young" can be eliminated. About that "ancient," Iago is not literally calling himself ancient, but rather is characterizing him as a part of Othello's past, since he has named Cassio his lieutenant (it's more like he's saying that he's old news, as opposed to an old man). Iago actively uses Cassio's education as a way to denigrate him, so it is not reasonable to infer that Iago himself is highly educated. Ultimately, although he never states it, the most reasonable inference to make here is that Iago is older than Michael Cassio. Iago's emphasis on Cassio's lack of experience and his own long, hard won experience, makes the inference that Iago is older than Cassio a reasonable, if not directly stated, inference.
Example Question #1 : Common Core: 11th Grade English Language Arts
Passage adapted from "Bartleby, the Scrivener: A Story of Wall-Street" by Herman Melville (1853)
From the content of the passage, the reader can infer that Bartleby is ______________.
Possible Answers:
an accountant
a doctor
None of the other answers can be inferred from the content of the passage
a young man
Correct answer:
The passage provides no additional information about Bartleby, except that he was an odd scrivener who we know little about beyond what the narrator implies. The passage deliberately keeps information about Bartleby scant, and spends a good deal of time discussing his work as a scrivener, which is defined within the passage as a "law copyist," a clerical position. It is extremely unlikely that Bartleby would have a clerical job, and on the side be working in any of the other professions referenced. While the text does not specifically preclude Bartleby's youth, it also does not make any direct reference to his age. In order to choose an answer to this question one must be able to find specific content in the text that could be directly tied to the inference.
All Common Core: 11th Grade English Language Arts Resources
Learning Tools by Varsity Tutors
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. .
Determination of unknown impedance
Objective: To determine the impedance of the given load.
List of Components:
1. Microwave source with square wave modulation
2. Isolator
3. Variable attenuator
4. Detector
5. VSWR meter
6. Slotted line
7. Matched Termination
8. Slide screw Tuner.
The unknown terminating impedance can be determined by measuring standing wave ratio & distance of a convenient maxima or minima from the load. Normally for distance measurement minima is used because it is more sharply defined. The unknown load admittances is given by the transmission equation as
where, S = VSWR
d,min = distance of first minima from the load.
A screw projecting into the waveguide offers variation in the admittance with the insertion of the screw. The depth of screw, changes only the reactive part of the admittance, so if the line is matched, the load offered by the screw for a certain depth is
Y = 1 + j b
where b is the susceptance due to the screw. The unknown impedance can also be determined by using chart, once the VSWR and position of minima is known with the load.
Fig 1. Experimental arrangement for measuring impedance
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the fig1. Fix the frequency and amplitude of the source with the help of slider and knob. Fix the modulator frequency using slider. Select “Forward direction” in isolator and adjust the attenuation using slider.
2. Four types of loads i.e. matched load, short circuit, open circuit and unmatched load are used here. Realizing a screw whose reactance vary with insertion is not feasible. Hence we are using distance of minima to find the impedance.
3. Choose “Unmatched Load” to perform the experiment from the Loads given in Loads window. We can vary the resistance and reactance of load by using sliders in case of “Unmatched Load”.
4. Use toggle button to select between “Short Circuit” and other “load”. First select “Short Circuit”.
5. Find first and second minima by using slider. Fix the first minima by clicking “First minima from load (Short Circuited)” and second minima by clicking “Second minima from load (Short Circuited)”.
6. Use toggle button to switch to “Load” mode.
7. Again find the first minima for load condition by using slider and fix it by pressing the button “First minima from load (Unknown Impedance)”.
8. Fix the value of VSWR by pressing “VSWR value of unknown impedance”. Now press the “Value of Unknown Impedance” button.
9. The resistance and reactance for the unknown impedance can be seen in the visible tabs. That can be matched with the chosen one.
1. Explain qualitatively the impedance variation with the depth of screw and with frequency?
2. The smith chart calculations and the transmission line equation calculations for impedance are valid under what mode conditions?
1. S. Ramo, J.R. Whinney and I. VanDuzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1994.
2. E.L. Ginzton: Microwave Measurements, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. New York, 1957.
3. Annapurna Das, Sisir K Das, Microwave Engineering, McGraw-Hill International Edition, Singapore, 2000.
4. C. G. Montgomery, Techniques of Microwave Measurements, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1947.
5. Terman and Petit, “Electronic Measurement”, McGraw-hill Book Co, New York, 1952.
Cite this Simulator:
..... .....
Powered by AmritaVirtual Lab Collaborative Platform [ Ver 00.12. ]
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How Bonnet broke bad
The judge who presided over the trial of 18th century pirate Stede Bonnet described him as “a gentleman that have had the advantage of a liberal education, and being generally esteemed a Man of Letters.” In contrast to his colleagues, Bonnet had a much different path to a career in piracy.
David Cordingly, in his book Under the Black Flag, writes that a high percentage of pirates were former seamen in the merchant service or Royal Navy, or had served as privateers. Many volunteered to serve the pirates who captured their vessels, while others, knowing nothing other than sea life, turned to piracy once their naval service ended.
Bonnet, on the other hand, was the son of wealthy English land owner in Barbados. He lived comfortably, a well-educated man who loved to read. It was this background that led to his nickname, “The Gentleman’s Pirate.”
In the 1724 book A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates, the theory is posited that Bonnet turned to a life of high seas crime in 1717 as a result of marital issues with his wife of eight years, Mary Allamby, while other sources claim his wife had died by 1715. Either way, he had three children, which he left for his new life. The problem was that Bonnet had no sailing experience. But the man did not lack for confidence.
Cordingly writes that Bonnet purchased a 10-gun sloop which he named Revenge, hired 70 men, and simply became a pirate. He began attempting to terrorize the Virginia and Carolina coast, which he did with some success. Supposedly his men had little respect for him, which left him in a precarious situation, especially after a crushing defeat at the hands of a Spanish man o’ war that left half of his men swimming with the fishes.
Bonnet then sailed to the pirate haven of New Providence in the Bahamas to seek reprieve. There he met fearsome Captain Edward Teach, better known by his cognomen Blackbeard. Whether due to his men’s convincing or Blackbeard’s, Bonnet turned over command of his ship to Blackbeard. As of late 1717, Cordingly writes that the Boston News Letter reported that Bonnet had been seen onboard Blackbeard’s ship, walking along the deck in his morning gown, spending time reading through his library.
But this arrangement did not last long, as Bonnet had struck out on his own by the spring of 1718. He was soundly defeated yet again, leading to his men abandoning him in favor of working under Blackbeard. Bonnet was then pardoned by North Carolina governor Charles Eden, with terms of the pardon requiring that he not return to piracy. Eden commissioned Bonnet as a privateer, a sailor who served in an anti-piracy or naval capacity. But Bonnet could not leave his criminal ways behind him.
It what would be a fateful move, Bonnet assumed the alias “Captain Thomas,” and with a crew, at least in part, consisting of men marooned by Blackbeard, began plundering and murdering along the Atlantic coast. After finding that Blackbeard had robbed his original ship, Bonnet vowed revenge on Blackbeard with his renamed ship, Royal James.
He would never achieve that goal, instead meeting his demise when the governor of South Carolina sent out a crew of privateers under the captaincy of William Rhett in the fall of 1718 to put an end to the rampant piracy. Rhett met Bonnet along the North Carolina coast at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, culminating in the appropriately-named Battle of Cape Fear River. According to Angus Konstam’s 2006 work, Blackbeard, both Bonnet and Rhett ran their ships aground, continuing to battle for five to six hours while stuck in the sandbar. Eventually, the tide rose, freeing only Rhett’s ship. His ship’s rigging was repaired and he began firing directly on the deck of Bonnet’s ship. Bonnet’s men soon surrendered, his ship boarded, and all taken into custody.
Bonnet’s trial was held in Charleston, S.C. Lindley Butler explains that Bonnet attempted an escape, setting sail out of the Charleston Harbor with his sailing master, David Herriot, and two slaves. Winds kept him from leaving the harbor. William Rhett was once again sent out in search of Bonnet, forcing him to surrender after killing Herriot and wounding the two slaves.
Butler states that Bonnet represented himself in court, to no avail. Cordingly writes that while both piracy and murder both carried death penalties, that a charge of murder offered defendants little chance of hope. The judge sentenced Bonnet to death, stating that while total murder counts were unknown, evidence suggested that the body count was at least 18. He, along with 31 of his surviving 34 crew members were hanged on display in the Charleston Harbor. His December 1718 hanging was seen as a great advancement in the war on piracy in the Americas.
Bonnet’s career had lasted only a year-and-a-half, but he has certainly made his mark on history. Within those 18 months, he left an easy existence on a beautiful island for a life in which he was disrespected, twice had his command snatched from him, and ultimately captured and executed in public when he got stuck in the sand.
It seems that the gravity of his situation hit him near the end, as upon his sentencing, Captain Charles Johnson (whose real identity is a mystery) describes the scene as such: “His piteous behavior under sentence very much affected the people of the Province, particularly the women.”
Maybe poor old Stede Bonnet was made more for the high life, and not so much the high seas life.
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Star Shaped Forts
Star shaped forts are a type of fortification that remained popular from the mid-15th century right up until the end of the 19th and they evolved for two main reasons.
First, they aimed to counteract the game-changing effects of gunpowder during sieges, with traditional square and ring-shaped forts now easily breached by cannon fire. Second, star forts also mitigated a key defensive weakness traditional forts had become increasingly vulnerable to – ‘sapping’, or mining under the walls, by foes out of the firing line.
Star forts countered – to a degree-the effects of cannon fire by removing most perpendicular targets for the attacking force. The design was chosen as cannon balls made short work of square-on fortifications largely due to their extensive surface area and lack of absorptive support when a shot made contact. This was because medieval castle and fort walls, which accounted for a large proportion of existing strongholds, had been designed to be relatively thin but high, making it hard for enemies to scale them and difficult for siege engines to fire over.
The advent of cannon fire, however, allowed these walls to be hit directly and with a ferocity that would easily demolish the stone and clay.
As such, this new form of fortification was built out of a series of interlocking and/or separate triangular bastions, which encircled the central town or keep within.
Star Shaped FortsThe bastions were much thicker than standard walls and much flatter too, meaning that any cannon shot hitting them straight on would have its kinetic energy spread out and absorbed by successive layers of masonry. Further, any shot that was not a direct hit, or completely perpendicular, would glance off with little damaging effect.
The second reason why the star-shaped fort became widely adopted was that while it limited effective angles of attack for the offensive enemy force, it maximized those of the defensive one. This was due, simply, to the geometry of their bastions. By creating a series of triangular spits that could be manned by gunners, attacking forces could be engaged over a far greater angle – over 180 degrees – and, more importantly, those forces that did reach the walls, could be continuously fired on from the side and rear. These advantages were generally not granted by existing strongholds, as their flat-on walls meant infantry could only fire in a small arc in one direction – ie perpendicular to the wall. If forces did manage to reach the base, they could not be effectively engaged either as shooting straight down is very awkward.
Despite originating in the mid-15th century in Italy, by the 18th century star forts were a common sight in France, Germany, Croatia, Hungary and many other western nations (later spreading as far east as Japan). Many are acclaimed in historical record as key turning points in major battles. Indeed, the reign of the star fort only came to an end with the arrival of explosive shells towards the latter end of the 19th century.
Top 3 fortifications
Motte-and-bailey castle1. Old – Motte-and-bailey castles
The motte-and-bailey was a castle built on top of a natural or man-made mound. The walls and keep were usually made of stone.
2. Older – Hill fort
One of the earliest defensive man-made structures, hill forts were large earthworks consisting of a series of earthen walls and ditches built around a small settlement.
3. Oldest – Citadel
A citadel was a structure attached to a large town or city, either within its outer walls or part of them. Citadels provided a base for the city’s soldiers.
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Bedrest and ground studies
Changes in gravity levels for research purposes can be simulated on Earth, and ESA offers a number of programmes for researchers to test theories without launching experiments into space.
Similar to the hypergravity centrifuge, small experiments can be rotated continuously around two or three axes. Over time, the force of gravity is statistically reduced to zero. These studies can be a good starting point for further gravity research.
Space on Earth
Energy measurementsAccess the image
You don’t need to send an astronaut to space in order to study how humans adapt to weightlessness and isolation.
Bedrest volunteers spend five to 60 days in bed tilted towards the head end, usually, at 6° below the horizontal. They may not stand up unless the research demands it and must perform all daily activities in bed, including eating, showers and exercise.
By submitting themselves to this upside-down regime, the volunteers’ bodies start to adapt as though in space.
Scientists monitor the volunteers continuously to understand how their bodies change and why. Results allow measures to be devised that will help astronauts on space missions as well as bedridden people recuperating from illness. They are an ideal opportunity for researchers to test equipment and monitor healthy patients intensively – the volunteers are not going anywhere.
Remote isolation
Apart from the effects of isolation and sensory deprivation, Concordia has another trick up its sleeve. The thin air holds less oxygen than at sea level. The crew live in a permanent state of hypoxia – lack of oxygen.
Concordia in the DarkAccess the image
Designing space missions with lower atmospheric pressure is easier for engineers. Similar to commercial aircraft, spacecraft and planetary structures can be lighter if the internal air pressure is lowered. In addition, less time is needed to prepare physically for spacewalks.
Concordia crewmembers are generally not adapted to living at high altitude with little oxygen. Observing how their bodies adapt gives a good indication as to how astronauts will adapt to spaceflight far from Earth.
Waving to the SunAccess the image
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bullet star Ancient Times
Disabilities have always been a part of life, but the lives of individuals with disabilities have not always been valued. In Ancient times, children with disabilities were scorned, publicly persecuted and abandoned by their parents. Individuals with disabilities were referred to as "idiots" and "fools" and often used as "court jesters" for amusement. Christianity improved the way persons with disabilities were treated and increased compassionate care for those who were "lame, blind and otherwise disabled".
1800's in America
Living conditions for individuals with disabilities in the 1800's were especially harsh as they were often forced to live in "poorhouses" in squalid, crowded conditions. By the middle of the 19th century, society became more aware of the horrible living conditions and Congress set aside land and money to build housing specifically for individuals with disabilities.
During this time, the number of people in public institutions continued to rise. In 1890 there were approximately 250 persons per institution and 15 years later there were over 500 per institution. In 1900, there were about 10 private institutions for persons with disabilities and by 1923, there were 80. Overcrowding of these institutions worsened as the 20th century proceeded.
1950s, 60s, and 70's
During the early 50's, a few groups of parents, scattered across the United States began to organize and demand services for their children. As the parent movement grew, conditions improved in state institutions and community services, education and employment opportunities were created. Rosemary Kennedy, whose brother was President John F. Kennedy, inspired him to launch the President's Panel on Mental Retardation and devise a "plan to combat mental retardation". Parent organizations filed lawsuits forcing states to recognize the civil and legal rights of their children to education and other appropriate services.
Find out more about President's Panel on Mental Retardation.
Find out more about the History of Special Olympics.
bullet star 1980s - Present
Inspired by the civil rights groups of the 1960's, this period saw the formation of local, state, and national self-advocacy groups. Self-advocates have been responsible for the redefining of disability - claiming that it is less about rehabilitation and more about equality. The issues they pursue include closing institutions, improving living conditions, changing stereotypes of disability, protecting people with disabilities in the criminal justice system, real jobs with real pay, accessing healthcare and creating real communities.
starFind out more about Disability History
Beyond Affliction: The Disability History Project
Four-hour documentary radio series about the shared experience of people with disabilities and their families since the beginning of the 19th century.
Center for Human Policy - Disability Studies for Teachers.
Lesson plans and materials designed to help teachers integrate disability studies into social studies, history, literature and related subjects in grades 6-12.
Partners in Policymaking Online Course
The goal of Partners in Policymaking is to educate participants to be active partners with those who make policy. The idea is to develop partnerships that are based on positive relationships.
Disability History Timeline
This guide features examples of the diversity, creativity, and leadership that have shaped the disability community and American culture.
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Focusing on English Vocabulary Words banner.
Word Groups: Cad, Cas, Cid; Cand; Caneh; and Cap, Cept
Latin and Greek families of words
Many English words come from closely related family groups
Word group: Latin cad, cas, cid, "to fall"
Why is the word occident, which means "the lands of the West, from the same root that means "to fall"?
It is because to ancient people, the rising of the sun each morning was a dramatic event, signaling the end of night and the beginning of day.
When the sun went down at the end of the day, it was seen to fall in the general direction of the Western lands. Ancient people reckoned their directions by the rising and setting of the sun. The Orient meant the direction of the rising sun, the lands of the "East".
Today, when you orient yourself, you determine your position. In these modern times, you may, or may not, use the sun as your guide, but your ancestors certainly did.
Word group: Latin cand, "to glow, to be shining white, to burn" from candere, "to glow white"
With political corruption making daily headlines, and with elected officials serving jail terms, we can not help but marvel at the fact that the word candidate derives from the root which means "to be shining white". White, of course, symbolizes purity.
The meaning of root originated with an old Roman custom. When a man ran for public office in ancient Rome, he wore a toga; a long, shining, white cloak.
With this garb, the candidate stood out in a crowd. The people took notice of him and, because of his white garment, associated the candidate with honesty and goodness.
Word group: Hebrew kaneh, "reed"; Latin canna, "reed, pipe"
Long ago, tall, slender, and hollow reeds grew on the banks of the Jordan and the Nile Rivers. The word for reed in the Hebrew, Arabic, and Egyptian languages was kaneh. The word passed over into Greek and Latin, and into the languages of western Europe.
A rather remarkable word family grew from the root canna. Some are easy to trace back. Sugar "cane", a walking "cane", even a "cannon" are all clearly related to the reed in shape. With just a little imagination, the words "canal" and "channel" can also be associated with a pipe or groove.
It is probably more difficult to see how the word canon, or "law", derives from the root meaning "reed". Since reeds were long and straight, they were often used as measuring rods. From this concept, "reed" came to mean "a standard" and ultimately, "an authoritative standard", or "law".
Word group: Latin cap, cept, "to take, to seize"; capere, "to take"
This word element forms a small, but important, part of a large and important word: emancipation. When you become experienced at finding roots, prefixes, and suffixes in words, you will be able to take long words apart, and then put the parts together to discover the meaning of the word.
Emancipation literally means "the act of taking out of the hand"; therefore, "the act of setting free".
—Information for these vocabulary groups came from
Words Come in Families by Edward Horowitz, PhD.;
Hart Publishing Company, Inc.; New York; 1977; pages 25-38.
Pointing to English words for our modern age from Latin Greek sources English words for a Modern Age, especially those from Latin Greek sources or etymologies (prefixes,roots, suffixes).
This site includes many words that are used in our modern age,, especially those from "Latin-Greek sources".
Web Focusing on Words Site
This is another way to find information on this Word Focus site or on Google.
—Wilfred Funk
Flying Scarab Link This ancient Egyptian hieroglyph, a flying scarab, will present an e-mail form so you can ask questions or make comments regarding this Website.
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Gray jays' winter survival depends on food storage, study shows
A new University of Guelph study shows that gray jays hoping to survive and reproduce through Canada's harsh winters need to be able to store food in the right kinds of trees.
The study appears in Oecologia and was co-authored by Prof. Ryan Norris, Department of Integrative Biology; Brian Kielstra, an undergraduate student in the Department of Geography; and Dan Strickland, retired chief naturalist of Algonquin Park in Ontario.
Unlike most birds that migrate for winter, gray jays are year-round residents in the Canadian boreal forest. In winter, they rely on berries, fungi, insects, carcass meat and other foods cached in nooks and crannies of trees during summer and fall. They remember where they've stored tens of thousands of food items scattered throughout a territory up to 160 hectares in size.
He and Strickland have studied a population of gray jays on the southern edge of their range in Algonquin Park. Records during the past 33 years show that gray jay numbers have fallen more quickly within territories dominated by deciduous trees, such as sugar maple, than in areas of mostly coniferous trees, particularly black spruce.
The researchers thought that certain tree bark characteristics might influence the quality of food storage sites. The bark and foliage of boreal and subalpine tree species, for example, have antibacterial and antifungal properties that may help preserve food.
To test this idea, they simulated jay caches by attaching small food containers to different trees in the fall. Weighing the food after one to four months, they found that more remained on the spruce and pine than on the deciduous trees.
"The evidence suggests that the resin production of the boreal conifers may be critically important for the survival of gray jays, especially at the southern limits of their range," Norris said. "This fits perfectly with our observation that the jay territories that are no longer occupied in Algonquin Park are the areas dominated by deciduous forest."
An important question still remains: why are gray jays declining in Algonquin Park?
"We think it may have something to do with climate change affecting the quality of cached food, and we are currently conducting a series of experiments to look at this," said Norris.
The Guelph study may help in understanding territorial limits for other boreal breeding animals.
Contact: Ryan Norris
519-824-4120 x54582
University of Guelph
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What is Shingles?
Herpes zoster, also known as shingles is a highly contagious disease attributable to the reactivation of the dormant human herpes virus type 3 virus situated in the dorsal nerve root ganglion of the spinal nerves. The virus can migrate along the path of a nerve to the skin surface causing a rash of painful blisters. This disorder affects only those who once have had chicken pox and commonly hits over age 50. In a client with a history of chickenpox, shingles can occur at some immunocompromised situations. Prognosis is good except when the virus extends to central nervous system.
It is still undefined how and why reactivation happens. It is assumed that the virus reactivates when, as a result of old age, illness, cancer, stress or immunosuppressant medications, the immune system turns out to be too vulnerable to keep the virus in a state of dormancy. After viral reactivation, the chicken pox virus travels down the sensory nerve into the skin to cause shingles.
In early stages, there is a tingling, itching, lightning bolt sensation followed by pain on one side of the body. One to three days after the pain starts, a rash with raised, red lumps and blisters erupts on the skin surface following a dermatomal outline or a ray-like distribution as blisters follow the pathway of individual nerves. They start to become pustules, and then scabs form by 10 days.
Separate the infected person from others because exudates from the lesions hold the virus. Maintain standard precautions. Use an air mattress on the bed and keep the atmosphere cool. Never scratch the skin where the rash is located to avoid the risk of secondary infections and scarring. To soothe the blisters, render cool water compress to suppurating blisters for 20 minutes many times a day. In the early stage of the disease, antiviral drugs may be combined with a strong corticosteroid to speed up healing and diminish the extent of pain. In the most critical situations, blocking agents are given via injection to stop pain signals from reaching the brain.
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Black Inventors and Innovators - Frederick Jones
Updated on February 16, 2011
Frederick Jones was born May 17, 1893 in Cincinnati, Ohio and died February 21, 1961 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Jones’ father was a white railroad worker and his mother was a black woman who died when Jones was very young. Jones was orphaned at the age of eight when he was sent to a rectory by his father to be raised by a priest. Jones’ father thought that Frederick would be better off under the care of the priest. Jones never finished the eighth grade but Jones’ lack of education did not stop him from following his dream and drive of being an inventor.
Frederick Jones is mostly known for inventions in refrigeration although he had other inventions in the medical field; a portable x-ray machine and in the movie industry; an automatic ticket dispenser. Frederick enjoyed trying to create things that filled a specific need. Frederick Jones is credited with over 60 patents 40 of which were in refrigeration.
Refrigeration was Frederick’s main focus. Jones designed a portable vehicle air conditioning unit for trucks that was eventually used in other vehicles such as trains, boats and ships. This air conditioning system enabled food to be transported to other cities and changed the way food was delivered. Jones’ invention revolutionized the shipping, grocery, fast food and frozen food industries. Because of the air conditioned vehicles food could be frozen and kept frozen from city to city. Because of the air conditioned vehicles the frozen food industry was developed and supermarkets came into existence. With the air conditioned transportation grocery stores were able to import and export products other than canned goods, like fresh vegetables and meats.
Not only was the food industry and consumer eating habits changed because of Jones’ invention but the medical field also benefitted because these refrigeration units were able to transport blood and medicines to and from different locations. This was significant during World War II for the military field hospitals.
The vehicle air-conditioning device would later be called a Thermo King and the company Thermo King Corp is now a world leader in transportation of temperature controlled equipment globally.
I am thankful to Frederick Jones’ for his inventions and innovations. Frederick Jones is a great role model for perseverance through adversity. Jones only had an eighth grade education but did not let that stop him from going after something that he believed in and he ended up revolutionizing several industries in the process.
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• Triplet Mom profile image
Triplet Mom 6 years ago from West Coast
Thank you Hello Hello. I am enjoying learning about these truly inspiring people.
• Hello, hello, profile image
Hello, hello, 6 years ago from London, UK
Thank you for another wonderfully written and detailed hub. It was great reading.
• Triplet Mom profile image
Triplet Mom 6 years ago from West Coast
Thank you BK! I am so enjoying learning as I go. This was a great idea and I only have my kids to thank for this.
• BkCreative profile image
BkCreative 6 years ago from Brooklyn, New York City
Sixty patents! You are doing an excellent job of informing me. I can simply direct my students to your hub or print it out.
Thanks a million for putting these educational and historic hubs together. Rated up!
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4 mins read
Origins, benefits, efficacy, and methodology
The traditional form of kinesiology or biomechanics had led to the understanding of how nerves stimulate muscles to act on the bones, consequently leading to movement and postures. However, muscle testing existed in biomechanics long before the advent of applied kinesiology. The principles of kinesiology, based on biomechanics, have been used to treat problems occurring in sports, medicine, and industry.
What is kinesiology? Where did it originate?
Kinesiology is a therapeutic profession, similar to physiotherapy. Kinesiology comes from the Greek word kinesis, meaning movement. Applied Kinesiology was started by the work of American chiropractor, George J. Goodheart, Jr., D.C. He founded new methods such as theory and treatment of reactive muscles and his effective treatment technique for sustained muscle use.
Dating back to early literature on kinesiology, Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) is considered to be the earliest pioneers of kinesiology. He is well known for his studies on human structure and function. In 1780, Luigi Galvani made the discovery that muscular contraction occurs due to electrical impulses. He applied a small electrical voltage to the leg of a frog, which caused a twitch due to contraction of the muscles.
In 1964, Goodheart made the discovery that a weak-testing muscle may be made to test strong by massaging its extreme ends where the tendons attach to the bone. Today, this technique is called “origin-insertion technique.”
How is Kinesiology beneficial?
Kinesiology has been able to provide advantages in industries, sports, and medicine. Here is a list of the benefits:
• Due to studies in biomechanics, it had been possible to design user-friendly tools, chairs, and workstations.
• Kinesiology helped reduce injuries in industries due to the understanding of how heavy objects can be lifted without damaging the body.
• Athletes can work with Kinesiologists to better understand how to perform the movements related to their sport in a more efficient manner.
• The principles of kinesiology have been used in the design of artificial joints
• Its principles have been used in the development of more successful rehabilitation methods.
Studies/research on efficacy
According to the American Cancer Society, the available scientific evidence does not support the claim that applied kinesiology can diagnose or treat tumors or any other illnesses.”
• A review of several scientific studies on applied kinesiology was not able to come to any conclusion about the validity of the procedures, such as diagnostic tests.
How is kinesiology done?
Treatment using kinesiology is done in several steps:
• Muscles are attached at both ends to the bone by tendons to meet at a movable joint. When the muscles contract, they become short. The shortening action pulls one of the attached tendons toward the other.
• In preparation for the muscle test, the joint over which the muscle attaches is bent. This causes the muscle to shorten, bringing it into a contracted position. The kinesiologist now places his hand to ensure no further contraction to the muscle.
• Now, the patient steadily contracts his or her muscle from zero force up to maximum force against the resistance applied by the kinesiologist. The practitioner also applies an equal and opposite, and steadily increases resistance to retain the starting position of the muscle test.
• After the patient has contracted his or her muscle as much as possible, the kinesiologist applies some more force. The whole process should take no more than 2-3 seconds.
• Now, if the patient can maintain his or her original position against this small force, his or her muscle is tested “strong.” If the patient fails, the muscle is tested “weak.”
• The test described above has two parts. The first part tests the patient’s ability to contract his or her muscle. The second part of the test checks the patient’s nervous system to see whether it can provide more contraction than what the patient can willfully give.
• In indicatory muscle testing, a muscle that has been tested strong “in the clear” is used to indicate other types of stimulus. This stimulus is presented by moving a part of the patient’s body that is injured or infected. Such stimulus may cause the same muscle to test weak. Therapy localization is referred to the stimulus provided by the patient while touching himself or herself.
How can you get started with kinesiology?
People who practice applied kinesiology may be naturopaths, nurses, doctors, or other healthcare providers. If you want to apply kinesiology, you will first be evaluated by observing your posture, muscle strength, gait, range of motion, etc.
Risks and Contraindications of Kinesiology
Although no significant risks have been sighted, you are advised to undergo kinesiology under the supervision of reputed professionals and practitioners as this involves force against your muscles.
1. Robert Frost. Applied Kinesiology: A Training Manual and Reference Book of Basic Principles andPractices.NorthAtlanticBooks;2002.272p.
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Battle Analysis
Battle analysis
Wargames are based upon real events. They attempt to represent a reasonable approximation of the actual forces, terrain, and other material factors faced by the actual participants. The web browser is an excellent platform to simulate a wargame and analyze the principles of war.
The principles of War: Carl von Clausewitz
P = N * Q * V
N represents the number of troops in the force, which are the counters.
Q is the fighting quality of the troops, which is the attacking and defending strength values.
V is the variable factors reflecting the combat circumstances, such as the terrain effects.
Force (N * Q) counters to represent the force size (N) and the unit's stength (Q).
Terrain (V) affects the unit's movement (TEM) and it's combat effectiveness (TEC) (V).
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How to Merge Cells in Excel
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• 0:01 Merge vs. Combine
• 0:33 Merge and Center
• 2:58 Combine
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Lesson Transcript
Instructor: Karen Sorensen
MS Excel has two features that allow you to join multiple cells. You can Merge cells or Combine cells. This lesson will discuss the two features, explain the difference and show you how to use these commands.
Merge vs. Combine
Microsoft Excel has two commands that allow you to join multiple cells into one. The first is Merge. When you merge two or more adjacent horizontal or vertical cells, the cells become one larger cell that is displayed across multiple columns or rows. The second, Combine, allows you to join the data from multiple cells together. An example would be taking the city, state and zip from multiple cells and combining them into one cell. In this lesson, we will look at both options, Merge and Combine.
Merge and Center
If you go to the Home menu in the ribbon and look in the Alignment grouping of commands, you will see a small icon in the lower, right-hand corner called Merge and Center. This command does just what it implies. It not only merges the cells into one larger cell, but it also centers the text. Merge and Center improves the appearance of a title or header by centering the text over a particular section of the spreadsheet.
If you click on the More icon to the Merge and Center command, you will see other Merge options.
• The first one is Merge Across. This will merge multiple cells and more than one row at the same time. The text will remain left-justified.
• Then there is Merge Cells. This will merge multiple cells on one row and will keep the text left-justified.
• Finally, you have Unmerge Cells, which will undo the merged cells.
Let's take a look at an example using the Merge and Center command. Imagine you are a painting contractor for residential homes. You created a spreadsheet to include several different costs for work requested by a new client. You have everything formatted nicely. The title, which includes the name of the client, the estimate number and street address has been entered into cell A1. It would be nice if we could quickly and easily center the title across the top of the spreadsheet. Here are the steps:
1. Highlight the cells you want to merge. (In our example, A1 through F1.)
2. Go to the Home menu in the ribbon.
3. Look in the Alignment grouping of commands.
4. Click on Merge and Center.
Just like that, your title is centered and the cells have been merged into one larger cell. The benefit? Well, besides it looks better, you can make changes to the cells below and the title will remain centered. For instance, you can add a column (or delete one) and your title will not be affected.
One important note about the Merge command: merging cells can delete data. Only the data in the upper left cell will be kept once the cells have merged. Do not place data in every cell if you plan on merging multiple cells into one larger cell.
Now let's take a look at the Combine feature. Imagine you have two columns, one for the first name and the other for last name. You would like to create one column with the first name and last name joined together, in one cell. In addition, you would like the last name to display first (for sorting purposes), then a comma, and then the first name. For example, 'Smith, Jane.' There is more than one way to make this happen, but in this lesson, we will look at the easiest and what I consider to be the quickest. We are going to use a formula.
If we look at our spreadsheet, the first name is in Column A and the last name is in Column B. We are going to combine both into Column C. Here are the steps. Remember, we want the last name, and then a comma, of course a space after the comma, and then the first name, for instance, 'Jackson, Janet.'
1. Place your cursor in Column C (specifically, C3).
2. Then type: =(.
3. Click on the cell for the last name (in our example, this is B3).
4. Type &', '& (notice the comma and a space between the two quotes).
5. Click on the cell for the first name (in our example, this is A3).
6. Type: ).
7. Hit Enter - your formula should look like this: =(B3&', '&A3).
Notice the data is displayed in C3. We now have a last name, then a comma followed by a space, then the first name - and all in one cell. Pretty slick!
Now, just a word of caution: your first instinct will be to delete the first two columns (A and B). However, if you do that, then your third column, column C, will be emptied as well. Remember our formula? It's based on A3 and B3. If we remove those columns, A3 and B3 will no longer exist and the formula will not work. So then what's the point of combing the two columns?
Before we get into how to fix the issue, know that many people leave columns A and B. The reason is because most lists continue to grow, and you might want to keep adding (or importing) information to the spreadsheet. Leaving the columns will make it easier to continue the join between the two sets of data. You could just copy the formula down column C as you add more rows.
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"Anne Boleyn was the most important person in bringing about the King's divorce in the years 1529 to 1533." Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.
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"Anne Boleyn was the most important person in bringing about the King's divorce in the years 1529 to 1533." Explain why you agree or disagree with this view. 24 marks Anne Boleyn played an important role throughout the process of the King's divorce from Catherine of Aragon. She was an essential individual in the decision and need for a divorce, yet played a less significant role in bringing about the divorce itself. This responsibility was shared between the actions and input of Thomas Cranmer, Thomas Cromwell and that of the King, Henry VIII, himself as important individual as well as the role of that played by Parliament. It seems that to an extent, the divorce acts as a mechanism, in that each person involved was key to securing it. In 1522, the captivating and charming Anne Boleyn arrived at court, from years in Europe, as lady in waiting to Queen Catherine. By the late 1520s, Henry wanted to have his marriage to Catherine annulled and by this time, he had a strong personal motive for pushing ahead with it, he had become besotted with Anne Boleyn. This infatuation with her charm and also the fact that she was unwilling to become just another of Henry's mistress' made him want her more, and contributed greatly to his need for an annulment, also in the hope that she could produce a male heir. ...read more.
The major breakthrough to the divorce issue came from the influences of Thomas Cromwell when he was made Henry's chief minister, following that of the role of Cardinal Worsely. In 1531 Cromwell saw that the Pope would not rule in Henry's favour and so a break from Rome and the Church was essential in securing a divorce from Catherine. Cromwell was able to describe his ideas clearly to Henry in a manner that the King could understand, with a take and influence on the fact that Henry would become Supreme Head of the Church. What Cromwell was suggesting was so big that Henry was very cautious in his approach on the idea and it took time to fully convince the King of such decision. Cromwell also suggested a highly innovative solution and gave the idea that it would go through Parliament and would stand with a stronger argument, and show more support as it would have been voted for accordingly and not just have been a movement of a just a few people. In March 1533, Parliament passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals, which stated that the final authority in all legal matters, whether they were civil or clerical, resided in the monarch and that it was illegal to appeal to an authority outside of the kingdom on any such matters, essentially meaning that of the power in Rome. ...read more.
they act as either the means for the need to a divorce or an obstacle while trying to bring the divorce about. Anne did cause quite a stir which essentially resulted in the King's divorce from Catherine of Aragon. She was captivating and charming on her arrival at court in 1522, and was essentially a strong personal motive of Henry's for pushing ahead with his divorce. This infatuation with Anne was a significant factor involved in Henry's decision for a divorce, however there seems a greater impact on the matter from other characters providing their individual influences on the King. By 1532, Cromwell, with the help of fellow reformist and new Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, was able to pass statutes through Parliament that allowed England to brake off from papal authority and establish a church of their own. This allowed Henry VIII to annul his marriage to Catherine on the basis that she had once been married to late elder brother Arthur and marry Anne Boleyn. In terms of the statement made, essentially I disagree with this view in that it appears Anne was a trigger for the decision of a divorce and as an individual pushed forward the matter, however it seems that in actually bringing about the divorce, the people such as Cranmer, Cromwell and Parliament play a more significant role and that without the efforts of each other, there would have been no divorce. ?? ?? ?? ?? Abigail Rudd 1 ...read more.
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Cranmer ascended to the post of Archbishop of Canterbury, the most important position in the land with regards to the Church. Finally, Henry's own role cannot be ignored as he was ultimately the decider, able to block policies he didn't agree with and put new policies into practice without the input of his advisors.
1. Assess the view that Henry VIII's wish for a divorce was the main reason ...
Although there must have been other reasons for Henry's break Rome it may have been more power related as Henry was becoming interested in defining his authority over the church in England and 3 Stephen Gardiner produced the De Vera Obedienta in 1535 claiming that England should be ruled by
2. Was Oliver Cromwell a hero or a villain?
The enemy entered Mill Mount without resistance. They put every soldier to sword and all the citizens who were Irish."-*14. He was very cruel in his handling of the Irish and their property after the battle - he took their fertile land and took it for the English, and forced the Irish out of their homes in winter.
1. 'Without the Divorce Crisis, there would not have been a Henrician Reformation.' Discuss.
Cromwell's idea to use Statute law to papal influence was a major reason in Henry's decision to break away from Rome. Parliament was set up to pass laws and restrict Papal power. The King appointed the men of nobility, who granted him what he wished for.
2. Do you agree with the view that the main reason for Wolseys fall from ...
This portrays the view of Wolsey?s arrogance and how he was considered above the law. Over the years Henry had placed a lot of trust in Wolsey which meant he could get away with things many overs could not such as the Amicable Grant.
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The Mise-En-Scene of Metropolis
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An Expressionist Vision
German Expressionism is a unique film style that came out of Weimer Germany, the period between World War I and World War II. It focused mainly on the visual aspects on the screen meant to express emotions that trigger more personal reactions from the audience. According to David Hudson, German expressionism was an exploration "into juxtaposing light and shadow" as well as madness and obsession in an urban setting complete with complex architectural structures. When Fritz Lang's Metropolis was released in 1927, Luis Buñuel wrote that, "if we look instead to the compositional and visual rather than the narrative side of the film, Metropolis exceeds all expectations and enchants as the most wonderful book of images one can in any way imagine" (Hudson). The narrative is supported by the visual images, but more importantly, they are also credited for creating it. It is a feast for the eyes and the imagination. Mise-en-scene is the composition or everything that is visible within the frame. In this paper I will show how Metropolis was impacted by mise-en-scene in the following ways: setting, staging, lighting, and costumes . The setting establishes inequality among the classes through its use of locations. The workers have their own city deep below the surface of the earth. When their scheduled shift is over they travel in unison down to this city using several massive elevators. Upon exiting the elevators a bland, rudimentary city comes into view. All of the buildings are identical in the same way that the workers are forced to be. There is no plant life, meaning the streets are just barren cement, aside from the large warning bell in the center of the square. This alarm being the focal point of the entire city foreshadows the impending crisis that is going to occur between the classes. The worker's living conditions are undesirable, but their working conditions are even worse. They must transform into human robots to operate the cold hard machinery. Freder witnesses one worker fail to keep up, the pressure rises causing an explosion; he has a vision of the "Moloch" machine turning into a great sacrificial alter. A terrifying monster devours the helpless workers as they are led into its mouth. Upon viewing the locations reserved for the working class Freder decides that something must be done to help them. Meanwhile, the privileged upper class resides high above the land in a towering metropolis they are oblivious to the discontent below them in the depths. Their environment is a technological wonder, filled with hundreds of automobiles traveling down highways connecting to the numerous unique buildings. The locations that we witness for the ruling class are constructed for leisure. They have "the complex named the Club of the Sons' with its lecture halls and libraries, its theaters and stadiums" and the Eternal Gardens with exotic plants, birds, and outfits (Metropolis). There is even an entire entertainment district called Yoshiwara, for the people seeking less respectable forms of amusement. Joh Fredersen is the "master of Metropolis" in his office at the top of the Tower of Babel. However, the only work done in that office is paperwork and the monitoring of several screens. The staging of Metropolis creates relationships between characters reflective of their roles within the story. These roles are described by the film's epigram: "The Mediator between head and hands must be the heart" (Metropolis). For example, in the last scene the executive Joh Fredersen, who represents the head, and the worker Grot, who represents the hands, meet on the steps of the cathedral. Standing a few feet from each other, they maintain a distant relationship even though they want to make peace and repair the rift between classes. Grot lifts his hand for a handshake then Fredersen takes a small step forward and lifts his hand as well. However, Fredersen closes his hand into a fist so Grot stuffs his hands into his...
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Sea animals navigate with magnetic maps
SCIENTISTS may have solved one of the most intriguing puzzles in marine biology - how sea creatures navigate across thousands of miles of ocean with pinpoint accuracy.
They have found evidence that sea turtles and salmon can read the "magnetic map" of their native area and imprint it into their memories.
Many other species, such as whales and sharks, may use similar techniques to navigate the seas. They can also read and remember variations in the earth's magnetic field.
"In some oceanic regions rocks rich in magnetic minerals produce local magnetic anomalies," said Kenneth Lohmann, professor of biology at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
These have often been viewed as potential problems for magnetically sensitive species but an interesting possibility is that anomalies…
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Child Maltreatment
Child maltreatment extends across class, culture, ethnicity, and nationality. In the United States alone, upward of 3 million cases of child abuse are reported annually, and more than 1,000 children die each year as a result of abuse. However, these numbers are likely underestimates of the scope of the problem because, as most experts agree, child maltreatment is underreported. The term child maltreatment itself is broad, encompassing neglect, emotional abuse, physical abuse, and sexual abuse. Scientific and clinical evidence indicates that child maltreatment detrimentally affects children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. Psychological models specifying the mechanisms by which child maltreatment imparts its adverse effects include attachment theory (e.g., child maltreatment distorts children’s internal working models of self and others) and psychophysiological theories (e.g., chronic elevation of an abused child’s biological stress response may influence the child’s developing brain and, thus, the child’s behavior and functioning). Research also points to the importance and influence of contextual factors that may promote resilience in maltreated children.
Over the years, the United States has enacted a complex patchwork of laws for protecting children against abuse. Child protection agencies exist to intervene when child abuse is suspected or substantiated and to prevent child maltreatment through means such as education for families at risk and awareness campaigns for the public at large. The criminal justice system also acts to protect maltreated children, most notably by prosecuting offenders. Fortunately, these prevention and intervention efforts may well have been effective, given the recent declines in the rates of child abuse reporting. This research paper elaborates on the definitions of child maltreatment, provides more information about its incidence, discusses what is known about the causes and consequences of child maltreatment, and suggests ways to prevent this serious social problem.
Defining Child Maltreatment
Neglect is the most common form of confirmed child maltreatment (comprising more than 60% of all cases), followed by physical abuse (18%), sexual abuse (10%), and psychological or emotional abuse (7%). Defining child maltreatment is sometimes controversial, but generally, neglect is an act of omission—a caretaker’s failure to provide basic necessities such as food, shelter, emotional support, medical attention, education, or a safe haven from harmful situations. Although neglect is the most common child maltreatment case that comes to the attention of authorities and enters the juvenile or family court system, its perpetrators are rarely prosecuted in criminal court. A condition known as nonorganic failure to thrive is often considered a type of child neglect. It refers to a condition in which an otherwise healthy baby, while under his or her parent’s care, loses weight and stops growing. Psychological, social, and/or economic problems within the family typically prompt failure to thrive.
Sexual and physical abuse reflect acts of commission. Child sexual abuse occurs when children are involved in sexual activities with an adult. Adults often use coercion or deception to lure children into such activities, but it is worth noting that coercion and deception are unnecessary elements of this crime because children are not considered legally or developmentally capable of consenting to sexual activities with adults. Child sexual abuse sometimes involves physical contact such as penetration or fondling, but physical contact is not always necessary. For example, exhibitionism, forcing children to watch or make pornographic material, or encouraging sexual promiscuity is also considered sexually abusive to minors. Child sexual abuse cases are particularly likely to bring child victims into contact with court systems, both juvenile and criminal. In fact, most children who testify in criminal court do so in the context of child sexual abuse cases.
Physical abuse, which is most often perpetrated by parents and guardians, can be more difficult to define than sexual abuse. That is, while all forms of sexual contact between an adult and a child are considered socially inappropriate across most cultures, mild to moderate physical punishment applied as a disciplinary tactic is often socially sanctioned. Nevertheless, research shows that corporal punishment can have negative outcomes and that serious physical child abuse sometimes results from escalated corporal punishment. There is agreement that deliberate acts resulting in physical harm to a child, such as when an angry or frustrated parent hits, shakes, burns, or throws a child, constitute physical abuse. In many cases, the fact that physical abuse has taken place is relatively clear because of visible injuries to the child. Medical examination can confirm, to a certain extent, whether certain bruises, broken bones, bites, and burns are caused by accident (e.g., a child falling downstairs) or are a deliberate infliction of harm. In other cases, however, intentional physical abuse is hard to detect.
Psychological or emotional maltreatment involves acts of commission or omission that hinder children’s psychological development. It can include acts of terrorizing, isolating, corrupting, and denigrating, as well as ignoring children or other acts that signal to children that they are unwanted, worthless, or unloved. Psychological abuse often accompanies other forms of child maltreatment, but it can also take place independently. It is typically quite hard to dis-cover, and children experiencing such maltreatment rarely get appropriate therapeutic help. Less legal attention is also paid to this kind of abuse. This is unfortunate, because research indicates that psychological abuse can have detrimental effects on children’s development and well-being.
Incidence of Child Abuse
Children from birth to 3 years of age are most at risk of being victims of reported child abuse and neglect. Of all cases reported and investigated, approximately one third are supported by enough evidence for authorities to determine that abuse actually occurred. The remainder lack evidence sufficient to support legal action, which does not necessarily mean that abuse did not take place. In fact, trends in re-referral rates (i.e., children reported as maltreated on multiple occasions) suggest that many unsubstantiated cases probably represent real abuse. Furthermore, even the total number of reported cases is likely to be a serious underestimate of the actual occurrence of child abuse, because child victims are often reluctant to disclose their experiences. For example, research reveals that about a quarter of young adults who experience child sexual abuse and a third of those who experience physical abuse never tell anyone about their maltreatment. Among those who do tell, fewer than 10% report the abuse to authorities.
Throughout the 1980s, mandatory reporting laws increased the number of child maltreatment cases that were reported and that entered the child protection and criminal justice systems. Reporting leveled off during the 1990s and has even been declining in recent years. Research suggests that this decline, at least in part, reflects an actual decrease in the incidence of child maltreatment, suggesting that societal prevention efforts have been successful.
Potential Effects of Child Maltreatment
Many maltreated children are remarkably resilient and lead normal, healthy lives. Even so, child maltreatment often does have very serious short- and long-term physical and psychological consequences, leaving physical and psychological scars that can last well after the abuse or neglect has ended. Children who experience maltreatment can suffer immediate physical consequences, including broken bones, burns, bruises, abrasions, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy, malnutrition, declining health, or even death. Long-term psychological and behavioral outcomes can include internalizing behaviors (withdrawal, depression, anxiety) and externalizing behaviors (aggression, bullying, promiscuity). Child maltreatment can also increase the likelihood of development of serious psychopathology such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Children who are maltreated may have difficulties establishing trusting relationships with their peers and adults. Moreover, experiencing maltreatment is associated with deficits, on average, in children’s cognitive development, which, in addition to socioemotional deficits, also directly affects academic performance and school achievement. Children who have been maltreated are at an elevated risk of becoming delinquents, substance abusers, and victims of additional crimes.
Researchers struggle to identify the relations between particular forms of child abuse and specific outcomes, especially since different forms of maltreatment often co-occur. With careful analysis, however, some patterns have begun to emerge. For example, it is clear that sexual abuse is a risk factor for later substance abuse, depression, and attentional problems. Additionally, women who are victims of child sexual abuse are more likely than women who have not been sexually abused to engage in prostitution. Physical abuse is associated with substance abuse and aggressive behaviors. Neglect victims tend to perform poorly on cognitive tests and may be socially withdrawn. Neglect is often associated with extreme poverty, which itself has detrimental consequences for children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development, as well as for their academic achievement.
Many factors moderate the impact of maltreatment on children’s short- and long-term outcomes, including the child’s gender, the child’s age at abuse onset and offset, the frequency and severity of abuse, the child’s coping ability, the abuser-victim relationship, and many broader family and community factors. For instance, there is some evidence that maltreated boys have poorer outcomes than maltreated girls. Social scientists have proposed a variety of explanations for this, such as male genetic vulnerability or the fact that behavioral difficulties are more easily measured in boys, who tend to exhibit externalizing rather than internalizing problem behaviors. A younger age at abuse onset is also thought to be related to especially adverse outcomes, although a firm pattern has not been established. Children who are younger when abuse occurs may not recall as much detail about their abuse, but it may be implicitly retained and expressed in their personality development. Moreover, child outcomes may be influenced by the cumulative effects of maltreatment. A child who suffers less severe or chronic abuse may be less likely to have poor psychological or behavioral outcomes than a child who experiences more extensive, frequent, and varied types of abuse.
How does maltreatment cause these varied effects? Scientists currently propose several different mechanisms. For example, because children’s brains develop more rapidly during the first year of life than at any other point, some researchers theorize that the developing brain is particularly susceptible to traumatization, which may explain the negative impact of very early abuse.
Another explanation involves the influence of abuse on children’s personality development. Young children are forming key attachments with others, and if this process is challenged, children’s perceptions or expectations of others can be permanently affected. That is, according to attachment theory, infants form secure or insecure attachments with their caregivers based on the caregivers’ sensitivity and responsiveness. Children’s early experiences with caregivers shape children’s developing mental models of how they can expect to be treated by others in the future. Thus, these first key relationships influence children’s later relationships with peers and romantic partners, and even their approach to work, religion, and other major facets of life. Children who grow up in an abusive or neglectful environment, which is typically characterized by an absence of or inconsistency in sensitivity and responsiveness, are quite likely to develop insecure attachment styles, such as avoidant or disorganized attachment. Research shows that children who are insecurely attached are more likely to develop poor emotion regulation abilities and deficient interpersonal skills than do children who are securely attached to their caregivers. Children with disorganized attachments are at particular risk of mental health problems.
Another common explanation for the psychological difficulties that result from maltreatment focuses on the adverse influence of PTSD on children’s psychological, social, and cognitive development. Many children who experience abuse suffer from PTSD, an acute syndrome characterized by intrusive thoughts, flashbacks, and hypervigilance. PTSD occurs in some individuals who experience an extremely traumatic event or situation, typically one that threatens the individual’s health and safety. Psychological research has demonstrated that PTSD is associated with deficits in certain areas of memory performance, language ability, and attentional capacity (although such deficits are not necessarily global). Of note, people who suffer from PTSD have selective attention or memory bias for information that is trauma related, which can result in particularly accurate memories of trauma experiences. PTSD does not appear to affect IQ, although IQ and other cognitive factors are thought to be related to PTSD. Some researchers currently contend that suffering from PTSD may cause neuroanatomical changes in regions of the brain associated with memory and learning (e.g., the hippocampus), in areas associated with cognitive control (e.g., the prefrontal cortex), or in the entire cerebral cortex. Yet the effects of maltreatment and PTSD on the human brain are not easy to determine, and it is unclear whether PTSD causes changes in the brain structure or whether preexisting structural anomalies or preexisting behavioral or cognitive capabilities cause PTSD.
Finally, and of particular importance, research has identified a number of factors that promote resilience (or better than expected psychological or behavioral outcomes) in maltreated children, including having histories characterized by secure attachments and quality relationships with supportive adults or peers, an active or approach-oriented coping style, good social problem-solving skills, and greater sociability. Children who have at least one adult who cares for them in a positive way and children who receive effective therapeutic treatment are particularly likely to have the best outcomes. Understanding such factors can lead to better therapeutic interventions aimed at alleviating the effects of child maltreatment.
Causes of Child Maltreatment
The causes of child maltreatment are varied; there is likely no single cause. For instance, social learning theory suggests that child maltreatment is a learned behavior. Thus, parents who were maltreated as children may have learned, through their own childhood experiences, coercive forms of discipline or neglectful patterns rather than learning appropriate, nonabusive parenting practices. In this way, child maltreatment can be transmitted intergenerationally. In fact, a higher percentage of children who experienced maltreatment themselves, as compared with children who did not experience maltreatment, go on to abuse their own children later in life. Note that this does not mean, contrary to popular belief, that most children who have been abused go on to abuse their own children. The majority of adults who were abused as children are not abusive. Thus, there are many other potential contributors to child abuse and neglect, including an abundance of life stressors (e.g., poverty, lack of community resources, social isolation), individual personality or psychopathological traits, child-specific factors (e.g., a child’s temperament or disability), cultural or community acceptance of maltreatment, and even religious beliefs about eschewing modern medical care and applying strict corporal discipline.
Child Maltreatment Prevention and Intervention
How should society act to prevent and deter child maltreatment? Characteristics of the child, the abuser, and the family, as well as the broader social context in which the abuse takes place, all play a role in causing child maltreatment. Thus, prevention efforts must take each of these factors into consideration. A host of interventions and changes are needed at the individual and societal levels to prevent child maltreatment. One obvious and effective societal-level strategy is to establish laws that make child abuse illegal. In some countries, even spanking a child is prohibited. With the current U.S. laws, if child maltreatment is discovered and reported, it may lead to the child or family’s involvement with the criminal justice system and/or the child protective services system. Criminal court actions, which sometimes require the testimony of child victims, can stop existing abuse and prevent new maltreatment by sending perpetrators to jail and by deterring other potential perpetrators with the threat of similar prosecution. Child protective services actions against familial perpetrators can prevent further maltreatment through a range of actions, from requiring that parents attend parenting classes to temporary or even permanent removal of the child from its home, with parents sometimes losing parental rights and the child being put into the foster care system. If a child is young and not disabled, the likelihood is increased that he or she might be adopted into a new home. Unfortunately, however, many foster care children become immersed in juvenile court (e.g., dependency) actions and find themselves being bounced from foster home to foster home, which are sometimes themselves settings for additional abuse. Children’s involvement in the legal and child welfare systems (e.g., multiple foster care placements, repeated testimony in criminal court) can have negative effects on their emotional well-being.
Other laws aimed at prevention of child sexual abuse include sex offender registration and community notification laws, which require perpetrators of sexual abuse, after they have finished serving their prison sentence, to register publicly as a sex offender everywhere they subsequently live. These laws are controversial because of civil rights issues, and there is no solid evidence that they really reduce child maltreatment. Other societal-level reform strategies involve efforts to educate the public and change attitudes, behaviors, and even public policy, often through media campaigns. For example, educational media campaigns such as those aimed at teaching parents not to shake babies have also achieved some success in the effort to decrease child physical abuse.
Whatever the means, the importance of preventing child maltreatment is underscored by the wide-ranging costs of child maltreatment, which ripple across a broad spectrum of social structures, including the medical and health systems, the legal and correctional systems, public health services, child welfare services, and educational institutions
Given all these potential negative outcomes, some suggest that child maltreatment is one of the greatest social evils of our time, one that must be fought with a great deal of financial and human resources. Even so, as mentioned earlier, there is hope: Child maltreatment rates have begun to decline, at least in the United States. And many victims, although not unaffected by their experiences, nevertheless grow up to lead productive lives as good parents and citizens.
1. Appleyard, K., Egeland, B., Van Dulmen, M., & Sroufe, A. (2005). When more is not better: The cumulative role of risk in child behavior outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 3, 235-245.
2. Bottoms, B. L., & Quas, J. A. (Eds.). (2006). Emerging directions in child maltreatment research. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 653-863.
3. Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2006). A developmental psychopathology perspective on preventive interventions with high risk children and families. In A. Renninger & I. Sigel (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
4. Goodman, G. S., Emery, R., & Haugaard, J. (1997). Developmental psychology and law: Divorce, child maltreatment, foster care, and adoption. In I. Sigel & A. Renninger (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice (5th ed., pp. 775-876). New York: Wiley.
5. Myers, J. E., Berliner, L., Briere, J., Hendrix, C. T., Jenny, C., & Reid, T. (Eds.). (2002). The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
6. Schwartz-Kenny, B. M., McCauley, M., & Epstein, M. A. (Eds.). (2001). Child abuse: A global view. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
7. Sroufe, L. A., Carlson, E. A., Levy, A. K., & Egeland, B. (2003). Implications of attachment theory for developmental psychopathology. In M. Hertzig & E. A. Farber (Eds.), Annual progress in child psychiatry and child development: 2000—2001 (pp. 43-61). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
See also:
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Checked content
Pygmy hippopotamus
Related subjects: Mammals
Did you know...
This Schools selection was originally chosen by SOS Children for schools in the developing world without internet access. It is available as a intranet download. SOS mothers each look after a a family of sponsored children.
Pygmy Hippopotamus
A Pygmy Hippopotamus at the Bristol zoo
Conservation status
Endangered ( IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Hippopotamidae
Genus: Choeropsis
Species: C. liberiensis
Binomial name
Choeropsis liberiensis
( Morton, 1849)
C. l. liberiensis
C. l. heslopi
Range map
The Pygmy Hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis or Hexaprotodon liberiensis) is a large mammal native to the forests and swamps of western Africa (the scientific species classification means "of Liberia", as this is where the vast majority lives). The pygmy hippo is reclusive and nocturnal. It is one of only two extant species in the hippopotamidae family, the other being its much larger cousin the common hippopotamus.
The pygmy hippopotamus displays many terrestrial adaptations, but like its larger cousin, it is semi-aquatic and relies on proximity to water to keep its skin moisturized and its body temperature cool. Behaviors such as mating and birth may occur in water or on land. The pygmy hippo is herbivorous, feeding on whatever ferns, broad-leaved plants, grasses and fruits it finds in the forests.
A rare nocturnal forest creature, the pygmy hippopotamus is a difficult animal to study in the wild; it also lives primarily in countries with a great degree of civil strife. Pygmy hippos lead mostly solitary lives; they are sometimes seen in pairs or threesomes, but never large pods like the common hippopotamus. Unlike the common hippopotamus, they are not known to be territorial.
Pygmy hippos were unknown outside of West Africa until the 19th century. Introduced to zoos in the early 20th century, they breed well in captivity and the vast majority of research is derived from zoo specimens. The survival of the species in captivity is more assured than in the wild: the World Conservation Union estimates that there are less than 3,000 pygmy hippos remaining in the wild. Pygmy hippos are primarily threatened by loss of habitat, as forests are logged and converted to farm land, and are also vulnerable to poaching, hunting, natural predators and war.
Taxonomy and origins
The skull of a pygmy hippopotamus.
The pygmy hippopotamus is a member of the family Hippopotamidae where it is classified as a member of either the genus Choeropsis ("resembling a hog") or, the genus Hexaprotodon ("six front teeth"). Hippopotamidae are sometimes known as Hippopotamids. Sometimes the sub-family Hippopotaminae is used. Further, some taxonomists group hippopotami and anthracotheres in the superfamily Anthracotheroidea or Hippopotamoidea.
A sister species of the pygmy hippopotamus may have been the little-studied Madagascan Pygmy Hippopotamus (Choeropsis madagascariensis, sometimes classified as Hexaprotodon madagascariensis or Hippopotamus madagascariensis), one of three recently-extinct species from Madagascar. C. madagascariensis was the same size as C. liberiensis and shared its terrestrial behaviour, inhabiting the forested highlands of Madagascar, rather than open rivers. It is believed to have gone extinct within the last 500 years.
The taxonomy of the genus of the pygmy hippopotamus has changed as understanding of the animal has developed. Samuel G. Morton initially classified the animal as Hippopotamus minor, but later determined it was distinct enough to warrant its own genus, and labeled it Choeropsis. In 1977, Coryndon proposed that the pygmy hippopotamus was closely related to Hexaprotodon, a genus that consisted of prehistoric hippos mostly native to Asia. This assertion was widely accepted, until Boisserie asserted in 2005 that the pygmy hippopotamus was not a member of Hexaprodoton, after a thorough examination of the phylogeny of hippopotamidae; he suggested instead that the pygmy hippopotamus was a distinct genus, and returned the animal to Choeropsis. All agree that the modern pygmy hippopotamus, be it H. liberiensis or C. liberiensis, is the only extant member of its genus.
Nigerian subspecies
A distinct subspecies of pygmy hippopotamus lived in Nigeria until at least the 20th century. The existence of the subspecies, makes Choeropsis liberiensis liberiensis (or Hexaprotodon liberiensis liberiensis under the old classification) the full trinomial nomenclature for the Liberian Pygmy Hippopotamus. The Nigerian Pygmy Hippopotamus subspecies was never studied in the wild and never captured. All research and all zoo specimens are the Liberian subspecies. The Nigerian subspecies is classified as C. liberiensis heslopi.
The Nigerian pygmy hippopotamus ranged in the Niger River Delta, especially near Port Harcourt, but no reliable reports exist after the collection of the museum specimens secured by I.R. P. Heslop, a British colonial officer, in the early 1940s. It is believed to be extinct. The subspecies was separated by over 1800 km and the Dahomey Gap, a region of desert that divides the forest regions of West Africa. The subspecies is named after I.R.P. Heslop, who claimed in 1945 to have shot a pygmy hippo in the Niger Delta region and collected several skulls. He estimated that perhaps no more than 30 pygmy hippos remained in the region.
Heslop reportedly sent four pygmy hippopotamus skulls he collected to the British Museum of Natural History in London. These specimens were not subjected to taxonomic evaluation, however, until 1969 when G.B. Corbet classified the skulls as belonging to a separate subspecies based on consistent variations in the proportions of the skulls. The Nigerian pygmy hippos were seen or shot in Rivers State, Imo State and Bayelsa State, Nigeria. While some local populations are aware that the species once existed, its history in the region is poorly documented.
Arsinoitherium (top) and Bothriogenys fraasi (bottom). Anthracotheres like Bothriogenys resembled pygmy hippos and are among their likely ancestors.
The Cretan Dwarf Hippopotamus (H. creutzburgi) was similar in size to a pygmy hippopotamus, but more closely related to the common hippopotamus.
The evolution of the pygmy hippopotamus is most often studied in the context of its larger cousin. Both species were long believed to be most closely related to the family Suidae (pigs and hogs) or Tayassuidae ( peccaries), but research within the last 10 years has determined that pygmy hippos and hippos are most closely related to Cetaceans (whales and dolphins). Hippos and whales shared a common semi-aquatic ancestor that branched off from other Artiodactyls around 60 mya ago. This hypothesized ancestor likely split into two branches about six million years later. One branch would evolve into cetaceans, the other branch became the anthracotheres, a large family of four-legged beasts, whose earliest member, from the Late Eocene, would have resembled narrow hippopotami with comparatively small and thin heads.
Hippopotamids are deeply nested within the family Anthracotheriidae. The oldest known hippopotamid is the genus Kenyapotamus, which lived in Africa from 16 to 8 mya. Kenyapotamus is known only through fragmentary fossils, but was similar in size to C. liberiensis. The Hippopotamidae are believed to have evolved in Africa, and while at one point the species spread across Asia and Europe, no hippopotami have ever been discovered in the Americas. Starting 7.5 to 1.8 mya ago the Archaeopotamus, likely ancestors to the genus Hippopotamus and Hexaprotodon, lived in Africa and the Middle East.
Extinct pygmy and dwarf hippos
Several species of small hippopotamidae have also become extinct in the Mediterranean in the late Pleistocene or early Holocene. Though these species are sometimes known as "Pygmy Hippopotami" they are not believed to be closely related to C. liberiensis. These include the Cretan Dwarf Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus creutzburgi) of Crete, the Sicilian Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus pentlandi) of Sicily, or the Maltese Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus melitensis) of Malta.
These species, though comparable in size to the pygmy hippopotamus, are considered dwarf hippopotamuses, rather than pygmies. They are likely descended from a full-sized species of European Hippopotamus, and reached their small size through the evolutionary process of insular dwarfism which is common on islands; the ancestors of pygmy hippopotami were also small and thus there was never a dwarfing process. There were also several species of pygmy hippo on the island of Madagascar (see Malagasy Hippopotamus).
Pygmy hippos share the same general form as a hippopotamus. They have a graviportal skeleton, with four short legs and four toes on each foot, supporting a portly frame. The pygmy hippo, however, is only half as tall as the hippopotamus and weighs less than 1/4 as much as its larger cousin. Adult pygmy hippos stand about 75–83 cm (30–32 inches) high at the shoulder, are 150–177 cm (59–70 inches) in length and weigh 180–275 kilograms (400-600 pounds). Their lifespan in captivity ranges from 30 to 55 years, though it is unlikely that they live this long in the wild.
A pygmy hippopotamus resting at the Louisville Zoo. The skull of a pygmy hippo has less pronounced orbits and nostrils than a common hippopotamus.
The skin is greenish-black or brown, shading to a creamy gray on the lower body. Their skin is very similar to the common hippo's, with a thin Epidermis over a dermis that is several centimeters thick. Pygmy hippos have the same unusual sweat as common hippos, that gives a pinkish tinge to their bodies, and is sometimes described as "blood sweat" though the secretion is neither sweat nor blood. The highly alkaline substance is believed to have antiseptic and sunscreening properties. The skin of hippos dries out quickly and cracks, which is why both species of hippos spend so much time in water.
The skeleton of C. liberiensis is more gracile than that of the common hippopotamus meaning their bones are proportionally thinner. The common hippo's spine is parallel with the ground; the pygmy hippo's back slopes forward, a likely adaptation to pass more easily through dense forest vegetation. Proportionally, the pygmy hippos legs and neck are longer and its head smaller. The orbits and nostrils of a pygmy hippo are much less pronounced, an adaptation from spending less time in deep water (where pronounced orbits and nostrils help the common hippo breathe and see). The feet of pygmy hippos are narrower, but the toes are more spread out and have less webbing, to assist in walking on the forest floor. Despite adaptations to a more terrestrial life than the common hippopotamus, pygmy hippos are still more aquatic than all other even-toed ungulates. The ears and nostrils of pygmy hippos have strong muscular valves to aid submerging underwater, and the skin physiology is dependent on the availability of water.
The behavior of the pygmy hippo differs from the common hippo in many ways. Much of its behaviour is more similar to that of a tapir, though this is an effect of convergent evolution. While the common hippopotamus is gregarious, pygmy hippos live either alone or in small groups, typically a mated pair or a mother and calf. Pygmy hippos tend to ignore each other rather than fight when they meet. Field studies have estimated that male pygmy hippos range over 1.85 km², while the range of a female is between 0.4 to 0.6 km².
Like the common hippopotamus, the pygmy hippo emerges from the water at dusk to feed. It relies on game trails to travel through dense forest vegetation. It marks the trails by spreading feces by vigorously waving its tail while defecating. The pygmy hippo spends about six hours a day foraging for food.
A baby pygmy hippopotamus stands near its parent at a zoo in Jihlava, Czech Republic.
A study of breeding behavior in the wild has never been conducted; the artificial conditions of captivity may cause the observed behaviour of pygmy hippos in zoos to differ from natural conditions. Sexual maturity for the pygmy hippopotamus occurs at between three to five years. The youngest reported age for giving birth is a pygmy hippo at the zoo in Basel, Switzerland which bore a calf at 3 years and 3 months. The oestrus cycle of a female pygmy hippo lasts an average of 35.5 days, with the oestrus itself lasting between 24-48 hours.
The common hippopotamus gives birth and mates only in the water, but pygmy hippos mate and give birth on both land and water. Young pygmy hippos can swim almost immediately. At birth, pygmy hippos weigh 4.5–6.2 kg (9.9–13.7 lbs) with males weighing about .25 kg (.55 lbs) more than females. Pygmy hippos are fully weaned between 6-8 months of age; before weaning they do not accompany their mother when she leaves the water to forage, but instead hide in the water by themselves. The mother returns to the hiding spot about three times a day and calls out for the calf to suckle. Suckling occurs with the mother lying on her side.
A small population of pygmy hippos lives in the dense forests on Tiwai Island in Sierra Leone.
The vast majority of pygmy hippos live in Liberia with smaller populations, mostly clustered around the Liberian border, in Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone. Though the range of the pygmy hippo as such has not been significantly reduced, populations are now fragmented. C. liberiensis lives exclusively in rivers running through forested regions.
Pygmy hippo populations occur in many forests within Liberia, the largest found in the country's largest protected region Sapo National Park. Other populations have been reported in Grand Kru County, Grand Cape Mount County, Grand Bassa County, Grand Gedeh County, Lofa County, Maryland County, Nimba County and Sinoe County. Studies of these populations, however, have been complicated by civil strife, such as the First Liberian Civil War and the Second Liberian Civil War. In Côte d'Ivoire the pygmy hippo ranges in several forests, including those in the Taï National Park. In Guinea the pygmy hippopotamuses live in the Reserve de Ziama on the border with Liberia. In Sierra Leone, several small populations exist—in the Gola Forest, on Tiwai Island in the Moa River and in the Loma Mountains.
The World Conservation Union's 1993 Action Plan estimated a population of between 2,000 and 3,000 pygmy hippos in the wild, with most in Liberia. The smallest population is that of Sierra Leone, estimated in 1993 to be only around 100. Due to deteriorating conditions in Liberia, the IUCN Red List estimated in 2006 that this number had likely declined, particularly due to loss of habitat.
A pair of pygmy hippos at the Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy
Because of their reclusive lifestyle they are not a target of subsistence hunting, though they are hunted opportunistically by bush hunters. Their meat is said to be of excellent quality, like that of a wild boar; unlike the common hippo, the pygmy hippos teeth have no value. The effects of West Africa's civil strife on the pygmy hippopotamus are unknown, but unlikely to be positive. Adult common hippos have no natural predators, but the pygmy hippopotamus is capable of being killed by leopards, pythons and crocodiles. How often this occurs, however, is unknown.
C. liberiensis was identified as one of the top-10 "focal species" in 2007 by the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) project. EDGE identifies species that are evolutionarily distinct and need better protection to prevent extinction. The pygmy hippo was placed in the top-10 along with Attenborough's long-beaked echidna, Hispaniolan solenodon, Bactrian camel, Yangtze River dolphin, Slender loris, Hirola antelope, Golden-rumped elephant shrew, Bumblebee bat, and the Long-eared jerboa.
Although threatened in the wild, pygmy hippos breed freely in zoos. Between 1970 and 1991 the population of pygmy hippos born in captivity more than doubled. The survival of the species in zoos is more certain than the survival of the species in the wild. In captivity, the pygmy hippo lives from 42-55 years, longer than in the wild. Since 1919, only 41 percent of pygmy hippos born in zoos have been male.
History and folklore
A pair of pygmy hippos beg for sugar cane at the Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy
In 1927, Harvey Firestone of Firestone Tires presented Billy the pygmy hippo to U.S. President Calvin Coolidge. Coolidge donated Billy to the Smithsonian National Zoological Park. According to the zoo, Billy is a common ancestor to most pygmy hippos in U.S. zoos today.
Retrieved from ""
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Thursday, August 28, 2014
Just Price -- the Way it once Was before Liberalism!
Just price: a price conforming to the doctrine developed in antiquity and elaborated in the medieval period that price should in general correspond to the cost of production
The just price is a theory of ethics in economics that attempts to set standards of fairness in transactions. With intellectual roots in ancient Greek philosophy, it was advanced by Thomas Aquinas based on an argument against usury, which in his time referred to the making of any rate of interest on loans.
St Thomas Aquinas taught that raising prices in response to high demand was a type of theft.
Unjust price: a kind of fraud
The argument against usury was that the lender was receiving income for nothing, since nothing was actually lent, rather the money was exchanged. And, a dollar can only be fairly exchanged for a dollar, so asking for more is unfair. Aquinas later expanded his argument to oppose any unfair earnings made in trade, basing the argument on the Golden Rule. He held that it was immoral to gain financially without actually creating something. The Christian should "do unto others as you would have them do unto you", meaning he should trade value for value. Aquinas believed that it was specifically immoral to raise prices because a particular buyer had an urgent need for what was being sold and could be persuaded to pay a higher price because of local conditions:
If someone would be greatly helped by something belonging to someone else, and the seller not similarly harmed by losing it, the seller must not sell for a higher price: because the usefulness that goes to the buyer comes not from the seller, but from the buyer's needy condition: no one ought to sell something that doesn't belong to him.[1]
— Summa Theologiae, 2-2, q. 77, art. 1
Aquinas would therefore condemn practices such as raising the price of building supplies in the wake of a natural disaster. Increased demand caused by the destruction of existing buildings does not add to a seller's costs, so to take advantage of buyers' increased willingness to pay constituted a species of fraud in Aquinas's view.[2]
Aquinas believed all gains made in trade must relate to the labour exerted by the merchant, not to the need of the buyer. Hence, he condoned moderate gain as payment even for unnecessary trade, provided the price were regulated and kept within certain bounds:
...there is no reason why gain [from trading] may not be directed to some necessary or even honourable end; and so trading will be rendered lawful; as when a man uses moderate gains acquired in trade for the support of his household, or even to help the needy...
Later reinterpretations of the doctrine
In Aquinas' time, most products were sold by the immediate producers (i.e. farmers and craftspeople), and wage-labor and banking were still in their infancy. The role of merchants and money-lenders was limited. The later School of Salamanca argued that the just price is determined by common estimation which can be identical with the market price -depending on various circumstances such as relative bargaining power of sellers and buyers- or can be set by public authorities[citation needed]. With the rise of Capitalism, the use of just price theory faded[citation needed]. In modern economics, interest is seen as payment for a valuable service, which is the use of the money, though most banking systems still forbid excessive interest rates[citation needed].
Likewise, during the rapid expansion of capitalism over the past several centuries the theory of the just price was used to justify popular action against merchants who raised their prices in years of dearth. The Marxist historian E. P. Thompson emphasized the continuing force of this tradition in his pioneering article on the "Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century." Other historians and sociologists have uncovered the same phenomenon in variety of other situations including peasants riots in continental Europe during the nineteenth century and in many developing countries in the twentieth. The political scientist James C. Scott, for example, showed how this ideology could be used as a method of resisting authority in "The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Subsistence and Rebellion in Southeast Asia" (1976).
See also
John Cotton on the Just Price, 1639.
[Rev. John Cotton of Boston was the leading Puritan minister in the early decades of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the document below, Gov. John Winthrop recorded in his Journal what Cotton's conclusions were in a sermon about economic behavior.]
At a general court holden at Boston, great complaint was made of the oppression used in the country in sale of foreign commodities; and Mr. Robert Keaine, who kept a shop in Boston, was notoriously above others observed and complained of, and, being convented, he was charged with many particulars; in some, for taking above six-pence in the shilling profit; in some above eight-pence; and, in some small things, above two for one; and being hereof convict, (as appears by the records,) he was fined £200, which came thus to pass: The deputies considered, apart, of his fine, and set it at £200; the magistrates agreed but to £100. So, the court being divided, at length it was agreed, that his fine should be £200, but he should pay but £100, and the other should be respited to the further consideration of the next general court. By this means the magistrates and deputies were, brought to an accord, which otherwise had not been likely, and so much trouble might have grown, and the offender escaped censure. For the cry of the country was so great against oppression, and some of the elders and magistrates had declared such detestation of the corrupt practice of this man (which was the more observable, because he was wealthy and sold dearer than most other tradesmen, and for that he was of ill report for the like covetous practice in England, that incensed the deputies very much against him). And sure the course was very evil, especial circumstances considered: 1. He being an ancient professor of the gospel: 2. A man of eminent parts: 3. Wealthy, and having but one child: 4. Having come over for conscience' sake, and for the advancement of the gospel here: 5. Having been formerly dealt with and admonished, both by private friends and also by some of the magistrates and elders, and having promised reformation; being a member of a church and commonwealth now in their infancy, and under the curious observation of all churches and civil states in the world. These added much aggravation to his sin in the judgment of all men of understanding. Yet most of the magistrates (though they discerned of the offence clothed with all these circumstances) would have been more moderate in their censure: 1. Because there was no law in force to limit or direct men in point of profit in their trade. 2. Because it is the common practice, in all countries, for men to make use of advantages for raising the prices of their commodities. 3. Because (though he were chiefly aimed at, yet) he was not alone in this fault. 4. Because all men through the country, in sale of cattle, corn, labor, etc., were guilty of the like excess in prices. 5. Because a certain rule could not be found out for an equal rate between buyer and seller, though much labor had been bestowed in it, and divers laws had been made, which, upon experience, were repealed, as being neither safe nor equal. Lastly, and especially, because the law of God appoints no other punishment but double restitution; and, in some cases, as where the offender freely confesseth, and brings his offering, onlv half added to the principal. After the court had censured him, the church of Boston called him also in question, where (as before he had done in the court) he did, with tears, acknowledge and bewail his covetous and corrupt heart, yet making some excuse for many of the particulars, which were charged upon him, as partly by pretence of ignorance of the true price of some wares, and chiefly by being misled by some false principles, as 1. That, if a man lost in one commodity, he might help himself in the price of another. 2. That if, through want of skill or other occasion, his commodity cost him more than the price of the market in England, he might then sell it for more than the price of the market in New England, etc. These things gave occasion to Mr. Cotton, in his public exercise the next lecture day, to lay open the error of such false principles, and to give some rules of direction in the case."
Some false principles were these: --
1. That a man might sell as dear as he can, and buv as cheap as he can.
2. If a man lose by casualty of sea, etc., in some of his commodities, he may raise the price of the rest.
4. That, as a man may take the advantage of his own skill or ability, so he may of another's ignorance or necessity.
5. Where one gives time for payment, he is to take like recompense of one as of another.
The rules for trading-, were these:
1. A man may not sell above the current price, i.e., such a price as is usual in the time and place, and as another (who knows the worth of the commodity) would give for it, if he had occasion to use it: as that is called current money, which every man will take, etc.
2. When a man loseth in his commodity for want of skill, etc., he must look at it as his own fault or cross, and therefore must not lay it upon another.
3. Where a man loseth by casualty of sea, or, etc., it is a loss cast upon himself by providence, and he may not ease himself of it by casting it upon another; for so a man should seem to provide against all providences, etc., that he should never lose; but where there is a scarcity of the commodity, there men may raise their price; for now it is a hand of God upon the commodity, and not the person.
4. A man may not ask any more for his commodity than his selling price, as Ephron to Abraham, the land is worth thus much. 14
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Thursday, September 07, 2006
Planet Pluto
On January 23rd, 1930 Clyde Tombaugh, making a careful survey of the sky from the Lowell Observatory in Arizona, spotted a dim speck moving among the stars. It was quickly hailed as the 9th planet from the Sun.
Venetia Phair (née Burney), then an 11-yr old schoolgirl in Oxfordshire suggested the title Pluto for the newly discovered ninth planet.
Named after the Roman god of the Underworld [not the Disney dog who was named after the planet, rather than the other way round as some have mistakenly thought], on 1st May, 1930, the name Pluto was formally adopted.
As Dr. Tony Phillips and Amelia Phillips relate in Much Ado about Pluto, Pluto was a misfit from the beginning, but its planethood was never seriously questioned until 1992.
Pluto's neighbourhood is cluttered with icy bodies about the size of asteroids. They orbit the sun in a busy belt beyond the orbit of Neptune. Gerard Kuiper in 1951 had predicted such a belt to explain where certain comets came from, and today it is called The Kuiper Belt. Its discovery (with Pluto inside it) troubled some astronomers. "Is Pluto a planet?" they asked. "Or is it just another Kuiper Belt Object (KBO)?"
Then on 29th July 2005 it was reported that a 10th planet had been discovered.
The planet was found by Dr. Mike Brown and colleagues using the Samuel Oschin Telescope at Palomar Observatory near San Diego. Definitely bigger than Pluto, the new planet, officially known as 2003 UB313 and unofficially called Xena was placed more or less in the Kuiper Belt.
If Pluto is a planet, it was argued, then 2003 UB313, being larger than Pluto, must be a planet too. However, there could be dozens of worlds larger than Pluto hiding in dark recesses of the Kuiper Belt. Are they all planets?
To decide the question once and for all, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formed a "Planet Definition Committee" consisting of historians, science writers and professional astronomers. Their job was to craft an official definition of the term planet, which all astronomers could agree on and use. The Committee met, argued and debated, and finally settled on a definition, which they presented to the IAU General Assembly in August 2006.
If their first draft definition of a planet had been accepted then Pluto would have been a planet, as would Ceres (a giant asteroid orbiting between Mars & Jupiter), 2003 UB313 (Xena) and Pluto's companion Charon. If other Kuiper Belt Objects such as Pallas, Vesta, and/or Hygeia were found to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, they would also be planets.
However a modified definition became the The Final IAU Resolution
Under this the eight planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are defined as Classical Planets
Pluto and the other aforementioned bodies are defined as Dwarf Planets or Plutonian objects
Not everyone agrees of course and the Phillips have established a web page where anyone can vote on the matter at
KL said...
Yeah, Pluto doesn't fall into the typical categories of Planets. But then if you ask astronmers what planet is, each one will give an entirely different definition.
But, I shall be missing telling the name of Pluto while reciting out our planets.
Eleuktra Starsoft said...
Xena has now been officially named Eris. I rather liked the sense of irreverence in the name Xena.
Interesting stuff.
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Plastic Trash Litters the Ocean
Plastic Trash
Plastic trash articles litter the world’s oceans. It will likely take centuries to decompose. Objects such as paper and wooden products will breakdown in seawater. Metal pieces of garbage tend to sink to the ocean floor where they degrade.
Plastic has two special features. First, it is buoyant. It floats or lingers just below the surface. Second, plastics require 500 to 1,000 years to decompose. During that process, it becomes small confetti sized objects that fish consume.
How much plastic trash is out there? The Synthesis and Algalita Marine Research Institute and the National Center for the Ecological Analysis estimate 200 million tons. There are close to 47,000 plastic objects per square mile of water and that does not take into consideration plastic found below the ocean’s surface.
People dump an estimated 14 billion pounds of trash into the ocean every year. For decades, trash barges and ships at sea have deposited their refuse into the ocean. Recreational boaters, merchant, naval, and cruise ships routinely dump trash overboard. One percent of the ocean’s trash derives from sewage drainage.
Currents carry the plastic trash around the world. Grocery bags have washed up in Antarctica. The trash gets caught in five ocean gyres scattered around the world. Some of the debris has conglomerated into solid floating masses. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is estimated to be 434,960 to 9.32 million square miles. That amounts to .5 to 8.1 percent of the Pacific Ocean’s total surface area.
The vast amounts of plastic trash articles littering the world’s oceans have hampered the search for Malaysian Flight 370. A New Zealand plane spotted 70 objects thought to be from the missing plane. The items turned out to be plastic containers and tangled fishing lines. A French satellite recently spotted a 75 foot object first thought to be a wing. A closer inspection revealed the debris was merely scrap.
Anna Cummins, the co-founder of the 5 Gyres Project, has a difficult time explaining the vast amounts of plastic trash littering the oceans. When people venture out to sea, they generally see blue water and marine life. It is unfortunate there is not an island of trash to help visualize the problem.
The media has created the misconception of a Texas sized Pacific Garbage Patch floating around the ocean as a solid collective mass. Although there may be floating debris patches the size of a sailboat, most of the plastic trash flow in smaller or scattered formations.
A growing portion of the plastic is too small for dredging. It has become a thin soup that mixes with algae and plankton that fish consume. Small lantern fish have been caught and dissected. Within their stomachs were confetti sized plastic chunks too large for them to digest. The lantern fish are food for tuna and other fish that people consume.
Cummins wants legislation passed holding companies responsible for their end life products. She also wants to educated consumers on the impact plastic trash has when dumped into the ocean.
Such legislation would require international support. It would also require a united effort to monitor and fine industries. Dredging to collect the larger pieces of trash floating below the ocean surface would need to be part of the legislation along with beach cleanups when trash washes ashore. Plastic trash articles littering the world’s oceans are a problem people must address before the situation becomes worse.
By Brian T. Yates
D News
How Stuff Works
5 Gyres Project
One Response to "Plastic Trash Litters the Ocean"
1. josh April 19, 2014 at 6:50 am
Instead of making things wrose with articles just stating negetavie opinions, Help make a change by offering soloutions and awareness in a positive matter that things need to be changed in order for the governments to listne. They aren’t going to change something if we demand them to, We have to present it in a manner accessible to all people to want to make change. 1- Climate change .. If they dont act, We replace them with someone who will.
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Learning objective
To understand ways of staying safe on the internet.
Scenario 1: Billy has recently signed up to an Instant Messaging Service with the help of his mum and dad. They have warned him that he should only include people he knows on his list of contacts. When he goes on-line a message pops up from Tim, a boy from his class. Billy is really upset when he reads Tim's message saying that he hates him and that so do lots of other people in their class. He doesn't know what to do. What do you think he should do and why? Scenario 2: Jack has just started to use e mail and he has been sending messages to some of his friends and family. He goes to check his in-box and notices there is a message from somebody he has never heard of. What do you think he should do? Scenario 3: Lucy has decided to go on Facebook. Her mum and dad have agreed, as she is 13 and old enough to do so. Lucy is messing around on the computer with her friend Kate and they are putting together Lucy's profile. She adds information about her hobbies and likes and dislikes. After typing in her age, Lucy goes to put on the school she goes to and information about where she lives. Kate tells her she doesn't think this is a good idea but Lucy argues that only the people she has added as a friendwill be able to see it so it will be fine. Do you think Lucy should listen to her friend or just go ahead? Learning outcome
1. Describe ways of staying safe when using different aspects of the internet.
2. Describe what you can do if you are worried about something you have seen on the internet.
Did you know?
Over 247 billion emails are sent every day There are over 243 million websites, what a world of knowledge! There are over 126 million blogs Twitter has over 105 million registered users Facebook has over 400 million active users
Useful links
BBC web wise Think u know
PLAN Click on link above for lesson Plans ACTIVE Click above for worksheets, resources and digital media. GAME Interactive Learning available from 'game' link.
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Educate young toddlers about Black History Month, celebrated in February, through engaging and interesting activities. Learning about history and diversity can be exciting for youngsters, setting them up for years of understanding and acceptance of others. Through reading books, art activities and listening to famous speeches, toddlers can begin to learn more about the contributions of African-Americans throughout history.
Tar Beach
Toddlers enjoy a good story, so share an interesting book that shares what life is like growing up in an African-American community with "Tar Beach" by Faith Ringgold. Children can listen while looking at the colorful illustrations also by Ringgold. After reading the story, discuss with children how their lives are similar or different from Cassie and her family.
I Have a Dream
Introduce toddlers to Martin Luther King, Jr. through listening to his famous speech from the March on Washington. Children can listen to the part where King explains his dream for the future and wish for everyone to live together in peace. Discuss with children how Martin Luther King, Jr. was a great speaker and hoped to inspire and educate others through his speeches. Toddlers can draw a picture about something they care deeply about and then give an inspirational speech explaining their picture.
President Obama
Barack Obama is the 44th president of the United States and also the first African-American president. Share with toddlers pictures of Barack Obama and discuss his life and family. Teach toddlers about the role of the president along with what types of jobs the president fulfills day to day. Discuss how the life of the president is different from the jobs other adults have. Children can color pictures of Barack Obama and practice writing the number “44” on their paper when finished.
Inventing Peanut Butter
George Washington Carver was a famous black inventor who discovered how to make peanut butter. Carver was born in 1864, a time when African-Americans were not readily accepted as scientists. Discuss with toddlers how they think peanut butter is made and how Carver came up with the idea of creating peanut butter. Make peanut butter with children by blending roasted peanuts, oil, salt and sugar in a food processor until smooth. Taste-test the peanut butter and brainstorm other ideas for inventions.
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Maze-solving, structures and linked lists, Programming Languages
For this assignment you will use the robot/maze simulation example introduced in mini-assignments 0625ma-0627ma to develop a maze-solving program. The program will read a file containing the maze configuration and the robot's starting position, as in the mini-assignments. The robot should then explore the maze using a "right-hand-on-the-wall" strategy. As the robot traverses the maze, the robot's action at each intersection or dead-end (go straight, turn left, turn right, or u-turn) should be recorded in a linked list. The "right-hand-on-the wall" strategy will guarantee that the robot will eventually successfully complete the maze. However, the robot's path may contain many extra turns and backtracks as it explores the maze. The program should use the curses library to display an animation of the robot's travel through the maze. In addition, after completing the maze the program should display "turn-by-turn" instructions for the route followed, using the information stored in the linked list. Once the maze has been solved, the program should process the linked list of recorded turns to determine the optimal path through the maze using the path- optimization process. The robot will then re- traverse the maze using the optimized path. The program should print the optimized turn-by-turn instructions and display a curses animation of the robot traversing the maze via the optimized path. Conceptually, the maze should be considered as black lines drawn on a white background. In actuality, the maze will be represented in your program as a grid, each element of which has either the value 0 (representing white) or 255 (representing black). The maze configuration is read from a supplied text file. The first two lines of the file indicate the number or rows and columns, respectively in the maze. The remainder of the file specifies the value for each element of the maze, in by-row order. The code for reading the maze information from the file and storing it into a Maze structure is provided for you, as in the earlier mini- assignments. A robot model is also provided as in the earlier mini-assignments. The following functions for moving the robot on the maze are provided in robotModel.c: moveStraight(), moveLeft(), moveRight(), uTurn(), and moveHere().
The robot is assumed to have four sensors, which sense the color (black or white) of the maze grid at the following locations: directly in front of the robot, directly to the left of the robot, directly under the robot, and directly to the right of the robot. The sensor readings can be obtained by calls to four supplied functions: blackInFront(), blackToLeft(), onBlack(), and blackToRight(). See the file maze.c for the definitions of these functions. You can assume that the robot will be initially positioned on a maze line. The end of the maze will be represented by a "black area" large enough that all sensors will read "black" for two consecutive time steps. Additional information on how to use the sensors to determine the configuration of intersections and other maze features. As your robot traverses the maze (both before and after path optimization), your program should use curses to show an animated display of the robot's progress. A function printMazePlusCurrentPos() is provided in maze.c to assist you with this. You can control the robot's movement speed by using the curses napms() function. For instance, to cause your program to delay for one second before advancing the robot to its next position, you can use the statement:
napms(1000); //sleep for 1000 ms before continuing to next statement
The supplied directory homework/hw4 contains the curses library, along with header and C-program files containing functions for the robot and maze models. The directory also contains a partially completed main program, hw4.c, that you will need to edit to complete the assignment. The directory contains two maze definition files, maze.text and mazeLarge.txt. As inferred from the file names, the maze defined by mazeLarge.txt is much larger that the one defined by maze.txt. Remember that the name of the maze file must be supplied as a command line argument when the program is run. Code::Blocks project files are also provided for both Linux and Windows. Consult the lecture slides for June 25-27 for instructions on how to compile and run the code using either Code::Blocks or the command line.
Required Programs:
1. Program successfully solves provided maze using "right-hand-on-the-wall" strategy.
2. Program correctly maintains "turn information" in a linked list and correctly prints out "turn-by-turn" instructions for route followed in original maze traversal.
3. Program correctly optimizes the turn list to compute optimal route and correctly prints out the optimized turn-by-turn instructions.
4. Program correctly displays curses animation of robot solving maze via optimal route.
Posted Date: 2/18/2013 4:56:19 AM | Location : United States
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Blue and Yellow 3-D hexagons
3-dimensional structures of fragrance molecules
Why is R/S preferable to (+)/(-)?
Imagine I drew a single enantiomer of citronellol and asked you to assign which enantiomer it is. Unless you memorised whether it was (+) or (-) how could you work it out? The difficulty is (without using a polarimeter to measure the angle of rotation of plane polarised light) you cannot. What you need is a naming system that allows you to workout what enantiomer it is just by looking at the structure, and also, be able to draw the correct structure of the enantiomer simply from its name. This is what the R and S system (sometimes called CIP nomenclature) allows. This system ranks the four atoms or groups bonded to a chiral carbon atom - from this, you can assign the enantiomer as R or S. The R and S system is not related to the (+) or (-) sign of the optical rotation. For example, let’s look at two amino acids, serine and tyrosine. Whereas (S)-serine has a positive optical rotation, (S)-tyrosine has a negative value.
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This article is from the free online course:
Exploring Everyday Chemistry
University of York
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Paleolithic Age is thought of as part of the Stone
Age that began about 500,000 to 750,00 years
BC and it lasted until the end of the last ice age
about 8,500 years BC.
The Paleolithic Age is a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of the first stone tools, and covers roughly 99% of
Cave Art
Prehistoric Cave Drawings
human technological history. It extends from the introduction of stone tools by hominids such as Australopithecines 2.5 or 2.6 million years ago, to the introduction of agriculture and the end of the Pleistocene around 12,000 BP. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic period.
During the Paleolithic, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands or tribes, and subsisted by gathering plants like grasses, berries and roots and hunting or scavenging wild animals. The Paleolithic is characterized by the use of hand-made stone tools, although at the time they also fashioned Tools made of wood and bone. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, which includes leather and vegetable fibers; however, due to the nature of these materials, they have not been preserved over time. Surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as Paleoliths.
Neanderthal Hand Axes From Southern Europe
who used simple stone tools — into fully behaviorally and anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) during the Paleolithic era. During the end of the Paleolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic, humans began to produce the earliest works of art and they engaged in religious and spiritual behavior such as burial and ritual. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cold temperatures.
The term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek: palaios, “old”; and lithos, “stone”, literally meaning “old age of the stone” or “Old Stone Age.”
Learn More About the Caveman Diet
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The abacus is a calculator in simple, mechanical form. It consists of a series of rods with beads attached that can be slid from one side to the other. With ten beads on each row, the abacus allows its user to tally items and calculate figures into the many thousands. The origin of the abacus is a source of great debate.
According to Chinese history, the abacus as we know it was invented sometime during the Ming Dynasty by mathematician Cheng Dawei. The Ming Dynasty lasted from 1388 to 1644 and was a period of cultural exchange and economic prosperity, at least in part. The Chinese consider the abacus to be among the great inventions of ancient China and have even created an annual day of celebration around it. The Chinese abacus is used to add, subtract, divide, multiply and find square and cubic roots.
Current Use
The abacus remains a teaching tool in China and elsewhere in Asia. It is provided to school children as a method of simple calculation. Blind students in particular find the abacus to be a useful and more easily managed way to perform mathematics. Merchants and vendors in many locations throughout Asia also use the abacus to perform day-to-day sales and purchase calculations quickly and efficiently. Its cheap construction from everyday materials and manual operation make it ideal for rural areas where batteries and electronics may not be readily available.
Other Possibilities
The abacus may not have originated in China at all. Other possible inventors include the Mesopotamians, the Akkadian tribe that occupied the same territory and predated the Mesopotamians, and the Egyptians who were all known to have used abaci. The difference between these ancient abaci and the Chinese version is in the construction of the device. The Chinese abacus is constructed of wood and beads on wire. The early form of the abacus seen in these other ancient civilizations is also referred to as a counting board. It was made of stone and sand, and used carvings to tally rather than moveable stone or wooden beads. If the name "abacus" is taken as a clue, it may lead to the Greek word for dust, "abakos," or the Phoenician word for sand, "abak," from which the word originates.
Information surrounding the origins of the abacus is so varied that even reputable sources like Caroline A. Krebs' 2003 book, "Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World," place its appearance anywhere from 600 to 4,000 years ago. There is no concrete evidence one way or another as to who invented the abacus since it dates to early ancient times and the archaeological proof of a first version has not yet been found. China claims responsibility and many experts extend the benefit of the doubt, although the topic remains open should new evidence arise.
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Slide background
Restoring the Lower Snake River
dam.san clemente dam 30123October 30, 2017
In 2015 the San Clemente Dam was demolished, in part to restore the watershed and protect endangered steelhead trout. Now scientists are studying the impacts and the findings have them optimistic about the future.
At a time when California was suffering from a record-breaking drought, removing a dam would have seemed counterintuitive. But that’s what happened in 2015 on the Carmel River when the 106ft San Clemente Dam was torn down in the name of public safety and for the benefit of an iconic fish.
Now, two years later, scientists are evaluating just how big an impact the dam removal has had on steelhead trout, which are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. So far, the results are promising.
“Steelhead trout are crafty,” said Tommy Williams, a scientist with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) tasked with surveying the river for their presence. Like many piscine-oriented people, he holds the anadromous species in high regard. An oceangoing version of rainbow trout, steelhead can migrate in their first, second or third year of life, return to their birthplace to mate and can spawn more than once.
Prior to European settlement, steelhead had survived and thrived through California’s countless droughts and wildfires. Yet despite their tenacity, by the early 21st century they were on the verge of disappearing from the landscape.
The razing of the Sam Clemente Dam served a dual purpose. The sediment-choked reservoir blocked access to the ocean for steelhead and the dam was at risk of catastrophic failure due to earthquakes. Rather than face the prospect of a wall of mud, trees and rocks squashing homes located downstream, the decision was made by the dam’s owner, California American Water, in consultation with federal and state agencies, to demolish the decrepit structure, making it the largest dam-removal project in California’s history.
Prior to demolition, the prognosis for the steelhead residing in the Carmel River was dire.
Historic steelhead runs on the Carmel River used to be around 20,000 but that number had dropped to fewer than 800 by 2015. NOAA scientist Williams, who has conducted steelhead surveys along sections of the river prior to and after the dam’s demolition, compared their decline to a “death by a thousand cuts.” He attributes their losses to the rise of human habitation in California and to the subsequent demand for water to cultivate crops and for use by cities for the sake of economic development. “We’ve pushed them to the razor’s edge by modifying their habitat,” he said.
Monterey County was no exception. The demand for water led to the construction of the San Clemente Dam in 1921. In turn, the dam blocked the Carmel River’s flow, undermining its ability to support steelhead. And for decades, the steelhead had to climb a fish ladder to swim above the dam, a challenging task made even more difficult during times of flood and drought.
After two years, the river is messy and messy is good. Prior to demolition, the structure had not only blocked steelheads’ ability to swim upstream, but also deprived the river of qualities necessary for their survival. Among them, the river lacked the ability to transfer debris downstream. This is a necessary factor in creating the variety of freshwater habitats young fish require to mature, prior to entering the Pacific Ocean.
Post-dam removal, Williams has seen a mix of fish at various stages of development, both above and below the site of the dam, which is a positive sign that steelhead populations are on the rebound. After surveying numerous sites along the river multiple times, “there’s no cause for concern, and reason for optimism,” he said. He’s upbeat, but he will have to withhold his judgment until NOAA issues its final report, due next spring. With the demolition of the dam, the fish counter used to calculate their numbers was also removed. In turn, the steelhead population is harder to calculate, he explained.
However, the river system is coming back to life. “I’m surprised at how fast the river has responded,” Williams said.
The epic winter storms of 2016 helped speed up the recovery process. Large rocks, fallen trees and tons of sediment located above the dam were swept downstream. And in turn, the debris created ample nooks and crannies for fish to dwell in. As a result of the demolition and subsequent flooding, the river is more complex. “We’re seeing a fish habitat consisting of ripples, runs and pools and not just long runs,” he said. This diversity in habitat is beneficial for fish.
Trish Chapman, the regional manager for the California Coastal Commission, said the decision to remove the dam made sense for the residents of Monterey County and for the fish. Now, the river is linked to the beach and in terms of ecological services, “the most important aspect of taking down the dam is that it reestablishes sediment supply, and with sea level rise we need that everywhere,” she said.
California American Water could have retrofitted the structure for $49 million, a stopgap measure as the dam aged and weakened. Instead, they coordinated with state and federal agencies to raise additional funds for habitat restoration with a total estimated cost of $84 million upon completion.
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Scent Bears
scentbears Create adorable bears, each with a special "tummy."
• To encourage sense of smell
• To develop fine motor skills
Before You Start: Gather materials to use for the activity: various scents to use on the "tummies", construction paper, scissors, markers, crayons and glue.
Let's Get Started! Step 1. The children will draw (or trace) a bear shape from construction paper and cut out the shapes.
Step 2. Add facial features to the bear with marker or crayon. Draw a circle on each bear’s "tummy."
Step 3. Spread glue over the circle in the bear’s "tummy." Sprinkle scent over the glue. Allow the glue to dry.
Furthermore: This is great sensory activity to encourage children's sense of smell. Talk to children about what they smell; does it remind them of anything? Ask them what scents they like or don't like. You can also use scented markers to create scent on the bear's tummy.
Products You May Need:
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Tuesday, December 8, 2015
Teacher Spotlight: Mrs. Nadorff, Science PBL Roller Coasters
Teacher Spotlight: Mrs. Nadorff, 6th Grade Science
Forms of Energy Roller Coaster
Today's spotlight looks at the engaging PBL Project Mrs. Nadorff designed for her students in her 6th grade Science classes.
What are the students doing?
My students are building roller coasters out of paper and card stock. The roller coaster should be able to safely move a marble from the top of the roller coaster to the bottom of the roller coaster. My students are also making a brochure to go with their roller coasters.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
I hope that students are able to apply their knowledge of shapes, simple machines, and slope to build a roller coaster that will have a marble move down hill for 30 seconds. I would like for students to describe how potential energy is shown when the marble is at the top of their hills on their roller coaster. I would also like for students to see how the marble has kinetic energy as it's moving down hill. Some students may be able to see the marble demonstrate more or less kinetic energy due to the slopes and heights of their tracks. Finally, I want for students to make a brochure highlighting potential energy, kinetic energy and the Law of Conservation on energy for their roller coasters. In their brochures, they are going to have to attract their audience with their description of their themed roller coasters. They will also need to include graphs of when their roller coaster demonstrates potential and kinetic energy. Finally, their brochure should include pictures that lure the audience to what to check out their ride.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
Students are expected to be able to identify potential energy and kinetic energy from information or a graph. Student are also expected to understand the law of conservation of energy. Simple machines and types of energy are a part of the SC state standards. Their roller coasters and brochures gave students real world applications for potential and kinetic energy. Students also learned how energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred. This was the main point in making their roller coasters. The law of conservation of energy is a difficult concept for students to understand because there's not much out there the students can relate to. Once they made their roller coasters and we started discussing the law of conservation of energy, it was much easier for students to understand this concept and relate it to their project. Simple machines and types of energy were also discussed when making their roller coasters and in some of the designs the students had. Simple machines in their projects included an inclined plane and a screw.
How did this activity promote student learning?
The key component to this project was student engagement. Students had a purpose to their learning, therefore they were excited to come to class and work on their projects. I've never heard so many students say they didn't want to leave my class because they loved what they were doing. Students were having so much fun collaborating and creating that they did not pay attention to time going by during my class. Once students bought into the design and creating process of the project, the information to go with their roller coasters and the analyzing their work (the hard part) was something they were more than willing to do. From the designing, to making, building and rebuilding, analyzing, creating informational text and presenting their information, learning was an essential part of the entire process of their roller coaster project.
Monday, November 23, 2015
#SCFloods Writing Across the Curriculum - Written Literacy in Orchestra
#SCFloods Writing in Orchestra
Writing Across the Curriculum
What are the students doing?
7th and 8th grade orchestra students were given the task of composing an original SC Flood reflection composition (at least 8 measures long). They were also allowed to complete "program notes" about their composition for extra credit.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
My hope is that their creativity was able to "flow" and they were able to express their personal feelings and emotions about the flood through music.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
SC Standard 2: The student will improvise, compose and arrange music within specified guidelines.
SC Standard 3: The student will read and notate music
SC Standard 6: The student will make connections between music and other arts disciplines, other content areas, and the world.
How did this activity promote student learning?
Students were able to transfer all of the music theory symbols and skills we use on a daily basis to their compositions. They experimented with using different rhythms, time signatures, key signatures, composing for multiple instruments, dynamic markings, slurs, ties, tempo markings, etc.
Monday, November 16, 2015
Teacher Spotlight: Lara Schmitz, Career Development Facilitator
Teacher Spotlight: Lara Schmitz, Career Development Facilitator
This is a major day in the life of BMS as students are able to learn about tons of different careers. Teachers and students alike look forward to the work Ms. Schmitz does to coordinate this day.
What are the students doing?
Students are learning about the many different careers and the process of how to bridge their education to prepare them for the world of work.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
I hope they learn about themselves; what are their interests as it relates to a future career and how to begin planning for this long-term outcome by making short term attainable goals with their academic planning.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
It ties into the standards by introducing students to the State of SC's recognized 16 Career Clusters.
How did this activity promote student learning?
The career discovery process achieved through activities such as career day, in-class career guidance lessons and off campus filed studies, promotes learning by providing students the opportunity to explore self interests, gain new experiences and then connect them to careers, thus beginning their "Pathways to Success".
Tuesday, September 29, 2015
Teacher Spotlight: Mrs. Dobyns, Orchestra
Teacher Spotlight: Mrs. Dobyns
Orchestra Party! Student Mentoring
What are the students doing?
Students have the opportunity to come in to the orchestra room every morning for "Orchestra Party." This is where they can come in and practice alone or in small groups. They can also use this time to receive extra help from me or from fellow orchestra students.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
A daily extra practice session, and to start their day off of on a "good note!"
How did this activity tie to your standards?
Orchestra Party ties in perfectly with the first SC Academic Standard for the Visual and Performing Arts:
1. The student will sing and perform on instruments a variety of music, alone and with others.
How did this activity promote student learning?
Younger students benefit immensely from coming to orchestra party. A few 6th graders have been coming in and older 7th and 8th grade students are helping them reinforce skills (correct hand position, note reading, etc.). Students learn a lot too just by watching each other perform!
Questions to ponder:
How have you created mentoring opportunities for students in your classes?
What difficulties have you experienced establishing mentoring for students?
What successes do you have with mentoring?
Monday, September 21, 2015
Teacher Spotlight: ELA Teacher Ms. Anderson, Music Mondays
Teacher Spotlight: Ms. Anderson, 6th Grade ELA
Music Mondays
What are the students doing?
At the beginning of the school year during our Interest Survey, I asked students to list their favorite artists, songs, or genres of music. Each week, I look through their responses and choose a song that best fits the purpose of the lesson. I print the lyrics and upload them to our Google Classroom. Before playing the song in class, I ask students to read the lyrics while listening and make notes with a specific purpose in mind. I play the song twice and give students the length of the two songs to complete the warm-up.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
I wanted to create a weekly assessment that would engage students with real world examples. They hear a song on the radio, sing along to it, and move on to the next one when it ends. In my class on Music Mondays I tell them, "Hold on, let's analyze what the author is saying and how they are saying it". We worked on symbols, themes, subject, and supporting details with Katy Perry's "Roar." We analyzed conflict in the Black Eyed Peas, "Where is the Love." This week, we went on a verb scavenger hunt with the song, "Cheerleader." This led to an unplanned discussion on contractions and artists that do not use verbs correctly in their lyrics. With Music Mondays I hope my students will go home, listen to the lyrics of their favorite songs, and be able to discuss authorial purpose and the parts of speech.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
Music Monday ties into reading, writing, communicating, inquiry, and LCS standards. Students analyze lyrics looking for authorial purpose and structural components. They examine the grammatical and linguistic choices that the lyricist made and determine how the speaker (the author in this case) used style and media to articulate a message. I use Music Mondays as an inquiry based assessment before I teach a lesson or as a formative assessment to gage student understanding after I teach a concept.
How did this activity promote student learning?
Students are actively involved in choosing the songs that we use in class each week, which puts them in charge of their learning. They look forward to Music Mondays because they are able to listen to the songs they love with a new analytical mind. I play the songs twice so that the first time they can listen and sing, and the second time they can read along and complete the warm up. The learning is relevant rather than disconnected from their lives. They are able to work on their own during the inquiry process and then collaborate on their answers before sharing them with me. Finally, this activity is one that changes on a regular basis. One week we may work on the author’s message, the next we study pronouns and antecedents. It is one that I can modify for my students’ needs while simultaneously keep as a routine.
Friday, September 18, 2015
Make Common Sense Common
Big Goal for the Year
In my role working constantly with technology I have developed a growing burden for helping students and teachers understand the importance of Creative Commons and Digital Citizenship. We are doing tons of work digitally and knowing how to properly credit others' work or protect one's own work is a vitally important skill. Complacency or not knowing are inexcusable for our schools and I want to do all I can to help people at my school pratice proper netiquette. My district participated in a digital survey on lots of topics and Digital Citizenship proved to be an area that teachers and students showed weaknesses in. They recognized the importance but didn't always put the process into practice. This data is driving my work this year on Digital Citizenship.
A first step in teaching Digital Citizenship and Creative Commons is the slogan above I created and actually created a Creative Commons license. This year I want to make common sense practice of digital etiquette in my school a reality. This is a huge undertaking but I'm excited for the work ahead as I will be working with fellow teachers and students to develop videos, posters, and other means to inform and educate our school on Digital Citizenship. A huge thanks for the motivation and actually caring about Creative Commons goes to our Media Specialist, Lorena Swetnam. I am grateful for her part in teaching our school.
It's Your Turn
What are you doing to educate your campus about Digital Citizenship?
How have you found success? What areas need improvement?
I would love to learn from your experiences. Please share through comments or tweet me, @TylerAbernathy1 your experiences with Dig. Cit. and Creative Commons.
Thursday, September 17, 2015
What do you want students to learn?
What do you want students to learn?
Think about the learning desired and then the tools
Courtesy: CollegeDegrees 360 "Learning" Courtesy: CollegeDegrees 360 "Student"
"What do you want students to learn?"
This question is what I like to begin with any discussion I have with a teacher when we start a planning session for an activity or lesson. Why start with this question? I think it should be obvious, but if you do not start with what the intended learning outcome is, all other planning on activities and resources is futile. Having the intended learning identified helps teacher(s) develop a plan that effectively supports and encourages the learner to work with resources that lead to the targeted result.
As a Technology Learning Coach I hope that all strategies or tools I share with teachers will be used and implemented after identifying the learning desired. I do not want teachers to try and make learning "fit" to a tool they want to use. Fitting learning to an activity or tool will accomplish completion and sometimes engaging experiences but in the end does not maximize student learning as much as it can be when the goal is identified first. My posts this year along with Teacher spotlights and student spotlights will hopefully make clear that learning and student success is of the utmost importance.
How I Start
1) Get to know my colleague - This is paramount to building a collaborative relationship with a teacher. My first questions when I meet with a teacher are "How are you as a person?" Their answer to this tells me a lot about them and shows them I am interested in them as a person, not just a person to practice Peer Coaching with."
2) Set Expectations - I make it clear to the collaborator that this relationship is driven by them. I am their support and want to help them meet whatever goals they lay out. To do that I make sure protections are set up for both them and myself so meeting times are respectful and the needs of each are clear so that work is efficiently completed.
3) Identify the Goals - This can be a short term goal or the teacher may be thinking across the entire year. From this identification, we then begin the process of determing what is the "student learning" desired and work backwards to make an action plan to meet this learning. It is not until we have identified learning goals that we even discuss tech tools or even teaching strategies. Taking these steps do take time but going in this order makes the work we need to do together much clearer.
4) Designate Future Work and Next Meeting Time - At the end of any peer coaching meeting I always ask "What is work or help you need from me before we meet again?" Along with my work we establish "What is work the Collaborating Teacher needs to have done?" With these items identified both have homework and clear goal of what is needed to be successful in the next meeting.
It's Your Turn
How do you begin planning for activities or lessons in your classroom or with colleagues?
What protocols do you use? (I find resources like Les Foltos' work on Peer Coaching is a great start.)
How has Peer Coaching or Collaborative Planning enhanced student learning in your classroom?
Please share or tweet me @TylerAbernathy1
Tuesday, June 9, 2015
SC Midlands Summit 2015
Collaborate. Listen. Learn.
How a Media Specialist and Technology Learning Coach combined to collaborate with teachers to help make learning more engaging for students.
Wednesday, June 10th is the big day I get to share with you all in person the exciting year I had working as a Technology Learning Coach. My role allows me the flexibility to not only move about the school but to work with teachers of all contents and all levels. This new role I serve in was eye-opening compared to my days in the a 6th grade Social Studies classroom. As much as I could hear about what other teachers were doing, SEEING other teachers great work was amazing! I loved getting to sit and observe these master teachers design lessons and activities to meet the needs of students and actually get to plan and co-teach particular lessons and content. I hope you find the work I share informative and useful for the role you serve on your school campus. As you view some of the tiles on my Blendspace you will realize you can't open it. Part of this is due to the fact I want to show it during my session. The other aspect is it is a Google Classroom page or Site I created that has content I don't want to give full access. Please contact me if you have questions or want to know more information on what I'm doing with my school. Here's my info below.
Tyler Abernathy
E-mail: tabernathy@richland2.org
Twitter: @TylerAbernathy1
Presentation for SC Summit 2015
Post your thoughts and takeaways on the Padlet I've set up for my presenation.
A quote that guides me in my role as a Peer Coach:
"A Peer Coach is a teacher leader who assists a peer to improve standards-based instruction by supporting the peer's efforts to actively engage students in 21st-century learning activities."
~ Les Foltos
Friday, May 22, 2015
Teacher Spotlight: Ms. Evans 8th Grade ELA/Social Studies
Teacher Spotlight: Ms. Evans
8th Grade ELA/Social Studies
Today's spotlight shows the great work happening in Ms. Evans' room. She is always thinking of how to make work exciting and engaging. You'll definitely want to learn from this work she did to help students create Infographics and a Weebly site.
Part One - ELA Infographics
What are the students doing?
The students participated in a unit of study on revolutionary and world changers. Students were then encouraged to pic a world changer of their choice and develop an argument supported with research to support and prove how this individual has changed the world. Students then created an infographic to visually represent their information; the infographic was designed to align with their purpose while incorporating text features to create a structure that also aligned with their purpose. After creating their infograhic, the students and I discussed public speaking and strategies to implement to speak well to an audience. Although we have incorporated speaking and listening in our classroom all year, these presentations were more structured. Students presented to their peers and received feedback. The student chose the presenters, and we held an event for parents to attend and hear their student present.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity? See above.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
According to our standards 8th graders are asked to write arguments and support them with clear claims and relevant evidence. They are also asked to present claims and findings in a coherent manner with relevant evidence, sound valid reasoning, and well-chosen details while using appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation. They are also expected to integrate multimedia and visual displays to clarify and enhance their claims, reasons, and evidence.
How did this activity promote student learning?
This lesson promoted student learning through student choice, integration of technology, and parental involvement. I found that students took their work seriously as they knew there would be an audience to present their work; 98% of the students completed the assignment. The students from my ELA classes even came and presented to one of my Social Studies class to prepare for their final presentation; it was a learning experience for my Social Studies class because they provided constructive feedback to my ELA students that I then used when they presented for another assignment. Although all parents could not attend the presentation, I was informed of parents who helped their student at home--creating a connection between school and home.
Part Two - Reconstruction Social Studies
What are the students doing?
The students created a wiki to publish a reconstruction plan to help heal the United States after the Civil War.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
I hope students were able to improve working collaboratively, improve integrating multimedia and visual displays into presentations to clarify information, strengthen claims and evidence, and add interests. This assignment also encouraged critical thinking and problem solving.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
Eighth grade Social Studies is South Carolina History and students have studied South Carolina's role in the development of the United States throughout history. This assignment in particular asked students to consider the differing impact of the Civil War on various groups of people in South Carolina, the development of Reconstruction policy and its impact on South Carolina, the economic impact of Reconstruction on South Carolina, and the successes and failures of Reconstruction in South Carolina. Taking all these standards into consideration, the students created a Reconstruction Plan taking on the role of cabinet members while studying historical acts and events to make informed decisions in terms of their plan.
How did this activity promote student learning?
This activity promoted student learning by challenging students to think critically, work collaboratively, and use technology to deliver their product. Based on student reflections, many students learned something new about contributing to a group and creating a wiki all while extending their understanding of Reconstruction and that time period.
Wednesday, April 29, 2015
Teacher Spotlight: 7th Grade ELA Ms. Russ
Teacher Spotlight: Ms. Russ 7th Grade ELA
Student Rotations - ELA Skills development
Ms. Russ is an incredibly hard working teacher who seeks to find creative methods to meet the needs of all her students. She developed an incredible amount of practice stations for her students work through in today's spotlight moment. I hope you enjoy learning about what she was able to do with her students.
What are the students doing?
Students rotated through stations to prepare for ACT Aspire. After a mock reading test and a mock writing test, I knew I wanted to work on specific topics with all the students. The students rotated through six specific stations: Revising & Editing, Paraphrasing, Direct Quotes, Reading Comprehension, Introduction & Conclusion Paragraph Structure, and Body Paragraph Structure. The stations were designed to allow them to work as pairs and individually. There was also the safety net of an answer key at each station. I didn’t want students to feel “stuck” at any station.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
I hoped that students would accomplish several things through this activity. To begin with, I hoped that by rotating through the stations students were able to identify their personal strengths and areas for improvement with each topic. In addition, I hoped that students would engage in collaborative discussions about content, demonstrate a command of the content, and be able to effectively show me their knowledge. Lastly, I hope that students would have meaningful and effective review for ACT Aspire testing that left them feeling more confident about the test.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
This activity is directly correlated to the 7th grade ELA standards. Students were exposed to literature, informational texts, writing, and language practice. Students had to analyze the structure of texts, draw inferences, cite textual evidence, determine the author’s point-of-view or purpose, and determine central ideas. In addition, students had to identify unknown words and phrases, as well as show a thorough understanding of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and grammatical concepts. Students also had to produce writing that was clear and cohere. Through working in their collaborative groups, students used their speaking and listening skills.
How did this activity promote student learning?
Each day of station work ended with a student reflection piece. Students unanimously said that they loved the opportunity to move around the room, work with their peers, and learn from one another. This activity required each student to actively engage with each task. It gave students the opportunity to be the “expert” of their group, which made students want to engage with the topic, and prompted the struggling students to listen to what their peers were saying.
Other Pictures from the Station Activities
Sunday, March 1, 2015
Teacher Spotlight: Ms. Myllakangas and Mr. Smith
Teacher Spotlight: Ms. Myllakangas and Mr Smith (ELA&SS)
Today's spotlight looks at the engaging work these teachers are doing within their classes to excite students about Greek History and Mythology. Enjoy seeing how these two teachers collaborated to develop a worthwhile experience for students as they learn this content.
What are the students doing?
Student in my class worked together with Mr. Smith's Social Studies class to create unique myths that showed their ability to create a narrative with accurate details to ancient Greek myth writing. To show off their creations to their parents and peers, students participated in a Greek Myth Cocoa House. The students enjoyed cocoa and treats as they real aloud their Greek myths.
What do you hope students accomplish by completing this activity?
Through this project, we hoped to see students effectively use the Writing Process to create a narrative piece of writing. In addition, we hoped student would show their knowledge of ancient Greek mythology.
How did this activity tie to your standards?
This activity correlated to the ELA standards as students are expected to effectively creative a narrative piece of writing. This activity also served as a great practice writing for the ACT Aspire writing test, which will ask students to create a reflective narrative. For Social Studies, this activity helped students to show their knowledge of ancient Greece, for which Greek mythology is a huge component.
How did this activity promote student learning?
The Cocoa House promoted student learning because the students were able to work side by side with both ELA and Social Studies. In addition, students were able to work collaboratively with their peers.
What are your reflections on this activity? (positive and ways to improve in the future)
The Cocoa House has been an effective way of encouraging students to want to write. This is especially true since they are held somewhat accountable by their peers both through the Writing Process as well as during the presentation stage of writing. In the future, I would like to combine all four classes together to create one large Cocoa House.
Creative Commons License
Make Common Sense Common (MCSC) by Tyler Abernathy is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
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TEFL Pitstop
Surf in - load up - print out
A reading for specific information activity
Go to student text
Instructions for teachers
An ant
As any TEFL theory book will tell you. We need to help the students develop the many different reading skills and strategies such as gist reading, reading to confirm expectations, reading for communicative tasks etc. This is an example of scan reading or reading to extract specific information. In the real world you would do this to find a number in a telephone book or find out how deep the swimming pool is in a holiday brochure, what is on at the cinema etc. This text will hopefully give some practice in this type of reading. Go to student text
Suggested Procedure:
1. Spend 5 minutes pre-teaching some of the difficult vocabulary. eg jaw, brain, squeeze, share, rubbish, smell, chew, swallow etc.
2. Hand out a photocopy of the text to all the students. Let them read it for 3 or 4 minutes or if you really want to develop scan reading don't let them read it at all.
3. It is best to use the cheap trick of having a competition to add some motivation. Divide the class into two teams. You ask questions on the text and the team who answer your questions correctly first get a point. Ask the questions from various parts of the text don't start at the top and go down.
Here are some ready made questions:
How many known species of ants are there? 10 000 (3)
How do ants tell other ants where the food is? By leaving a trail of scent. (6)
How long do ants live? 45-60 days (1)
What is the latin name of the slave maker ant (Polyergus Rufescens) (5)
How do ants know if another ant comes from the same nest? (because of the smell) (4)
What is the name of the outer covering of an ant's body? (the exoskeleton) (3)
How do the red ant species protect their nest? (with a sting) (4)
What are four stages of an ant's life? egg, larva, pupa and adult (3)
Why do some birds put ants in their feathers? (to kill the parasites) (5)
Where does the Ecitron Burchelli ant live? (South America) (6)
How many stomachs do ants have? (two) (3)
How many legs do ants have? (six) (1)
How many joints in each leg? (three) (1)
What do ants do with the eggs at night? (put them deeper into the nest) (6)
What kind of acid do ants spray? (formic) (5)
Which type of ant steals eggs from other nests? (Slave Maker) (5)
If an ant weighs 1 gram how much can it lift (20 Grams) (1)
That should be enough.
More suggestions:
If this activity was a success there are other ways you can practice reading for specific information.
It is a good idea to find texts that the students might really have to read.
e.g.. Photocopy the accommodation flats for rent section from a newspaper and ask questions like how much is the bedsit in Acacia Avenue. Other sources could be :- Job adverts, brochures, TV and entertainment etc.
Go to student text
Other interesting facts pages: Ants The Moon Horses
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Bible Study – Daniel 3
The third chapter in Daniel happens at an undetermined time after the end of chapter two. The story flows from one chapter to another, and we see the idol from the dream showing up again, but the time difference between the two chapters must be substantial (at least a few months if not years). The reason behind this is that it’s really out of character for Nebuchadnezzar to declare Daniel’s God “a God of gods, and a Lord of kings”, and then immediately thereafter resume idol worship. It’s also highly likely that Daniel wasn’t present for these events he writes about in chapter three, because he doesn’t seem to have any role in the happenings. Some historians have proposed that this chapter takes place shortly after the complete destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, and Daniel was either back in that area on official business, or mourning the loss of God’s city and dwelling place.
The chapter starts by stating that Nebuchadnezzar made an idol of gold, and set it up in the plain of Dura. The idol is not described in any detail other than its overall dimensions, which we examined in the previous study. Its height was 60 cubits (90 feet) and its width was 6 cubits (9 feet). I proposed that these dimensions are not very proportional to a human body, so the idol was probably representing something else. It could even be an obelisk, but there’s no certainty about the commonality of obelisks in Babylon at that time, though there are records of Baal worship that involve obelisks. There are certainly records of pillars being used to depict a story. A more modern example of such a pillar is Trajan’s column . In this case, the idol could have been a pillar depicting the destruction of Jerusalem, though this is only conjecture on my part. In any case, Nebuchadnezzar gathered all his officials in order to dedicate this idol.
We see in this chapter that music plays a big role in the worship of this time period, just as it does in our time. The officials are commanded to “fall down and worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up” when they hear the sound of all kinds of music. In this case, music represents a sign that worship is about to take place, the worship of an idol. After many years of conquering, Nebuchadnezzar had become proud and full of himself. He forgot about the God of Daniel who reveals dreams, and he forced other people to worship false gods and idols. The punishment for not worshiping this new idol was death by burning in a furnace.
God’s people, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, the former favorites of Nebuchadnezzar, did not obey the king’s decree and did not bow down to the idol. In short order, those Chaldeans who wanted to get rid of the three friends, passed the word to the king that the Jews would not bow to the idol. Nebuchadnezzar gave Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego an ultimatum: “Now if ye be ready that at what time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, and dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the image which I have made; well: but if ye worship not, ye shall be cast the same hour into the midst of a burning fiery furnace; and who is that God that shall deliver you out of my hands?” In other words, bow down or die. It’s pretty amazing to see that Nebuchadnezzar would even give them a second chance. I think he must have remembered that these people are special.
The Jews held fast to their faith and said to the king: “O Nebuchadnezzar, we are not careful to answer thee in this matter. If it be so, our God whom we serve is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace, and he will deliver us out of thine hand, O king. But if not, be it known unto thee, O king, that we will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up”. These men put their trust in God to deliver them, but even if He chose not to deliver them, they would still not bow down to the idol. God had commanded them, from the days of Moses, that “Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me”.
Nebuchadnezzar reacted with fury and commanded the furnace to be fired up, but to make it seven times hotter than usual. The men that put Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego into the flames were slain themselves due to the heat of the fire, it was that strong. But Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego were not even touched by the flames, bound as they were. As soon as they were put in, Nebuchadnezzar noticed that it wasn’t only the three of them in that furnace, but also one who looked like the Son of God. Their protection and their lives were assured by God, and Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego really had nothing to fear. This story is used to strengthen Christians in the face of persecution. Even if God doesn’t deliver us, we will not bow down to an idol, to an image, but to God Himself who is the only one worthy of worship and praise.
Revelation 13:15 draws a parallel with Daniel 3. In Daniel 3:4, the people, nations, and languages present in the plain of Dura were commanded to bow down and worship the image or face death by fire. In Revelation 13:15, the image of the beast has the power to kill those who would not worship the beast. The image of the beast in the book of Revelation represents an image of an incarnation of Babylon itself. In the last days before the second advent of Jesus Christ, Christians will be faced with the ancient Babylonian command once again, just as the people on the plain of Dura: “bow down, or die”. If we were to have some music to go along with the command, the parallelism would be complete. These days are coming quickly upon us, and I don’t think many people realize the urgency of the matter. If they do realize it, a lot of people are led astray by messages which have no root in the scriptures. This kind of deception is the work of Satan and his angels in the world.
God impressed upon Nebuchadnezzar that there is nothing he can do against His will. What Nebuchadnezzar would consider to be magic, God considers common. There is absolutely nothing that is not in God’s power, and we Christians better remember that. Our faith has to be strong in the face of overt and covert persecution. Satan will attempt to work through good and evil people in order to get us to “bow down” to the image that will come into the world in the last days. I hypothesize that this image will look so good to a Christian, and the deception will be so complete, that most people won’t even notice what’s happened until it is too late. We have to be like the wise virgins in Matthew 25, not like the foolish ones. Jesus commands us to be wise as serpents, but innocent as doves. Being wise to the ways of Satan does not imply that we are also evil; being wise is a defense mechanism. We have to identify his ways, his tactics, and what exactly is the end-time deception that he will set up. so that we can avoid being part of it, even when faced with death as punishment.
I will conclude this study by saying that I cannot impart any oil onto you, my dear readers. You must be wise enough to bring enough oil to the wedding so that your lamps will not run out. It’s extremely important to heed this warning, because the foolish virgins were not allowed into the wedding even after procuring oil. Waiting until the last minute to gain understanding and knowledge of the true character of God will not be enough. Just as the officials of Babylon saw nothing wrong in worshiping the image, so will the majority of Christians not see anything wrong in worshiping the image in the last days. Our eternal lives are at stake and we must dedicate ourselves to understanding God’s character and His prophecies so that we may not be deceived.
Bible Study – Daniel 2
Previous study on Daniel 1 can be found here.
In Nebuchadnezzar’s second year as king, he started having strange dreams, so much so that he could no longer sleep at night. He gathered all his magicians, astrologers, sorcerers, and the Chaldeans, in order to get some peace from these dreams, and gain understanding about their meaning. Remember that the Chaldeans were those who learned the magic arts of ancient Babylonia (Sumeria/Akkadia).
The really strange thing about Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams was that he could not remember the details. His request of the wise men of Babylon was for them to tell him what it was the he dreamt. This goes beyond a simple interpretation, and I’m sure that these men would have been able to interpret the king’s dreams, had he remembered what they were about. In reply to the king, the Chaldeans said that “there is not a man upon the earth that can shew the king’s matter: therefore there is no king, lord, nor ruler, that asked such things at any magician, or astrologer, or Chaldean.”
This statement got Nebuchadnezzar really angry. Here were his most educated men, the ones who claimed to have all the answers in the palms of their hands, or in the stars, or other magical devices. Yet, they were worthless when he actually needed them to alleviate his sleepless nights. Not only that, but they had the gall to tell him that no king, lord, nor ruler existed who would ask such things. How could that be when he, Nebuchadnezzar, was asking such things, and he surely existed. It must have seemed like such a cop out on their part.
The second part of their answer is that “it is a rare thing that the king requireth, and there is none other that can shew it before the king, except the gods, whose dwelling is not with flesh”. Well, aren’t these people supposed to be able to communicate with the gods? If they couldn’t do that, nor show him his dreams, then what good were they? So Nebuchadnezzar did what any sane person would do, and convicted them to death. I say that in jest, but to an extent what else was there to do with them? They had leeched off the kingdom of Babylon for years and with nothing to show for it, except insults to the king.
Unfortunately for Daniel and his friends, he was considered to be part of this group of learned men. When he heard about the decree, he asked the king to give him some time and he would show the king his dream and its interpretation. The king agreed and Daniel went back to his friends to tell them about this issue. I imagine they prayed fervently at that time, and the result was that Daniel was given a vision in the night, showing the dream and its interpretation.
When Daniel was brought before Nebuchadnezzar, the king asked him “art thou able to make known unto me the dream which I have seen, and the interpretation thereof?” Daniel could have fallen in this trap quite easily, and I’m sure his memory would have been wiped. He answered Nebuchadnezzar correctly stating “there is a God in heaven that reveleath secrets, and maketh known to the king Nebuchadnezzar what shall be in the latter days.” Daniel remembered to credit God for the vision that was granted him, as only God can make such things known to man.
It is interesting here that Daniel should say “in the latter days” when speaking of this vision. The meaning of this phrase seems to point to a time in the future, but not only that, to a time of the last days. The future visions of Daniel shed more light onto this concept, but he already knew that this vision did not pertain to the present time, that it was a prophecy, and it was going to be very relevant in the days of the end.
Nebuchadnezzar’s dream was actually quite simple in its structure. He saw a great idol, whose form was terrible. I’m not sure what this idol looked like, but many sources seem to think it kind of looked like a man, a king even. I tend to disagree with that interpretation. In chapter 3 (which we will address in detail in a later study), Nebuchadnezzar made an idol that is assumed to be similar to the one he dreamt. This idol was 60 cubits tall and six cubits wide. In imperial terms, this is about 1080 inches high (about 90 feet), and 108 inches wide (9 feet). This idol measures 90 feet high and 9 feet wide. I’m no mathematician, nor a biologist, but that’s not very proportional to a man. It’s more proportional to a snake, or a lizard, or even a dragon. I’m really not sure what this idol looked like, I’m just thinking that it wasn’t a man, maybe only part man (lower half). In any case, this is more of an aside than a real doctrinal point, it’s just interesting to think about.
As to the parts of the idol, the head was of gold, the arms and chest of silver, the belly and thighs of brass, the legs of iron, and the feet of iron mixed with clay. Each body section gets stronger as we travel down from the head, yet at the same time the metal representing the body part gets less and less valuable. The end of the dream is that stone is cut out, but not by any hands, and it hit the idol “upon its feet that were of iron and clay, and brake them to pieces”. At this point, all the other materials of this idol broke to pieces as well, and the pieces were so small that the wind carried them away like chaff, so that no part of the idol remained. The stone that broke the idol became a great mountain, and filled the whole earth.
Daniel goes on to say that “this is the dream; and we will tell the interpretation thereof before the king”. I’m not sure who else was there with him in that moment, but I’m sure he wasn’t talking about his friends. I believe he was saying that the Holy Spirit was there as well, imparting the interpretation to the king through Daniel.
The interpretation of the dream has the head of gold representing Nebuchadnezzar, “a king of kings”, whom God has given “a kingdom, power, and strength, and glory”. Nebuchadnezzar had so much power that he was able to conquer Assyria and Egypt within a few short years. His kingdom had so much splendor that we today refer to Babylon as one of the ancient wonders of the world. God truly blessed Nebuchadnezzar and his empire.
After Nebuchadnezzar will come a kingdom which is inferior (silver), and then yet another kingdom (brass), which shall rule over all the earth (at least the known portion of it). The fourth kingdom follows, and it is strong as iron. As iron breaks all things, it shall break and subdue the world as well.
The last kingdom is going to be the feet, part of iron and part of clay. In the interpretation of the dream, Daniel says that this kingdom will be divided, just as iron and clay don’t mix. However, the strength of the iron will remain in it. This kingdom will be “partly strong, but partly broken”. The people in this last kingdom will mingle, but they will not “cleave one to another”.
The next sentence (Daniel 2:44) is interesting: “in the days of these kings shall God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed”. So, while talking of the feet and toes, made of iron and clay, Daniel implies that the feet and toes represent kings: “in the days of these kings…”. What’s interesting is that the implication is that there will be many nations (these kings), attempting to unite (will mingle), but are unable to form a coherent group (will not cleave one to another).
If you thought that sentence in v.44 is interesting, what follows is even better: “and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever”. The kingdom which God sets up, in the latter days, in a time when nations are trying to form alliances and confederacies, this Kingdom will not be left to other people. The way I read that part is that the Kingdom of God is God’s not man’s, yet it shall be for some people because it will not be left for the others. Who are the “other people” and who are the exemptions? I propose that the “other people” refers to everyone whom does not wish, for whatever reason, to be part of the Kingdom of God. Do you know people like that today? I have certainly met my fair share.
The better part of the interpretation of the dream is spent explaining the feet and toes, so we can certainly assume that this body section of the idol is most important in the prophecy. It is, after all, the section that is struck by the stone. I believe the significance of the feet and toes can be readily seen in our present day. We live in a world that wishes to unite and live in peace and harmony. Yet there are so many forces that seem to desire the exact opposite. We see hatred and bigotry every day on the news, even in our daily lives. How can we unite the nations when we seem to hate each other. I believe the explanation given by the Holy Spirit to Daniel that kings of the latter days will attempt to mingle, but will not cleave to one another is extremely important in our era.
Daniel and the Holy Spirit finish up the interpretation by saying in v.45 “the great God hath made known to the king what shall come to pass hereafter: and the dream is certain, and the interpretation thereof sure”. The king then testified that Daniel’s God “is a God of gods and a Lord of kings, and a revealer of secrets”. Nebuchadnezzar “made Daniel a great man”, “a chief of the governors over all the wise men of Babylon” and a “ruler over the whole province of Babylon”.
This concludes our study of Daniel ch. 2, but please tune in for a study of the remainder of the book. The next chapters will get even more exciting, and much more truth will be revealed. Thank God for His word and for His guidance in these times.
Bible Study – Daniel 1
The book of Daniel has been studied over the centuries by people much smarter than me. I only understood it while watching the sermons of Dr. Walter Veith and even then, I had to watch and listen multiple times to truly understand the essence of the scripture. Once I understood the symbolism, the rest was quite easy, and I thank God for granting me understanding of His word. The book is the abridged story of the life of Daniel, a prisoner taken from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar after the first siege of Jerusalem.
Nebuchadnezzar was the son of Nabopolassar, the first of the Chaldean Dynasty of the Neo-Babylonian empire. Under the rule of Nabopolassar, who reigned from circa 626BC to 605BC, Babylon started to regain its former glory, first by defeating the Assyrian empire, then the Egyptian empire, and the states that were friendly to these powers. Nabopolassar only started the work, which was finished in great majesty by his son, Nebuchadnezzar.
The rise of the Babylonian empire coincided with the start of prophet Jeremiah’s ministry. It is no coincidence that the prophet started warning the people about Babylon, when Babylon was just starting to become a world power. God was warning His people that He will allow Babylon to conquer even the holy city, and destroy the nation of Israel, unless they turn back from their apostasy.
We pick up with Daniel after Jeremiah’s prophecies start to come true. Nebuchadnezzar, in pursuit of the Egyptian armies after the battle of Carchemish, comes across Jerusalem and lays siege to the city. King Jehoiakim finally surrenders the city, but Nebuchadnezzar only takes the vessels from the temple and some captives, from the noble families of Israel. Daniel was among these captives.
In the first chapter of the book, we get a short account of this story, and what happened to Daniel and his friends after they were taken captive. Seeing as they were of noble birth, and quite knowledgeable in the ways of kings and court proceedings, the boys were given to the master of eunuchs to be trained as Chaldeans. This meant learning the old knowledge being revived by the Neo-Babylonians, that of the Sumerians and Akkadians. This culture dates back to the days of Hammurabi, in the 3rd millenium BC.
Needless to say, the ancient culture being literally unearthed by the Neo-Babylonians was highly steeped in rites and rituals related to the sun and the moon, amongst other “deities”. Daniel and his friends were forced to study all these things, but God was with them, and they never forgot Him. When asked to partake of the meat of the king, they refused, saying that they did not want to be defiled by the meat and wine. These boys were pure, not only in spirit, but also in flesh. They never forgot the commands of God, and were righteous in His eyes.
Throughout their studies, “God gave them knowledge and skill in all learning and wisdom”. God even gave Daniel the gift of understanding visions and dreams. The king, Nebuchadnezzar, was extremely impressed by these young men, and “he found them ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers that were in all his realm”, in all matters of wisdom and understanding.
The magicians and astrologers did not have the advantage of the everlasting God of the universe whispering the answers in their ears. Daniel and his friends were close to God, and God allowed them to know secrets that the magicians could only dream of knowing. Daniel and his friends never forgot who was the source of their knowledge and always testified the eternal God, and His great and mighty power.
In chapter 2, we will see how Daniel starts to be used by God to start the conversion of Nebuchadnezzar’s heart. Thank you for reading thus far and may God keep you and bless you until next time.
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Wednesday, 26 September 2012
All of Earth's naturally-occurring gold is
within its core. The gold we mine from
the planet's crust was delivered by
Scientists have shown that the Earth's
surface became enriched with precious
metals by impacting meteorites.
The Earth's crust and mantle has
considerably more gold than expected
from favoured models of planetary
A study from the University of Bristol
looked at some of the oldest rocks on
Earth, demonstrating that gold was
delivered by meteorites long after their
Their results are published in Nature.
While the Earth was forming, iron sank
to the centre of the planet, forming the
Any precious metals in the planetary
mix would have gone with this iron
and concentrated in the core, leaving
the mantle devoid of elements such as
gold, platinum, and osmium.
But this is not what we observe. In
fact, the silicate mantle has up to 1,000
times more gold than anticipated.
Several reasons for this enrichment
were proposed in the past, including
delivery by meteorites, although until
now it has not been possible to prove.
By measuring isotopes in rocks that are
nearly four billion years old from
Greenland, the team has managed to
date the gold delivery, and to relate it
to an event known as the "terminal
Tuesday, 18 September 2012
This is a contraceptive that works like
the pill but with the advantage that
you don't have to remember to take
it every day.
What's the contraceptive patch?
It is a small, thin, beige, sticky skin
patch that contains the same
hormones as the pill - estrogen and
progestogen. These are similar to
the hormones women produce in
their ovaries.
How does it work?
The patch delivers a constant daily
dose of hormones into the
bloodstream through the skin. This
stops the ovaries from releasing an
egg (ovulation) each month. The
patch also:
Thickens the mucus in the cervix,
making it difficult for sperm to
reach an egg
Makes the lining of the womb
thinner so it's less likely to accept
a fertilised egg
How reliable is it?
Effectiveness depends on how
carefully it's used. The patch is more
than 99 per cent effective when used
according to instructions. This means
that, using this method, fewer than
one woman in 100 will get pregnant
in a year. It is less effective in women
weighing 90kg (14st) and over.
Myth: The patch is more reliable
than the pill
Fact: Not true - the effectiveness of
the patch is the same as the pill
Myth: It falls off easily
Fact: Not true - it's very sticky
How do you use it?
The patch is used for three weeks
out of every four. A new patch is
used each week.
The patch can be started up to and
including the fifth day of a period. If
used at this time it's effective straight
away. If started at any other time,
additional contraception has to be
used for seven days.
After 21 days you have a break of
seven days when you have a bleed.
This withdrawal bleed is usually
shorter and lighter than normal
You can use the patch on most
areas of the body as long as the skin
is clean, dry and not very hairy. You
should not put it on skin that is sore
or where it can be rubbed by tight
clothing. Don’t put it on your
You only need to remember to
replace the patch once a week
It doesn’t interrupt sex
Unlike the pill, the hormones do
not need to be absorbed by the
stomach, so the patch is not
affected if you vomit or have
Usually makes your bleeds
regular, lighter and less painful
It may help with premenstrual
It may reduce the risk of cancer of
the ovary, womb and colon
It may reduce the risk of fibroids,
ovarian cysts and non-cancerous
breast disease
It's visible
It may cause skin irritation in a
small number of women
Like the pill, temporary side-
effects at first may include
headaches, nausea, breast
tenderness and mood changes
Breakthrough bleeding
(unexpected bleeding while using
the patch) and spotting can be
The patch can have some serious
side-effects, but these are not
common. They may include:
Raised blood pressure
A very small number of women
may develop a blood clot, which
can block a vein (venous
thrombosis) or an artery (arterial
thrombosis, heart attack or stroke)
Possible increase in risk of being
diagnosed with breast cancer
Possible increase in risk of cervical
cancer if used continuously for
more than five years
Can anyone use the patch?
The patch may not be suitable for all
women. For most women the
benefits of the patch outweigh the
possible risks.
It may be unsuitable for you to use
the patch if you:
Think you might be pregnant
Smoke and are over 35, or are
over 35 and stopped smoking less
than a year ago
Are very overweight
Take certain medicines - always
Have had a previous thrombosis
Have a heart abnormality,
circulatory disease or high blood
Have very severe migraines or
migraines with aura
Have breast cancer now or within
the past five years
Have active liver or gall bladder
Have diabetes with complications,
or have had diabetes for more
than 20 years
What if the patch comes off?
The patch is very sticky and should
stay on in the shower, bath or sauna,
during swimming and exercise.
If the patch has been off for fewer
than 48 hours, just reapply it as soon
as possible or use a new one, then
continue as normal.
If it has been off for more than 48
hours, start a whole new patch cycle
by applying a new one as soon as
possible. Use additional
contraception for seven days. Seek
advice about emergency
contraception if you had sex in the
previous few days and were not
using a condom.
Other things to consider
Initially, you'll be given three
months' supply of the patch. If
there are no problems you will
then be given up to a year’s
You don’t need a cervical
screening test or an internal
examination to have the patch
The patch does not protect you
against sexually transmitted
Where can I get the patch?
The patch is free on the NHS from
contraception clinics, sexual health
clinics or general practice.
Tuesday, 4 September 2012
By James Munyeki
There was mixed reactions of shock
and laughter at a Nyahururu court
after a middle-aged woman admitted
stalking a 36 year old teacher.
The businesswoman, Susan
Nyambura, admitted sending love
messages to Anthony Gathekia calling
for love.
Nyahururu principal Magistrate Denis
Mikoyan heard that the trader at Ol
Jororok township in Nyandarua west
district had been stopping the primary
school teacher by the road several
times calling for love.
The court also heard that the woman
had visited the man several times at
his home to begging to be loved.
Standing steadily at the dock, the
woman admitted that it was love that
had caused her do all this.
“I love this man and I do not have the
intention of hurting him. This is just
pure love and I believe that the man
loves me to,” she told the magistrate
amid laughter from the courtroom.
The woman told the court that the
man had refused to love her and
pleaded that the man compelled to
love her.
“I only want to live with the man who
I believe is the love of my life and I
plead with the court to advise him to
love me. I would not have gone this
far if I did not have true love for him,”
she said.Asked if she knew that the man was
married with children, she said that
she only learnt of it last Sunday when
she visited his home.
She said that she found children
playing at the home while their
mother washing clothes outside.
The magistrate released Nyambura on
a Sh 5,000 cash bail awaiting ruling on
October 2 this year.
A year after her death, controversy
seems to still stalk freedom fighter
Wambui Otieno. Details have emerged
that Wambui’s husband, Peter
Mbugua, is soon going to court to
claim ownership to part of Wambui’s
Wambui’s daughters, had last month
thrown the former stonemason out
of Wambui’s Karen home, and also
declared him unwanted in Wambui’s
Upper Matasia home, where Wambui
was buried. Mbugua and Wambui got
married in 2003, a marriage that
raised criticism. Mbugua was then 25
years old while Wambui was 67 years.
Mbugua’s mother, then aged 53 years,
refused to accept Wambui as her
daughter in law while Wambui’s
daughters boycotted the wedding,
furious at their mother for marrying a
man 42 years her junior.
Interviewed after the wedding,
Mbugua had denied claims that he
married the wealthy widower for
financial reasons, claiming he
sincerely loved the freedom fighter,
who was 14 years older than his
mother. Mbugua’s mother died a few
days after the wedding.
Mbugua has now retained lawyer Judy
Thongori to fight Wambui’s daughters
in court, over his inheritance. Mbugua
now lives in a one-bedroom house in
Kitengela, a property owned by
Wambui’s family. It is said that one of
Wambui’s daughters threw Mbugua
out and has taken charge of the
Karen home.
According to Wambui’s
autobiography, Mau Mau Daughter: A
Life History, she fought for
independence was briefly detained by
the colonial government n 1961. After
release from prison, she married fiery
lawyer, SM Otieno against the
objections of her parents.
When her husband died in 1987,
Wambui was drawn in a protracted
battle with her husband’s clan, Umira
Kager, on where to bury SM Otieno.
When the high court ruled that SM
Otieno was to be buried in his
ancestral home, Wambui and her
children boycotted the burial.
Also a politician, Wambui formed her
own party, Kenya People's Convention
Party which she used to run for the
Kajiado North parliamentary seat. She
was heavily defeated. In 1997,
Wambui had also vied unsuccessfully
for Kamukunji parliamentary seat on a
National Democratic Party ticket.Wambui is the mother to lawyer
Gladwell Otieno, a former
Transparency International country
director. Wambui Otieno died in
August 30, 2011 at Nairobi Hospital.
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Online Highways Home > >
House of Lords
Search Visit
The House of Lords traces its origins to councils of nobles that were called by the kings of England before the Conquest. English monarchs continued to assemble the barons at intervals until Edward I called the first meeting of the modern Parliament in 1265. Over the centuries, power has shifted to the House of Commons. Until recently, any peer could claim the right to sit in the House of Lords, but recent reforms have made membership in that house selective.
Like the House of Commons, the House of Lords meets in the Houses of Parliament in Westminster.
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Nitrous oxide, commonly known as laughing gas, is a simple chemical composed of two nitrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (N2O). Despite being used as an anesthetic since the 1800s, the effects it has on the brain are not well understood. In a new study published in this week in Clinical Neurophysiology, MIT researchers reveal some key brainwave changes caused by the gas.
Image: Jose-Luis Olivares/MIT
Nitrous oxide was used for anaesthesia in dentistry since December 1844, where Horace Wells made the first 12–15 dental operations with the gas in Hartford. It made its official debut as an anesthetic in 1863, when Gardner Colton introduced it at his private company. But even after all these years of use, we still don’t know exactly what it does to us – and researchers wanted to fix that. They found that nitrous oxide does things to our brain that no other drug does.
For three minutes after administration, electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings show large-amplitude slow-delta waves, which are usually associated with the deep stage 3 of NREM sleep. But the waves caused by the laughing gas were twice as large in amplitude, and more powerful, than the ones we see in slumber. It’s not clear why these waves last only three minutes and then go away.
“We literally watched it and marveled, because it was totally unexpected,” says Emery Brown, the Edward Hood Taplin Professor of Medical Engineering at MIT and an anesthesiologist at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH). “Nitrous oxide has control over the brain in ways no other drug does.”
The thing is, even though doctors often explain anesthesia as “putting someone to sleep”, it’s actually nothing like sleep – it’s just a metaphor to explain the closest experience. Anesthesia is more like a drug-induced coma, which sounds much more terrifying; the patient is unconscious, feels no pain and doesn’t move, but is mentally stable. This state of coma remains as long as the flow of drugs is maintained and patients awake without feeling that time has passed.
Laughing gas is a weak anesthetic, generally administered towards the end of the surgery, to keep a patient unconscious while more potent ether anesthetics are eliminated from the body. Understanding the exact effects of the substance on the human body could be very useful in countless medical procedures.
Brown and his team are now systematically studying the EEG signatures signatures of other commonly used anesthetics and anesthetic combinations.
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Revision Unit 1
Our teacher Maria gave this questions to answer on the unit we finished reading on Business, Revision Unit 1
A. Human needs are: shelter, clean water, clothing. It is essential for every human being to have somewhere to sleep and protect from the cold or rain. It is also crucial for us to drink water, dehydration is a dangerous thing, and clothing is also very important to stay cover, such as from the cold winter.
Human wants are: luxury house, coca-cola, car, designer jeans. It is not a need for a us to have a big house, with many rooms and nice things, coca-cola is a tasteful drink, but not essential, and designer jeans are something only those with money use, no all of us have them and we don’t need them.
B. In all countries there are wants and needs that need to be fulfilled, to make all of these goods and services there are factors of production, land, labour, capital, enterprise, which are limited. As there is never enough land or capital to fulfil the needs and wants of the population, there is an economic problem of scarcity.
C. Land: natural resources provided by nature, such as oil, land, forests, gas, metals.
Labour: people available to make products.
Capital: finance, machinery and equipment used for manufacture of goods.
Enterprise: the person who brings the resources and factors of production together to produce a good or a service, such as the owner of a business, known as an entrepreneur.
D. Let’s imagine someone that has $1000 and wants to buy a new pair of shoes and phone, so he goes to store and the phone is $700 and the shoes are $500, he does not have enough money to pay both the phone and the shoes, so he chooses to buy the shoes, the phone would be the opportunity cost. Opportunity cost is the best alternative given up by choosing.
E. A group of students has to decide whether to go to Entre Rios, by bus and make a two days stop in the Termas, or go directly to a camping site in Entre Rios by Plane. The students decide to go to Entre Rios by bus and stop for two days in the Termas, as they have never been there. The air plane is the opportunity cost.
A group of tourists visiting Rome are asked by the guide whether they would like to go see Fontana de Trevi or visit the Colosseum . They decide to go to the Colosseum, which is bigger and takes longer to visit. Seeing Fontana de Trevi would be the opportunity cost.
F. Division of labour is when the production is divided into the making of different jobs and making each worker a specialist at just one task.
G. Why is a business likely to increase output if it adopts division of labour? It is likely for a business to increase output if it adopts division of labour because, having different workers doing different tasks and then putting them together to have the final product is faster than having one person doing the whole product by himself.
H. Mixing the eggs and the milk, adding the flour, adding the mix to a mould, putting the mould in he oven.
I. Three benefits from business activity can be: products that satisfy the needs and wants of people, they give jobs to unemployed people, when you pay for a product you are also paying taxes that then help society.
J. Added value is the difference of money there is between the selling price of a product and the cost of bought in materials and components that the product has.
K. You can make the product with cheaper products, or something that makes it different, such as making it hand made, you will be earning more money.
Un pensamiento en “Revision Unit 1
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1.1 What is a top
Before talking about how a top keeps balance, we should clarify what a top is. Generally, tops have many shapes but the typical shape is conical or spherical (disk) on an axis. It's easy to understand why a top is round if we spin it. A top is round so that it can rotate and be stable.
Why does the round shape allow the top to rotate stablely? A round shape is better than any other shape because of its symmetrical mass distribution. Basically, for an object to rotate stablely it requires only one precondition ... it should have symmetrical mass distribution on its axis. If this precondition is satisfied, then the actual shape is not an important factor.
Hereafter, I define a top as an object which has symmetrical mass distribution on its axis. A top must have mass. It is irrelevant to consider mass distribution if the object doesn't have mass. If I need to identify whether a top is rotating or unrotating I will use the terms 'rotating top' and 'unrotating top'. If I simply say 'top' which is meaning 'rotating top'.
Next, let's consider what against a top doesn't tip over.
1.2 What against a top doesn't tip over
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Updated 10/Oct/1996
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A Brief History of The Bowen Theory
In the early days of family systems development, most psychiatrists utilized Freudian psychoanalytic theory in treatment, and the Family was not involved other than to provide information. Only the “designated Patient” was seen by the Physician. The idea of seeing family members also was such a radical departure from common practice,that it was initially an “underground” movement. In the mid 1950’s several psychiatrists working independently began treating families with an emotionally disturbed member; thus the beginning of what came to be known as the Family Movement. This began to gain acceptance in the ‘60’s.
In 1954, Dr. Murray Bowen embarked on a research project on Schizophrenia with the National Institute of Mental Health. He devised the research in such a manner that he began studying the mother-child relationship. He soon learned that the process involved not only the mother and child, but the entire family. While studying families who lived on the research unit, he also studied families with less debilitating problems, many of which were ordinary issues common among “normal” families. What he observed occurring in the families who had a schizophrenic member in an intense degree he also observed occurring to some degree in all families. As his work progressed, he was able to identify patterns of behavior in relationships which were so consistent that they were predictable. Dr. Bowen was discovering the science of Human Behavior which was to result in his Theory of Family Systems. Thus he began to think in a new way about emotional illness.
Bowen Theory Family Diagram
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Ancient Recipe: Ptisane [Barley Water] (Greek, at least 5th century BCE)
“[Barley] groats belong to the wheat family. They have juice that is quite nourishing and tenacious.”
~ Aelius Galenus (Galen), De alimentorum facultatibus (On the Properties of Foodstuffs), early 2nd century CE
Continuing my tradition of posting every ancient beverage I make in this glass…
Even after wheat bread became the favorite of the Mediterranean world, barley retained special significance as the first grain eaten by mankind, the primordial source of sustenance. The Greeks ingested their precious barley in many forms: as bread, as roasted flour or maza (a recipe I reconstructed here), and in beverages like kykeon and ptisane (πτισάνη, ptee-sah-nay).
While the peoples of the Ancient Near East made barley into beer, Greek kykeon and ptisane were not fermented, although both could be mixed with wine. The two are often confused with one another, equated as the same in a grammar lexicon of the fourth century. And both seem to have blurred the lines between our modern categories of food versus drink. In Homer’s Iliad, goat cheese is grated over a kykeon before serving, and later writers like the 12th-century Eustathius describe it as a thick barley soup. Hippocrates in the 5th century BCE mentions ptisane variations containing whole barley grains and warns that these must be cooked to their maximum softness, lest they expand in the stomach and cause indigestion (this perfectly reasonable warning is repeated centuries later by the physician Galen, quoted above).
So what was the difference between kykeon and ptisane? One clue can be found in the etymology of their names. Kykeon literally means “mixture”; ptisane comes from the verb ptíssein, to peel or crush. The main ingredient in kykeon is alphita, ground barley meal or flour, while the word ptisane can refer to hulled (peeled) barley grains as well as the drink made from them. In surviving literature, ptisane exists in strained and unstrained forms; kykeon does not. So while kykeon resembled modern grits or polenta, ptisane consisted of whole grains cooked in water, or, if strained, barley water.
This red-figure vase from around 490 BCE, by an artist named Brygos, is believed by some to depict the kykeon scene in the Iliad, when an enslaved woman named Hecamede prepares a wine and cheese kykeon for the elderly King Nestor. Others identify these figures as the old warrior Phoenix with the enslaved Briseis (there are a lot of enslaved women in the Iliad…)
Aside from being nutritious and plentiful, water leftover from cooking grain would have been safer to drink than fresh water in ancient times, having been boiled. Even today, barley water is enjoyed wherever barley is grown, from sweet jau ka sattu in Pakistan and roasted barley tea in East Asia to the Robinson brand lemon barley water traditionally served to players at Wimbledon. Through Latin tisana, Greek ptisane gives rise to the archaic French and English word tisane (tee-zahn), which can refer to barley water or any type of herbal tea.
Hippocrates and Galen both write at length about the properties and variations of ptisane, though they are more concerned with its medicinal than its culinary value. Hippocrates recommended ptisane for the healthy and the sick alike; indeed, barley is rich in fiber, niacin, thiamine, and other valuable nutrients. Galen rightfully considers unstrained ptisane more nutritious than strained, but he acknowledges the popularity of strained barley water when he uses it as a generic example of a liquid people consume, along with soups (rofēma) and milk, in his treatise on the human digestive system.
Galen mentions many possibilities for flavoring barley water–olive oil, salt, cumin, honeyed wine, vinegar–but he himself recommends dill and leeks. My recipe includes honey and two of the most popular herbs in Ancient Greek cuisine: mint and oregano. As both kykeon and ptisane were general terms referring to a preparation technique, we can assume they varied based on personal taste, what else the chef had on hand, and whether the liquid food was meant to fortify or refresh.
1 cup barley
6 cups water
1 tablespoon honey
A few sprigs each of fresh mint and/or oregano
Bring the water to a boil over medium-low heat. Add the barley, cover and simmer for 20-25 minutes until the barley is cooked.
Remove from the heat and strain out the barley, reserving the water in a bowl. Save the cooked barley for another recipe (unless you wish to incur the wrath of Demeter, Greek goddess of grain).
While the water is still hot, add the honey and herbs. Remove the herbs after 20 minutes and stir thoroughly to ensure the honey dissolves.
Like other forms of tea, ptisane can be enjoyed hot or cold.
The delicate, milky flavor of barley water takes on a light sweetness from the honey and a slight spiciness from the the oregano and mint. I find it really refreshing when served ice cold, although that’s not particularly Ancient Greek.
In my classes on Ancient Greek cuisine and the Eleusinian Mysteries (secret religious rites in which kykeon was ritually consumed) I’ve served this recipe in place of kykeon. My first attempts at recreating kykeon didn’t go over so well with a modern audience, but I’m determined to figure out an appetizing version of Homer’s cheesy grits with wine. Stay tuned for further barley experiments!
Dinner Date: Artemidora (90s CE)
“Artemidora, daughter of Harpokras, died untimely, aged 27. Farewell.”
~ Funerary inscription of Artemidora, 90s CE
The first thing I always notice about her is her hair. It’s a distinctive fusion of two styles: the mountain of coils bound with gold is purely Egyptian, but her fringe of curls is borrowed from the Flavian ladies of Rome. She wears more gold on her wrists, ears, and fingers and around her neck, which shows the first folds of age. Her skin is coppery, her eyebrows thick and sloping, her eyes wide. Her face is frozen in the beginnings of a hesitant smile, but not the cryptic “Archaic smile” of the oldest Greek art. It is the smile of someone who has just taken the hand of the psychopomp, jackal-headed Anubis or winged Hermes, ready to lead them to the next world. Frightened, but hopeful; happy to be going, but a little nervous all the same. Her name was Artemidora, Gift-of-Artemis. Today, you can find her sarcophagus in New York City, in the Met’s Egyptian galleries. But near the end of the first century, she lived in the Egyptian city of Cusae and was buried in the nearby necropolis of Meir. She lived. She died. She ate.
What can we say with certainty about Artemidora’s life?
We know from the splendor of her coffin that she was wealthy. Her father Harpokras must have been a local aristocrat and an important person in his community. In keeping with contemporary custom, she was probably married at the onset of puberty to a man older than her, perhaps by as much as ten or fifteen years. Likely her husband was as noble as her father. They may even have had the same father, as sibling marriage was not uncommon for upperclass Egyptians, even those of Greco-Roman extraction (the first Greek pharaoh to adopt this local custom was given the mocking moniker of Philadelphus, Sibling-Lover, by other Greeks).
Artemidora, side view. All photos are my own.
Egypt, long a multicultural society, was particularly so by the end of the first century. By then, it had been a province of Rome for one hundred and thirty years and ruled by a Greek elite for two centuries before that. Artemidora was part of that elite, whose culture and ancestry were a unique fusion of Egyptian, Greek and Roman. Not only her hairstyle but her clothing and the style of her coffin display a blend of these influences. She was adorned with icons of Egyptian deities but named after a Greek goddess.
For most of Artemidora’s lifetime, Rome was ruled by the increasingly draconian Emperor Domitian, who tried to purge subversive influence by expelling Rome’s philosophers. Hated by the Senate in his final years, Domitian was assassinated in a political coup in the year 96. All eyes were on Rome in Artemidora’s time, and she and her family surely had their own opinions on the Emperor’s paranoid antics. Perhaps they whispered about the tragic scandal that marred Domitian’s private life: the extramarital affair he conducted with his own niece Julia Flavia, whose sudden death, some said, resulted from a forced abortion. This story has an eerie 20th-century parallel in the relationship between Hitler and his niece Geli Raubal, who would also die young under suspicious circumstances.
Artemidora died at 27 (as did Julia Flavia). By the time they reached that age, most first-century women had experienced pregnancy and motherhood, and many had experienced losing a child. In the Roman world, half of all children died before the age of ten, a quarter of them before age one. Birth was dangerous for mother and baby alike, and Artemidora might have died in childbirth, or from illness or accident. However she died, her “untimely” passing was mourned by her family and celebrated with creation; in this case, the creation of art in her likeness. In the spirit of this tradition, the following meal is dedicated to the memory of Artemidora, gone before her time, in another time. χαῖρε!
Artemidora’s cuisine, like so much else about her, was likely a mixture of Greek, Roman and Egyptian elements. How much came from what culture is difficult to say with certainty. It might have varied from meal to meal, and depending on who was working in the kitchen and whether there were guests in the home. Amongst the three cultures there were broad culinary similarities, but many differences, including in how food was served and eaten. Romans and Greeks had food brought by servants to a communal table, but Egyptians had servants carry trays of food around the room and offer them to guests, cocktail hour-style. Roman men and women dined together. Greek women dined separately, after the men. Egyptian men and women dined together but were seated separately.
We know that the Greeks who settled in Egypt did not wholly give up their native diet. In the Deipnosophistae, an important text on Ancient Greek cuisine, the Greco-Egyptian author describes a feast served in his hometown that has no Egyptian features whatsoever: a simple, hearty meal of pork and vegetables on top of bread, with wine to drink. Pork was unpopular with native Egyptians, but their cuisine made full use of the region’s native flora and fauna, from tiger nuts and papyrus shoots to Nile tilapia and Egyptian goose. Artemidora might have enjoyed Egyptian delicacies like hedgehog, which was baked in a crust of clay so that the spines would come off when the clay was cracked open, or chickens hatched in specially-designed ancient incubators. Her family’s wealth would have enabled them to acquire ingredients out of the reach of most Egyptians, such as red meat, imported dried spices and Greek wine. They may have joined other Greek aristocrats in spurning local beer as the drink of peasants and farmers. Egypt was the breadbasket of the Roman Empire, and Artemidora probably enjoyed wheat bread, from flour milled as white as was possible in her time.
Not pictured (mercifully?): the author eating this meal ancient style, with no utensils and using the bread as a napkin.
For my own dinner for Artemidora, I chose to start the meal with a salad of romaine lettuce dressed with olive oil, white wine vinegar, garlic, coriander, cumin and rue; a mixture of ingredients popular with Greeks, Egyptians and both. While bitter lettuces had been known in Egypt since ancient times, eating the greens as a starter course was first popularized there by Greeks and Romans during the reign of Domitian; i.e., Artemidora’s lifetime. The main course is roast loin of pork in a nod to Greek tastes, but basted with an Egyptian-style sauce of honey, vinegar and spices, including fragrant fenugreek and tart, lemony sumac. The siton, the grain backbone of a Greek meal, is white wheat bread, sourdough in imitation of many ancient breads. I enjoyed it as Artemidora would have done; with my fingers, and wine.
The lady Gift-of-Artemis reclines at a banquet in her finest jewels. Her eyes are blackened with kohl past her eyelids, and her coiled wig drips perfume. Beneath draperies and wreaths of flowers, the men and women of Cusae dine together, in the Roman style. She speaks to them in Greek, but calls to a servant in Coptic for more wine.
Servers circulate around the room in the Egyptian style, offering different delicacies on trays. A young man brings a dish before her; sliced pork in a reddish sauce. Artemidora smiles, inhaling the scent of honey and spices. Delicately, her henna-dyed fingers lift a slice of meat to her painted mouth. She chews, swallows, sips wine from the refilled glass at her side.
“Agathós esti,” she mutters with a smile. “It’s good!”
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A look at some of the weapons that Medieval Knights used
A great portion of a knight’s life was devoted to the mastery of a variety of weapons. Here is a look at some of the more common weapons that were wielded throughout the Middle Ages.
Knights had a reign that lasted several hundred years and in this time period the weapons they used varied and changed significantly. Some of the factors that caused this change were improvements in metalworking and improvements in weapon design. Armor also improved over this period of time and it mandated improvements in weapons. One of the most significant changes came with the advent of plated armor. This new type of armor caused changes in many of the knight’s standard weapons. Slicing and bladed weapons were often accentuated or replaced by weapons that could pierce or apply a hammer-like blow. This development of hand weapons continued to change for centuries and reached its apex in the fourteenth and fifteenth century with the advent of gunpowder. This articles looks at some of the more common weapons from this time period.
Before gunpowder rendered them obsolete there were basically two different types of weapons that knights used: single-handed, and polearm (two-handed). Of the single-handed weapons the sword is of course the most popular and best known. And it was the beneficiary of technology improvements. Over the centuries they got longer, sharper, lighter, and stronger. They were central part of a knight’s armory and even as hand weapons became obsolete swords remained part of a knights arsenal as a symbol of power and chivalry. (Pictured: Medieval Broadsword with Black Sheath )
Medieval Flanged Mace
Another common one-handed weapon of knights was the mace, which was a short handled striking weapon with a ball on the far end. The ball often had spikes or flanges on it, which would penetrate a foes armor. The flail was another standard weapon and it was short handled with a length of chain then a ball or flail head. This ball on a chain, when swung could generate enormous force, and just as importantly, it could be used to swing up and over an enemy’s shield. The warhammer was another common weapon and it was a direct modification of the blacksmith’s hammer. It was a very common weapon particularly in the early centuries of medieval warfare and was very similar to today’s modern claw hammer having one end that was flat and used for striking, and the other end having a piercing beak that could penetrate armor. (Pictured: Medieval Flange Mace )
Polearms were long handled weapons that knights often used in combat -particularly when mounted on horses. They ranged in length from six feet to as much as twelve or sixteen feet. The basic advantage of a polearm was its reach from atop a horse. It could be used to attack an enemy before he could get close enough to use his own weapon. They came in many variations and the most common type of polearm is the lance, which is still used today in jousting competitions. The lance was also a capable, and feared, weapon used for breaking up the foot ranks of enemy formations. Other types of polearms were often variations of hand-held weapons mounted on the end of a long pole. And two good examples of this are the poleaxe and the halberd, which were forms of axes, often with a hammer, or axe blade along one side and a point at the very tip for penetrating armor. I have an article with lots of pictures describing all the various polearms of the medeival knight.
Some Other Weapons of the Medieval Knight
• Axe - This was an effective weapon in that it had a blade on one side and a hammer or pick on the other for a variety of striking options. It also often had a piercing point at the bottom of the handle for close in fighting. .
• Halberd - This was a polearm weapon that was often six feet long or more. It was an effective weapon in that it often had a slicing blade like an axe, a pointed end for stabbing and a hook for pulling at the opponent.
Knight with Sword While there were many weapons that knights used there also were a few weapons that they refused to use for various reasons. Knighthood came with a complete code of conduct and a rule of chivalry and these had an effect on the weapons they could use. The three most popular weapons that they didn’t use were the bow, the crossbow, and the dagger. The bow and crossbow were considered to be unknightly because you did not face your foe when fighting. And the dagger was considered to be a dishonorable weapon because it was used stealthily and hidden; although, the dagger did start to become a sometimes-used weapon toward the end of the middle ages but it predominantly for ceremonial purposes only. (Pictured: Medieval Knight in Suit of Chain and Plate Mail Armor Wielding a Sword - Hand Painted Full Color Statue - Very Detailed )
The use of weapons by knights over the course of the Middle Ages changed and evolved significantly based on many factors such as blacksmithing skills, engineering skills, improvements in armor, improvement in combat techniques, and even the code of chivalry. While many variations of weapons came and went there were only about a dozen trusted weapons that had proven their worth through centuries of use on the battlefield.
I have lots of interesting articles about knights, their weapons and their organizations right here: Articles about Knights
Custom Search
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From Wikipedia
The Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, also known as the Wilmington Massacre of 1898 or the Wilmington Race Riot of 1898, occurred in Wilmington, North Carolina on November 10, 1898 and following days; it is considered a turning point in North Carolina politics following Reconstruction.
The mob poses for pictures in front of the Wilmington Record, a black-owned newspaper, after destroying its printing press and setting fire to its building on the first day of the Insurrection, November 10, 1898.
Originally labeled a race riot, it is now termed a coup d’etat, as white Democratic insurrectionists overthrew the legitimately elected local government, the only such event in United States history.
In the Wilmington Insurrection, two days after the election of a white mayor and biracial city council, Democratic white supremacists illegally seized power from the elected government. More than 1500 white men participated in an attack on the black newspaper, burning down the building. They ran officials and community leaders out of the city, and killed many blacks in widespread attacks, but especially destroyed the Brooklyn neighborhood. They took photographs of each other during the events.
The Wilmington Light Infantry (WLI) and federal Naval Reserves, told to quell the riot, used rapid-fire weapons and killed several black men in the Brooklyn neighborhood. Both black and white residents later appealed for help after the riot to President William McKinley, who did not respond. More than 2,000 blacks left the city permanently, turning it from a black-majority to a white-majority city.
Whites also destroyed the Wilmington, North Carolina, courthouse, the center of the biracial town government they overthrew in this coup d’etat. November 12, 1898.
In the 1990s, a grassroots movement arose in the city to acknowledge and discuss the events more openly, and try to reconcile the different accounts of what happened, similar to efforts in Florida and Oklahoma to recognize the early 20th-century race riots of Rosewood and Tulsa, respectively. The city planned events around the insurrection’s centennial in 1998, and numerous residents took part in discussions and education events.
In 2000 the state legislature authorized a commission to produce a history of the events and to evaluate the economic impact and costs to black residents, with consideration of reparation for descendants of victims. Its report was completed in 2006.
Read more here.
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Gran Sabana in Venezuela
The emergence of the Gran Sabana
The Gran Sabana is one of the most spectacular (and therefore one of the most photographed) regions in Venezuela. The area is part of Bolivar state and it extends south to the border with Brazil. The Gran Sabana is known for its stunning geological formations, the tepuis or table top mountains. These unique and awe-inspiring mountains were formed millions of years before the Earth's land mass split into different continents. It is thought that the Gran Sabana tepuis were formed in what today is the African continent some 2,000 million years ago, and throughout the millenia they drifted west as the South American continent separated from Africa. Part of the Gran Sabana was declared a protected national park in 1962.
The weather in the Gran Sabana
Frequent rainfall is one of the main characteristics of the weather in the Gran Sabana. In fact, the rainy season in this area is one of the longest in the country, extending over a period of 10 months every year. The southern areas of the Sabana tend to be drier, especially between January and March, which are the driest months. Despite the frequent rains, average temperatures in the Gran Sabana are quite pleasant, typically hovering around 22°C during the day and dropping to 15°C at night. The hottest months are March and April.
Nature and animals in the Gran Sabana
The unusual landscapes, fauna, and flora of the Gran Sabana are the main reason why visitors choose to travel to this area. Despite being a savannah, there are several distinct ecosystems in this region, including wetlands, gallery forests, and tropical forests. Natural scientists and geologists consider the tepui summits as separate ecosystems, as the isolation and old age of the land in this part of the Gran Sabana have created a micro-climate where endemic plants and animal species thrive. The area is criss crossed by several rivers, and waterfalls are plentiful. In terms of vegetation, the Gran Sabana is home to many species of flowers, shrubs, and trees. Some of the trees in the southern area of this region can reach heights of up to 131 feet. Wildlife is also abundant in the Gran Sabana, which is the natural habitat of cougars, giant anteaters, river otters, jaguars, toucans, harpy eagles, howler monkeys, capybaras, and bush dogs.
Habitants of the Gran Sabana
To this day, the Gran Sabana's remoteness and isolation keeps the area sparsely populated. There are only a few villages here (like Canaima, Santa Elena, and Kavanayen), which function as gateways to the national park. For the most part, the Gran Sabana is inhabited by the Pemon, an indigenous group that remained unknown to the Western world until the 18th century. The Pemon live in small communities of up to 70 individuals, and make a living through agriculture, tourism, and the trade of jewellery, handicrafts, and food staples with other native indigenous communities in the Amazon.
Interesting places for tourists
The small settlement at Canaima is one of the most visited places in the Gran Sabana, as it gives access to the spectacular Canaima National Park, where the Angel Falls are located. The trip to Canaima is only possible by plane, and during the journey visitors can admire the immensity of this territory and its key landmarks, such as the tepuis or the confluence of the Orinoco and Caroni rivers. The town of Santa Elena, located near the border with Brazil, is a popular starting point for visitors interested in doing treks around Roraima, where Venezuela's highest table top mountain is located. Nearby is Kavanayen, a small Pemon village which is known for its well-preserved churches and Capuchin missions. San Francisco Yuruani is another Pemon village where visitors often stop to browse through the handcrafted jewellery made by local artisans. Some parts of the Gran Sabana were exploited by mining companies during the early 20th century, and some remains of the mining industry can still be visited at towns like El Dorado. Canoeing and 4x4 trips are other popular activities in the Gran Sabana. These can be arranged in Pemon villages and have the advantage of offering support to local eco-tourism initiatives. Tours to the Roraima here
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by Cyber Cat
3.7 .. 32 reviews
The Beautiful Concept of Recursion
Chapter 1 of 7
Recursion is a very interesting concept from the field of computer science. While the definition of the concept is quite simple, its applications have kept most of the computer science community who are new to it, confused and frustrated. For this reason it has also become the subject of many witty jokes over time.
In this guide we'll try to understand 'Recursion' as simply as possible (at least so that we can make sense of some of the witty jokes). Even if you're not from the field of computer science or an academic, it might be a fun ride knowing about the idea of 'Recursion'.
Chapter 2 of 7
The Journey
Let's begin with a simple situation. We are on a bicycle and want to journey from point A to point B, 10 miles away. There are two ways we can think of achieving this.
The Iterative Way
Our first plan is to cover the distance 1 mile at a time. So we break our journey into small steps of 1 mile each. Each step begins and ends completely before the next step begins.
What do we do at each step?
As per plan each step will include two actions.
Action-1 will be cycling for 1 mile.
Action-2 will be reducing the count of remaining miles by 1. Counting the remaining miles tells us if we need to perform one more step.
This way we complete Step1. At the end of Step1 our count tells us that we need to do another step. So then we do Step2 and so on until we reach Step 10. At Step 10 our count becomes zero and we stop. Each step is independent from the other steps and complete on its own.
The Recursive Way
Let's call our journey of 10 miles (from A to B) as JOURNEY(10)
So what actions do we perform to complete JOURNEY(10)?
Action-1 will be cycling for 1 mile.
Action-2 will be going on a journey of remaining 9 miles
So basically, going on a JOURNEY(d miles) means cycling for 1 mile and then going on a JOURNEY(d-1 miles). This implies that this step of going on a JOURNEY(d) will not be complete until you finish the step JOURNEY(d-1)
Each step is made up of a smaller step of the same type. The completion of each parent step relies on the completion of the child step. At one point you will arrive at a child step that has a simple result and doesn't require any further child steps.
So to complete JOURNEY (10), you need to complete JOURNEY(9), for which you need to complete JOURNEY(8) and so on, until you are required to complete JOURNEY(0). And you know that JOURNEY(0) doesn't require you to do anything as you have reached your destination. So you stop there.
This completes JOURNEY(0), which in turn completes JOURNEY (1), and now going upwards . . . which in turn completes JOURNEY(9), which completes JOURNEY(10). Check out the picture below, it might help you grasp this better.
Chapter 3 of 7
Recursion - A Formal Look
We just saw how recursion works through an example. So now let us take a more formal look at the concept.
A function whose definition includes making a call to itself, is called a recursive function.
As you can see, the definition of a function named 'Calculate' is given above. The definition includes a set of commands that must be executed when the function is called. What you can also see is that one of those commands is the function itself. Thus Calculate will be called a recursive function and the process of executing it would be called recursion.
Chapter 4 of 7
But Won't It Go On Forever?
Well on the first look it seems that a recursive function would keep on executing forever, because each function call begins another function call inside it thus creating a never-ending chain.
That's correct, a recursive function would keep on executing forever, if we don't attempt to stop the chain. To stop the recursion chain, we specify a 'Base Case'.
Going back to our JOURNEY example, let us consider that our journey of 'd miles' is represented by a function JOURNEY(d). Remember, how we started with the case where d=10 miles. The distance d kept reducing with every new recursive call of the JOURNEY function finally arriving at a case where d=0
It was quite evident that we did not require calling the JOURNEY function again to find the answer to JOURNEY(0).
JOURNEY(0) was simply 0. This case of d=0 was simple and evident enough with a known answer, that we could just stop the recursion chain there. This was the base case for the JOURNEY function.
Thus a Base Case is a case in the execution of a recursive function, where the answer of the function call does not require any more recursive calls, but instead the answer is already known or very simple to calculate.
Specifying The Base Case Is A Must
To protect the recursive function from executing infinitely, we must specify the base case that will stop the recursion. There may be more than one base cases.
The base case is written inside the definition of the function, specifying clearly that when the base case is reached a known answer should be returned & the recursive function call (which is also a part of the definition) should be bypassed.
When defining the function in code format, an 'if-statement' is usually used to decide whether the base case has been reached in the recursion chain.
Chapter 5 of 7
The Jokes :D
Remember about 'Recursion' being the subject of some witty jokes. The most popular one is given below.
And here's another one.
Hope you were able to understand the recursiveness of the situations and got a good chuckle out of it.
Chapter 6 of 7
How Can Recursion Be Helpful?
The biggest advantage that recursion brings with it, is that recursive functions make lengthy iterative programs small and succinct. Iterative programs that would otherwise take lengthy complicated loops and flows, may sometimes be expressed much easily using recursive functions.
And that's the whole point.
When given a problem to solve, can we find a recursive approach to solve the problem because it would be simpler to code.
That is, can we represent the problem as a recursive function which involves a smaller version of the same problem.
For example - Find The Factorial of A Number
For those who might not be familiar with the term, 'factorial' of a natural number 'n' is the multiplication of all natural numbers starting from 1 up to that number n.
factorial( n ) = 1 * 2 * 3 * 4 * 5 . . . * n
Iterative Approach:
If we were using our normal iterative approach to calculate the factorial of any number, we would write it like below.
Recursive Approach:
If we look closely, its easy to see that factorial of a number n is just n multiplied to the factorial of the number 1 less than n.
factorial(5) = 1 * 2 * 3 * 4 * 5
factorial(4) = 1 * 2 * 3 * 4
factorial(5) = factorial(4) * 5 or 5 * factorial(4)
Thus, factorial(n) = n * factorial(n-1)
We have just reduced our factorial problem into a smaller version of the same problem. We can then write it as a recursive function in code (javascript here) as given below.
Chapter 7 of 7
The End
This was a basic introduction to the concept of recursion. It is a powerful approach to solving algorithmic problems in computer science, and also quite elegant (in the sense that simpler code is more beautiful).
While finding how to convert a problem into a smaller version of the same problem is the biggest challenge, other issues like limitations in computer memory only add to it.
If you really enjoyed reading this guidebook share it with other friends who could be interested in it too and also leave a rating as a feedback.
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The Dangers You May Encounter
Animals to Say Away From
Big image
Common Animals to Stay Away From
Animals as not as threatening to the survivor as the rest of the environment. Common sense tells the survivor to avoid encounters with lions, bears, and other large or dangerous animals. You should also avoid large grazing animals with horns, hooves, and great weight. Your actions may prevent unexpected meetings. Do not attract large predators by leaving food lying around your camp. Carefully survey the scene before entering water or forests. Smaller animals actually present more of a threat to the survivor than large animals. To compensate for their size, nature has given many small animals weapons such as fangs and stingers to defend themselves. Do not let curiosity and carelessness kill or injure you.
Insects and Arachnids
You recognize and identify insect, except centipedes and millipedes, by their six legs while arachnids have eight. All these smaller creatures become pests when they bite, sting, or irritate you. Although their venom can be quite painful, bee, wasp, or hornet stings rarely kill a survivor unless he is allergic to that particular toxin. Even the most dangerous spiders rarely kill, and the effects of tick-borne diseases are very slow-acting. However, in all cases, avoidance is the best defense. In environments known to have spiders and scorpions, check your footgear and clothing every morning. Also check your shelter for any of them. Use precaution when turning over rocks and logs.
Saltwater Dangers
These are several fish that you should not handle, touch, or contact. There are others that you should not handle. Sharks are the most feared animal in the sea, and usually, a shark attack cannot be avoided. Rabbitfish occur mainly on coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans. They have very sharp, possibly venomous spines in their fins. Tang average 20 to 25 centimeters in length and often are beautifully colored. Another problem, besides sea animal attacks, are the worries of what fish are poisonous or not. Many fish living in reefs near shore, or in lagoons or estuaries, are poisonous to eat, though some are only seasonally dangerous. The most poisonous types appear to have parrotlike beaks and hard shell-like skins with spines and often can inflate their bodies like balloons. However, at certain times of the year, indigenous popuilations consider the puffer a delicacy.
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Thursday, 21 February 2013
All Hawk-Eye systems are based on the principles of triangulation using the visual images and timing data provided by a number of high-speed video cameras located at different locations and angles around the area of play. For tennis there are ten cameras. The system rapidly processes the video feeds by a high-speed camera and ball tracker.
A data store contains a predefined model of the playing area and includes data on the rules of the game. In each frame sent from each camera, the system identifies the group of pixels which corresponds to the image of the ball. It then calculates for each frame the 3D position of the ball by comparing its position on at least two of the physically separate cameras at the same instant in time.
A succession of frames builds up a record of the path along which the ball has traveled. It also "predicts" the future flight path of the ball and where it will interact with any of the playing area features already programmed into the database. The system can also interpret these interactions to decide infringements of the rules of the game. The system generates a graphic image of the ball path and playing area, which means that information can be provided to judges, television viewers or coaching staff in near real time.
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No, thanks
Get the LOCAL Perspective!
Things to Do
NOLA’s Got That Je Ne Sais Quoi: European Architecture
New Orleans has roots as a French city, but Spanish influences are present within the architecture and cultural activities.
Wrought-iron balconies reflect Spanish building codes. (Photo: Paul Broussard)
Everyone thinks of New Orleans as a “French” city. Yes, La Nouvelle Orleans was founded by the LeMoyne Brothers, Jean-Baptiste and Pierre. Yes, a Frenchman, Adrien de Pauger, laid out the design for the original city, what we now know as the French Quarter. Yes, the French controlled the city, and the Louisiana Territory, for the first sixty or so years of its existence. And yes, we celebrate Bastille Day with gusto.
But there is so much more to the story of New Orleans than just its French influence. Locals know and appreciate those other influences, and we love to share them with our visitors. So, how did America’s “French” city become so eclectic?
French Beginnings
French map of New Orleans, 1728.
French explorers, and later, trappers and merchants, came down the Mississippi River, staking their claims on the river’s delta. As Jean-Baptiste LeMoyne, better known by his title, Sieur d’Bienville, developed and fortified his king’s city, New Orleans’ influence in the region grew. That attracted trade from other colonies in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. The English, Spanish, and Portuguese came to New Orleans in increasing numbers, bringing their traditions with them. The French were on their way to being a major player in the New World.
Architectural drawing of the second Ursuline Convent in New Orleans, 1745.
Unfortunately for France, the wars that plagued Europe in the 18th Century spilled over into North America. They were forced to give up Louisiana to Spain, ostensibly to compensate the Spanish for losing Florida to the British. This move, known as the Treaty of Fontainebleau, kept the British from acquiring the massive Louisiana Territory.
The Spanish Arrive
The immediate effect of the end of the Seven Years’ War was the arrival of a Spanish governor and civil servants in 1766. While there was some resistance to the Spanish initially, trade and commerce were the driving forces in New Orleans at the time, so things kept rolling on. In fact, because there were more Spanish colonies near New Orleans than any other nationality, trade grew at an even faster rate.
The French colonists adjusted to the introduction of Spanish bureaucrats into their business dealings; after all, one bureaucrat is as good (or bad) as another to merchants. Those bureaucrats required citizens to follow Spanish Colonial laws and regulations. This was easy in the business world, but in terms of housing and construction, a large portion of the city’s structures were French-built and did not meet the requirements of the Spanish. For example, the Old Ursuline Convent, on the corner of Rue Chartres and Rue Ursulines, was always in various stages of decay, because of its wood frame.
Two Fires Yield a New Style of Architecture
French Church of St. Louis, constructed in 1724, destroyed in the Great Fire of 1788.
Then came Good Friday, 1788. A fire started in the home of Don Vincente Jose Nuñez, who was Treasurer of the army detachment in the city. Wind gusts from the southeast fanned the flames north. The wooden structures built by the French were quickly engulfed, as the fire spread from the Nuñez home on Rue Toulouse and Rue Chartres, up to the government buildings and the church of St. Louis (which was not yet a cathedral), next to the Place d’Armes. The fire continued to spread and burn, eventually consuming 856 out of approximately 1,100 buildings. Because it spread north from Rue Chartres, the buildings and wharves along the riverfront were spared. This included the largest structure, the convent.
Since Good Friday, which marks the day Christ was crucified, is a solemn day of fasting and quiet reflection, the priests of St. Louis parish refused to allow the church bells to be run to alert the city. The fire raged for over five hours. When the flames finally died, the city was in ruins.
The Spanish didn’t waste any time. They immediately began to rebuild New Orleans, this time, in the Spanish style, following their building codes.
Detroit Publishing photo of a Spanish-style Creole Courtyard, from the early 1900s (public domain photograph)
New Orleans’ reconstruction received a major setback on December 8, 1794, when a second fire struck. This fire spread across the waterfront, engulfing many of the remaining French-built wooden structures. The Old Ursuline Convent suffered some damage, but the newly-rebuilt St. Louis church, survived. The church was dedicated earlier in 1794, and designated a cathedral, upon the arrival of the first Bishop of Louisiana from Havana. One of the Spanish bureaucrats, the city’s notary, Don Andres Almonaster y Rojas, donated a large sum to underwrite the church’s reconstruction.
Interior courtyard of the Cabildo, constructed in the late 1790s. (1963 photo courtesy National Park Service)
New Orleans dusted the ashes of fire off again, and continued the rebuilding. By the late 1790s, Nueva Orleans looked like many of the other Spanish Colonial cities in the Caribbean region. Don Andres donated more of his personal fortune to rebuild the main government buildings, most notably the building where the Cabildo, the city council met, which was on the upriver side of the cathedral. He also funded the construction of a rectory and office building on the other side of the church, which became known as the Presbytere.
Historic sketch of a Spanish-style courtyard, late 1800s. (Public domain image
Cultural Gumbo
One of the interesting ironies of the re-development of New Orleans as a Spanish city is that the 1790s was a period of heavy French immigration. The combination of revolutions in France itself, and the island colony of San Domingue (present-day Haiti) generated a large influx of French folks into the city. Those refugees from the islands and Europe may have been French, but they arrived in a Spanish city. That mixture of cultures is the base – the roux – of the gumbo that is modern New Orleans. In another twenty years, the French and Spanish citizens of New Orleans were joined by Americans, as the city became American territory in 1803.
Running of the Bulls
In July, the city honors its Spanish roots with San Fermin in Nueva Orleans, a race in the style of the “running of the bulls” in Pamplona, Spain. The run doesn’t use real bulls, of course, relying instead on the skills of the New Orleans Rollergirls, with their pointy hats and inflatable bats to keep the white-and-red dressed runners moving. Of course, a lot of sangria, beer, and wine is consumed, and there’s a big Spanish-style fiesta after the formal “run.”
The run-fun continues into August, with another event taking over in downtown and the French Quarter. The Red Dress Run, sponsored by the New Orleans Hash House Harriers (NOH3), is a fundraiser for a number of charities. After the public excitement of both of these events winds down, locals and visitors alike make their way back into the Vieux Carre’, the Old Square, to seek refuge from the heat in those relaxing courtyards built by the Spanish all those years ago.
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Emperor penguins stay in large huddles to stay warm in frigid Antarctica; new observations found the animals' movement is similar to a rush hour traffic jam.
A research team used a mathematical model to map out how the penguins interacted with each other, an Institute of Physics news release reported.
The researchers found individual penguins needed to move less than an inch (two centimeters) in order for their neighbor to react and step closer to maintain the protective huddle.
The movements "flow through the entire huddle like a travelling wave and play a vital role in keeping the huddle as dense as possible," the news release reported. The system can also help multiple smaller groups meld together into one.
The team determined in a past study that the movement is not constant, but takes place every 30 to 60 seconds.
"Our previous study showed how penguins use travelling waves to allow movement in a densely packed huddle, but we had no explanation as to how these waves propagate and how they are triggered," Co-author of the study Daniel Zitterbart, from the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), said.
In order to confirm their findings the team compared a mathematical model (that had previously been used to study traffic jams) with video of a real penguin huddle.
The researchers found the difference between a penguin huddle traffic jam was that the movement of the penguin group usually came from an individual that created a gap that needed to be filled in, called a "threshold distance."
The estimated threshold distance (two centimeters) is about "twice the thickness of a penguin's compressive feather layer," which suggests the penguins strive to touch feathers without putting too much pressure on each other.
Male emperor penguins are responsible for incubating their eggs in the negative 58 degrees Fahrenheit (negative 50 degrees Celsius) temperatures during breeding season.
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See more Human voice articles on AOD.
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The "spectrogram of the human voice reveals its rich "harmonic content.
The human voice consists of "sound "made by a "human being using the "vocal folds for "talking, "singing, "laughing, "crying, "screaming, etc. The human voice frequency is specifically a part of human sound production in which the vocal folds (vocal cords) are the primary sound source. (Other sound production mechanisms produced from the same general area of the body involve the production of "unvoiced consonants, "clicks, "whistling and "whispering.) Generally speaking, the mechanism for generating the human voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds within the "larynx, and the articulators. The "lung (the pump) must produce adequate airflow and air pressure to vibrate vocal folds (this air pressure is the fuel of the voice). The vocal folds (vocal cords) are a vibrating valve that chops up the airflow from the lungs into audible pulses that form the laryngeal sound source. The muscles of the larynx adjust the length and tension of the vocal folds to ‘fine-tune’ "pitch and "tone. The articulators (the parts of the "vocal tract above the larynx consisting of "tongue, "palate, "cheek, "lips, etc.) "articulate and "filter the sound emanating from the larynx and to some degree can interact with the laryngeal airflow to strengthen it or weaken it as a sound source.
The vocal folds, in combination with the articulators, are capable of producing highly intricate arrays of sound.[1][2][3] The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest "emotions such as "anger, "surprise, or "happiness.[4][5] "Singers use the "human voice as an instrument for creating "music.[6]
Voice types and the folds (cords) themselves[edit]
A labeled anatomical diagram of the "vocal folds or cords.
The folds are within the "larynx. They are attached at the back (side nearest the spinal cord) to the arytenoids cartilages, and at the front (side under the chin) to the "thyroid cartilage. They have no outer edge as they blend into the side of the "breathing tube (the illustration is out of date and does not show this well) while their inner edges or "margins" are free to vibrate (the hole). They have a three layer construction of an "epithelium, vocal ligament, then muscle ("vocalis muscle), which can shorten and bulge the folds. They are flat triangular bands and are pearly white in color. Above both sides of the vocal cord is the "vestibular fold or false vocal cord, which has a small sac between its two folds.
The difference in vocal folds size between men and women means that they have differently pitched voices. Additionally, "genetics also causes variances amongst the same sex, with men's and women's "singing voices being categorized into types. For example, among men, there are "bass, "baritone, "tenor and "countertenor (ranging from "E2 to even F6), and among women, "contralto, "mezzo-soprano and "soprano (ranging from F3 to C6 and higher). There are additional categories for "operatic voices, see "voice type. This is not the only source of difference between male and female voice. Men, generally speaking, have a larger "vocal tract, which essentially gives the resultant voice a lower-sounding "timbre. This is mostly independent of the vocal folds themselves.
Voice modulation in spoken language[edit]
Physiology and vocal timbre[edit]
Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as "vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx, which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of "vocal registers.[10] The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the "Singer's Formant, which has been shown to be a resonance added to the normal resonances of the vocal tract above the frequency range of most instruments and so enables the singer's voice to carry better over musical accompaniment.[11][12]
Vocal registration[edit]
Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the "vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in "laryngeal functioning. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns.[13] Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular Vocal range of "pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.[14] The occurrence of registers has also been attributed to effects of the acoustic interaction between the vocal fold oscillation and the vocal tract.[15] The term register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:[16]
In "linguistics, a register language is a language that combines "tone and vowel "phonation into a single "phonological system.
Within "speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the "vocal fry register, the "modal register, and the "falsetto register, and the "whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.[16]
Vocal resonation[edit]
Influences of the human voice[edit]
The "twelve-tone musical scale, upon which a large portion of all music (western popular music in particular) is based, may have its roots in the sound of the human voice during the course of "evolution, according to a study "published by the "New Scientist. Analysis of recorded speech samples found peaks in acoustic energy that mirrored the distances between notes in the twelve-tone scale.[18]
Voice disorders[edit]
There are many "disorders that affect the human voice; these include "speech impediments, and growths and "lesions on the "vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes "vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the "speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an "ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production.[19] Voice therapy is generally delivered by a "speech-language pathologist.
Vocal Cord Nodules and Polyps[edit]
See also[edit]
1. ^ Stevens, K.N.(2000), Acoustic Phonetics, MIT Press, "ISBN "0-262-69250-3, 978-0-262-69250-2
2. ^ Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall (currently published by, "ISBN "978-0-13-717893-3.
4. ^ Smith, BL; Brown, BL; Strong, WJ; Rencher, AC (1975). "Effects of speech rate on personality perception.". Language and speech. 18 (2): 145–52. "PMID 1195957.
5. ^ Williams, CE; Stevens, KN (1972). "Emotions and speech: some acoustical correlates.". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 52 (4): 1238–50. "PMID 4638039. "doi:10.1121/1.1913238.
6. ^ Titze, IR; Mapes, S; Story, B (1994). "Acoustics of the tenor high voice.". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 95 (2): 1133–42. "PMID 8132903. "doi:10.1121/1.408461.
7. ^ Thurman, Leon & Welch, ed., Graham (2000), Body mind & voice: Foundations of voice education (revised ed.), Collegeville, Minnesota: The Voice Care Network et al., "ISBN "0-87414-123-0
8. ^ a b c Rothenberg, M. The Breath-Stream Dynamics of Simple-Released Plosive Production, Vol. 6, Bibliotheca Phonetica, Karger, Basel, 1968.
9. ^ a b Rothenberg, M. The glottal volume velocity waveform during loose and tight voiced glottal adjustments, Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 22-28 August 1971 ed. by A. Rigault and R. Charbonneau, published in 1972 by Mouton, The Hague – Paris.
10. ^ Vennard, William (1967). singing: The Mechanism and the Technic. Carl Fischer. "ISBN "978-0-8258-0055-9.
13. ^ Lucero, Jorge C. (1996). "Chest‐ and falsetto‐like oscillations in a two‐mass model of the vocal folds". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 100 (5): 3355–3359. "ISSN 0001-4966. "doi:10.1121/1.416976.
15. ^ Lucero, Jorge C.; Lourenço, Kélem G.; Hermant, Nicolas; Hirtum, Annemie Van; Pelorson, Xavier (2012). "Effect of source–tract acoustical coupling on the oscillation onset of the vocal folds". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 132 (1): 403–411. "ISSN 0001-4966. "doi:10.1121/1.4728170.
16. ^ a b c McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. "ISBN "978-1-56593-940-0.
17. ^ Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The Voice and its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition. "ISBN "978-1-86156-196-1.
18. ^ Musical roots may lie in human voice – 6 August 2003 – New Scientist
19. ^ "Fine Tuning Your Voice".
20. ^ Clark A. Rosen-Deborah Anderson-Thomas Murry. "Evaluating Hoarseness: Keeping Your Patient's Voice Healthy".
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
) )
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The Spanish Tragedy Test | Mid-Book Test - Medium
Buy The Spanish Tragedy Lesson Plans
Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________
Multiple Choice Questions
1. At the end of Act 3, Scene 1, what are the fates of Villuppo and Alexandro?
(a) Alexandro is to be executed and Villuppo imprisoned.
(b) They are both to be executed.
(c) Villuppo is to be executed and Alexandro publicly exonerated.
(d) Villuppo is to be executed and Alexandro remain in prison.
2. When the procession in Act 1, Scene 2 passes by the king, to whom does the king demand a reward be given?
(a) Horatio and Balthazar.
(b) Andrea and Lorenzo.
(c) Lorenzo and Balthazar.
(d) All the soldiers.
3. Which of the following characters is not present when a general reports to progress of Spain's war with Portugal in Act 1, Scene 2?
(a) The Spanish king.
(b) Hieronimo.
(c) Don Pedro.
(d) The Duke of Castile.
4. How does the ambassador prove to the viceroy that Balthazar is alive?
(a) He tells him that his servant says Balthazar is alive.
(b) He gives the viceroy letters from Balthazar.
(c) He brings a photo of Balthazar.
(d) He vouches for Alexandro's innocence.
5. Who challenged Don Pedro during the battle between Portugal and Spain?
(a) Andrea.
(b) Hieronimo.
(c) Lorenzo.
(d) Balthazar.
Short Answer Questions
1. Why is Hieronimo expected at the king's banquet in Act 1, Scene 4?
3. Who accompanies the Ghost who appears in Act 1, Scene 1?
4. Why does Horatio hesitate to tell the story of Andrea's death in the Spanish court?
Short Essay Questions
1. How is Balthazar greeted as a prisoner by the king and how does Balthazar respond?
3. Describe Hieronimo's play, including whom he plans to include on stage.
4. Why does Hieronimo invite the third citizen to his house and what happens at the house?
5. How is Alexandro going to be executed and how does he escape this fate?
6. What excuse does Lorenzo give Bel-Imperia for imprisoning her?
9. At the beginning of Act 1, Scene 3, who are the courtiers that report to the viceroy and what do they reveal?
10. To whom does Bel-Imperia find herself attracted after Andrea's death and why does she resolve to love him?
(see the answer keys)
This section contains 851 words
(approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page)
Buy The Spanish Tragedy Lesson Plans
The Spanish Tragedy from BookRags. (c)2017 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved.
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What’s up with Google’s logo here?
What is a Boolean, you ask? Here’s a ‘byte sized’ answer!
In programming, we can distinguish several different data types. One of them is the Boolean. Boolean variables can be one of two values, such as ‘true’ or ‘false’, ‘on’ or ‘off’, and ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
There are also several data types that are not Booleans. An example of a data type that is not given in a Boolean value is age, as it is given in a range of numbers, going from 0 to 122 (so far).
In programming, a Boolean is a data type that has but two options
‘True’ and ‘false’ are examples of Booleans that are used in every day machines. Think of street lamps at night. The operating system of the street lamps is constantly checking two things: the darkness, and whether the street lamps are on. The darkness is not given in a Boolean value, as it gets darker slowly, moving past many shades of grey whilst. But whether the street lamp is already on or not is determined by a Boolean. If it is dark enough and the light is on (’true’), nothing should happen. If it is dark enough and the light is off (’false’), the operating system has to respond by turning on the light.
In this way, we can program our computers to respond differently based on Boolean values.
Would you like your children to learn what Booleans are as well? We’ve already developed a lesson plan for children to learn about programming in an easy way. This ‘byte sized’ Boolean lesson is a sneak peek at what the future holds – we’re currently expanding our curriculum and the first lesson of the new curriculum (Lesson 17) will be on Booleans! Students will use their understanding of data types (including Booleans) to create new Bomberbot game levels in the level creator.
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Aeneid and Hector
* Outline * I. Aeneas and Hector show leadership through faithfulness and respect to the gods and goddesses. Faithfulness to the gods. Hector prays to the gods before fighting. Aeneas obeys the god, Apollo, in leaving Dido. Respect for the gods. Hector makes an offering to Dione’s daughter, his mother, and other gods for protection. Aeneas discharges ritual vows to the gods after the fighting. Aeneas and Hector act out of unselfishness. Aeneas acts out of unselfishness by turning away from his emotions. Aeneas leaves Dido for his people and the new Troy.
Aeneas helps his people and encourages them in the burial rites for Misenus. Hector acts out of unselfishness by serving the gods and continuing on his fate. Hector dies because that is the will of the gods. Hector loves his family but continues his fate to bring glory to Troy and his family. Aeneas and Hector do not back down from any situation. Aeneas cries a lot throughout the epic. This shows his human qualities. When Palinurus dies, he takes control of the ship. He leaves Dido in search of his new homeland. Hector fights with heart. Andromache begs Hector not to leave.
He has the strength to let go of his family. Hector, from the Iliad, and Aeneas, from the Aeneid, stand out as great warriors that show many traits of an epic hero. They obey the gods. They put others before themselves. Their motivation is their country and family, rather than personal glory. Hector and Aeneas remain faithful to the gods, acts out of unselfishness, and are strong in tough situations. In most epic poems, the gods and goddesses play important roles. In order for the gods to be on one’s side, one must obey them, pray to them, and offer gifts to them.
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Mezentius does not aim well because he does not pray to the gods. Aeneas is a good leader because “[…] for burial of the dead, he first in early light discharged his ritual vows as victor to the gods” (Virgil’s Aeneid 331). A good leader takes care of his fellow comrades. Throughout the Aeneid, Aeneas performs the proper funeral rites for his father and for his fellow comrades. He is a courageous warrior filled with compassion. In Book XI, Aeneas prepares funeral rites for the ones who die in battle and send his promises to the gods.
Turnus contrasts with Aeneas as a bad leader because he does not show respect for his comrades. Turnus does not make any offerings. Aeneas proves he is a good leader by caring about his people who have died. He cares about their underworld lives. Aeneas starts the Aeneid with gifts and prayers, and he ends the Aeneid with gifts and prayers. He is constantly praying to the gods for strength; he never disobeys them. Aeneas is a good leader because he puts his faith in the gods in everything he does. Homer shows the difference between Hector’s and Achilles’ obedience to the gods in the Iliad.
Hector wants to please the gods in everything he does. When he is at his moment of death he says, “[…] must long since have been pleasing to Zeus” (Homer’s Iliad 443). Hector says these words before Achilles kill him. He is willing to die to fulfill his purpose. The gods wish that Hector would die. Hector is committed to the gods and his men. Achilles words are different: “Die: and I will take my own death at whatever time Zeus and other immortals choose to accomplish it” (Homer’s Iliad 445). On the contrary, Achilles’ personal needs and concerns come before the commitment to the gods.
Achilles drops out of the war when Agamemnon hurts his feelings. He is not fulfilling the gods’ purpose to stay in the war. Hektor’s fate is to die. He dies fighting and obeying the gods. Throughout the Aeneid, Virgil shows that Aeneas struggles and cries over certain situations. He is an unselfish leader filled with a compassionate heart: “Weeping, I drew away from our old country […]” (Virgil’s Aeneid 65). Virgil uses these moments to point out his human characteristics. Leaders and heroes are sometimes mistaken for superheroes that are exempt from tragic situations.
Aeneas is a great leader not because he is put in difficult situations; Aeneas is a great leader because he leads and does not let his emotions show through those difficult situations. Virgil shows Aeneas’ human qualities by giving him someone to love and then that person being taken away from him in a blink of an eye. For example, Aeneas has a hard time choosing to stay with Dido or to continue on his mission. Dido worries about herself: “Dido’s struggle is between her sense of duty and the divinely inspired love, Aeneas’s between his human love and his divinely appointed duty” (Daniels 172).
Aeneas shuts off his feelings for Dido, like a light switch. He is not selfish with his feelings. Aeneas knows what choice he will make: “Apollo tells me I must make for: Italy; named by his oracles. There is my love; there is my country” (Virgil’s Aeneid 108). Aeneas’ love is his new homeland, not Dido. He listens to Apollo instead of Dido. Aeneas has human emotion piety, which is duty towards family, country, and gods. Aeneas always fulfills his duty to his family, his fated city, and his gods. Leaders have the ability to focus on what is important and staying on track with their goal.
Aeneas realizes his future homeland is more important than his relationship with Dido. If Aeneas were selfish, he would have stayed with her. But instead, he thinks of his people and his fate of the gods. When Aeneas carries Pallas’s body, he is filled with tears. The good leader that he is, Aeneas does not mourn over it long. In the Aeneid, Virgil shows that nothing blinds his sense of duty. Aeneas is a dutiful servant. He is a strong, unselfish leader because he has the strength to place his people;s emotions above his to meet their needs.
Aeneas has to leave his men to cry over the loss of eager Orantes and Amycus. He shows great devotion to his men. Aeneas mourns over Palinurus’ death: “So grieving, and in tears, he gave the ship her head before the wind, drawing toward land at the Euboian settlement of Cumae” (Virgil’s Aeneid 159). Being a leader does not mean one is strong all the time and does not cry. Being a leader means one still leads even when he wants to break down and give up. He takes control of the ship immediately after his friend dies. Even through the tough times, Aeneas puts on a strong face for his people.
Aeneas is a good leader because he is not selfish with his own desires, but instead cares for the desires of his people for the new homeland. Achilles starts the epic with anger: “Sing, Goddess, Achilles rage […]” (Homer’s Iliad 1). He acts out of anger throughout the entire poem. Achilles relates to a small child: when he does not get his way, he throws a temper tantrum. Achilles has one family member: his mother, Thetis. The only reason he goes to her is to cry when things get tough. Achilles recognizes it is not his fault for the war.
Therefore, he proceeds in a selfish act and withdraws himself which shows lack of leadership towards his men. He does not have any care for his warriors and their opinions. Achilles wants his troops to suffer from him not being there. He wants their hate to go towards Agamemnon. Achilles is thinking about himself and being selfish. A leader or a hero would never back down from his task. On the other hand, Hector continues to fight even though the war is not his fault. When the war is challenging, he does not go crying to his mother and does not come out of the war. Hektor is known as the family man.
He is fighting for his wife, Andromache, to free her life of slavery. Hector spends time with his wife and son and puts war to the side. He devotes his attention and love to his family while Achilles sits alone in his tent. When Andromache begs Hector not to return to war, he still continues to go and fight. Not staying with his family as he would like to shows an act of unselfishness. Achilles’ reason for fighting is personal glory and respect. Hector’s reason for fighting is for his family and Troy. Hector’s qualities and characteristics best represent those of an epic hero.
The best leaders are those that put others before themselves. Many rulers relax and take a break from all the stress while controlling their people about everything that needs to be done. A good ruler helps his people instead of sending out orders. In Book IV of the Aeneid, Virgil shows Deiphobe informing Aeneas that Misenus needs a burial before Aeneas can enter the underworld. Many leaders act with selfishness towards their people, demanding them to do all the work that needs to be done. But, “Aeneas himself went first in labor, cheering his fellows on, with implements like theirs in hand” (Virgil’s Aeneid 166).
Instead of ordering his people on what needs to be done for the funeral rights, Aeneas performs the burial for his comrade’s death. Not only does he help, he encourages his people and has a good attitude. Aeneas shows great responsibility and unselfishness for taking charge. When the Trojans reach Latium, he continues to act as a good ruler by sending gifts to Latinus and making plans for a new orderly city. A good leader always has a plan. Virgil shows in the Aeneid that Aeneas’ absence in Book IX does not affect his role as a good leader. His spirit is still with his people.
Before Aeneas leaves to form allies, he instructs his people to pull back within their encampment when Turnus’s army attacks. “Aeneas, had instructed them; if any emergency arose, not to do battle, not to entrust their fortunes to the field, but safe behind their walls to hold their camp. Therefore, though shame and anger tempted them to a pitched battle, even so they barred their gates as he commanded, and compact in towers, armed, awaited their enemy. ” (Virgil’s Aeneid 260) Aeneas’ unselfishness leads to the people’s unselfishness.
Aeneas’ soldiers automatically have the desire to fight back, but they obey Aeneas. In most cases, people would act against their leader if he were not present. For example, if the teacher said not to talk while she left the room, some students would disobey. In this case, all the soldiers obey. If they acted out of selfishness, they would have fought back as they wished to have done. This is the most important scene to showing how great a leader Aeneas is because his people respect his orders without him being there to remind them.
It shows that Aeneas has the impact to influence his people: “Aeneas then is not at all a hero of the type of Achilles, and if we come to the Aeneid with preconceived opinions of what the hero of an epic should be, we run the risk of disappointment and also of losing Virgil’s interpretation of human life” (Glover 35). A person can become a good leader by observing a good leader: “It is quite in character for Andromache in Book 3 of the Aeneid and Iapyx in Book 12 to link Hector and Aeneas together as models of manly virtue for young Ascanius” (Spaeth 278).
Ascanius will become a good leader from watching his father’s leadership skills. While Aeneas is away is Book IV, Ascanius takes charge, taking the role of his father. He promises gifts to Nisus and Euryalus before they leave to go look for Aeneas. Ascanius promises this just as his father, Aeneas, promised gifts to the contestants at the athletic games. Ascanius is like his father because when he kills one enemy, he does not speak with pride over his victory. He does not act out of selfishness, in that he could have boasted over the death. He limits himself with a brief comment. “Only this. Ascanius called out. Ascanius will become a good leader because he takes after his father. In Book III of the Aeneid, Virgil shows Polydorus telling Aeneas that he and his people need to leave Thrace as quickly as possible. Aeneas is an unselfish leader in making his own decisions. Before making a decision, Aeneas talks to the other leaders to hear their opinions: “When faintness of dread left me, I brought before the leaders of the people, my fathers first, these portents of the gods and asked their judgment” (Virgil’s Aeneid 166). Good leaders listen to the opinions of others instead of quickly making a decision.
The fact that Aeneas has ultimate power does not mean he abuses it. In Book V of the Aeneid, the athletic games are being held. In the foot race, Nisus trips Salius so Euryalus will win. Many of the people balk at this scene because of the unfairness. However, Aeneas proclaims Euryalus the winner. Aeneas, being the good leader he is, gives a prize to Salius and Nisus. The most remarkable moment is when Aeneas pronounces Euryalus the winner because the crowd does not protest. The fact that his crowd remains quiet shows that his people trust him and obey his ruling.
A leader usually has people for him and against him. But a great leader has people for him no matter what the circumstances. Aeneas proves he is a great leader. Aeneas and Hektor are two great men that show characteristics of being a leader through their acts of faithfulness and respect to the gods, their unselfishness in their hearts, and leadership through tough situations. Aeneas has a leadership ability that enforces others to act as a leader. No one questions Aeneas in his decision making. His people are more important to him than himself. He is a dutiful servant to the gods by obeying them and serving them.
Hektor shows his leadership by fulfilling the fate of the gods. His fate is to die. Even though Andromache begs him to stay, he fights knowing his death is waiting for him. He does not fight for himself; he fights for his family and Troy. Aeneas and Hektor have the heart of leadership. Works Cited * Homer. The Iliad of Homer, translated by Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1951. Print. * Virgil and Robert Fitzgerald. The Aeneid translated by Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Random House, 1983. Print. * “Aeneas: Physical Characteristics” E. D. Daniels The Classical Weekly, Vol. 23, No. 22 (Apr. 4, 1930), pp. 172-173 Published by: Classical Association of the Atlantic States Article Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/4389465 * “Hector’s Successor in the Aeneid” John William Spaeth, Jr. The Classical Journal , Vol. 46, No. 6 (Mar. , 1951), pp. 277-280 Published by: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South Article Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/3292802 * “Virgil’s Aeneas” T. R. Glover The Classical Review, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Feb. , 1903), pp. 34-42 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association Article Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/696316
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zakynthos history
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Zakynthos history: Learn about the history of the famous island of Zakynthos Greece
The first presence of human life on the island of Zakynthos Greece dates back to the Neolithic Times.
The island was first mentioned in the Homeric plays, the Iliad and the Odyssey. According to Homer, the first inhabitants of the island were the son of the King Dardanos of Troy, Zakynthos, and his men, who came on the island around 1500-1600 B.C.
The years that followed, the Zakynthos history was marked with the conquest of the island by King Arkeisios of Kefalonia.
The island subsequently fell under the hands of the famous Ulysse from Ithaka. A treaty that gave to Zakynthos its independence was signed.
During the Peloponnesian War, Zakynthos was a part of the Athenian Alliance.
After the defeat of the Athenians in the expedition against Sicily, the Athenian Alliance was dissolved and Zakynthos fell under the reign of the Lacedaemonians.
The Lacedaemonians established an oligarchy and altered the democratic principles of the island. The inhabitants of Zakynthos revolted and restored their traditional democracy.
During the Macedonian Wars, Zakynthos did not hold a neutral stance and as a result, was subjugated by the Macedonians and later by the Romans.
Christianity spread on the island around 34 A.D. Constantine the Great created the Byzantine Empire and the new religion became dominant in the second half of the 3rd century A.D.
Zakynthos and the other Ionians islands got then captured successively by the Venetians, the Franks, the Kings of Naples and the Princes of Florence.
Then, democracy was established, the first in the Hellenic area. The democratic era on the island of Zakynthos lasted more than 650 years.
Due to the location and the fertility of the island, the inhabitants became quite wealthy and started establishing colonies in Crete, Paros (in the Cyclades), and even in Spain.
During the Persian Wars of the 5th century, Zakynthos maintained a neutral position up to the battle of Plataea, during which it chased the Persians to Asia along with the Lacedaemonians.
Zakynthos history was marked by the Roman Domination.
During the first years, Zakynthos was administrated by a proconsul according to the Roman law.
Later, the island acquired a degree of autonomy with the obligation to pay an annual tax to the Romans and to offer soldiers to their legions.
The island, then, had the possibility to establish its own laws. It had its own municipality, parliament, and even its own coins.
During the period of Roman occupation, the island developed both materially and culturally.
When in the 15th century, the rest of the Greek territory was dominated by the Turks, the Ionian islands remained under the rule of the Venetians. The Venetians established on the island their harsh aristocratic oligarchic political system.
Later around 1797, the French republicans arrived on the island but did not manage to solve the social and economic problems and the island fell again under the rule of Russians and Turks.
They were succeeded another time by the French and finally by the British for the period between 1814 and 1864. The British modernised the administration and the public works but during those years, Greece’s independence from the Turks created a strong nationalist feeling which leaded to the unification of the Ionians islands with the newly built Hellenic Republic, on 21 May 1864.
The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta-Caretta) is an endangered species and can only be found today in the Mediterranean... more
Zakynthos architecture adopted elements from the culture of Western Europe... more
All the majors festivals are related to religious ceremonies... more
There is a wealth of Zakynthos churches on the island. The most famous is the Church of Agios Dionyssios... more
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The ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ (Patagonian shingle formation) of eastern Patagonia: environmental conditions of gravel sedimentation
The gravel mantels known as ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ of Eastern Patagonia are one of the most distinctive features of the regional landscape. Their significant roundness, along with additional sedimentary and geomorphological evidence, indicates their origin is linked to fluvial action. Currently, no natural processes exist on Earth potentially generating equivalent deposits, either in Patagonia or elsewhere around the world. The hydrological conditions responsible for the gravel formation were thus likely very different from those currently prevailing in Argentine Patagonia, suggesting the gravel mantels formed during the Late Cenozoic, when surface drainage networks of relatively high energy existed in the region. Such high energy was induced by powerful flow rates and/or strong water gradients, attributable to tectonism, epirogenesis and/or lowering of sea level. Periods with water flow regimes significantly higher than at present characterized the full glacial phases lasting several thousands of years, corresponding to each of the many glaciations of the Pliocene and Pleistocene. The capacity for erosion and water transport would have been increased by the sea level drop characteristic of each full glacial phase. There were also much shorter periods, known as ‘terminations’, representing the abrupt ending of the main glacial events during which large amounts of water were released as a result of the intensive melting of the Cordilleran ice sheet. During interglacial periods, in the absence of large masses of ice in the mountains and with average temperatures similar to or higher than at present, layers of gravel were deposited as a result of tectonic or epirogenic movement or by reactivation of drainage networks produced by sea level lowering (glacio-eustatism). These endogenous landscape reactivations were also independent of and longer than the climatic fluctuations and therefore overlapped with both interglacial and glacial periods. Finally, some units of the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ may also have been deposited during major pluvial events, characterized by higher mean annual precipitation over sufficiently long periods. The current evidence suggests that, at various times since the Late Miocene, varied climatic conditions have allowed the production and accumulation of large gravel beds covering much of extra-Andean Patagonia. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 103, 336–345.
Los mantos de gravas de Patagonia oriental, conocidos como ‘Rodados Patagónicos’, constituyen por su extensión y homogeneidad uno de los elementos del paisaje más distintivos de la Patagonia oriental. El marcado redondeamiento de estos sedimentos, junto con otras evidencias sedimentológicas y geomorfológicas, indica que su origen se vincula inexorablemente con el escurrimiento superficial (acción fluvial). Puesto que en la actualidad no existen procesos que estén generando depósitos o geoformas equivalentes (en Patagonia o en otro sitio de la superficie terrestre), debe asumirse que las condiciones hídricas que permitieron su formación fueron muy distintas a las que imperan actualmente en la Patagonia Argentina. Es necesario considerar entonces ciertos momentos dentro del Cenozoico Superior, en los que existieron redes de drenaje superficial con mayor energía, inducida ésta por mayores caudales y/o mayores gradientes hídricos (por tectónica, epirogénesis o descenso del nivel del mar). Lapsos con regímenes hídricos y caudales significativamente mayores a los actuales caracterizaron las fases pleniglaciales (períodos de estabilización y máxima expansión de los glaciares que duraron quizás decenas de miles de años) correspondientes a cada una de las numerosas glaciaciones ocurridas durante el Plioceno y el Pleistoceno. En estos casos la capacidad de erosión y transporte de las aguas superficiales se habría visto incrementada por el descenso del nivel del mar, lo cual tiene lugar en cada episodio glacial. Durante estos eventos climáticos las condiciones fueron típicamente glaciales (muy frías y húmedas) en el ámbito cordillerano y periglaciales (muy frías y secas) en Patagonia extraandina. Por otro lado, existieron momentos mucho más breves, denominados ‘terminaciones’, que coincidieron con la brusca finalización de las glaciaciones, en los cuales se liberaron grandes cantidades de agua provenientes del intenso derretimiento del manto de hielo cordillerano. Este espectacular proceso se habría producido bajo condiciones climáticas similares al actual interglacial. Por otro lado, durante los períodos interglaciales, en ausencia de las grandes masas de hielo en la cordillera y con temperaturas medias atmosféricas similares o superiores a las actuales, se depositaron mantos de grava pedemontanos como producto de ascensos/descensos tectónicos o epirogénicos (cordilleranos y extracordilleranos) o por la reactivación de las redes de drenaje producida por el descenso glacioeustático. Estas reactivaciones del paisaje, de carácter endógeno, fueron independientes de las fluctuaciones climáticas y de mayor duración que éstas y, por lo tanto, actuaron durante el tiempo superponiéndose a los interglaciales y a las glaciaciones, indistintamente. Finalmente, no debería descartarse la posibilidad que algunas unidades de rodados hayan sido depositadas durante eventos pluviales mayores, los que implicaron un aumento de las precipitaciones medias anuales durante un lapso suficientemente prolongado.
La evidencia con que se cuenta en la actualidad indica que, en distintos momentos desde el Mioceno Tardío, condiciones climáticas muy variadas habrían favorecido o, al menos, permitido la producción y acumulación de grandes mantos de gravas, muy similares entre sí, que cubrieron buena parte de la superficie patagónica extraandina. Las más extensas de estas unidades sedimentarias se habrían depositado en contextos ecológicos también muy variados, extendiéndose por toda Patagonia atravesando ambientes de bosque, tundra, estepas graminosas y arbustivas, y zonas de transición entre las formaciones vegetales mencionadas.
Patagonia is likely to have started experiencing a process of desertification at approximately 16.5 Myr as a result of the Andean uplift (Stern & Blisniuk, 2002), with the severity of this process increasing at approximately 14 Myr (Blisniuk et al., 2005), when a new tectonic pulse increased the efficiency of the orographic effect, limiting the incoming humid winds from the Southern Pacific Ocean (Ramos & Ghiglione, 2008). This process generated a marked west–east climatic gradient similar to the one that characterizes present-day Patagonia east of the Andes (e.g. mean annual precipitation 5000 mm in the Andean environment and < 200 mm less than 200 km to the east at 43°S). Extensive gravel sheets known as ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ or ‘Patagonian Shingle Formation’ were deposited in eastern Patagonia during this period and under this general climatic pattern superimposed on the glacial cycles of the Quaternary. The ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ are gravel accumulations, with or without carbonate cement, substantially rounded, with pebbles and cobbles as the dominant size fractions, in a sandy or silty/clayish matrix (Martinez, Rabassa & Coronato, 2009). The larger clasts are of highly variable lithology, although with a certain predominance of basic and mesosilicic volcanics and acid plutonic rocks. Their range in Argentine Patagonia extends from the Andean Cordillera to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Río Colorado valley to the island of Tierra del Fuego (Fig. 1). They were generated during the Late Cenozoic, tend to form horizontal to subhorizontal mantles of varied extension and thickness and are located in different topographical positions, usually showing a west–east dominant gradient. Many of these layers of gravel are connected to the west with Pleistocene marginal moraines, a fact that assigns them an unquestionable glaciofluvial origin and facilitating in many cases precise ageing. However, there are also gravel accumulations of clear piedmont origin across Patagonia, an origin indicated by their spatial connection with mountain fronts, their geomorphological context and lithological affinities with the source area. The ages of these deposits are highly variable. Finally, there are ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ units, similar to those above, but which have been disconnected from old glacial margins or mountain fronts, making their genetic and temporal interpretation difficult.
Figure 1.
The range of ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ in Argentine Patagonia between the Andean Cordillera and the Atlantic Ocean coast (Martínez & Coronato, 2008).
This paper provides an analysis of various environmental conditions under which these unique depositional sedimentary units were likely formed. Our analysis assumes that different geomorphological processes during the Late Cenozoic were capable of generating very similar landscape deposits and forms at different times and under different ecological contexts (Martínez & Coronato, 2008).
The physiognomy of the vegetation is a precise climate indicator, as shown by the different lifestyles that characterize the world's biomes (Hinojosa, 2004). Volkheimer (1971) analysed the relationship between leaf morphological characters and climatic variables (mainly temperature and rainfall) during the Cenozoic of southern South America and proposed a progressive decrease in temperature, from subtropical to temperate, and the establishment of arid to semi-arid conditions in the area towards the Pliocene (Hinojosa, 2004). A series of factors have affected this increase in aridity in the subtropics of South America (Hinojosa & Villagrán, 1997; Villagrán & Hinojosa, 1997). These include the separation of South America from Antarctica, the subsequent glaciation of West Antarctica and the generation of the Circumpolar and Humboldt currents in their present forms (Simpson, 1983; Hinojosa & Villagrán, 1997; Villagrán & Hinojosa, 1997). The interaction of these factors, coupled with the rain shadow effect generated by the uprising of the Andes, ending around the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary, are likely to have forced the fragmentation of Subtropical Palaeoflora and the expansion of the arid taxa along what is called the ‘Arid Diagonal’. This arid diagonal is a continuous strip of arid climate that extends along the Andes from western Venezuela and north-western Chile, Argentina to north-eastern Patagonia (Villagrán & Hinojosa, 1997, 2005; Ezcurra, 2002; Hinojosa, 2004), which in turn coincides with the South American transition zone. In this zone, biotic elements of the Andean and Neotropical regions overlap (Morrone, 2001, 2004; Ruggiero & Ezcurra, 2003) and its formation can be considered a vicarious event that has slowed the spread of Andean and Neotropical biotas (Morrone, 2004). Additionally, the xerophytic vegetation along this stretch isolated the forest region of southern South America from the other forest formations of the continent (Villagrán & Hinojosa, 2005).
Currently, southern South America is characterized by a marked climatic and vegetation contrast between both sides of the Andes. Particularly, the vegetation of Andean Patagonia occupies most of the Patagonian territory, occurring as a semi-desert, with alternating grass steppes in the western sectors of higher moisture, with shrub and subshrub steppes to the east (Soriano, 1956; Cabrera & Willink, 1980). From a phytogeographical point of view, Patagonia includes elements of the Neotropical region, the Andean Patagonian Domain and the Patagonian province. The Patagonian province is itself divided into the Western, Central and Sub-Andean Districts (Soriano, 1956).
These environments are characterized by a homogeneous appearance, with extensive plains some with slight undulations, that are part of terraces or alluvial fans, and bush or shrub steppe as the dominant vegetation. The vegetation consists of subshrubs, scrub or cushions that grow despite poor soil conditions and severe weather. The dominant species include neneo (Mulinum spinosum), several species of senecio (Senecio sp.), colapiche (Nassauvia glomerulosa), neneo enano (Mulinum microphyllum), solupe (Ephedra frustillata), abrojo (Acaena platyacantha), yerba loca (Tetraglochin alatum), cactus (Maihuenia patagonica) and leña de piedra (Azorella monantha). The shrub species include quilimbai (Chuquiraga avellanedae), yaoyín (Lycium chilense), molle (Schinus johnstonii), calafate (Berberis microphylla) and mamuel choique (Adesmia volckmannii). All of them are generally represented by small and isolated specimens (Fig. 2). There are also landscape-defining species; for instance, the grassy steppe is dominated by coirón amargo (Stipa speciosa, S. humilis), coirón blanco (Festuca pallescens), coirón poa (Poa ligularis), cebadilla patagónica (Bromus setifolius) and cebada patagonica (Hordeum comosum), whereas a significant proportion of bare soil (up to 70%) has been noted (Fig. 3). The presence of such a diverse flora throughout Patagonia suggests the current environmental conditions in the region are not coincident with the conditions necessary for the production, transport and accumulation of sediments comparable with the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’. In fact, the present-day climatic and geomorphological conditions are far from meeting the requirements necessary for the generation of the Patagonian Shingle formations.
Figure 2.
Shrub or subshrub steppe with herbaceous and woody species, dominated by Asteraceae.
Figure 3.
Landscape units represented by a grass steppe, dominated by Poaceae.
The extreme roundness that characterizes the gravel that forms the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ (Fig. 4) suggests they were weathered by surface water transport, i.e. fluvial environments, using the term in its broadest possible sense. Other lines of evidence also support their fluvial origin. Firstly, remains of ancient drainage networks can often be identified on the surface of these plains using satellite images, aerial photographs and even in the field (O. A. Martinez, pers. observ.). Such ancient drainages can be related to at least the superficial gravel beds. Secondly, the field morphology of some of these deposits can occasionally provide a genetic link with surface water run-off, especially when they preserve the shape of alluvial fans, ‘bajadas’ (alluvial fans that are laterally coalescent) and pediments (erosion and transport surfaces, of very low slope, which are also generated at the expense of retreating mountain slopes). However, although such morphological features are highly diagnostic, they are only visible in younger units of the ‘Rodados’ and are not recognizable in older units. Thus, there are cases where the morphology does not provide the necessary clues for the assessment of the origin of these gravel mantles. These usually involve the most extensive gravel mantles, those covering hundreds of kilometres in a latitudinal sense and exhibiting a physical continuity between the Andean mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. They are a serious challenge for the reconstruction of their origin.
Figure 4.
Unit of ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ in northern Patagonia.
Two types of water flows can be identified that are capable of generating the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ acting from the time the rock fragments were extracted from their source to the time when they were finally deposited: (1) intensive pulses, produced in a relatively short time under a high-energy regime; or (2) extended time regimes under conditions of low to moderate energy. Large amounts of ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ were deposited during relatively long periods and therefore both water regimes likely took part in their genesis. The energy of water flows is defined essentially by two variables: flow and land slope. Flow is a function of the climate (rainfall amount and/or melting) and land slope is a function of vertical ascents and descents of the land by tectonics (vertical movements on the margins of tectonic plates), epeirogenesis (vertical movements of larger continental blocks) and eustatism (changes in sea level). It is possible for gravel units exhibiting similar characteristics (size, thickness, sedimentological properties) to have been deposited at different times as a result of distinct processes during non-overlapping periods of sedimentation of different extent. As such, it is necessary to explain the origin of the gravel mantles of the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ considering the Late Cenozoic, a time when hydrological and environmental conditions were notably different from today. In any case, whatever the origin of the gravel units under consideration, their origin can be linked directly or indirectly to climatic events that characterized the glaciations that began in the Late Miocene. Four scenarios considered most favourable for the generation of these sedimentary units are described in Table 1. These scenarios correspond to: (1) full-glacial periods; (2) fluvial extra-Andean piedmont environments during glaciations; (3) glacial ‘terminations’; and (4) fluvial piedmont environments (both Andean and extra-Andean) during interglacial periods.
Table 1. Scenarios and environmental conditions considered most favourable for the generation of ‘Rodados Patagónicos’
EventGenesis of the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’Event durationSea levelClimateHydraulic gradientVegetation
GlaciationsGlacifluvial8000–15 000 yearsLoweredGlacial (very cold and wet)Periglacial (very cold and dry)HighNoSteppe/tundra
InterglacialsPiedmont10 000 yearsHigherSimilar to the presentSimilar to the presentVariableSimilar to the presentSimilar to the present
Terminations (transitions)Glacifluvial/fluvialVery short (centuries?)RisingSimilar to the presentSimilar to the presentDecreasingRecolonizationRecolonization
Accumulation of‘Rodados Patagónicosduring glacial periods
The analysis of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 2), the most recent and best-known glacial stage, allows a general characterization for the purpose of this study that could, to some extent and with great caution, be extrapolated to previous glacial events. This glaciation was a global climate event involving a decrease in the mean annual atmospheric temperature with respect to current temperature of approximately 6° in northern Patagonia and even more southwards (Clapperton, 1993; Rabassa, 2008). In Patagonia, this temperature decrease would have been accompanied by an increase in precipitation (Villagrán, Moreno & Villa, 1995), probably attributable to a northward migration of the westerlies (Markgraf, 1993; Bradbury et al., 2001; Heusser, 2003). During this climatic event, a mountain ice sheet > 2 km thick occupied the entire Patagonian Andes (from central Neuquén Province to Tierra del Fuego, see Clapperton, 1993). At its southern end, this continuous ice mass exceeded the present Atlantic coast, while slimming and vanishing around 37°S, from where the glacial accumulations consisted in cirque and valley glaciers located near the top of the mountains (Rabassa, Coronato & Martínez, 2011). The extension of the ice mantle from the Andean mountains to the east was accompanied by the development of periglacial environmental conditions (cold and dry) on the expanded Patagonian steppe, the Atlantic coast of which was displaced by between 200 and 300 km to the east with respect to its current position, as a result of lowering sea level (Ponce et al., 2011). Evidence of cryoturbation in ‘Rodados Patagónicos’, associated with permafrost development, has been noted for northern Patagonia at this time (Trombotto Liaudat, 2008). Under such conditions (which may have been representative of Late Cenozoic glacial events), processes leading to the accumulation of ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ would have been favoured, firstly, during the full glacial stages and, secondly, in extra-Andean fluvial piedmont environments.
Glaciofluvial ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ deposited in full-glacial stages
The vast majority of glaciofluvial deposits are generated during the stages of glacier stabilization. This stabilization occurs when ice masses come into equilibrium with the prevailing climatic conditions. From a glaciological perspective, it involves the setting of the margins (the glacier does not grow or diminish in size), with the amount of ice incorporated by snowfall and new generation being equal to the amount loss by melting (mass balance = 0). Under these conditions, in the terminal area located downstream where ablation is higher, two morphogenetic events dominate. Firstly, the debris in contact with the ice margin is incorporated upstream and is accumulated within the glacial mass. These materials, of varied shape and grain size, form ridges called marginal moraines (frontal and lateral). When preserved over time, these moraines indicate the position of the glacier margin after it has melted. Secondly, also in the terminal area of the glaciers, but affecting a large area downstream, important waterways are born from the base or sides of the glacier, which carry away from the moraines the brownish glaciofluvial sediments that build pro-glacial plains (washout) either from its base or sides. These plains are thus formed both by the debris contained in the ice and by the sediments removed from the moraines. The glaciofluvial flows tend to be very plentiful (depending on the size of the glacier and the melting rate), especially during the warmer seasons, and appear forming transition fans (alluvial) that can reach large sizes and will overlap laterally with time. Water courses usually have a braided pattern that changes constantly, typical of sediment-saturated currents (Fig. 5). These sediments are gradually finer and more rounded as they reach more distant positions with respect to their parental marginal moraines. As mentioned above, grain size, roundness and sphericity of the gravels are directly related to water transport capacity and distance transported.
Figure 5.
Present glaciofluvial streams (braided rivers), similar to the ancient glaciofluvial systems during the ‘terminations’ or full glacial phases.
In eastern Patagonia a large number of ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ plains can be linked genetically, with reasonable certainty, to former glaciofluvial processes. This is the case of deposits that are spatially connected upstream (toward the west) with marginal moraines. Several of these ‘rodados’ units, especially those located at higher latitudes, extend eastward, often reaching the present Atlantic coast. These outstanding deposits were generated under very rigorous environmental conditions, with a glacial climate in the vicinity of the Andes and periglacial conditions in the extensive extra-Andean area. Thus, the courses of sediment-laden waters, which came from the ice fronts, circulated during the winter over land that tended to freeze (permafrost), contributing to their own total or partial freezing. Such a landscape is thus likely to have strongly restricted the development of vegetation and associated wildlife, especially aquatic. However, during the winters, the migration of terrestrial wildlife would have been favoured in a north–south direction, probably on a regional scale. During the summers, the higher regional temperatures and the consequent increase in the melting of water from the Andean glaciers significantly modified the dynamics of extra-Andean ecosystems. Thus, the development of vegetation dominated by Poaceae and other elements typical of the steppe, particularly species of Asteraceae (Mancini et al., 2008), would have been favoured in those areas that escaped the influence of the mighty glaciofluvial currents. These same streams, in many cases saturated with sediment, would have limited the north–south migration of terrestrial species (in summer), while at the same time facilitating the movement of aquatic species adapted to these conditions in all available directions, as appears to have been the case for the freshwater fish Percichthys trucha (Ruzzante et al., 2011).
Accumulation of gravels in extra-Andean piedmont environments during glaciations
The majority of the accumulations of ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ deposited during the glacial events are likely of glaciofluvial origin. Piedmont deposits developed in extra-Andean areas, however, also exist. These deposits have likely formed as a result of the adjustment of the drainage networks to the lowering of the Atlantic Ocean or tectonic pulses superimposed on the glaciation effect. They exist in the form of alluvial fans, bajadas and pediment cover of very varied lithological composition, extension and thickness. Such piedmont deposits are characteristic of arid and semiarid climates and accumulate at the foot of the mountains where there is a significant change in the topographic slope and where the streams flow seasonally with a torrential regime, and abandon the deep valleys typical of the mountain environment to enter more open areas of lower energy, usually depressions between the ranges.
In our view, another significant variable, indirectly linked to the formation of the gravel plains, was the production of debris by cryoclastism, a phenomenon characteristic of periglacial environments, and it would have strongly affected, during each of the glaciations, much of the rocky outcrops that form the extra-Andean highlands. Much of these angular materials, of varied grain size and composition, were released from bedrock by physical weathering and must have been rapidly incorporated into the river networks when climate changed and rainfall increased in the area, with the consequent increase in the availability of surface water. Under this scenario, it is not easy to establish whether the glacial periods favoured or limited the processes of piedmont sediment accumulation in extra-Andean areas. While local fluvial processes were greatly reduced during glacial periods, the intense disintegration of rock outcrops by cryoclastism (physical weathering) would have increased the availability of loose surface material, which, subsequently, during wet periods, would have been captured by the drainage network.
It should also be noted that tectonic pulses or epirogenetic uplift likely also contributed to the accumulation of gravels in extra-Andean regions. The longer timescale of these events of endogenous origin (usually millions of years) widely exceeds the average duration of glacial and interglacial stages (measured in tens of thousands of years), and their footprint on the Cenozoic fluvial processes of Patagonia, undoubtedly very important, was superimposed on these weather events.
Accumulation of‘Rodados Patagónicosduring Glacial terminations
This section should be considered as the development of a hypothesis in which the word ‘termination’ is treated in a very flexible way. It is defined as a relatively rapid transition from a cold stage (glacial) to a warmer one (interglacial). Most authors who refer to this issue (see Lowe & Walker, 1997) have approached the analysis of the so-called Terminations I and II, the best known at present. The first one corresponds to the transition from Isotopic Stage 2 (Last Glaciation Maximum) to Isotopic Stage 1 (the Holocene or current interglacial); the second is the transition from Isotopic Stage 6 (Penultimate Glaciation) to subestadial 5e (warmest climate of the interglacial corresponding to Isotopic Stage 5). These periods of profound climatic changes were characterized by alternating minor climatic pulses in the context of a general warming. Termination I included the Late Glacial, a period when glaciers started to vanish from the continents. Generally, the transition from a glacial to an interglacial stage is much faster than one from an interglacial to a new glacial stage (Clapperton, 1993; Lowe & Walker, 1997). The installation, then, of a warmer climate during any glacial termination would have meant the abrupt transformation (or passage?) of the Cordilleran ice masses (Lowell, Heusser & Andersen, 1996) to a non-balanced climatic phase dominated by ablation and the decrease in thickness and area covered by the glaciers until their almost complete disappearance. From the standpoint of water, this meant a huge and sudden meltwater production resulting in rivers with a permanent high water discharge régime. Assuming Patagonia was dominated at those times by a marked climatic seasonality similar to the present (dry summers, rainy winters), it is likely that rivers achieved their highest volumes during the driest season (summers). Other factors to be considered for a correct understanding and reconstruction of these particular periods are, firstly, the gradual but influential rise of sea level and, secondly, the development in some mountain valleys of immense proglacial lakes enclosed to the east by the marginal moraines and to the west by the receding glacier. Under this scenario, the extra-Andean river valleys, which concentrated glacial flows during the full glacial period, were hydrologically disadjusted and subjected to processes of widening, but also of deepening of the river bed. This vertical erosion can be the cause of the terracing that characterizes most of the gravel plains, but this phenomenon would have been gradually weakened, especially in the eastern fringe closest to the coast, by the gradual rise of sea level (the regional base level of all watersheds). It is very likely that the underfit conditions, with respect to the present flow régime, of many of the Patagonian valleys (the Chubut, Genoa, Deseado, Santa Cruz and Coig rivers, among others; Fig. 1) is attributable largely to the strong erosion effect of water during these fast transitions from a glacial to an interglacial stage. It is also likely that ‘rodados’ units removed from their older locations to the west began to accumulate in positions further east in response to the decreased transport capacity of the rivers. According to this hypothesis, some of the ‘rodados’ units located in easternmost Patagonia were likely formed during these terminations.
Accumulations of piedmont‘Rodadosduring interglacial periods
In Patagonia there are many areas of ‘rodados’, whose origin has been assigned by different authors to piedmont fluvial action. While the origin for some of these is yet in doubt, there are remnants of some gravel units, especially very old units located at higher topographic heights, which were unquestionably deposited by water flows in a piedmont environment (see Fidalgo & Riggi, 1965; Panza, 2002). As already mentioned, piedmont deposits and landforms are originated by fluvial processes in arid or semi-arid climates, in response to reactivation of the landscape. These ‘rejuvenations’ consist of modifications in the base level of drainage networks attributable, in most cases, to the action of a tectonic uplift/depression (as a result of the action of tectonic plates) or epirogenic (vertical movements of large crustal blocks). These phenomena of endogenous character, a product of lithospheric deformation (diastrophism), have in the past frequently affected both Andean and extra-Andean Patagonian grounds. Moreover, such movements or diastrophic phases occur during periods that are often measured in hundreds of thousands or even millions of years. These processes have overlapped temporally with the climatic events (glaciations and interglacials) of the Quaternary. It should thus be safe to assume that at least some of the piedmont ‘rodados’ units accumulated during time lapses that included several and diverse climatic events.
As it was already mentioned, the piedmont deposits are characteristic of dry climates with low rainfall. Thus, it may be assumed that (applying actualism) weather conditions such as those currently prevailing in much of extra-Andean Patagonia (with mean annual precipitation below 300 mm, with seasonal, but not torrential rainfall) do not offer serious limitations, and should be sufficient for the formation of ‘rodados’ units throughout.
However, beyond the fact that many valleys and sides of different mountains and plateaus distributed throughout Patagonia are currently being modified, covered and obliterated by the development of alluvial fans (which in many cases tend to coalesce and generate morphologies called ‘bajadas’), it is safe to assert that these modest piedmont aggradation processes are quite different, because of their scale, from those that correspond to any of the great ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ units that lie in the area.
If significant rainfall is not needed to justify the presence of these gravel mantles, it is then necessary to incorporate in their genetic scheme the influence of a topographic gradient sufficiently large to have allowed intensified water erosion in elevated areas, the consequent downstream transport of extracted materials and their accumulation, rounded, in distal positions of the piedmont. This increased hydraulic gradient, that is, the increase in energy availability in the system, was provided by diastrophic movements in Patagonia since the early Neogene (approximately 20 Ma). These movements can be summarized as the Pehuénchicos movements that occurred at the Oligocene–Miocene boundary, the Quéhuchicos movements in the Late Miocene and the Andicos movements during the Pliocene and even in the Pleistocene (Ramos & Ghiglione, 2008).
The ‘Rodados Patagónicos’ are sedimentary units distinguished by their large areal extent, their topographic monotony and uniformity, and their marked sedimentological homogeneity, characteristics that keep a significant independence with the actual age of the deposit. Currently, either in Patagonia or any other place, processes that lead to the generation of equivalent or similar gravel accumulations do not exist, despite the great variety of climates and ecological conditions that presently exist on the Earth's surface. Patagonia has therefore likely experienced unique conditions in the recent geological past (at least from the late Miocene onwards), that were favourable for the production, transport and sedimentation of these characteristic materials on a large scale. Far from solving such an intriguing topic, we consider that, beyond the geological and climatic variables, the initial relief (essentially the topography and regional slope) on which the different units of rodados were deposited would have played a very important role. Assuming that solely the action of surface water runoff may explain these sedimentological and geomorphological properties characteristic of the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’, sufficiently long periods of the past need to be identified with fluvial processes of the magnitude and intensity necessary for these accumulations to have taken place.
The glacial stabilization (full-glacial phase) and glacial terminations (a term used in a broad sense to indicate any fast deglaciation) bring together, for different reasons, the most favourable conditions for the development of many of the Patagonian gravel units, both in terms of their sedimentology, as in the occurrence of landforms such as plateaus and terraces. The environmental conditions under which these materials were deposited are significantly different from each other. The extra-Andean Patagonia vegetation was changing in response to these different environmental conditions. While, in general, the physiognomy corresponded to grass and subshrub/shrub steppes, and tundra during glacial periods, their specific composition and coverage were changing, and therefore the associated fauna did so as well.
In periods of high input of water, with permanent and high discharge streams, the continuous generation and deposition of sediments and ‘rodados’ in the flood plains would have modified seasonally the vegetation cover, represented mainly by annual herb species and aquatic plants (macrophytes) associated with water courses, which year after year restarted a new process of colonization, the plant succession. The higher water supply would have facilitated the dispersal of some aquatic species (e.g. see Ruzzante et al., 2011), whereas for terrestrial species it may have acted as geographical barriers to migration, thus limiting the north–south migratory processes.
In contrast, certain gravel mantles, some of them very extensive, located on the eastern strip of Patagonia (near the Atlantic coast), but also other relicts found in the mountains, seem to be better explained by strictly fluvial piedmont processes. Those which responded to tectonic/epirogenic reactivations had their maximum activity during non-glacial periods, when the periglacial conditions were not yet developed in the extra-Andean area.
Although the terms uniformity and homogeneity appear to be an unavoidable part of any definition about the ‘Rodados Patagónicos’, evidence suggests that, paradoxically, their genesis would be linked to a variety of environments and ecosystems. Not only they would have been deposited at different times of the Late Cenozoic, under very different climate types, but also the same unit of rodados, especially those born in the Andean area and ending along the Atlantic coast, were generated by streams that passed through longitudinal strips with very different ecological characteristics.
We thank Jorge Rabassa, Eduardo Tonni, Alfredo Carlini and Daniel Ruzzante for the invitation to participate in the Symposium ‘Palaeogeography and Palaeoclimatology of Patagonia: Effects on Biodiversity’, held at the La Plata Museum in Argentina in May 2009.
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World War 2 Stories for Sheffield
The Third Reich
Part 3
Social welfare
To aid the fostering of a feeling of community, the German people's labour and entertainment experiences—from festivals, to vacation trips and traveling cinemas—were all made a part of the "Strength through Joy" (Kraft durch Freude, KdF) program. Also crucial to the building of loyalty and comradeship was the implementation of the National Labour Service and the Hitler Youth Organization, with compulsory membership. In addition to this, a number of architectural projects were undertaken. KdF created the KdF-wagen, later known as the Volkswagen ("People's Car"), which was designed to be an automobile that every German citizen would be able to afford. With the outbreak of World War II the car was converted into a military vehicle and civilian production was stopped. Another national project undertaken was the construction of the Autobahn, which made it the first freeway system in the world.
The Winter Relief campaigns not only collected charity for the unfortunate, but acted as a ritual to generate public feeling. As part of the centralization of Nazi Germany, posters urged people to donate rather to give directly to beggars.
The Nazi health care system also held as a central idea the concept of Eugenics. Certain people were deemed 'genetically inferior' and were targeted for elimination from the gene pool through sterilization (Hereditary Health Courts) or wholesale murder (Action T4). Medical information professionals used new processes and technology, like punch card systems, and cost analysis, to aid in the process and calculate the 'benefit' to society of these killings.
Women's rights
Women in the Third Reich were a cornerstone of Nazi social policy; however, this meant a sharp curtailment of women's rights. The Nazis opposed the feminist movement, claiming that it had a left-wing agenda (comparable to Communism) and was bad for both women and men. The Nazi regime advocated a patriarchal society in which German women would recognize the "world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home." Hitler claimed that women taking vital jobs away from men during the Great Depression was economically bad for families in that women were paid only 66 percent of what men earned. Simultaneously with calling for women to leave work outside the home, the regime called for women to be actively supportive of the state regarding women's affairs. In 1933, Hitler appointed Gertrud Scholtz-Klink as the Reich Women's Leader, who instructed women that their primary role in society was to bear children and that women should be subservient to men, once saying "the mission of woman is to minister in the home and in her profession to the needs of life from the first to last moment of man's existence.". The expectation even applied to Aryan women married to Jewish men—a necessary ingredient in the 1943 Rosenstrasse protest in which 1800 German women (joined by 4200 relatives) obliged the Nazi state to release their Jewish husbands. This position was so strongly held as to make it extremely difficult to recruit women for war jobs during World War II.
On the other hand, the women were expected to be strong, healthy, and vital; a photograph subtitled "Future Mothers" showed teenage girls dressed for sport and bearing javelins. A sturdy peasant woman, who worked the land and bore strong children, was an ideal, contributing to praise for athletic women tanned by outdoor work. Organizations were made for the indoctrination of Nazi values to German women. Such organizations included the Jungmädel ("Young Girls") section of the Hitler Youth for girls from the age 10 to 14, the Bund Deutscher Mädel (BDM, "German Girls' League") for young women from 14 to 18, and the NS-Frauenschaft, a woman's organization.
The NS-Frauenschaft put out the NS-Frauen-Warte, the only approved women's magazine in Nazi Germany.
Despite its propaganda aspects, it was predominantly a woman's magazine, even including sewing patterns.
The BDM's activities encompassed physical education, including running, the long jump, somersaulting, tightrope walking, rout-marching, and swimming. Das deutsche Mädel was less adventure-oriented than the boy's Der Pimpf, but far more emphasis was laid on strong and active German women than in NS-Frauen-Warte. Also, before entering any occupation or advanced studies, the girls, like the boys in Hitler Youth, had to complete a year of land service.
Despite the somewhat official restrictions, some women forged highly visible, as well as officially praised, achievements, such as the aviatrix Hanna Reitsch and film director Leni Riefenstahl.
On the issue of sexual affairs regarding women, the Nazis differed greatly from the restrictive stances on women's role in society. The Nazi regime promoted a liberal code of conduct as regards sexual matters, and were sympathetic to women bearing children out of wedlock. The collapse of 19th century morals in Germany accelerated during the Third Reich, partly due to the Nazis, and greatly due to the effects of the war. Promiscuity increased greatly as the war progressed, with unmarried soldiers often involved intimately with several women simultaneously. Married women were often involved in multiple affairs simultaneously, with soldiers, civilians or slave labourers. "Some farm wives in Württemberg had already begun using sex as a commodity, employing carnal favours as a means of getting a full day's work from foreign labourers." Nevertheless, publically, Nazi propaganda opposed adultery and upheld the sancticity of marriage. Several films shot in this era altered their source material so that the woman, rather than the man, would suffer death for sexual transgressions, reflecting whose fault it was held to be. When attempts were made to destigmatize illegitimate births, Lebensborn homes were presented the public as for married women. Overtly anti-marriage statements, such as Himmler's statements regarding the care of the illegimate children of dead soldiers, were greeted with protests.
An example of the way in which Nazi doctrines differed from practice is that, whilst sexual relationships among campers was explicitly forbidden, boys' and girls' camps of the Hitlerjugend associations were needlessly placed close together as if to make it happen. Pregnancy (including repercussions on established marriages) often resulted when fetching members of the Bund Deutscher Mädel were assigned to duties which juxtaposed them with tempted men. Ilsa McKee noted that the lectures of Hitler Youth and the BDM on the need to produce more children produced several illegitimate children, which neither the mothers nor the possible fathers regarded as problematic.
Marriage or sexual relations between a person considered “Aryan” and one that was not were classified as Rassenschande and were forbidden and under penalty (Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a concentration camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty). Pamphlets enjoined all German women to avoid sexual intercourse with all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their blood.
Abortion was heavily penalized in Nazi Germany unless on the grounds of "racial health": from 1943 abortionists faced the death penalty. Display of contraceptives was not allowed, and Hitler himself described contraception as "violation of nature, as degradation of womanhood, motherhood and love."
Main articles: Art of the Third Reich and List of authors banned during the Third Reich
In 1933, Nazis burned works considered "un-German" in Berlin which included books by Jewish authors, political opponents, and other works which did not align with Nazi ideology.
German Nazi propaganda poster: "Danzig is German".
Despite the official attempt to forge a pure Germanic culture, one major area of the arts, architecture, under Hitler's personal guidance, was neoclassical, a style based on architecture of ancient Rome.[163] This style stood out in stark contrast and opposition to newer, more liberal, and more popular architecture styles of the time such as Art Deco.
Also to be constructed was a Triumphal arch, several times larger than that found in Paris, which was also based upon a classical styling. Many of the designs for Germania were impractical to construct because of their size and the marshy soil underneath Berlin; later the materials that were to be used for construction were diverted to the war effort.
Cinema and media
Main articles: Cinema of Germany, List of German films 1933-1945, Nazism and cinema, Panorama (German wartime newsreel), and Propagandaministerium
Despite the emigration of many film-makers and the political restrictions, the German film industry was not without technical and aesthetic innovations, the introduction of Agfacolor film production being a notable example. Technical and aesthetic achievement could also be turned to the specific ends of the Greater German Reich, most spectacularly in the work of Leni Riefenstahl. Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will (1935), documenting the Nuremberg Rally (1934), and Olympia (1938), documenting the 1936 Summer Olympics, pioneered techniques of camera movement and editing that have influenced many later films. Both films, particularly Triumph of the Will, remain highly controversial, as their aesthetic merit is inseparable from their propagandizing of Nationalsocialism ideals.[165] Irreplacable artists deemed fitting the National socialist ideals such as Marika Rokk and Johannes Heesters where placed on the Gottbegnadeten list by Joseph Goebbels during the war.
Starting with the Nuremberg Trials of 1945-46, in which top Nazi leaders were tried for war crimes (and executed or given long prison terms), Hitler, Nazism, and (by the 1960s) the Holocaust became symbols of evil in the modern world. For the 21st century, Newman and Erber (2002) reported, "The Nazis have become one of the most widely recognized images of modern evil. Throughout most of the world today, the concept of evil can readily be evoked by displaying almost any cue reminiscent of Nazism, such as the swastika, the name of any of the principal Nazis, or their garb or affectations...." There is a high level of historical interest in the popular media as well as in academic world. Evans says it, "exerts an almost universal appeal because its murderous racism stands as a warning to the whole of humanity."
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The crumhorn is a double-reeded wind instrument first developed in the early 15th century. The player's lips do not touch the reed, but rather blow into a slotted cap. It is the most common instrument of the reed cap family which also includes the kortholt, cornamuse, and hirtenschalmei. This design may have evolved from the bladder pipe, with which the player blows into an animal bladder where a double reed vibrates. The name comes from the German word "krumhorn", meaning "curved pipe", or possibly the old English "crump", from which the word "crumpet" also comes from.
The crumhorn has a fingering system similar to the lower register of a clarinet. It overblows a twelfth rather than an octave because of the cylindrical bore (rather than a conical bore) and the reed closing the end of the resonating tube. It's normal range is limited to an octave and one note. The higher notes are extremely difficult to reach and maintain due to the lack of control over the capped reed. Crumhorns may have been occasionally played without the cap in order to make the higher notes easier to play, when necessary.
Crumhorns have the distinct sound of a rich, somewhat nasal buzzing. Pitch is controlled by the opening and closing of the finger holes and by breath pressure. This way, the crumhorn is played at a fixed dynamic level. It is similar to the change in pitch of a bagpipe chanter as the player begins to fill the bag.
A crumhorn is constructed by first boring out a length of wood. The hollow cylinder is then filled with sand and steamed to soften it. The lower end of the instrument is curved into a half circle, giving it the appearance of a cane or umbrella handle. This is for decoration only; the curve does not affect the sound at all.
Today, the crumhorn is little more than a goofy novelty instrument popping up at Renfests. However, it played a serious role during the Renaissance. It was played for all manner of occations from dances to church mass. Crumhorns were particuarly popular in Germany and Italy, but didn't catch on in Great Britain. Around 1500, crumhorns were played as accompaniment for the wedding of Duke Johann to Sophia of Mecklenburg. King Henry the Eighth of England owned twenty-five crumhorns, and had them played in his court. A crumhorn ensemble is typically comprised of an alto crumhorn (tuned in F or G), two tenors (C) and a bass (F). Occasionally, a soprano (C) or great bass (C) may be used.
Some early music ensembles play crumhorn today, so there is a possibility to hear the instrument in concert. However, as said before, it is very difficult to play and is capable of making exceedingly obnoxious noise when played poorly. Therefore, be sure that the performer knows exactly what he or she is doing. Otherwise, you could be in for a painful concert.
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Young teenagers, sixth formers and university students are now routinely offered a vaccination to prevent meningitis W disease.
The Men ACWY vaccine protects against four different causes of meningitis and septicaemia – meningococcal (Men) A, C, W and Y diseases.
All 17- and 18-year-olds in school year 13 and first-time university students up to the age of 25 are eligible for the Men ACWY vaccine as part of the NHS vaccination programme.
How do you get the vaccine?
GP practices will automatically send letters inviting 17-and 18-year-olds in school year 13 to have the Men ACWY vaccine.
Students going away to university or college for the first time should contact their GP to have the Men ACWY vaccine, ideally before the start of the academic year.
Younger teenagers (school year 9 or 10) will be offered the Men ACWY vaccine in school as part of the routine adolescent schools programme alongside the 3-in-1 teenage booster, and as a direct replacement for the Men C vaccination.
Why do teenagers and students need Men W vaccination?
Cases of meningitis and septicaemia (blood poisoning) caused by Men W bacteria are rising, due to a particularly deadly strain.
Older teenagers and university students are at high risk of infection because they tend to live in close contact in shared accommodation, such as university halls of residence.
Men ACWY vaccine is given by a single injection into the upper arm. There are two Men ACWY vaccines that will be used in the vaccination programme, called Nimenrix and Menveo. They are very similar and both work equally well.
Read the patient information leaflet for Nimenrix.
Read the patient information leaflet for Menveo.
Men W disease
Cases of meningitis and septicaemia due to Men W have been increasing in England, from 22 cases in 2009 to 117 in 2014. The increase seems to be speeding up in 2015, caused by an aggressive strain of the bug.
With early diagnosis and antibiotic treatment, most people with meningococcal disease make a full recovery. But it’s fatal in about 1 in 10 cases and can lead to long-term health problems, such as amputation, deafness, epilepsy and learning difficulties.
Men W infections are particularly severe and usually need to be treated in intensive care. They have a higher death rate than the more common Men C and Men B strains.
The Men ACWY vaccine has previously been recommended only for people at increased risk of meningococcal disease, including people with no spleen or a spleen that doesn’t work properly, for Hajj pilgrims, and for travellers to countries with high rates of meningococcal disease, including parts of Africa and Latin America.
More about Men ACWY as a travel vaccine.
The Men ACWY vaccine
The Men ACWY vaccine provides good protection against serious infections caused by four different meningococcal groups (A, C, W and Y) including meningitis and septicaemia.
The vaccine only contains the sugar coating on the surface of the four groups of meningococcal bacteria and works by triggering the body’s immune system to develop antibodies against the sugar coating without causing disease.
Read more about vaccine ingredients.
Men ACWY vaccine side effects
Like all vaccines, the Men ACWY vaccine can cause side effects, but studies suggest they are generally mild and soon settle.
The most common side effects seen in teenagers and young people who receive the vaccine are redness, hardening and itching at the injection site, headache, nausea and fatigue.
Who should not have the Men ACWY vaccine?
You should not have the Men ACWY vaccine if you are allergic to the vaccine or any of its ingredients. You can find out the vaccine ingredients in the patient information leaflets forNimenrix and Menveo.
You should also check with the doctor or nurse before having the Men ACWY vaccine if you:
• have a bleeding problem, such as haemophilia, or bruise easily
• have a high temperature
• are pregnant or breastfeeding
How is meningitis W spread?
Meningococcal disease is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria meningitidis (also called the meningococcus). These bacteria can be divided into 13 different groups, of which five (A, B, C, W and Y) are responsible for nearly all serious meningococcal infections.
The meningococcal bacteria live in the back of the nose and throat in about 1 in 10 of the population without causing any illness. The bacteria is spread from person to person by close prolonged contact with a person carrying the bacteria, such as coughing, kissing and sneezing.
Very occasionally, the meningococcal bacteria can cause serious illness, including meningitis and septicaemia.
Meningococcal infections can strike at any age, but babies, young children and teenagers are especially vulnerable.
Read more about how meningitis bugs are spread.
Men W cases on the increase
In England, most meningococcal infections are caused by group B (Men B). Men C, Men W and Men Y are usually responsible for only 10-20% of cases.
Although the total number of meningococcal cases in England has been falling since the early 2000s, Men W infections have increased from only 22 cases in 2009 to 117 in 2014. Currently, Men W alone accounts for almost a quarter of all meningococcal infections in England.
From 2009 to 2012, an average of four people died of meningitis W each year. Most of the people who died were elderly. But during 2013 and 2014, there were 24 deaths from Men W disease including, for the first time in over a decade, babies and toddlers.
Read more about meningitis and septicaemia.
Babies, older people and Men W vaccine
Only teenagers and young people will be vaccinated against Men W as part of the new vaccination programme. This is so they will be directly protected by the Men ACWY vaccine at a time when they’re at increased risk (entering colleges and universities, where they will be socialising more).
Vaccinating teenagers against Men W should have the added benefit of indirectly protecting other age groups, including unvaccinated babies, children and older people. This is because teenagers are the age group most likely to carry the meningococcal bacteria at the back of their noses.
Vaccinating teenagers will reduce the number of carriers, and therefore spread of the Men W bug, both within their social circles and also to other age groups.
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Chemistry LibreTexts
PR3. The Diels Alder Reaction
As noted previously, the Diels Alder reaction is a classic example of a pericyclic reaction.
Figure PR3.1. The Diels Alder reaction.
Unlike the Cope and Claisen rearrangements, this reaction often occur intermolecularly (between two molecules). It always occurs between an alkene on one molecule and a conjugated diene on the other molecule. The alkene is referred to as a "dienophile"; it reacts with the conjugated pair of double bonds.
Figure PR3.2. The diene and dienophile in the Diels Alder reaction.
Problem PR3.1.
Draw curved arrows to keep track of electrons in the Diels Alder reaction.
Problem PR3.2.
Draw the aromatic transition state of the Diels Alder reaction.
Problem PR3.3.
Many pericyclic reactions are reversible. The reversible process is usually named the same way as the forward reaction, but with the prefix "retro". For example, a retro-Diels Alder reaction is shown below.
1. Draw curved arrows for the retro-Diels Alder reaction.
2. The forward reaction is favoured at low temperature, whereas the retro reaction is favoured at high temperature. Explain why using the expression for free energy of a reaction, DG = DH - T DS.
Once again, the reaction can be thought of in terms of a reorganization of electrons between these two molecules. In the Diels Alder reaction, we can think of an interaction between the LUMO on one molecule and the HOMO on the other. As it happens, the LUMO on one molecule has the correct symmetry such that it can overlap and form a bonding interaction with the HOMO on the other molecule.
Figure PR3.3. Qualitative molecular orbital picture of the Diels Alder reaction.
Pay attention to the p orbital drawings on the carbons that will bond to each other to form the six-membered ring. It is important that those orbitals are able to overlap with each other to form an in-phase interaction. In that way, these carbon atoms at the ends of the diene and dienophile are able to bond with each other.
A Diels Alder reaction is sometimes called a [2+4] addition reaction. A 2-carbon unit on one molecule interacts with a 4-carbon unit on another molecule.
In contrast, the addition of one regular alkene to another regular alkene would be called a [2+2] addition reaction. If this reaction occurred, two alkenes would come together to form a four-membered ring.
Figure PR3.4. A [2+2] addition reaction.
However, [2+2] addition reactions don't occur without special circumstances. There are a couple of reasons why, and you may be able to suggest some at this point.
You might say that the four-membered ring would be much more strained than the six-membered ring formed by the Diels Alder reaction. That is true, but it may not be reason enough to prevent the reaction from happening. Four-membered rings do occur in nature despite their strain energy.
You might also say that the benzene-like transition state that stabilizes the pathway through a Cope or Diels Alder reaction isn't possible in a [2+2] addition. In fact, the transition state would be more like antiaromatic cyclobutadiene. The transition state would be very high in energy.
Another problem shows up if we look at the orbital interactions in a [2+2] addition reaction. The HOMO on one alkene and LUMO on the other alkene do not overlap so that bonds can form between the two ends. If the p orbitals on one end are in phase, the p orbitals on the other end must be out of phase. The concerted reorganization of bonding possible for the Diels Alder reaction can't happen here.
Figure PR3.5. Qualitative molecular orbital picture of [2+2] addition reaction.
In fact, there is a way around that problem. Irradiating an alkene with UV light leads to promotion of an electron from the LUMO to the HOMO. The alkene is now in an "excited state".
Figure PR3.6. Excitation of an electron in an alkene.
This does not happen with 100% efficiency, so only some of the alkenes will become excited. In the excited state alkene, the HOMO now resembles the LUMO of the ground state alkene. Because of the matching symmetry between these orbitals, the addition reaction can proceed.
Figure PR3.7. HOMO-LUMO interaction between a ground-state alkene and an excited-state alkene.
A [4+2] reaction is sometimes referred to as "thermally-allowed", whereas a [2+2] addition is sometimes referred to as "photolytically-allowed." This distinction refers to the need for electronic excitation to accomplish the latter type of reaction.
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First Gulf War
First Gulf War
First Gulf War
The First Gulf War was fought by a coalition of forces from 34 countries against Iraq in 1991 in response to the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. The war began because of several crises stemming from the Iran-Iraq War of 1980–88. The Iran-Iraq War ended on August 8, 1988.
Iraq was left with huge debts, largely to other Arab nations that had helped to finance the war, and extensive material damage; however, the Iraqi military had benefited from the war by becoming the strongest military force in the Gulf region.
Immediately following the cessation of the Iran-Iraq War, the Kuwaiti government made the disastrous decision to increase its oil production in violation of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) agreements.
The Kuwaitis increased oil extraction from the Rumaila oil wells, which lay on disputed territory with neighboring Iraq. Iraqi revenues were 90 percent dependent on oil, and the Kuwaiti increase in oil production helped to lower oil prices and slowly began to strangle Iraq economically.
Kuwait’s leaders, the Al-Sabah family, ignored Iraq’s protestations. Until the early 20th century Kuwait had been a semi-independent emirate administered from Baghdad under the Ottoman Empire.
During the 19th century British influence in the Gulf and in Kuwait in particular increased, and after World War I Britain was responsible for drawing the borders between the two nations. Although Iraq ultimately established diplomatic relations with Kuwait, many Iraqis continued to view it as part of Iraq.
Strategic Access
Iraq also owed $14 billion from the Iran-Iraq War to Kuwait; Iraq had expected that Kuwait would cancel the debt since Iraq had fought and suffered during the long war with Iran while the oil-rich nations in the region had helped to finance the struggle.
However, Kuwait not only refused to cancel the debt, it demanded its immediate repayment. During the Iran-Iraq War many of Iraq’s limited port facilities in the Shatt al-Arab were destroyed, leaving Iraq almost landlocked. Kuwait had greater strategic access to the Persian Gulf, which Iraq viewed as essential were hostilities to erupt again with Iran.
From 1988 to 1990, Saddam Hussein increased his threats against Kuwait, asking for cancellation of Iraq’s debts. He also sought help from King Hussein of Jordan to mediate the problems. In July 1990 Saddam met with U.S. ambassador April Glaspie and stated his grievances regarding Kuwait; Glaspie gave him a controversial response that he took to mean that the United States would not become involved in the dispute if he took stronger steps to rectify the problem. On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait.
Kuwaiti oil fields on fire
Kuwaiti oil fields on fire
The Iraqi military quickly overran and occupied all of Kuwait, and the ruling family fled the country. Hussein justified the invasion based on Kuwait’s slant-drilling into Iraqi oil fields across the border, as well as his complaints over debt cancellation.
He also appealed to Arab nationalism, claiming that Kuwait was part of Iraq, calling it the 19th province of Iraq. Immediately after the invasion the United Nations (UN) passed Resolution 660 condemning the invasion and demanding an immediate withdrawal. UN Resolution 661 then imposed economic sanctions on Iraq.
Saudi Arabia was alarmed by the invasion and the mounting power of the Iraqi military, which was within striking distance of the vast Saudi Hama oil wells. In Operation Desert Shield, begun on August 7, 1990, the U.S. military beefed up its forces in Arabia to defend its Saudi ally from a possible Iraqi attack. In addition, the UN placed a January 15, 1991, deadline for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait.
The United States and the UN assembled a coalition force of 34 countries to implement this resolution by force should Iraq fail to comply. On January 12, 1991, the U.S. Congress narrowly approved the use of U.S. military force in an operation against Iraq.
When Iraq failed to comply with the January 15 deadline, coalition forces initiated Operation Desert Storm on January 17, 1991, with a massive monthlong air campaign against Baghdad and much of Iraq. The air attacks, over 1,000 in number, disabled military and communication installations and severely weakened the Iraqi military and infrastructure.
Coalition forces launched a ground attack, Operation Desert Sabre, on February 24, 1991; they quickly overwhelmed the thinly stretched Iraqi forces, and after only 100 hours President George H. W. Bush declared a cease-fire.
Iraqi troops hastily retreated back across the border, setting Kuwaiti oil fields on fire as they withdrew. This caused massive environmental damage that persisted into the 21st century. Iraqi troops also dumped approximately 1 million tons of crude oil into the Persian Gulf.
The quick victory was a surprise, and the war ended sooner than predicted. Kuwait City was recaptured, and on February 27, 1991, Kuwait was officially liberated and the Iraq-Kuwait border was restored. However, Saddam Hussein was not captured, and he remained in power.
Allied forces did not pursue him and did not try to occupy Iraq, although they did advance to within 150 miles of the capital of Baghdad. President Bush justified this decision by noting that the goal of the coalition had been to liberate Kuwait.
However, the U.S. administration hoped that continued economic sanctions against Iraq, as well as assistance for resistance groups within Iraq (such as Shi’i and Kurdish factions), would lead the Iraqi people to revolt against Hussein and oust him from power. But Hussein ruthlessly repressed any uprisings.
Although the sanctions caused the deaths of an estimated 500,000 Iraqis, mostly women and children, they had little effect on Hussein’s regime, which actually extended its political control over a nation badly crippled by years of war.
Thus the First Gulf War was a military success, succeeding in liberating Kuwait, but it did not change the Iraqi regime. Consequently the United States, Great Britain, and a small number of other nations moved to oust Hussein and occupy Iraq in the Second Gulf War, beginning in 2003.
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CultureInfo.IsNeutralCulture Property
Gets a value indicating whether the current CultureInfo represents a neutral culture.
Namespace: System.Globalization
Assembly: mscorlib (in mscorlib.dll)
public virtual bool IsNeutralCulture { get; }
Property Value
Type: System.Boolean
true if the current CultureInfo represents a neutral culture; otherwise, false.
A neutral culture is a culture that is associated with a language but not with a country or region. It differs from a specific culture, which is a culture that is associated with both a language and a country or region. For example, fr is the name for the neutral French culture, while fr-FR is the name for the French culture in France.
If this property returns false, the culture is either a specific culture or the invariant culture.
The following code example determines which cultures using the Chinese language are neutral cultures.
using System;
using System.Globalization;
public class SamplesCultureInfo
public static void Main()
// Lists the cultures that use the Chinese language and determines if each is a neutral culture.
foreach (CultureInfo ci in CultureInfo.GetCultures(CultureTypes.AllCultures))
if (ci.TwoLetterISOLanguageName == "zh")
Console.Write("{0,-7} {1,-40}", ci.Name, ci.EnglishName);
if (ci.IsNeutralCulture)
Console.WriteLine(": neutral");
Console.WriteLine(": specific");
This code produces the following output.
zh-Hans Chinese (Simplified) : neutral
zh-TW Chinese (Traditional, Taiwan) : specific
zh-CN Chinese (Simplified, PRC) : specific
zh-HK Chinese (Traditional, Hong Kong S.A.R.) : specific
zh-SG Chinese (Simplified, Singapore) : specific
zh-MO Chinese (Traditional, Macao S.A.R.) : specific
zh Chinese : neutral
zh-Hant Chinese (Traditional) : neutral
zh-CHS Chinese (Simplified) Legacy : neutral
zh-CHT Chinese (Traditional) Legacy : neutral
Universal Windows Platform
Available since 8
.NET Framework
Available since 1.1
Portable Class Library
Supported in: portable .NET platforms
Available since 2.0
Windows Phone Silverlight
Available since 7.0
Windows Phone
Available since 8.1
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What is Heart Arrhythmia
Heart arrhythmia
An irregular or abnormal heartbeat is called an heart arrhythmia or heart dysrhythmia. Heart beat rates can also be irregular standard heart beats rate ranges between 60 to 100 beats per minute. Heart arrhythmias and irregular heart beat rates don’t essentially happen simultaneously. Heart arrhythmias can happen with a regular heart beat rate, or with heart rates that are slow and can also take place with fast heart rates. Learn more about Heart arrhythmia here.
What is Heart arrhythmia
The heart is a pump that works by pumping the blood through its four compartments. The blood is pumped through in a controlled series of muscular contractions. The series is controlled by collection of cells which direct the electrical movement of the heart. When the series is disturbed, heart arrhythmias take place. Heart arrhythmias are irregular beating of the heart. Heart arrhythmias cause the heart to propel blood less efficiently. The majority Heart arrhythmias are short-term and benign. Most short-term and benign Heart arrhythmias are those where your heart misses out a beat or has an additional beat. The irregular skip or additional beat is frequently caused by strong emotions or exercise. Nevertheless, some Heart arrhythmias may be serious and need treatment.
Types of Heart arrhythmias
Heart arrhythmias can be separated into two chief classes viz. ventricular and supraventricular Heart arrhythmias. Supraventricular Heart arrhythmias take place in the heart’s upper compartments called the atrium. Ventricular Heart arrhythmias happen in the hearts lower compartments called the ventricles. Supraventricular and Ventricular heart arrhythmias are further defined by the pace of the heartbeats like extremely slow, extremely fast and rapid uncoordinated. A very sluggish heart rate is called bradycardia and the heart rate is less than 60 heart beats per minute. A very speedy heart rate is called Tachycardia in which the heart beats are faster than 100 heart beats per minute. A rapid uncoordinated heart beat rate is termed ‘Fibrillation’ and is the most dangerous form of heart arrhythmia where a contraction of individual heart muscle fibers happens.
Causes of Heart arrhythmia
Heart arrhythmias can happen by Coronary artery disease, High blood pressure, Valve disorders, and Electrolyte imbalances in the blood, injury from a heart attack or the healing procedure after heart surgery. An Heart arrhythmias may be silent and not produce any symptoms. A doctor can identify an uneven heartbeat during a physical check up by taking your pulse or by an electrocardiogram. When indication of an Heart arrhythmias occurs they may comprise palpitations or sensation that your heart is running away, throbbing in your chest, vertigo, fainting, and shortness of breath, chest uneasiness and fatigue. Tests used to detect a Heart arrhythmia or establish its cause include Electrocardiogram, Event monitor, Stress test and Echocardiogram Cardiac catheterization Electrophysiology, etc.
Treatment for Heart arrhythmia
Treatment for Heart arrhythmia depends on the kind of heart arrhythmia, the age of the patient and the physical state. Techniques are available for avoidance of heart arrhythmia. These techniques comprise relaxation methods to lessen stress, limit ingestion of caffeine, nicotine, alcohol and stimulant drugs. Many heart arrhythmias need no treatment; they are naturally managed by the body’s immune system. However it is essential that heart arrhythmias must be managed, and controlled by medicines or by Cardio version, Automatic implantable defibrillators or an Artificial pacemaker using Heart arrhythmia surgery . Heart arrhythmias are sometimes fatal and can cause serious damages and hence needs to be diagnosed and controlled on time.
Posted in Diseases, Health Care Tagged with: , ,
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glacial breach
Show Summary Details
Quick Reference
A glacially eroded trough that cuts through a ridge and so breaches a former watershed. It is formed when the outflow of a glacier (or ice sheet) is impeded, its thickness consequently increases, and ultimately a new escape route (the breach) is exploited. This process is called ‘glacial diffluence’ when a single glacier spills out of its valley, and ‘glacial transfluence’ when several breaches are formed due to the accumulation of a large ice sheet. The many breaches through the western Highlands of Scotland are due to the accumulation of transfluent ice east of the main watershed.
Subjects: Earth Sciences and Geography — Ecology and Conservation.
Reference entries
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What impression does Dickens give us of Coketown and its people in Hard Times?
Extracts from this document...
What impression does Dickens give us of Coketown and its people in Hard Times? Firstly, Dickens' crude choice of names for the characters reveals much about their individual personalities. 'Gradgrind', the schoolteacher, epitomises Dickens' disapproval of his contemporary educational system, which was based on the principle that 'facts are knowledge'. The name metaphorically suggests that he is grinding down his pupils' imagination and replacing it with facts in their memory. The name also holds connotations of the gradual, repetitive motion of grinding which mirrors the dull, repetitive manner in which he teaches his pupils. Also, the name 'Gradgrind' is composed of hard sounding syllables, giving the impression he has an unfriendly nature and is unapproachable. Gradgrind's bland name suggests that he himself has been ground down by the nature of the society he now promotes. 'The M'Choakumchild school' emphasises the hated impression of school in the nineteenth century. Corporal punishment is frequently seen in Dickens' contemporary schools and here, the name holds exaggerated implications, to the extent of death. ...read more.
The connotations are that Coketown is not a safe place to be and that it is full of danger. Dickens goes on to emphasise the devastation caused by the industrial age, saying 'It was a town of red brick, or of brick what would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it'. This emphasises the domination of industry over Coketown, suggesting that the smoke has affected the physical appearance of the town. Also, the fact that the smoke does not 'allow' this to change suggests that the smoke has some sort of control over Coketown and that even if the people wanted rid of it they could not do so, emphasising the necessity of industry in Coketown. Unfortunately for the inhabitants, Coketown is fuelled by industry and would therefore be nothing without it. To exaggerate how unpleasant and oppressing the effects of industry are, Dickens makes use of the different senses. For example, the description of the smoke and ash from the industrial work covering the buildings. ...read more.
Coketown only contains that which is necessary to allow it to run, it is a utilitarian town. The 'fancy' has been removed from Coketown. Dickens continues to criticise the ways of nineteenth century society, saying '... the jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail...' Dickens' use of juxtaposition creates a dramatic comparison as the two buildings are effectively opposites. Coketown is illustrative of all towns in the nineteenth century, in Dickens' view. Through the exaggerated description of uniformity, he is telling how the society in which he lived was in fact a very tedious and unpleasant one. Throughout the text, Dickens skilfully uses key words and phrases to continue the emphasis he is placing on the uniformity of Coketown. He uses forceful language to develop the point being made, 'you saw nothing in Coketown but what was severely workful'. Other key images with further meaning are also used to create emphasis and provoke thought from the audience, 'in severe characters of black and white'. The 'black and white' are used to represent the blandness of Coketown as well as emphasise the importance of fact. Georgia Reeve 1 ...read more.
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1. Compare and Contrast Dickens's picture of Coketown with Lodge's introduction to the industrial environment ...
Most of the mechanized account and in particular p.20 creates such an impression on the reader to think this. Dickens believed that this was a brutal world where everything is "measured by figures" in a Gradgrind gospel of "Fact". He has written a satire against the foundation and the constitutions of Industrial Society.
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He has an imposing figure and his entire body is oversized, swelled and overweight. He calls himself a "self-made man" and he always tells his friends (the Gradgrinds, primarily) stories of how he grew up in the most wretched conditions.
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At the centre of it all is Mr.Gradgrind, who controls the lives of his children, Sissy and Bitzer, in a way that the readers can tell is wrong by the way Dickens uses imagery and symbolism to describe him. For instance, in the first chapter the simile, "like the crust
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Hutus and Tutsis
The classification and grouping of people in Rwanda was a major factor in determining the victims of the 1994 genocide. (Mamdani, 43) The Tutsi victims were specifically targeted by Hutu perpetrators because of their “race.” These two groups of people truly believed they were completely different from each other. Most scholars state three different theories about the origin of “Hutus” and “Tutsis”. The theories are based on phenotype, genotype, and the Hamitic theory. Each theory shows that one of the groups migrated to the region.
The first theory, examining phenotype, has to do with physical features. The three groups of people living in Rwanda (Twa, Hutu, and Tutsi) each has a distinct physical appearance. (Mamdani, 44) The Twa people are pygmies (anyone under 150 cm). Since the Twa only made up a very small portion of the total population, the controversy shifted to the Hutu and Tutsi. The Hutu people are neither tall nor short. Tutsis are typically tall and slender. A German anthropologist in the early 2000’s found a difference of 12 centimeters between the height of Hutus and Tutsis. (Mamdani, 44) Given this large height difference, scholars decided that these two groups must have come from different places.
However, there are people that dispute this “phenotype” theory. These arguments typically examine the social differences between the two groups. They argue that Hutus were shorter and stockier than the Tutsis because they were not as wealthy and didn’t get the same amount of protein that their counterparts did. (Mamdani, 44) Tutsis, being richer, drank more milk and had more access to meat. Another argument points out the differing lifestyles of Hutus and Tutsis. Whereas the Hutus worked hard on the land, the Tutsis led more privileged lives.
The next theory about the origin of Hutus and Tutsis focuses on their genotype. “Genotype,” in terms of Rwanda, meant the ability of adults to digest lactose and the presence of the sickle cell trait. Nomadic desert people have a gene that allows them to digest lactose, a sugar found in milk. (Mamdani, 45) These nomadic people have the gene through natural selection over the course of millennium. What’s interesting about this is that studies have shown as many as three quarters of Tutsi adults in Rwanda and neighboring Burundi are able to digest lactose. Only five percent of the Shi people of the Congo are able to digest this sugar. (Mamdani, 46) Studies in Hutus have found about one out of three adults able to digest lactose. The one-third rate among Hutus is likely to exist because of intermarriages between the Hutus and the Tutsis.
As far as the sickle cell trait goes, the Hutu have been found to have the trait at about the same rate as people in neighboring countries. Tutsis on the other hand, rarely, if ever, have the sickle cell trait. The sickle cell trait provides a higher survival rate than normal in regions with malaria. (Mamdani, 45) This trait also came about through natural selection. This finding reinforces the fact that the Hutus and Tutsis have different backgrounds and proves the “migration” theory.
The third possible explanation for the origin of Hutus and Tutsis lies in Hamitic theory. The Hamitic theory is the belief that descendants of Noah’s son, Ham, are superior to others. (Carney, 11) Specifically in Africa, the Hamitic race was supposedly superior to the other groups of people living there at the time. Tutsis were seen as being of Hamitic origin. “For European theorists in Rwanda, the Tutsi fit the role of Hamitic civilizer; the Hutu were classified as Bantu Africans. In turn, the Tutsi ‘Caucasians under a black skin’ were seen as superior to their Bantu Hutu neighbors.” (Carney, 11) This viewpoint is another possible explanation for the fundamental differences between Hutus and Tutsis.
There is however, one major problem with the theories’ attempt to answer the question of why the genocide erupted in 1994. While these theories delve into the deep history of the origins of Hutus and Tutsis, they fail to account for the Rwanda of the 1900’s. Rwanda in the 1900’s was a country with two distinct groups, living in peace for much of the century. For the most part, the two groups found a way to co-exist until 1994 when the genocide began. The economic system in Rwanda was influenced by the differing backgrounds. Hutus had land that they farmed and Tutsis owned cattle. However, this was a political divide, not a racial divide. (Carney, 12) Politics influenced the social class of the two groups and their ability to own cattle. Hutus and Tutsis lived together in communities. There were not specific villages for Hutus and specific villages for Tutsis. They were mixed in with each other and communicated with the other group. Kinyarwandan was spoken by both groups of people. “The cultural community of Kinyarwanda speakers long predated the political community framed by the state called Rwanda. Thus, we come to the point that the people called Tutsi, and those who came to be called Hutu, spoke the same language, lived on the same hills, and had more or less the same culture…” (Mamdani, 52)
There were many intermarriages among the Hutus and Tutsis. This provided a gray area for determining which group a given individual fit in. Typically, the wife took on the social class of the husband. For example, if a Tutsi woman married a Hutu man, the woman would become a Tutsi. (Notice how this didn’t hold true in the genocide in 1994, where a Tutsi woman would be killed even if her husband was a Hutu.) In the case of children, a newborn took on the social class of his/her father. A child of a Hutu man and a Tutsi woman would be a Hutu. There was no “half-and-half.” Everyone fit into one of the two distinct groups. Even after many generations of intermarriages, newborn children are always unequivocally either Hutu or Tutsi. “’There’s been so much inter-marriage over the years that you often cannot tell who’s who,’ said a presidential aid from Burundi to a Western reporter, and then added as an afterthought, ‘but everybody knows, anyway.’” (Mamdani, 54)
A Sudanese intellectual visiting a refugee camp in Rwanda in the summer of 1995 (one year after the genocide) had this to say about the ambiguity of the matter:
I had come to know, more or less, the stereotypical description of the short negroid Hutus and the tall, fine-featured Hamitic Tutsis. As I looked at my audiences, I saw a few who were clearly Tutsi and a few who were clearly Hutus. But most were somewhere in between, and I could not identify them. I later asked the Burundese, including senior government officials and ministers, whether they could tell a Tutsi from a Hutu. The response of the foreign minister, which represented the general tone, was a confident “Yes,” but “with a margin of error of 35 percent” – a remarkable margin given the confidence of the affirmative answer. (Deng, 15)
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What Is Reactive Airway Disease?
When Your Wheezing Can't Be Explained Quite Yet
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woman with doctor having trouble breathing
Your doctor may diagnose you or your child with reactive airway disease the first time you wheeze. Some doctors use the term as a synonym or catch phrase for asthma. Others use it as a term before an exact diagnosis is made so that you are not inappropriately labeled.
An exact definition of reactive airway disease does not really exist. While it may help explain asthma to a patient or parent, the term is not really all that helpful clinically because there is no accepted or precise meaning.
There are many children, especially infants, who will wheeze and never develop asthma. In fact, only about a third of wheezing infants will ever be diagnosed with it. Whether respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or some other virus, it's important to remember that all wheezes are not related to asthma.
You could be said to have a reactive airway disease if you are experiencing any of the following symptoms:
Furthermore, three primary changes are taking place in your lungs in reactive airway disease:
1. Increased mucus. Your airways become irritated and inflamed, causing the cells in your airways to produce mucus. The thick mucus produced can clog the airways of your lung, making it difficult to breathe.
2. Inflammation and swelling. Just as your arm swells from the irritation of being stung by a bee or wasp, airways of your lungs swell and become inflamed during an episode.
1. Muscle tightening. The smooth muscles in the airways of your lungs tighten and the airways become smaller, making it more difficult to breathe.
The narrowing of the airways and subsequent symptoms may occur suddenly or may develop more gradually. The symptoms of reactive airway disease range from very mild to very severe.
Pediatricians and general practitioners have used the term "reactive airway disease" to be able to tell parents that their child is wheezing, but does not have asthma. Some doctors are using the term to refer another condition known as "reactive airways dysfunction syndrome," or RADS.
RADS refers to wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath in someone with lung damage after exposure to toxic chemicals contained in vapors, fumes, or smoke. RADS often mimics asthma but is not asthma per se.
While your doctor will surely consider asthma if you are showing symptoms of reactive airway disease, a number of other diagnoses will also be considered. Your doctor will talk to you about your symptoms and possibly do lab or other tests.
Other diseases that may produce reactive airway disease symptoms include:
Depending on your symptoms and what your doctor believes your diagnosis to be, there are a number of different potential treatments. These could include:
Fahy JV, O'Bryne PM. Reactive Airways Disease - A Lazy Term of Uncertain Meaning That Should Be Abandoned. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine;163(4):822-823.
Allergy/Asthma Information Association. A Patient's Guide to Asthma Care.
Brooks SM. Then and Now Reactive Airways Dysfunction Syndrome. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2016;58(6):636-7.
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The Homeric Hymns Test | Final Test - Easy
Buy The Homeric Hymns Lesson Plans
Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________
Multiple Choice Questions
1. According to Aphrodite, what will the child she has with Anchises grow to become?
(a) A great writer.
(b) A great poet.
(c) A great warrior.
(d) A great philosopher.
2. Who reportedly witnessed the birth of Athena?
(a) Gods and animals, but not men.
(b) Men and animals, but not gods.
(c) Gods and men.
(d) Gods, men, and animals.
3. What characteristic does the hymn point out about Hephaistos?
(a) His cleverness.
(b) His cautiousness.
(c) His persuasiveness.
(d) His persistence.
4. In the story, how does Aphrodite disguise herself in order to get close to Anchises?
(a) As another goddess.
(b) As a girl that Anchises once knew.
(c) As a mortal girl.
(d) As a girl that Anchises knows.
5. Which one of Athena's attributes is the subject of the final Hymn to Athena?
(a) Justice.
(b) Skill.
(c) Industry.
(d) War.
6. How many hymns are there to Athena?
(a) Two.
(b) Three.
(c) Four.
(d) One.
7. As explained in The Hymn to the Muses, which of the following's work are related to the Muses?
(a) Ares.
(b) Apollo.
(c) Zeus.
(d) Poseidon.
8. How is Hestia's presence described in the Hymns to Hestia?
(a) Eternal.
(b) Comforting.
(c) Powerful.
(d) Overwhelming.
9. How is Hades first described in The Hymn to Demeter?
(a) He who takes from the Earth.
(b) He who receives so few.
(c) He who receives so many.
(d) He who takes what is not theirs.
10. When is Anchises bewitched by Aphrodite's beauty?
(a) Immediately.
(b) Three days after they meet.
(c) One week after they meet.
(d) Two days after they meet.
11. How many seeds does Demeter's daughter eat before returning?
(a) Five.
(b) Two.
(c) Three.
(d) Four.
12. Whose child does Demeter attempt to make immortal?
(a) Metanira.
(b) Pasiphae.
(c) Marpesia.
(d) Pyrrha.
13. Who is Demeter's daughter?
(a) Polyhymnia.
(b) Persephone.
(c) Calliope.
(d) Athena.
14. In The Hymn to Aphrodite, what job does Anchises have?
(a) He is a sheepherder.
(b) He is a soldier.
(c) He is a cowherd.
(d) He is a poet.
15. As explained in the hymn, how did the witnesses of Athena's birth respond to the event?
(a) With fear.
(b) With silence.
(c) With laughter.
(d) With sadness.
Short Answer Questions
1. How is Hephaistos described in The Hymn to Hephaistos?
2. Based on the ancient myths, what is known to happen when mortals have affairs with immortals?
3. What job did Hephaistos have, according to the hymn?
4. Based on the information provided in The Hymns to the Dioscuri, who do Castor and Pollux protect?
5. What does the poem in The Third Hymn to Aphrodite describe?
(see the answer keys)
This section contains 434 words
(approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page)
Buy The Homeric Hymns Lesson Plans
The Homeric Hymns from BookRags. (c)2017 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Gosling Bird Definition
Baby Geese
All baby geese are goslings. - Photo © TimothyJ/Flickr/CC by 2.0
(noun) Gosling is a specialized term for a young baby goose, typically still covered with down and unable to fly. Because these chicks are precocial, however, even at a young age they can easily forage on their own and both walk and swim well, though they stay in a family flock under the protective eyes of their parents.
GAH-zleeeng or GAH-sleeeng
(rhymes with jostling)
What Makes a Baby Goose a Gosling
Both male and female goose chicks are referred to as goslings.
The term is often only applied to the youngest chicks, however, and when juvenile geese begin to show flight feathers and adult plumage they are not typically called goslings. Some birders, however, do continue to call young geese goslings until they reach their full adult plumage and maturity. At what age young geese are called goslings or geese is largely a matter of personal preference and both terms are technically correct. Other birders prefer that older juvenile geese are identified by their individual species names - Canada goose, Ross's goose, cackling goose, and so on. Using species names ensures there is no confusion about the exact birds being referenced, even though species names do not distinguish birds' ages.
It is important to note that not all "geese" are properly geese according to scientific classifications, and therefore not all babies of these species should be called goslings.
Egyptian geese, for example, while they are commonly called geese, are actually ducks, and their young offspring would properly be called ducklings and not goslings.
Identifying Goslings
All young waterfowl can be challenging to identify because these birds are deliberately camouflaged for protection before they mature.
Goslings can be distinguished from ducklings, however, based on their larger size and longer necks, as well as a more triangular bill. Ducklings, on the other hand, have more flattened, spatulate-shaped bills, are significantly smaller and have shorter, more compact necks than baby geese.
Determining the exact species of a baby goose can be difficult. Because goslings are never far from their parent birds and are rarely seen in mixed flocks, the adult birds they associate with can be one of the best clues to proper identification. Other clues that can help identify goslings include...
• Range: Different geese often have different breeding ranges, and young goslings will not venture out of that breeding range until they have matured to their adult plumage. A camouflaged, hard-to-identify, immature gosling will not be seen extremely far from its breeding range.
• Markings: Despite their camouflaged, downy plumage, young geese often do have certain distinguishing markings, particularly around the head and face. Also checking down color and the color of the feet and legs can help identify young goslings.
• Voice: Young birds are often more vocal than their adult counterparts, and different begging calls can be distinctive. Furthermore, excessive begging will often call adults to return to nurture the goslings, providing the best possible identification clue - the parents.
Species of Goslings
Other than rare instances where a duck or other waterfowl species has a common, colloquial name of goose, all species of goose have young called goslings. This includes the familiar Canada goose, bar-headed goose, magpie goose, red-breasted goose and snow goose.
Watching Goslings
Goslings are inexperienced and often clumsy birds, and their soft plumage, large eyes, undeveloped wings and high-pitched squeaking calls make them endearing to birders and non-birders alike. It is important to note, however, that adult geese are extremely protective of their young and can become angry and aggressive to defend their goslings. It is best to avoid approaching goslings too closely, which could stress the young birds and aggravate the adults. Pets and small children should be kept away from waterfowl families, and not allowed to chase or stress the birds.
Birders visiting local ponds should also avoid feeding goslings bread, which does not provide the proper nutrition for healthy growth and instead could create deformities that can handicap young geese.
Goslings can be charming birds, and these young geese are often some of the first birds that urban or suburban birders may be able to see, particularly as chicks in local parks. Understanding the unique characteristics of goslings and how to properly identify them will help birders better appreciate all the life stages of these familiar birds.
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Oceanic manta rays are one of the most iconic animals in the ocean. They can grow up to 7 meters across, live over 50 years, and are incredibly intelligent and curious. Because of these traits and their harmless nature, mantas are sought out by divers and snorkelers around the world. Pacific Mexico has historically been one of the most popular destinations to dive and snorkel with oceanic manta rays, providing frequent and predictable encounters that make tourism operations surrounding the species possible. Although the majority of this tourism, valued at $10 million annually, occurs in the Revillagigedo Archipelago, a second hotspot for oceanic manta rays has recently been identified in la Bahia de Banderas on mainland Pacific Mexico. Mantas have extremely low reproductive and population growth rates, making them particularly susceptible to human impacts. Due to increasing demand for their gill plates in traditional Chinese medicine, manta ray populations are declining in many regions around the world in response to both targeted and bycatch fisheries. While mantas are far more valuable alive than dead, and public opinion largely supports protection for the species, our lack of basic ecological research on oceanic manta rays hinders the development of effective conservation and management measures.
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Wing Simulation
For an airplane in stable flight, angle of attack determines the airspeed. Boundary layer development and maximum lift coefficient is highly dependent upon the Reynolds number, which is a function of the airspeed, airfoil length, air density, and air viscosity. In the case of a tapered wing, the Reynolds number and subsequent airfoil characteristics vary over the span of the wing.
From the equation:
Gross Weight = 0.5 * ρ * V2 * Lift Coefficient * Wing Area
the range of airspeed, and hence, Reynolds number may be calculated.
AeroFoil first calculates the minimum angle of attack using the maximum airspeed. The highest angle of attack and minimum airspeed is then found through iteration. The highest angle of attack in this case is assumed to occur when the airfoil at the wing root reaches its maximum coefficient of lift. The range of angle of attack is then sub-divided into equal segments and the airfoil characteristics are found at each.
Incidence represents the angle of attack of the root chord, relative to the fuselage. In aircraft design, the root chord is typically set at an angle of attack that will result in the minimum drag of the airplane at some design condition.
Incidence represents the angle of attack of the root airfoil, relative to the fuselage. A positive value indicates that the root airfoil is at a higher angle of attack than the reference. Washout represents a difference in the angle of attack between the root chord and tip chord. A positive value indicates that the tip is at a lower angle of attack than the root. This is frequently used in aircraft design to ensure that the onset of stall will occur at the wing root and progress towards the tip as the angle of attack is increased. A combination of root chord incidence and tip washout is chosen to establish a level fuselage as some set design condition. In the wing simulation, all tabular results are referenced to the fuselage angle of attack.
Re-arranging the first equation gives:
Cl = Gross Weight / (0.5 * ρ * V2 * Wing Area)
Assuming a semi-elliptic span loading along the wing, then at the wing root:
Cl root = (4 * Cl * Wing Area) / (π * Root Chord * Span)
The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) represents the average airfoil along the wing's span. In the preliminary calculations of aircraft stability, the wing is assumed to act as if all forces are acting on the MAC. It is found by:
MAC = 2 * [Root + Tip - (Root * Tip)/(Root + Tip)] / 3
If coordinate data for only one airfoil is given, AeroFoil assumes that airfoil is used throughout the wing. If two airfoils are specified, airfoil #1 is used for the root and airfoil #2 is the tip. The MAC is then found by linear interpolation between the two. If three airfoils are specified, airfoil #1 is the root, airfoil #2 is the MAC, and airfoil #3 is the tip.
Any numeric value except wing area and aspect ratio may be entered manually by left clicking over the numeric value and typing the desired value in the text box.
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