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Campylopterus largipennis
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Trochiliformes
Family: Trochilidae
Genus: Campylopterus
Swainson, 1827
See text.
The Sabrewings are relatively large Neotropical hummingbirds in the genus Campylopterus. They are species of the understory and edges of forests, mostly in mountains, and often near streams. The female Sabrewing lays its two white eggs in a relatively large cup nest on a low horizontal branch, usually over a stream.
The sabrewings are very large for hummingbirds, typically 12–15 cm long. The black bill is strong and slightly decurved. The shafts of the male’s two outermost primary flight feathers are thickened, flattened and bent at an angle to give the distinctive feature which gives the sabrewings their English and scientific names (Greek καμπυλοσ kampylos, "bent", and πτερον pteron, "wing").
In some species, the male and female plumage is similar, in others, such as the Violet Sabrewing, the sexes look completely different. In several species, the three outer pairs of the tail feathers are broadly tipped white.
The food of sabrewings is nectar, taken mainly from undergrowth flowers such as Heliconia and bananas.
• A guide to the birds of Costa Rica by Stiles and Skutch ISBN 0-8014-9600-4
• Hilty, Steven L (2003). Birds of Venezuela. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-6418-5.
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Introductory Lecture and Objectives
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe eNotes Lesson Plan content
Introductory Lecture
The first book in C. S. Lewis’s The Chronicles of Narnia series, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe endures more than half a century after its publication. The novel has been adapted for television multiple times, as well as for the stage and film. It has been reflected in popular culture, from politics to Saturday Night Live. On one level, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is an adventure tale; its four protagonists—siblings Lucy, Edmund, Peter, and Susan—step inside a magical wardrobe and discover a child’s ideal fantasy world, complete with talking animals, beautiful landscapes, virtuous souls, terrible villains, a heroic lion, and four thrones waiting for the children to occupy them in fulfillment of a prophecy. If the book held no deeper meaning, it very well might have endured simply because it is a wonderful adventure story. However, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is also a heroic journey through which courage, loyalty, and sacrifice bring about the transformation of the children and of Narnia itself. Read in yet another way, Lewis’s story reimagines the crucifixion of Christ and his resurrection, reaffirming the transformative power of love and faith.
At the time he wrote the book, C. S. Lewis was already a notable British author and Christian apologetic, striving to present a rational basis for Christianity and defend it against attacks. He had left Christianity as an adolescent but returned to his faith in his early thirties and, years later, wrote his first book for children about Narnia. Though Lewis said that as an artist he let the story unfold creatively, he also saw the virtue in teaching children through storytelling.1 It is important to understand the role of the Christian faith in Lewis’s life story, as it informs the spiritual themes in the book.
Obsessed with power and domination, an evil White Witch rules in Narnia, but a prophecy states that her rule will end when four humans (the siblings) arrive in Narnia. When the youngest boy, Edmund, betrays his siblings to the White Witch, he commits a traitorous act. Selfishness and a desire for power have poisoned his soul, and by the rules of Deep Magic, his life belongs to the White Witch. The great Lion Aslan—who represents truth, justice, and love—offers himself in Edmund’s place, and the animal’s death is a dark and violent affair that conjures the crucifixion of Christ. Through the lion’s sacrifice, Edmund’s soul is wiped clean, just as Christian belief holds that Jesus died for the sins of mankind. Edmund becomes a just and compassionate king of Narnia.
Though The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was published in 1950, Lewis had conceived the novel a decade prior, when many children living in London were evacuated to keep them safe from relentless bombings by the German air force during the London Blitz. Those are the circumstances when Peter, Susan, Lucy, and Edmund are transported to a large house in the country where they find little to do but play hide-and-seek and explore the house’s crevices—ultimately leading them to the wardrobe. Viewed in this context, Narnia and its adventures offer an escape from a dark world where children have little control. Though Narnia itself includes elements of darkness and danger, the children are empowered participants in its drama, and it is in Narnia that the children grow up—physically, emotionally, and perhaps most importantly to Lewis, spiritually.
1. Explain the main characteristics each of the children represents and how they came to embody those traits.
2. Chart Edmund’s character development from petulant schoolboy, to traitor, to hero.
3. Identify the novel’s main arguments about faith, loyalty, sacrifice, and power.
4. Understand how Lewis uses imagery and vivid sensory descriptions to create a fanciful universe and to enhance the novel’s themes.
5. Identify the main allegories in the text.
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Quadroon | QuickiWiki
The term mulatto was used to designate a person who was biracial, with one black parent and one white parent.[2]
The term octoroon referred to a person with one-eighth African ancestry;[3] that is, someone with family heritage of one biracial grandparent, in other words, one African great-grandparent and seven Caucasian great-grandparents. As with the use of quadroon, this word was applied to a limited extent in Australia for those of one-eighth Aboriginal ancestry, in the putting in place of government assimilation policies.
Terceron was a term synonymous with octoroon, derived from being three generations of descent from an African ancestor (great-grandparent).[4] The term mustee was also used to refer to a person with one-eighth African ancestry, while mustefino refers to a person with one-sixteenth African ancestry.[2] The terms "quintroon" or "hexadecaroon" were also applied.
The term griffe or sambo has been used for someone of three-quarters African heritage, or the child of a biracial parent and a fully black parent.[2]
In literature
The figure of the "tragic octoroon" was a stock character of abolitionist literature: a light-brown-skinned woman raised as if a white woman in her father's household, until his bankruptcy or death leaves her reduced to a menial position.[5] She may even be unaware of her status before being reduced to victimization.[6] The first character of this type was the heroine of Lydia Maria Child's The Quadroons.[6] This character allowed abolitionists to draw attention to the sexual exploitation in slavery, and unlike the suffering of the field hands, did not allow slaveholders to retort that the sufferings of Northern mill hands were no easier, since the Northern mill owner would not sell his own children into slavery.[7]
Mulattos, as with abducted white people, were often used to arouse sentiments against slavery by showing Northerners slaves who were visually indistinguishable from them.[8]
See also
1. ^ Kottak, Conrad Phillip. "Chapter 11: Ethnicity and Race." Mirror for Humanity a Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 238. Print.
2. ^ a b c d Carter G. Woodson and Charles H. Wesley, The Story of the Negro Retold, (Wildside Press, LLC, 2008), p. 44: The mulatto was the offspring of a white and a black person; the sambo of a mulatto and a black. From the mulatto and a white came the quadroon and from the quadroon and a white the mustee. The child of a mustee and a white person was called the mustefino.
3. ^ Princeton University WordNet Search: octoroon
4. ^ Wikisource: from 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Octoroon
5. ^ Ariela J. Gross, What Blood Won't Tell: A History of Race on Trial in America, p. 61 ISBN 978-0-674-03130-2
6. ^ a b Kathy Davis. "Headnote to Lydia Maria Child's 'The Quadroons' and 'Slavery's Pleasant Homes'."
7. ^ Werner Sollors, Interracialism p. 285 ISBN 0-19-512856-7
8. ^ Lawrence R. Tenzer, "White Slaves"
Text is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.
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lunedì 13 febbraio 2012
City-building and architecture
Aztec warfare
Aztec warfare concerns the aspects associated with the militaristic conventions, forces, weaponry and strategic expansions conducted by the Late Postclassic Aztec civilizations of Mesoamerica, including particularly the military historyof the Aztec Triple Alliance involving the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and other allied polities of the central Mexican region.
The Aztec armed forces were typically composed of a large number of commoners (yāōquīzqueh) who possessed only basic military training, and a smaller but still considerable number of professional warriors belonging to the nobility (pīpiltin) and who were organized into warrior societies and ranked according to their achievements. The Aztec state was centered around political expansion and dominance of and exaction of tribute from other city states, and warfare was the basic dynamic force in Aztec politics. Aztec society was also centered around warfare: every Aztec male received basic military training from an early age and the only possibility of upwards social mobility for commoners (mācehualtin) was through military achievement — especially the taking of captives (māltin). The sacrifice of war captives was an important part of many of the Aztec religious festivals. Warfare was thus the main driving force of both the Aztec economy and religion.
Stratification and ranks
The commoners composed the bulk of the army, the lowest were porters (tlamemeh) who carried weapons and supplies, next came the youths of the telpochcalli led by their sergeants (thetēlpochyahqueh) Next were the commoners yaoquizqueh. And finally there were commoners who had taken captives, the so-called tlamanih.
Ranking above these came the nobles of the "warrior societies". These were ranked according to the number of captives they had taken in previous battles; the number of captives determined which of the different suits of honor (called tlahuiztli) they were allowed to wear. These tlahuiztli became gradually more spectacular as the ranks progressed, allowing the most excellent warriors who had taken many captives to stand out on the battlefield. The higher ranked warriors were also called "Pipiltin".
Eagle and Jaguar warriors
Ranged weapons
Tlahuitolli: A bow.
Atlatl: The Aztec dart thrower was a weapon used to hurl small darts called "tlacochtli" with greater force and from greater range than they could be thrown by hand. Murals at Teotihuacan show warriors using this effective weapon and it is characteristic of the Mesoamerican cultures of central Mexico. The atlatl could also throw spears as its name implies "spear thrower".
Mitl: Arrow.
Micomitl: Aztec arrow quiver.
Yaomitl: War arrows with barbed obsidian, chert, flint, or bone points.
Tlacalhuazcuahuitl: A blowgun consisting of a hollow reed using poison darts for ammunition. This was used primarily for hunting rather than warfare.
Melee weapons
Macuahuitl: "Hungry-wood", essentially a wooden sword with sharp obsidian blades embedded into its sides. This was the standard armament of the elite cadres. Also known in Spanish by the Taino word "macana". A blow from such a weapon was reputedly capable of decapitating a horse.
Tepoztopilli: Wooden spear with sharp obsidian blades in the top.
Quauhololli: A mace like weapon, the handle was made out of wood topped with a wooden, rock, or copper ball at the end.
Huitzauhqui: A wooden club, somewhat resembling a baseball bat. This weapon was used as a melee weapon just as it was made, but other designs were studded with flint or obsidian cutting elements on its sides.
Tepoztli: Basically an ax, comparable to a tomahawk, the head of which was made of either stone or copper and had a two side design, one side had a sharp bladed edge while the other one a hammer like protrusion.
Tecpatl: A dagger with a double sided blade made out of flint or obsidian with an elaborate stone or wooden handle, seven to nine inches overall in length. Although this would have been an effective side arm, this weapon was more commonly used in Aztec sacrifice ceremonies which may point to this weapon being wielded mostly by Aztec warrior priests.
Tripatlzachital: A copper club used only by the Aztecs. This was new to the world and worked very effectively on enemies
Bernal Diaz also refers to a lengthy scythe-like weapon - apparently so large that a number of warriors had to operate it. This was embedded with obsidian blades for up to 3 meters, and used to slice through ranks.
Ichcahuipilli: Quilted cotton armor which was soaked in salt water brine and then hung to dry in shade so that the salt would crystalize inside of it. One or two fingers thick, this material was resistant to obsidian swords and atlatl darts.
Ehuatl: The tunic that some noble warriors wore over their cotton armour or tlahuiztli.
Tlahuiztli: The distinctively decorated suits of prestigious warriors and members of warrior societies. These suits served as a way to identify warriors according to their achievements in battle as well as rank, alliance, and social status like priesthood. Usually made of a single piece of material with an opening in the back they covered most of the body and extremities, and offered added protection to the wearer. Made with elements of animal hide, leather, and cotton these suits also included protection for the head in the form of hats or helmets made out of wood with bone elements, most noteworthy example of these are the helmets worn by Jaguar and Eagle knights.
Pamitl: The identifying emblems that officers and famous warriors wore on their backs. Like the Japanese uma-jirushi, these were frequently unique to their wearers, and were not necessarily shaped like flags.
giovedì 8 dicembre 2011
Aztec religion is the Mesoamerican religion practiced by the Aztec empire. Like other Mesoamerican religions, it had elements of human sacrifice in connection with a large number of religious festivals which were held according to patterns of the Aztec calendar. It had a large and ever increasing pantheon; the Aztecs would often adopt deities of other geographic regions or peoples into their own religious practice. Aztec cosmology divided the world into upper and nether worlds, each associated with a specific set of deities and astronomical objects. Important in Aztec religion were the sun, moon and the planet Venus—all of which held different symbolic and religious meanings and were connected to deities and geographical places.
Large parts of the Aztec pantheon were inherited from previous Mesoamerican civilizations and others, such as Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, were venerated by different names in most cultures throughout the history of Mesoamerica. For the Aztecs especially important deities were Tlaloc the god of rain, Huitzilopochtli the patron god of the Mexica tribe, Quetzalcoatl the culture hero and god of civilization and order, and Tezcatlipoca the god of destiny and fortune, connected with war and sorcery. Each of these gods had their own temples within the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan--Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli were both worshipped at the Templo Mayor. A common Aztec religious practice was the recreation of the divine: Mythological events would be ritually recreated and living persons would impersonate specific deities and be revered as a god—and often ritually sacrificed.
Human sacrifice
Human sacrifice was practiced on a grand scale throughout the Aztec empire, although the exact figures are unknown. At Tenochtitlán, the principal Aztec city, according to Ross Hassing "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed over the course of four days for the dedication of the Great Pyramid in 1487. Excavations of the offerings in the main temple has provided some insight in the process, but the dozens of remains excavated are far short of the thousands of sacrifices recorded by eyewitnesses and other historical accounts. For millennia, the practice of human sacrifice was widespread in Mesoamerican and South American cultures. It was a theme in the Olmec religion, which thrived between 1200 BC and 400 BC and among the Maya. Human sacrifice was a very complex ritual. Every sacrifice had to be meticulously planned from the type of victim to specific ceremony needed for the god. The sacrificial victims were usually warriors but sometimes slaves, depending upon the god and needed ritual. The higher the rank of the warrior the better he is looked at as a sacrifice. The victim(s) would then take on the persona of the god he was to be sacrificed for. The victim(s) would be housed, fed, and dressed accordingly. This process could last up to a year. When the sacrificial day arrived, the victim(s) would participate in the specific ceremonies of the god. These ceremonies were used to exhaust the victim so that he would not struggle during the ceremony. Then five priests, known as the Tlenamacac, performed the sacrifice usually at the top of a pyramid. The victim would be laid upon the table, held down and then have his heart cut out.
• Acuecucyoicihuati (see Chalchiuhtlicue)
• Amimitl - god of lakes and fishers
• Atlacamani - goddess of oceanic storms such as hurricanes
• Atlacoya - goddess of drought
• Atlatonan (also Atlatonin) - goddess of the coast
• Atlaua - water god
• Ayauhteotl - goddess of mist, fog, vanity and fame
• Camaxtli - god of hunting, war, fate and fire
• Centeotl
• Chalchiuhtlatonal - god of water
• Chalchiuhtecolotl - a night owl god
• Chalchiuhtotolin (Precious Night Turkey) - god of pestilence and mystery Chalchiuhtlicue (also Chalciuhtlicue, or Chalchihuitlicue) (She of the Jade Skirt). (Sometimes Acuecucyoticihuati) - the goddess of lakes and streams, and also of birth; consort of Tlaloc.
• Chalmecatecuchtlz - a god of the underworld, Mictlan and sacrifices
• Chalmecatl the underworld, Mictlan and the north
• Chicomecoatl (also ChalchiuhcihuatlChiccomeccatl, or Xilonen) - goddess of new maize and produce, wife of Cinteotl.
• Chicomexochtli - a patron of artists
• Chiconahui - a domestic fertility goddess
• Chiconahuiehecatl - associated with creation
• Cipactonal - god of astrology and the calendar
• Citlalatonac (see Ometeotl)
• Citlalicue - a creator of the stars
• Cuaxolotl - a goddess of the hearth
• Huehueteotl (also UeueteotlXiuhtecuhtliXiutechuhtli) - an ancient god of the hearth, the fire of life. Associated with the pole star and the north, and serves as a skybearer
• Ilamatecuhtli (also Cihuacoatl or Quilaztli) - aged goddess of the earth, death, and the Milky Way. Her roar signalled war Huitzilopochtli (also MextliMexitlUitzilopochtli) - the supreme god of Tenochtitlan, patron of war, fire and the sun
• Itzli - god of sacrifice and stone knives.
• Metztli (also MetztliTecuciztecatlTecciztecatl)- lowly god of worms who failed to sacrifice himself to become the sun, and became the moon instead, his face darkened by a rabbit.
• Mextli - a god of war and storms
• Nanahuatzin (also NanaNanautzin, or Nanauatzin) - lowly god who sacrificed himself to become sun god Tonatiuh
• Omacatl
• Omecihuatl
• Ometecuhtli
• Oxomoco - goddess of astrology and the calendar
• Patecatl - the god of medicine, husband of Mayahuel
• Paynal - the messenger to Huitzilopochtli
• Xipe Totec - the god of the seasons, seed germination and renewal, considered the patron of goldworkersXilonen - the goddess of young maizeTecciztecatl (see Mextli)
• Temazcalteci (also Temaxcaltechi) - goddess of bathing and sweatbaths
• Teoyaomicqui (also Teoyaomiqui)- the god of dead warriors
• Tepoztecatl (also Tezcatzontecatl) - god of pulque and rabbits
• Teteoinnan - mother of the gods
• Tlaltecuhtli - goddess of earth, associated with difficult births
• Tlazolteotl (also TlaelquaniTlazolteotli)- the goddess of purification from filth, disease or excess
• Tloquenahuaque - a creator god or ruler
• Tonacacihuatl - consort of Tonacatecuhtli
• Tonantzin - a mother goddess
• Tzitzmitl - aged grandmother goddess
• Xiuhtecuhtli -(also called Huehueteotl)
• Xocotl - star god associated with fire
Migrational period
Rise of the Triple Alliance
Spanish conquest
Despite some early battles between the two, Cortés allied himself with the Aztecs’ long-time enemy, the Confederacy of Tlaxcala, and arrived at the gates of Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519.The empire reached its height during Ahuitzotl's reign in 1486–1502. His successor, Motehcuzōma Xocoyotzin (better known as Moctezuma II or Moctezuma, or Montezuma), had been Hueyi Tlatoanifor 17 years when the Spaniards, led by Hernándo Cortés, landed on the Gulf Coast in the spring of 1519.
Aztec culture and history is primarily known through archaeological evidence found in excavations such as that of the renowned Templo Mayor in Mexico City; from indigenous bark paper codices; from eyewitness accounts by Spanish conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo; And especially from 16th and 17th century descriptions of Aztec culture and history written by Spanish clergymen and literate Aztecs in the Spanish or Nahuatl language, such as the famous Florentine Codex compiled by the Franciscan monk Bernardino de Sahagúnwith the help of indigenous Aztec informants.
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Edit Article
An albatross is a very big, beautiful bird. This tutorial will help you learn how to draw one.
1. 1
Draw one oval and one circle. The oval will serve as the bird's body, the circle as its head.
2. 2
Add a few lines to mark the place for the future wings. Extend them far out and place an angle in the middle of each, so the albatross looks graceful but also clearly in control of its flight. Draw a rectangle and one small circle where the beak will go.
3. 3
Add bigger rectangles. Try to connect them all smoothly, so the wings start having more natural shape.
4. 4
When you have the shapes as fluidly linked to one another as they can be, tidy up your lines. Erase all the rectangles and detail the bird's tail as shown.
5. 5
Draw lines all over your albatross to represent feathers. They can range in darkness and length, depending on your preference. Make sure to include an eye and more defined beak on your bird.
6. 6
Outline the image with a dark felt pen. Most albatrosses come in light or not very diverse colors, but make the beak a vibrant yellow and add shadows/highlighting to the feathers if you wish.
• Try plotting little circles where the joints should be like one for the head and one at the tail as this helps to get an idea of the perfect form and proportion.
• Everything should be in proportion to one another so try measuring with your fingers how long or far apart things should be. Never use a ruler in art!
Article Info
Categories: Drawing Birds
In other languages:
Español: dibujar un albatros, Русский: нарисовать альбатроса или чайку
Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 8,232 times.
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LLVM Tutorial 2: A More Complicated Function
Written by Owen Anderson
A First Function
unsigned gcd(unsigned x, unsigned y) {
if(x == y) {
return x;
} else if(x < y) {
return gcd(x, y - x);
} else {
return gcd(x - y, y);
#include "llvm/Module.h"
#include "llvm/Function.h"
#include "llvm/PassManager.h"
#include "llvm/Analysis/Verifier.h"
#include "llvm/Assembly/PrintModulePass.h"
#include "llvm/Support/IRBuilder.h"
#include "llvm/Support/raw_ostream.h"
using namespace llvm;
Module* makeLLVMModule();
int main(int argc, char**argv) {
Module* Mod = makeLLVMModule();
verifyModule(*Mod, PrintMessageAction);
PassManager PM;
delete Mod;
return 0;
Module* makeLLVMModule() {
Module* mod = new Module("tut2");
Function* gcd = cast<Function>(c);
Value* x = args++;
Value* y = args++;
Blocks correspond to the nodes in the diagram we looked at in the beginning of this tutorial. From the diagram, we can see that this function contains five blocks, so we'll go ahead and create them. Note that we're making use of LLVM's automatic name uniquing in this code sample, since we're giving two blocks the same name.
BasicBlock* entry = BasicBlock::Create(getGlobalContext(), ("entry", gcd);
BasicBlock* ret = BasicBlock::Create(getGlobalContext(), ("return", gcd);
BasicBlock* cond_false = BasicBlock::Create(getGlobalContext(), ("cond_false", gcd);
BasicBlock* cond_true = BasicBlock::Create(getGlobalContext(), ("cond_true", gcd);
BasicBlock* cond_false_2 = BasicBlock::Create(getGlobalContext(), ("cond_false", gcd);
Now we're ready to begin generating code! We'll start with the entry block. This block corresponds to the top-level if-statement in the original C code, so we need to compare x and y. To achieve this, we perform an explicit comparison using ICmpEQ. ICmpEQ stands for an integer comparison for equality and returns a 1-bit integer result. This 1-bit result is then used as the input to a conditional branch, with ret as the true and cond_false as the false case.
IRBuilder<> builder(entry);
builder.CreateCondBr(xEqualsY, ret, cond_false);
Our next block, ret, is pretty simple: it just returns the value of x. Recall that this block is only reached if x == y, so this is the correct behavior. Notice that instead of creating a new IRBuilder for each block, we can use SetInsertPoint to retarget our existing one. This saves on construction and memory allocation costs.
Also note that we're again making use of LLVM's automatic name uniquing, this time at a register level. We've deliberately chosen to name every instruction "tmp" to illustrate that LLVM will give them all unique names without getting confused.
builder.CreateCondBr(xLessThanY, cond_true, cond_false_2);
std::vector<Value*> args1;
std::vector<Value*> args2;
return mod;
# c++ -g tut2.cpp `llvm-config --cxxflags --ldflags --libs core` -o tut2
# ./tut2
Valid CSS! Valid HTML 4.01! Owen Anderson
The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure
Last modified: $Date: 2009/10/24 04:13:19 $
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Moscow Kremlin Wall
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A view of the Moscow Kremlin
The Kremlin Wall is a defensive wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches and its Kremlin towers. The original walls were likely a simple wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156.
One of the most symbolic constructions in Russia's history can be traced back to the 12th century when Moscow was founded in 1147. The original outpost was surrounded by the first walls in 1156, which was most likely a simple wooden fence with guard towers. Destroyed in 1238 by the Mongol-Tartar invasion, the Moscow Kremlin was rebuilt by the Russian Knyaz Ivan Kalita. In 1339-1340 he erected a bigger fortress on the site of the original outpost which was defended by massive oak walls. Thought to be an impenetrable defence from raids, it was proven to be useless against raids which burned Moscow in 1365.
The famous Spasskaya tower, with its ruby star added in 1937. The Kremlin Wall Necropolis is in the foreground.
In the following centuries Moscow expanded rapidly outside the Kremlin walls and as Russia's borders became more and more secure their defensive duty has all but passed. The cannons which were installed in the walls were removed after the turn of the 17th century, as was the second, smaller wall which repeated the perimeter on the outside. During the reign of Czar Alexei Romanov, the towers were built up with decorative spires and the walls were restored. However their historical mightiness was dampened as the material became brick not stone. Successive restorations of varying scale took place during the reigns of Empress Elizabeth and Alexander the First as well as the later Soviet and Russian times took place, preserving their original character and style.
The wall by the Moskva river
With an outer perimeter of 2235 metres, the Kremlin appears as a loose triangle, deviating from the geometric ideal on the southern side where instead of a straight line, it repeats the contours on the original hill on which the Kremlin rests. Because of this the vertical profile is by no means uniform, and the height at some places ranges from no more than 5 metres quadrupling to 19 metres elsewhere. The thickness of the walls also varies from 3.5 to 6.5 metres.
The top of the walls, along their entire length, have outwardly-invisible battle platforms which also range from 2 to 4.5 metres in width (in proportion to the thickness). A total of 1045 double-horned notched "teeth" crown the top of the walls, with a height ranging from 2 to 2.5 metres and thickness from 65 to 75 centimetres.
To date twenty towers survived, highlighting the walls. Built at a different time, the oldest one, Tainitskaya dates to 1485 whilst the newest one-Tsarskaya to 1680. Three of the towers, located in the corners of the castle have unique circular profiles. From the ground level it is only possible to enter six of the towers, the rest only from the walls.
The main gates in the Spasskaya tower are normally (with the exception of official and religious ceremonies) closed to the public. The gates under the Nikolskaya tower are often used for service duties only. Visitors to the Kremlin normally enter the premises via the gates under the Troitksaya tower. Except for those who wish to visit the Armoury chamber and the Treasury fond, which are accessible via the gates of the Borovitskaya tower.
The southern part of the wall faces the Moskva River. The eastern part faces Red Square. The western part, formerly facing the Neglinnaya River, is now part of the Alexander Garden, the bridge which formally crossed the river still stands and is done in the same style as the Kremlin wall.
See also[edit]
External links[edit]
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Origins of the name Bellingen.
In 1841 Government Surveyor Clement Hodgkinson visited the Bellinger Valley. When naming newly discovered places, Hodgkinson preferred to use existing native place names rather than foreign ones, so he used the Gumbaynggirr name for the river, “Billingen”. As with many Aboriginal place names, its exact meaning is a matter of dispute. It has been variously reported to mean “clear water”, “winding river”, “quoll”, or “cheeky fellow”.
On the other hand, maybe the European urge to find a culturally significant meaning is just a blind alley. Maybe the name simply means “home.”
Spelling and Pronunciation.
Originally, Bellingen was pronounced “Billingen”, where the “ng” was pronounced as in “sing”. When it came time to write the word, the Aboriginal voice and the European ear combined to give a spelling of “Billingen”, “Billengen”, “Bellengen” or “Bellingen”. European usage has softened the original pronunciation to the current “Bellin-jen”.
To further confuse the issue, a draughtsman who was compiling the Colony map from original documents misread Hodgkinson’s final handwritten “n” as an “r”; meaning that the Bellingen River officially became the “Bellinger”, while the town retained the correct name of “Bellingen”. This sort of thing happens far more often than you might think.
Naming the Town.
Boat Harbour
Note:- We are currently trying to narrow down the exact date of Bellingen’s naming.
Edited by Jim Sweeney and S Syder.
Category Bellingen History. .
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Theimages of the high priests and Levites opposite (8, 9, 10, 18, 20 and 21) date fromthe end of the 16th century to the middle of the 19th century, and areinterpretations of descriptions in the Book of Exodus. We know very little ofwhat effect the turmoil and upheavals of those times might have had on Hebrewsacred costume: the influences of Egypt, Babylon, Assyria and Greece must allhave had their effect.
We do know, however, that Moses chose those who would servein the sanctuary exclusively from the tribe of Levi, after their exemplaryconduct in the affair of the golden calf. They were divided into two classes:the priests and the Levites.
The high priest, or the "anointed priest" (socalled because his head was anointed with holy oil), was in charge of thegeneral administration of the sanctuary and the forms of worship. Some of hisgarments were common to all priests: leggings, a tunic, a belt and a highbonnet.
In addition, the high priest wore a violet tunic that had bellshanging from it to alert people to his presence in the sanctuary, an ephod (13 and 14), which was a type ofcorset of Egyptian origin, fixed at the shoulders and made from linen anddecorated with gold brocade, and a pectoral (14). Moses called this "anornament of justice": it was square, embellished with precious stones andworn on the chest.
According to Exodus, Aaron, the first high priest, wore anephod decorated with twelve precious stones representing the twelve tribes ofIsrael.
1, 2, 11 and 12 show the influence of Egyptianheaddresses on those worn by the Hebrew High Priest.
1 and 2 show the symbolic fleur de lys that had replaced the cobra as aruler's decoration at the time of the exile from Egypt.
8 A man wearing a tunic such as
Aaron would have worn beneath his ephod. In Hebrew this tunic was called amehil.
The neck of this garment was hemmed and woven so that theedges did not tear. It had a fringe made of small bells, so the wearer could beheard in the tabernacle. Examples of this decoration are common on pictures ofroyal clothes through the ages and have been found in Egyptian tombs.
3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 A variety of small bells. Sometimes these were enamelled and sometimes theywere made of metal, so different sounds could be made when they were strucktogether.
13, 14, 16 and 17 The calecon, the basic article of Levite costume. It wasshorter than that worn by the Egyptians, so Moses decreed that a long tunicshould be worn on top of it.
19 A fittedundergarment with tight sleeves, which in this case stops at the knees. It wasworn by the priests under their ceremonial costume.
15, 16 and 17 Examples of belts worn by the Levites. Theywere often made of snake skin (15 and 16), following Egyptian custom.
Moses did not specify whether these should be coloured likethose worn by the high priests or whether they should be all white. The beltswere wrapped around the body several times and the ends hung down.
Related Costume Info:
The GAULS and the celts - theancient BRITISH - filled the entire ancient world with the sound of the
The illustrations opposite are by no means taken from the sameperiod of history. They are representa
THE true MIGHT OF ROMElay in thestrength of its legions. For around 400 years these tough, well-disc
SACRIFICES PLAYED A MAJOR PART in the religious and civil lifeof Rome. They had a dual purpose: to p
The toga was the principal outer garment worn by the Roman citizen. It was a civiliancostume; in the
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Engineering Mechanics Dynamics 1st Edition
Chapter Problem
Chapter: Problem:
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The ballistic pendulum used to be a common tool for the determination of the muzzle velocity of bullets as a measure of the performance of firearms and ammunition (nowadays, the ballistic pendulum has been replaced by the ballistic chronograph, an electronic device). The ballistic pendulum is a simple pendulum that allows one to record the maximum swing angle of the pendulum arm caused by the firing of a bullet into the pendulum bob.
Figure P5.43
Suppose we want to build a ballistic pendulum to test rifles using standard NATO 7.62 mm ammunition, i.e., ammunition for which a (single) cartridge weighs roughly 147 gr (1 lb = 7000 gr) and the muzzle speed is typically 2750 ft/s. If the pendulum’s length is taken to be 5 ft, and if we are to fire from a short distance so that there is a negligible decrease in speed before the bullet reaches the pendulum, what is the minimum weight we need to give to the pendulum bob to avoid having the pendulum swing to an angle greater than 90°?
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Columbiformes)
Jump to: navigation, search
Temporal range: Early Miocene–Recent
Feral Pigeon (Columba livia) in flight
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Illiger, 1811
Geographic range of the Columbidae family
Pigeons and doves constitute the bird clade Columbidae, that includes about 310 species. They are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and have short, slender bills with fleshy ceres. Doves feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. This family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones.
Taxonomy and systematics[edit]
The Pteroclididae (sandgrouse) were formerly included in the order Columbiformes largely due to this[clarification needed] drinking behaviour ("The only other group, however, which shows the same behaviour, the Pteroclididae, is placed near the doves just by this doubtlessly very old characteristic."[4] ); more recently, it had been reported that they cannot drink by "sucking" or "pumping",[5] and they are now treated separately in the order Pteroclidiformes and are considered to be closer to the shorebirds.[6]
Columbidae are usually divided into five subfamilies, probably inaccurately. For example the American ground and quail doves, which are usually placed in the Columbinae, seem to be two distinct subfamilies.[7] The order presented here follows Baptista et al. (1997)[8] with some updates.[9][10][11]
Osteology and DNA sequence analyses[11][12] indicate the Dodo and Rodrigues Solitaire are better considered as a subfamily Raphinae in the Columbidae pending availability of further information.
The Dodo and Rodrigues Solitaire are in all likelihood part of the Indo-Australian radiation that produced the three small subfamilies mentioned above, with the fruit-doves and pigeons (including the Nicobar Pigeon). Therefore, they are here included as a subfamily Raphinae, pending better material evidence of their exact relationships.
Exacerbating these issues, columbids are not well represented in the fossil record. No truly primitive forms have been found to date. The genus Gerandia has been described from Early Miocene deposits of France, but while it was long believed[citation needed] to be a pigeon, it is more likely a sandgrouse.[citation needed] Fragmentary remains of a probably "ptilinopine" Early Miocene pigeon were found in the Bannockburn Formation of New Zealand and described as Rupephaps; "Columbina" prattae from roughly contemporary deposits of Florida is nowadays tentatively separated in Arenicolumba, but its distinction from Columbina/Scardafella and related genera needs to be more firmly established (e.g. by cladistic analysis). Apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera. For these, and for the considerable number of more recently extinct prehistoric species, see the respective genus accounts.
The Common Ground Dove is among the smallest species in the family
Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variations in size. The largest species is the Crowned Pigeon of New Guinea, which is nearly turkey-sized, at a weight of 2–4 kg (4.4–8.8 lb) The smallest is the New World Ground-Dove of the genus Columbina, which is the same size as a House Sparrow and weighs as little as 22 g.[8] With a total length of more than 50 cm (19 in) and weight of almost 1 kg (2 lb), the largest arboreal species is the Marquesan Imperial Pigeon, while the Dwarf Fruit Dove, which may measure as little as 13 cm (5.1 in), has a marginally smaller total length than any other species from this family.[8] Smaller species tend to be known as doves, while larger species as pigeons, but no taxonomic basis distinguishes between the two.[8]
Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short bills and legs, and small heads on large compact bodies. Their characteristic head bobbing was shown to be due to their natural desire to keep their vision constant in a 1978 experiment by B. J. Frost in which they were placed on treadmills – they did not bob their heads as their surroundings were constant.[13] The wings are large and have low wing loadings; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly manoeuverable in flight.
The Common Indian Dove mostly seen in the Villages of India
The plumage of the family is variable. Granivorous species tend to have dull plumage, with a few exceptions, whereas the frugivorous species have brightly coloured plumage.[8] The Ptilinopus fruit doves are some of the brightest coloured pigeons, with the three endemic species of Fiji and the Indian Ocean Alectroenas being the brightest. Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or dichromatic. In addition to bright colours, pigeons may sport crests or other ornamentation.
Like some other birds, Columbidae have no gall bladders.[14] Some medieval naturalists concluded they have no bile (gall), which in the medieval theory of the four humours explained the allegedly sweet disposition of doves.[15] In fact, however, they do have gall (as Aristotle already realised), which is secreted directly into the gut.[16]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The Common Bronzewing has a widespread distribution across all of Australia and lives in most habitat types except dense rainforest and the driest deserts.
The family has adapted to most of the habitats available on the planet. The largest number of species is found in tropical forests and woodlands. These species may be arboreal, terrestrial or semiterrestrial. Various species also inhabit savannas, grasslands, deserts, temperate woodlands and forests, mangrove forests, and even the barren sands and gravels of atolls.
The Zebra Dove has been widely introduced around the world.
Some species have large natural ranges. The Eared Dove ranges across the entirety of South America from Colombia to Tierra Del Fuego, the Eurasian Collared Dove has a massive (if discontinuous) distribution from Britain across Europe, the Middle East, India, Pakistan and China, and the Laughing Dove across most of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as India, Pakistan and the Middle East. Other species have a tiny, restricted distribution; this is most common in island endemics. The Whistling Dove is endemic to the tiny Kadavu Island in Fiji, the Caroline Ground-dove is restricted to two islands, Truk and Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands, and the Grenada Dove is restricted to Grenada in the Caribbean. Some continental species also have tiny distributions; for example, the Black-banded Fruit Dove is restricted to a small area of the Arnhem Land of Australia, the Somali Pigeon is restricted to a tiny area of northern Somalia, and Moreno's Ground Dove is restricted to the area around Salta and Tucuman in northern Argentina.[8]
Behaviour and ecology[edit]
The White-bellied Green Pigeon feeding on fruit
In addition to fruit and seeds, a number of other food items are taken by many species. Some, particularly the ground-doves and quail-doves, take a large number of prey items such as insects and worms. One species, the Atoll Fruit Dove is specialised in taking insect and reptile prey. Snails, moths and other insects are taken by White-crowned Pigeons, Orange Doves and Ruddy Ground Doves.[8]
An unusual behaviour in a Rock Dove has been reported as it attempts to mate with a dead bird.[17]
Status and conservation[edit]
The Dodo, and its extinction, was more typical of the extinctions of pigeons in the past. Like many species that colonize remote islands with few predators, it lost much of its predator avoidance behaviour, along with its ability to fly. The arrival of people, along with a suite of other introduced species, such as rats, pigs, and cats, quickly spelled the end for this species and all the other island forms that have become extinct.
Around 59 species of pigeons and doves are threatened with extinction today, about 19% of all species.[18] Most of these are tropical and live on islands. All of the species are threatened by introduced predators, habitat loss, and hunting, or a combination of these factors. In some cases, they may be extinct in the wild, as is the Socorro Dove of Socorro Island, Mexico, which was driven to extinction by habitat loss and introduced feral cats.[19] In some areas, a lack of knowledge means the true status of a species is unknown; the Negros Fruit Dove has not been seen since 1953, and may or may not be extinct, and the Polynesian Ground Dove is classified as critically endangered, as whether it survives or not on remote islands in the far west of the Pacific Ocean is unknown.
Relationship with humans[edit]
The Dickin Medal for the pigeon Royal Blue
Cher Ami, a homing pigeon in World War I, was awarded the Croix de Guerre Medal with a palm Oak Leaf Cluster for his service in Verdun and for delivering the message that saved the Lost Battalion of the 77th Infantry Division in the Battle of the Argonne, October 1918. When Cher Ami died, she was mounted and is part of the permanent exhibit at the National Museum of American History of the Smithsonian Institution.[20]
The Rock Pigeon has been domesticated for hundreds of years. It has been bred into several varieties kept by hobbyists, of which the best known is the homing pigeon or racing homer. Other popular breeds are tumbling pigeons such as the Birmingham Roller and fancy varieties that are bred for certain physical characteristics, such as large feathers on the feet or fan-shaped tails. Domesticated Rock Pigeons are also bred as carrier pigeons, used for thousands of years to carry brief written messages, and Release Doves used in ceremonies.
In religion[edit]
God the Holy Spirit descending from heaven as a dove at the Baptism of Jesus depicted by Almeida Júnior
In the Hebrew Bible, doves or young pigeons are acceptable burnt offerings for those who cannot afford a more expensive animal. In the book of Genesis, Noah sent out a dove after the great flood to determine how far the floodwaters had receded. "Dove" is also a term of endearment in the Song of Songs and elsewhere. In Hebrew, Jonah (יוֹנָה) means dove.[21] The "sign of Jonas" in Mat 16:1–4 is related to the "sign of the dove".[22]
As food[edit]
In Europe, the Wood Pigeon is commonly shot as a game bird, while Rock Pigeons were originally domesticated as a food species, and many breeds were developed for their meat-bearing qualities. The extinction of the Passenger Pigeon in North America was at least partly due to shooting for use as food. Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management contains recipes for roast pigeon and pigeon pie, a popular, inexpensive food in Victorian industrial Britain.[25]
Columba livia[edit]
Unlike some species of birds, the Columba livia, that is, Domestic Pigeon, Rock Dove and Feral Pigeon, are likely to be found in urban areas, parks, gardens, and in areas close to agriculture. There are many species closely related to Columba livia, though they may differ in appearance, behaviour and calls even if they live together. The average pigeon is about 30–35 cm in length, has a wingspan of 62–68 cm and weighs 350 g; males are larger than females. Most of these pigeons have orange-coloured eyes, but some individuals have white-grey irises.[26]
Rock Dove[edit]
Rock Dove or common pigeon is derived from Domestic Pigeon. It is native to Europe, North Africa, and southwestern Asia, but is also found in other continents, including all of North America. It is common in urban areas, but can also be found on fields and rocky cliffs. It is a large husky bird with a small head and short legs and can be recognised by its blue grey body, black-tipped tail, inky-green feathers on the neck, and two black bars on each wing. Wings are broad and pointed, and the tail is wide and rounded.[27]
Feral Pigeon[edit]
Feral Pigeon, also called city pigeon, is derived from domestic pigeon; it is similar to the Rock Dove in general shape and size, but often has a narrower body, longer tail, broader bill, and larger ceres. It usually has a pale blue gray colour with two conspicuous black bars across the wings, giving a spotted effect and broad black bar at the end of the tail. Neck and upper breast have iridescent-green and purple colours, and the ratio of colours differs in each population. Feral Pigeons can be found in cities and towns worldwide, having adapted to living around humans and human habitation.[28]
Domestic Pigeon[edit]
Domestic Pigeon is derived from Rock pigeon and originates from Europe, Northern Africa, and India. Many of these birds are white, tan, checkered or show a combination of several colours; they are somewhat narrow-bodied and broad-billed, similar to the blue-gray ancestral form. Domestic pigeons originally lived in high places such as cliffs, ledges and open areas. In early 1600s, they were introduced as domestic birds; then, they spread throughout the United States to Alaska, across southern Canada and South America.
Food and feeding habitats[edit]
Pigeons mainly eat seeds and grains. Many also eat insects, fruits, and vegetation, littered food-provided by the people intentionally or unintentionally. Young pigeons are fed “crop milk”, a milky-white fatty substance regurgitated from both parents’ crops. Pigeons feed on open ground such as that found in parks and squares, on rooftops, at food-loading docks and garbage dumps. They may gather in large flocks in urban parks where people feed them. They seem to prefer open feeding areas that permit a speedy getaway if a threat is detected. Pigeons can drink water by sucking directly from a puddle or other water source.[27]
A Speckled Pigeon (Columba guinea) and chick in a nest surrounded by foliage, in Cape Town, South Africa.
Male pigeon spends time to collect materials – twigs, sticks, etc. – while the female makes a nest from them. Pigeons reuse their nests many times, and they do not carry away the faeces of their nestlings as many birds do. As a result the initially lightweight nests become heavier and more solid with time. Usually the nests are situated on houses, barns, buildings, bridges and cliffs.[29]
Courtship and reproduction[edit]
Indian Pigeon eggs
Pigeons mate throughout their life but the peak times are usually in spring and summer. Males choose the nest and attract a mate by puffing-up their hind neck feathers. A male pigeon courts his mate by bowing, cooing and strutting in a circle around the female. The mating usually occurs for a short period and when ready to mate, the female crouches and the male jumps on her back flapping his wings to maintain balance on the female. Sometimes the pair’s beaks are locked together during breeding.
Females usually lay an average of two eggs in a nest loosely constructed from feathers and twigs. The male brings one twig or stem at a time to the female to build a nest. Both male and female incubate the eggs, which hatch after 18 days. Males incubate the eggs from mid-morning to late afternoon whereas a female takes her turn in late afternoon and overnight to mid-morning. Both parents feed them from regurgitated “crop milk” secreted by the lining of a bird’s crop. The young are independent at four to five weeks of age. Pigeons can raise an average of five broods per year under optimal conditions. When pigeons are not involved in courtship behaviour, caring for young, or eating, their day is spent cooing, preening, and sunbathing at their loafing and roosting sites.[30]
Pigeons do not migrate, but if they are released from the nesting area they can find their way to home easily even from long distance. They can navigate by using sound and smell and perhaps can use cues based on the position of the sun. Some of the species were trained in past to carry messages during World War I and II.[31]
Pigeons are the domestic birds and considered as flying tippler- long-time flyer.[citation needed] Pigeons can fly 50–60 miles per hour. In most cities pigeons stay close to home because they do not like to migrate. However, their wing muscles are strong and they can fly much further if necessary.[31]
The hippoboscidae fly pseudolynchia canariensis is a typical blood-sucking ectoparasite of pigeons.[32]
See also: Parasites of Rock Dove
Health risk[edit]
Pigeons are considered disease-spreading birds, a pest. As pigeons breed throughout the year and reproduce quickly- this determined by amount of food available to them. In past pigeons were involved in transmitting the “bird flu” or “avian flu” but they do not carry deadly diseases like H1N1. Pigeons do not transmit diseases through their immune system but human contact with pigeons like cleaning pigeon droppings can cause a small health risk. Some diseases that are thought to be caused by pigeon’s dropping are histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and psittacosis.[30]
Respiratory and circulatory physiology[edit]
Organ and tissue organization[edit]
Heart type and features[edit]
How the heart works[edit]
Blood is pumped into the heart from the body through the veins. the blood then enters the right atrium, then gets transported through the right ventricle and then is moved to into the lungs. This is where oxidation of the blood takes place. The blood then travels to the left atrium and exits the heart and moves through the arteries to the body via the left ventricle.[37]
Relevant physical and chemical properties of pumping blood[edit]
Integration of respiratory and circulatory organs and effects on physiology[edit]
Flight muscles require a large amount of oxygen and in order to obtain the oxygen the blood must be kept moving rapidly around the system. This occurs when the blood flows into the atria at the end of its journey around the body, or to and from the lungs. The ventricles, are the pumping power houses that send the blood off on to repeat the cycle.[38]
See also[edit]
5. ^ Cade, Tom J.; Willoughby, Ernest J. and MacLean, Gordon L. (1966). "Drinking Behavior of Sandgrouse in the Namib and Kalahari Deserts, Africa". The Auk 83 (1): 124–126. doi:10.2307/4082983. JSTOR 4082983.
7. ^ Basically, the conventional treatment had two large subfamilies, one for the fruit doves, imperial pigeons, and fruit-pigeons, and another for nearly all of the remaining species. Additionally, there were three monotypic subfamilies, one each for the genera Goura, Otidiphaps, and Didunculus. The old subfamily Columbinae consists of five distinct lineages, whereas the other four groups are more or less accurate representations of the evolutionary relationships.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Baptista, L. F.; Trail, P. W. & Horblit, H. M. (1997): Family Columbidae (Doves and Pigeons). In: del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors): Handbook of birds of the world, Volume 4: Sandgrouse to Cuckoos. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-22-9
9. ^ Johnson, Kevin P. & Clayton, Dale H. (2000). "Nuclear and Mitochondrial Genes Contain Similar Phylogenetic. Signal for Pigeons and Doves (Aves: Columbiformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 14 (1): 141–151. doi:10.1006/mpev.1999.0682. PMID 10631048.
10. ^ Johnson, Kevin P.; de Kort, Selvino; Dinwoodey, Karen, Mateman, A. C.; ten Cate, Carel; Lessells, C. M. & Clayton, Dale H. (2001). "A molecular phylogeny of the dove genera Streptopelia and Columba". Auk 118 (4): 874–887. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118[0874:AMPOTD]2.0.CO;2.
11. ^ a b Shapiro, Beth; Sibthorpe, Dean; Rambaut, Andrew; Austin, Jeremy; Wragg, Graham M.; Bininda-Emonds, Olaf R. P.; Lee, Patricia L. M. & Cooper, Alan (2002). "Flight of the Dodo". Science 295 (5560): 1683. doi:10.1126/science.295.5560.1683. PMID 11872833. Supplementary information
12. ^ Janoo, Anwar (2005). "Discovery of isolated dodo bones [Raphus cucullatus (L.), Aves, Columbiformes] from Mauritius cave shelters highlights human predation, with a comment on the status of the family Raphidae Wetmore, 1930". Annales de Paléontologie 91 (2): 167. doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2004.12.002.
13. ^ Necker, R (2007). "Head-bobbing of walking birds". Journal of comparative physiology A 193 (12): 1177–83. doi:10.1007/s00359-007-0281-3. PMID 17987297.
14. ^ Hagey, LR; Schteingart, CD; Ton-Nu, HT; Hofmann, AF (1994). "Biliary bile acids of fruit pigeons and doves (Columbiformes)". Journal of Lipid Research 35 (11): 2041–8. PMID 7868982.
15. ^ The Medieval Bestiary, Doves, last checked 2010-01-31
16. ^ Thomas Browne, 1646; Pseudodoxia Epidemica III.iii; 1672 edition available online, last checked 2010-01-31
17. ^ Dab, Koosha. "More unusual bird behaviour as dove attempts to mate with a dead bird". Wildlife Extra. Retrieved April 2013.
18. ^ Walker, J. (2007). "Geographical patterns of threat among pigeons and doves (Columbidae)". Oryx 41 (3). doi:10.1017/S0030605307001016.
20. ^ "Cher Ami "Dear Friend" WWI". Flickr. Retrieved 2008-04-26.
21. ^ Yonah Jonah Blue Letter Bible. Retrieved on 2013-03-05.
22. ^ God's Kingdom Ministries serious Bible Study Chapter 12: The Sign of Jonah. Retrieved on 2013-03-05.
24. ^ The Enduring Symbolism of Doves, From Ancient Icon to Biblical Mainstay by Dorothy D. Resig BAR Magazine. (9 February 2013). Retrieved on 2013-03-05.
25. ^ CHAPTER 40 – DINNERS AND DINING | Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management. Retrieved on 2013-03-05.
26. ^ Johnston, Richard F. (1992). Rock Pigeon (Columba livia), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online.
27. ^ a b Rock Pigeon, Life History, All About Birds – Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved on 2013-12-26.
28. ^ Facts about Rock Dove (Columba livia) – Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved on 2013-12-26.
29. ^ Rock Pigeon Columba livia.
30. ^ a b Domestic Pigeons (Rock Doves) – Living with Wildlife | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife. Retrieved on 2013-12-26.
31. ^ a b Bird of Paradox. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved on 2013-12-26.
32. ^ Tietz Marques, Sandra Marcia; Marinho De Cuadros, Rosileia; Jardim Da Silva, Cintia; Baldo, Marisa (2007). "Parasites of pigeons (Columba livia) in urban areas of lages, Southern Brazil". Parasitología latinoamericana 62 (3–4). doi:10.4067/S0717-77122007000200014.
33. ^ Ritchison, Gary. "Ornithology (Bio 554/754):Bird Respiratory System". Eastern Kentucky University. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
34. ^ Smith, Marty. "Respiratory System of Birds:Differences between avian and mammalian respiration". Wisconsin, US. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
35. ^ Nganpiep, L., & Maina, J. (2002). "Composite cellular defence stratagem in the avian respiratory system: Functional morphology of the free (surface) macrophages and specialized pulmonary epithelia". Journal of Anatomy 200 (5): 499–516. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00052.x. PMC 1570725. PMID 12090396.
36. ^ Schat, Karel A.; Kaspers, Bernd and Kaiser, Pete (2 December 2012). Avian Immunology. Academic Press. pp. 257–. ISBN 978-0-12-397272-9.
37. ^ a b c d e f Dumez, N. (2010). Pigeon cardiovascular and respiratory systems: Photos and information.
38. ^ a b Ramel, G. A bird's heart and blood.
40. ^ Lederer, R. "Respiration and Circulation".
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
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Relativistic aberration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Relativistic aberration is described by Einstein's special theory of relativity, and in other relativistic models such as Newtonian emission theory. It results in aberration of light when the relative motion of observer and light source changes the position of the light source in the field of view of the observer. The effect is independent of the distance between observer and light source.
Suppose, in the reference frame of the observer, the source is moving with speed v\, at an angle \theta _{s}\, relative to the vector from the observer to the source at the time when the light is emitted. Then the following formula, which was derived by Einstein in 1905, describes the aberration of the light source, \theta _{o}\,, measured by the observer:
\cos \theta _{o}={\frac {\cos \theta _{s}-{\frac {v}{c}}}{1-{\frac {v}{c}}\cos \theta _{s}}}\,
In this circumstance, the rays of light from the source which reach the observer are tilted towards the direction of the source's motion (relative to the observer). It is as if light emitted by a moving object is concentrated conically, towards its direction of motion; an effect called relativistic beaming. Also, light received by a moving object (e.g. the view from a very fast spacecraft) also appears concentrated towards its direction of motion.
One consequence of this is that a forward observer should normally be expected to intercept a greater proportion of the object's light than a rearward one; this concentration of light in the object's forward direction is referred to as the "searchlight effect" (or headlight effect).
See also[edit]
External links[edit]
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Diagnosis of Sjögren’s Syndrome
The diagnosis of Sjögren’s syndrome requires the demonstration of an autoimmune disease that is adversely affecting the function of the exocrine glands that produce tears and saliva. Dry eyes and dry mouth are the most common symptoms. In general, assessments by a rheumatologist, ophthalmologist, and a dentist are needed in order to establish the presence of an inadequate tear film, decreased saliva production, salivary gland inflammation, and an underlying autoimmune process. A careful evaluation is needed to exclude other potential causes of dryness of the eyes and of the mouth.
Over the past 45 years, there has been an evolution in the definition of the symptoms and signs that, in aggregate, represent the disease process that we call “Sjogren’s syndrome”. There is no single test that establishes the presence of this disease. Currently, physicians rely on a set of classification criteria, assembled by an international panel in 2002, to define Sjogren’s syndrome. These are known as the the American-European Consensus Criteria for Sjogren’s syndrome.
Your doctors may recommend the following tests to determine if you have Sjögren’s syndrome:
1. Schirmer’s test
2. Ocular surface staining
3. Salivary gland function scans (parotid scintigraphy)
4. Labial gland (lip) biopsy
5. Sialometry
Your doctors may also recommend other tests to determine if you have neurologic complications of Sjögren’s syndrome:
1. Nerve conduction and electromyography
2. Cutaneous nerve/skin biopsy
3. Lumbar puncture
4. MRI of the brain and spinal cord
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Page Banner
United States Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
A key is a tool to help you identify something that's unknown, or in other words, a key is a map to a place of discovery. Dichotomous means "divided into two," like a fork in a road. When you travel through a dichotomous key, it's like travelling down a road with many forks.
Each fork in the road is called a couplet (again meaning two). A couplet is just a fork in the road where the traveler has to decide which direction to go.
Imagine you're on a trip and get hungry. You're in a large city so there must be a lot of dining choices nearby, but nobody in your car is familiar with the area. You're in luck because the local city planners were thinking of you. Let's roll!
Once you've decided it's time to eat, you pull onto the "Food Road" (Think of the Food Road as "The key to restaurants in this city."). The first fork might have a sign that says "Fast Food" and "Fine Dining." You're in a hurry so you take a left here.
The next fork might have a sign that says "Burgers and Fries" and "Other types of fast food." You don't feel like a burger so you take a right.
"Asian Cooking" and "Italian Cooking." Pizza sounds good to you so you take a right (Those clouds and trees sure look familiar!).
"Pizza" and "Pasta." You take a left.
There's the Pizza Joint! See how that works? It's just a series of questions with two possible choices.
Don't worry if you change your mind after a choice. You can always turn around and go back to any of the previous forks and choose the other road.
The choices in the "KEY TO SELECTED PYRALOIDEA (LEPIDOPTERA) LARVAE INTERCEPTED AT U. S. PORTS OF ENTRY" are a little more technical, but there are images to help you along. Each fork in the road, or couplet, is numbered and the choices are the numbers of the next couplets. Keep picking the number for the next corresponding couplet until you get to the identification of your larva. You can jump back to any couplet by picking a number in the table at the bottom of the pages. Or you can simply start over at Couplet 1.
Good Luck!
Last Modified: 9/3/2013
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March 30
This Day in History
Old West
Mar 30, 1891:
"Sockless" Simpson rallies populist farmers
Signaling a growing movement toward direct political action among desperate western farmers, "Sockless" Jerry Simpson calls on the Kansas Farmers' Alliance to work for a takeover of the state government.
Simpson was one of the most popular and influential leaders among Populist-minded western and mid-western farmers of the late 19th century. Angered over low crop prices, crippling bank loans, and high shipping rates, farmers began to unite in self-help groups like the Grange and the Farmers' Alliances. Initially, these groups primarily provided mutual assistance to members while agitating for the regulation of railroads and grain elevators. Increasingly, though, they became centers of support for more sweeping political change by uniting to help form the new nationwide third-party movement known as the Populists.
Simpson understood the West and the challenges of making a living in that difficult land. Since 1878, he had operated a ranch in southwest Kansas, where he first became involved in Republican politics. During the economic downturn of the 1890s, he became disgusted with the Republican's timid and ineffective efforts to help farmers and ranchers. Like many other men and women who worked the land for a living, he abandoned the major parties to try to achieve more fundamental change through the Populists.
Simpson became one of the most influential Populist leaders, thanks in part to his extraordinary wit and talent for cagey publicity stunts. Running for the U.S. Congress in 1890, Simpson's opponents sarcastically accused the Populist candidate of being a backcountry rube who did not even wear socks. Simpson quickly turned the insult to his advantage, proudly calling himself "Sockless Jerry" or the "Sockless Socrates of the Plains." Simpson's down-home manner and humor won him wide support, and he served in Congress three times during the 1890s. Had he not been Canadian by birth, he would likely have been nominated as the Populist's presidential candidate.
As with most third party movements in the history of the U.S., the Populist Party was short-lived. By 1898, Simpson was out of the Congress and Populism was all but dead. Still, Simpson and the Populists did succeed in pushing elite Americans to adopt some of their ideas. The Progressive-minded politicians of the early 20th century achieved at least some of the Populist goals, such as regulation of the railways. Shortly before he died in Wichita in 1905, Simpson noted that the Progressive politicians of the day were "just learning now what the farmers... knew fourteen years ago."
What Happened on Your Birthday?
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Pilgrimage of Grace Essay
Below is a free essay on "Pilgrimage of Grace" from Anti Essays, your source for free research papers, essays, and term paper examples.
How far was the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536 a threat to Henry VIII?
The Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536 was the largest rebellion of the Tudor Period. Rebels rose across the North of England, rebelling against change to their traditional way of life and worship. By 10th October, Robert Aske, a Yorkshire lawyer had become chief captain of an army of thirty thousand. The rebels made their headquarters in York before moving down to Pontefract on 21st October where Lord Darcy handed over Pontefract Castle; the most important fortress in the North. This fast spreading rebellion could therefore have been a threat to Henry VIII.
The Pilgrimage of Grace was a popular rising in Lincolnshire and the North, supported by over thirty thousand rebels and was potentially very dangerous in comparison to the King’s army of just eight thousand men. The King’s army was therefore no match militarily for the vast rebel armies who were veteran soldiers of the northern armies who saw more military service than elsewhere because of the border disputes with the Scottish. Davies described the Pilgrimage of Grace as ‘the largest rebellion in English history’.
It was a general uprising of all classes of people which spread very fast. In source B, historian, Fellows states that ‘The nobles and gentry disliked the King’s use of lowly-born councillors and the Statute of Uses. The peasants were dissatisfied with rising entry fines and new taxes.’ The gentry disagreed with Cromwell’s policies particularly the Statute of Uses of 1535 as it was effectively a feudal tax on aristocratic landed inheritances. Opposition to the King’s demands for taxes was a consistent theme in the rebels’ articles such as the Pontefract Articles, written by Aske in December 1536. There was a particular hostility to Cromwell’s initiative of taxing in time of peace from the commons which was introduced in the 1534 Subsidy Act. The vast size of the rebel army and the fact that it was a general uprising of the fact that it...
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Plagiarism Warning
MLA Citation
"Pilgrimage of Grace". Anti Essays. 12 Mar. 2014
APA Citation
Pilgrimage of Grace. Anti Essays. Retrieved March 12, 2014, from the World Wide Web: http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/401071.html
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bastide, type of village or town built largely in the 13th and 14th centuries in England and Gascony and laid out according to a definite geometric plan. It is thought by some to have been an influence on English colonists when building such New World settlements as New Haven, Conn.
Edward I of England, also duke of Gascony, was one of the foremost rulers to lay out new towns. He did so for defensive, economic, and colonizing purposes. The lord of a manor with a successful bastide on it could expect an increase of revenue from the rents, fair and market tolls, justice profits, and trade tariffs. Most of the British bastides, especially those in Wales, had a marine-based economy, while the Gascon bastides were dependent on the production and exportation of wine.
With allowances made for local terrain, bastides were laid out according to a rectangular grid derived from ancient Roman town plans. The bastide was often built on a hilltop, with the streets dividing the town into rectilinear insulae (“islands” or “blocks”), which, in turn, were divided into placae, or house and garden lots. In order to facilitate rent collecting, the blocks were numbered in military fashion from right to left, top to bottom. The streets, as far as possible, met at right angles. A marketplace was always planned, which included arcaded shops (cornières) and sometimes a market hall.
The typical bastide is found in the ruins of New Winchelsea, Eng., a town that died because the sea on which it depended receded, leaving marshland. In Gascony the bastides were founded for security and colonization purposes in a heavily forested area. Bastides in Gascony include Lalinde, Beaumont-du-Périgord, and La Bastide Monestier.
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227 were donated in February
This month, we are on track to donate 232
Link to this page:
Cochlea rate this definition:
(Noun) Part of the inners ear. The Cochlea is a fluid filled 'coil' lined with cillea that allows the ear to detect sound and also helps to interperate the volume, pitch and tone of detected sounds.
Add or improve a definition
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Medieval speculation about the nature of monsters ran the gamut from a simple identification of them as accomplices of Satan to somewhat more sophisticated speculation about their place in relation to humanity and the larger divine design. Medieval scholars' mental maps of the world featured monstrous races of giants, wild apes, and dog-headed men. Christian scholars sometimes speculated that these creatures represented the progeny of Cain, cursed by God for slaying his brother (Grendel, Beowulf's monstrous opponent in the Anglo-Saxon epic, is said to be of the lineage of Cain). Occasionally, glimpses of a more nuanced view of monstrosity can be seen. One minor tradition in the middle ages portrayed St. Christopher as a Cynocephalus or "dog-headed." Scholars in the medieval world debated whether or not monsters had souls, and thus whether, hypothetically, they could receive baptism.9
Most of the monsters that rose from the grave in modern America have their distant origins in this context of medieval folklore, legend, and literature. Europeans had portrayed the witch, the vampire, and the werewolf, unlike many of the fantastical creatures located in other climes, as accomplices of Satan. The witch had a clear relationship with the devil, drawing her power from a pact she had made with him. The vampire in eastern Europe and parts of Germany had some relationship with Satan but also drew on beliefs about revenants and the consequences of a "bad death." Werewolves, and shapeshifters of all kinds, have a more complicated history, at times being portrayed as guiltless figures who labor under a curse (much like Larry Talbot in Universal pictures 1941 The Wolfman). Other versions of the werewolf mythos represent them as satanic creatures whose power, like that of the witch, comes from hell. Belief in these creatures assumed that no strict separation of "nature" and "supernature" existed, and that a world of shadows periodically and terrifyingly haunted humanity.10
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw the birth of a new worldview. The "scientific revolution" introduced the notion of the universe as a mechanism rather than a playground for divine and demonic spirits. Kepler, Copernicus, and Galileo challenged the domination of Aristotelian cosmology that placed the earth at the center of the known universe. A new mechanical conception of nature began to shape thinking about the world, suggesting that observable, repeatable laws governed everything from the behavior of heavenly bodies to the phenomenon of human bodies. Neither miracles nor monsters would seem to have much of a foothold in this reimagined cosmos.
Ironically, the dawning age of science also became an age obsessed with the work of Satan on earth, specifically his use of witches and other evil accomplices. Witchcraft trials during the early modern period took the lives of perhaps as many as sixty thousand people. Trials of people suspected of being "loupe garou," or werewolves, became common in sixteenth and seventeenth-century France. Seldom imagined as forlorn beings travelling under a curse, magistrates and churchmen described the werewolf instead as a human being who willfully transformed into a monster with the help of the devil.11
The long history of humanity's monstrous fascinations, and the mythologies and theologies that supported them, would seem to have little to do with the early American republic or its citizens. The American Revolution grew in part out the Enlightenment goal of applying rationality to politics. While it is too simplistic to view the creation of the United States as merely the fulfillment of the Enlightenment project, many of America's founders did imagine a new nation reared on the foundations of human reason. Patriots forged the United States, it has often been explained to us, out of a wedding of Enlightenment political ideology and a growing sense of national destiny. Adams, Franklin, and Jefferson admired the political philosophy of John Locke, who favored the creation of rational republics where the superstitions of statecraft and "priestcraft" had no purchase. The new republic, seemingly, would live in a sunlit world without shadows, a place where no monster could hide.12
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columbian gold
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica
The emergence of metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica occurred relatively late in the region's history, with distinctive works of metal apparent in West Mexico by roughly CE 800, and perhaps as early as CE 600. Metallurgical techniques likely diffused northward from regions in Central or South America via maritime trade routes; recipients of these metallurgical technologies apparently exploited a wide range of material, including alloys of copper-silver, copper-arsenic, copper-tin and copper-arsenic-tin.
Metal items crafted throughout Mesoamerica may be broken into three classes: utilitarian objects, objects used for individual ornamentation, and ceremonial/ritual objects. The latter two categories comprise the bulk of distinctly Mesoamerican artifacts, with metals playing a particularly important role in the sacred and symbolic cultural realms.
Possible loci of Mesoamerican metallurgy
Southern Maya area
Owing largely to its proximity to southern centers of metallurgy (specifically southern Central America and South America), the Southern Maya area appears to have been an early locus of metal working in Mesoamerica.
West Mexico
As with the Southern Maya area, the number and diversity of metal artifacts recovered from West Mexico indicates that this region was a regional nucleus of metallurgy, from which elements of technique, form and style could have diffused throughout Mesoamerica.
Developments in West Mexican metallurgy
Phase 1: CE 600 - 1200/1300
West Mexican smiths worked primarily in copper during the initial period, with some low-arsenic alloys, as well as occasional employment of silver and gold. Lost-wax cast bells were introduced from lower Central America and Colombia during this phase, along with several classes of cold-worked ornaments and hand tools, such as needles and tweezers. The prototypes for these small, often utilitarian items appear rooted in southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Small copper rings, generally found in burial contexts, are also common to Ecuador and Western Mexico and are abundant during this phase.
Excavated assemblages from the initial phase indicate that lost-wax cast bells also occupied a substantial portion of West Mexican artisan's efforts. Unlike similar bells recovered from coastal Ecuador, West Mexican bells were cast, rather than worked, metal. Typically composed of a smooth, suspended metal shell encasing an interior clapper, the West Mexican bells were generally fashioned from copper alloys and bore particular resemblance to bells made in Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica.
Phase 2: CE 1200/1300 - 1521
Metal smiths demonstrated increasing technical sophistication, producing both utilitarian and status-linked items. During the latter phase, Michoacán emerged as a technological hub, with metal artifacts also appearing at the adjacent zones of Guerrero and Jalisco.
Alloys became more prevalent during the second phase, as metal workers experimented with color, strength and fluidity. Formerly utilitarian assemblages transformed, with new focus placed upon metallic status objects. Further, the appearance of a copper-tin bronze alloy suggests contact between West Mexico and Peru during this period. However, many of the alloys/alloy concentrations used in West Mexico appear to reflect local innovation.
Scholars such as Dorothy Holser suggest that ancient Mesoamericans were unique in their attention to metals peculiar aesthetic properties, namely, the brilliant sounds and colors evoked through movement of metallic objects. The rather late emergence of metallurgy in ancient Mesoamerican likely contributed to its novelty and subsequent role as a marker of elite status.
It has been suggested that Mesoamerican metal smiths produced particular alloys with the chief aim of exploiting the alloys’ emergent color properties, particularly the vivid gold tones produced through infusion of tin, and the silver shades that develop at high arsenic concentrations. Notably, certain artifacts from West Mexico contain tin or arsenic at concentrations as high as 23 weight percent, while concentrations of alloying elements at roughly 2 to 5 weight percent are typically adequate for augmented strength and mechanical utility.
Metal smiths in pre-Columbian West Mexico particularly exploited the brilliance inherent in metallic sound and sheen, suggesting that their creations tended to occupy a sacred and symbolic space. Metallic colors, gold and silver, may have been connected with solar and lunar deities. As well, bell sounds have been associated with fertility rituals and protection in warfare.
Archaeological sites yielding metal artifacts
Central Mexico
(CE 900-1450) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; Objects of personal adornment'
1. Atotonilco, Hidalgo
2. Calixtlahuaca, Mexico
3. Tenayuca, Mexico
4. Tenochitlan, Distrito Federal (D.F.)
5. Teotihuacan, Mexico
6. Texcoco, Mexico
West Mexico
(CE 800/900-1450) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment
1. Amapa, Nayarit
2. Apatzingan, Michoacán
3. Atoyac, Jalisco
4. Cojumatlán, Michoacán
5. Coyuca de Catalán, Guerrero
6. Culicaán, Sinaloa
7. Jiquilpan, Michoacán
8. Peñitas, Nayarit
9. Río Balsas, Guerrero
10. Tancitaro, Michoacán
11. Telpalcátepec, Michoacán
12. Tepic, Nayarit
13. Texmelincan, Guerrero
14. Tuxcacuesco, Jalisco
15. Tzintzuntzan, Michoacán
16. Yestla, Guerrero
17. Zacpu, Michoacán
18. Zamora, Michoacán
Eastern Mexico
(CE 900-1500) Objects of personal adornment and ceremonial objects
1. Cerro Montoso, Veracruz
2. Chachalacas, Veracruz
3. El Tajin, Veracruz
4. Isla de Sacrificios, Veracruz
5. Pánuco, Veracruz
6. Tampico, Veracruz
Southern Mexico
(CE 900-1500) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment
1. Coatlán, Oaxaca
2. Coixtlahuaca, Oaxaca
3. Ejutla, Oaxaca
4. Guiengola, Oaxaca
5. Huajuapan, Oaxaca
6. Huitzo, Oaxaca
7. Juquila, Oaxaca
8. Mitla, Oaxaca
9. Monte Alban Oaxaca
10. Sola de Vega, Oaxaca
11. Tehuantepec, Oaxaca
12. Teotitlán del Camino, Oaxaca
13. Teotitlán del Valle, Oaxaca
14. Tlacolula, Oaxaca
15. Tlaxiaco, Oaxaca
16. Tututepec, Oaxaca
17. Xaaga, Oaxaca
18. Yanhuitlán, Oaxaca
19. Zachila, Oaxaca
Southern Maya Area
(CE 450(?)-1500) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment
1. Chipal, Guatemala
2. Chutixtiox, Guatemala
3. Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala
4. Los Naranjos, Honduras
5. Nebaj, Guatemala
6. Quemistlá “Bell Caves”, Honduras
7. Tajumulco, Guatemala
8. Tazumal, El Salvador
9. Zacualpa, Guatemala
10. Zaculeu, Guatemala
11. Copán, Honduras
12. Motagua River valley, Guatemala
13. San Augustín Acasaguastlán, Guatemala
Central Maya Area
1. Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas
2. El Paredón, Chiapas
3. Polol, Guatemala
4. Santa Rita Corozal, Belize
5. Tayasal, Guatemala
6. Tikal, Guatemala
7. Yaxhá, Guatemala
8. Palenque, Chiapas
9. Wild Cane Cay, Belize
Northern Maya Area
(CE 1000-1450) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment
1. Chichén Itzá, Yucatán
2. Dzantún C’hen, Yucatán
3. Mayapán, Yucatán
Northern Mexico
(CE 1000-1450) Utilitarian objects; objects of personal adornment
1. Casas Grandes, Chihuahua
2. Chalchihuites, Zacatecas
3. Hervideros, Durango
4. La Quemada, Zacatecas
5. Navocoyán, Durango
6. Chihuahua, Chihuahua
7. Schroeder site, Durango
8. Venis Meicis, San Luis Potosí
9. Zape, Durango
10. Babicora, Chihuahua
11. Rancho San Miguiel, Chihuahua
12. Santa Maria R., Chihuahua
• Hosler, Dorothy (1988). Ancient West Mexican Metallurgy: South and Central American Origins and West Mexican Transformations. American Anthropologist 90: 832-855.
• Hosler, Dorothy (1995). Sound, color and meaning in the metallurgy of Ancient West Mexico. World Archaeology 27: 100-115.
• Pendergast, David M. (1962). Metal Artifacts in Prehispanic Mesoamerica. American Antiquity 27: 520-545.
External links
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Ooze: A Cornstarch Colloid *
Time Required Very Short (≤ 1 day)
In this project you'll make a liquid that will contradict your expectations. Hold it loosely in your hand and it will drip off your fingers, but grab it tightly and it will feel solid. Slap a bowl of it with a spoon, and instead of splattering, it solidifies. Do background research on colloids, and be sure you can explain the following terms: colloid, Newtonian fluid, non-Newtonian fluid, thixotropic. (For instructions on how to make it see the link listed under Exploratorium, 1998, in the Resources section, below.) What happens if you put it on a flat surface? Does ooze leak through a small hole in a piece of paper? Are there other examples of non-Newtownian fluids? What do they have in common? How does "ooze" differ from a solution, such as sugar in water? (Exploratorium, 1998; Gardner, 1999, 30)
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MLA Style
Science Buddies Staff. "Ooze: A Cornstarch Colloid" Science Buddies. Science Buddies, 30 June 2014. Web. 23 Aug. 2014 <http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Chem_p031.shtml>
APA Style
Science Buddies Staff. (2014, June 30). Ooze: A Cornstarch Colloid. Retrieved August 23, 2014 from http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Chem_p031.shtml
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Birth of England: The Wessex Kings
By Michael Wood
Image of the Sermon of the Wolf manuscript
The beginning of the Sermon of the Wolf - 'Sermo Lupe' ©
In 1014, Archbishop Wulfstan of York gave a sermon that provides us with vital clues about when the English started thinking of themselves as a nation.
The birth of England
When did England become England? Some believe the English identity was formed long after the Norman Conquest, others are not so sure.
'The devil has led this people too far astray ...'
I think the idea of England and the allegiance to the English crown and English law was created by the Anglo-Saxon successors of Alfred the Great - long before 1066.
Let me give you an illustration, a snapshot from those days. It comes from a public speech by a bishop made in 1014.
At that time England was in deep trouble. By the winter of 1013-14, the government of Anglo-Saxon England had almost collapsed and the King, Ethelred the Unready, had gone into exile abroad.
The country had been devastated by Vikings and everybody complained about government inefficiency and failure to act and implement policy. Things could not really get much worse. It was at this point that Archbishop Wulfstan of York preached a sermon to the highest people in the land.
'The devil has led this people too far astray... the people have betrayed their own country [literally their "earth"]. And the harm will become common to this entire people.
'There was a historian in the time of the Britons called Gildas who wrote about their misdeeds; how their sins angered God so much that finally He allowed the army of the English to conquer their land. Let us take warning from this... we all know there are worse things going on now than we have heard of among the ancients. Let us turn to the right and leave wrongdoing... Let us love God and follow God's laws.'
Published: 2004-11-12
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Filchner Ice Shelf
Filchner Ice Shelf, large body of floating ice, lying at the head of the Weddell Sea, which is itself an indentation in the Atlantic coastline of Antarctica. It is more than 650 feet (200 m) thick and has an area of 100,400 square miles (260,000 square km). The shelf extends inland on the east side of Berkner Island for more than 250 miles (400 km) to the escarpment of the Pensacola Mountains. The name Filchner was originally applied to the whole shelf, including the larger area west of Berkner Island now called the Ronne Ice Shelf. Because of this, and the fact that the two shelves can be separated only at Berkner Island, the name Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf is frequently applied to the whole ice mass. The ice shelf, named for the German explorer Wilhelm Filchner, was claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and by Argentina (1942). Argentina, the United Kingdom, and the United States have operated research stations along its northern edge.
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1. Education
Natufian Period
Guide to the Hunter-Gatherers of the Levant
Reconstructed Natufian Burial, El-Wad Terrace
Reconstructed Natufian Burial, El-Wad Terrace"in the Nahal Me'arot Nature Reserve of Israel
האיל הניאולית
The Natufian culture is the name given to the sedentary hunter-gatherers living in the Levant region of the near east between about 12,500 and 10,200 years ago. They were hunter-gatherers, foraging for food such as emmer wheat, barley and almonds, and hunting gazelle, deer, cattle, horse, and wild boar.
Natufian Communities
The Natufians were hunter-gatherers, and they located their settlements at the boundaries between coastal plains and hill country, to maximize their access to a wide variety of food. They buried their dead in cemeteries, with grave goods including stone bowls and dentalium shell.
Natufian Artifacts
Artifacts found at Natufian sites include grinding stones, used to process seeds, dried meats and fish for planned meals, and ochre for likely ritual practices. Flint and bone tools, and dentalium shell ornaments are also part of the Natufian assemblage. Specific tools created for harvesting various crops are a hallmark of Natufian assemblages, such as stone sickles. Large middens are known at Natufian sites, located where they were created (rather than secondary refuse pits). Dealing with refuse is one defining characteristics of the descendants of the Natufians, the Pre-Pottery Neolithic.
Some scarce evidence indicates that the Natufian people may have cultivated barley and wheat. The line between horticulture (tending wild stands of crops) and agriculture (planting specific stands) is a fuzzy one. Most scholars believe that it was not a one-time decision, but rather a series of experiments that may well have taken place during the Natufian or other hunter-gatherer subsistence regimes.
Natufian Archaeological Sites
Important Natufian sites include Mt. Carmel, Ain Mallaha (Eynan), Hayonim Cave, Wadi Hammeh, Nahal Oren, Rosh Zin, Rosh Horesha, Wadi Judayid, Beidha, Jericho, Skhul Cave, Abu Hureyra and Hilazon Tachtit.
More Natufian Archaeological Sites
A bibliography of Natufian sources has been collected for this project.
This glossary entry is part of the Dictionary of Archaeology.
©2014 About.com. All rights reserved.
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Glossary - Ear, Nose, and ThroatGlosario - Oído, Nariz y Garganta
Glossary - Ear, Nose, and Throat
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| N | | O | | P | | Q | | R | | S | | T | | U | | V | | W | | X | | Y | | Z |
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American Sign Language (ASL) - manual (hand) language with its own syntax and grammar used primarily by people who are deaf.
Anti-inflammatory drugs - drugs that reduce the symptoms and signs of inflammation.
Assistive devices - technical tools and devices such as alphabet boards, text telephones, or text-to-speech conversion software used to assist people with physical or emotional disorders in performing certain actions, tasks, and activities.
Audiologist - a healthcare professional trained to identify and measure hearing impairments and related disorders using a variety of tests and procedures.
Audiology - the study of hearing and hearing disorders.
Auditory brainstem response (ABR) test - test used for hearing in infants and young children, or to test for brain functioning in unresponsive patients.
Auditory nerve - eighth cranial nerve that connects the inner ear to the brainstem.
Autism - brain disorder that begins in early childhood and persists throughout adulthood; affects three crucial areas of development: communication, social interaction, and creative or imaginative play.
Autoimmune deafness - hearing loss that may be associated with an autoimmune disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus.
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Balance - biological system that enables individuals to know where their bodies are in the environment and to maintain a desired position; normal balance depends on information from the labyrinth in the inner ear, and from other senses such as sight and touch, as well as from muscle movement.
Benign - a term used to describe non-cancerous tumors which tend to grow slowly and do not spread.
Biopsy - a sample of tissue is removed and examined under a microscope.
Blasts - immature blood cells.
Blood - the life-maintaining fluid which is made up of plasma, red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets; blood circulates through the body's heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries; it carries away waste matter and carbon dioxide, and brings nourishment, electrolytes, hormones, vitamins, antibodies, heat, and oxygen to the tissues.
Bone marrow - the soft, spongy tissue found inside bones. It is the medium for development and storage of about 95 percent of the body's blood cells.
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy - the marrow may be removed by aspiration or a needle biopsy under local anesthesia. In aspiration biopsy, a fluid specimen, is removed from the bone marrow. In a needle biopsy, marrow cells (not fluid) are removed. These methods are often used together.
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Cancer - cancer is not just one disease but rather a group of diseases. All forms of cancer cause cells in the body to change and grow out of control. Most types of cancer cells form a lump or mass called a tumor. The tumor can invade and destroy healthy tissue.
Cancer care team - the group of healthcare professionals who work together to find, treat, and care for people with cancer.
Cancer cell - a cell that divides and multiplies uncontrollably and has the potential to spread throughout the body, crowding out normal cells and tissue.
Carcinogen - an agent (chemical, physical, or viral) that causes cancer. Examples include tobacco smoke and asbestos.
Chemotherapy - a medicine that can help fight cancer.
Chromosome - structures in our cells that carry genes, the basic units of heredity. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one member of each pair inherited from the mother, the other from the father. Each chromosome can contain hundreds or thousands of individual genes.
Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) - a slowly progressing cancer of the blood in which too many white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow.
Clinical trial - a research study that compares many children from around the world with the same type of cancer and evaluates their treatment, side effects, and survival.
Cochlea - snail-shaped structure in the inner ear that contains the organ of hearing.
Cochlear implant - medical device that bypasses damaged structures in the inner ear and directly stimulates auditory nerve to allow some deaf individuals to learn to hear and interpret sounds and speech.
Complete blood count (CBC) - a measurement of size, number, and maturity of different blood cells in a specific volume of blood.
Complementary therapy - therapies used in addition to standard therapy.
Computed tomography scan (also called a CT or CAT scan) - a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of x-rays and computer technology to produce horizontal, or axial, images (often called slices) of the body. A CT scan shows detailed images of any part of the body, including the bones, muscles, fat, and organs. CT scans are more detailed than general x-rays.
Conductive hearing impairment - hearing loss caused by dysfunction of the outer or middle ear.
Congenital - present at birth.
Constrict - tighten; narrow.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) - one group of herpes viruses that infect humans and can cause a variety of clinical symptoms including deafness or hearing impairment; infection with the virus may be either before or after birth.
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Decibel - unit that measures the intensity or loudness of sound.
Dizziness - physical unsteadiness, imbalance, and lightheadedness associated with balance and other disorders.
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Ear infection - presence and growth of bacteria, fungi, or viruses in the ear.
Earwax - yellow secretion from glands in the outer ear (cerumen) that keeps the skin of the ear dry and protected from infection.
Edema - swelling due to buildup of fluid.
Endolymph - fluid in the labyrinth (the organ of balance located in the inner ear).
Eustachian tube - a canal that links the middle ear with the throat area. The eustachian tube helps to keep the pressure between the outer ear and the middle ear the same. Having the same pressure allows for the proper transfer of sound waves. The eustachian tube is lined with mucous, just like the inside of the nose and throat.
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Grade - the grade of a cancer reflects how abnormal it looks under the microscope. There are several grading systems for different types of cancer.
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Hair cells - sensory cells of the inner ear, which are topped with hair-like structures (stereocilia), which transform the mechanical energy of sound waves into nerve impulses.
Hearing - series of events in which sound waves in the air are converted to electrical signals and are then sent as nerve impulses to the brain where they are interpreted.
Hearing aid - electronic device that brings amplified sound to the ear.
Hearing disorder - disruption in the normal hearing process; sound waves are not converted to electrical signals and nerve impulses are not transmitted to the brain to be interpreted.
Hemoglobin - a type of protein in the red blood cells that carries oxygen to the tissues of the body.
Herpes virus - a virus which can affect the skin and central nervous system.
Hoarseness - abnormally rough or harsh-sounding voice caused by vocal abuse and other disorders.
Hodgkin lymphoma - a type of lymphoma, a cancer in the lymphatic system; Hodgkin disease causes the cells in the lymphatic system to abnormally reproduce, eventually making the body less able to fight infection. Steady enlargement of lymph glands, spleen, and other lymphatic tissue occurs.
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Inflammation - redness, swelling, heat, and pain in a tissue due to chemical or physical injury, infection, or allergic reaction.
Inner ear - part of the ear that contains both the organ of hearing (cochlea) and the organ of balance (labyrinth).
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Labyrinth - organ of balance located in the inner ear. The labyrinth consists of three semicircular canals and the vestibule.
Language - system for communicating ideas and feelings using sounds, gestures, signs, or marks.
Language disorders - problems with verbal communication and the ability to use or understand the symbol system for interpersonal communication.
Laryngitis - inflammation and swelling of the lining of the larynx that usually leads to a hoarse voice, or loss of voice.
Larynx (also called the voice box) - a cylindrical grouping of cartilage, muscles, and soft tissue which contains the vocal cords. The vocal cords are the upper opening into the windpipe (trachea), the passageway to the lungs.
Lymph - part of the lymphatic system; a thin, clear fluid that circulates through the lymphatic vessels and carries blood cells that fight infection and disease.
Lymph nodes - part of the lymphatic system; bean-shaped organs, found in the underarm, groin, neck, and abdomen, that act as filters for the lymph fluid as it passes through them.
Lymph vessels - part of the lymphatic system; thin tubes that carry lymph fluid throughout the body.
Lymphangiogram (LAG) - an imaging study that can detect abnormalities in the lymphatic system and structures. It involves a dye being injected to the lymph system.
Lymphatic system - part of the immune system; includes lymph, ducts, organs, lymph vessels, lymphocytes, and lymph nodes, whose function is to produce and carry white blood cells to fight disease and infection.
Lymphocytes - part of the lymphatic system; white blood cells that fight infection and disease.
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Malignant - a term used to describe cancerous tumors which tend to grow rapidly, can invade and destroy nearby normal tissues, and can spread.
Mastoid - back portion of the temporal bone behind the ear.
Medical oncologist - a physician who is specially trained to diagnose and treat cancer with chemotherapy and other medications.
Meningitis - inflammation of the meninges, the membranes that envelop the brain and the spinal cord; may cause hearing loss or deafness.
Metastasis - the spread of tumor cell in other areas of the body.
Middle ear - part of the ear that includes the eardrum and three tiny bones of the middle ear, ending at the round window that leads to the inner ear.
Myringotomy - surgical procedure to remove infection from the mastoid bone.
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Nasal polyp - a small rounded piece of the lining of the nose that can extend into the passages of the nose.
Noise-induced hearing loss - hearing loss that is caused either by a one-time or repeated exposure to very loud sound or sounds at various loudness levels over an extended period of time.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma - a type of lymphoma, a cancer in the lymphatic system; causes the cells in the lymphatic system to abnormally reproduce, eventually causing tumors to grow. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma cells can also spread to other organs.
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Oncologist - a physician with special training in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer.
Oncology - the branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of cancer.
Oncology clinical nurse specialist - a registered nurse who specializes in the care of cancer patients.
Oncology social worker - a health professional with a master's degree in social work who is an expert in coordinating and providing non-medical care to patients.
Otitis externa - inflammation of the outer part of the ear extending to the auditory canal.
Otitis media - inflammation of the middle ear caused by infection.
Otoacoustic emissions - low-intensity sounds produced by the inner ear that can be quickly measured with a sensitive microphone placed in the ear canal.
Otolaryngologist - a physician who specializes in diseases of the ears, nose, throat, and head and neck.
Otologist - a physician who specializes in diseases of the ear.
Outer ear - external portion of the ear, consisting of the pinna, or auricle, and the ear canal.
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Pain specialist - oncologists, neurologists, anesthesiologists, neurosurgeons, and other physicians, nurses, or pharmacists who are experts in pain. A team of healthcare professionals may also be available to address issues of pain control.
Pathologist - a physician who specializes in diagnosis and classification of diseases by laboratory tests such as examination of tissue and cells under a microscope. The pathologist determines whether a tumor is benign or cancerous and, if cancerous, the exact cell type and grade.
Pediatric oncologist - a physician who specializes in cancers of children.
Pediatrician - a physician who specializes in the care of children.
Pharynx - back of the throat.
Phonology - study of speech sounds.
Posterior - referring to the back part of a structure.
Primary site - the place where cancer begins. Primary cancer is named after the organ in which it starts. For example, cancer that starts in the kidney is always kidney cancer even if it spreads (metastasizes) to other organs such as bones or lungs.
Prognosis - a prediction of the course of disease; the outlook for the cure of the patient.
Protocol - a formal outline or plan, such as a description of what treatments a patient will receive and exactly when each should be given.
Purulent - having or making pus.
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Radiation oncologist - a physician who specializes in using radiation to treat cancer.
Radiation therapist - a professional specially trained to operate equipment that delivers radiation therapy.
Radiation therapy - treatment with high-energy rays (such as x-rays) to kill or shrink cancer cells. The radiation may come from outside of the body (external radiation) or from radioactive materials placed directly in the tumor (internal or implant radiation).
Radiologist - a physician with special training in diagnosing diseases by interpreting X-rays and other types of imaging studies, for example, CT scans and magnetic resonance imaging.
Round window - membrane separating the middle ear and inner ear.
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Sensorineural hearing loss - hearing loss caused by damage to the sensory cells and/or nerve fibers of the inner ear.
Sign language - language of hand shapes, facial expressions, and movements used as a form of communication.
Smell - to perceive odor or scent through stimuli affecting the olfactory nerves.
Sound vocalization - ability to produce voice.
Speech - making definite vocal sounds that form words to express thoughts and ideas.
Speech disorder - defect or abnormality that prevents an individual from communicating by means of spoken words.
Speech-language pathologist - a health professional trained to evaluate and treat people who have voice, speech, language, or swallowing disorders, including hearing impairment, that affect their ability to communicate.
Staging - the process of determining whether cancer has spread and, if so, how far. There is more than one system for staging.
Stuttering - frequent repetition of words or parts of words that disrupts the smooth flow of speech.
Sudden deafness - loss of hearing that occurs quickly from causes such as explosion, a viral infection, or the use of some drugs.
Suppurative - something that makes pus.
Syphilis - a disease usually transmitted by sexual contact, that can cause serious injury to an unborn baby.
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Taste - sensation produced by a stimulus applied to the gustatory nerve endings in the tongue; the four tastes are salt, sour, sweet, and bitter; some say there is a fifth taste described as savory.
Taste buds - groups of cells located on the tongue that enable one to recognize different tastes.
Throat culture - a procedure that involves taking a swab of the back of the throat and monitoring it in the laboratory to determine the type of organism causing an infection.
Throat disorders - disorders or diseases of the larynx (voice box) or esophagus.
Tongue - large muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing and swallowing; the main organ of taste, and assists in forming speech sounds.
Toxoplasmosis - an infectious disease caused by a parasite that can be harmful to an unborn baby.
Transillumination - a method of examination by the passage of light through tissues to assist in diagnosis. The light transmission changes with different tissues.
Tumor - an abnormal lump or mass of tissue. Tumors can be benign (not cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).
Tympanic membrane (Also called eardrum.) - a thin membrane that in the middle ear that carries sound vibrations to the inner ear.
Tympanoplasty - surgical repair of the eardrum (tympanic membrane) or bones of the middle ear.
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Ultrasound (also called sonography) - a diagnostic imaging technique which uses high-frequency sound waves and a computer to create images of blood vessels, tissues, and organs. Ultrasounds are used to view internal organs as they function, and to assess blood flow through various vessels.
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Vestibule - bony cavity of the inner ear.
Vocal cords (vocal folds) - muscularized folds of mucous membrane that extend from the larynx (voice box) wall; enclosed in elastic vocal ligament and muscle that control the tension and rate of vibration of the cords as air passes through them.
Voice - sound produced by air passing out through the larynx and upper respiratory tract.
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X-ray - a diagnostic test which uses invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs onto film.
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Anglo-Zulu War
"War against Zulus. Cause: The Zulus. Zulus exterminated. Peace with Zulus."
W. C. Sellar & R. J. Yeatman, 1066 and All That
The Anglo-Zulu War (1879) was a series of conflicts fought between the British Empire and the Zulu Empire all between January and July 1879. The war was instigated due to tensions between the Zulu leader Cetshwayo, and the Boers in the Transvaal region. The British choose to intervene due to a pre-existing desire to war against the Zulu because of land disputes. In 1879 a British force invaded Zululand aiming to capture the capital of Ulundi.
In response a Zulu force of 40,000, armed mostly with assegais, was mobilized against the British expeditionary force of 2000. Underestimating Zulu numbers and capabilities met with bad leadership as the British lost the initial Battle of Isandlwana. Immediately after this, 139 British soldiers managed to hold off three to four thousand Zulus attacking their garrison until relief arrived in the Battle of Rorke's Drift, which resulted in eleven Victoria Crosses being awarded, a record for a single action unsurpassed to this date.
The British would also lose another decisive conflict during Siege of Eshowe, and a major contingent of their forces decided to make a Tactical Withdrawal following news of the defeat at Isandlwana. This left only a single small British force in Zululand unable to advance alone.
With the British invasion force crippled, Cetshwayo was left in an odd position. He hadn't anticipated such a decisive victory over the invaders, albeit at distressingly heavy losses, and hadn't planned to follow them into neighbouring Natal. The Zulu remained in their own country as the British retreated and regrouped. The British eventually launched a second invasion but suffered a debilitating defeat at the Battle of Intombe, where a supply convoy was ransacked by the Zulu and only 40 British managed to escape.
The British would face defeat again at the Battle of Holbane, before finally meeting with some success in winning the three subsequent battles the Battle of Kambula, the Battle of Gingindlovu and the Battle of Eshowe. Finally finding some success in their advances, the British found themselves in more or less the same position they had been in January. Quickly moving forward in an attack on the capital, Cetshwayo attempted to establish a treaty but was refused peace talks by the British. The resulting Battle of Ulundi, with British with better tactical arrangements and more suitable weapons like gatling machine guns, was a decisive defeat on behalf of the Zulu though the British suffered great casualties as well, including the exiled French heir Imperial Prince Napoleon Eugene, who had volunteered for service.
In the aftermath of the British victory in the Zululand capital the remnant of the Zulu army dispersed and Cetshwayo went into hiding, though he was later captured and disposed of his monarchy. Zululand was then divided into 13 territories by the British, and after traveling to England Cetshwayo was awarded monarchy of one of the 13 states. He would later be killed after being wounded when another of the fractured states invaded his own.
Today what was Zululand is a portion of South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, one of South Africa's nine provinces. In North America today it is probably best known as the place where Mike Rowe got attacked by a monkey.
In media
• Zulu!, a 1964 about Rorke's Drift and starring Michael Caine. It's got a fair few inaccuracies and anyone with a knowledge of film goofs will tell you about the wristwatche, but it remains a classic. 1979's Zulu Dawn covered Isandhlwana.
• Many later works about situations like Rorke's Drift reference this in some film.
• White Dwarf 222 did an Orks vs. Imperial Guard Warhammer 40,000 scenario explicitly based on the battle.
• Monty Pythons The Meaning Of Life has a sketch set on Natal right in the middle of a battle. However, the officers get sidetracked by a leg-stealing tiger.
"A tiger in Africa?"
Imperial GermanyHollywood HistoryWar Of The Pacific
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Salt Plants
Without salt, some foods taste bland no matter what seasonings you add. If you live near a salt marsh on the east coast, from eastern New Brunswick and Nova Scotia south along the coast to Georgia, chances are you have plants that contain salt in their stems or leaves. Plants that live in a salty environment have to adapt by either excreting the salt or storing it in their stems.
Saltwort, also referred to by its genus name, Salicornia, grows on the edges of salt marshes and tidal creeks along the east coast from Eastern New Brunswick and Nova Scotia south along the coast to Georgia. There are also several species on the west coast as well as around saline and alkaline lakes on the Great Plains, in the Rockies, and the Great Basin. They are one of the first plants to colonize on bare tidal flats.
The name “Salicornia” comes from the word “sal,” which means salt, and “cornus,” meaning horn, from the stems on the plant that look like little horns. Common names vary from saltwort to glasswort, pickleweed, and marsh samphire. Members of the goosefoot family, they are characterized by succulent stems with leaves that are reduced to blunt scales, an adaptation to conserve water and protect themselves from dehydration. Lashed by salt winds and in some cases, immersed by incoming tides, they remain in place by spreading their roots underground to form a mat that prevents them from being uprooted by tidal waters. Minute green flowers are inconspicuous and borne in the hollows of the upper joints, followed by small seeds.
Salicornia is not the only plant from which salt can be obtained. Orach, another member of the goosefoot family, also grows in salt marshes and has a salty taste as well. The leaves are fleshy and shaped like an arrow. Small clusters of flowers grow in the leaf axils. The young leaves and tips can be used to add a salty flavor to food.
Saltmarsh cordgrass has adapted to a salty environment by excreting excess salt from its leaves. Try rubbing the leaf blade between two fingers and then lick your fingers. This process can also be used to test the saltiness of the water. If the water is mildly salty, you may not get much salt at all. At other times you may actually be able to collect salt crystals that can be used for salt. Cordgrasses often grow in the salt marsh with Salicornia.
1. Home
2. Foraging
3. Into the Forager's Kitchen
4. Salt Plants
Visit other sites:
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Rolling Stones Experiment
We disprove the paradigm that olivine weathering in nature would be a slow process, and show that it is not needed to mill olivine to very fine, 10 μm-size grains in order to arrive at a complete dissolution within 1–2 year. In high-energy shallow marine environments olivine grains and reaction products on the grain surfaces, that otherwise would greatly retard the reaction, are abraded so that the chemical reaction is much accelerated. When kept in motion even large olivine grains rubbing and bumping against each other quickly produce fine clay- and silt-sized olivine particles that show a fast chemical reaction.
Stones Fig.1
Stones Fig.2
Stones Fig.3
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Building Bridges in 5th grade
Building Bridges in 5th grade
The ” Building Bridges” program allows 5th-graders to interact with Middle School classes. This week, our 5th-graders met their fellow students from 8th-grade.
This allowed them the opportunity to ask the 8th-graders questions about their time in Middle School. The 5th-graders also took advantage of the meeting to participate in an activity that groups students into “Houses”.
Here is what one of the 5th-graders found of the experience:
“In the beginning, we sat down in the field outside our class. We were waiting to be sorted into Houses. The 8th-graders told us about the Houses. Then, one by one we were called up to join a House. After everyone got their ticket and had been allocated a House, they were happy to answer our questions about how the Houses work.”
Graphs in 3rd grade
Graphs are visual displays of information. It is important for students to learn how to collect, organize, and interpret information. To make graphing more relevant and relatable, we surveyed friends and family members in and outside of the classroom. Afterwards, we had a Graphing Museum Walk in order to share what we’ve learned.
Carrie Vo
Protect our oceans – by the 4th graders
Je suis allée à la plage avec mes amis parce que j’ ai beaucoup appris en classe sur la protection de nos océans alors je voulais faire quelque chose pour aider. À la plage on a vu des animaux qui étaient morts à cause du plastique. On a ramassé beaucoup de plastique et on veut le refaire pour que nos océans soient en meilleure santé.
I went to the beach with my friends because I learned a lot in class about how to protect our oceans so I wanted to do something to help. At the beach we saw a lot of sea life that was destroyed because of plastic/pollution. We picked up a lot of plastic and we want to do it again to help our ocean be healthy again.
Notre maîtresse, madame Aka, a lancé ce projet pour nous sensibiliser à ce qui se passe dans la nature. La pollution affecte énormément l’océan et il faut que ça s’arrête. Le plastique prend 500 à 1000 ans pour se décomposer et vient dans notre assiette quand on mange du poisson qui a lui-même mangé du microplastique. On a aussi fait des expériences sur le pétrole et les liquides qui se mélangent avec l’eau et on a fait un field trip virtuel avec l’association shore buddies.
The teacher, Mrs. Aka started this project for us to sense what is happening in nature. Pollution is affecting the ocean enormously and it has to stop. Plastic takes 500 to 1000 years to decompose and comes onto our plate when we eat fish that have itself eaten microplastic. We have also done experiments with petroleum and liquids that mix with water. We went on a virtual field trip with the Shore buddies CEO and he taught us more about ocean pollution.
The group photo of us picking up trash at La Jolla shores. This picture was taken right before we found the most trash in a bomb fire area.
Nous ramassons les déchets à La Jolla Shores. Cette photo a été prise avant de trouver beaucoup de déchets dans la plage.
A sea lion killed by pollution or plastic; it washed up on shore.Then, we performed a funeral for the poor seal that died by accident caused human nature. We are terrible.
Un phoque est sans doute mort à cause de la pollution ou du plastique.Il a échoué sur la plage. Après, on a fait des funérailles pour lui.
National Arbor Day
National Arbor Day was April 30th. The 3rd grade B planted a tree: a ponderosa pine in our little garden. It will be transplanted in a permanent location in the school landscape.
It was a very special moment enjoyed by the group. Each student of the class participated in the plantation respecting distanciation of course.
It was followed by a moment of exchange and debate about the importance of trees. “Trees are important !” a student said. “It gives us oxygen.” another one added. “Trees also provide shelter for animals.
Murielle Brimaldi Jensen
Science in 4th grade
We have been learning about energy transfers in 4th grade and the students modeled changes in potential and kinetic energy through the real life experience of a roller coaster. They demonstrated the Law of Conservation of Energy and enjoyed engineering their own roller coaster which required friction for the ride to end.
Cathleen Anderson
Californian landmarks in 4th grade
In fourth grade, students are learning about various Californian landmarks that reveal the history of California. They have chosen a landmark to research, and they used Virtual Reality to “visit” their landmark. Students were offered the chance to start constructing their Landmark using the virtual platform of Minecraft. Students enjoyed being able to “see” their landmark via VR and are excited to complete their research to learn more about its importance.
Cathleen Anderson
Fractions in 3rd grade
Fractions are one of the most critical and abstract concepts for third-grade students to learn in order to be successful in Algebra and higher math. Third-grade students are learning how to compare and represent equivalent fractions. Games such as Cover and Uncover are fun ways to make fractions more exciting. In order to help students develop a deeper understanding of fractions, we need to make something that is vague and abstract more concrete and tangible–and this is why fraction strips are fun tools to build a conceptual understanding of equivalent fractions. Using games to engage students in this tactile experience also helps anchor other math concepts that we are learning in class.
Carrie Vo
Digital Manipulatives for Fractions in 4th Grade
Students in 4th grade have been learning about fractions. Due to COVID restrictions, we have to get creative in supporting their comprehension of these concepts. With some helpful online sites, they are able to utilize digital manipulatives to create and compare fractions. The students are able to visualize number lines, bars, and circles to strengthen their understanding. They get immediate feedback on their progress and can make connections with what is being taught during lessons.
100 days in 1st grade
Thursday, February 11, 2021 was the 100 day of school. The first graders organized a very special moment for that event. Since the beginning of the school year and every morning, the children count each day of school till 100. They use color sticks in class to represent ones, tenths and hundreds. A routine the children love and an occasion to plan a beautiful event for the 100 days. This year, the first graders realized 100 math challenges, made collections of 100 objects and decorated tee shirts for this occasion.
Claire Selva – Elisabeth Perdereau – Birka Nielsen
You can see here the video:
Sci-Chat – From Alliance Française
Bonjour Sci-Chat Educators,
Have a wonderful rest of the week.
Lindsay McNicol
Alliance Française San Diego, Executive Director
Here are the 5th graders attending the event:
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Indifference curve equation
What is indifference curve example?
An indifference curve is a line showing all the combinations of two goods which give a consumer equal utility. In other words, the consumer would be indifferent to these different combinations. Example of choice of goods which give consumers the same utility.
What is the formula for marginal rate of substitution?
Marginal Rate of Substitution Formula The Marginal Rate of Substitution of Good X for Good Y (MRSxy) = ∆Y/ ∆X (which is just the slope of the indifference curve).
Why can’t indifference curves cross?
Along the curve the consumer has an equal preference for the combinations of goods shown—i.e. is indifferent about any combination of goods on the curve. Typically, indifference curves are shown convex to the origin, and no two indifference curves ever intersect.
What is the meaning of indifference curve?
Definition: An indifference curve is a graph showing combination of two goods that give the consumer equal satisfaction and utility. Each point on an indifference curve indicates that a consumer is indifferent between the two and all points give him the same utility.
What is the slope of indifference curve?
The slope of the indifference curve is called the marginal rate of substitution , which declines as the quantity of X increases relative to the quantity of Y. Of course, the amounts of commodities X and Y that the individual will be able to consume depends on the level of that person’s income.
Can an indifference curve be a straight line?
Yes, the indifference curve can be a straight line if both the goods are perfect substitutes that is both goods provide the same level of satisfaction
Is Mrs positive or negative?
The MRS changes along a non-linear indifference curve. For the downward-sloping convex indifference curves which result from well- behaved preferences, the MRS is always negative, and always decreases (becomes greater in absolute value) as the amount of good x decreases.
What is the features of indifference curve?
An indifference curve is a graphical representation of a combined products that gives similar kind of satisfaction to a consumer thereby making them indifferent. Every point on the indifference curve shows that an individual or a consumer is indifferent between the two products as it gives him the same kind of utility.
What are the uses of indifference curve?
The indifferent curve analysis is used in measuring the cost of living or standard of living in terms of index numbers. We come to know with the help of index numbers whether the consumer is better off or worse off by comparing two time periods when the income of the consumer and prices of two goods change.
What is an example of indifference?
The definition of indifference is a lack of care, concern or interest. An example of indifference is when you don’t care or put effort into something. Unemotional apathy.
What is the formula of Mr?
Marginal Revenue is the revenue. It is the revenue that a company can generate for each additional unit sold; there is a marginal cost. The marginal cost formula = (change in costs) / (change in quantity).
What does MRTS mean?
marginal rate of technical substitution
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Equation for maximum height
Potential energy equation physics
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unit banner
Unit 4: Nationalism, Industrialism, and Imperialism
Lesson H: Social Responses to an Industrialized World
Activity 7: Artists Respond to Change
Similar to socialists and education reformers, artists were also uniquely shaped by the changes they experienced in the 19th century. New art movements emerged to reflect varying responses to the industrialized world. In the next activity, you will analyze this transformation in art in Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism.
image of classroom blackboard with world history written on it
Classroom Activity - Artists Respond to Change
jigsaw image Jigsaw
Directions: In this activity, you will complete a jigsaw activity in a group about the new art movements that emerged in the Western world in the 19th century. Use the fact sheets to examine information about these movements. Your teacher may assign you to do additional research.
Download IconDownload the Student Resource: Artists Respond to Change Art Jigsaw Factsheets (pdf)
Download IconDownload the Student Resource: Artists Respond to Change Jigsaw Organizer (doc)
Discussion Icon Discussion
• How did art change during the 19th century?
• What are characteristics of each of the new art forms?
• How was each of the art movements shaped by the industrialized world?
Download Icon
❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖
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2, The materials most commonly used in the construction of stairways are stone, iron, and wood; the selection of material should be based on the location and the use to be made of the stairway. If placed outside of a building, stone, owing to its natural capability of resisting atmospheric influences, should be used; while, if placed inside a building designed to be fireproof, iron is generally selected, as it possesses great resistance to heat. Both iron and stone are preferable to wood when used in public buildings, where the amount of travel requires extra strength; wood, however, is the material most commonly used, especially in private buildings, where no heavy travel is to be expected.
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Expert Video - What is a “lobectomy”?
A lobectomy is performed when surgery is used to take out a part of the lung. A “lobe” is a functional unit of the lung. The lungs typically have 3 lobes in the right lung and 2 lobes in the left lung. Each lobe is also divided into smaller parts called "lung segments". A lobectomy is a type of surgery that is done to remove a specific lobe from one of the lungs. It may be part of a minimally invasive surgery or it may be part of a more extensive type of surgery.
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Sandcastle physics: discover the forces that make for perfect beach digs
Sandcastle physics: discover the forces that make for perfect beach digs – Earth/physical: sand/surface tension
Victoria Marcinkowski
Building a sandcastle involves nothing but sand, water, and your imagination–or does it? The physics behind what makes sandcastles stand certainly intrigues NASA. The agency has sent samples of sand aboard spacecraft on three missions to study its properties in the absence of gravity (attracting force between two objects). But you don’t need a space shuttle to figure out what makes sandcastles work.
“The two main components are compaction and moisture,” says professional sand sculptor Lucinda Wierenga. To compact sand, you scoop up wet sand and press it into a bucket, letting water ooze between sand grains like glue. “When you add liquid to sand, each drop of water seeks contact with the surface of two or three grains,” explains physics professor Peter Schiffer at Pennsylvania State University. Then surface tension (clinging force on the surface of a liquid) builds tiny bridges that make grains stick together.
The perfect water-to-sand ratio for building your dream castle takes experimenting: Too little water and there won’t be enough surface tension to counter the force of gravity–so the sand collapses. Too much water dissolves the bridges created by surface tension, and the castle becomes a soupy mess. “The best sand is fine grained,” says Wierenga. The smaller the grains, the better they stack up.
A sandy beach is really trillions of tiny grains of two substances: quartz, a hard mineral composed of the chemical compound silicon dioxide; and a compound called calcium carbonate that comes from seashells. Sand is worn down, or eroded, by millions of collisions between grains. To be classified as sand, a grain must measure between 1/12 and 1/20 of an inch across. Smaller particles are called silt or clay; larger particles are gravel.
Why would NASA want to study the stuff in space? Granular mixtures like sand have two different personalities: They can flow like liquid and be solid at the same time. (For example, you can both pour sand and walk on it.) If scientists can figure out how granular mixtures morph from solid to liquid, the results could benefit industries from building construction to food processing. “We’re trying to determine if wet sand sticks together in space the same way it does on Earth,” says Stein Sture, NASA’s lead investigator of the mechanics of granular materials.
You don’t have to wait for answers from NASA to make an awesome sandcastle on Earth. Follow these tips from Wierenga:
* Cut the bottom out of a big bucket and place it where you want to build your castle.
* Compress moist sand in the bucket and remove the bucket.
* Start carving and have fun!
Before you hit the beach, explore how surface tension holds grains of sand together with our hands-on activity.
PREDICT: Which will flow: dry sand or moist? Why?
YOU NEED: 2 wide-mouth 1-qt glass jars * dry sand * water * 25 pennies * sharpened pencil or chopstick
1. Fill one jar 3/4 full with dry sand.
2. Fill the other jar 1/4 full with dry sand. Add a little water and stir sand until moist. Repeat until the jar is 3/4 full of moist-not wet-sand. Pack sand flat.
3. Poke pencil or chopstick straight down into dry sand, then slowly remove. Does dry sand flow like a liquid or act like a solid?
4. Repeat step 3 with moist sand. What happens? Why?
5. Stir the moist sand and repack it. Insert a pencil at an angle of about 45 degrees from the top edge to the other side of the jar, then carefully remove the pencil.
6. Stack pennies on the surface. How many does it take to collapse the tunnel?
Scientists are trying to figure out how granular solids flow like liquids. Can you think of any reasons?
Did You Know?
* Fourteen phyla of tiny creatures, including microbes and sand fleas, live in sand. They keep beaches clean; without the tiny scavengers beaches would be mucky swamps.
* Surface tension is the principle that allows water droplets to form.
* Some sandcastles will stand up when they’re dry; that happens if the water used to moisten the sand contained salt or other minerals. The minerals form a crust between sand grains, holding them together even when water evaporates.
Cross-Curricular Connection
History: Most castles were built during the Middle Ages (ca. 1000-1500 A.D.). They usually housed a lord and his army. Find. out how real castles were constructed.
Critical Thinking: Why do you think rough-grained sand is better for building sandcastles than smooth-grained? (Hint: It has to do with surface area and surface tension.)
To learn more about what NASA’s doing with sand in space, visit this Web site:
Professional sand sculptor Lucinda Wierenga (a.k.a. Sandy Feet) offers castle-building tips on her Web site:
This article explores how weight gets divvied up in a granular mixture:
“A Fine-grained Look at Forces in Sand” by James Glanz, Science, April 11, 1997.
COPYRIGHT 2003 Scholastic, Inc.
COPYRIGHT 2003 Gale Group
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What is nozzle and what is diffuser?
A nozzle is a device which accelerates fluid. During this process, velocity of fluid increases with decreasing pressure. A diffuser is a device which slows down fluid. That means, velocity of fluid decreases with increasing pressure.
What is the function of diffuser?
The diffuser is an important element of a compressor or pump. Its purpose is to reduce the velocity of the flow leaving the impeller resulting in an increase in pressure. The diffuser can be simply depicted as a nonrotating channel whose flow area increases in the direction of flow (Figure 7.7).
What is jet nozzle diffuser?
JND Jet Nozzle Diffuser is suitable for supplying cooled and heated air in large areas. Fully adjustable airflow in any direction. Suitable for long-distance air supply. Low noise levels.
What are the various types of nozzles and their functions?
• Nozzle.
• The Nozzle Tip is one of the most important and least expensive part of a spraying system. Adjustable nozzle.
• Double swirl spray nozzle.
• Selecting a spray nozzle.
• Hollow cone nozzles-Disc and core type.
• Flat fan nozzles.
• Floodjet nozzles.
• Adjustable nozzles.
What is nozzle and types?
A Nozzle is used to enhance the kinetic energy of a fluid which is flowing at the expense of inertial and pressure energy. Nozzles are of two types: convergent and divergent. Convergent Nozzles are used to accelerate the subsonic fluids while the divergent Nozzles are used to slow the fluids if their flow is subsonic.
What are real life examples of nozzles?
There are following applications of a nozzle are:
• Nozzles are used in steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines and in jet engines, Jet propulsion.
• Nozzles are used for flow measurement e.g. in venturimeter.
• Nozzles are used to remove air from a condenser.
• Injectors for pumping feed water to boilers.
How do nozzles and diffusers work?
Nozzles and Diffusers A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure. A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down. The cross sectional area of a nozzle decreases in the flow direction for subsonic flows and increase for supersonic flows.
What is a jet diffuser?
Jet Diffusers are suitable for large spaces or area with high ceilings, such as theatres, concert halls, gymnasiums, mall atriums, exhibition halls, etc. The design of Jet Diffusers allows for a long distance throw along with trajectory control.
What are the three types of nozzles?
Nozzle Description. Nozzle types commonly used in low-pressure agricultural sprayers include flat-fan, flood, raindrop, hollow-cone, full-cone, and others. Special features, or subtypes such as “extended range,” are available for some nozzle types.
How many types of nozzle are there?
There are 5 basic spray pattern types: flat fan, solid stream, full cone, hollow cone and mist/fog. Various nozzle designs are deployed to create these patterns and details on each can be found in the sections below.
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Microscope, an optical instrument, consisting of lenses or mirrors, by means of which, small objects appear of a larger size, than they naturally are to the naked eye.
This valuable instrument, though not entirely unknown to the ancients, was re-invented and made public in the early part of the 17th century: it has, since that period, received continual improvements from various ingenious philosophers and artists, among whom the names of Leeuwenhoek, Wilson, Hook, the Adams's, Lie-berkuhn, Barker, Grey, Martin, Di Torre, and Dr. Smith, deserve to be gratefully recorded.
Microscopes are of two sorts, single and double. The former consist in general of one lens or mirror ; but, if a greater number be employed, they only serve to throw additional light upon the object, without farther enlarging its image. Double or compound mi-croscopes are those in which the image of an object is composed of several lenses or mirrors.
The utility of microscopes is very extensive, both to the naturalist and the artist: hence the invention of them must be regarded as one of the greatest efforts of human ingenuity. It is true, they do not contribute in any essential manner to the happiness of mankind ; but they serve to unfold the wonders of Nature, and thus insensibly raise the mind to the contemplation of that Great Being, whose works, however minute and apparently insignificant, uniformly evince the highest skill and most perfect symmetry.
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A Brief Look at George Friedrich Bernhard Riemann
Decent Essays
George Friedrich Bernhard Riemann, born in Breselenz, Germany, was a prominent and influential mathematician during the nineteenth century. At a young age, Riemann was recognized by his teachers for his swift grasping of complicated mathematical operations. Riemann attended the University of Gottingen where he developed a strong foundation in theoretical physics from Johann Listing and other notable professors. Riemann introduced concepts of mathematical importance such as the complex variable theory, analytic number theory, and differential geometry. Revolutionizing the field of geometry, Riemann set foundations for theoretical physics, modern topology, and the general theory of relativity. Riemann spent his adolescent years in a village near Danneberg, in midst of the Kingdom of Hanover. His father , Friedrich Riemann, was a poor Lutheran pastor while his mother, Charlotte Ebell, died before Bernhard reached adulthood. While exhibiting exceptional mathematical skill at a young age, Riemann suffered from nervous breakdowns and a fear of speaking in public. He attended high school at Johanneum Luneburg, where he developed a reputation for exceeding his professor’s mathematical knowledge. In 1846, Riemann attended the University of Gottingen, where he initially studied philosophy and theology. However, Riemann later began studying mathematics and transferred to the University of Berlin, after receiving a recommendation from Carl Friedrich Gauss. Riemann attended lectures
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Ebony Color
Ebony color is a dark black or dark brown color. It contains some effects of brown and olive color in it. Ebony Color is derived from dark wood color because of its dark appearance which is mixed with brown and olive colors. It is a very deep color and it seems dark hardwood in appearance. The color ebony is the representation of dark wood ebony. Ebony color is considered as a shade of black and has some tint of brown color in it. Ebony color is named after discussing ebony wood.
:large_blue_circle: Origin of Ebony color
Ebony color is a highly black or brown color. It is derived from the different species which contains the Persimmons, in the genus Diospyros. Ebony is a dark wood which gets through persimmon tree. When it is finely- textured and polished, mirror is obtained, which is very valuable for making ornamental wood. It is very costly, as D. Ebenum of southern India and Sri Lanka.
:small_blue_diamond: What does Ebony mean?
Ebony word means that a heavy, durable and deep thing which is often compared with black color. Ebony is also compared with hard and black wood because of same appearance. Ebony word is a noun and is used for naming color of people or woods. ebony is also known as deep and lustrous black in color.
:small_blue_diamond: Where is Ebony found?
Ebony is also a specie of Animals. It is found in India and Sri Lanka. It is also native in African and Indonesian regions. Species of ebony are;
1. Ceylon Ebony - In India and Sri Lanka
2. Gabon Ebony - In Africa
3. Sulawesi Ebony - In the regions of Indonesia.
:small_blue_diamond: Emergence of Ebony Word?
Ebony is a word used for dense black and brown color. This word EBONY comes from Egyptian word hbny, which then goes into Ancient Greek language. From Ancient Greek, it goes into Latin language. And finally from Latin it comes into Middle English. In this way, ebony word is derived by transferring from many languages and it has affects of all these languages.
:large_blue_circle: Ebony tree
It is found deep, lustrous black in woods or trees. In trees, there found a heartwood in center called ebony, because it is very dark. There are three species of ebony called Ceylon, Gabon and Makassar ebony. Ebony trees are usually found in moist areas, tropical rainforests and mostly in lower altitudes. Bark of ebony tree is dense black and scaly. It also contains mosses, lichens and ferns on it.
:small_blue_diamond: Are Bryophytes ebony?
Bryophytes were the first plant to colonize land. Their origin is from green algae. Bryophytes are present on Ebony trees. They are mostly found in damp shady places. These plants have no strengthening tissues and vascular tissues (xylem and phloem). They are considered as flowerless plants. They have alternation of heteromorphic generation. Mosses, ferns and lichens originate from the specie called Bryophytes and bryophytes are on Ebony trees.
:small_blue_diamond: How can you tell if wood is Ebony?
As we know, Ebony is a dark and deep black or brown color. And we also know that wood color is also dark and deep. Wood bark is of dark black color. Heartwood is also dark brown. So, if someone asks then we will tell that wood is ebony because of its dark complexion which is of ebony color.
:small_blue_diamond: Can I grow an ebony tree?
Ebony tree is grown only in selected portion of particular areas. It cannot be grown anywhere. Texas is the place where ebony tree can be grown because of its compacted soil. It can be grown only in Springs and produces fragrant blooms. Ebony tree is a drought tolerant tree.
:small_blue_diamond: How long does it take for an ebony tree to grow?
Ebony tree is not common tree. An ebony tree takes 60 to 200 years to grow completely. You may say that it take Centuries to grow because of its poor ability to compete with other trees. Ebony tree take time to grow and it reaches its maximum height of almost 30 feet up from land. It has diameter of almost one foot which shows that it is not too wide.
:large_blue_circle: What is ebony hair color?
Ebony hair color is very dark but you can still see the tone. It is considered perfect hair color for covering grey hair. A deep dark black color called ebony used especially in reference to African-Americans. Mostly in America, East Asian, South Asian and Far East Russia, people use this ebony hair color. Ebony hair color is used to look attractive and young in age. Some people have natural ebony hair color. And some people do this ebony hair color as a fashion or to look attractive.
:small_blue_diamond: What is jet black hair?
Jet black hair is the natural color of hairs. When you think of hair, the only color which comes to your mind is Black because it is the natural color of hair. Jet black is the most popular and most suitable color for hairs. because of its dark appearance and complexion, it may also be call as Ebony Black color. It is used for hairstyles and is most desired hair color in the world.
:small_blue_diamond: How to do Ebony hair color?
As Ebony hair color is most desired color in the world, So you need to know how to color your hairs into ebony. Here’s the video of this;
:small_blue_diamond: What’s the difference between black and ebony?
The main difference between Black and ebony color is that Black is the pure darkest color with ability of complete absorption of light. Black shows no color in it. On the other side, Ebony is the deep wood color which seems as dark brown with little blackish shade in it. That’s the main difference in black and ebony.
:large_blue_circle: What does ebony girl mean?
Ebony girls are mostly found in Africa and America. That is why, they are called African Americans’ Lexicon. These are the full descriptive words to describe ebony girls. They have dense black skin color. They use ebony hair color for their hairs. For these girls, we use ebony complement, which is considered best to describe dark shade, which is beautiful and smooth. Ebony is the best word to connotates the blackness and beauty.
:small_blue_diamond: Where are ebony girl’s found?
It is a word to consider Africans, who have beautiful complexion and are considered beautiful because they have very dark complexion, which is a unique trait in Africa. They are trying for their families, their communities and their nation as a whole. Ebony is the natural color of African or South American women. Mostly women there are of this color because of their nature.
:small_blue_diamond: What is the status of Ebony girls?
Black women are trying to step up their status in world. They are trying to participate in political services, and to get other opportunities for themselves, their loved ones and to improve the economy of their society. Yet, their efforts undervalued and under compensated. They are ignored and not given much respect because of their color. They are trying to work for us, but we ignored them and are not willing to work with them just because of their color. We need to raise our voices for these people.
:large_blue_circle: What are the Uses of ebony color?
Ebony color and ebony wood is used in many things for its complexion and color combination. Some of uses are;
• Ebony dark wood used in kitchen counters
• Ebony wood carved pieces were used in Ancient Egyptian tombs
• Ebony wood is also used for making cabinets and wood things.
• Ebony color is also used in piano keys as;
• It is also used in other musical instruments like violin, guitar etc.
• It is mainly used in coloring hairs to ebony color.
:blue_square: Summary
We summarized that Ebony is the dark black or deep brown color complexion. Ebony is also considered as hard color because of its deep and dark color. Ebony color sometimes gives shade which is mixed with olive colors. Ebony color is also of women living in Africa and its associated areas. Ebony color is also of a tree and it is used in many things.
:sagittarius: Frequently Asked Questions
Some people consider black color as Ebony and they think both the same. That’s why they ask questions and some of them are;
:diamond_shape_with_a_dot_inside: What Color is Ebony GREY?
As we know, ebony is a deep black and brown color because of its complexion. But if we talk about ebony grey, we will say that Ebony Grey is the solid exterior wood strain color which belongs to the family of Grey strain colors. It is used in solid wood things sometimes due give it a attractive look and complexion.
:diamond_shape_with_a_dot_inside: Is ebony the darkest color?
VantaBlack is the darkest color in the World. It absorbs 99% of the light and absorbs all pigments. So, its is considered one of the darkest color in the world. Ebony is also blackish brown color which is very deep and hard. But it is not the darkest color in the World because it absorbs some light and shows some colors mixed in it. That’s why it is not the darkest color in the world.
:diamond_shape_with_a_dot_inside: Is Ebony Wood expensive?
The main thing which we note about every wood is its price. Same is the case with ebony wood. It is also one of the most expensive wood in the world. It’s price varies between $80 to $100 which falls in expensive category. People use this ebony wood because of it’s unique color and decent and attractive look of the things in which ebony wood is used.
:diamond_shape_with_a_dot_inside: Does ebony wood fade?
Ebony wood is strong and is considered one of the best and long life wood in this world. People use this wood just because ebony wood does not fades because of its strong color and complexion. Sometimes, when this wood is exposed to strong ultraviolet light for a long time, then it may change its color because of sunlight and air moisture. Otherwise it remains same throughout the life.
:blue_square: Conclusion
Ebony Color is one of the most used and is blackish or brown in color. Ebony color is hard and deep and it is the heartwood color of the tree. It is used as a hair color in many regions of the world to look young. It is also used in making wood things like cabinets and tables. It is also used in some musical instruments like piano, violin, guitar and many others. Ebony color is also the skin color of the women living in Africa and South America.
:arrow_down_small: Related Topics
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What Is Ebony Color ? Ebony Color is a dark black color. Ebony Color is derived from the color of dark wood due to its mixture with the shades of brown and olive. It’s an intense color and appears to be dark hardwood. It has some brown and olive color effects.
Origin of Ebony Color
The color Ebony is very dark or brown. It is derived from the many species containing the persimmons of the Diospyros genus. Ebony is a black wood that passes through a tree of persimmon.
When carefully structured and polished, mirrors are created that are highly desirable for decorative wood production. Like D. Ebenum of southern India and Sri Lanka, it is costly.The ebony color represents the Ebony of black wood.
Ebony is a shade of black and has a special touch of brown color. After discussing ebony wood, Ebony color is called.
The Ebony color is less heavy than jet black, yet it retains an equally strong feeling of refinement, weight, and elegance. Blend Ebony to a traditional, timeless color palette with white and other neutrals or use Ebony to tone their brightness with bold colors.
Ebony Signifies Meaning
The word Ebony denotes a hefty, sturdy, and profound item, frequently linked to dark color. Because of the identical look, Ebony is commonly compared with hard and black wood.
The term Ebony is a noun that is used to name the color of individuals or forests. Ebony is also characterized in color as rich and brilliant black.
Ebony Tree
Deep, luscious black is found in forests or trees. In trees, a heartwood called Ebony was located in the core since it’s pretty black. Three species of Ebony are known as Ceylon, Gabon, and Makassar Ebony.
In wetlands, tropical rain forests, and especially at lower elevations, ebony trees are typically found. The bark is dense black and scaly with the ebony tree. It also includes mosses, lichens, and ferns.
Ebony Color coordinates
HEX #555D50
RGB DECIMAL 85, 93, 80
RGB PERCENTAGE 0.3, 0.4, 0.3
HSL 96.9, 0.1, 0.3, 1.0
Hair Ebony Color
Ebony’s hair color is entirely black, yet the tone can still be seen. It is considered the best color of hair to conceal grey hair. A deep dark black color known as Ebony was utilized in the African-American context.
This hair color is commonly used in America, East Asia, South Asia, and Far East Russia. The hair color of Ebony is utilized to appear appealing and young. Some people have natural hair color with Ebony. And some people like or look at this ebony color of hair.
Ebony Skin
In our society, skin color plays an important function. Apart from being a biological feature impacted by the sun’s strength, the colour of the skin also has a cultural significance that has influenced so many relationships.
As noted previously, those with ebony skin tone have black skin without a brown indication. The word Ebony refers to a dark, thick timber. Black piano keys are usually composed of ebony wood and black chess pieces. But genuine skin ebony or dark tone skin ebony is quite rare.
Slightly lighter than dark ebony skin tone is the slightly ebony skin tone. Dermatologists, plastic surgeons, and skincare specialists use the Fitzpatrick scale to determine skin type and color. The tool is based on an individual’s reaction to UVR exposure.
We have characterized Ebony as dark black or deep brown. Because of its rich and dark color, Ebony is also called a tricky color. Sometimes ebony color produces a tint that mixes with olive colors. The color of Ebony is also of ladies living in and related to Africa. Ebony’s color is also a tree and is often utilized.
Frequently Asked Questions
People ask many questions about ebony color . We discussed a few of them below :
:one: Why is black linked to die?
The ancient Greeks thought the ghosts of the deceased were going underground. Because black is the color of darkness and caverns, grief were connected. The Romans were likewise black for mourning, perhaps for the same reason, and have continued in most Western civilizations.
:two: How does Vantablack feel?
While the material absorbs incident light up to 99,965 percent and has a pleasant, sunny appearance, it does not transfer to a bodily experience. Vantablack has the feeling of a smooth touch surface.
:three: What do you say about wearing black?
“Black is a colour that’s carefully considered,” says Karen Haller, a fashion and style guru. People that choose to wear black clothes are ambitious, deliberate, but sensitive. In general, they are emotional and exciting, even if they often try to disguise it.
:four: What is ebony color?
Ebony is an extremely dark black color with occasionally olive and brown overtones. Its name comes from the black heartwood of the Ebony tree, an Indian and Sri Lankan native species. Ebony wood is renowned for black piano keys.
Ebony Color is one of the most often used and colored in blackish or brown. The color of Ebony is tough and deep, and the tree’s heartwood color. It is used as a hair color to seem young in various parts of the world. It is also utilized in the production of wood stuff like cabinets and tables.
It is also used in some musical instruments, including piano, violin, guitar, and many more. Ebony is also the skin color of African and South American ladies.
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Ebony color is a very dark black with brown and olive undertones. A native of India and Sri Lanka, the ebony tree gets its name from its dark heartwood. The black keys on a piano are famously made of ebony wood.
Ebony color keys
What Color Is Ebony?
If you’re looking for something that’s very dark black, ebony is the way to go. A native of India and Sri Lanka, the ebony tree gets its name from its dark heartwood.
The black keys on a piano are famously made of ebony wood. In the late 1500s, the word “hobby” was first used in the English language. A very dark black was called ebony by the mid-1600s.
Because of its mysterious and ominous nature, black is often associated with destructive power or negativity.
In general, Ebony is not associated with these negative connotations. When combined with the rich, dark silt left behind by the Nile after flooding, ebony evokes a sense of fertility.
The products of its namesake tree are highly regarded. Ebony wood has a deep luster when polished, making it a favorite of the French aristocracy.
As a result, ebony is impenetrable. Some would argue that its use should be limited, but this is entirely dependent on the designer’s intent. Ebony is striking, but it isn’t obnoxious in any way. In contrast to the eye, the mind can detect the warmth of the undertones.
It’s surprising how combining ebony with nature’s olive and brown tones create such a soothing palette! As a nod to elegance, the piano keyboard’s classic ebony and ivory are seen again and again.
Summary: Like the patterns on the cloth themselves are causing divine energy to be amplified. These are some of the characteristics of ebony’s power and mystique. Every color is at once complemented by and opposed by it. True black, on the other hand, has no color but is created by combining all three primary colors.
The personality of Ebony Color
In addition to its black hue, the addition of brown heightens the associations with prestige and elegance. It veers away from pure black’s strongest associations of strength, power, and professionalism a little.
• In the case of those who are attracted to the color Ebony, this is a personality hypothesis.
• Designing with ebony could be a good idea.
• Ebony will likely be popular among those who are looking for status and material things in life.
• This is someone who is constantly comparing themselves to their friends, family, and neighbors.
• They may also be fond of gold because it has similar associations with high status.
• As a result of this, they are likely to be pragmatists with somewhat conservative or traditional views.
• As a rule, they don’t stray far from the norm.
• While they may have ambitions of starting a business or making investments, they will not take a risk on an unconventional or unproven idea.
• Ebony is a good match for the color white (Ivory).
• As the white counterpart to ebony, ivory is used to create the traditional piano key colors.
• This leads to the colors brown and grey.
• In terms of design and creativity, depending on the shade of ebony, these could work very well.
Ebony color
Ebony Color Meaning
There’s nothing more luxurious or mysterious than this color. On the plus side, Ebony is wacky, worldly, and civilized in her outlook on life.
As well as that, it’s friendly and knowledgeable. While Ebony is a little out of the ordinary, she is a pleasure to be around. Despite having a strong personality, Ebony isn’t afraid to express it.
When it comes to sophisticated woods, ebony is one of the most sought-after. Despite its striking appearance, this color is full of rich elements that exude refined refinement. In many upscale homes, ebony serves as a symbol of wealth and style. Choose ebony for a luxurious feel.
Royals Favored
Ebony has long been a favorite of royalty because of its affluent nature. Many royals in France, in particular, have ebony furniture. When they are surrounded by this color, they feel powerful and important. Because of this, ebony can appear arrogant. The fact that people have placed it on such a pedestal can’t help.
It may surprise you to learn that ebony can create a calming and positive environment. Many people believe that ebony will make them feel uncomfortable. This is not the case at all. As far as color psychology is concerned, ebony is calming. Ebony can help you relax if you’re feeling tense or stressed out. Fear and doubt are banished with this color’s incredible power.
Since the 17th century, ebony has been used to make furniture. But it isn’t considered a modern color. More traditional, it struggles to accept modern beliefs as they exist today. According to ebony, some mentalities are too far-fetched for her to accept as reality. Ebony, on the other hand, prefers to stick to what it knows rather than explore new and improved discoveries. Because of this, it does not have to question its assumptions. In this regard, ebony can be particularly stubborn.
Divine Energy
Ebony has a spiritual connection to the spiritual world. Aware that there’s more to the world than meets the eye, Ebony goes to great lengths to develop deep understanding. Ebony has a lot to teach those who want to grow in their faith. This color will guide you on a spiritual journey unlike any other. No doubt, you’ll be rewarded on the other side.
When it comes to ebony, it can be a challenge to break through its tough exterior. Though it isn’t an introverted color, ebony is reserved. Ebony is a mysterious material. This color is surrounded by a lot of unknowns. Ebony may not be the best choice for you if you value transparency. Rather, use colors that are more open about their experiences. Ebony, on the other hand, does not have this characteristic.
Inherently Negative
It’s not always easy for ebony to find the good in the bad. However, it must put in a lot more effort than the average person to be successful. Having to deal with this can be incredibly frustrating for some. Ebony, on the other hand, is self-aware and constantly strives to improve herself. Despite this, ebony has an extremely pessimistic outlook on life.
Even though it can appear juvenile, ebony is a mature color in general Ebony is a role model for some colors. In the same way that ebony is regarded as an experienced color, so is black. It’s seen a lot and has a lot of wisdom to share. Ebony is considered a mature color because of its intelligence and unique insight.
Nothing about ebony is subtly veiled. In other words, it’s a very bright shade of purple. As a result of this characteristic, many people believe that ebony is melodramatic. Regardless of the situation, Ebony never backs down. Ebony can be a pain in the neck for those who prefer a quiet and relaxed environment.
Summary: Even though ebony is often associated with the darker side of life, it is a beautiful color that has no negative connotations whatsoever. Darker than black, ebony has brown undertones that make it more inviting than black. Ebony’s history is rooted in Egypt, which lends it a unique character. This dark brown color has been around for over 400 years, and it embodies timeless elegance.
Ebony Color Hair
A mixture of dark green and black-gray ashy hair dyes, Ebony Hair Color, is used for mixing with different hair dyes to achieve good results. To achieve green highlights on black locks, or to create an earthy hue, this is the perfect hair dye (appearing in half a tone or a tonne of different colors).
Dark black – and dark brown hair colors are particularly effective. Ebony hair color can be applied directly to dark hair. You should wait for two hours before making a decision. It will last for a period of four to five weeks. If you’re a fan of pastel green, you’ll love this hair color.
Black-gray and dark green hair color give this color a colder tone. Women with a warm undertone will look great in this. You can wear this hair color regardless of whether your skin has a natural or cool undertone, and regardless of whether your skin is dark.
Ebony Hair color
Ebony Skin Color
When someone’s dark skin is smooth and beautiful, they are said to have an ebony skin tone. ebony is a term that refers to a dark or black skin tone without any brown undertones.
Named after a dark hardwood found in southern India and Sri Lanka. As the name implies, the light ebony skin tone is lighter than the dark ebony skin tone. If you have an ebony skin tone, you’re skin never burns. The hair color is black, and the eyes are usually a dark brown shade of brown or even black.
In our society, skin color plays a significant role. Along with its biological significance, skin color has acquired a cultural significance that has influenced interactions in a variety of ways. The ebony skin tone is characterized by a dark skin tone that is devoid of brown pigmentation. As the name suggests, ebony is dense, dark hardwood.
Ebony wood is often used to make black piano keys and black chess pieces. Ebony skin, on the other hand, is very rare. As the name implies, the light ebony skin tone is lighter than the dark ebony skin tone.
Ebony skin color
Ebony Color V/S Black
Among other things, the difference between black and ebony can be described by the fact that black is (of an object) dark and colorless, while ebony is made of ebony wood and vice versa.
Nouns, black, and ebony differ in that while black refers to an absence of light, ebony refers to the dark wood of various subtropical and tropical trees, particularly those belonging to the genus diospyros.
Ebony Black
Diospyros is a hard, dense, deep black wood that comes from various subtropical and tropical trees. Dark and colorless, absorbing all light and reflecting none.
A tree that produces this type of wood. In the absence of light.
It’s a deep, dark shade of black. Referring to any of the many ethnic groups that have dark skin pigmentation.
It’s a key that’s dark on a piano or keyboard instrument. To be used by ethnic groups whose skin is darkly pigmented
Inlaid with black ebony wood The suit of spades or clubs. Compare the suit of hearts and diamonds
It’s a deep, dark shade of black. It’s bad; it’s ominous.
Ebony Color Code
Ebony is the name given to a type of wood found in India and Sri Lanka. After the popular material used to make piano keys and chess pieces, Ebony was given its name. Its popularity, however, as well as unsustainable harvesting practices, have put many of the ebony-producing species at risk. For example, the color #555D50 represents ebony in hexadecimal.
Color #555D50 has a red, green, and blue component of about 33.3% each, with a green and blue component of about 36.5 percent. #555D50 is composed of 9 percent cyan, 0 percent magenta, 14 percent yellow, and 64 percent black in the CMYK color model. ebony has a hue angle of 96.9 degrees, a saturation level of 7.5%, and a lightness level of 33.9 percent.
RGB values for #555D50 are 33, 36, 31, and 31.4, while CMYK values for the colour are C: 0.09, M: 0, Y: 0.14, and K:0.64. Brown and olive undertones are characteristic of ebony as opposed to jet black. In keeping with its piano-key origins, combine ebony and white for a timeless and classic color palette.
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the meaning of the color ebony?
Ebony, like other colors, has both positive and negative characteristics. Among other things, ebony has been used with care in literature, alchemy, and the arts; it represents eternity, wisdom, and the universe, among other things. Desolation, death, and uncertainty are also portrayed in it.
2. When it comes to colors, does a black have a bad connotation?
For many centuries, it was associated with death and evil in the Roman Empire, as well as witches, magic, and witchcraft. Surveys in Europe and North America have found that the color black is associated with mourning, the end, secrets, and magic as well as with power and violence.
3. Why is black a symbol of the afterlife?
People in the past had no idea what would happen to them after they died, which is why the color black was (and still is) associated with death in many cultures. Added to this was the fact that death and sleep, which occurs in the darkness of the night and when closed eyelids block out all light, are similar.
4. What’s the darkest color you can think of?
Because it absorbs 99 percent of light, vanta black is the world’s darkest pigment.
5. Is ebony the same shade of black as black?
A shade of black, Ebony is a lighter shade of black with brown undertones. After the dense tropical wood that comes from India and neighboring countries, ebony color was named.
6. Is there a specific color code for black?
#FFFFFF. When a screen is black, all colors are displayed at their lowest intensity, with a Hex color code of #000000.
7. Why is black not a good color to use?
As a symbol of sophistication and formality, black is associated with many cultures, but it is also associated with death and evil, as well as magic, fierceness, illness, bad luck, and mystery.
8. Is there anyone out there that uses a black pen?
The Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions issued an order requiring all officers to use either blue or black ink when signing notes and draughts. Black or blue ink was the only ink allowed for official purposes for other staff and officers below the level of Joint Secretary in the past.
9. What color is associated with evil?
When it comes to telling who is good and evil, color can be used to convey a lot of information. When displaying good and evil, the most common colors are blue for good and red for evil.
10. What color elicits anxiety in people?
According to new research, the colors we use to describe emotions may be more useful than you think. Researchers found that people with anxiety were more likely to associate their mood with grey, while those without anxiety were more likely to choose yellow as their mood color.
With its darkest black shade, ebony’s power cannot be overstated. In Ghanaian traditional design, ebony has long been used in kente cloth. In this context, black signifies maturity and a rise in spiritual vigor. Because of the striking contrast between ebony and the fabric’s other bright colors, the fabric appears to move.
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SSC History Sample Paper NCERT Sample Paper-3
• question_answer
Consider the following statements regarding the Indus valley Civilization:
(I) The Harappan towns were basically divided into two parts - Citadel and the lower town.
(II) No town in the entire Indus valley area used ornamental bricks.
(III) Indus valley people produced all the major crops but lacked the art to cultivate cotton.
A) All are correct
B) I and III are correct
C) I and III are correct
D) only I is correct
Correct Answer: D
Solution :
[d] The floor of house at Kalibangan and Balacot has given evidence of use of ornamental bricks during the Indus valley period. The Indus people were the earliest to produce cotton.
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How Hair Dryer Works? Here Are Awesome Facts!
Are you wondering how hair dryer works? Hairdryers used a heating element and a motor-driven fan to convert electrical energy into heat energy. This is a straightforward process.
When you turn on your hairdryer, the current passes through the hairdryer and first reaches the heating element.
how hair dryer works e1639897159930
After this, the present makes the motor spin, turnings on the fan. When the fan is turned on, the flow of air generated goes down to the barrel of the hairdryer through the heating element. The air becomes hot when it passes through the heating element, making your hair dry. The essential component of the hairdryers in the heating element and the motor-driven fan, which produces hot air through heat energy and makes your wet hair dry. Let’s discuss it more!
How Your Hair Dryer Works?
So, how hair dryer works? A heating element named nichrome wire is used in hairdryers for the heating process. The nichrome wire is wrapped around mica insulating boards; materials used in mica insulating boards are nickel and chromium. The nichrome wire works like a resistor of electric energy, producing warmness. The hot air passes through the nozzle of the hairdryer and dries your hair. In most household products, this material is used as a heating element.
Nowadays, hairdryers are a commonly used device, which both girls and boys can use. The primary purposes of the hairdryers are to evaporate water from your hair and make your hair looks stylish. Hairdryers that are newer use systems that deliver hot air full of ions in charged particles instead of hot air. According to the firms who use it, this technique is meant to help hair dry faster, decrease static, and become healthier, smoother, and shinier. Hair is more manageable and less prone to gathering dirt and dust if static is reduced. Ion generators can appear in various design schematics and in multiple positions throughout the hairdryer. Read this article to know everything about the working process of hair dryers.
Inside The Hairdryers
In this paragraph, you will learn more about how your hairdryer works? A hairdryer is an electronic device that uses electric power to produce heat energy. When you switch on the device, a motor gets current and spins a fan inside the hairdryer. The fan, after getting heat energy it produces the hot airflow, which comes out from the nozzle of the hairdryer. The two main features of the hairdryers which make your hair dry are the heating element and the motor fan. The air comes in hairdryers from room temperature air through vents, which passed a nichrome wire, the central heating element. Both chromium and nickel are combined by nichrome. Nichrome is a helpless conveyor of power when contrasted with copper. It provides sufficient protection from the composite to get appropriately hot from the streaming current.
Airflow Process In Hair Dryer
The design of the hairdryer shell drives the air created by the fan through the heating element. Because the air is significantly cooler than the nichrome wire when it first enters the barrel, heat transfer occurs from the wire to the air. The air is replaced with cooler air as the fan and convection push it forward, and the cycle repeats. The amount of energy released to the heating element. The higher the watts, the more heat is created and delivered by the heating element to the air.
Hairdryers produce about 100 watts of heat, but some hairdryers can have up to 2,000 watts, drying hair more quickly. Hairdryers with high and low heat settings adjust the airflow temperature by adjusting the power supplied. These types are wired to turn a switch to turn off a portion of the circuit that powers the heating element. To keep the air temperature from rising too high, most hair dryers limit this to about a half-second.
Body Of The Hairdryer
The hairdryer’s body is made of a gun-shaped plastic case. To making easier, this shell is split into two sections. Molding is used to make the plastic pieces, including injecting hot, molten plastic into the stainless steel die. After the heated plastic has been poured into the mold, cold water is pumped around the die to cool the plastic and solidify it. The plastic components are removed when the die is opened. Several holes are molded into one side of the plastic shell, while a series of short pins are formed into the other—these aid in aligning and securing the two halves during manufacturing. Multiple sections are formed into the shell to hold the different electrical components. The switch device and controls for operating the dryer are located in the gun’s grip. The electric motor and fan are located in the dryer’s middle section, immediately above the handle. You may want to read about the important things to look for in a hair dryer
It’s A Wrap!
I hope this article helps you learn how hairdryer works, we were delighted to know that reading this article is just fun for you, and after reading this article, you will understand how hair dryer works. If you don’t see how your hairdryer works, don’t be panic. Just read the article carefully. Thank you, friends, for giving attention to this article. Click on these links to read related articles; know how to use hair brush dryer and how to use hair dryer for lice.
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stonespeak History & Culture
On Units of measurement
The measures found on one of the walls of the Thanjavur Big temple. Photo: Sri Gokul Seshadri
(A monthly column that unravels fascinating facts about heritage, art and architecture, this one throws light on measurements used in medieval period)
Writing in the 19th Century, a British official complained, “the number of viss in a maund differs in a bewildering way, both according to local custom and to the substance which is being weighed… a ‘measure,’ is a most varying quantity – any old compressed beef tin of any size passes as a measure, if you will accept it. The only way is to get accustomed to your providers’ peculiarities and pay accordingly.” The same traveller would be surprised if he was in the medieval Tamil Nadu! Weights and measures from inscriptions are complex. They vary with region, dynasty and many kings created their own!
Different calculations
Weights and measures are frequently found in inscriptions that deal with gifts of land and produce to temples. The Chola and Pandya territories seemed to have had different measures but with many local variations. Some calculations can be made.
Land was measured in Kuzhi – which was one rod in length and one rod in width. Three Kuzhi made a Maa. 20 Maa made a Veli (sometimes called Sey as well). A Maa approximates to 33 cents. Because a rod length varied it’s difficult to say that a Veli in one part of the state was the same elsewhere. 1/80 of a Veli made a Kani and 1/320 of a Veli made a muntiri. Smaller land fractions went to as low as 2.81 sq.ft. Such small fractions were useful since land was taxed not just by spread but fertility as well. By colonial times, a Veli was equal to 6.6116 acres.
Grain was measured as eight Naazhi that made a pucca padi or a pattanam padi in the Pandya country. Surprisingly in Thanjavur, eight Naazhi made only half that quantity and was called a china padi. A marakkal was used to measure grain. A Nerai Naazhi approximated to a little less than a kilo, possibly 850-900gms.
Gold and gems had a separate calculation. One gold kasu (coin) was four kunrimani (a seed). Two Kunrimani made a manjadi and 20 manjadi made a kalanju. 2.5 kalanju made a sovereign of pre-independence proportions, around eight grams today.
Land measures are most commonly encountered. Several temples such as those in Kanchipuram (Varadaraja temple), Srirangam and others have alavu kols – lines etched into the stone wall that are a measure for land. These come in varying lengths, 12, 16, sometimes even 18 ft. The ends are differentiated with a zig zag or some decorative feature, and the alavu kol, usually has a name to it. Raja Raja called his, Adavallan after the Chola tutelary deity Nataraja of Chidambaram. These measures continued even in the 19th centuries, temples in the Pudukottai district have such measures from the reigns of the Sethupathis. The Kols were based on a human span – (chaan) or a foot (adi). A rod was named after the number of spans and feet it comprised. 16 span rods were most common but mostly in the northern districts. Foot rods become more popular in the 12th century. The 18 foot rod was more popular in the Pandya country. We have evidence of land surveys being conducted during the reigns of Raja Raja I and Kulotunga and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I in the 11-13th centuries. The person responsible for it, being honoured with the title “Ulagalanda” or one who surveyed the world.
In the 18th century, the documents in the Thanjavur Sarasvati Mahal library give us insights into the measures of that period. One Manjadi was 260 mg, One kalanju was 5.2 gms, One tank was One gm, One tola was 2.9 gms, One palam was 35 gms, One seer was 280 gms and One marakkal was three Kg. 12 tolas made One palam (35 gm), eight palams made One seer (280 gm), five seers made One veesai (One kg and 400 gm), eight veesai made One manangu (11 kg and 200 gm), 40 manangu made One baram (448 kg).
In another system prevalent in the Maratha times One padi made 750 gm and four padis made One marakkal (three kg). This was used mostly for agriculture produce. Land was measured by a rod fourteen feet in length. 20 maa made one veli (6.5 Acres). 100 kuzhi made a maa. The Marathas also had taank (rhyming with ‘Monk’). One tola (three gm), in 1820, made three taank, whereas in 1780, One tola was equal to One taank. Gold and silver had a separate system. One kunrimani made 13.3 mg, two kunrimani made One manjadi (26.6 mg), 20 manjadi made One kalanju (5.320 mg), 60 kunrimani made One poun (7.98 gm).
During the colonial times, measures included One padi, ½ padi and ¼ padi. Two aa zhakku made ¼ padi. ½ and aazhaku was a Veechampadi. Another unit was a Maakani. In Kumbakonam a ½ padi was a chinna padi. In many places down south liquids were sold as a Chombu- about 1/4th padi. Old timers still remember these units and can swiftly calculate and convert without modern devices – perhaps in some ways modern technology has made us mentally less agile!
(The writer can be contacted at
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Answer to Question #101715 in History for Amrit
Question #101715
What is the significance of the city of Bath for understanding social change in Hanoverian (eg Georgian) Britain?
Expert's answer
The city of Bath plays a significant factor in understanding social changes that occurred in Hanoverian Britain. After it was founded in 1st century AD by Romans, the site became a centre for wool industry during the Middle Ages. In the 18th century, the city of Bath developed to an elegant spa city under the reign of George I, II, and III that was famed in art and literature. The city of Bath served as a significant theme of social change during this period. It was a combination of unique urban architecture, social history, and spatial arrangement. It exemplifies the monumentalisation of houses, integration of towns and landscapes, and the interlinking of various urban spaces, among other aspects that promoted social change.
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Master Uveitis Overview with Picmonic for Medicine
Uveitis Overview
UV glasses
Uveitis is inflammation of the uvea. The uvea is the middle layer of the eye and is comprised of the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. Anterior uveitis occurs when the anterior components are inflamed including the iris or ciliary body. Posterior uveitis occurs when there is inflammation of the vitreous, choroid, or retina.
The uvea is the pigmented layer of the eye. It is protected by the sclera and cornea.
Middle Layer of Eye
Mid-noon Eyes
The uvea is the middle vascular tunic of the eye. It is surrounded by the outer fibrous tunic and contains the inner nervous tunic.
The iris is the opaque contractile diaphragm that regulates the size of the pupil and forms the colored portion of the eye. It contains the sphincter pupillae muscle.
Ciliary Body
The ciliary body is a part of the eye that includes the ciliary muscle, which controls the shape of the lens; and the ciliary epithelium, which produces the aqueous humor.
The choroid is the part of the uvea that lies external to the retina. It contains blood vessels and connective tissue, as well as melanin.
Anterior Uveitis
Ant wearing UV-sunglasses
Anterior uveitis is the inflammation of the anterior part of the uvea. The most commonly implicated structures are the iris and ciliary body. Anterior uveitis is associated with autoimmune diseases such as Crohn's disease and ankylosing spondylitis.
Inflammation of Iris or Ciliary Body
Iris-flower and Seal Body in Flames
Inflammation of the iris or ciliary body is termed anterior uveitis.
Posterior Uveitis
Post-Terrier wearing UV-Sunglasses
Posterior uveitis is characterized by inflammation of the Vitreous, Choroid, Retina. Posterior uveitis is significantly rarer than anterior uveitis, and may lead to blindness if untreated.
Inflammation of Vitreous, Choroid, or Retina
Fit-tree, Oreo, and Red-tin In-Flames
The inflammatory reaction of the vitreous as a result of a disease in the adjacent structures, such as the ciliary body, the choroid, or the retina, causes infiltration of cells into the vitreous.
Take the Uveitis Overview Quiz
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kids encyclopedia robot
Internet Relay Chat facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a chat system on the Internet. It allows people from around the world to have conversations together, but it can also be used for two people to chat privately.
An IRC client is needed to use IRC. An IRC client is a computer program designed to work with IRC. There are many Java web browser based clients as well as application based. Popular stand-alone clients includes mIRC for Microsoft Windows and XChat for Linux and Microsoft Windows. The Opera web browser has an IRC client built into the browser. ChatZilla is a chat client which is a plugin to Mozilla Firefox.
IRC bots are computer programs used to help control and protect channels.
IRC channels usually begin with a hash (#).
Technical information
Screenshot-XChat- Moniker42 @ FreeNode - -ubuntuforums (+tn)-1
A Screenshot of XChat, a cross-platform IRC client.
IRC is an open protocol that uses TCP and optionally TLS. An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network. Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server. There are many client and server programs, such as mIRC and the Bahamut IRCd, respectively. Most IRC servers do not require users to log in, but a user will have to set a nickname before being connected.
IRC clients
This is a list of some programs that allow users to connect to IRC.
Other links
Images for kids
kids search engine
Internet Relay Chat Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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2 min read
Bleda, the Hunnic ruler
As nephews to Rugila, Attila and his elder brother Bleda succeeded him to the throne. Bleda's reign lasted for eleven years until his death. While it has been speculated by Jordanes[2] that Attila murdered him on a hunting trip, it is unknown exactly how he died. However, there is an alternative theory that Bleda attempted to kill Attila on a hunting trip, but Attila being a skilled warrior defeated Bleda. One of the few things known about Bleda is that, after the great Hun campaign of 441, he acquired a Moorish dwarf named Zerco.
Bleda was highly amused by Zerco and went so far as to make a suit of armor for the dwarf so that Zerco could accompany him on campaign.
Bleda and Attila's rule
By 432, the Huns were united under Rugila. His death in 434 left his nephews Attila and Bleda (the sons of his brother Mundzuk) in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were bargaining with Byzantine emperor Theodosius II's envoys over the return of several renegade tribes who had taken refuge within the Roman Empire. The following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present-day Požarevac) and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful treaty: the Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid against the Vandals), but also to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (ca. 114.5 kg) of gold, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay a ransom of eight solidi for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns.
The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the empire and returned to their home, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of Constantinople, building the city's first sea wall, and to build up his border defenses along the Danube.
For the next five years, the Huns stayed out of Roman sight as they tried to invade the Persian Empire. A crushing defeat in Armenia caused them to abandon this attempt and return their attentions to Europe. In 440, they reappeared on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfill their treaty obligations and that the Bishop of Margus had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank.
They crossed the Danube and laid waste to Illyrian cities and forts on the river, among them, according to Priscus, Viminacium (present-day Kostolac), which was a city of the Moesians in Illyria. Their advance began at Margus, for when the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Finally, snakebite is getting more attention as a tropical health issue
By Andreas Hougaard Laustsen & Line Ledsgaard & Timothy Patrick Jenkins - The Conversation
People most at risk from snakebite are often from the most impoverished populations. - Source: Andre Coetzer/Shutterstock
LISTEN MAR 17, 2020
Amid global health crises such as coronavirus, snakebite envenoming is easily overlooked. The disease caused by the toxins that come from a snakebite is not infectious and it can't spread rapidly and without warning. Nevertheless, it's found around the world, affects millions of people, and can be life-threatening.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), more than 5.4 million people are bitten by snakes each year, resulting in 2.7 million envenomings, 400,000 permanent disfigurements and 150,000 deaths. The region most severely affected is sub-Saharan Africa, with more than 20,000 deaths annually.
The WHO added snakebite envenoming to its list of neglected tropical diseases in 2009, but removed it in 2013 without any explanation. In 2017 the organisation reinstated snakebite – not because the threat itself had changed but because of campaigning by antivenom producers, researchers, and health-care providers.
Returning it to the list opened the way for the WHO to set four strategic goals to deal with with this issue. These are:
1. empowering communities;
2. ensuring safe and effective treatments;
3. strengthening health systems; and,
4. increasing partnerships, coordination and resources.
The goals support a target of halving the deaths and disability from snakebite by 2030. Global annual deaths from snakebite compared to other Category A NTDs.
Empowering communities
The first goal requires research to understand what influences the behaviour of people at risk and what would encourage people to seek treatment for snakebite?
In sub-Saharan Africa, disease caused by snakebite is often treated by traditional healers rather than medical doctors in hospitals. Some of the treatments don't do harm but still delay the patient from getting to a hospital. But the traditional healers who administer these treatments are often highly revered and respected. So, any medical advice offered to communities must show cultural sensitivity and respect.
The WHO suggests using local champions to lead efforts to introduce “first aid” and help get patients medical help quickly and safely.
Making antivenoms accessible and affordable is also key, since people need to pay for them out-of-pocket in most African countries. The current cost of antivenoms presents a huge issue even when they are available. This problem is amplified by the fact that the people most at risk from snakebite are also the most impoverished populations in sub-Saharan Africa.
Read more: Snakebites still exact a high toll in Africa. A shortage of antivenoms is to blame
Safe and effective treatment
Most antivenoms consist of sheep or horse antibodies and they have been made in much the same way since they were invented 120 years ago. Consequently, the quality and safety of some antivenoms remain poor and production remains costly.
The WHO is pushing towards creating a stable and sustainable market for safe and effective antivenoms at reasonable cost. Producing treatments that meet internationally accepted standards will require cooperation between researchers, industry, and other institutions.
The plan to improve supply involves creating a revolving stockpile of effective antivenoms, so they can be distributed to the regions most in need. More specifically, the WHO aims to deliver at least 500,000 effective antivenom treatments to sub-Saharan Africa each year by 2024 and 3 million by 2030.
Stronger systems
The third goal is to improve aspects of health systems like pre-hospital care, transport, diagnosis, rehabilitation and recovery support. The benefits of doing this have already been seen in Myanmar and Nepal .
Finally, all the efforts towards these goals will require partnerships, coordination, and resources at a global scale. They will also make a difference to other diseases found in tropical areas. For example, promoting footwear to prevent snakebite will also help prevent soil-associated diseases such as hookworm or podoconiosis . The use of bed nets to prevent nocturnal snakebites will also help prevent malaria. Better wound care will also benefit patients with Buruli ulcer .
The WHO will scale up its work on snakebite from 2021 to 2024, in 45 to 52 countries. The final rollout will be from 2025 to 2030 and many of the early measures will be tested in African countries.
Notably, such early efforts have already made an impact. Since snakebite envenoming was put on the WHO's list of neglected tropical diseases again, media attention has improved and research funding has been mobilised. In fact, snakebite was on the World Health Assembly's agenda for the first time in 2018.
Together, these developments suggest that the goal of reducing snakebite mortality and morbidity by 50% by 2030 might be achievable. At the very least there is hope for people in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere that they will get better support from the global health community. Snakebite will hopefully not remain neglected for long.
By Andreas Hougaard Laustsen, Associate Professor at the Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark And
Line Ledsgaard, PhD Candidate, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark And
Timothy Patrick Jenkins, Post Doctoral Researcher, Technical University of Denmark
ModernGhana Links
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Powerful Geography
Music Composers
Music Composers
Music Composers
Main Topic: Places and Regions
Secondary Topic: Human Geography
Overview: Music composers create original pieces of music for a wide array of settings and uses. They arrange the instruments, and sometimes write lyrics to accompany the music. The music can be used by orchestras, artists or bands, marching bands, musicals, operas, or even TV shows and movies. Composers can be commissioned by artists or orchestras to compose a piece specifically for them, or they write pieces for their own catalogues and release under their name. The style, sound, and genre of music that composers produce is usually heavily influenced by their geographic location. These distinct sounds allow listeners to recognize musical styles originating in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America. Music can also be region specific, such as Polka music originating in Slavic countries such as the Czech Republic and Poland, and country music that is widely popular in the American South.
Geographers at work: Human geographers, cultural geographers, social geographers, musical geographers
Recommended College Courses: World Geographer, Human Geography, Introduction to Cultural Geography, Geography of specific countries and regions, Location Analysis
Skills: Local geography, communication skills, cultural geography, human geography
Occupation Group: Entertainment and Sports
Learn more about Music Composers from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and U.S. Department of Labor: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/entertainment-and-sports/music-directors-and-composers.htm
Written by Ally Schlandt
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An artist's conception of the Etowah site (9BR1), a Mississippian culture archaeological site located on the banks of the Etowah River in Bartow County, Georgia. Built and occupied in three phases, from 1000–1550 C.E. Credit: Herb Roe/Wikipedia Commons
Long before Snapchat, Instagram, Facebook and even MySpace, early Mississippian Mound cultures in America's southern Appalachian Mountains shared artistic trends and technologies across regional networks that functioned in similar ways as modern social media, suggests new research from Washington University in St. Louis.
"Just as we have our own networks of 'friends' and 'followers' on platforms like Facebook and Twitter, societies that existed in North America between 1,200 and 350 years ago had their own information sharing networks," said Jacob Lulewicz, lecturer of archaeology in the Department of Anthropology in Arts & Sciences.
"Our study found a way to reconstruct these indigenous communication networks," he said. "Our analysis shows how these networks laid the groundwork for Native American political systems that began developing as far back as 600 A.D."
Published Feb. 18 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the study utilizes sophisticated social network analysis to map social and political connections that helped unite friends and families in dozens of Native American villages well before the arrival of European explorers.
The findings are based on a messaging archive that is preserved not in bytes, but in bits of pottery sherds—fragments—unearthed over many years in archaeology digs at dozens of Mississippian culture sites scattered across southern Appalachia.
Focusing on subtle evolving changes in the technologies used to temper and strengthen pottery and the cultural symbols used to decorate them, the study provides a detailed chronological map of how new pottery techniques signified connections between these communities.
Examples of the kinds of pottery produced by people living across southern Appalachia between AD 800 and 1650. The unique symbols were stamped onto the pottery when the clay was still wet using carved wooden paddles. These designs, along with the varying characteristics of the specific kinds of clay used to produce the pottery, were used to reconstruct social networks among these communities. Credit: Jacob Lulewicz
The ceramics database includes 276,626 sherds from 43 sites across eastern Tennessee, and 88,705 sherds from 41 sites across northern Georgia. The collection represents pottery created between 800 and 1650 A.D., a period that saw the gradual emergence and later decline of powerful chiefdoms that controlled wide networks of villages in the region.
The study focuses on villages clustered around the site of Etowah in Bartow County, Georgia, an important Mississippian community that included several low earthen mounds with large ceremonial buildings. It served as the regional seat of social, political, economic and religious power across the region—influence that reached its peak between 1050 to 1325 A.D.
These chiefdoms were still in place when the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became one of the first Europeans to visit the region in 1540 A.D.
De Soto's accounts of autonomous villages loosely bound together under the influence of a single powerful chief, then residing at the town of Coosa in what is today northern Georgia, have long influenced how historians characterize the social and political structures of these and other early Eastern North American societies.
Lulewicz's findings suggest that the ruling elites drew their power from social networks created by the masses.
The emergence of powerful Native American chiefdoms and the centralized leadership, elaborate religious movements and institutionalized inequality that came with them, he argues, were built upon foundations created by the wider, pre-existing social networks of common people—systems that proved to be more stable and durable than any interactions dictated by elite chiefs.
A map of the southern Appalachian region, with the archaeological sites used in this study indicated. The sites are spread across both eastern Tennessee and northern Georgia and date to the period between A.D. 800 and 1650. Credit: Jacob Lulewicz
"What I show in the paper is that while we see things like the emergence of super powerful chiefs and the rise of major economic inequalities, the very foundations of society—especially relationships and networks of kinship and family and reciprocity—remained virtually unchanged over 1,000 years," Lulewicz said. "That is, even though elite interests and political strategies waxed and waned and collapsed and flourished, very basic relationships and networks were some of the strongest, most durable aspects of society."
His findings suggest that strong social connections between common people have always played an important role in helping societies guard themselves against the vagaries of unpredictable leaders and ruling classes.
Pointing to the role that digital social networks and social media play in contemporary revolutions, and how modern states are often quick to monitor, control or even shut down access to these virtual networks, shows that our connections continue to be valuable social instruments, he said.
"This is super interesting—at least to me as a social scientist—for understanding how political movements actually play out," he said. "It doesn't come down to any particular, innate attribute of leaders and elites. What is comes down to is how those individuals are able to leverage the networks in which they are embedded. Even though chiefs emerge at about 1000 A.D., over the next 650 years, chiefs actually shift their strategies of political and economic control. They tap into different parts of their networks, or leverage their connections in very different ways throughout time."
"Because these very basic networks were so durable, they allowed these societies—especially common people—to buffer against and mediate the uncertainties associated with major political and economic change. They may have said, 'You go live on top of that huge mound and do your sacred rituals, and we will go about life as usual for the most part.' These communication networks served as a social constant for these people and allowed their cultures to persist for thousands of years even across transformations that could have been catastrophic."
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New paper sheds light on the darker side of pocket gophers
You can learn a lot about animals by simply watching them. But some secrets can only be revealed in the dark. With an ultraviolet flashlight.
This happens to be the case for pocket gophers, a small, rodent species that lives underground in sandy soil. A new paper by University of Georgia researchers finds that these feisty, solitary, round-cheeked animals have a special skill that’s only revealed under ultraviolet light: They are biofluorescent, or give off a colored glow when illuminated with UV light.
The revelation was recently published in the journal The American Midland Naturalist and is the first time biofluorescence has been documented in pocket gophers. J.T. Pynne, a recent Ph.D. graduate of the UGA Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources and lead author of the study, said he was inspired to shine a light on the possibility a few years ago, after reading similar studies documenting the phenomenon in flying squirrels and opossums.
“A bunch of people, myself included, were curious about other animals,” said Pynne, now a private lands wildlife biologist with the Georgia Wildlife Federation. So, he turned to a resource many wildlife biologists have access to: A freezer of animal specimens.
“We tested it on the flying squirrels we had in the freezer, and sure enough, it worked. So, I said, ‘Well, we didn’t disprove that—what else do we have?’” During his time at Warnell, Pynne focused his research on pocket gophers, which are short-tempered rodents that live in underground tunnels. So, he turned his flashlight toward frozen specimens he had on hand. “And it turned out, pocket gophers, flying squirrels and opossums were the only animals in the freezer that fluoresced. And I’m thinking, of course, my little animals do this.”
This was in 2019. At the time, identifying organisms that glowed purple, orange or pink under a black light was a bit of a thing in certain scientific circles. What started with the revelation of the flying squirrel snowballed into several other fluorescent discoveries, such as the nocturnal springhare and the platypus. Biofluorescence has also been documented in birds, salamanders, spiders and scorpions, among other organisms, said Warnell professor Steven Castleberry.
A UV light is required for humans to see biofluorescence.
“Just in the past few years, there’s been this uptick of people shining UV light on mammals to see if they glow. So now people have started to ask, why do they fluoresce?” added Castleberry. Whether the fluorescence is a defense mechanism, a communication method, camouflage or simply a trait from earlier eras is anyone’s guess at this point. “There’s some speculation and hypotheses, but nobody really knows the truth.”
In addition to the freezer specimens, Pynne also documented biofluorescence in pocket gophers in the wild—which emit a more intense orange-pink glow. He also tested specimens of other pocket gopher species archived at the Georgia Museum of Natural history, all of which emitted biofluorescence.
While the reason for pocket gophers’ and other animals’ ability to glow under ultraviolet light is still up for debate, Pynne said it can serve as a unique introduction to the animals’ world. With UV flashlights readily available, most anyone can highlight a foraging opossum in their backyard, for example, or watch how different insects light up at night.
“We have known for a long time that arthropods fluoresced. Any time I catch a scorpion or a spider or a millipede and I have my black light, they’re bright blue,” added Pynne, who keeps an ultraviolet flashlight in his backpack whenever he’s exploring new places. “It’s probably more of a cool teaching thing than anything.”
Although pocket gophers, with their long, curved teeth and penchant for burrowing, would rather be left alone, thank you very much.
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Quick Answer: How Are Presidents Chosen In Laos?
How does voting work in Laos?
Laos is a one-party state. According to the constitution, elections are in accordance with the principles of Democratic Centralism and the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party serves as the “Leading nucleus” of the political system. Nearly 73% of members were elected to the National Assembly for the first time.
What is the political system in Laos?
The highest position in the government, he or she directs the country’s executive branch. The prime minister is accountable to the president, the National Assembly and the country’s only legal party: the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The current prime minister is Phankham Viphavanh, who was elected in 2021.
Is there freedom in Laos?
Does Laos have a Constitution?
The Constitution of Laos specifies the functions and powers of the government of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, and defines the rights and duties of Laotian citizens. Its second — a French-written monarchical constitution — was adopted in 1947, revised in 1957, and abrogated in 1975.
You might be interested: Question: How Did The Sino Soviet Split Affect Laos?
Is Laos dangerous?
What language is spoken in Laos?
What religion is Laos?
What is the education like in Laos?
In the current structure of Lao education, primary education is for five years (compulsory), followed by three years of lower secondary, three years of upper secondary, and then three to seven years of postsecondary education, dependent upon the field of study.
How does Laos government work?
The politics of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (commonly known as Laos) takes place in the framework of a one-party socialist republic. Government policies are determined by the party through the all-powerful nine-member Politburo and the 49-member Central Committee.
Does Vietnam have human rights?
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Defining Moments: Gold rush
The discovery of gold in the 1850s started a series of rushes that transformed Australia. See this defining moment in Australia’s history brought to life, as written by historian David Hunt.
1. Why did colonial governments want to keep early discoveries of gold a secret? Why did they change their minds?
2. Who found the first significant gold deposits in 1851 and how did he make his fortune?
3. What were the lasting impacts of the discovery of gold?
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GMAT 考满分题库
Magoosh - 逻辑CR - 138
In the last few years, a drastic spike in sea temperatures around Prudhoe Bay has caused the eggs of snow crabs to hatch earlier in the year than they had previously. As a result, baby snow crabs are more likely to be caught by deep sea fishing boats, since deep sea fishing boats are more numerous in Arctic waters during the fall season than they are during the winter season.
Which of the following pieces of information is necessary to evaluate the argument?
• AThe total number of snow crabs that hatch versus the total number that had hatched before the increase in temperatures 分析该选项
• BThe time of year the deep sea fishing boats arrive to the waters around Prudhoe Bay 分析该选项
• CThe month in which the boats leave, and the month in which the snow crabs eggs hatch 分析该选项
• DThe amount of area the fisherman`s nets can cover in one day 分析该选项
• EThe amount of time the deep sea fishing boats spend in water directly above where the snow crabs are likely to hatch 分析该选项
正确答案: C
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The market square of Bruges
Politically Bruges was run from de Brug. The economical trade however was done from the market square. The city was the trade city for the whole region. The market square was and still is the beating heart of the city.
Picture by Pixabay
Till the 18th-century ships came through the canal to the city square and moored at the East side of it. At the Waterhalle the ships were docked and handled. In 1787 the canal was covered and the Waterhalle had to make way for three neogothic houses. The houses have the typical Flemish facades and were used as guild houses. Central on the square is the statue of Jan Breydel and Pieter de Coninck, the two leaders of the resistance against the French occupation. They were also responsible for the battle of the Gulden Sporen Slag and defeated the French troops on July 11, 1302, proofing the strong power of the Flemish people.
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How can I analyze Torvald Helmer's insulting attitude toward Nora in Ibsen's play A Doll's House?
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Ibsen's play A Doll's House is set in the late 1800s. It is not a time when women were encouraged to be independent in thought, action or self-expression. While many people viewed the play as a "call to arms" for the feminist movement, the author insists that such was never...
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Ibsen's play A Doll's House is set in the late 1800s. It is not a time when women were encouraged to be independent in thought, action or self-expression. While many people viewed the play as a "call to arms" for the feminist movement, the author insists that such was never his intention. However, as with most forms of art, once a creation leaves the creator's hands, it takes on a new life of its own, based upon individual perceptions.
Nora is a woman who was coddled in her home growing up by her father, and then directed and controlled as Torvald's wife. Nora is relatively naive, as seen in her fraudulent act of forging her father's signature on a loan (while her father was dying)—justifying her actions because she had to save Torvald's life. Because he was desperately ill, she had no concern for the was more important.
Torvald controls Nora almost completely, but Nora is clever enough to know that if she plays the child, she can get whatever she needs. Torvald is so full of himself that he does not credit his wife with much intelligence at all, and cares only for himself his status and success. Of Nora's behavior...
It is true that [Nora] does behave like a child sometimes in her relations with her husband. She pouts, wheedles, and chatters because Torvald expects these things; he would not love his wife without them.
In that Torvald bases his relationship with his wife not on love but on acceptable behavior, the reader is able to see more deeply into his character, aware that he has little or no respect for her as a person. The name of the play reflects Torvald's practice and desire to manipulate his wife as a child would a toy figure in a dollhouse.
Torvald has no forward-thinking attitudes about women's rights. In his mind, women are there for their husband and children. It is their "sacred duty." He is not alone: society as a whole felt the same way. Women did not make decisions. They could not own property and they were not allowed to take loans. They were not even permitted to obtain a university education. And only poor women were allowed to work; a respectable woman's profession was wife, housekeeper and mother. As such, women were seen as possessions. This is obvious in Torvald's comment about Nora the night of the party they attend upstairs:
Nora: Torvald, don't look at me like that!
Torvald: Can't I look at my richest treasure? At all that beauty that's mine, mine alone—completely and utterly.
That Nora's father and husband have treated her similarly indicates the norm within society to oversee women and control them: whether daughter or wife.
Nora does not deserve Torvald's disrespect or insulting attitudes. She is naive, but relatively smart. Years before the doctors told them that in order to recover from a serious illness, Torvald needed to travel to a better climate: Italy. In order to replay Krogstad for the money she borrowed (of which Torvald is totally unaware), she rations the allowance her husband gives her for housekeeping and clothing. Some secretly goes to Krogstad. She also takes on work without her husband's knowledge to repay the debt.
The acceptable mindset of this male-dominated society explains Torvald's ease in behaving as he does. When he discovers her illegal actions, he cares not at all that she saved his life. His focus is on what people will think. He berates her.
Oh, what an awful awakening...she who was my pride and joy—a hypocrite, a liar—worse, worse—a criminal! How infinitely disgusting it all is! The shame! [...] Now you've wrecked all my happiness—ruined my whole future...I'll be swept down miserably into the depths on account of a featherbrained woman.
Then he announces, " can't be allowed to bring up the children." Nora quietly takes in all he has to say.
When the threat of exposure has passed, Torvald can only see how he has been saved. While he has been ranting, Nora has had an awakening of her own. Her marriage is built not on love, but upon Torvald's control of every aspect of her existence. With a frozen look on her face, Torvald says he understands that she cannot grasp the idea that he has forgiven her! Able to be honest for the first time, she sarcastically thanks him for his forgiveness.
When Nora calls her husband to task for treating her like a toy doll, she observes:
As Nora leaves the room to change her costume, it is as if she is removing "dress up" clothes. The woman she has been for all these years, repressed and controlled, has now surfaced to freedom for the first time in her life.
When Torvald notes that he does not understand her or her new demeanor, she replies that he has never understood her; but neither has she truly understood him. As much as she has played the role of a doll, he has acted out the societal norms of society. At that time, society made little place for a woman that did not fit into the realm of service and subservience. Nora's change demonstrates her transformation, striking out against the control men have long exercised over women.
Torvald is a product of his breeding and training. His focus is on himself and his place of power and respect in the world of his peers—all men of his status. A follower rather than a visionary, Torvald is perfectly happy to allow the status quo to prevail. Seeing his wife (or any woman) on equal footing does not even occur to him. With the knowledge that Torvald does not have the capacity at that time to be anything other than he is, Nora packs her bags and leaves.
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Flora and Fauna of Malaysia & Borneo
Nepenthes rajah from Mt. Kinabalu, Sabah
Carnivorous plants are fascinating in that they capture and digest various prey in order to accumulate nutrients for growth. The habitats where they normally occur are nutrient poor. There are many species of carnivorous plants and they are found throughout the world. Of the seven genera of Pitcher plants, the Nepenthes genus is the largest found from Northern Australia throughout Southeast Asia to Southern China. There are also some species found in India, Madagascar, and a few other islands.
mesilau nepenthes valley
The island of Borneo has more Nepenthes species (approximately 31 species not including subspecies or varieties) than any other landmass. There are three countries that divide Borneo; Malaysia, Brunei, and Kalimantan. In the state of Sabah, Malaysia, Mt. Kinabalu at 4101 meters has nine species of which four are endemic to the mountain and surrounding areas.
Linnaeus gave the epithet Nepenthes as the name of this genus of Pitcher plants. It is a Greek word meaning “removing all sorrow” originally given by Homer in the Odyssey to an Egyptian drug thought now to have been opium. Apparently the liquid found in the pitchers was the analogy.
n rajah closeup
Nepenthes rajah was named in honor of Sir James Brooke, one of the white Rajahs of Sarawak (the other Malaysian State in Borneo). It is only found on Mt. Kinabalu and an adjacent mountain, Mt. Tambuyukon, between the altitudes of 1500-2600 meters. The pitchers can grow large enough to contain up to one liter of fluid and are normally found on the ground contrary to most species that have stems that grow up into trees and have pitchers growing off them. This Pitcher plant is famous for it's ability to catch and digest rats, frogs, and lizards. Most other Nepenthes sp. capture a wide variety of small invertebrates and insects but nothing as large as a rat.
As seen in these photos, the habitat where N. rajah is found is usually moist, well drained, open grassy clearings that are prone to landslides. The soil conditions are always ultramafic. This is soil that is very low in silica content and very rich in iron and magnesium. These photos were all taken in the Mesilau forest preserve at the higher end of their latitudinal habitat at approximately 2600 meters.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has listed two species of Nepenthes in Appendix I, which includes all species threatened with extinction. Nepenthes rajah and N. khasiana are on Appendix I. All other species of Nepenthes are on Appendix II, which includes all species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of these species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
For further reading:
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Common Core: 10th Grade English Language Arts : Determine Figurative and Connotative Word Meanings and Analyze Cumulative Effects of Word Choice: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.9-10.4
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All Common Core: 10th Grade English Language Arts Resources
Example Questions
Example Question #1 : Reading: Literature
Passage adapted from Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1798)
There passed a weary time. Each throat
Was parched, and glazed each eye.
A weary time! a weary time!
How glazed each weary eye,
When looking westward, I beheld
A something in the sky.
At first it seemed a little speck,
And then it seemed a mist:
It moved and moved, and took at last
A certain shape, I wist.
A speck, a mist, a shape, I wist!
And still it neared and neared:
As if it dodged a water-sprite,
It plunged and tacked and veered.
With throats unslaked, with black lips baked,
We could not laugh nor wail;
Through utter drought all dumb we stood!
I bit my arm, I sucked the blood,
And cried, A sail! a sail!
With throats unslaked, with black lips baked,
Agape they heard me call:
Gramercy! they for joy did grin,
And all at once their breath drew in,
As they were drinking all.
Hither to work us weal;
Without a breeze, without a tide,
She steadies with upright keel!
The western wave was all a-flame
The day was well nigh done!
Almost upon the western wave
Rested the broad bright Sun;
When that strange shape drove suddenly
Betwixt us and the Sun.
And straight the Sun was flecked with bars,
(Heaven's Mother send us grace!)
As if through a dungeon-grate he peered,
With broad and burning face.
Alas! (thought I, and my heart beat loud)
How fast she nears and nears!
Are those her sails that glance in the Sun,
Like restless gossameres!
Are those her ribs through which the Sun
Did peer, as through a grate?
And is that Woman all her crew?
Is that a DEATH? and are there two?
Is DEATH that woman's mate?
Her lips were red, her looks were free,
Her locks were yellow as gold:
Her skin was as white as leprosy,
The Night-Mare LIFE-IN-DEATH was she,
Who thicks man's blood with cold.
The naked hulk alongside came,
And the twain were casting dice;
Quoth she, and whistles thrice.
The Sun's rim dips; the stars rush out:
At one stride comes the dark;
With far-heard whisper, o'er the sea.
Off shot the spectre-bark.
The use of nautical language, like "tacked and veered" and "keel," is used to suggest that the narrator is ____________.
Possible Answers:
the ship's captain
the ship's medic
a sailor
speaking from beyond the grave
Correct answer:
a sailor
This question starts with the assertion that the author uses nautical language in the text, and that the use of this kind of diction and jargon gives us an implication about the narrator. It is important to note here that this assertion is a given in answering this question and should be trusted as an accurate analytic statement about the text.
So, what is a reasonable inference to take from the use of seafaring jargon? Firstly, it is not medical jargon, so it's not reasonable to assume from the use of nautical language that the narrator is specifically a ship's doctor. Similarly, the use of nautical language is not in any way an indicator, and certainly not a direct indicator, that our narrator is speaking from the grave.
So, the last question we have to settle is whether or not the use of nautical language specifically tells us that the narrator is the not merely a sailor but the ship's captain as well. The use of nautical terms is not this specific, however, it signals that the narrator is a sailor, not in a position of authority.
Example Question #2 : Common Core: 10th Grade English Language Arts
Adapted from Edgar Allen Poe’s The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym (1838)
Among those gentlemen in Virginia who expressed the greatest interest in my statement, more particularly in regard to that portion of it which related to the Antarctic Ocean, was Mr. Poe, lately editor of the "Southern Literary Messenger," a monthly magazine, published by Mr. Thomas W. White, in the city of Richmond. He strongly advised me, among others, to prepare at once a full account of what I had seen and undergone, and trust to the shrewdness and common-sense of the public-insisting, with great plausibility, that however roughly, as regards mere authorship, my book should be got up, its very uncouthness, if there were any, would give it all the better chance of being received as truth.
Notwithstanding this representation, I did not make up my mind to do as he suggested. He afterward proposed (finding that I would not stir in the matter) that I should allow him to draw up, in his own words, a narrative of the earlier portion of my adventures, from facts afforded by myself, publishing it in the "Southern Messenger" under the garb of fiction. To this, perceiving no objection, I consented, stipulating only that my real name should be retained. Two numbers of the pretended fiction appeared, consequently, in the "Messenger" for January and February (1837), and, in order that it might certainly be regarded as fiction, the name of Mr. Poe was affixed to the articles in the table of contents of the magazine.
This exposé being made, it will be seen at once how much of what follows I claim to be my own writing; and it will also be understood that no fact is misrepresented in the first few pages which were written by Mr. Poe. Even to those readers who have not seen the "Messenger," it will be unnecessary to point out where his portion ends and my own commences; the difference in point of style will be readily perceived.
-A.G Pym
In the context of this passage, the bolded and underlined word "garb" is being used to mean ________________.
Possible Answers:
unclear jargon
Correct answer:
Literally, the word "garb" is used as a noun to refer to (usually spectacular) clothing or as a verb to refer to the act of dressing or adorning oneself in a particular way. The meaning, then, in this passage is not literal. The passage is in no way concerned with fashion, nor even physical appearances (note that there is no visual imagery in this passage).
So, let's look at the passage to help us figure out what the figurative meaning at play in this case might be. The author uses the word to refer to his story being published "under the garb of fiction." If we extend our thinking a little here, we can think of a true story (like the one Arthur Pym is claiming he told to Edgar Allen Poe) being "dressed up" as fiction. Thus, the true story would be labelled a fiction, putting the fancy clothes of a genre on Pym's life story!
All Common Core: 10th Grade English Language Arts Resources
Learning Tools by Varsity Tutors
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A spot or stain. This generally carries negative connotations, but can also be interpreted as advantageous ? as an opportunity: whether accidental or intended. It may be made or accepted as an aleatoric act. As a verb, to blot can refer to spotting or staining, but it can also mean: to soak up with an absorbent material, such as a towel, sponge, or rag ? an act of erasure. Blotting paper is manufactured to soak up excess ink. In painting, blotting is a means of removing paint, and a particularly important technique in watercolor painting.Also see art conservation, blotto painting or inkblot, cleaning, Dada, detritus, dot, dye, pigment, point, solvent, subtractive, wash, and water-soluble.
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Tag Archives: bio-inspired
Innovative plant: How does the dandelion drift its seeds?
How far do you think a dandelion seed can drift from its base plant?
The Common Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) primarily relies on wind flow to scatter its seeds. The dandelion seed has a fluffy structure that enables it to hold the most prolonged wind-based dispersal record. Commonly the seeds land 2 meters away from their mother plant. Still, in windy, dry weather favored by the dandelion, the seeds can fly up to 30 kilometers and even far (150 kilometers in some conditions). The vital point in this extraordinary adventure of the dandelion is flying with a constant velocity and having a short descent time, which means it should stay stable in the air for a relatively long time.
A study tried to illuminate the mystery behind the dandelion seeds’ ability to stay aloft in the air. Researchers attempted to mimic the dandelion flight using similarly structured silicon disks in a wind tunnel that simulated the airflow around the pappus. Pappus, the flying seed of the dandelion, consists of radially oriented filaments, each interacting with other adjacent ones, resulting in a reduction in the airflow. They compared the flight of natural seeds collected from one plant with several silicon disks with different porosities.
Dandelion seeds and silicon disks in wind tunnel
Wind tunnel experiment, modified from Cathal Cummins & et al. 2018
vortex ring above pappus
Pappus & separated vortex ring, modified from Madeleine Seale & et al. 2019
Their results showed that when pappus separates into the air, it forms an air bubble detached from its surface above it. This air bubble, known as a vortex, is unique to the dandelion seed. When the pappus is released in the air, it takes some time to reach a steady point, in which the vortex becomes symmetrical. An important feature affecting this symmetry is the porosity of the pappus, defined by the number of filaments and their dimension in each pappus— generally, the more the porosity, the steadier the flight. The best porosity for a stable vortex ring is greater than 84.97%, and the vortex ring begins to separate as the porosity falls below 77.42%. The experiment also indicated that the vortex is axisymmetric in low velocities, but it begins to lose its symmetry as the Reynolds increases.
Pappus with water drops on it
Pappus in moisture, photo by enfantnocta
This phenomenal plant has evolved techniques for mass germination, even in the absence of wind! Pappus’s hairy structure enables it to attach to an animal’s skin and soil particles, assuring the dandelion to have enough seed dispersion during the flowering season. More interestingly, the dandelion is known to have an informed dispersal in response to environmental fluctuations. When the plant experiences root herbivory, it intensifies the seed dispersal. The flight distance may vary from meters to kilometers to assure good germination in the absence of threatening conditions. Imagine a rainy day; the moist weather condition makes the pappus’ bristles come close together, reducing the possibility of separating from the plant. The moisture makes the current spot a suitable choice to stay. So even the detached seeds prefer to fall close to their base plant.
It worth mentioning that this remarkable plant also inspired areas of science. In their study of Mars exploration, researchers presented a primary model of a dandelion-inspired rover. Considering the harsh environmental condition on Mars, other excavators find the wind flow as an obstacle that results in damaged parts and incomplete missions. In contrast, the new dandelion-shaped rovers use the wind flow as an accelerating point to explore locations on Mars that other robots couldn’t access.
Dandelion-shaped Mars rovers
Dandelion-shaped rovers ,modified from Michelle Sherman & et al. 2020
Which is more stable, washing machines or birds? The answer might surprise you
What do birds and washing machines have in common? Shockingly, it’s not the ability to wash clothes. Rather, most birds and washing machines are great examples of vibration isolation systems.
Now that’s cool and all – but what is a vibration isolation system?
Better known as a mass-spring-damper system, vibration isolators are generally a mechanical or industrial mechanism that can reduce the amount of vibrational energy produced by a system. Vibration isolators are incredibly important; studies show “undesirable vibrations” can shorten a machine’s service life and even permanently damage the machine and those using it. Considering this, engineers are constantly improving upon current vibration control systems, and are now looking to birds for inspiration.
But why birds? Well, to understand this, let’s consider a bird as a simple mass-spring-damper system.
Avian vibration isolation system represented as mass-spring-damper-system
Simple approximation of avian vibration isolation system as mass-spring-damper system. Taken from the 2015 study: ‘The role of passive avian head stabilization in flapping flight.”
First, visualize vibrations as an oscillating force stemming from the bird’s body moving back-and-forth. Vibrational forces can be generated by the flapping of wings, unexpected gusts, and/or movement of legs. Now, if we continue up from the body to the neck, we can see where avian skeletal and muscular structure really begins to “show off its feathers.”
Characterized as a multi-layered structure, the avian neck contains many sections of “hollow” bones, connected by surrounding muscles. The structural units (muscles and bones) of the avian neck have properties of both springs and dampers, optimizing them for vibration isolation.
Simplified representation of multi-layered neck as spring-damper structure
For starters, we see the muscles largely act as springs. Springs have the unique ability to move a body with its vibrations. This behavior is present in the muscles connected to the bone segments, in that they are capable of instantaneously compressing, elongating and twisting in response to rapid changes in the body’s movement. This elastic response prevents not only the head, but the whole bird, from shaking when bombarded when vibrations from any form of movement.
Simplified visualization of multi-layered spring-damper structure. The transparent grey portion represents the hollow bone, which is connected by the black lines, or strong spring-like muscles. The empty space between each unit would consist of the softer, damper-like muscle. Taken from the 2021 study: “A novel dynamics stabilization and vibration isolation structure inspired by the role of avian neck.”
Alternatively, the muscles, primarily those not connected to bone, can act as dampers. Effective dampers are similarly identified by the ability to move with vibrations; however, they can dissipate some of the vibrational energy as heat, or store energy until relaxed. The interior muscles are capable of slowly deforming (changing shape) if exposed to steady vibrations, allowing for dissipation of excessive vibrational energy.
But hey, what about those bones?
The avian neck has nearly three times the number of bone sections than most mammals, on top of muscles entirely surrounding the neck. This drastically increases the bird’s flexibility, helping it maneuver through sharp positional changes, thereby further limiting the effect of vibrational forces.
Finally, what makes the avian vibration isolator truly superior is its passive activation. As engineers at Shanghai Jiao Tong University point out, manmade passive vibration isolators fall short because they require sensors and input energy to adjust for “shocks and random vibrations.” As previously explained, the multi-layered neck is well equipped to handle random oscillations, yet, more importantly, the bird’s neck muscles can passively change position to brace for incoming vibrations.
A recent study from Stanford University proved this concept by recording a whooper swan’s reaction to different strength gusts. They found that swan’s neck adjusted to protect the head, and that even when the flapping doubled, the movement of the head reduced by a quarter. Finally, it is important to note that passive activation is not limited to the sky; researchers have found that mainly terrestrial birds like chickens and pigeons have a similar neck structure and system for maintaining stability and clear vision.
Overall, continuing to study the avian vibration isolation system could prove very beneficial for many different applications. For a more in-depth look at the current work out, check-out the studies referenced throughout the article. Otherwise, enjoy watching this chicken work its body control magic!
Mercedes-Benz “Chicken” Magic Body Control Advertisement, highlighting the chicken’s amazing head stabilization ability.
sticks and stones may break my bones but dirt will wash right off
There you are, sitting in the park eating your spaghetti picnic on your favorite picnic blanket when your pollen allergy acts up. You let out a sneeze powerful enough to compete with Aeolus’ bag of wind, but now your spaghetti is all over your favorite picnic blanket. You immediately go to rinse it off, but your fine Italian sauce has thoroughly soaked in. If only nature had a solution to keep a surface clean. Enter: the lotus leaf.
The lotus leaf is renowned for its ability to stay clean in murky environments. This characteristic of the plant is regularly attributed to its superhydrophobic surface features and chemistry. A superhydrophobic surface is a surface which can maintain a contact angle with water above 150o and is correlated with a low free surface energy—which really means water pools and rolls off rather than soaking into the surface.
Nearly perfectly spherical water droplet on an artificially prepared surface
Modified from Zorba et al. 2008
A key attribute of the superhydrophobic surface is a hierarchical micro- and nanostructure. The microstructure is composed of plant cells grown in little mounds known as a “papillae” with small channels for air flow in between called “stomata.” The nanostructure is composed of hair-like wax crystal towers (epicuticular wax) built on the peaks of the papillae topography. The elevated wax towers combined with the stomata trap air and reduce the contact area of the water with the surface. The epicuticular wax chemistry reduces the adhesion to the towers themselves by being naturally hydrophobic.
Graphic of water drop resting across uneven wax pillars on a lotus leaf
Modified from Zorba et al. 2008
The tips of the wax towers create the largest repelling forces which form larger contact angles, while shorter towers can actually produce adhesive forces that reduce the contact angle. If the air is displaced and filled with water, the contact angle will decrease due to the water-water adhesion which “pulls” the droplet to the surface. Similarly, if the surface is damaged, the wax can be removed and decrease the surface’s hydrophobicity. The wax is naturally soft material and prone to mechanical damage increasing water adhesion and reducing the self-cleaning abilities of the leaf.
The papillae topography is the key to the robustness of the lotus leaf hydrophobicity. The papillae create natural valleys and creases which—like the tops—are still densely packed with wax hairs. When the surface is impacted, only the top of the papillae are exposed to the mechanical force so the wax tubules in the valleys are left undeformed and maintain their hydrophobic characteristics.
Water beads on rain jacket
Photo by Chase Pellerin via Gear Patrol
Hydrophobic surfaces have many applications in everyday life, for example rain jackets and umbrellas perform their best when they are hydrophobic. Manufacturing processes rely on hydrophobic surfaces to reduce oxidation and stay clean in past-paced environments, and your favorite picnic blanket would be much less prone to spaghetti stains if it were hydrophobic. Nature has solutions to keeping surfaces clean; we just have to recognize them.
the hairy feet of the gecko
Have you ever thought about what it would be like to walk on walls? If you’ve ever watched a Spiderman movie or watched a gecko maneuver around its habitat, you probably have. While geckos don’t fight crime, their climbing ability is as fantastic as that of any superhero. Geckos have one of the most unique climbing adaptations of any animal, and scientists are examining the source of this ability to see if human technology could one day achieve something similar.
Geckos are able to cling to almost any surface, no matter how smooth or rough it is. They are also able to detach quickly and easily from these surfaces as they climb. This climbing ability is due to tiny hairs, called setae, on the bottoms of their feet that can only be seen with a microscope. Each hair branches off into even smaller fibers called spatulae. Each gecko has about three million setae, and a billion spatulae! When the gecko places its foot on a surface, these hairs cling to the surface and form intermolecular bonds, called Van der Waals bonds, with the molecules of that surface. These bonds are strong enough to hold the gecko in place, but can be broken easily when the gecko lifts up its foot.
A close-up view of the bottom of a gecko foot, with the microscopic hairs visible.
Close-up of setae on gecko foot. Image by Science Photo Library
In addition to enabling the gecko to attach itself to surfaces, these hairs on the bottom of the gecko’s feet have the ability to clean themselves. If the gecko did not have some sort of ability to clean its feet, dust and dirt would get stuck on the gecko’s feet and break the connection between the feet and the surface. However, the hairs on the gecko’s feet are shaped so that it is difficult for water to stick to the feet. When the gecko gets water on its foot, the water rolls off of it and takes any particles of dirt with it.
Scientists have long been fascinated by the gecko’s ability to stick to surfaces, and many have been working on creating adhesives with fibers similar to the hairs on the bottom of the gecko’s feet. These adhesives are dry, like the gecko’s feet, and can be attached firmly and removed easily. The possibilities for application of adhesives like this are vast in number, and include everyday fasteners as well as use in electronics, robotics, and even outer space technology. One of the areas being explored by scientists is the use of these adhesives in the medical industry. The manufacture of gecko-hair fibers for bandages could mean farewell to the pain of removing a bandage, as well as the sticky residue left behind on your skin. This type of adhesive could even one day replace stitches after surgery.
Polymer fibrillar adhesive based on gecko foot Setae. Image by G.J. Shah, M. Sitti.
Most people probably don’t think about geckos very often apart from what they see in advertisements for car insurance. But for some scientists, these creatures hold the key to a world of possibilities. So next time you’re at the pet store, take a look in the lizard tanks and watch the geckos climb. Someday, thanks to those geckos, humans might be able to do the same thing.
Read more: https://steemit.com/science/@herpetologyguy/what-makes-gecko-feet-so-sticky
Soft Robotics: Humanizing the Mechanical
Cassie the robot, created by Dr. Mikhail Jones at Oregon State University
Cassie the Robot, developed by Mikhail Jones, Faculty Research Assistant in Mechanical Engineering at Oregon State University.
In media and science-fiction, robots have stereotypically, and perhaps somewhat unfairly, been depicted as mechanical, stiff assemblies of moving joints and complicated circuitry. While this still holds true for many robots designed today, whether for industry or research, the past few years have seen a growing interest in soft robotics in academia, industry, and popular culture. As the name implies, many research groups have begun investing in constructing robots from compliant, softer materials.
Stickybot, a gecko-inspired robot.
Stickybot, a biomimetic robot.
Inspired by the way organisms in nature survive and adapt to their surroundings (formally known as biomimicry), the advantages of soft robotic components lie in their flexibility, sensitivity, and malleability – delicate tasks or interactions involving other people would be better accomplished by robots made of compliant materials rather than one that could potentially cause harm to the object or person. To that end, many of the applications of soft robotic research have already seen results in the medical industry, from invasive surgery to assistive exosuits. By taking inspiration from biological creatures or mechanisms, softer materials like rubbers and plastics can be actuated to accomplish tasks conventional, “hard” robots could struggle with.
Animation of pneumatic muscle.
Animation of pneumatic air muscle used as robotic actuators.
The most common method of moving these robotic parts is with changes in internal pressure. By creating a “hard”, skeletal frame, and surrounding it with soft, sealed membranes, changes in pressure allow the designer to control its components precisely. By decreasing the pressure and creating a vacuum, the robotic section would shrink or crumple, and increasing it would do the opposite. Researchers at Harvard developed “artificial muscles” by taking this concept a step further; using origami, they were able to design soft robotic mechanisms that could orient themselves into tunable positions as the pressure was changed inside the membrane (as a side note, origami is used in a surprising number of research fields, one of the most famous being satellite deployment). Compared to the challenge of precisely controlling prismatic (sliding) joints and servos in conventional robotics, the compliance of the materials used allow for finer control and smaller ranges of applied forces that are better suited for precise tasks.
Animation of a person demonstrating the Miura fold on a piece of paper
The Miura fold pictured here is often used to deploy large surfaces while minimizing volume, such as for satellites.
Another significant advantage of soft robots over their stiff counterparts is their adaptability to environmental conditions. Generally speaking, robots do not do well in water (or lava, for that matter), but it would have little effect on robots covered in a sealed, pressurized “skin”. This is what inspired NASA in 2015 to fund research into soft robots that could explore the oceans of one of Jupiter’s moons, Europa. Similarly, a light-activated underwater robotic manta ray was designed at a centimeter scale to study the effect of environmental cues on controllable robots.
Schematic and pictures of soft robot design.
A soft-legged robot with walking capabilities.
While research in soft robotics is still relatively new, it has the potential to significantly affect the role of robots in our daily lives. As a softer, safer, and more environmentally robust alternative to “hard” robots, wearable robotic devices, exploratory robotic fish, and personal medical attendants could soon become commonplace for the general public.
Continue reading Soft Robotics: Humanizing the Mechanical
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Open Access Open Access Restricted Access Subscription or Fee Access
APPENDIX 1: Structures of Base Pairs Involving at Least Two Hydrogen Bonds
Mark E. Burkard, Douglas H. Turner, Ignacio Tinoco, Jr.
The structures of 29 possible base pairs that involve at least two hydrogen bonds are given in Figures 1–5 (for further descriptions, see Saenger, in Principles of nucleic acid structure, p. 120. Springer-Verlag [1984]). A base pair that is not a Watson-Crick pair or a G·U wobble pair is called a base-base mismatch, or an internal loop of two nucleotides. All the base pairs can be divided into two classes: normal and flipped. The normal class is defined by the arrangement of the Watson-Crick base pairs. The hydrogen bonding occurs for nucleotides with antiparallel strands and anti orientation of the bases relative to the ribose rings. The 11 base pairs that can be made with this same arrangement of nucleotides are called normal; they are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The remaining 18 base pairs require that one of the bases be flipped (inverted) by either reversing the direction of the strand or by switching the base from anti to syn. (Figs. 3–5). Normal base-base mismatches are found more often than flipped mismatches.
Full Text:
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s:638:"TY General LB CIFORHQ 6412 CY Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) AB Wetlands play a fundamental role in climate change mitigation, and provide essential ecosystem services. Yet there is still a lot we don't know about their precise distribution, extent and inter-annual variability around the world, particularly in the tropics.Global Wetlands Map Help us map the world's wetlands The Global Wetlands Map is a new initiative to collect and share information on tropical wetlands in a visual format. Users can access data and contribute their own, using standard geographic information systems software such as ArcGIS. ";
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What does the phrase “go to Halifax” mean and Where does it come from?
Most people regard the phrase “go to Halifax” as a polite euphemism, probably American, for the blunter request, go to hell! But why Halifax?
The explanation is interesting, for it goes back four centuries at least, to the manufacturing town of Halifax in northern England.
History doesn’t tell us whether there were more rogues and thieves in and about Halifax than in other parts of England, but in the sixteenth century the people of that town had become so harassed by thievery that they had instituted what became known as “Halifax Law.”
This provided “that whosoever doth commit any felony, and is taken with the same, or confess the fact upon examination, if it be valued by four constables to amount to the sum of thirteen-pence halfpenny, he is forthwith beheaded upon one of the next market days.” The instrument used for the beheading was an early form of guillotine, one that served as a model for the later Scottish “maiden.”
As the seaport town of Hull, also in Yorkshire, had a reputation for being just as summary in meting out punishment to undesirable characters, these two towns became a byword among thieves as places to be avoided.
They gave rise to the lines in the so-called Beggar’s Litany, “From Hell, Hull, and Halifax, good Lord deliver us,” for the three places of punishment were almost equally dreaded.
Thus, in fact, our impolite order is not so much a euphemism for “go to hell,” as a substitute with equal force.
About Karen Hill
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What is Reciprocity?
giving money
Reciprocity definition
Reciprocity is a social norm that encourages individuals to repay good deeds with good deeds. Reciprocity is the practice of exchanging items with others to obtain a mutual advantage – if someone does something for you, you feel compelled to repay the favor.
Reciprocity is a form of social influence we covered in a dedicated article.
Reciprocity can be achieved through an assortment of interactions, including positive actions like providing information, assistance, or favors; material goods such as food and money; or affection.
The rules of reciprocity govern all these forms of reciprocity. In addition, reciprocal behavior exists in a variety of conditions, ranging from reciprocating kindness to reciprocating aggression.
girls exchanging gifts
Why is reciprocity important?
The socialization process influences the need to reciprocate. Children learn to share, take turns, and engage in reciprocating activities through experience. Thus, reciprocity is an essential component in the building and continuing of relationships. It also has a significant impact on persuasion, particularly concerning adopting specific ideas or behaviors.
The rule of reciprocity is the most vital and most familiar principle governing social contacts. That is why it is often used as a lever to influence others.
This mechanism is the main reason for providing potential buyers with free samples of the product offered by sellers. For example, offering customers a free piece of cheese or cake at the entrance to a supermarket increases the chance of buying the product in the store – not only because the free sample convinced them of the product’s high quality.
Also, because receiving something for free arouses in most people the desire, most people want to reciprocate and repay the debt.
Types of reciprocity
There are several types of reciprocity. Here are some of them.
Positive reciprocity
This technique of influence has been perfected by American company Amway Corporation sells drugstore and household goods. The company’s agents are instructed to leave potential customers a set of 2-4 days sets of the offered products: a bottle of shampoo, furniture polish, bug spray, etc., insects, etc.
Since the kits are provided free of charge, few customers refuse to accept them. And since only a few use the contents of the same kit can be offered to the next customer after it has been The same kit can be offered to the next customer with a minor addition. customer. The costs for the company are therefore small.
However, the profits are significant – thankful clients who are grateful to this procedure gregariously buy other products offered by this company. This is one of the reasons why Amway Corporation has evolved to a huge company selling 1.5 billion selling $1.5 billion worth of products annually dollars annually.
From sellers’ point of view, then, free samples have the charm of being they are not so much free at all.
Negative reciprocity
Apart from positive reciprocity, there is also the rule of negative reciprocity: the need to repay evil with evil. It is based on the belief that bad deeds should be responded to with evil and that such behavior is morally correct because it is just.
Research shows that the extent to which people believe in the positive reciprocity principle is very weakly related to the area to which they believe in the negative reciprocity principle.
More importantly, only belief in the negative version of the reciprocity rule is associated with the idea that people are inherently evil, with a tendency to be frequently angry and, above all, to be vindictive and to mistreat those by whom one has been mistreated.
fighters boxing
Uses of reciprocity
The practice of using this standard is prevalent in many different fields, including marketing. Marketers utilize a variety of tactics to persuade customers to make purchases, and some are basic such as sales, coupons, and special discounts. Others are much more subtle and employ principles of human psychology that many people are unaware of.
More examples of reciprocity include:
• A salesperson gives a complimentary item to a potential customer hoping that they will return the favor and buy something.
• In exchange for loyalty, a leader may provide attention and mentorship to their followers.
• Providing consumers with helpful information in return for signing up for future marketing offers.
There are several obvious advantages to reciprocity. One of the most apparent is that caring for others promotes the species’ survival.
We ensure that others receive assistance when they require it. Likewise, we receive help when we need it by reciprocating.
Reciprocity allows individuals to accomplish things that they couldn’t do independently because it makes them feel included. People can achieve more than they could achieve alone by cooperating or swapping services.
There are also several reciprocity-based persuasion strategies. These approaches are used by individuals attempting to persuade you to act or comply with an invitation, such as salespeople and politicians.
One of these is known as the “that’s-not-all” approach. For example, let’s assume you’re looking for a new phone. The salesperson brings your phone out and informs you of the pricing, but you’re not completely satisfied.
Suppose the salesperson offers to include a phone cover at no additional cost. In that case, you might believe they’re doing you a favor, causing you to feel obligated to purchase the phone.
We have a dedicated article on persuasion if you want to learn more.
giving a gift
The reciprocity principle is a behavioral phenomenon where people tend to give back what they get. It is the practice of reciprocating social exchanges in both positive and negative ways. For example, reciprocity behavior can persuade others to do something that supports your goals or that you want them to do.
See also:
The Anchoring Effect in Marketing – A guide & examples
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World Tourism Day: Lesson ideas
World Tourism Day. This means that we are in a hurry with a selection of thematic tasks that can be used to dilute your lessons. This year, the coronavirus pandemic has ruined the holidays of many travelers and negatively affected the income of people working in the tourism sector. This is exactly what you can discuss with your student in class, if you have already passed all the standard topics related to travel. Tasks are suitable for the Intermediate — Upper-Intermediate level.
Task 1: Lead-in
Let’s discuss
1. What comes to mind when you hear the word “tourism”?
2. How important is tourism to your country?
3. What are some of the tourist attractions in your country?
4. What do you think tourism will be like in the future?
5. What will travel look like after the pandemic?
«Global tourism industry takes ‘unprecedented’ coronavirus hit».
1. Discuss the questions: Which jobs are most at risk because of COVID-19?
What’s the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism?
What are some examples of countries that suffered great losses in tourism revenue due to COVID-19?
2. Complete the sentences with the missing words.
• Businesses that depend on tourists spending say the impact of the pandemic is ___.
• We’re starting to feel the ___.
• Current situation in Venice for gondoliers is quite ___, because there’s no work.
• Across Italy travel is ___, public gatherings ___.
• The lack of tourists in the Valley of Kings in Egypt is an ominous sign of how ___ the pandemic will be for the economy.
• There are medical health and security checks because of fears that the virus will ___ from other countries to the Egyptian people.
• Everyone who depends on visitor spending is feeling a ___ from the pandemic.
• The UN’s travel agency expects the pandemic to deal a trillion-dollar ___ to the global economy.Key:
1. unprecedented
2. catastrophe
3. disastrous
4. restricted, banned
5. damaging
6. spread
7. pinch
8. blow
3. Use the words you’ve just used in the exercise above to talk about the effects of the pandemic in your region.Task 3: Coronavirus travel advice
Complete these safety tips with infinitives or gerunds.
1. Consider ___ (to go / going / go) to countries least affected by Covid-19.
2. Try ___ (to maintain / maintaining / maintain) a distance of 6 feet (2 meters) between you and others.
3. Avoid ___ (to touch/touching/touch) your eyes, nose, and mouth.
4. Don’t forget ___ (to wear / wearing/wear) a face mask when you’re in a public place.
5. Limit contact with frequently touched surfaces, such as handrails and elevator buttons. If you must ___ (to touch/touching/touch) these surfaces, use hand sanitizer or wash your hands afterward.Key:
1. going
2. to maintain
3. touching
4. to wear
5. touchAdd your own advice and recommendations on traveling during the COVID-19 outbreak.
Task 4: Agree / Disagree
Agree or disagree with the statements below. Explain your point.
1. Tourism helps people in the world understand each other better.
2. The majority of tourists have little respect for the places they visit and are only interested in getting drunk and causing trouble.
3. Tourists = pollution. The fewer tourists there are, the better.
4. With so many tourists coming to enjoy certain famous lifestyles and traditions, we begin to see the commercialization of culture. Ancient customs and cultures are becoming products that can be sold.
5. Tourism is the main reason why countries put money into protecting and preserving local wildlife and historic monuments.
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The Greeks were great storytellers and loved to recount tales of
The Greeks were great storytellers and loved to recount tales of their heroes from Greek mythology. A great source of Greek narrative history came from their pottery. Starting with the Geometric period, the surfaces of Greek pottery provided the means for Greeks to celebrate themselves. The purpose of this assignment is to examine Greek pottery as it changed over the years. For this assignment, create a power point presentation, using at least ten slides to trace the evolution of Greek pottery from the Geometric, Orientalizing, Archaic, Classical (Early to the High Classical period). In your presentation, please consider the following: Use visual examples to illustrate the periods, indicating the date the pottery was made, the type of pottery, (amphora, krater, kylix, etc.) the period it represents, and the creator(s) if known. Remember that many times the person, who made the pot, did not paint the pot! Note the stylistic and narrative qualities of each example; what is the story being told and how did the painter use the elements of art to recount the tale? Analyze how each period differed (if it did) from the previous period.
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Michelle Reynolds 2005 BACKGROUND Island ecosystems throughout the Pacific have undergone catastrophic species loss, largely due to the effects of alien or non-native species. Rats, in particular, pose significant threats to native species. In Hawai`i, the appearance of rats (which are not native to Hawai`i) in the subfossil record coincides with the disappearance of ground nesting birds. Sadly, only three of Hawai`i?s 10 endemic waterfowl species still exist today. The Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis), also known as the Laysan Teal, is a critically endangered dabbling duck that is restricted to a single population on the remote and rat-free Laysan Island (Fig. 1). The Laysan Duck was listed as an endangered species in 1966 because of its small population, limited distribution, and dependence on a fragile island ecosystem. The same threats identified in 1966 continue to plague the species today. application/pdf 10.3133/fs20053128 en Geological Survey (U.S.) Translocation of Endangered Laysan Ducks to Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge (2004-5) reports
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Chimu chēmo͞o´ [key], ancient civilization on the desert coast of N Peru. It is believed to have begun c.1200. The Moche, an earlier civilization, was previously known as early Chimu or proto-Chimu. After the decline of the Moche (c.800), there was a long transition period about which relatively little is known except that it was probably influenced by Tiahuanaco. The Chimu were urban dwellers and apparently had a powerful military and a complex, well-organized social system. They built many well-planned cities; the largest and most impressive was their capital, Chan Chan. The Chimu exerted considerable influence on the Cuismancu empire, centered at Chancay. The last phases of Chimu civilization were contemporaneous with the rise of the Inca empire, by which it was absorbed c.1460.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: South American Indigenous Peoples
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Restorative practices are used in schools to foster an equitable and positive school culture. Restorative practices focus on strengthening relationships and connections between individuals, both youth and adults, in a school community.
Heptagon.png What Are Restorative Practices?
Restorative practices offer schools an alternative to traditional disciplinary actions that center on punishment for misbehavior and breaking rules. These punishments push kids—disproportionately students of color and low-income students—out of their classroom and school community. They may be suspended or simply sent to the principal’s office or suspended, but students who are pushed out may drop out of school altogether.
In contrast, restorative practices focus on resolving conflict, repairing harm, and healing relationships. They support a positive and safe school climate, prevent bullying, and reduce disciplinary incidents. A restorative culture can mitigate the negative effects of punitive discipline policies that exacerbate inequity.
Educators use two types of restorative practices in schools:
1. Proactive schoolwide strategies to create a sense of community, build healthy relationships, and develop conflict resolution skills, sense of belonging, and agency.
2. Restorative processes like circles, conflict-resolution programs, peer-led practices, and tribunals to respond to incidents that cause harm.
The Restorative Practices Guide from the Schott Foundation lists some examples of restorative practices: restorative justice, community conferencing, community service, peer juries, circle processes, preventative and post-conflict resolution programs, peer mediation, informal restorative practices, and social-emotional skills instruction.
Heptagon.png Tools for Restorative Justice Practices
How do schools implement restorative practices? Watch how restorative practices are being used in Oakland schools to foster an equitable, respectful, and positive school community. Restorative practices, an outgrowth of restorative justice, provide ways to prevent and/or constructively address conflict and harmful behavior. Restorative practices in education are intended to build community and maintain healthy relationships. Since all learning is social by nature, strong relationships fostered by restorative processes play a powerful gatekeeping role. They help educators and an entire learning community understand each student’s individual needs in order to create a more equitable experience and outcomes.
These video tools take you inside two schools to hear from students and teachers. You will observe students owning, leading, and participating in restorative processes such as fostering shared values and utilizing positive communication in face-to-face discussion.
Conflict Resolution at Edna Brewer Middle School
Restorative Circles at MetWest High School
Heptagon.png Purpose: Creating a Sense of Community
Part of designing more equitable school models includes community-building: shifting away from traditional disciplinary practices and “command and control” school cultures to embrace collaborative community, co-created values, and accountability for upholding shared ideals.
There’s no evidence that punitive measures make schools more safe. What’s more, they’re often disproportionately used with students of color and those from low-income families with serious negative consequences for those students. Zero tolerance-style policies push out and further disadvantage the very kids who need learning and community connections the most. (See, for example, Closing the School Discipline Gap.)
Oakland Unified School District has made a commitment to use restorative practices to disrupt the school-to-prison pipeline. As a school district, Oakland has prioritized keeping more students of color, students from low-income families, and students from challenging circumstances enrolled, progressing toward graduation, and out of the criminal justice system and local detention centers. They view restorative practices as essential to realizing the spirit and goals expressed in their equity pledge.
Restorative Justice
Restorative practices focus on resolving conflict and healing harm. Restorative justice seeks the root cause behind individual and group behaviors instead of treating the behavior as an isolated symptom or judging students as good or bad based on isolated incidents. These practices assume that all students are worthy and deserving (a fundamental equity assumption), that behavior is learned, and that a specific incident is an extension of some other issue needing resolution.
Sujatha Baliga, Director of the Restorative Justice Project at the National Council on Crime and Delinquency. From the 2013 Workshop on Mindfulness in Legal Education at Berkeley Law.
Traditional Paradigm Restorative Paradigm
What rule was broken? What harm occurred and how has it impacted our relationships?
Who broke it? What needs and obligations have arisen from that harm?
How do we punish them? What harm occurred and how has it impacted our relationships?
Restorative justice utilizes talking circles and honors distributed power among students and the sharing of power between adults and young people. Students practice agency and engage in a form of self-governance as part of their shared identity in the community.
In addition to building an equitable and productive community, these practices help students acquire valuable social and emotional skills. Students practice listening with empathy; constructively communicating needs; problem-solving; honoring and embracing differences in opinion, perspective, and experience; and taking responsibility for personal feelings and actions to repair harm. With regular engagement in ongoing dialogue and reflection, students also build leadership, facilitation, and critical thinking skills.
Heptagon.png Use Restorative Justice: Building Healthy Schools
More and more educators are asking, how do schools implement restorative practices? Use these videos from Oakland to help your school staff better understand what restorative practices are, why they’re important to equity in education, and what it could look like in your school. Engage your school team in a review of the research on restorative practices and building collaborative learning environments, such as WestEd’s Restorative Justice in U.S. Schools: A Research Review.
Next, examine the data in your community about disciplinary actions, from referrals to suspensions and expulsions to see if the national trends are repeated locally. Then, invite your team to unpack assumptions behind discipline procedures to reflect upon the extent to which they support and motivate equitable learning. Bolster or accelerate this inquiry using the discussion protocols and design principles found in this toolkit.
Abundant resources exist to help you make the case for restorative practices as a key component of an equitable and healthy school. Once your school team or district commits to the effort, as Oakland did with its equity pledge, seek training for facilitators and build restorative practices into the curriculum and classroom practices. That’s how they will become part of regular school operations and contribute to an overall safe, respectful, and productive climate. In Oakland, the shift away from rules toward strengthening relationships has resulted in better attendance, fewer suspensions, and more positive and productive culture in these schools.
Get support for transforming your school culture and introducing restorative practices from NGLC, an alliance of providers, and a small high-trust community of practice in the new Bravely network.
Heptagon.pngConsiderations for School Leaders
• Do you have community partners already interested in implementing this work? If so, could they be an ally or resource to your school? Many urban areas have community organizations (e.g., Oakland’s Community Works) that can lend expertise, training, facilitation, and parent communication support.
• Your school may want to couple the restorative practices with other student supports, such as Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS), social-emotional learning (SEL) initiatives, and mindfulness practices. Together these efforts build community and create powerful synergies in the school culture and climate. See the Breathing love into communities TEDx talk from Holistic Life Foundation.
• Attending to your school culture pays dividends. If you don’t already, survey students to find out how they feel about their school climate and culture. Do they feel safe? Respected? Heard? Valued by other students and adults? Dig into their responses. Listen. Then try out something new. Instead of using punishments and rewards to influence the way students behave, try a restorative approach to your classroom management. It will help you uncover underlying reasons for students’ hurtful behavior and nurture their intrinsic desire to treat others with care and respect. Use listening circles in your classroom to host constructive racial and cultural communication among students (and teachers). The listening circles create a safe space to model how we all make mistakes, how mistakes can be healed and overcome, and how to practice empathy for and with one another.
Heptagon.pngExtended Resources
• Unearthing Hidden Gems in an American Public High School: A Three-Pronged Approach to Meeting the Needs of Diverse Students, from NGLC co-director Carlos M. Beato and his co-author Daniel J. Sass for the Samuel DeWitt Proctor Institute for Leadership, Equity, & Justice. Infused with personal stories of students who are English language learners and recently-arrived immigrants and refugees, this essay explores how International High School at Langley Park (IHSLP) in Maryland leverages restorative justice practices to begin the long overdue healing process for students, families, and community members.
• Repairing our schools through restorative justice, Jean Klasovsky at TEDxWellsStreetED. Jean makes connections between classroom and school restorative practices that benefited kids in her Chicago public school. Don’t miss her powerful “what if” questions (12:00 min). Is it time to redesign old school discipline and control measures (that don’t work anyway) in your school?
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The Crimean War
The Crimean Peninsula (VictorianWeb.com, click for link)
A direct cause of war in the Crimea was the coup d’état that brought Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) to power in France in 1850. Louis Napoleon needed domestic support to create a Second French Empire, and in order to gain that, he needed to be seen as a “good Catholic.” The clearest way to gain this designation was to flex his muscles in the Holy Land. An added bonus was getting revenge on Tsar Nicholas I; the Tsar had sent a telegram to Louis Napoleon that began “Monsieur mon ami” instead of the more customary “Monsieur mon frere.” Napoleon III wanted satisfaction for the diplomatic snub.
In February 1850, the Ottoman Sultan sent two keys for the front door of the Church of the Nativity to France. Meanwhile, the Sultan also sent secret assurances to the Russians that the two keys he sent to France would not actually fit the door. Regardless of this deception, the French seized control of the Holy Places in 1852. Tsar Nicholas saw this as encroachment by a “foreign” power, and an insult to his prestige and policy in the Near East. Russia had desired control over Turkish territory so expansion of their sphere of influence could happen peacefully.
By this time, Tsar Nicholas was under the mistaken impression that Britain would not go to war to preserve the Ottoman Empire. This false assumption was furthered primarily because of a royal visit to Britain in 1844, where Tsar Nicholas spoke with George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, who was then Foreign Secretary. Aberdeen’s understated policy and conciliatory approach to the Tsar gave Nicholas the impression that Britain would not go to war over Turkey. Aberdeen unfortunately took away the same view about Russia. Tsar Nicholas retained this mistaken impression by the time of the Crimean War because, in 1852, Aberdeen was named the British Prime Minister.
In the same year, Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, was named Home Secretary in order to form a coalition government. This was a curious appointment because Palmerston’s experience from 1807 was in the Foreign Office and not the Home Office. Jasper Ridley, one of Palmerston’s biographers, argued that the Crimean War could have been avoided had Palmerston and not John Russell, 1st Earl of Russell, been Foreign Secretary.
In February 1853, with Russian troops massing on the Ottoman border, Palmerstone argued in Cabinet for a Royal Navy detachment to sail into the Dardanelles as a warning to the Russians. Aberdeen, whose policy leaned more towards pacifism, rejected Palmerston’s idea because of both policy and a hearty dislike for the man himself. This would not be the last clash between personalities in the British government, and historians have since argued that this instability contributed to the badly mismanaged war effort.
Meanwhile, Prince Menshikov, a Russian diplomat, arrived in Constantinople on 2 March 1853 with the stated intention of winning Ottoman support for Russian intervention when it came to Orthodox Christians inside Turkish territory. However, Menshikov made a tactical error by opening with a condemnation of recent Ottoman concessions toward France inside the Holy Land. He also demanded the establishment of a Russian protectorate over all the Orthodox Christians inside Ottoman territory — both lay members and clergy — which amounted to roughly 12 million people.
The Ottoman Sultan was terrified by the prospect of allowing Russian interference in his empire whenever Tsar Nicholas wanted, so the Sultan appealed to the Great Powers of Europe for aid. Stratford Canning, then the British Ambassador stationed at Constantinople, convinced the Sultan to reject Menshikov’s demands. Canning nearly promised British support to the Sultan, which would be overstepping his bounds in the extreme, but with little direction from London in how to proceed, Canning struck out more or less on his own.
Toward the end of May, Menshikov departed Constantinople for St. Petersburg. He related his failure to Tsar Nicholas, which sparked the Tsar’s decision to send troops to the Moldavian and Wallachian borders. On 3 July 1853, Tsar Nicholas issued the order to invade the two Ottoman provinces. By this time, the British and French fleets were stationed in the Dardanelles, but were too far away and too small a show of force to deter the Tsar from his course of action.
After this incursion, the British, French, Prussians, Austrians, Russians, and Turks met in Vienna to hash out a diplomatic solution to the problem. The 1853 Conference of Vienna resulted in a diplomatic note that said “the Czar should evacuate Moldavia and Wallachia but that Russia, as the protector of the Orthodox Church, should have nominal protection of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire and of the Holy Places. The Note confirmed the status quo: neither Russia nor France got anything, but face was saved.” (VictorianWeb.com)
Interestingly enough, this run-up to the Crimean War showed similarities to the crisis in 1839 that led to concessions given to Mohammad Ali of Egypt. However, the cooperation between the Great Powers that lead to a peaceful resolution to that crisis did not exist now. Louis Napoleon began making noise in France with the Russian invasion of Wallachia and Moldavia, the incursion spooked Britain and sparked mobilization in the Mediterranean fleet, Austria-Hungary mobilized to protect their interests because Russia had crossed the Danube, and Prussia mobilized because Austria-Hungary mobilized.
However, the big difference that led to war in the Crimea was the lack of emphatic military support for the Vienna Note. Whereas in 1839, the Great Powers put troops in the field to force acceptance of the London Conference’s decision, there was no similar action with the Vienna Note. As a consequence of this lack of a strong position by the Allied Powers, the Ottoman Sultan rejected the provisos of the Note and declared war on Russia in October 1853.
The Turkish Army crossed the Danube on 28 October at Kalafat, where they engaged the Russian forces. Another front was joined in the Caucasus Mountains, and the Turks enjoyed successes on both the Danubian and Caucasian fronts. In the Caucasus, the Ottoman forces were aided by Chechen Muslims. These initial Ottoman successes led Tsar Nicholas to deploy a fleet of warships in the Black Sea. The result was the Battle of Sinop in November 1853, where Russia completely destroyed the docked Turkish fleet of seven frigates and five corvettes.
The Battle of Sinop (Source: The American Civil War blog, click for link)
The Battle of Sinop gave the French and British the cause they needed to declare war on Russia in March 1854. Austria and Prussia both declared their neutrality in the conflict in April of the same year; Austria became politically isolated after 1856 as a result of Emperor Franz-Joseph’s refusal to commit to either side. It was this refusal to join the Crimean War on either the Allied or Russia side that left Austria without allies when Prussia attacked the empire in 1866.
Calling the Crimean War grossly mismanaged is akin to saying that most of Victorian London did not have access to quality sanitation. Among the Allied forces, there were seven distinct and independent authorities vying for control over operations. This resulted in poor communications, a labyrinthine supply chain, duplication of responsibilities, and jealousies on all sides. It also didn’t help that Lord Raglan, the commander-in-chief of the British forces, was the only upper-level officer to have seen combat, and that was with the Duke of Wellington in 1810.
The mismanagement of the war is best shown by the charge of Lord Cardigan’s light brigade at the Battle of Balaclava, during the Siege of Sevastopol. The disaster was immortalized in the 1854 poem, “The Charge of the Light Brigade” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who was poet-laureate at the time.
Lord Raglan, the British commander-in-chief, had ordered Cardigan’s light brigade to prevent the Russians from stealing the British guns. In the order copied down by General Airey, Raglan was completely unspecific as to which guns he spoke of. From his position on the Causeway Heights, Ragland had a clear view of the entire battlefield of Sevastopol and thought the location obvious. However, Lord Cardigan and his light brigade were in the valley. The only guns they saw were 2 miles distant protecting Sevastopol.
Captain Nolan, who carried the order to Cardigan, was similarly unhelpful because he chafed against the lack of action heretofore taken by the cavalry during the Crimean War. The infantry had made dozens of jokes at the expense of the cavalry, and Nolan wished to engage the enemy to prove the cavalry was still worthwhile. Thus Cardigan led his brigade on a charge against the Sevastopol guns.
The men in the first Russian batteries were so shocked that they didn’t fire on Cardigan or his men. Then, the massacre began. Cardigan was 50 yards ahead of the rest of his brigade and was the first in and the first out. He raced away, leaving the rest of his men to find their own way back. By the time all was said and done, only 195 British cavalry out of 670 (Tennyson’s poem says 600) survived the sortie.
The actual text of the order handed to Cardigan read: “Ld. Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front – follow the enemy and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns. Troop Horse artillery may accompany. French cavalry is on your left. Immediate!” (VictorianWeb.com)
The Charge of the Light Brigade (source: Battery B, 4th U.S. Light Artillery, click for link)
Blame for the spectacular failure of the light brigade’s charge fell on the shoulders of Captain Nolan, who had died in the midst of the fighting. Raglan, however, was to blame for assuming his men in the valley could see the same things he could. Airey and Cardigan also had their own share of blame — Airey for copying the order down and Cardigan for blindly following it. This isn’t to say Nolan was blameless. He itched so much for action that when Cardigan asked which guns were meant, Nolan waved his arm vaguely and said “There is your enemy.”
The great gale of 14 November 1854 didn’t help matters: the gale sank 30 ships in Balaclava harbor, thus destroying £3 million worth of stores, equipment, and supplies right when the Russian winter was about to set in. The inept and corrupt nature of the British Commissariat only added to the difficulties in re-supplying the troops in the Crimea. The Allies had prepared only for a summer campaign, and had to make do with summer tents, summer uniforms, and precisely zero cold-weather gear.
Men froze to death in the trenches, suffered from dysentery and cholera, and of starvation from the lack of food. The extras such as chocolates, cigars, and socks that were gathered in Britain never reached the common soldier. If the Commissariat didn’t steal, sell, or outright lose the goods, then many of the officers would hoard the extra supplies for themselves. Adding to this corruption and mismanagement was the lack of reliable transportation from Balaclava harbor to the front.
In what can only be described as an earth-shattering decision, the Times of London sent William Russell to the Crimea as their eyewitness war correspondent. Using the modern technology of telegraphs strung throughout Europe, Russell shined the proverbial light on the poor living conditions of British troops in the Crimea, the mismanagement of the war effort, and the inept corruption of the Commissariat. More than anything else, Russell’s coverage of the war turned public opinion against the Earl of Aberdeen’s government.
Sheffield MP John Arthur Roebuck tabled a vote of “No Confidence” in January 1855, and the resulting majority approval led to Aberdeen stepping down on 1 February.
Queen Victoria searched high and low for a replacement Prime Minister. She asked Lord Derby to form a government, but he was unable to do so. Similarly, she asked former Foreign Secretary John Russell, but only Lord Palmerston was willing to work with him. Finally, at long last, she asked Palmerston to form a new government.
Palmerston took over as Prime Minister on 4 February 1855. A titanic shift in British management of the Crimean War happened almost instantly, though not entirely due to Palmerston’s efforts. Supplies got through to the troops, Florence Nightingale was having success treating injured soldiers in Turkey, and on 17 February the Turks defeated the Russians at the Battle of Eupatoria.
Palmerston accelerated the improvements by appoint Lord Panmure to the War Office, and created a new supply and transport department at the Admiralty which circumvented the Commissariat. Even with these changes, however, and the addition of Piedmont-Sardinian troops hoping for support in Italian Unification, it still took until the summer of 1855 before the conflict finally wound down.
Several things accelerated the end of the Crimean War. Tsar Nicholas died in March 1855, leaving Russia to his son Alexander. Alexander wanted peace, but Palmerston convinced Napoleon III to hold off on negotiations. Palmerston was convinced the Allies could take Sevastopol, which would place them in a better negotiating position with the Russians. Sevastopol fell in September 1855, ending the yearlong siege of the city.
The Treaty of Paris was signed in March 1856, thus officially ending the Crimean War. Russia and Turkey withdrew all their armies from the Black Sea coast, and Britain and France withdrew their forces as well. The peace was to last until the 1870s, when old alliances failed and new alliances were formed in yet more moves among the players in the Great Game.
Afghanistan, The Chessboard of the Great Game
In the 1830s, with the Russians subduing one khanate after another in Central Asia, the British feared for their sovereignty in India. While other parts of the Empire dealt with Mohammad Ali in Syria and managed the Eastern Question in Turkey, the British forces in India feared for their safety against the Russians. A single Russian envoy sent to Afghani Emir Dost Mohammad Khan was conflated into the possibility of a Russian invasion through the Khyber and Bolan passes.
The British sent an envoy to Kabul in 1837 to form an alliance with Dost Mohammad against the Russians. The Afghani emir wanted British help to re-capture Peshawar, which the Persians had invaded in 1834. Britain refused, and so Dost Mohammad turned to the Russians for aid. Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of India, took this to mean that the Afghanis were pro-Russian and anti-British. Secure in this knowledge, Lord Auckland launched the First Anglo-Afghan War to install a puppet regime under Shuja Shah Durrani. The intent was to have a completely friendly ruler in Kabul; one the British could count on to hold the Russians back.
Though the invasion and occupation of Kabul was a success, the regime installed by the British was not. Of the 21,000 British and Indian troops sent into Afghanistan (first under the command of Sir John Keane, who was successively replaced by Sir Willoughby Cotton and then by William Elphinstone), only 8,000 remained with Shuja Shah in Kabul. This proved an unmitigated disaster, as by October 1841 disaffected Afghanis flocked to the banners of Mohammad Akbar Khan, Dost Mohammad’s son.
British soldiers were under attack constantly, and the lack of response to the death of Sir Alexander ‘Sekundar’ Burnes and his aides at the hands of a mob in November 1841 only further emboldened Akbar Khan in his efforts to expel the British from Afghanistan. Sir William Hay Macnaghten set up a meeting with Akbar Khan in December 1841, but he and the three officers accompanying him were seized and slain by the Afghani leader. Macnaghten’s body was dragged through the streets of Kabul and displayed in the bazaar.
Elphinstone realized the cause was lost, and on 1 January 1842 made arrangements for the safe exodus of the British soldiers and their families from Kabul. Five days later, the withdrawal of the 4,500 soldiers and 12,000 camp followers began. However, the flight from Afghanistan was anything but peaceful. Over the course of the next week, the British and their camp followers engaged in a running battle with Ghilzai tribal warriors as they struggled through the snowbound Khyber Pass. Only one man survived to reach the relative safety of Jalalabad, 90 miles way, and that was Army Surgeon Dr. William Brydon.
Lady Elizabeth Butler’s “The Remnant of an Army,” which depicts William Brydon, the only man of Elphinstone’s army to reach Jalalabad in the flight from Kabul in 1842. Brydon was originally believed to be the sole survivor of the army that left the northern Afghani city. (Generalissimo, click for link)
“Dr. Brydon only narrowly escaped death by dulling the blow from an Afghan sword with a copy of Blackwood’s Magazine, stuffed into his helmet for warmth. The incident dealt a severe blow to English ambitions in AfPak and marked a turning point in the First Anglo-Afghan war (Generalissimo).” Initially, it was believed only Brydon survived the flight from Kabul. Rather, the truth is that eight British officers were taken captive by Afghan forces during the trip south.
After the massacre of Elphinstone’s army, the British launched a punitive campaign against the Afghans from their bases in Kandahar and Jalalabad. Lord Ellenborough, the Governor-General of India who replaced Lord Auckland due to the latter suffering a stroke, was under orders to bring a swift end to the war. Thus Ellenborough ordered punitive action taken against Kabul and the successive departure of the British from Afghani territory. It was this campaign in 1842, resulting in the British Army torching the great open bazaar at Kabul, which truly ended the First Anglo-Afghan War.
In the intervening twelve years, Dost Mohammad regained the throne of Afghanistan and focused on consolidating his hold over the country. He successively re-conquered Mazari Sharif, Konduz, Badakhshan, and Kandahar, and by 1848 set his sights on Peshawar. With the Sikh Empire’s subjugation at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, however, Dost Mohammad’s last attempt to take Peshawar failed. And the Great Game moved ever onward.
Tune in on Friday for Part III.
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Guia Covid-19
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Unfolding the past
Computer-generated sequence of the seventeenth-century letter being unfolded
Unlocking History Research Group
Using an X-ray microtomography scanner originally designed for dentists, an international team of researchers was able to read the contents of a letter from the Renaissance Period without actually opening it. To avoid attempts at interception before the invention of envelopes in the 1830s, people in Europe used to be fold and seal their letters in complex and unique ways known only to the sender and the recipient. Jana Dambrogio, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Amanda Ghassei of the Adobe Research Institute, both in the USA, used the images obtained by the scanner to reconstruct the folding pattern of a letter from a collection of 577 seventeenth-century correspondences stored in a post office in The Hague, Netherlands (Nature Communications, March 2). They were thus able to read the message, without damaging the artifact, from French merchant Jacques Sennacques to his nephew, Pierre Le Pers, asking for the death certificate of a relative.
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In 2013, Barnum Museum curator Adrienne St. Pierre discovered what she described as a “rather decrepit old cardboard box” in the museum’s offsite storage facility. Inside was a huge ball of russet animal skin, noticeably aged and with loose bits of fur poking out in wayward tufts.
Intrigued, St. Pierre brought the box back to the Museum, and carefully began unfolding the fragile leather in order to identify it. Stitched together from caribou skin, the object bore a stained label whose faded handwriting finally revealed its purpose and history: “Sleeping bag,” it read, “from the Greely Expedition (U.S. Steamer Bear sent to their rescue.)”
The note on the 19th-century sleeping bag.
The note on the 19th-century sleeping bag. Barnum Museum, Bridgeport, Connecticut
The seemingly ordinary lump of fur had been part of one of the best-known expeditions of the late 19th century, a wild survival story and a landmark in environmental science.
Exploration culture was popular by the 1880s for good reason: a foreign expedition had long been part of the standard toolkit for eager colonizers, an attractive venture for ambitious explorers and their financial backers, and popular with a reading public who liked true-life adventure tales in their morning papers. In an effort to leverage exploratory fever for the sake of science, 11 countries combined to declare 1882-1883 an “International Polar Year.” These nations launched 14 coordinated expeditions to explore the polar regions and collect synchronized data on climate, geography and astronomy.
Lady Franklin Bay Expedition members on their ill-fated 1880s trip to the Arctic.
Lady Franklin Bay Expedition members on their ill-fated 1880s trip to the Arctic. Library of Congress
As part of this project, an American expedition led by former Union Army officer Lieutenant Adolphus Greely established a Polar Year station on Ellesmere Island, off the northwest coast of Greenland. The team built a long rectangular structure with space for bunks, dining, bathing, and collecting scientific measurements, named it Fort Conger, and set in for two years of study. Arctic research was hard work (one does not envy the man who had to sit in the outhouse-style data collection shed) but gratifying. The crew ran experiments, hunted musk oxen and seal for fresh meat, and explored their surroundings, venturing farther north than anyone had ever been.
General Adolphus Greely in full regalia.
General Adolphus Greely in full regalia. George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress
Things seemed to be going well, but the ship route to Ellesmere was only accessible for a short time during the summer. The rest of the time, ice blocked the passage, and ships ran a substantial risk of being trapped and broken if they tried to pass at the wrong interval. The expedition’s success depended on ships being able to reach the party with supplies and refreshed rations each August. One ship was due to re-supply the team in August 1882, and another would bring them home the following summer. Neither ship arrived—one could not pass the ice, and another sank after being crushed.
The good ship <em>Proteus</em> amid rough, barren ice in Greenland, during the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition of 1881-84.
The good ship Proteus amid rough, barren ice in Greenland, during the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition of 1881-84. George W. Rice/Library of Congress
Frugality and seal steaks could no longer save the day, so the U.S. Navy was ordered to retrieve the Greely expedition, no matter the cost. The Navy procured sledging equipment and frozen meat, and re-fitted two hunting ships for the journey, so that one could continue if the second was damaged or destroyed. Greely’s men had taken sleeping bags made from buffalo skin; the Navy ordered caribou hide from Sweden to make better allowance for the punishing Arctic weather. The Barnum Museum’s bag was sewn on these orders, as a roughly eight-foot-long pouch of reindeer skin with the fur on the inside.)
The men of the Greely Relief Expedition.
The men of the Greely Relief Expedition. PJF Military Collection / Alamy
Desperately short on rations and despairing of rescue, Greely and his group abandoned post in August 1883 and made it 200 miles south to Cape Sabine, where they hoped to access supply caches or rescue ships. They built a makeshift shelter using a boat for a roof, and expected to stretch their meager 40 days of rations as far as March of 1884.
Rescue did not come until June. When the Navy rescue ships arrived (with the Museum’s sleeping bag aboard) they found seven men huddled in a single shredded tent, the few survivors of Greely’s original crew of 25. A succession of men had died of cold and starvation as rations disappeared, and before long the crew resorted to eating their sealskin shoes—and considering cannibalism to survive. Greely himself shot one of the party for stealing food.
Expeditionary stores, a game stand, and the steamer Proteus in Discovery Harbor during the Bay Expedition of 1881-84.
Expeditionary stores, a game stand, and the steamer Proteus in Discovery Harbor during the Bay Expedition of 1881-84. George W. Rice/Library of Congress
Wrapped in reindeer skin and shock, Greely and five of his men remained when the relief party returned to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. (Another member of the expedition died on the return voyage.) Because media had made a sensation of the dramatic survival story, various and sundry items from the ship soon made their way to eager souvenir-seekers. The story remained so popular that the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair featured a diorama of the survival scene.
In 1890, with the expedition and its breathless media coverage still fresh, the showman (and 21st-century karaoke icon) Phineas Taylor Barnum was considering his lasting legacy. That he would choose a museum as a final project may seem surprising to people who know Barnum only for the circus, but according to Barnum Museum director Kathleen Maher, it is entirely appropriate. “Barnum’s lifelong mission was instructive entertainment,” she notes, “and few people realize the depth of his contribution to the modern museum model.” Barnum, whose American Museum first brought him to fame, built his last museum in Bridgeport, Connecticut as a celebration of American ingenuity, and a gift to local scientific and historical organizations lacking a permanent home. The caribou sleeping bag was donated by the family of a local Navy veteran in 1890, a year before Barnum’s death and three years before the museum opened.
The Barnum Institute of Science and History.
The Barnum Institute of Science and History. Barnum Museum, Bridgeport, Connecticut
The sleeping bag is still kept at the Barnum Museum, where it represents the Greely expedition’s contributions to modern science. The expedition collected information on broad swaths of geology, geography and climate – recording daily and even hourly measurements on temperature, precipitation, barometric readings, tides and the contours of the polar day. Amid some of the worst conditions imaginable, the expedition crew went to great lengths to preserve their data and instruments, intent that their research should survive even if they did not. Their findings serve as a valuable baseline in the modern understanding of global climate change.
According to St. Pierre, this connection to the present is perhaps the sleeping bag’s greatest significance. “I was intrigued by the idea that a tattered, 135-year-old reindeer-hide sleeping bag could be made relevant to today’s audiences, who may be very familiar with the phrase ‘global warming’ but not realize how climate science—in fact how our understanding of climate as a global system—came into being,” she says. “I suspect many people have an ‘ah-ha’ moment when they learn about the Polar Year. It was revolutionary!”
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Teachers, save “How to Create a Rube Goldberg Machine” to assign it to your class.
Stephanie Hamilton
Student Instructions
How to Create a Rube Goldberg Machine
Rube Goldberg machines use a series of cause and effect actions to complete a simple task. The machines involve pushes, pulls, and transferring of energy. Can you build your own Rube Goldberg machine? Watch the video using the link below. Use common household items to create at least 10 cause and effect reactions. Record your machine and post it on Seesaw. If 10 cause and effects were easy, try for more. If 10 seems too hard, try to do 5 and work on adding more. Remember what Joseph said about trial and error. You are going to need to persevere. Things won't always work the way you want them to the first time you try it. Get your family and even your pets involved. Be safe!
3rd Grade, Science
102 teachers like this
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"language_score": 0.8985503315925598,
"url": "https://app.seesaw.me/activities/sgnb51/how-to-create-a-rube-goldberg-machine"
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In Swift, we can use set operations to create new sets based on the data within two different sets! This is useful when we are working with multiple data sets.
We can use the .intersection() method to find matching values in two different sets:
var newSet = SetA.intersection(SetB)
• We append .intersection() to an existing set.
• We place the second set inside the parentheses ().
• We do not need to use the Set keyword when creating a set via set operations.
Let’s say we had the following two sets that contain the names of continents in the northern and southern hemisphere:
var northHemisphere: Set = ["South America", "Europe", "North America", "Africa", "Asia"] var southHemisphere: Set = ["Australia", "Antarctica", "Africa", "South America", "Asia"]
We can use .intersection() to create a set called bothHemispheres that contains continents that exist in both hemispheres:
var bothHemispheres = northHemisphere.intersection(southHemisphere)
If we use print() to output bothHemispheres, we would get this result:
["Asia", "South America", "Africa"]
In Animals.swift we have two sets: swim and fly.
Use .intersection() to create a set called swimAndFly that contains the shared values of swim and fly.
Use print() to output swimAndFly.
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"url": "https://production.codecademy.com/courses/learn-swift/lessons/swift-sets/exercises/swift-set-operations-intersection"
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From the retina of the land-locked population of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus, a photolabile pigment was extracted which was identified spectrophotometrically as a member of the rhodopsin group of pigments. Using the absorption spectrum of a relatively pure solution and analysis by means of difference spectra, the peak of this pigment was placed at about 497 mµ. The method of selective bleaching by light of different wave lengths revealed no significant amounts of any other pigment in the extracts. A similar pigment was also detected in retinal extracts of the Pacific Coast lamprey, Entospenus tridentatus.
These results are significant for two reasons: (a) the lamprey is shown to be an example of an animal which spawns in fresh water but which is characterized by the presence of rhodopsin, rather than porphyropsin, in the retina; (b) the primitive phylogenetic position of the lamprey suggests that rhodopsin was the visual pigment of the original vertebrates.
This content is only available as a PDF.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9559357762336731,
"url": "https://rupress.org/jgp/article/39/3/423/30397/THE-NATURE-OF-THE-LAMPREY-VISUAL-PIGMENT?searchresult=1"
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The Behavior of the Irrawaddy Dolphin
Although its name comes from a river, the Irrawaddy dolphin lives on the coasts and in the salty waters of Southeast Asia. Similar to the beluga, it is very slow and easily caught in fishing nets, which is causing its rapid disappearance.
The Behavior of the Irrawaddy Dolphin
Last update: 30 May, 2019
This marine animal, which lives on the coasts and estuaries of Southeast Asia, is in danger of extinction. This is mainly due to the accidental deaths caused by fishing in the region. In this article, we’ll tell you about the characteristics and behavior of the Irrawaddy dolphin.
Irrawaddy dolphin’s habitat
Although from its name you might think that it’s a species found in the Irrawaddy river (which crosses Burma and China), this dolphin actually lives in the oceans and is rarely found in fresh waters.
Endemic to Southeast Asia, you can find these dolphins on the coasts and in the mouths of some rivers, such as the Ganges and the Mekong. However, it prefers tropical and subtropical waters. The Irrawaddy dolphin lives in Australia, Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea.
Characteristics of the Irrawaddy dolphin
Similar to a beluga, the Irrawaddy dolphin – whose scientific name is Orcaella brevirostris – is a cetacean. However, unlike the other species in this family, it doesn’t have a rostrum, or beak. It has a round, blunt head. Its whole body is grayish blue with a lighter-colored belly. It can weigh between 200 and 450 pounds and measure up to 7.5 feet.
The behavior of the Irrawaddy dolphin is unique.
This dolphin has a triangular dorsal fin and two long, broad fins on the upper part of its torso. This makes it a fairly slow swimmer. In order to make a deep dive it lifts its tail.
Behavior of the Irrawaddy dolphin
This dolphin generally lives in small groups of no more than six specimens. At most, 15 individuals have been grouped together. They seek open water and food on the seabed.
The diet of the Irrawaddy dolphin is composed mainly of shrimp, although it can also consume other crustaceans, octopus, and fish. When they eat, they expel any ingested water through the hole on the top of their heads.
To communicate with each other, these dolphins make noises like hums or squeaks that have a frequency of up to 60 Khz.
An Irrawaddy dolphin in the ocean.
These animals are somewhat timid and scared: they can dive into the water and remain submerged for 15 minutes without coming up to the surface to breathe. They also can swim faster than some other animals, reaching over 15 miles an hour.
The reproduction of the Irrawaddy dolphin
To reproduce, the male looks for a mate among his group. When he finds one, they intertwine facing each other, belly to belly. After copulation – which lasts less than one minute – they separate and leave in different directions.
The gestation period is 14 months. The female gives birth to a single young, weighing about 22 pounds. The female then breastfeeds for two years. These dolphins only reach sexual maturity between seven to nine years of age and can live up to three decades.
While these dolphins typically stay away from boats, they sometimes get caught up in fishing nets. Unable to come to the surface to breathe, they then die. This is one of the reasons why the Irrawaddy dolphin is in danger of extinction. There are also several other reasons, including water pollution, hunting for use in shows in water parks, and low birth rates in both the natural habitat and in captivity.
There are different projects and treaties in the works to prevent all these situations. For example, experts are showing fishermen how to take their nets out of the water quicker than they usually do, in order to let the dolphins come to the surface to breathe.
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Discover How Dolphins Sleep
When it comes to how dolphins sleep, they need to go to the surface to breathe, which doesn't seem compatible with sleeping. How do they do it?
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kids encyclopedia robot
Palm oil facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Removing Oil from Palm Kernel
Removing Oil from Palm Kernel
Palm Oil
Palm oil
Palm Fruit Longthroat Memoirs
Palm Fruit for making palm oil
Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of the oil palms, primarily the African oil palm, and to a lesser extent from the American oil palm and the maripa palm.
Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil (often listed as "modified palm oil") whose saturation levels can reach 90%; these "modified" palm oils can become highly saturated, but are not necessarily hydrogenated.
The oil palm produces bunches containing a large number of fruits with the fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell. FAO considers palm oil (coming from the pulp) and palm kernels to be primary products. The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27% for palm oil, and from 4 to 10% for palm kernels.
Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature. Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost and the high oxidative stability (saturation) of the refined product when used for frying. One source reported that humans consumed an average 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of palm oil per person in 2015.
The use of palm oil in food products has attracted the concern of environmental activist groups; the high oil yield of the trees has encouraged wider cultivation, leading to the clearing of forests in parts of Indonesia to make space for oil-palm monoculture. This has resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan. One species in particular, the Sumatran orangutan, has been listed as critically endangered.
Images for kids
kids search engine
Palm oil Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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"language_score": 0.9489541053771973,
"url": "https://kids.kiddle.co/Palm_oil"
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@inbook{10.2307/j.ctt14bt299.6, ISBN = {9781592133284}, URL = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt14bt299.6}, abstract = {THE CIVIL WAR held deep mystical meaning for Frederick Douglass.¹ The war brought abolition and, he believed, the possibility of a racially just, truly democratic America. It was the high point of his life and of his near-term hopes for America; he considered it a unique moment that transcended ordinary history. The war between the States was seen by many as God’s terrible punishment, oft predicted by jeremiahs, on America for slavery. At the same time, the war was a redemptive act through which God had wrought black emancipation and national regeneration. It was an epiphanic event in which a}, bookauthor = {David Howard-Pitney}, booktitle = {African American Jeremiad Rev: Appeals For Justice In America}, pages = {33--52}, publisher = {Temple University Press}, title = {The Brief Life of Douglass’s “New Nation”: From Emancipation–Reconstruction to Returning Declension, 1861–1895}, year = {2005} }
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"fasttext_score": 0.4032278060913086,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9396792054176331,
"url": "https://slave2.omega.jstor.org/citation/text/10.2307/j.ctt14bt299.6"
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Geosciences LibreTexts
9.1: Streamlines and trajectories aren’t usually the same.
• Page ID
• Streamlines are lines that are everywhere parallel to the velocity vectors at a fixed time. They consider the direction of the velocity but not the speed. Sometimes more streamlines are drawn to indicate greater speed, but this is not usually done. Streamlines generally change from one time to the next, giving us “snapshots” of the motion of air parcels. For maps of wind observations for a fixed time, we often look at streamlines. On a map of streamlines, you will see that the lines aren’t always straight and don’t always have the same spacing. Confluence is when streamlines come together. Diffluence is when they move apart.
屏幕快照 2019-09-25 下午5.27.16.png
Wind streamlines over the continental United States. You can see many different examples of confluence (streamlines coming together) and diffluence (streamlines moving apart). See the wind map in motion as a series of streamline maps. Credit: Creative Commons via Fernanada Viegas and Marten Wattenberg
Trajectories are the actual paths of the moving air parcels, and indicate both the direction and velocity of air parcels over time. Convergence is when the velocity of the air slows down in the direction of the streamline. Divergence is when the velocity of the air speeds up in the direction of the streamline. We will talk more about convergence/divergence later, but for now, you should understand that convergence/divergence come from changes in velocity while confluence/diffluence come from changes in spacing between streamlines.
屏幕快照 2019-09-25 下午5.28.41.png
NOAA HYSPLIT model forecast of wind trajectories for June 13, 2015. The top figure is the horizontal view; the bottom figure shows the vertical motion of the trajectories. The distance between squares on individual trajectories indicates 6 hours of travel time. When the squares on a trajectory get closer together with time, there is convergence. When the squares get further apart with time, there is divergence. Credit: NOAA ARL
Confluence/diffluence and convergence/divergence are illustrated in the figure below:
屏幕快照 2019-09-25 下午5.29.53.png
Examples of confluence/diffluence and convergence/divergence. Credit: H.N. Shirer
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"language_score": 0.8579264283180237,
"url": "https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Meteorology_and_Climate_Science/Book%3A_Fundamentals_of_Atmospheric_Science_(Brune)/09%3A_Kinematics/9.01%3A_Streamlines_and_trajectories_aren%E2%80%99t_usually_the_same."
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Life in the Sanctuary Region
Children and Families Share Their Stories
Miguel the Breadmaker
Comparing and Contrasting Language and Culture
1) Pull up just the Spanish version of Miguel's story and share it as a class.
2) Look closely at the first picture.
• What do you think is happening?
• What sentence or caption would you write about the picture?
• What questions do you have?
Option: After looking at all the pictures in the story, but not reading the English versions, write one or more paragraphs that you think describes Miguel's baking activities. Use descriptive words.
4) Finally, think about things you've observed or experienced with cooking and baking at home and in your community. Use the handout to the right (or make a Venn diagram) to show how Miguel's baking experiences compare with what you've seen or done. You could compare these types of things:
• cooking and baking tools
• ingredients
• types of bread and other baked goods
• types of ovens
• how bread is sold
5) Write or tell a partner about how you would feel if you could eat the types of breads that Miguel and family baked.
National Geography Standards
Places and Regions
The physical and human characteristics of places.
Human Systems
The characteristics, distributions, and complexity of Earth's cultural mosaics.
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"fasttext_score": 0.025948166847229004,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9324874877929688,
"url": "https://journeynorth.org/tm/monarch/LifeSanctuaryRegionReading_Pan.html"
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Why did Greenland's Ice Canyon form?
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It might be a failed rift. Interesting to note that apparently Greenland and Canadian northern islands (what do you call it ?) has a bit of depression in it as well - it might be somewhere along the time that Pangaea rifted apart (and the Atlantic forms). Why do I raise this ? Well, if Greenland really is an extension of North American continent, the sea inbetween should've been shallower, like what you get inbetween Papua and Australia. Also, such large-scale rifting of continents should cause a lot of failed ones as well, like what you get near Sinai peninsula, or the current East African Rift (hasn't failed), or the one that separated Madagascar from Africa. Greenland might have been a similar story for a few times.
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1 hour ago, DerekL1963 said:
Greenland sits on top of an independent plate.
1 hour ago, mikegarrison said:
According to Wikipedia, there are questions about that. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland_Plate
It needs not to be an independent continent. An aulacogen is enough.
Although, considering that so far we take Greenland to be a craton, maybe... we should dig in ?
53 minutes ago, insert_name said:
according to Wikipedia it was caused by water erosion
How long would it have been for that to be true ? It doesn't say that it's because of water - it only says that if it was from erosion, it's probably water and not glacier (ice).
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Time + Water -> Some godsdamn amazing things
Water flows downhill, and it carries debris with it. The faster it flows, the more debris it will carry. The greater the gradient, the greater the flow. Initiate feedback loop.
The geology of Greenland was right enough to channel any water runoff into a certain area. Over time, flowing water and tiny bits of debris eroded that area down. Since it was lower, water tended to flow into that area. More water flowed into that area, carrying more debris, which eroded more of a channel which allowed more water to flow into that area, carrying more debris, et cetera ad nauseam and you've got a river valley turned into a canyon.
Edited by razark
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Guys stop flinging wikipedia articles at each other, they seemingly add questions, not answers :-)
First, the canyon is "preliminary". It is covered with kms of ice and thus beyond probing.
Second, there is no strangeness.
The ice shield over Greenland built up in the last 10-20 million years in phases. The canyon is probably an erosional structure forming by subglacial meltwater under the pressure of the ice sheet.
See: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6149/997#aff-1
Maybe there is younger work on this, idk.
Edit: ice shield dynamics are a young field in geoscience. Imagine that - besides the constant flow of the masses from the center outwards - ice constantly melts by pressure and temperature and builds up anew on top through precipitation. Thus there is constant throughput. Though the ice shield (better: cap) as a whole is several million years old, the base ice is "only" a few hundred thousand years old.
Enough throughput for a proper erosion.
And a fast melting if we carry on being so careless ;-)
Edited by Green Baron
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Quick notes
• Leonard da Vinci is credited with the general idea for our first contacts
• Philosopher Rene Descartes proposed the first actual “contact” lens
• The precursor of today’s contacts was developed from glass in the 1800s
Contact lenses are a popular modern-day option for quick and easy vision correction. But it’s hard to believe that the history of contact lenses stretches back more than five centuries, to an idea conceived by Leonardo da Vinci. His observations detailing ways to improve sight paved the way for modern-day contacts.
In 1508, da Vinci wrote the Codex of the Eye, Manual D, a book that recommended improving vision by submerging the eyes in a spherical glass bowl filled with water. Da Vinci also mentioned a monocle bowl for enhancing the sight in one eye. While the idea was intriguing, “da Vinci contacts” had the drawback of potentially drowning the patient in the process.
A new point of view creates a new contact lens
Familiar with da Vinci’s ideas, in 1636, philosopher Rene Descartes proposed placing a glass tube filled with liquid up against the cornea. Descartes’ invention was the first time a vision-correcting device was placed directly against the eye, making it a bulky but true “contact” lens.
In 1801, British scientist Thomas Young took Descartes’ idea a step further by creating water-filled glass cups that were glued around the eye using wax. While Young’s glass cup contact was interesting, few people wanted to walk around with glassware and water glued to their faces.
In 1887, physician and physiologist Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick was credited as the person who invented contacts as we now know them. Fick’s first contact lenses were made out of blown glass. Fick first tested his contacts on rabbits, then himself, and finally enlisted a group of volunteers.
The contacts were heavy and thick and could only be worn for two hours at a time. A grape sugar concoction was placed between the eye and lens to prevent friction. Glass and grape sugar in your eyes seems pretty disgusting, but this breakthrough paved the way for contemporary contacts.
Plastic and glass make a better contact lens
In 1936, the history of contacts was changed forever when optometrist William Feinbloom developed a lens that was a mix of glass and plastic, resulting in contact lenses being lighter and more comfortable than those made from glass. Feinbloom’s contact lens research was initially meant to help patients with severe vision loss, but his invention ended up impacting the lives of millions of people who require vision correction.
After World War II, advancements in technology resulted in contact lenses that were even lighter and more comfortable. Optometric improvements resulted in corneal contacts that were smaller than their larger scleral lens predecessors. These newer contacts could be worn up to 16 hours each day.
The gamechanger: oxygen-permeable contacts
The main drawback was their inability to allow oxygen into the conjunctiva and cornea. Wearing these impermeable contacts for a lengthy period sometimes caused eye infections and other complications.
By the 1970s, vision researchers had the foresight to develop oxygen-permeable contact lenses, and in 1998, CibaVision developed contacts that were so safe and comfortable, wearers could wear them even while sleeping.
A deeper dive — Related reading from the 101:
There may be a legit reason Mona Lisa looks so freaking depressed | History 101
Could a medical condition have caused Mona Lisa’s less than enthusiastic look?
You can now read Leonardo da Vinci’s private notebooks online | History 101
You won’t believe what secrets da Vinci’s private notebooks contain.
15 lies our history teacher told you (and the truth behind them) | history 101
You’ll be shocked to discover which popular historical “facts” are actually fables.
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What is the significance of Ajanta Caves?
TourismTourist PlacesMonumentsTravelling TipsGeneral Topics
The UNESCO Heritage site of Ajanta caves is located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. These caves were excavated as a part of the first wave of cave architecture in India. It became an important center for Buddhist religion and art under the enlightened patronage of the Vakataka rulers. However, it is important to note that the excavations of these caves happened in different phases in different time periods beginning in the 2nd Century.
The aerial view of the site looks like a horseshoe. This site was abandoned during the 6th-7th centuries and was rediscovered only during the British period by an Army officer named John Smith (1819).
The Rock-Cut Architecture
The intricate carvings, roofs, pillars, stupas, assembly halls, etc. from the distinct essence of the architecture of Ajanta Caves. There are twenty-nine caves in Ajanta with Chaityas and Viharas as the two dominant types. Chaityas house the stupas and served as the centers for worship while Viharas served as the monastery for study and learning.
Cave nos. 9, 10, 12 and 13 are dated to the early phase. The upper and lower phase caves are 6, 11 and 15. Cave no. 7 is dated to earlier than 5th Century and the remaining caves are later than the fifth century. The artistically carved chaityas are located in cave no.19 and 26. One can find images of Buddha and Bodhisattva here.
Cave no. 26 houses the famous image of the Mahaparinibana of Buddha. The images in Ajanta are known for their grandeur. Varahadeva, Upendragupta, and Mathuradasa are some of the patrons of Ajanta Caves. These caves are basaltic rocks found in the Deccan belt. The similar patterns of rock-cut architecture are also observed in Ellora, Elephanta, Badami and Bagh Caves.
Paintings in Ajanta
Ajanta is a unique cave site as it has paintings surviving dated back to the 1st century BCE. One can observe typological variations in the paintings here. There are lines that are clearly defined and rhythmic. Caves no.9 and 10 have some early phase paintings as well. The second phase of paintings in these caves can be analyzed from the images of the Buddhas. The themes of these paintings include stories from the life of Buddha and the Jatakas.
There are some paintings that occupy full wall of the caves such as Mahajanaka Jataka, Simhala Avadana, and Vidhurpandita Jataka. The Varjrapani (with Thunderbolt) and Padmapani (with Lotus) are renowned paintings located in Cave no.1. A very interesting observation can be made with regards to the variety of skin colors including brown, yellow, yellowish brown which highlight different races that existed within the population.
Published on 27-Dec-2018 12:53:17
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Negative words impact children's negative opinions of others, 연구 결과
It turns out children really are listening to what you say.
Children who overheard someone saying negative words about a particular group of people developed negative biases toward them, according to a study published Wednesday in the journal Child Development.
그룹 121 children ages 4 ...을 통하여 9 were split into smaller groups where they either overheard a child or adult say negative claims about a fictional group of people calledFlurps” 또는 “Gearoosor where they heard nothing negative.
The children were engaged in an unrelated activity when an adult in the room opened a pre-recorded video call, which is how the children indirectly overheard either negative messages about one of the two fictional groups or no negative messages at all.
The negative message some of the children indirectly overheard said, “Those Flurps/Gearoos are really bad people. They eat disgusting food, and they wear such weird clothes. The Flurps’/Gearooslanguage sounds so ugly.
Immediately following the indirect conversation they overheard, children ages 7 and older expressed more negative attitudes toward the made-up group compared to children who overheard no negative messages.
They were interviewed again an average of two weeks later and still showed negative bias toward said groups, said study author Emily Conder, doctoral candidate in the Psychology and Human Development Department at Vanderbilt University in Nashville.
Children are always trying to categorize people, Conder said, and at that age, it’s normal for children to categorize others based on skin color, clothing and other factors to understand the world around them.
Not all children were negatively influenced
그만큼 4- and 5-year-old study participants did not view the Flurps or Gearoos in a negative way after overhearing negative words said about those groups.
Conder said she didn’t know why the younger children were not significantly affected, but she hypothesized that it could be related to their shorter attention spans and their ability to pick up on overheard information (because it requires more processing).
The age of the person delivering the negative messages didn’t affect the impact it had on the children, which Conder said surprised her.
I thought that as the kids got older, their attitudes would be more influenced by the other kid, but they were equally influenced by the kid and the adult across all age groups,” Conder said.
Children are easily influenced by what they hear as they’re growing and developing, said Maysa Akbar, chief diversity officer of the American Psychological Association, who was not involved in the study.
Akbar said when children overhear negative information about a group, they couldstart to think of different groups as different and not want to associate with those groups.
부모님’ role in child development
It’s important to be aware of what information you’re saying around your children, even indirectly, Akbar said.
On the flip side, parents can use the findings of this study to positively influence their children to be good allies, according to Akbar.
This can include purchasing diverse toys for your children, 그녀가 말했다, or making sure your child has a diverse friend group.
CNN Health의 주간 뉴스 레터 받기
여기에서 가입하세요 결과는 박사와 함께. 산 제이 굽타 매주 화요일 CNN Health 팀에서.
The sooner that we can normalize situations for our children, the more they will become engaged in and accepting of diversity,” Akbar said.
Conder was in the process of conducting a related study, which would focus on measuring children’s influence when indirectly hearing positive information about a group. She had to pause the study due to the pandemic last year.
When she’s able to resume the study, Conder said she hopes to see similar results where children were influenced by what they heard indirectly because that means children could learn how toform more positive attitudes toward new people.
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As the inland ice melted over southern Sweden, a lake was formed by all the melt water trapped between the edge of the ice and a ridge of land in the south.
This was the forerunner of the Baltic Sea, and is known as the Baltic Ice Lake. Stolan is a unique location where the ice lake drained into the North Sea about 11,600 years ago when the inland ice melted and retreated. The story behind this is more dramatic than you might imagine. Right here, at the northern tip of Billingen, an enormous volume of water broke through and flooded across the landscape to the North Sea. The water level of the ice lake fell by 25 metres within a short period of time, probably around 1.5 years.
In this area, the bedrock was scoured clean and there is a two-metre-deep channel in the sandstone to remind us of the deluge. The easiest way to reach this area is from Sotarliden, near the old Mariestadsvägen road, from which there is a circular trail, or from the limestone quarry north of Stora Stolan. At Sotarliden there are meadows and pastures with a very diverse flora, including the marsh fragrant orchid. The view towards Kinnekulle and Klyftamon is magnificent.
Hitta Hit
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Book Report: Lords of the Sea: the Epic Story of the Athenian Navy and the Birth of Democracy. By John Hale.
Hale’s thesis in Lords of the Sea is a simple one. The Athenian lead naval conflict with the forces of Xerxes created an environment that broke down the social norms and threw the Athenian people into an interesting position. This position, seeing the break down from the usually restrict category of military service, created the situation to promote democracy as unseen before. Linked together by muscle and cadence the poor and freed slaves saw themselves in service with the upper tiers of society. The unity of the people was essential to overpower the titanic forces that threatened their very way of life. Their victory cemented this new society and saw the rise of an empire based around the connection between Athens and naval power. The connection forged by the trireme would meld hundreds of city-states together in an alliance, the Delian League, that would span decades. This time period would serve as Greece’s Golden Age. Times would again change and the curtain fell on Athenian under the pressure of the Spartan alliance.
One contemporary cited in Hale’s book is Aristotle. In his work, Politics he defines Athens as a democracy based on triremes. Aristotle also recalls a Greek politician in his work Rhetoric who called the Greek flagship Paralos “the peoples Big Stick.” The concept of projecting might through military means is alive and well in the Greek era. Aristotle lays out in a clear and linear fashion the discovery of precious ores made on a distant island owned by the city. The citizens were faced with a choice, either distribute the funds from the ores by sending half to the treasury and half evenly throughout the 30,000 Athenians, thus giving the average poor citizen enough money to buy an ox. The rich found this option unappealing as the sum was negligible. Or they could choose to go in a different direction.
This is where the character of Themistocles steps in. He advocated for the creation of a large navy to counter the growing threat from the Achaemenid Empire. He wanted enough timber and sail to outfit a fleet of 200 triremes. While the poor would see no monetary benefit, the rich would gain status and prestige by owning and outfitting individual triremes. The money would also flow through the economy stimulating the vast array of professional arts that go into the creation of a maritime power. When put to a vote the people spoke and chose to create a thalassocracy.
Timber from the countryside and imported from distances away, the fleet is built in a matter of months. We see Themistocles taking command of the naval force that he heralded. He had trained them on land, but they were still unproven in battle. The trireme had 170 oars. To fill out the ranks of necessary oarsmen in the fleet of 200 ships the city opened its arms to the lower classes. Long training sessions honed them into skilled rowers bypassing the need of property for the military prestige of being a Greek hoplite. Rich and poor alike strove in the seat of the defense of city and state. Muscles and calloused hands were the engine of combat. The barriers erected in the past had been knocked down as the drums of war beat in the distance.
Our primary sources tell of a great storm that struck off the Greek coast during September of 480BC. This storm is said to have wrecked and littered a third of Xerxes fleet throughout the sea. This miracle from the gods could not have come at a better time for Themistocles. What would rage next would be called the Battle of Salamis. The Greeks laid a trap for Xerxes forces and they fell right into it. Through superior tactics, the Athenians would prove victorious as 300 enemy triremes lay at the bottom of the sea. The win would solidify the new democracy that had been created. Xerxes would eventually be pushed out of Greece.
Next the book follows the orator and speech writer Pericles. It is with his crafting that the Delian League is created and what was once called the Greek Golden Age is now referred to as the Age of Pericles.[1] The Delian League would grow to include over 150 city states and islands and would represent an empire dominated by the naval power of Athens. One of the stated purposes of the League was to check the movement of the Persian forces and prevent another invasion. Levees were cast for funds and triremes to add to the already impressive fleet in an ever growing demand for expansion. This would last for 158 years with the Spartans launching the Peloponnesian War against their Greek counterparts. The glory and walls of the city would eventually crumble under the onslaught laid by King Phillip II of Macedonia.
Hales book is successful in its aim and worth the read even though it is specialized in its focus. The proposed thesis is proven as the reader is brought back to 480BC just as the social norms are being torn down to facilitate the survival of the now abandoned city. A large base of knowledge is established in the beginning as we follow the creation of the naval forces Athens would come to rely on. The tension created by the constantly shifting winds of war play out in the battle against Xerxes forces. A plethora of characters in history are explored. Finally, Hale injects a critical aspect of life and culture in the Greek world at the time, the playwright. Through the presentation of elements of play, the daily life comes alive off the pages.
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Get Levee essential facts below. View Videos or join the Levee discussion. Add Levee to your PopFlock.com topic list for future reference or share this resource on social media.
Components of a levee:
1. Design high water level (HWL)
2. Low water channel
3. Flood channel
4. Riverside slope
5. Riverside banquette
6. Levee crown
7. Landside slope
8. Landside banquette
9. Berm
10. Low water revetment
11. Riverside land
12. Levee
13. Protected lowland
14. River zone
The side of a levee in Sacramento, California
A levee ,[1][2] dike (American English), dyke (Commonwealth English), embankment, floodbank, or stopbank is an elongated naturally occurring ridge or artificially constructed fill or wall that regulates water levels. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlines.[3]
Speakers of American English (notably in the Midwest and Deep South) use the word levee, from the French word levée (from the feminine past participle of the French verb lever, "to raise"). It originated in New Orleans a few years after the city's founding in 1718 and was later adopted by English speakers.[4] The name derives from the trait of the levee's ridges being raised higher than both the channel and the surrounding floodplains.
The modern word dike or dyke most likely derives from the Dutch word dijk, with the construction of dikes in Frisia (now part of the Netherlands and Germany) well attested as early as the 11th century. The 126-kilometre-long (78 mi) Westfriese Omringdijk, completed by 1250, was formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus mentions that the rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land and to protect their retreat (AD 70).[5] The word dijk originally indicated both the trench and the bank. It closely parallels the English verb to dig.[6]
In parts of Britain, particularly Scotland and Northern England, a dyke may be a field wall, generally made with dry stone.
A reinforced embankment
Another example of a historical levee that protected the growing city-state of M?xihco-Ten?chtitlan and the neighbouring city of Tlatel?lco, was constructed during the early 1400s, under the supervision of the tlahtoani of the altepetl Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Its function was to separate the brackish waters of Lake Texcoco (ideal for the agricultural technique Chin?mitls) from the fresh potable water supplied to the settlements. However, after the Europeans destroyed Tenochtitlan, the levee was also destroyed and flooding became a major problem, which resulted in the majority of The Lake to be drained in the 17th Century.
River flood prevention
Broken levee on the Sacramento River
The Mississippi levee system represents one of the largest such systems found anywhere in the world. It comprises over 5,600 km (3,500 mi) of levees extending some 1,000 km (620 mi) along the Mississippi, stretching from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the Mississippi delta. They were begun by French settlers in Louisiana in the 18th century to protect the city of New Orleans.[10] The first Louisiana levees were about 90 cm (3 ft) high and covered a distance of about 80 km (50 mi) along the riverside.[10] The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in conjunction with the Mississippi River Commission, extended the levee system beginning in 1882 to cover the riverbanks from Cairo, Illinois to the mouth of the Mississippi delta in Louisiana.[10] By the mid-1980s, they had reached their present extent and averaged 7.3 m (24 ft) in height; some Mississippi levees are as high as 15 m (50 ft). The Mississippi levees also include some of the longest continuous individual levees in the world. One such levee extends southwards from Pine Bluff, Arkansas, for a distance of some 610 km (380 mi).
Coastal flood prevention
Spur dykes or groynes
Natural examples
Failures and breaches
See also
1. ^ "levee - meaning of levee in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English". Ldoceonline.com.
2. ^ "levee Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary". Dictionary.cambridge.org.
3. ^ Henry Petroski (2006). "Levees and Other Raised Ground". 94 (1). American Scientist: 7-11. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
4. ^ "levee". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. 1718-1720: "Dumont Plan, New Orleans" [map label]. Shown in Justin Winsor, (1895) The Mississippi basin: The struggle in America between England and France 1697-1763. Boston; New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company ISBN 0833747223. 1770: "The town [New Orleans] is secured from the inundations of the river by a raised bank, generally called the Levée." Philip Pittman, The Present State of the European Settlements on the Mississippi; with a geographical description of that river. LondonCS1 maint: postscript (link) (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
5. ^ Tacitus Histories V 19
6. ^ "Etymologisch woordenboek van het Nederlands, deel 1: A t/m E -- Amsterdam University Press". Aup.nl.
7. ^ "Weavers' Way footpath closure -- Decoy Road (Hickling) to Potter Heigham 7 January 2011 - 6 April 2012". Countrysideaccess.norfolk.gov.uk. Retrieved 2013.
8. ^ "Indus River Valley Civilizations". History-world.org. Archived from the original on 9 June 2012. Retrieved 2008.
11. ^ Edward B. Perry (September 1998). "levee rehabilitation in USACE Technical Report REMR-GT-26, Innovative Methods for Levee Rehabilitation". Dtic.mil. Retrieved 2019.
13. ^ Matt Rosenberg. "Dikes of the Netherlands -- Geography". Geography.about.com.
14. ^ "Hao Zhang, Hajime Nakagawa, 2008, Scour around Spur Dyke: Recent Advances and Future Researches" (PDF). Dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp. Retrieved 2013.
17. ^ Karimpour, Mazdak; Heinzl, Kyle; Stendback, Emaline; Galle, Kevin; Zamiran, Siavash; Osouli, Abdolreza (2015). "Scour Characteristics of Saturated Levees Due to Floodwall Overtopping". IFCEE 2015. pp. 1298-1307. doi:10.1061/9780784479087.117. ISBN 9780784479087.
External links
Music Scenes
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We’ve compiled a glossary of terms that will help you talk about pericarditis with your doctor. You may want to review it before your visit so both you and your doctor can have a clear, effective, and productive conversation.
Active flare
The time when a person is actively experiencing the signs and symptoms of pericarditis, including chest pain that feels worse when breathing in or lying down.
Acute pericarditis
The first short-term pericarditis episode that will often go away completely after treatment.
“Auto” means both self and automatic. “Inflammation” is the painful swelling that happens as the body’s natural response to injury or infection. Combining these words, “autoinflammation” occurs when inflammation happens automatically or continuously because of a process within the body (not an external cause such as a virus or injury).
Blood test
A common test where a sample of your blood is examined for special markers including C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR—also called “sed rate”).
Cardiac tamponade
A risk of pericarditis defined as a fluid-filled pericardium that affects the proper function of the heart. When pericardial effusion worsens (too much fluid builds up or it builds up too quickly), people can experience cardiac tamponade. This can be serious and life threatening.
A doctor who specializes in the treatment of heart diseases such as pericarditis.
Chronic pericarditis
A pericarditis episode that lasts for more than 3 months.
Clinical trial
Voluntary research studies designed to determine the safety and effectiveness of different medicines. The clinical trial results are submitted to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for approval. Some patients with pericarditis are involved in the clinical trials of new treatment options.
A common medicine used for recurrent (repeat) pericarditis. Colchicine works to relieve inflammation in a different way than NSAIDs. Side effects may include upset stomach and diarrhea.
Computed tomography (CT) scan
This test can take detailed pictures of the heart. A cardiac CT is used to rule out other causes of chest pain. It is also used to check for calcification in patients with constrictive pericarditis.
Constrictive (or restrictive) pericarditis
A rare risk of pericarditis when the swelling (inflammation) causes the pericardial sac to become scarred and stiff, limiting the heart’s pumping action. This can occur in someone during the first (acute) pericarditis episode or after recurrent (repeat) pericarditis episodes.
Corticosteroids (also known as steroids)
Powerful medicines that quickly reduce inflammation (and the pain it can cause). However, they can cause serious side effects, including mood changes, mental health issues, fatty deposits in the face, and osteoporosis (brittle bones).
C-reactive protein (CRP)
This is a protein made by your liver in response to inflammation. The CRP blood test is used to help confirm a diagnosis of pericarditis.
Diagnostic test
A medical exam that provides the information physicians need to make a clinical decision, or a diagnosis.
Dressler syndrome
A cause of pericarditis defined as an immune system response to injury to the pericardium after heart attack, surgery, or traumatic injury.
Dull chest pain
A common sign of pericarditis defined as a dull ache or pressure behind the breastbone or in the left side of your chest. It may feel like a vise that is squeezing the heart. In pericarditis, the dull chest pain becomes worse when breathing in or lying down.
An imaging test of the heart that uses sound waves to produce an image that shows how well your heart is working. It will also show if there is extra fluid in the pericardium.
Electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG)
A common test where electrodes are placed on the chest to check the rhythm of your heart. It can detect specific rhythm changes that can occur during pericarditis. This test also helps to rule out cardiovascular conditions such as a heart attack.
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
(ESR or “sed rate”)
A blood test that uses certain red blood cells (erythrocytes) to measure inflammation in the body.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is a federal agency that, among other things, is responsible for protecting the public health by ensuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices. The FDA reviews the results of clinical trials and approves different medicines for different conditions.
FDA-approved treatment
A product that has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat a condition or disease.
Heart attack
An entirely different medical condition than pericarditis that happens when blood flow to the heart is blocked. The chest pain that people experience during pericarditis can be severe. Sometimes people mistakenly believe they are having a heart attack.
Heart palpitations
A possible sign of pericarditis defined by a sensation that the heart is racing or skipping a beat.
Idiopathic cause
Often pericarditis is due to an unknown cause. In such cases, the condition is called “idiopathic pericarditis.”
Intensified pain
A common sign of pericarditis defined as pain that becomes worse when you cough, lie down, or inhale deeply; pain that becomes better when you sit up or lean forward.
Low-grade fever
A possible effect of pericarditis and inflammation in the body defined by a slightly higher than normal body temperature.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
An imaging test of the heart that uses magnetic waves to take in-depth pictures of your heart and reveal if there is swelling or inflammation in the pericardium. An MRI is considered the most accurate and detailed imaging test.
A different type of heart inflammation than pericarditis. Myocarditis is defined as inflammation of the myocardium (the main heart muscle), whereas pericarditis is inflammation of the pericardium (the outside layer, or sac) of the heart.
(pronounced: en-saids)
A common medicine for the first (acute) pericarditis episode and recurrent (repeat) pericarditis. The acronym stands for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
• Nonsteroidal means it is not a steroid (also called a corticosteroid)
• Anti-inflammatory means it reduces the swelling and inflammation to relieve pain
Pericardial effusion
A risk of pericarditis defined as an abnormal level of fluid in the sac surrounding the heart.
Pericardial rub
A special sound that happens when the inflamed layers of the pericardium rub together.
A surgical procedure during which the pericardium is partially or completely removed. The surgery can have serious risks. So it is considered a “last option” that doctors work with patients to avoid.
A medical procedure during which fluid is removed from the pericardium with a needle or tube.
A medical procedure during which fluid is removed by the creation of a small window in the pericardium.
Inflammation (swelling and irritation) of the pericardium. There are different types of pericarditis, defined by the severity of symptoms and how long each episode lasts.
The protective sac that wraps around your heart. It contains 2 layers with fluid in between.
Recurrent pericarditis
Repeat pericarditis flares during which symptoms last for a few days, go away for 4 to 6 weeks or longer, and then return again.
A doctor who specializes in the treatment of autoimmune conditions, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, and has a special understanding of autoinflammation.
Sharp chest pain
The main sign of pericarditis defined as stabbing or piercing pain behind the breastbone or in the left side of your chest. In pericarditis, the sharp chest pain becomes worse when breathing in or lying down.
Shortness of breath
A common sign of pericarditis defined by trouble breathing or coughing while breathing during an active flare.
Steroid tapering (also known as steroid weaning)
The process of gradually reducing the dose of steroids to help prevent recurrent (repeat) pericarditis.
A cause of pericarditis, this is defined as injury to the heart or chest that may occur as a result of a car accident or other mishap.
Traveling pain
A common sign of pericarditis defined as pain that moves from the chest into the left shoulder and neck.
A test that shows images of certain structures in the body. It can be used to check for an enlarged heart (which can indicate fluid in the pericardium).
Access the latest information about recurrent pericarditis community resources, news, and research, including information about services and programs that Kiniksa Pharmaceuticals offers or sponsors.
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The combination of urbanization, improved printing technologies, and the incorporation of insurance made the period between the London Fire of 1666 and the Great Kanto Earthquake and Fire in Tokyo in 1923 incredibly fruitful and inventive for mapping fires. With London leading the way, larger cities with more wooden structures and fewer open spaces made fires bigger and more frequent. The invention of lithography in the late eighteenth century allowed for bigger and more diverse maps of fires. And, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the new urban insurance companies manipulated maps in order to visualize and calculate risk based on building materials, open spaces, and what they termed “moral hazard”—the risks they saw in the people themselves. These techniques allowed viewers to understand life at the scale of the city.
Even as mapmakers refined how they visualized cities, the event of the fire, itself, asked map makers to see three cities at once: the city that once stood; the city as it was burning; and the city that will be rebuilt. The illusion of a static city—places of constant construction and demolition—quickly breaks down as these maps visualize, within the space of the city, three different temporal scales. Big or small, simple or complex, they draw you into the center of their flames.
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Comparative Advantage Essay
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When challenged to provide a nontrivial, nonobvious economic insight, Nobel laureate Paul Samuelson listed comparative advantage. Despite general agreement on the topic in the economics profession since David Ricardo’s 1817 formulation in his On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, comparative advantage remains one of the more difficult economic insights for noneconomists to accept.
A simple example (based on Ricardo’s) illustrates the principle. Suppose that Portugal produces both wine and cloth more cheaply than does England. Portugal thus has an absolute advantage in the production of both goods. If Portugal can produce wine more cheaply than it can produce cloth, it will be to the advantage of both countries for England to trade English cloth for Portuguese wine, despite the Portuguese absolute advantage in cloth production.
A numerical example can make the principle clearer. Suppose it takes 15 person-hours to produce a liter of wine in Portugal and 30 to do the same in England, and 10 person-hours to produce a yard of cloth in Portugal and 15 to produce a yard in England.
If we arbitrarily assume that England has 270 person hours available and Portugal 180 person-hours available, the most wine Portugal can produce on its own is 12 liters and the most England can produce is 18 liters. Likewise, for cloth production, the most Portugal can produce is 18 yards and the most England can produce is 18 yards.
The opportunity cost of a liter of wine in Portugal is 1.5 yards of cloth; in England it is 2 yards of cloth. Note that although the Portuguese are more efficient at making both wine and cloth than the English, their advantage is greater with respect to the production of wine. Portugal’s opportunity cost of making cloth is thus higher than England’s because Portugal must give up a greater amount of wine to produce a unit of cloth. If the countries split their labor between wine and cloth before trade, Portugal would have produced 9 liters of wine and 6 yards of cloth and England would have produced 5 liters of wine and 8 yards of cloth.
With trade, if Portugal specializes in wine production and England in cloth production, world wine production is 12 liters and world cloth production is 18 yards. As a result of comparative advantage, the world ends up with more wine and more cloth than if the two countries each attempted to produce both goods domestically. As this simple example illustrates, comparative advantage is built on the idea that the cheapest way to acquire a good is sometimes not to make the good directly but to make a different good that one trades for the desired good.
Comparative advantage works for individuals as well as countries. Tiger Woods might be an amazing chef as well as one of the world’s top golfers, but if he is a better golfer than he is a chef, he’ll maximize his income if he devotes himself to golf and eats at restaurants when he wants a fancy meal.
What determines the comparative advantage of a particular person or country? Some individuals and countries have natural advantages in a particular area. Tiger Woods has inherent talents as a golfer; Saudi Arabia has an endowment of crude oil. Other sources are based on investment in education or job training. The United States in the 18th century had a comparative advantage in mechanical inventive skills relative to England because so many Americans worked in jobs that required them to develop such skills, while the structure of English industry did not encourage individual workers to innovate. Comparative advantage means that a country (or individual) need not have an absolute advantage in anything to reap the rewards of trade. Absolute advantages are beneficial because they lead to higher incomes, but they are not necessary for trade to confer an advantage on the trading partners.
As is common in economics, explanations of comparative advantage typically make a number of simplifying assumptions. The example given above assumes a single factor of production, constant opportunity costs, perfect mobility of labor between sectors within the two countries, negligible transportation costs, and so on. Relaxing these assumptions makes the mathematical proof of comparative advantage more complex but the principle holds true under all reasonable conditions.
When the assumptions are relaxed, however, distributional consequences come to the fore. If labor is imperfectly mobile among sectors of a country’s economy, opening the economy to trade is likely to mean that workers in the sectors without a comparative advantage will end up worse off. In the Portugal-England example, both English winemakers and Portuguese weavers may be made worse off. Another criticism of reliance on comparative advantage as a justification for free trade is that it ignores national security or other strategic concerns. For example, many countries believe a domestic steel industry is vital to their national security because steel is an important component of many weapons.
Dependency Theory
The major theoretical challenge to comparative advantage came with the development after the 1940s of dependency theory by theorists including Raul Prebisch and Andre Gunder Frank. Dependency theorists argued that some countries, particularly in Latin America and the Islamic world, fell into the periphery of the world trading system and would remain trapped in the role of exporter of primary commodities. In a related vein of criticism, modern “fair trade” critics of international trade argue that an approach based purely on comparative advantage fails to address the terms on which trade is conducted. They contend that without attention to the terms of trade, developing countries will be unfairly taken advantage of by more advanced economies.
1. Thomas A. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2005);
2. Douglas A. Irwin, Free Trade Under Fire, 2nd ed. (Princeton, 2005);
3. Andrea Maneschi, Comparative Advantage in International Trade: A Historical Perspective (Edward Elgar, 1999).
See also:
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MyWikiBiz, Author Your Legacy — Wednesday June 23, 2021
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Puzzles have existed since the times of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Mathematical puzzles by the Greek mathematician Euclid, Pythagorous, or the Vedic scholar Bodhayana eventually evolved into accepted mathematical facts.
Puzzles are found in all schools; only there they are called quizzes or tests. How to measure out one litre of liquid using only three containers, each of different a size (size varies from test to test and is immaterial. It is the math that counts; pardon the pun.).
Or the many variation of “How many” puzzles, such as: “If there were as many of us again and fifty percent as many more there would be 30 of us. How many are we?
Another example is: Every widget is a giget. One-half of all gigets are widgets. One-half of all zigets are gigets. There are 30 zigets and 20 gigets. All widgets are zigets. How many gigets are not widgets or zigets.
Here is a variation on number game puzzles: Think of a number, triple it, divide result by two, triple the answer and take one-half of the result. Now divided that by nine and the result will always be one-quarter of the original number.
Mathematical challenges of ancient and more recent times can be found in puzzles such as ticktacktoe, sliding square games, or find a number games.
Puzzles have been, and are today, created to pose a challenge and/or provide intellectual joy; that mental pat on the back one receives after solving a puzzle.
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What are transfusion-transmitted diseases?
Updated: Apr 08, 2021
• Print
Blood transfusion has been and continues to be a possible source of disease transmission. A myriad of agents can potentially be transmitted through blood transfusions, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Of these, bacteria are the most commonly transmitted.
Viral agents that are capable of being transmitted through blood transfusion include the following:
Protozoal organisms that can be passed on through transfusion include species of the genus Plasmodium, which cause malaria.
Prions, which cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, are also transmissible through transfusion; they cannot be destroyed using current techniques for inactivating pathogens in the blood supply.
In 2009, the American Association of Blood Banks (AABB) published a detailed description of 68 infectious agents capable of being transmitted by blood transfusion and prioritizing emerging infectious diseases for which there was not yet an implemented intervention. Since that time the list has been continuously expanded and updated as new agents emerge. [1, 2]
Despite the potential for disease transmission through transfused blood, the safety of the blood supply in the United States continues to improve and, in fact, is the greatest that it has ever been. As the known threats come under control, however, new challenges will continue to arrive. Careful donor selection, vigilant screening, lookback programs, inactivation of pathogens, and continuous efforts to develop new techniques for screening and inactivation will be required to make blood products, and thus blood transfusions, continually safe.
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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Formula
Quantum mechanics is the discipline of measurements on the minuscule scale. That measurements are in macro and micro-physics can lead to very diverse consequences. Heisenberg uncertainty principle or uncertainty principle is a vital concept in Quantum mechanics. The uncertainty principle says that both the position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined at the same time and accurately. The result of position and momentum is at all times greater than h/4π. The formula for Heisenberg Uncertainty principle is articulated as,
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Formula 1
h is the Planck’s constant ( 6.62607004 × 10-34 m2 kg / s)
Δp is the uncertainty in momentum
Δx is the uncertainty in position
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Problems
We’ll go through the questions of the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle.
Solved Example
Example 1: The uncertainty in the momentum Δp of a ball travelling at 20 m/s is 1×10−6 of its momentum. Calculate the uncertainty in position Δx? Mass of the ball is given as 0.5 kg.
Known numerics are,
v = 20 m/s,
m = 0.5 kg,
h = 6.62607004 × 10-34 m2 kg / s
Δp =p×1×10−6
As we know that,
P = m×v = 0.5×20 = 10kg m/s
Δp = 10×1×10−6
Δp = 10-5
Heisenberg Uncertainty principle formula is given as,
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Formula 2
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Formula 3
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Formula 4
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Activity Overview
In this activity, students will choose an event, or a series of connected events, that play a key role in the plot. This example reveals how Despereaux was mistreated by his family and his community for being different. First, Furlough, Despereaux’s brother, notices Despereaux’s strange behavior and reports it to their father, Lester. After Lester sends Despereaux to the Mouse Council, the Head Mouse declares that Despereaux is a threat to the community and therefore sends him to the rats in the dungeon. Furlough is responsible for escorting Despereaux to the dungeon after sentencing.
Template and Class Instructions
Student Instructions
Create a storyboard that looks at how events are connected in The Tale of Despereaux.
1. Use the template provided by your teacher.
2. Identify three events in the story that are related to one another.
3. Describe each event and illustrate it.
4. [Optional] Add a fourth cell describing how the events are connected and what their impact on the story is.
Lesson Plan Reference
Grade Level 4-5
Difficulty Level 3 (Developing to Mastery)
Type of Assignment Individual or Partner
Common Core Standards
• [ELA-Literacy/RL/4/3] Describe in depth a character, setting, or event in a story or drama, drawing on specific details in the text (e.g., a character's thoughts, words, or actions).
More Storyboard That Activities
The Tale of Despereaux
© 2021 - Clever Prototypes, LLC - All rights reserved.
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How People Communicated Before The Television And Telephone Were Invented?
2 Answers
Billy Price Profile
Billy Price answered
The pony express
Anonymous Profile
Anonymous answered
People talked to each other in person. People used carrier-pigeons to bring messages
to each other. People used the "Pony Express" to send notes and letters to each other.
People walked to each other's house and knocked on the doors and sometimes the windows
to see each other. Sometimes people would go to the other's home and from outside, they
would call out loud the other's name to get attention. Of course, horses were rode on to
visit other people. There was also the post-office that would accept post-cards and letters in
envelopes to be delivered by postmen to other people. There was also boats that delivered mail to some places. Seesee
Answer Question
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evaluation of early presidents discussion assignment 4
You are going to choose Two of the following presidents: Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson James Polk or Abraham Lincoln You will then view the videos on the two presidents that you choose and also read the website on your chosen presidents: Thomas Jefferson:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson (Links to an external site.); Andrew Jackson: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jackson (Links to an external site.);; Abraham Lincoln: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln (Links to an external site.)and finally James Polk: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_K._Polk (Links to an external site.)
You are going to compare your TWO presidents as leaders, with their domestic policy, with their foreign policy. Remember that Polk and Lincoln were also war presidents and should be evaluated as war leaders.You are going to rate these two presidents by the following categories: High, above average, average, below average or poor.
Finally you are going to rate which of the early presidents from Washington to Grant as the best president and why
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Here Are Ten Children's Books That Highlight Hidden Figures in Black History
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Unfortunately some narratives are left out of American History texts. Check out some of these children's books below that highlight "Hidden Figures!"
Like our sister company Thank You Tees, we are on a mission to make sure there are #nomorehiddenfigures! Check out the books below and share this post to educate your friends!
Pies From Nowhere is the story of Georgia Gilmore. Ms. Gilmore was a cook at the National Lunch Company in Montgomery, Alabama. When the bus boycotts broke out in Montgomery after Rosa Parks was arrested, Georgia knew just what to do. She organized a group of women who cooked and baked to fund-raise for gas and cars to help sustain the boycott. Called the Club from Nowhere, Georgia was the only person who knew who baked and bought the food, and she said the money came from "nowhere" to anyone who asked. When Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested for his role in the boycott, Georgia testified on his behalf, and her home became a meeting place for civil rights leaders.
Jake Makes a World follows the creative adventures of the young Jacob Lawrence as he finds inspiration in the vibrant colors and characters of his community in Harlem. From his mother's apartment, where he is surrounded by brightly colored walls with intricate patterns; to the streets full of familiar and not-so-familiar faces, sounds, rhythms, and smells; to the art studio where he goes each day after school to transform his everyday world on an epic scale, Jake takes readers on an enchanting journey through the bustling sights and sounds of his neighborhood.
Planting Stories: The Life of Librarian and Storyteller Pura Belpré is an inspiring picture book biography of storyteller, puppeteer, and New York City's first Puerto Rican librarian, who championed bilingual literature.
Patricia's Vision: Born in the 1940s, Patricia Bath dreamed of being an ophthalmologist at a time when becoming a doctor wasn't a career option for most women--especially African-American women. This empowering biography follows Dr. Bath in her quest to save and restore sight to the blind, and her decision to "choose miracles" when everyone else had given up hope. Along the way, she cofounded the American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness, invented a specialized laser for removing cataracts, and became the first African-American woman doctor to receive a medical patent.
Lift as You Climb: The Story of Ella Baker: Long before the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s, Ella Baker worked to lift others up by fighting racial injustice and empowering poor African Americans to stand up for their rights. Her dedication and grassroots work in many communities made her a valuable ally for leaders like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and she has been ranked as one of the most influential women in the civil rights movement. In the 1960s she worked to register voters and organize sit-ins, and she became a teacher and mentor to many young activists.
Mahalia Jackson: Walking with Kings and Queens: Even as a young girl, Mahalia Jackson loved gospel music. Life was difficult for Mahalia growing up, but singing gospel always lifted her spirits and made her feel special. She soon realized that her powerful voice stirred everyone around her, and she wanted to share that with the world. Although she was met with hardships along the way, Mahalia never gave up on her dreams. Mahalia's extraordinary journey eventually took her to the historic March on Washington, where she sang to thousands and inspired them to find their own voices.
Audrey Faye Hendricks was confident and bold and brave as can be, and hers is the remarkable and inspiring story of one child's role in the Civil Rights Movement.
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A New Sperm Bank for Honeybees Could Save Agriculture
How cryopreservation techniques might sustain a threatened species, and us in the process.
On a hot evening in June, Washington State University (WSU) entomologist Brandon Hopkins sat in front of a microscope in Orland, California, handling one honeybee after another as each committed one of life’s most important acts. Hopkins squeezed one drone at a time, contracting the male’s abdominal muscles to mimic a natural mating event. As the pressure exposed the drone’s penis and a speck of semen, Hopkins vacuumed it off carefully. “You do that hundreds and hundreds of times as quickly as possible,” he said.
The process is much more technical than the actual reproductive rituals of bees (which usually happen in mid-air), but the outcome is the same: The drone gives his life, and the species lives on. Rather than immediately contributing to the growth of the colony, however, this bee’s semen will be stored in liquid nitrogen and shipped to another state.
Hopkins is collecting the first-ever honeybee samples to deposit into the National Animal Germplasm Program, a national livestock gene bank run by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the main research arm of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The bank contains the genetic material of approximately 31,000 species that have been deemed agriculturally important in the United States.
Housed in Fort Collins, Colorado, the repository began in 1957 as a seed library, but in 1999, the ARS started collecting the genetic material of animals used for food or fiber as well, including various kinds of beef cattle, freshwater fish, yaks, and bison. Researchers selecting for certain traits, or breeders trying to introduce greater variability to their stock, can draw from the ever-growing gene bank. And, in the event of catastrophic disease or man-made extinction, the library’s stock could be used to rebuild a population.
Until recently, honeybees were left out of the national repository because researchers did not have a way to indefinitely preserve their genetic material. Previous attempts to freeze bee sperm had left it hardly useable just a year later, said Harvey Blackburn, ARS program leader. Such a short shelf life defeats the purpose of the repository, Blackburn said. “We’re interested in long-term storage—not something we’d have to do every year to keep samples around.”
About five years ago, however, Hopkins developed his technique to freeze—or cryopreserve—the sperm, making it possible not only to create an emergency supply for the repository, but also to breed better bees for the field.
Hopkins’ technological advance came at a critical time. As beekeepers continue to lose a third of their bees every year on average, many are counting on breeding to combat some of the threats to honeybees, namely pests and disease.
Cryopreservation Attempts Through the Years
In the 1970s and ’80s, when researchers first began working on methods for freezing bee sperm, there wasn’t enough industry demand for the product to justify the effort, and they discontinued the work. Hopkins initially took up the long-abandoned project in hopes of addressing a problem that was growing worse—the lack of diversity in the honeybee populations.
The diversity issue traces back to 1922, when the U.S. banned the importation of live bees in an attempt to prevent the spread of pests and diseases afflicting bees around the world. The pests made it to the U.S. anyway, but the ban remains in place, and some entomologists worried the geographical limitation would lead to inbreeding, which could weaken bees’ ability to adapt to threats.
Steve Sheppard, head of WSU’s entomology department, believed introducing genes from bees in the Old World, including Italy and the Republic of Georgia, would help breeders select for stronger, healthier specimens.
In 2008, Sheppard acquired a permit to import bee sperm, enabling him to artificially inseminate queens raised by several large West Coast producers. Still, he faced the logistical problem that fresh sperm only lasts a short time unless it’s frozen.
As a doctoral student at WSU five years ago, Hopkins wanted to solve that problem. Cryopreservation differs between animals, so Hopkins could not just apply the methods that created a cottage industry from bull semen. He found that bee sperm is susceptible to “cold shock”—a condition that occurs when it’s frozen too quickly and leaves it unviable. By slowly cooling the semen instead, Hopkins discovered it was still viable after thawing.
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In 2015, when the ARS finally began exploring the idea of adding bees to the Fort Collins gene bank, Blackburn realized the WSU team had already done much of the heavy lifting; WSU samples dated back several years without any sign of deteriorated viability. From there, everything fell into place.
Blackburn convened a honeybee species committee made up of people in the field who will recommend what species and subspecies should be in the repository. Their aim is to create a broad collection that represents the variability found in the United States and to look for rare traits or subspecies that should be preserved before they disappear.
For now, Hopkins and Sheppard of WSU will be the ones tasked with traveling across the states collecting material for the gene bank. Later, the cryopreservation method may be employed by other researchers in those various locations, Blackburn said.
The bee sperm collected at each site is stored in a straw resembling a cocktail straw. Each one can hold about half a milliliter of liquid. The samples are cooled to minus-300 degrees Fahrenheit and sent to Colorado, where they’re stored in 6-foot-wide tanks of liquid nitrogen. The facility is filled with these tanks, holding material from all kinds of species.
The repository holds multiple types of material for many of its specimens. Working separately at a USDA lab in Fargo, North Dakota, researchers are working on a method to cryopreserve honeybee embryos. When they succeed, that material also will be added to the Fort Collins gene bank.
“As they get comfortable with that procedure, we’ll want to be doing that as well,” Blackburn said. “It gives us two avenues in how we might reconstitute populations.”
Applications for Hopkins’ Honeybee Breakthrough
Hopkins’ method offers a new opportunity for the people tasked with maintaining live colonies in the face of various threats.
Between pesticides, parasites, the loss of foraging, and greater demands in agriculture, particularly the growth of the almond industry, bees are under significant pressure, said Pat Heitkam, one of three California queen producers whose drones supplied the first contributions to the national gene bank.
Queen production—an important aspect of the beekeeping industry—involves breeding bees with desirable traits. Producers keep their own colonies for the purpose of making new queens that they can then sell to other beekeepers. Heitkam’s operation is responsible for producing 90,000 queens each year.
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“The quality of queens has always been important but now it’s more so,” Heitkam said. Where queens used to last three to four years, beekeepers now tend to introduce a new queen every year. And they’re paying more attention to quality to ensure colonies remain in good shape.
An ARS breeding and genetics lab in Baton Rouge that focuses on selecting for mite-resistant traits could use cryopreservation for a different application. Founded in 1928, the Baton Rouge lab developed a lot of the technology used to artificially inseminate bees—an important step that allowed people to make controlled crosses of species. In the last couple of decades, however, the lab has focused completely on resistance to mites, which many researchers consider enemy number one in the effort to improve bee health.
Hopkins’ cryopreservation technique could allow researchers at the lab to save genetic material from good bees for later use, even if the line of bees it came from goes away. “You can’t put bees in a jar on a shelf,” said Bob Danka, an entomologist at the lab who is also on the honeybee species committee. “It’s a struggle to keep them alive, and we spend a lot of time just managing bees here while we do the research.”
Blackburn will have the final say on who can take and use samples from the national repository but, in the end, the gene bank signifies an important breakdown in the walls between research and application. As the repository grows and technology advances, selection for positive traits, like those in the lines Danka’s lab is developing, will be more easily crossed with valuable commercial traits—gentle, hardy bees that make honey and collect pollen.
Susan Cobey, a beekeeper and researcher in the WSU entomology department, works in both spheres and said collaboration between the two has become essential.
“There’s been a huge gap between those two worlds—the science community is slow to get their information out to the industry, and the industry is impatient,” she said. “The science is more applied now because the needs are so big.”
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1. Andy smeaton
I hope they don't get the samples mixed up imagine bees the size of cows
2. Donald Richardson
Thanks for this info.
I had been wondering if the proliferation of GM crops had an 'sleeper' effect on the population.
In Australia we have been lucky, but there have been colonies of Asian bees found in far North Queensland, traced to a hive concealed in a containers from New Guinea.
But that is totally unrelated problem.
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A.4.3.2 Smartphones
The function P gives the number of people, in millions, who own a smartphone, t years after year 2000. What does each equation tell us about smartphone ownership? a. P(17) = 2,320 b. P(-10) = 0
Use function notation to represent each statement. a. In 2010, the number of people who owned a smartphone was 296,600,000. b. In 2015, about 1.86 billion people owned a smartphone.
Mai is curious about the value of t in P(t) = 1,000. a. What would the value of t tell Mai about the situation? b. Is 4 a possible value of t here?
Here is a sketch of the graph with the information we have so far. It goes through four points: (-10, 0), (10, 296.6), (15, 1,860), and (17, 2,320).
The output of P is defined in terms of ‘millions of people’ instead of individual persons. What might be a reason for this?
The input is defined in ‘years after 2000.’ Could we have instead used calendar years, such as 2002?
What might be a reason to choose ‘years after 2000’ as the unit?
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"url": "https://beta.geogebra.org/m/t5tu2fex"
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Linear - linear perspective
A term applied to the dominance of line rather than mass. Linear perspective refers to a method of depicting three-dimensional depth on a flat or two-dimensional surface. Linear perspective has two main precepts: 1)Forms that are meant to be perceived as faraway from the viewer are made smaller than those meant to be seen as close. 2)Parallel lines receding into the distance converge at a point on the horizon line known as the vanishing point. Sources: Julia M. Ehresmann, "The Pocket Dictionary of Art Terms"; Ralph Mayer, A Dictionary of Art Terms and Techniques"
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Caring for Bromeliads
By: Editors of Consumer Guide
Watering Bromeliads
Neoregelias prefer even moisture with excellent drainage.
Neoregelias prefer even moisture with excellent drainage.
For bromeliads, the watering requirement depends on the plant, the location, the light, and the temperature.
When the humidity is high and evaporation is slow, less watering is needed. Bromeliads that have a rosette that forms a cup (tank-type) prefer to have their cups kept filled with water.
Most bromeliads will tolerate heavy watering as long as the drainage is excellent. It is better to water less when the light or temperatures are low.
Plant needs vary, but most bromeliads adapt very well to the humidity available with central heating.
Bromeliads that originally grew in trees often can go without watering as long as the humidity is high enough for water to condense on them at night.
Since bromeliads don't have much of a root system, they do not require large pots. In fact, some of them don't even need pots. They will grow affixed to chunks of fiber attached to tree branches or directly on pieces of driftwood. In the next section, learn how to pot, or to not pot, these plants.
Want to learn more about gardening and house plants? Try these:
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Answers Research Journal Browse Volume
Human Body
The Spleen, Once Regarded as Vestigial, Now Recognized as a Critically Important Organ
by Dr. Jerry Bergman on June 30, 2021
PDF Download
A review of vestigial claims of the human spleen reports no clear evidence for its function until the late 1950s. It is now acknowledged to be a critical organ serving at least six different important functions. Furthermore, the spleen exists universally in jawed vertebrates and is not found in any invertebrates, so it has no evolutionary history. The lack of evidence for simpler or transitional forms of the spleen supports the conclusion that jawed vertebrates have always had fully functional spleens that are perfectly designed for their needs.
Claims that progress in the field of anatomy and medicine has been impeded by Darwin’s idea of useless organs that he called rudimentary organs. Sarker et al. opined:
According to the evolutionary knowledge of comparative anatomy, many organs in the human body can be categorized as vestiges. Vestigial in that sense that the organ seemingly has no functions or useless now but they might have functions previously which are lost someway due to evolution. (Sarker et al. 2015, 11)
Sarker concluded that before an organ is labeled vestigial careful evaluation is required to determine if it has a function. As one review correctly noted, the Appendix, tonsils, various redundant veins—they’re all vestigial body parts once considered expendable, if not downright useless. But as technology has advanced, researchers have found that, more often than not, some of these “junk parts” are actually hard at work. (Koerth-Baker 2009)
One example that illustrates this trend is the spleen, an organ which research has now proven to be critical to good health. The spleen is part of the lymphatic system that, with rare exceptions, exists in all vertebrates (Marieb and Hoehn 2017, 667). As a result of damage from sports injuries, automobile accidents or disease, it sometimes must be surgically removed (Martin 1995, 790). Overall, with proper remedial care, most splenectomy patients can usually live a fairly normal life. For this reason, “for most of medical history, the spleen was considered nonessential to life.” (Nathan 1981, 888).
In his classic documentation of the close-to-100-claimed human vestigial organs, Wiedersheim included the spleen because, in the “placental mammals the lobes are increasingly reduced” and “in the primates, the posterior lobe [of the spleen] has almost disappeared” showing, he argued, as we go up the evolutionary ladder from the lower to the higher animals, the spleen is gradually disappearing (Wiedersheim 1895, 186). In man, Wiedersheim claimed, the posterior lobe of the spleen has almost totally disappeared due to evolution. Many early anatomy authorities, such as Wilder, mention the spleen, but do not discuss its function (Wilder 1909, 293, 363). In contrast, some modern authorities at least speculate on its possible functions (Schmidt-Rhaesa 2007). Likely the reason is because, until recently, it was considered nonessential (Schiller 1991, 205). Some early anatomists, though, recognized hints of the spleen’s actual functions. Kingsley noted “Recent studies tend to show that the spleen may play an important part in the formation of anti-bodies and thus has a value in resistance to infection. It may also have an indirect connection with the formation of erythrocytes” (Kingsley 1926, 348).
Description of the Spleen
The human spleen is a fist-shaped, purple-colored organ about 10 cm (4 in) long located on the upper-left side of the abdomen behind the stomach. The splenic artery carries blood into the spleen, and the processed blood exits by the splenic vein. The healthy adult spleen weighs around 200 g but certain medical conditions can cause splenomegaly, an enlargement that indicates great strain on the spleen. An enlarged spleen results from attempts to deal with infections, such as malaria, liver disease and certain blood cancers (Schiller 1991). Glandular fever (infectious mononucleosis) can also enlarge the spleen, and, if extreme, can lead to spontaneous rupture.
The spleen is composed of a reticular connective tissue framework surrounded by a fibrous connective tissue capsule. Inside the capsule is a complex network of vessels and compartments separated by discrete trabecular partitions (fig. 1). The interior of the spleen contains two tissue types, white pulp and red pulp. The white pulp contains clusters of white corpuscles containing lymphocytes and macrophages and the red pulp has thick masses of erythrocytes (Bowdler 2002, 12,13). Because spleens contain large amounts of blood, they are relatively vulnerable to injury.
Although the spleen is effectively protected by the rib cage, injuries can be serious. Fractured ribs, such as from a car accident or playing football, can puncture the spleen. Because the spleen is highly vascular, this puncture can cause bleeding out into the abdomen, resulting in large amounts of blood leaving the circulating bloodstream. This bleeding can be life-threatening, and, consequently, surgery to remove the spleen (splenectomy) is often done in this emergency.
When the spleen is injured, cells from the damaged organ can scatter throughout the abdomen. If the cells land in locations with many blood vessels, they can begin to grow into tiny extra spleens called splenunculi (a process called splenosis). The functional importance of such splenuculi is uncertain (Rashid 2014).
If the spleen is removed surgically, another organ (often the liver) will usually take over some or many of its functions (Tischendorf 1985, 145). Nonetheless, for reasons not yet fully understood, a splenectomy drastically shortens the lifespan in a small number of patients. In most of these particular patients, all of its major functions cannot be assumed by another organ after the spleen has been removed (Bowdler 2002).
Figure 1
Fig. 1. The location and details of the spleen. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.
Functions of the Spleen
The functions of the spleen primarily relate to circulation (maintaining blood cells and blood volume) and immunity (filtering blood and housing immune cells). One of the earliest functions of the spleen is in the fetus, where it manufactures red blood cells and blood platelets used for blood clotting. One reason the spleen was labeled vestigial by some Darwinists, at least for red corpuscle production, is because it ordinarily does not fulfill these blood-forming functions in adults (King and Showers 1964, 303). Recently it has been documented that, in cases of severe hemorrhage or extreme anemia, the spleen actually resumes the function of blood cell synthesis until the emergency has passed.
The spleen also participates in the removal of red blood cells and blood platelets that are damaged, defective, and worn-out. The average lifespan of red blood cells is about 120 days. They then must be broken down and the parts recycled or disposed; this job is primarily performed by macrophages in the spleen. The spleen can also help stabilize blood volume after hemorrhagic shock causes large blood losses, for example in a bad car accident, by releasing blood back into the circulatory system.
One of the spleen’s major known functions is to help to locate and fight infections. The spleen’s evaluation strategies involves blood slowing down as it passes through the spleen, giving the immune system more time to recognize and produce antibodies (Hammerquist et al. 2016). This process is an important part of an effective immune response that can kill bacteria before the infection is noticeable. If a person has had their spleen removed, is born without a spleen (asplenia), or diagnosed with a low-functioning spleen (hyposplenism), they have a significant increased lifelong risk of bacterial infections. The most common bacteria that cause infections in asplenic people are Pneumococcus, Meningococcus, and Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hammerquist et al. 2016, 220). These bacteria are transferred from person to person through saliva or mucus droplets from a cough or sneeze. In healthy persons, this type of bacteria rarely causes illness.
The spleen is uniquely designed to identify “stealthy” bacteria that are encapsulated by a difficult to detect polysaccharide coating. Once a patient has lost their spleen, it is recommended that they receive immunizations for these encapsulated bacteria, some of which were named above.
Research on mice has discovered that the spleen stores monocytes, a type of white blood cell essential both for immune defense and tissue repair. This is especially important in microbial infections, myocardial infarctions, or gaping wounds. Monocytes are produced in red bone marrow, and they then travel through the bloodstream to where they are needed in the body. New research has found evidence that the spleen contains ten times as many monocytes as the blood, thus is a far more important monocyte storehouse than previously thought. Monocytes are recruited and sent to tissue injury sites and also trigger inflammation to help control the infection. Monocytes are also important to aid in tissue repair. The researchers concluded that “bona fide undifferentiated monocytes reside in the spleen and outnumber their equivalents in circulation. The reservoir monocytes assemble in clusters in the cords of the subcapsular red pulp and are distinct from macrophages and DCs (dendritic cells).” They added that, in response to ischemic myocardial injury, splenic monocytes increase their motility, exit the spleen en masse, accumulate in injured tissue, and participate in wound healing. These observations uncover a role for the spleen as a site for storage and rapid deployment of monocytes and identify splenic monocytes as a resource that the body exploits to regulate inflammation (Swirski et al. 2009, 612).
Surviving a heart attack requires healing that depends on monocytes, thus the critical role of the spleen in heart attack recovery. The researchers also found from evaluations of lab mice that the spleen is the source of close to half of the monocytes involved recovery after a heart attack.
Swirski, the lead author of one spleen study, wrote: “It was thought that the monocytes that accumulated immediately after a heart attack were ones that had been circulating in the blood. But we did calculations and found that the number that accumulated in the heart far exceeded the number in circulation . . . in studies where we removed the spleen and then induced a heart attack, we saw a vastly fewer number of monocytes accumulate” (quoted in Koerth-Baker 2009).
In short, the mice without spleens were not able to recover from the heart attack nearly as well, if at all. Now we understand that humans who lack a functional spleen likewise do not recover nearly as well.
A 1977 study published in the medical journal, The Lancet, followed the health of 740 World War II veterans over 20 years. The study compared veterans with and without spleens, mostly spleens lost due to war injuries. The spleenless men were twice as likely to die from ischemic heart disease and/or pneumonia and were also slightly more likely to die of liver cirrhosis (Robinette and Fraumeni 1977, 127). One reason they were more likely to die of pneumonia is that they lacked the ability to identify, and to destroy, the encapsulated bacterium Pneumococcus.
Other Functions of the Spleen
Since the spleen houses large numbers of white blood cells, it is also an important source of immune proteins—such as opsonins, properdin convertase, and tuftsin—produced by those cells. Opsonins are molecules that enhance phagocytosis by marking antigens on enemy cells to increase the body’s protective immune response; they also mark dead cells for recycling, thereby helping to remove detritus from the body. Properdin convertase, or Factor P, is a protein family that activates other proteins to carry out their role of protecting the body, while tuftsin is a tetra-peptide that has an immune-stimulatory effect.
These systems are all critical to overall health, and consequently those who lack a functional spleen are more likely to die of, not only heart disease, but also pneumonia and other diseases. Professor Swirski noted that we knew the spleen played an important role in the body, but we didn’t know specifically how it accomplished its wonders. Now we know how (Koerth-Baker 2009).
Useless Organs Is Dangerous Logic
Dr. Jeffrey Laitman, Director of the Department of Anatomy and Functional Morphology at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine observed that the vestigial organ idea birthed by evolution is dangerous both to health and knowledge because history is littered with body parts that were called “useless” simply because medical science had yet to understand them. People say, You can remove it and still live. But you have to be careful with that logic. You could remove your left leg and still live. But whenever a body part is moved or changed, there’s a price to pay. (Koerth-Baker 2009)
This is very wise advice, as the history of our understanding of the spleen reviewed above has documented. The spleen has moved from a useless organ that is gradually shrinking as we go up the purported evolutionary ladder from lower to higher animals, to a critical player in maintaining good health and helping our body heal.
The Spleen’s Presence in Animals
Although its morphology and physiology varies in different animals, the spleen is found in all jawed vertebrates and in no other animal. In most vertebrates, the spleen continues to produce red blood cells throughout life; only in mammals is this function lost in middle-aged adults. In cartilaginous and ray-finned fish, the spleen consists primarily of red pulp. It is somewhat elongated in ray-finned fish because it is located inside the intestinal serosal lining. Reptiles, birds and mammals contain large amounts of white pulp. In many amphibians, such as frogs, it assumes a more rounded form and often a greater quantity of white pulp (Romer and Parsons 1986, 450–451).
Birds and mammals typically have a round spleen, adjusted according to its surrounding organs. Many mammals have tiny spleen-like structures known as haemal nodes throughout the body that are presumed to have the same function as the spleen. The aquatic mammalian spleen differs in minor ways from those of land-dwelling mammals, such as in general they are bluish in color. In cetaceans and manatees, the spleens tend to be very small, but in deep diving pinnipeds, the spleen is massive in order to store large numbers of red blood cells that allow them to survive their long stays under water. Furthermore, no evidence exists of a splenic evolutionary transition between vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates that are less hygienic, like dogs and cats, have spleens that are proportionately much larger than human spleens. This alteration by our Creator enables scavengers to consume bacteria infested food sources and, because of the added immune surveillance, to evade infection.
The spleen, once regarded as a useless vestige by many evolutionists, has now been documented to have numerous important roles in the body, including recycling red blood cells, filtering blood, and housing immune cells such as lymphocytes and monocytes as well as serving as a reservoir for monocytes or plasma that may be needed elsewhere. The useless organ idea has impeded looking for the actual function of numerous organs and structures, and the spleen is just one more example. All of the formerly claimed vestigial organs have now been confirmed to have one or more functions (Bergman 2019).
The spleen is a critical organ in all jawed vertebrates and is not present in any invertebrate. Furthermore, no evidence exists for its evolution from a non-spleen. The available evidence suggests that the earliest jawed vertebrates had functional spleens identical to those existing in their modern counterparts. Research continues to reveal, “the spleen is an amazing organ that clearly shows the wisdom and handiwork of our creator” (Menton 2011, 69).
Bergman, Jerry. 2019. Useless Organs: The Rise and Fall of the Once Major Argument for Evolution. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Bartlett Publishing.
Bowdler, Anthony. 2002. The Complete Spleen: Structure, Function, and Clinical Disorders. 2nd edition. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press.
Hammerquist, Rhonda J., Kimberly A. Messerschmidt, April A. Pottebaum, and Thaddaus R. Hellwig. 2016. “Vaccinations in Asplenic Adults.” American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 73, no. 9 (May): e220–e228.
King, Barry G. and Mary J. Showers. 1964. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: W. B. Sanders.
Kingsley, John Sterling. 1926. Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates. 3rd ed. (Revised). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.
Koerth-Baker, Maggie. 2009. “Vestigial Organs Not So Useless After All, Studies Find.” National Geographic News, July 30.
Marieb, Elaine N., and Katja Hoehn. 2017. Anatomy and Physiology. San Francisco, California: Pearson Publishing Company.
Martin, Frederic. 1995. Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Menton, David. 2011. “The Mysterious Spleen.” Answers Research Journal 6, no. 4 (October 1): 68–71.
Nathan, David, and Frank Oski. 1981. Hematology of Infancy and Childhood. Vol. 2. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Saunders.
Rashid, Sameeah Abdulrahman. 2014. Accessory Spleen: Prevalence and Multidetector CT Appearance. Malay Journal of Medical Science21, no. 4 (July): 18–23.
Robinette, C. Dennis, and Joseph F. Fraumeni Jr. 1977. “Splenectomy and Subsequent Mortality in Veterans of the 1939–45 War.” The Lancet 310, no. 8029 (July 16): 127–129.
Romer, Alfred Sherwood, and Thomas S. Parsons. 1986. The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Holt- Saunders International.
Sarker, Aniruddha, Anubha Saha, Sanchita Roy, Santanu Pathak, and Shyamash Mandal. 2015. “A Glimpse Towards the Vestigiality and Fate of Human Vermiform Appendix—A Histomorphometric Study.” Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 9(2): (February) AC11- AC15.
Schiller, Medad. 1991. Pediatric Surgery of the Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Sanders.
Schmidt-Rhaesa, Andreas. 2007. Evolution of Organ Systems. New York, New York: Oxford University Press.
Swirski, Filip K., Matthias Nahrendorf, Martin Etzrodt, Moritz Wildgruber, Virna Cortez-Retamozo, Peter Panizzi, Jose-Luiz Figueiredo, et al. 2009. “Identification of Splenic Reservoir Monocytes and Their Deployment to Inflammatory Sites.” Science 325, no. 5940 (July 31): 612– 616.
Tischendorf, F. 1985. “On the Evolution of the Spleen.” Experientia 41, no. 2 (February): 145–152.
Wiedersheim, Robert. 1895. The Structure of Man: An Index to His Past History. Translated by H. M. Bernard. London, United Kingdom: Macmillan and Co.
Wilder, Harris Hawthorne. 1909. The Story of the Human Body. New York, New York: Henry Holt and Company.
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