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Coming . . . a Scientific Etymology of Native American Words in the Southeastern United States by Richard L. Thornton, Architect & City Planner The image above is a sketch of one of the two stone tablets in front of Roanoke Colony survivor, Eleanor Dare’s tomb in the Nacoochee Valley. It is a sample of the Apalache-Creek writing system, which we are still trying to reconstruct. The other tablet was engraved in Elizabethan English words and can be viewed today at Brenau University in Gainesville, GA. Both tablets were discovered by the famous archaeologist, Robert Wauchope, in 1939. Soon after discovering the tablets, Wauchope was lured from the University of Georgia to a prestigious position at the University of North Carolina in order to keep the world from knowing his close ties to the “Dare Stones.” Be careful when trying to equate the words of the Americas to those elsewhere. If you are merely trying to prove that you are right, you can quickly arrive in lala land. I started out with this example of a little-known example of indigenous American writing to point out how culturally detached the “Native American” words on the landscape of the Southeast today are from the original words, spoken by the people, who greeted the first European explorers in the 1500s and 1600s. French, Spanish, English, Italian, Portuguese and Dutch explorers struggled to symbolize with their particular alphabets, the sounds coming out of indigenous mouths . . . and there were hundreds, if not thousands of indigenous American languages. The situation in the 1500s and early 1600s was even more complex for explorers from the Iberian Peninsula. There were at least 15 distinct languages in Iberia. Each associated s different Roman letter to some sounds. Some sounds had absolutely no equivalent in Spain or Portugal. That is the reason for the confusingly different spellings for many Native towns by the various chroniclers of the Hernando de Soto Expedition. The best example of Spanish phonetic confusion is the Muskogean “ÄW” sound, which is symbolized by a “V” in the Creek Indian. Also, to this day, Spanish only uses a K, when replicating a word from a foreign language. Mexican scholars used the letter AA to symbolize Muskogean V sound in Maya words. So in the De Soto Chronicles, we see the Itsate Creek tribe, written as Okvte (Water People) in the Creek languages, recorded as Ocute, Ocaate and Ocote by the Spanish. The name of the great town of Coosa (American English spelling) causes great confusion among American anthropologists. It is written as Kvse in Creek and pronounced Käw : shĕ. Sixteenth century Iberian explorers spelled the word Coça, Cosa or Coza. The French spelled the word, Cousha. The British spelled the word Cusha. The Dutch and German maps spelled the word Kößa. The English alphabet version of the Cherokee word for them is Kusa, but pronounced Kü : shä. Most Gringo anthropologists do not know that the Muskogee-Creeks and Cherokees pronounce S like SH, so they pronounce the word like the spelling of the river, Coosa. Other branches of the Creeks have at least three S sounds like the Mayas. Coosa can actually be a Mesoamerican word meaning “Descendants of the Eagle” or a Panoan (Peru) word meaning “strong or elite.” Cusabo, a South Carolina tribal alliance is definitely a pure Panoan word, meaning “”Strong, place of.” There is actually a Panoan tribe in Peru named the Kaushebo. Where non-Native American scholars really get into trouble I have found definite linguistic connections between some words in some languages in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. However, one cannot take an Anglicized Native American word on a map of the United States and play “mind games” with it. You have to know the history of both peoples and the way they pronounced words before even beginning to start making connections. In the past, most scholars did not do this. They would start out with a theory and then try to prove it. Subconsciously, they ignored any evidence that conflicted with their theory, because their primary objective was trying to prove that they were right! Honestly, I have no theories and thus am constantly surprised by discoveries I make, whether in architectural or linguistic research. For example, about a century ago, a history professor in Michigan decided that the Indians in his state were descended from the Vikings. Since there was a city in Michigan named Muskegon, Michigan and that sounded like Muskogee, the Creek Indians were obviously from Michigan, but were originally Vikings. He then danced across the maps of Alabama and Georgia and equated many town and river names to Gamla Norska (Old Norse) words. A contemporary anthropologist (with a Swedish last name) from Minnesota took this turn-of-the-century Michigan scholar’s statements about the Muskogee-Creek language as fact then threw in the fact the skeletons at Etowah Mounds were tall then decided that the people of Etowah Mounds were led by Viking kings. She then sent me a list of Viking kings, who ruled Etowah Mounds. I wrote back with notes, where she had misspelled or mistranslated Swedish words. She was shocked. Ignorant mestizos from Dixie were not supposed to have “higher knowledge.” Well, the problem is that the actual Creek word is Mvskoke and it means “Herb People.” Jag taler Svenska! “Herb People” in both Gamla Norska and Svenska is “Läka folket!” There is no similarity. Mysteriously, the situation it is not a simple as refuting some Midwestern scholars, who went into Lala Land. The Irish Gaels, Scottish Gaels, Muskogee Creeks, Algonquians, Shawnee, Cherokee and Peruvian Arawaks use the same phonetic sound in a suffix (written ge or ke), which means “people or tribe.” Something was “going on” way back when. THEN . . . we have the fact that proof has been found of Scandinavian colonies in North America. Few people seem to remember that during the first few days of their arrival on Cape Cod, the pilgrims unearthed a skeleton with blond hair. The log map of Verrazano’s 1524 voyage along the South Atlantic Coast notes two towns with Scandinavian names. Thus, some Iron Age or Medieval Period Scandinavians may have settled on the Atlantic Seaboard of North America, but they did not significantly affect the cultural traits of the region. Linguistic evidence suggests that the presence of some proto-Scandinavian loan words in the Southeastern United States and Peru arrived during the Bronze Age, when modern Germanic Scandinavians were not living in Scandinavia. Oh, Midwestern scholars don’t have a monopoly on delusional history. For well over a decade, there are several “American Islamic History” websites that state as fact the Creeks were good Muslims, who were forcibly converted to Christianity by the British military. The British burned all the mosques atop Creek mounds and then American archaeologists concealed the evidence. Didn’t you know that? The proof that these Islamic scholars offer is that Muskogee is a British corruption of the word, mosque. However, the most important proof is that the holy symbol of Islam, the Crescent and Star, was on the battle flags of Creek and Seminole Mounted Rifle units in the American Civil War. Mosque is from Late Middle English: from French mosquée, via Italian and Spanish from the Egyptian Arabic word, masgid. The actual Creek ethnic name is Mvskoke and the ke suffix means “tribe or people.” As for the “Crescent and Star,” these scholars need to learn their own history. The Crescent and Star appeared on the battle flags of the armies of Christian Byzantium for many centuries before being adopted by the Turks, when they conquered the City of Byzantium (Constantinople) in 1453 AD. The use of the logo on the tops of mosque domes then spread from Turkey to the rest of the Middle East. The Star and Crescent logo itself originated in ancient Babylon. They symbolized the Moon God and Venus goddess. The Crescent and Star logo was adopted by the Confederate Department of the Trans-Mississippi from the seal of the City of New Orleans, when it was headquartered in New Orleans. The Seminole and Creek cavalrymen were merely carrying the battle flag of their branch of the Confederate Army. Needed . . . an authoritative Southeastern Native American glossary The other day I was looking at articles, published in the literature of respected historical or anthropological societies in the states of the Lower Southeast. All of the articles or booklets were published in the Late 20th century, but referenced the professional papers of academicians in the 1800s and early 1900s. Virtually all the word meanings in the Tennessee, Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina versions were wrong. North Carolina couldn’t even get most of the meanings of Cherokee words right! Alabama got most of the Muskogee words right, but was wrong on all the other words. Florida was correct on the meaning of most Seminole words, but everything else was wrong. Something needs to be done about this, because archaeological papers in the Southeast continue to misinterpret Native American archaeological sites because they are relying on the bogus meanings of indigenous place names. If one is digging up a Native American town named Koweta, one is not discovering the oldest known Cherokee town. It was Creek and can’t be anything other than Creek. However, the archaeologists get away with cultural kornfuzion by quoting some noted authority figure in their profession, rather than an actual Native American language dictionary. I will be minimizing the production of articles on The Americas Revealed for a few weeks to remedy the problem by creating and publishing an etymological glossary of Native American place and town names, based solely on official dictionaries, not the speculations of academicians in the past. The booklet will be inexpensive, being quality-printed and marketed internationally by my publisher, Lulu Publishing of Cary, NC. Lulu also has printing plants scattered around the globe. I will be very frank with you. This effort will not be a conservative regression to orthodoxy. I have identified many Southeastern Native American words which mean the same as words in other parts of the globe. For example, the Panoan, South Carolina and Georgia Coastal suffix, bo, has the same meaning as the Scandinavian suffix, bo. I have already mentioned that the Gaelic suffix, ge, can be found in many American indigenous languages. This booklet will not try to explain the similarity of words in several languages on both sides of the Atlantic, but will merely state them as facts. A massive amount of multi-disciplinary research will be required to discern when the connection occurred and how it occurred. 1 Comment Leave a Reply to Patricia Lee Dansby Cancel reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:f9433482-1092-4671-82db-5865c62f3c17>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.04883432388305664, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9495496153831482, "url": "https://apalacheresearch.com/2019/12/10/coming-a-scientific-etymology-of-native-american-words-in-the-southeastern-united-states/?replytocom=147" }
Select the characteristic that best describes the design of the road on which this vehicle was traveling. Indicates whether the trafficway for this vehicle is divided and whether it serves one-way or two-way traffic. A divided trafficway is one in which roadways for travel in opposite directions are physically separated by a median. This element is used for classifying crashes as well as identifying the environment of a particular crash. It is important for guiding future trafficway design and traffic control. Code Attribute Definition Example 1 Two-Way, Not Divided This attribute is used whenever there is no median. Generally, medians are not designed to legally carry traffic. Although gores separate roadways, and traffic islands (associated with channels) separate travel lanes, neither is involved in the determination of trafficway division. 2 Two-Way, Divided, Unprotected Medium This attribute is used for two-way trafficways that are physically divided by an unprotected median (e.g., painted median > 4ft., vegetation, gravel, trees, water, embankments and ravines that separate a trafficway). Raised curbed medians do not constitute a “positive barrier” by themselves and would be included here. 3 Two-Way, Divided, Positive Medium Barrier This attribute is used whenever the traffic is physically divided and the division is protected by any concrete, metal, or other type of longitudinal barrier (i.e. all manufactured barriers). For underpass support structures and bridge rails acting as a barrier, use this attribute. “Traffic barrier” refers to a physical structure such as a guardrail, concrete safety barrier, cable barrier, or other structure designed to mitigate or prevent cross-median travel. Therefore, trees, curbing, rumble strips, drainage depressions, etc. are not considered traffic barriers. 4 One-Way, Not Divided This attribute is used whenever the trafficway is undivided and traffic flows in one direction (e.g., one-way streets). 99 Unknown If this attribute is used, an explanation in the narrative is recommended. Is a guardrail or jersey barrier considered a positive median? Accuracy Checks • If Sequence of Events indicates ‘cross median/centerline’, then the Trafficway Description should not be ‘one-way’. Data Quality Audit Results Report Type Acceptable Inconsistent Invalid Empty Local Police (electronic) 336 95.5% 11 3.1% 1 0.3% 4 1.1% Local Police (paper) 344 95.3% 6 1.7% 11 3.0% State Police (electronic) 322 96.4% 11 3.3% 1 0.3% Total 1002 95.7% 28 2.7% 1 0.1% 16 1.5%	<urn:uuid:bf4b3d14-c987-4ec1-9d23-f161c84cfd04>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.0213853120803833, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8933069109916687, "url": "https://masscrashreportmanual.com/crash/trafficway-description/" }
Similarity Algorithms Similarity algorithms Similarity algorithms evaluate how alike nodes are at an individual level based on node properties, neighboring nodes, or relationship properties. Product supported: • Node Similarity (Jaccard Index) Labs implementations: • Cosine Similarity • Euclidean Similarity • Overlap Similarity • Pearson Similarity • Approximate Nearest Neighbors Node Similarity algorithm The Node Similarity algorithm computes similarities between pairs of nodes based on the Jaccard Similarity Score. Two nodes are considered similar if they share many of the same neighbors. The input of this algorithm is usually a bipartite graph containing two disjoint node sets. The Node Similarity algorithm compares all nodes from the first node set based on their relationships to nodes in the second set. The output of the algorithm is a unipartite network between nodes in the first node set. We can think of this process as translating indirect relationships to direct ones. Mathematically, Jaccard Similarity Score is defined as the size of the intersection divided by the size of the union of two sets. Betweenness centrality Example: Node Similarity For example, if Basket A contains {Orange, Banana, Cherry} and Basket B contains {Orange, Banana, Apple,Kiwi} then the Jaccard algorithm counts 2 co-occurrences {Orange, Banana} and divides that count by the number of items in A and B (while not double-counting items), in this case 5 {Orange, Banana, Apple, Cherry, Kiwi}. The resulting Jaccard Similarity Coefficient is 2/5 which is 0.4. A coefficient of 1 indicates that the compared sets are identical. Why use Node Similarity? Here is why you use Node Similarity: • Find recommendations of similar items • First step of analyzing a bipartite network • Part of link prediction analysis Guided Exercise: Getting Started with Node Similarity algorithm Follow along with this video to become familiar with Jaccard Similarity in Neo4j NEuler. Exercise: Node Similarity 1. In NEuler: 1. Try various algorithm configurations for the Questions dataset. 2. Try other datasets. 2. In Neo4j Browser: :play 4.0-intro-graph-algos-exercises and follow the instructions for Node Similarity. Estimated time to complete: 20 minutes Check your understanding Question 1 Which Similarity algorithm is fully supported in the Graph Data Science Library? Select the correct answer. • Pearson Similarity • Euclidian Similarity • Node Similarity (Jaccard Index) • Overlap Similarity Question 2 How is the Jaccard similarity score calculated? Select the correct answer. • intersection of two sets divided by the union of sets • intersection of sets • union of sets • union of two sets divided by the intersections of sets Question 3 The Node Similarity algorithm calculates a Jaccard Index for each node. What value indicates that compared sets are identical? Select the correct answer. • 0 • 1 • 10 • 100 In this lesson you gained some experience with the Neo4j supported Node Similarity (Jaccard Index) algorithm. You can read more about this algorithm and also the alpha (labs) algorithms in the Graph Data Science documentation	<urn:uuid:bc31fc1e-e15f-495a-bced-d9385799c1fb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.1776769757270813, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8534280061721802, "url": "https://neo4j.com/graphacademy/training-iga-40/09-iga-40-similarity-algorithms/" }
The Weimar Republic’s “golden twenties”, stretching from 1923 to 1929, were characterized by economic stability and increased social order during which the liberal attitudes of the young republic blossomed. The most contested and celebrated symbol of the nation’s social revolution was the “neue Frau” (“New Woman”). With her short skirt, Bubikopf (“bobbed hair”), and cloche hat, the neue Frau freely roamed the streets of Berlin, working and socializing in department stories, coffeehouses, and the newly built movie palaces. Freedom and constant movement marked the body and fashion of the modern woman as increased visibility of women in the workplace revolutionized the image of the metropolis. By 1925 there were 1.5 million female workers in Germany, three times the amount in 1907. (1) The streets of Berlin, Munich, and Hamburg were no longer the sole domain of men, and the flood of shop-girls, stenographers, and secretaries demanded clothing “that would be both comfortable and presentable all day at the work place and that would also allow them to move around the city on foot or using public transportation.”(2) Supply went hand-in-hand with demand; although lacking the designer appeal and glamour of Parisian haute couture, the Weimar “Konfektionsware” (“ready to wear”) industry was one of the largest in Europe. Although it could not boast of employing fashion visionaries the likes of Coco Chanel, the Berlin fashion industry proudly “employed over a third of the city’s work force in the mid-1920s.”(3)German designers regularly travelled to Paris in order to view the latest fashions, which would then be mass-produced in the modern, rationalized factories of David Leib Levin, Rudolph Hertzog, or Hermann Gerson. The average woman spent 25% of her income on clothing, a staggering amount that critics viewed as a symbol of feminine frivolity and decadence. Theodor Adorno considered fashion “painfully hostile to subjective spirit” and compared it with authoritarianism. (4) Sociologist Georg Simmel focused on fashion and gender, theorizing that clothing serves as “a valve, as it were, through which women’s need for some measure of conspicuousness and individual prominence finds vent, when its satisfaction is more often denied in other spheres.” (5)For the woman working in the instable Weimar economy, however, inexpensive, mass-produced clothing was a way of overstepping class lines, and offered women the promise of social betterment. “Day-time fashion for working-class women were now much the same as those for the petit bourgeoisie,” and clothing was seen as the key to middle-class affluence. (6) Fashion was viewed as an investment in one’s future, and in the uncertain economy, a chic haircut and stunning dress could be the difference between a steady job and standing in the unemployment line: “Weimar girls, if they were to compete in the job market, had to sell themselves on their appearance. The new jobs in department stores demanded a code of dress and behavior that recognized that the girl was attracting customers based on what men felt about her rather than on the quality of her wares… she had to offer sufficient fuel for male fantasies without stepping over the mark.” (7) The ubiquitous image of the “Weimar girl” with her Eton crop hairstyle and felt hat is as much a reflection of style as it is of economic need. The felt cloche was perfect for mass-production, demanding little material or millinery work, and was therefore the choice of working women who needed a fashionable, inexpensive design. The formfitting hat called for shorter hair, which was also desirable for factory work. This simple style could be individualized with feathers, ribbon, or a brooch, allowing one hat to be altered and worn through multiple seasons. In many ways, women’s fashion can be seen as symbolic for the dreams of the Weimar Republic: mass-production and modernity with freedom and personal choice. Working women constantly searched for an aesthetic that would be stylish and modern, suited for the department store or the cabaret, and it was in the movie theatre that they found their inspiration. By 1930 there were 5,000 movie theatres in Germany, offering a variety of choices and experiences for the moviegoer. After work, a Berlin secretary could visit the “Admiralslichtspiele” movie theatre for “Ku-Ka-Ki” (“cake-coffee-cinema”), stop by a local “Kinotop” for a flick and ten-cent beer, or even enjoy the glamorous atmosphere of a Kinopalast (“movie palace”). (8)No matter the venue, Berliners found glowing images of modernity inside the movie theatre, and women used the cinema as a form of ersatz fashion-show. Women “working office jobs and in the public realm were particularly interested to know what the up-to-date fabrics, designs, and haircuts were, how make-up and lipstick were applied, and what clothes were appropriate on what occasion,” and found fashion idols in Marlene Dietrich, Brigitte Helm and Greta Garbo. (9) Clothing in Weimar cinema, however, goes far beyond simple eye-candy and aesthetic pleasure. It is a site of discourse and criticism, transforming the woman’s body and clothing into an arena for social and political tension. Just as clothing functioned as a highly refined code for working women, representation of clothing in film reflects back upon the fraught issue of women’s place in Weimar culture. Feminine consumption and display forms the basis of these films, and betrays a deep ambivalence and distrust of women’s visibility in modern culture. Asphalt (Joe May, 1929) stands at the edge of Weimar’s golden years and creates a narrative of social disruption. Taking cues from the Konfektionskomödie, which concentrates on the milieu of the department store, this film models its heroine on “the star mannequins who embodied, despite their humble backgrounds, a mixture of professional confidence and impeccable elegance, emancipated independence and irresistible eroticism.” (10) The lighthearted comedy of these earlier films, however, is replaced by a jaded cynicism towards the neue Frau and an attempt to reestablish social order. Asphalt premiered on March 11, 1929 in Berlin, at the Ufa-Palast am Zoo. Produced towards the end of the silent era, the film is a romance between Else (Betty Amann), a jewel thief, and Albert Holk (Gustva Fröhlich), a police officer. The story revolves around Else’s seduction of the young police officer, and his eventual involvement in a murder. The film begins amongst the speeding cars and traffic of the city, and montage serves to disorient the viewer while creating the impression of constant motion and confusion. We transition to the Holk family apartment, where Officer Holk Sr. (Albert Steinrück) sings to a caged canary as Frau Holk (Else Heller) serenely sips her coffee in a tableau of traditional family harmony. The camera lingers on the discarded police officer’s hat, and then moves to the hallway, where Albert adjusts his own uniform cap in a mirror and pulls on a pair of white gloves. The identical clothing of father and son reinforces the traditional nature and uniformity of the men and establishes them as the defenders of order. Back on the street, Albert directs traffic, and May provides the audience with a duplicated montage of cars, with Albert’s white-gloved hand in the center. A long shot establishes Albert standing on an island amongst cars and trolleys, creating order and directing modern machines and men. Crowds of pedestrians, both men and women, cross the street as traffic zooms past, and Albert self-importantly uses the symbols of authority, his hat and white gloves, to bring order out of chaos. Order, however, is temporary, and a series of fast cuts shows traffic picking up speed, and Albert rapidly loosing control. A young woman suddenly crashes her car into the cement island upon which Albert is standing. She wears a cloche hat adorned with a jeweled brooch and a fur coat with a full, high collar. Other drivers shout as she tries to free her car from the accident, and a cut shows us Albert’s face in close-up. He struggles to help the woman while keeping traffic moving while cars and buses pause to gawk at the accident. The lone female driver, itself a fairly novel concept, disrupts the masculine order and becomes an attraction, slowing the regular pace of the city. The implicit attraction of consumption symbolized through the car and clothing, becomes a theme throughout the film. Night falls on the city as the camera guides us past crowds of shoppers, neon signs, and massive billboards. A long shot shows a crowd of men and women gathered around a display window, with only the word “Strümpfe” (“stockings”) initially visible. The camera moves until we are directly in front of the window, in which a live model sits trying on stockings. A cut shows us a man and woman’s face in close-up as they stand before the window observing the model, and a sudden cut places us inside the display with the model, looking out on the crowd of men and women. Superficially, the scene quite literally plays out a politics of looking in which the woman is to-be-looked-at and the man is the bearer of the look: “in their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness.”(11)The window display frames woman as an erotic object, and the female shopper outside the glass assumes a masculine/active gaze when staring at the model. I would argue, however, that fashion and its connotations complicate the exchange between crowd and model. The department store is the first place in which the female gaze was granted free rein, elevating the shopper to indoor flaneuse. Especially for middle-class women, the department store allowed a measure of freedom, in which women could explore the public space without companion or chaperone and still remain inside the safe, feminine world of consumerism. The development of the display window opened the city streets to women as well: “And when the department stores turned their wares outward to the street, when the new construction techniques of reinforced concrete and plate glass enabled them to develop broad window displays…they made the streets, not just the interior of the stores, ‘safe’ for respectable women.” (12) The woman on the street looks in at the model, seeing the other woman’s body, as well as the product she sells, employing what Charlotte Herzog describes as the “critical, evaluative ‘shopper’s eye.’” (13) The fashion model in film teaches the audience inside and outside the diegesis of the film “how to transform themselves into a ‘look’ by comparison with another woman who is ‘looked at.’” (14)The shopper thus compares herself to the model in the window “from a point of comparison of her own body,” engaging the critical shopper’s eye. (15)Herzog suggests we consider this shopper’s eye as another “cinematic ‘look,’” which frees the window-shopper and model from the active/masculine, passive/feminine hierarchy of looking. (16)The reverse-shot through the plate glass towards the crowd demonstrates the model’s awareness of the crowd, and jars the viewer out of the soft-core eroticism of the stocking display. The confusion surrounding women’s sexual freedom and liberation is cleverly referenced in this shot, as the distinction between model and female observer becomes unclear. The craze for shorter skirts and increased presence of women on the streets “meant that it was difficult to tell the difference between women of different classes, and even between prostitutes and respectable women,” which disturbed bourgeoisie notions of woman- and motherhood. (17)The reverse shot questions who, exactly, is the model: the woman inside the glass, or the female crowd on the outside looking in. There lies a deep ambivalence towards the image, which is seductive, but challenges the traditional limits of public and private space. The model, “by way of selling herself,” represents “an inverted function of both ‘shopping’ and ‘working,’ the two accepted female activities in the public sphere.” (18)Women are no longer confined to the private sphere, and the department store model makes public that which is traditionally hidden from view, stretching the limits of acceptable activities. The sequence ends with the woman in the crowd falling victim to a pickpocket, illustrating the dangers of the public realm, and placing the woman in a position of helplessness. The camera fluidly leaves the shop window and travels across the street, following wandering crowds around the corner to the door of another shop: “I. Bergen: Juwelier”. Through the large window we see two men at a counter, with a young, female customer sitting before them. A cut brings us inside the store, where an older gentleman is modeling a diamond for the customer. A series of shot-reverse-shots establishes the situation, and allows the audience to enjoy the consumption on display. Extreme close-up of the diamond shows beautiful detail and unnatural sparkle, and the subsequent shot of Else, the customer, reveals high fashion costuming and flawless make-up. A pale cloche hat, improved by an almond-shaped brooch, frames large eyes that are highlighted by a smoky eye shadow, and the viewer is struck by the full fur collar and hydrangea accent on the dress. Else flirts with the jewelry store attendant, fluttering her eyelashes and looking to the side, and his smitten expression is shown in a reverse-shot. The camera cuts to behind Else, and her bare knees fill the screen as she seductively runs her umbrella against her leg. The viewer slowly realizes, however, that the display of interest and sexuality masks Else’s true intention, which is to distract the jeweler and steal a diamond. His face is again shown in close-up, entirely focused on Else’s suggestive smile, and she coyly looks away while taking the jewel. The scene appears at first to follow the traditional rules of spectatorial desire, with the image orchestrating “a gaze, a limit, and its pleasurable transgression. The woman’s beauty, her very desirability, becomes a function of certain practices of imaging- framing, lighting, camera movement, angle. She is thus, as Laura Mulvey has pointed out, more closely associated with the surface of the image than its illusory depths, its constructed 3-dimensional space which the man is destined to inhabit and hence control.” (19) It becomes apparent, however, that the woman is carefully using her femininity as a tool, maneuvering herself physically and socially in order to steal the diamond. The excess of femininity expressed in Else’s dress and mannerisms highlight the performative aspects of gender, and makes her performance a masquerade of womanhood, which “acknowledges that it is femininity itself which is constructed as a mask- as the decorative layer which conceals a non-identity.”(20)As a filmic device, masquerade denies the “over-identification” of the female subject, and “in flaunting femininity, holds it as a distance. Womanliness is a mask, which can be worn and removed. The masquerade’s resistance to patriarchal positioning would therefore lie in its denial of the production of femininity as closeness, as presence-to-itself, as, precisely, imagistic.” (21)After stealing the diamond, the camera provides a close-up of Else’s smiling face and coy glances, signaling to the viewer that such gestures are a tactic used to distract the clerk, which impresses upon us the potential power of such representations of femininity. The camera immediately follows this exchange with a cut to Albert, whose shift is ending. He is approached by a fellow officer, who wears a nearly identical uniform; the contrast between the woman’s luxurious clothing and the bland uniformity of the officers delineates between a sensual, hedonistic world of women and the ordered, militaristic world of men. The woman’s unregulated, disruptive qualities are embodied in Else’s disregard of law and order, as well as her breaking of the social norms. Else exits the store with the diamond hidden in her umbrella, but it is not long before a young clerk discovers the missing jewel and gives chase. The pair draws a crowd on the sidewalk as the clerk tries to convince Else to return to the shop. The viewer is given the perfect view to admire Else’s full ensemble, and her pale, asymmetrical dress stands in contrast to the darker fabrics favored by the observers in the crowd. Albert, seeing a commotion, pushes to the center of the crowd, using his uniform as the symbol of power that allows his claim to authority. With a sharp salute he greets Else and the clerk, and convinces her to reenter the jewelry store for questioning. The transition from street to store moves the action from interior/feminine to exterior/masculine; interestingly, for Else it is this feminine realm that poses a threat to her freedom and safety. Alfred draws her from the freedom of the streets into the claustrophobic interior space through application of masculine and civil authority, symbolized via his uniform. The group bypasses the airy showroom and passes deeper into the jewelry store, to a smaller back room. Else’s belongings are searched without revealing the diamond, and the group transitions back to the showroom. This more public space holds the potential of freedom for the woman, and the street is visible through the display windows of the shop, promising the anonymity of the public realm. Those hopes are dashed, however, when Albert discovers the diamond. Else turns from seduction to tears, demonstrating the poles of female-coded expression as masquerade serves to “double representations; it is constituted by a hyperbolisation of the accoutrements of femininity…Sylvia Bovenschen claims, “…we are watching a woman demonstrate the representation of a woman’s body.’’ (22)An abrupt cut shows the front of the jewelry store, where a crowd has gathered and is gazing eagerly at the drama developing inside the shop. The cluster of men and women at the window and high camera angle reflects the earlier sequence with the stockings model, and visually links the two scenes through their identical staging and camerawork. Like the model, Else sells her looks and body to evade capture, assuming a mask of femininity that becomes spectacle and excites a crowd. The camera peers over the heads of the bystanders and through the door of the shop, turning the power of the gaze on the woman. The viewer becomes aligned with the crowd in the voyeuristic experience, and the hungry looks of the diegetic crowd mirror that of the audience in the movie theatre. The look strips Else of her freedom of movement, and a cut shows her exiting the building through a narrow opening in the crowd and stepping into a taxi with Albert. He has taken possession of the woman’s body by taking her into custody, and the camera becomes equally constrained, shooting inside the claustrophobic space of the taxi. The openness of the city street and the large plate glass windows that marked the earlier sequences of the film are replaced by constraint and narrowed field of vision. The camera is placed opposite Else and Albert, and a medium shot shows Else filling the majority of the frame, while only Albert’s hand and leg visible to the right. The camera slowly tracks in to show Else’s crying face in close-up, and a series of reverse shots sees Albert ignoring her distress. Else asks him for a fresh handkerchief, and she soon moves closer to him, gripping the collar of his jacket, requesting leniency. We see Else’s profile from Albert’s perspective in close-up, with her beauty on display for the male’s gaze. At the police station, however, Else flings herself on Albert, sobbing and asking to at least be allowed to return home and collect her papers: “You can come up with me!” Albert reluctantly agrees, and as he looks away, Else quickly powders her nose, preparing for the seduction that is to come. The desperation and tears function as a mask which allows her to bypass social rules, and she switches with ease from the figure of sobbing innocent to smoldering temptress; “this type of masquerade, an excess of femininity, is aligned with the femme fatale …‘It is this evil which scandalizes whenever woman plays out her sex in order to evade the word and the law. Each time she subverts a law or a word which relies on the predominately masculine structure of the look. By destabilizing the image, the masquerade confounds this masculine structure of the look.’” (23) Else uses femininity as a tool, carefully gauging Albert’s reaction to her display, and “does” gender in the name of personal interest. She literally paints on a mask with makeup, crafting her image and directing the gaze. Else evades the law through her sexual allure and destabilizes the social order by removing Albert, the symbol of paternal righteousness, from his place of power. The Weimar Republic was a potent combination of social disorder and liberalism, where economic strains, the shadow of war, and newfound artistic freedoms birthed a country torn between dueling desires. Asphalt, filmed four years before the National Socialist ascent to power, enacts these strains through its portrayal of femininity. In this “Oberflächekultur” (surface culture) clothing becomes a potential battleground upon which dueling pressures find expression and women’s position in society is contested. The neue Frau, with her thin, athletic body and modern fashion, comes to symbolize the “tension between nurturing, motherly women who could heal, and nasty, sterile sexual beings who were both the cause and symptom of Germany’s destruction.” (24) The cinema projects this conflict on the big screen, creating fashionable characters that arouse admiration and desire, and simultaneously create chaos, disorder, and destruction. Else’s crime is not the theft, but rather her masquerade of femininity and displacement of the look. Her arrest attempts to restore the social order and reinforce masculine power structures, yet the image of the independent femme fatale remains long after the lights have come up and the illusions are over. 1. Frevert, Ute. Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation. Trans. Stuart McKinnon-Evans. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1990. p.36 2. Ganeva, Mila. “Weimar Film as Fashion Show: Konfektionskomödien or Fashion Farces from Lubitsch to the End of the Silent Era.” German Studies Review 30.2 (2007): 288-310. 3. Ibid., 293 4. Adorno, T.W. Aesthetic Theory. Trans. C. Lenhardt. London: Routledge, 1970. p. 435-437. 5. Simmel, Georg. “”Adornment”” The Rise of Fashion: a Reader. Ed. Daniel L. Purdy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2004. 79-86. 6. Sharp, Ingrid. “Riding the Tiger: Ambivalent Images of the New Woman in the Popular Press of the Weimar Republic.” New Woman Hybridities: Femininity, Feminism and International Consumer Culture, 1880-1930. Ed. Ann Heilmann and Margaret Beetham. London: Routledge, 2004. p. 119 7. Ibid., 132 8. Flickinger, Brigitte. “Cinemas in the City: Berlin’s Public Space in the 1910s and 1920s.” Film Studies 10 (2007): 72-86. 9. Ganeva, 293 10. Ibid., 301 11. Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Critical Visions in Film Theory: Classic and Contemporary Readings. Ed. Timothy Corrigan, Patricia White, and Meta Mazaj. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2011. p. 719 12. Weitz, Eric D. Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2007. p. 56 13. Herzog, Charlotte. “”Powder Puff” Promotions: The Fashion Show-in-the-Film.” Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body. Ed. Jane Gaines and Charlotte Herzog. New York: Routledge, 1990. p. 150 14. Ibid., 158 15. Ibid., 158 16. Ibid., 158 17. Sharp, 119 18. Gleber, Anke. The Art of Taking a Walk: Flanerie, Literature, and Film in Weimar Culture. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1998. p. 79 19. Doane, Mary Ann. “Film and the Masquerade: Theorising the Female Spectator.” Feminist Film Theory: a Reader. Ed. Sue Thornham. New York: New York UP, 1999. p. 138 20. Ibid., 138 21. Ibid., 138 22. Ibid., 139 23. Ibid., 139 24. Sharp, 120	<urn:uuid:2609fd41-720c-4f52-9d8f-7cbae6ca7597>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.04254710674285889, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9431158900260925, "url": "https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2011/feature-articles/she-works-hard-for-the-money-women-and-fashion-in-weimar-cinema/" }
Frequent question: What is the 5th Pan African Congress? When was the 5th Pan African Congress? What was the purpose of the Pan African Congress? It was held adjacent to the Paris Peace Conference, the meeting convened to create a lasting peace following the Great War. The Pan-African Congress attempted to secure a place for peoples of African descent within the new world order. Where did the 6th Pan African Congress held? The Sixth Pan African Congress is being held in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, East Africa, on June 3-13, 1974. Its sponsores include Mwalimu Julius K. IT IS INTERESTING: Has South Africa improved since 1994? What was the Pan African league? Why was this meeting called the Fifth Pan-African Congress? ‘ The ‘Declaration to the Colonial Workers, Farmers and Intellectuals’ made it clear that the African masses would lead their own liberation: ‘The Fifth Pan-African Congress therefore calls on the workers and farmers of the Colonies to organise effectively. Who founded the Pan-African Congress? Pan Africanist Congress of Azania Founder Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe Founded 6 April 1959 Split from African National Congress Headquarters 2nd Floor, The Main Change Bld, 20 Kruger Street, Johannesburg, Gauteng What is Pan Africanism and why was it important? Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous and diaspora ethnic groups of African descent. … Based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, and political progress and aims to “unify and uplift” people of African descent. What does Pan Africanism stand for? How many Pan-African Congress meetings were there? The Pan-African Congress – following on from the first Pan-African Conference of 1900 in London – was a series of eight meetings, held in 1919 in Paris (1st Pan-African Congress), 1921 in London (2nd Pan-African Congress), 1923 in London (3rd Pan-African Congress), 1927 in New York City (4th Pan-African Congress), 1945 … IT IS INTERESTING: You asked: How did slavery affect relations among African states? Why was the 1919 Pan-African Conference held in Paris? The first ever Pan-African Conference was held in Paris 100 years ago to demand freedom for Africa’s colonies and a greater voice for Africans worldwide. Who went to the Pan-African Conference of 1900? Organised primarily by the Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams, it took place in Westminster Town Hall (now Caxton Hall) and was attended by 37 delegates and about 10 other participants and observers from Africa, the West Indies, the US and the UK, including Samuel Coleridge Taylor (the youngest delegate), … Who was the Organiser of the first Pan-African Conference? On 23rd – 25th July 1900, London held the first ever Pan-African Conference, which was organised by a barrister named Henry Sylvester Williams, of Trinidadian descent. What is African ideology? Key ideologies discussed include African Abolitionism and anti-colonialism, African Socialism and Marxism, the Non-Aligned Movement, Negritude, ujamaa, ubuntu, African feminism, environmentalism, and postcolonialism. How did Pan-Africanism affect the world? What is an example of Pan-Africanism? IT IS INTERESTING: What are Africa's 5 ecosystems? Hai Afrika!	<urn:uuid:dc09d01b-f470-486c-a846-cd11cc07658a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.86384516954422, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9498574733734131, "url": "https://haiafrika.com/about-africa/frequent-question-what-is-the-5th-pan-african-congress.html" }
Prohibition in USA The whole doc is available only for registered users OPEN DOC Order Now Throughout the nineteenth century, two Temperance movements, the Anti-Saloon League and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union were very prominent in their attempt to make known their views. They believed that alcohol was pure evil and campaigned endlessly to pressure the Congress to ban it. They believed that it ruined family life because it took fathers away from their homes and it wasted the wages he earned, leaving the rest of the family poor and hungry. One thing that aided the fight they were caught up in was the propaganda posters that they produced and put up everywhere. Sources C and D are very typical of the Prohibition period and both have underlying messages that were very important then. The two sources were pre-Prohibition, being produced in 1910 and 1915 respectively. Source C shows a man at a bar, buying a drink, with other men in the background playing cards and a bartender who looks happy. The corner shows a family of a mother and children, which could be his, or a generic family, who seem to be hungry and poor. The man is handing over his week’s wages and the bartender has his hand straight into the cash drawer, representing the fact that he was almost ‘wasting’ his money. The other men in the background are sitting around a table, drinking and playing cards. It can be assumed that they are gambling, which was seen as evil. The man is handing over a bag of money, labelled “Week’s Wages” which shows that he is spending all of the money the family is receiving. The bartender is smiling as he is being given lots of money and he has his hand in the cash drawer, showing that the money changes hands straight away. The men in the background are gambling and playing cards, which was seen as extremely evil at the time. The family in the corner are seen to be seated around an empty table and the child is holding up an empty frying pan. This shows that they seem to be hungry and possibly poor. This could be the family of the man, or it could be representing a generic family, as this situation was very common with many families. The caption at the top of the cartoon says “The Poor Man’s Club, The most expensive to belong to. ” This is a pun on the phrase “Gentleman’s Club” in which men paid the dues, to belong to the club. They were considered as the upper class and although it was expensive, belonging to the club meant that you were respected. The next caption then says “A club member in good standing, paying his dues”. This draws on the fact that the man we see is a regular attendee at the bar and so could be considers a ‘club member’. As he is handing over money to the bartender, he is almost paying his dues towards the ‘club’ he is unfortunately a part of. It also states that he has to pay dearly to ‘belong’ to this bar and this means that he is paying for his drink with money that should’ve been spent on his family. The other says “Slaves of the Saloon”, which is very true as the man is obviously a regular attendee at the bar and so has become addicted to alcohol, causing him to become enslaved to drinking. This leaves his family poor as they are indirectly also slaves to alcohol. I believe that the artist’s view is that alcohol can be seen as evil as it draws men into a sinful, wasteful life. The artist believes that bars have become clubs to which people will become poor because of alcohol. Because of the image of the poor and hungry family in the corner, it can be supposed that the artist sympathises with the families of men who drink. It shows that alcohol was thought of as “one of the great evils of the times” (Source B). I know that temperance movements such as the Anti-Saloon League and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union believed that alcohol was evil and ruined family life. It kept families poor and corrupted morals. This is reflected in the cartoon, so it may be probable that it was produced by one of these two temperance groups. Source D shows a girl and small boy, standing outside a saloon door. They are looking fairly sad and alone, are wearing old clothes and have no adult looking after them. The background shows a saloon door, and behind the door, all is dark. This could represent the fact that saloons were seen as evil and dark. The two children are looking very sad and forlorn. They are standing outside the saloon door and are obviously slightly scared of it, which is not surprising as many of the men who would’ve passed through that door would’ve been drunk. In the carton, the door to the saloon is shown as dark and ‘scary’. The caption at the top of the cartoon says “Daddy’s in There… ” This is obviously referring to the fact that the children’s father has gone into the Saloon and so has left them alone outside. The other caption says “And our shoes and stockings and food are in the saloon too, and they’ll never come out”. This is clearly not literal, but it means that the money that the father could have spent on clothes and food for his children has been wasted on alcohol. These items are the essentials for life for these two children and without them, life is not the same. The father has wasted a lot of money on ‘useless’ alcohol which doesn’t last long, when he should’ve bought things that were useful for his two children. I believe that the artist commiserates with the two children and also believes that saloons are evil and dark. It can be assumed that the artist is against alcohol and believes that it produces evil in families and leaves many women and children poor, hungry and without the basic essentials of life. I know that family life was held very highly by temperance movements such as the Anti-Saloon League and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, who believed that alcohol was evil and ruined family relationships. It kept families poor and directly hit children hard. Supporters of Prohibition, known as dries, claimed that “3000 infants are smothered yearly in bed, by drunken parents. This is reflected in the cartoon, so it may be probable that it was produced by one of these two temperance movements. In conclusion, I believe that the artists for both Sources C and D were supporting Prohibition and I think that both cartoons may have been produced by temperance movement groups such as the Anti-Saloon league and the Women’s Christian Union. Both cartons represent alcohol in a bad light and show the disastrous effects that it can have on families and children. Propaganda posters like this were used by temperance unions to persuade the public and to bring pressure to Congress to ban the sale, manufacture and transport of alcohol. Related Topics We can write a custom essay According to Your Specific Requirements Order an essay Get Access To The Full Essay Materials Daily 100,000+ Subjects 2000+ Topics Free Plagiarism All Materials are Cataloged Well Sorry, but only registered users have full access How about getting this access Become a member Your Answer Is Very Helpful For Us Thank You A Lot! Emma Taylor Hi there! Would you like to get such a paper? How about getting a customized one? Can't find What you were Looking for? Get access to our huge, continuously updated knowledge base The next update will be in: 14 : 59 : 59 Become a Member	<urn:uuid:f3e33a9e-29b5-4725-b149-6b726d9d9475>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.033519625663757324, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9848116636276245, "url": "https://blablawriting.net/prohibition-in-usa-essay" }
What are macros? Definition and examples In computing and word processing, macros are keystroke instructions that can perform specific tasks. We also create macros to represent equations, characters that our keyboard does not have, or retrieve documents we use often. In photography, the term is short for macro lense. We use a macro lens for taking close-up photographs. In economics and sociology, macro means overall or large scale, as in ‘macroeconomics’ or ‘at the macro level sociologically (overall level, large-scale level).’ Macroeconomics is a branch of economics that focuses on general or large-scale economic factors. Interest rates, unemployment, and inflation, for example, are macroeconomic factors. It contrasts with microeconomics, which is the study of the economic behavior of individual units of an economy, such as a person, household, or company. The term can also mean macronutrients. Fats, carbohydrates, and proteins are the three essential macronutrients. They have their own specific functions in the body and supply us with calories and material for repairing and creating tissue. In nutrition, macronutrients contrast with micros (micronutrients). Vitamins and minerals, for example, are micronutrients. Macros image 4334433 This image shows a macro for parsing a person’s name and address. Macros – series of keystrokes In computing, a macro is at least one keystroke which represents an action, series of actions, one or more keystrokes, or mouse clicks. I can use control-function keys, for example, to open my most used documents. Alternatively, I can use control-letter keys and the Insert Text action to type in a text automatically. This text might be my name, address, email, and phone number. Microsoft.com has the following definition of the term: “Macros are sequences of actions (such as keystrokes, mouse clicks, and delays) that can be played back to help with repetitive tasks.” “They can also be used to replay sequences that are long or difficult to run. You can assign a macro recorded in Microsoft Mouse and Keyboard Center to a key or a mouse button. You can also use the Macro Repeat feature to play and repeat a macro continuously, and then stop it at any time.” A macro is, in fact, a tiny but complete computer program. The ones most of us are familiar with are generated with an application program such as a word processor. According to Wikipedia: “Keyboard macros and mouse macros allow short sequences of keystrokes and mouse actions to transform into other, usually more time-consuming, sequences of keystrokes and mouse actions.”	<urn:uuid:799ac71b-61e5-4df6-a33b-68ffb11b80f3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.3279452323913574, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9307444095611572, "url": "https://marketbusinessnews.com/financial-glossary/macros/" }
Habitat Hunt Miss Brown set Forms 1 and 2 the task of finding five different mini beasts in the School’s woodland for their Thursday afternoon Science lesson! On a sheet of paper were 3 columns where pupils had to find and draw a creature and write down where they had found it. Henry found a slug under a wooden crate; Isobel found a ladybird on a tree; and William found a spider hiding under a log. Using magnifying glasses, pupils got a closer look at the creatures so they could draw the tiny woodlice and mini slugs accurately. The lesson tested their focus and gave pupils the opportunity to explore and be inquisitive as they turned over stones and looked under logs. The children also had a chance to practice their vocabulary by describing the habitat with up to 5 different words. Freddie said that under the stone looked ‘wet’ and ‘slimy’. Amelia said that the woodlouse’s habitat was ‘muddy’. Outdoor learning plays a big part of the Ghyll Royd curriculum. We view the outdoors as an extension of our classroom and try to take core lessons into our woodland areas as much as possible. Outdoor learning have proven to enhance personal and social communication skills; increase physical and mental health; and enrich the senses and a child’s environmental awareness.	<urn:uuid:72875b26-7431-4feb-bf22-d408f6f74e11>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.0521121621131897, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9624369740486145, "url": "https://www.ghyllroydschool.co.uk/2018/01/12/habitat-hunt/" }
Solar sail According to Orllensa, the first human pioneers in space travel used solar sails. This technology picked up light energy from nearby stars. A ship travelling by solar sail moved faster as it approached a source of sunlight, artificial or otherwise. (AUDIO: Embrace the Darkness) The Solarians also used solar sails in their spacecraft. Their ships reminded Charley Pollard of sail boats. The Cimmerian shut out all light, and eventually adapted to darkness, in order to protect themselves from the hostile Solarians. (AUDIO: Embrace the Darkness) R1C, a Minyan spaceship, had a solar sail. (TV: Underworld)	<urn:uuid:43e084a9-748f-42e6-8446-8e5310f8c416>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.4960784316062927, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9113637208938599, "url": "https://tardis.fandom.com/wiki/Solar_sail" }
Sphalerite and Chalcopyrite Structure Sphalerite (ZnS) is one of a number of minerals whose structure is based on inscribing tetrahedra in a face-centered cube. In sphalerite, we have a face-centered cubic arrangement of sulfur (yellow) and zinc in the center of each tetrahedron (purple). At left is the structure illustrating the relationship to the tetrahedra. At right is the unit cell. Zinc atoms hidden behind sulfur atoms are shown in a lighter shade. Is this really ZnS? We have four zinc atoms entirely within the unit cell. We have eight corner sulfur atoms, but they are shared among eight unit cells. There are six sulfur atoms in the centers of the faces, but they are each shared with a neighboring cell. So we have 8 x 1/8 + 6 x 1/2 = 4 sulfur atoms. There are an equal number of zincs and sulfur. Chalcopyrite has a very similar structure to sphalerite. Cells with iron atoms (orange) alternate with cells containing copper (blue). This double cell means chalcopyrite is tetragonal, but the fact that the unit cell consists of two cubes means chalcopyrite mimics cubic forms very often. In particular it can occur as pseudo-tetrahedra (actually tetragonal disphenoids, but they look exactly like tetrahedra.) Return to Mineralogy-Petrology Index Return to Professor Dutch's Home Page Created 22 February, 2001, Last Update 31 May 2020	<urn:uuid:37555f6c-dad6-4843-9c44-db3271487166>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.02370530366897583, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9236441254615784, "url": "https://stevedutch.net/petrology/sphal-chalc%20structure.htm" }
What is the meaning of "hear for blocks" in the following sentences, Hoeny is the name of the alligator. Well, it had to happen. One day, Justin's mother went into the bathroom. Honey grinned at her in a friendly way. She let out a yell you could hear for blocks. Soon after that, Honey had to go to the zoo. (source: Justin's Alligator by Sandra Widener) If you yell so loud that people can hear you for miles, it means that you're yelling so loudly that it can be heard at a distance a few miles long. In your example, instead of miles, they just use blocks as a unit of distance. A block is typically defined as a group of buildings bounded by four streets. So, a yell that can be heard for blocks means a yell that can be heard a few streets away from the point of its origin. All this is figurative language, of course. The idea here is that the yell was so loud that people out on the streets could hear it. Your Answer	<urn:uuid:ee678fc3-9987-4c80-be35-578b66af1b93>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.9987971186637878, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.980116069316864, "url": "https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/168303/what-is-the-meaning-of-hear-for-blocks-in-the-following-sentences/168304" }
Many important insights in biology have been gained through the study of anomalous, or so-called ‘freak’, animals. An early example of the quest to reconcile such mutants is William Bateson's 1894 book Materials for the Study of Variation. In this imposing 600 page tome, Bateson argues that biological variation is not necessarily continuous, but can sometimes occur through sudden leaps. This argument was in contrast to Darwin's theory of gradualism, which posits that evolution acts through the incremental accumulation of minor random changes. Bateson points out that small variations within development are more likely to have a drastic impact on adult traits, and thus large changes can occur even within a single generation. He includes hand-drawn illustrations and dense descriptions of many anatomical abnormalities, from a human female with a pair of ears on her neck to a trout with a ‘bull-dog head’. In addition to providing tattoo designs for future generations of hipsters, Bateson's extensive catalogue of eccentric creatures laid the foundation for the concept of the ‘hopeful monster’ – that very rarely, genetic mutations will produce freaks with a unique competitive advantage. The hypothetical image of a web-footed frog out-swimming its conventionally toed siblings provides an evocative, though perhaps improbable, example of Bateson's discontinuous evolution. In the anecdotal tradition of William Bateson, a recent paper from Gerhard Scholtz and colleagues describes an anomalous crab with an immoderate number of eyes and antennae. Co-author Stephen Moore discovered the freak crab specimen, a member of the species Amarinus lacustris, in the Hoteo River of New Zealand's North Island. Amarinus lacustris are adorable little crabs, each about the size of a raisin, that live in freshwater and estuarine waters throughout New Zealand and in parts of Australia. This particular mutant crab possessed three eyes positioned in a horizontal row, a doubling of the carapace region in front of the eyes (the rostrum), and an aberrant antenna on top of its head. The authors studied their unusual specimen through histology and 3D reconstruction of the crab's nervous system. They found that axons from the supernumerary eye successfully innervated the brain, suggesting that the third eye was functional. However, the extra antenna did not appear to connect with the brain, indicating that it was not operational. Finally, the neuroanatomical reconstruction revealed that the crab's brain was abnormally shaped, perhaps due to its juvenile state or possibly as a result of the same factors that produced its bizarre external morphology. Anatomical malformations can be produced by environmental conditions that influence developmental processes, or through mutations in the genes that control development (or some combination of environmental and genetic factors). Scholtz and colleagues conjecture that the extra eye and antenna may have arisen through a duplication of the embryonic head, as occurs in conjoined twins. Crabs regenerate their eyes if they are damaged, and, under some circumstances, this regeneration can erroneously produce an antenna instead of an eye. Thus, the antenna may have originated from a regeneration event gone awry. Was this three-eyed crab a hopeful monster? Because the crab was dissected before it could procreate in the lab, we will likely never know whether its unusual traits were heritable. But regardless of whether or not the three-eyed body plan had a promising future, such anomalous individuals continue to provide an important substrate for imaginative speculation about an animal's life history, development and evolution. P. K. A crab with three eyes, two rostra, and a dorsal antenna-like structure Arthropod Struct. Dev.	<urn:uuid:44f0a26b-e227-40e3-addc-24c1e9d1d2d0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.08115476369857788, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9390604496002197, "url": "https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article-split/217/15/2625/12182/Deep-appreciation-for-a-freakish-crab" }
Testis and epididymis: want to learn more about it? What do you prefer to learn with? Testis and epididymis Learning objectives This study unit will equip you to: 1. Discuss the gross anatomy of the testis and epididymis, including their connective tissue coverings. 2. Provide a brief understanding of the function of each part. 3. Describe the neurovasculature of and lymphatic drainage from the testes. Watch video The testes (sing. testis) are the male gonads which are composed of lobules containing convoluted seminiferous tubules, where sperm production (spermatogenesis) occurs. Supporting cells with the testes secrete hormones, primarily androgens such as testosterone. The testes reside within connective tissue layers known as the tunica albuginea and tunica vaginalis which are further enveloped by the layers of the spermatic cord. Efferent ductules from the testis join to form the epididymis (pl. epididymides). These ductules unite within the head and body of the epididymis to form a single duct in the tail of the epididymis before becoming the ductus (or vas) deferens. Within the lumens of the ductules in the epididymis, sperm maturation is completed, although they remain immotile. The following video will go into more detail about the external and internal structure of the testis and epididymis. Take a quiz Now turn that information into knowledge by taking a quiz! Feeling full of knowledge? Push yourself with a custom quiz! Browse atlas Review individual structures in the atlas: Key points about testis and epididymis Testis Contents: Lobules, septa, mediastinum of testis, seminiferous tubules (convoluted/straight), rete testis, efferent ductules. Tunica vaginalis (composed of parietal and visceral layers), tunica albuginea, tunica vasculosa. Production of sperm, hormone production and secretion. Epididymis Location: Overlies superoposterior aspect of testis. Formed by efferent ductules from testis → join together in head and body → become single duct in tail → continues as ductus deferens. Maturation of sperm. Well done! Related articles Continue your learning Continue your learning by looking through the microscope at the histology of the testis and epididymis in the study units below! Register now and grab your free ultimate anatomy study guide!	<urn:uuid:223d7bfb-075a-4c62-bac0-4af0937e845d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.04437577724456787, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8566223978996277, "url": "https://www.kenhub.com/en/study/anatomy-testis-and-epididymis" }
0% Interest for 36 Months! Learn more » (800) 222-4700 • Español: (800) 222-4701 Presidents' Day Sale! Ends Today Diffusion is the process of spreading or dispersing radiated energy so it is less direct or coherent. A Diffuser is a device that does this. The plastic covers over fluorescent lights in many office environments are diffusers. They make the light spread out in a more randomized way so it is less harsh. In audio, diffusion is a characteristic of any enclosed (or partially enclosed) space. It is caused by sound waves reflecting off of many complex surfaces. For example, a flat concrete wall produces a pretty distinct echo when sound reflects off of it. However a brick wall, while still pretty reflective, tends to diffuse the sound reflections and produces a much less distinct echo. This is due to both the surface of the brick itself and the mortar between the bricks (more specifically the edge diffraction of the joint between the two). All surfaces will of course differ and it is usually a variety of surfaces that create the most randomized diffusion of sound. Diffusion is a very important consideration in acoustics because it minimizes coherent reflections that cause problems. It also tends to make an enclosed space sound larger than it is. Diffusion is an excellent alternative or complement to absorption in acoustic treatment because it doesn’t really remove much energy, which means it can be used to effectively reduce reflections while still leaving an ambient or live sounding space. Share this Article	<urn:uuid:01ed33a7-b6bc-4216-97e1-372af733e3b7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.7570260167121887, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9152843356132507, "url": "https://www.sweetwater.com/insync/diffusion-diffuser/" }
Definition of the Scottish National Party noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary the Scottish National Party ; NAmE [singular + singular or plural verb] (abbreviation SNP) jump to other results a Scottish political party which wants Scotland to be an independent nation Culture The SNP was formed in 1934 and its aim is to achieve independent government for Scotland (not simply a separate Scottish parliament within the UK). Its leader since 2004 has been Alex Salmond, who also led the party between 1990 and 2000. In the election of 2007 it won power in the Scottish Parliament, becoming the official party of government. The SNP succeeded in obtaining a referendum in 2014 asking the people of Scotland whether they wanted Scotland to become an independent country. The result was that the people chose to remain part of the United Kingdom.	<urn:uuid:894804d4-58a7-4ead-a2e5-05f5eae2b2b2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.07597470283508301, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9555082321166992, "url": "http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/the-scottish-national-party" }
Themes and Meanings (Critical Guide to Poetry for Students) The theme of the poem is clearly specified and underlined throughout, namely “the dead.” By this syntagma the poet means primarily his parents and other departed relatives or friends. Later in his career, Wright embarked upon a related topic when—in six numbered, separate poems bearing the generic title “The Appalachian Book of the Dead”—he tackled a mythology of death and dying. What is less clear, and of no little consequence to the understanding of “Homage to Paul Cézanne,” is the relation between the topic and the poem’s title. Paul Cézanne was the towering figure of modernity at the turn of the twentieth century. Both cubism, exemplified by Pablo Picasso, and Fauvism, by Henri Matisse, sprang from him. His characters, landscapes, and still lifes yield an overpowering sense of reality. At the same time, one of his chief concerns was to establish a parallel between the harmony at work in nature and the one inherent in his art. Wright’s insight was that the dead daily imbue reality with their presence as, for instance, the color blue, which was used in everything Cézanne painted. This is particularly visible in the later landscapes, including the series of sixty works dedicated to Mont Sainte-Victoire, which dominates the sights at Aix-en-Provence, a historical and cultural region in southern France. The American critic and novelist William Gass, in his essay “On Being Blue: A Philosophical Inquiry” (1975),... (The entire section is 513 words.)	<urn:uuid:42fc5069-d33c-440d-b1b9-2dc43cfa7c4a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.09149408340454102, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9631553888320923, "url": "https://www.enotes.com/topics/homage-paul-cezanne/themes" }
Fluorine Facts Fluorine Facts Fluorine (F) has an atomic number of nine, and is the most reactive and electronegative of all the elements. This non-metallic element is a pale yellow gas is a member of the halogen group. Interesting Fluorine Facts: orge Gore seems to be the first scientist to isolate fluorine, but his experiment exploded when the fluorine that was produced reacted with hydrogen. In 1906, Ferdinand Frederic Henri Moisson was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work isolating fluorine in 1886. It is difficult to store fluorine as it is corrosive to most metals. Fluorine is the lightest of the halogens and has only one stable isotope, F-19. It is the most electronegative element on Earth. Fluorine is the thirteenth most abundant element in the Earth's crust. The crust contains between 600 and 700 parts per million of fluorine. It is usually only found in compounds due to its high level of reactivity. Its most important mineral is fluorite, used as early as 1530 in smelting processes. Its name comes from the source mineral, fluorite. The dangerous nature of producing elemental fluorine keeps it in its more viable form, hydrofluoric acid, which is a $16 billion per year industry. Fluorine is gaseous at room temperature, and its pale yellow color can only be viewed when looking down at it through a test tube; from the side, it is colorless. It condenses to a bright yellow liquid at -188 °C (-307 °F). Reactions with elemental fluorine can be very explosive without warning. Fluorine is rare in the universe, at only 400 parts per billion. Any fluorine created in stars quickly breaks down through nuclear fusion with hydrogen to produce helium and oxygen or with helium to make neon and hydrogen. Fluorite mining produces approximately 4.5 million tons of the mineral per year which can be used for commercial fluorine purposes. One form of fluorine used commercially is fluroide, which is applied as a treatment for dental health and added to water supplies in many places to increase tooth strength. Fluorocarbons are produced as industrial coolants and propellants. Fluoropolymers, whose most widely known brand name is Teflon, are produced in nearly 180,000 metric tons annually. Related Links: Periodic Table Facts Animals Facts Educational Videos	<urn:uuid:3d1ff074-2518-4fba-b231-e906f448efb7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.11351925134658813, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9456128478050232, "url": "http://www.softschools.com/facts/periodic_table/fluorine_facts/179/" }
The Reagan Administration The Reagan Administration Learning Objectives Compare and contrast the policies of President Reagan and those of President Carter. Key Takeaways Key Points • Reagan made the transition from an acting career to a career as a politician in the 1950s, following a job as the spokesperson for General Electric. • Reagan came to national political prominence with an influential speech on behalf of Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater in 1964, winning election as Governor of California in 1966 and 1970. • After failing to win the nomination as Republican presidential candidate in 1968 and 1976, Reagan was elected President of the United States in 1980 and 1984. • As president, Reagan’s domestic policy involved lowering taxes to stimulate growth, anti-inflationary monetary policy, deregulation of the economy, and reducing government spending. • Reagan’s foreign policy took a hard anti-communist line, aiding anti-communist movements around the world, describing the Soviet Union as the “evil empire,” and engaging in an arms race. • Reagan’s presidency is credited with generating an ideological renaissance among American conservatives, although some of his policies also receive strong criticism. Key Terms • détente: A term often used in reference to the general easing of the geo-political tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States, beginning in 1969 as a foreign policy of U.S. Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. • Reaganomics: The economic ideas and policies of American President Ronald Reagan and his two administrations (1981-1989). • Mikhail Gorbachev: A former Soviet statesman, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991. • deregulation: The process of removing constraints, especially government-imposed economic constraints. Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911-June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989. Prior to that, he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975, and a radio, film, and television actor. Born in Tampico, Illinois, and raised in Dixon, Reagan was educated at Eureka College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology. After his graduation, Reagan moved first to Iowa to work as a radio broadcaster, and then to Los Angeles in 1937, where he began a career as an actor— first in films and later in television. Some of his most notable films include Knute Rockne, All American, Kings Row, and Bedtime for Bonzo. Reagan served as president of the Screen Actors Guild and later as a spokesman for General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, his positions began shifting rightward in the late 1950s, and he switched to the Republican party in 1962. After delivering a rousing speech in support of Barry Goldwater’s presidential candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to seek the California governorship, winning two years later and again in 1970. He was defeated in his run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but won both the nomination and general election in 1980, defeating incumbent President Jimmy Carter. Presidential Legacy As president, Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives. His supply-side economic policies, dubbed “Reaganomics,” advocated reducing tax rates to spur economic growth, controlling the money supply to reduce inflation, deregulating the economy, and reducing government spending. In his first term in office, Reagan survived an assassination attempt, took a hard line against labor unions, and ordered an invasion of Grenada. He was reelected in a landslide in 1984, proclaiming that it was “Morning in America.” Reagan’s second term was primarily marked by foreign matters, such as the ending of the Cold War, the 1986 bombing of Libya, and the revelation of the Iran-Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an “evil empire,” he supported anti-communist movements worldwide and spent his first term forgoing the strategy of détente by ordering a massive military buildup in an arms race with the Soviet Union. Reagan later negotiated with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, culminating in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty and the decrease of both countries’ nuclear arsenals. Gorbachev’s attempts at reform, as well as summit conferences with U.S. President Ronald Reagan and his reorientation of Soviet strategic aims, contributed to the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Reagan left office in 1989. In 1994, the former president disclosed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease earlier in the year; he died ten years later at the age of 93. His presidency is credited for generating an ideological renaissance on the American political right. An album jacket shows a photograph of a smiling Ronald Reagan in a relaxed pose. Beside him are the words "RONALD REAGAN speaks out against SOCIALIZED MEDICINE." Reagan’s stance on Socialism: In 1961, when Congress began to explore nationwide health insurance for the elderly under Social Security, Reagan made a recording for the American Medical Association in which he denounced the idea (which was later adopted as Medicare) as “socialized medicine.” Such a program, Reagan warned his listeners, was the first step to the nation’s demise as a free society. The Election of 1980 In the election of 1980, Republicans won the presidency, control of the Senate, and 34 seats in the House of Representatives. Learning Objectives Assess Reagan’s victory in the election of 1980 Key Takeaways Key Points • Although incumbent President Jimmy Carter led Reagan in the polls in late October, Reagan ultimately won 50.7% of the popular vote to Carter’s 41%. • The election of 1980 followed a period of economic problems, including low economic growth, high inflation and interest rates, and energy shortages. • Reagan nominated his chief rival in the Republican primaries, George H.W. Bush, as his running mate, despite initial interest in former President Gerald Ford as a running mate. • In the 1980 campaign, Reagan articulated his supply-side economics vision and his goal of inciting an economic revival by cutting taxes and government spending. • Reagan was strongly supported by a growing group of white, conservative, and very wealthy Americans, who emerged in the wake of the social reforms and cultural changes of the 1960s and 1970s. Key Terms • George H. W. Bush: An American politician who served as the 41st President of the United States (1989-1993); he had previously served as the 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981-1989), a congressman, an ambassador, and a Director of Central Intelligence. The 1980 presidential campaigns of both Republican Ronald Reagan, and incumbent Democratic President Jimmy Carter, were conducted during times of great domestic concern—times that also included the ongoing Iranian hostage crisis. Reagan’s campaign emphasized many of his fundamental principles: lowering taxes to stimulate the economy, reducing government interference in people’s lives, strengthening states’ rights, building up the national defense, and restoring the U.S. Dollar to a gold standard. Reagan’s Campaign After receiving the Republican nomination, Reagan selected George H.W. Bush, one of his primary opponents, to be his running mate. During the presidential campaign, reporters posed questions to Reagan about his stance on the Briggs Initiative (also known as Proposition 6), a ballot initiative in Reagan’s home state of California that proposed the banning of gays, lesbians, and supporters of LGBT rights from working in California’s public schools. As the former governor of California, Reagan’s opposition to the initiative was instrumental in its landslide defeat by Californian voters. Reagan published an editorial in which he stated that “homosexuality is not a contagious disease like the measles…” and that prevailing scientific opinion suggests that a child’s sexual orientation cannot be influenced by someone else. Throughout the 1970’s, the United States underwent a wrenching period of low economic growth, high inflation and interest rates, and intermittent energy crises. Reagan was a proponent of supply-side economics, which argues that economic growth can be created most effectively by offering incentives for people to produce (supply) goods and services. Such incentives included adjusting income tax and capital gains tax rates. Accordingly, Reagan promised an economic revival that would affect the entire population. Reagan theorized that cutting tax rates would actually increase tax revenues because the lower rates would encourage people to work harder in order to be able to keep more of their money. Reagan called for a drastic cut in “big government” programs, and pledged to deliver a balanced budget for the first time since 1969. In the Republican primaries, Bush famously called Reagan’s economic policy “voodoo economics” because it promised to lower taxes and increase revenues at the same time. Election Results Reagan’s showing in the October televised debate boosted his campaign. Weeks before the election, Reagan had trailed Carter in most polls. Following his sole debate with President Carter on October 29, however, Reagan overcame the poll deficit, and within one week, the Associated Press reported that the race was “too close to call.” Reagan ended up winning the election in a landslide, carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to Carter’s six states (as well as Washington, D.C.) and 49 electoral votes. Additionally, Reagan received 50.7% of the popular vote while Carter took only 41% (Independent John B. Anderson, a liberal Republican, received 6.7%). Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952, and gained 34 House seats, but the Democrats retained a majority. Reagan’s victory was the result of a combination of dissatisfaction with the presidential leadership of Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter in the 1970s, and the growth of the New Right. This group of conservative Americans included many very wealthy financial supporters, and emerged in the wake of the social reforms and cultural changes of the 1960s and 1970s. Many were evangelical Christians, like those who joined Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority, and opposed the legalization of abortion, the feminist movement, and sex education in public schools. Reagan also attracted people, often dubbed neoconservatives, who would not previously have voted for the same candidate as conservative Protestants did. Many were middle- and working-class people who resented the growth of federal and state governments, especially benefit programs, and the subsequent increase in taxes during the late 1960s and 1970s. They favored the tax revolts that swept the nation in the late 1970s under the leadership of predominantly older, white, middle-class Americans, which had succeeded in imposing radical reductions in local property and state income taxes. Voter turnout reflected this new conservative swing, which not only swept Reagan into the White House, but created a Republican majority in the Senate. Only 52%of eligible voters went to the polls in 1980, the lowest turnout for a presidential election since 1948. Those who did cast a ballot were older, whiter, and wealthier than those who did not vote. Strong support among white voters, those over 45 years of age, and those with incomes over $50,000, proved crucial for Reagan’s victory. Reagan 1980 Campaign: Reagan campaigns with wife Nancy and Senator Strom Thurmond (right) in South Carolina, 1980. Free Enterprise Economics and Reaganomics “Reaganomics” refers to the economic policies promoted by U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s. Learning Objectives Analyze the theoretical justification, as well as the critiques, of “Reaganomics.” Key Takeaways Key Points • The four pillars of Reagan’s economic policy were to reduce the growth of government spending, reduce income tax and capital gains tax, reduce government regulation of the economy, and control money supply to reduce inflation. • Reagan implemented policies based on supply-side economics, and advocated a classical liberal and laissez-faire philosophy, seeking to stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts that especially benefited the wealthiest Americans. • As a corollary to supply-side economics, Reagan affirmed “trickled-down economics,” a theory which held that tax cuts on the investor class would stimulate investment; more investment would lead to lower unemployment and high wages, benefiting the poorest Americans. • During the Reagan administration, the number of Americans living in poverty increased and many key services to low-income groups were cut. • Income inequality increased under the Reagan administration, with rises in the percentage of wealth accounted for by the highest income brackets, and declines in the percentage of wealth accounted for by the lowest income bracket. Key Terms • “Trickle-Down Economics”: A term in United States politics that refers to the idea that tax breaks or other economic benefits provided by government to businesses and the wealthy will benefit poorer members of society by improving the economy as a whole. • Arthur Laffer: An American economist who first gained prominence during the Reagan administration as a member of Reagan’s Economic Policy Advisory Board (1981-1989); best known for his illustration of the theory that there exists some tax rate between 0% and 100% that will result in maximum tax revenue for governments. Economics of the Reagan Administration Reagan’s primary goal upon taking office was to stimulate the sagging economy while simultaneously cutting both government programs and taxes. His economic policies, called ” Reaganomics ” by the press, were based on a theory called supply-side economics, about which many economists were skeptical. The four pillars of Reagan’s economic policy were to reduce the growth of government spending, reduce income tax and capital gains tax, reduce government regulation of economy, and control money supply to reduce inflation. Theoretical Justification Influenced by economist Arthur Laffer of the University of Southern California, Reagan cut income taxes for those at the top of the economic ladder (the wealthiest of Americans), which was supposed to motivate the rich to invest in businesses, factories, and the stock market in anticipation of high returns. According to Laffer’s argument, this would eventually translate into more jobs further down the socioeconomic ladder. Economic growth would also increase the total tax revenue—even at a lower tax rate. In other words, proponents of “trickle-down economics” promised to cut taxes and balance the budget at the same time. Reaganomics also included the deregulation of industry and higher interest rates to control inflation; however, these initiatives preceded Reagan and were conceived in the Carter administration. Reagan’s Campaign and Skepticism Many politicians, including Republicans, were wary of Reagan’s economic program; even his eventual vice president, George H. W. Bush, had referred to it as “voodoo economics” when competing with him for the Republican presidential nomination. When Reagan proposed a 30% cut in taxes to be phased in over his first term in office, Congress balked. Opponents argued that the tax cuts would benefit the rich and not the poor, who needed help the most. In response, Reagan presented his plan directly to the people. Reagan was an articulate spokesman for his political perspectives and was able to garner support for his policies. Often called “The Great Communicator,” he was noted for his ability, honed through years as an actor and spokesperson, to convey a mixture of empathy and concern, while taking humorous digs at his opponents. In his 1980 campaign speeches, Reagan presented his economic proposals as merely a return to the free-enterprise principles that had been in favor before the Great Depression. Americans found this rhetorical style extremely compelling. Public support for the plan, combined with a surge in the president’s popularity after he survived an assassination attempt in March 1981, swayed Congress, including many Democrats. On July 29, 1981, Congress passed the Economic Recovery Tax Act, which phased in a 25% overall reduction in taxes over a period of three years. Implementing the Policies Tax Decreases and Increases During Reagan’s presidency, federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the bipartisan Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, which lowered the top marginal tax bracket (for the wealthiest Americans) from 70% to 50%, and the lowest bracket (for the poorest Americans) from 14% to 11%. The Job Training Partnership Act of 1982 initiated one of the nation’s first public/private partnerships and a major part of the president’s job creation program. The Tax Reform Act of 1986, another bipartisan effort championed by Reagan, further reduced the top rate to 28%, raised the bottom bracket from 11% to 15% (meaning the poorest Americans would pay more), and cut the number of tax brackets to four. Conversely, Reagan signed into law tax increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 in order to continue funding such government programs as the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (TEFRA), Social Security, and the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (DEFRA). Despite the fact that TEFRA was the “largest peacetime tax increase in American history,” Reagan is better known for his tax cuts and lower-taxes philosophy. Budget Cuts Reagan’s policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment, which would then lead to increased economic growth, higher employment, and higher wages. Critics labeled this “trickle-down economics”—the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a “trickle-down” effect to the poor. Questions arose about whether Reagan’s policies benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty, and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles. These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan’s economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at $3.35 an hour, slashing federal assistance to local governments by 60%, cutting the budget for public housing and Section 8 rent subsidies in half, and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development Block Grant program. The widening gap between the rich and poor had already begun during the 1970s before Reagan’s economic policies took effect. Along with Reagan’s 1981 cut in the top regular tax rate on unearned income, he reduced the maximum capital gains rate to only 20%—its lowest level since the Hoover administration. Following his less-government intervention views, Reagan cut the budgets of non-military programs, including Medicaid, food stamps, federal education programs, and the Environmental Protection Agency. While he protected entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare, his administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities from the Social Security disability rolls. Deregulating the Economy Reagan also focused on deregulating industry and weakening the power of labor unions. Banks and savings and loan associations were deregulated. Pollution control was enforced less strictly by the Environmental Protection Agency, and restrictions on logging and drilling for oil on public lands were relaxed. Believing the free market was self-regulating, the Reagan administration had little use for labor unions, and in 1981, the president fired 12,000 federal air traffic controllers who had gone on strike to secure better working conditions (which would also have improved the public’s safety). His action effectively destroyed the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO), and ushered in a new era of labor relations in which, following his example, employers simply replaced striking workers. The weakening of unions contributed to the leveling off of real wages for the average American family during the 1980s. Inflation and Unemployment Rates President Ronald Reagan’s tenure marked a time of economic prosperity for some Americans and the opposite for many others. Reagan’s economic policymakers succeeded in breaking the cycle of stagflation that had been plaguing the nation, but at significant cost. In its effort to curb high inflation with dramatically increased interest rates, the Federal Reserve also triggered a deep recession. Inflation did drop during Reagan’s presidency, but borrowing became expensive and consumers spent less. In Reagan’s first years in office, bankruptcies increased and unemployment reached about 10%, its highest level since the Great Depression. Homelessness became a significant problem in cities, a fact the president made light of by suggesting that the press exaggerated the problem and that many homeless people chose to live on the streets. Economic growth resumed in 1983, and gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average of 4.5% during the rest of his presidency. By the end of Reagan’s second term in office, unemployment had dropped to about 5.3%, but the nation was nearly $3 trillion in debt. An increase in defense spending coupled with $3.6 billion in tax relief for the 162,000 American families with incomes of $200,000 or more made a balanced budget, one of the president’s campaign promises in 1980, impossible to achieve. Low income groups were also affected by the reduction of social spending, and inequality throughout the nation increased. The share of total income received by the top 5% highest-earning households grew from 16.5% in 1980 to 18.3% in 1988, and the share of the second highest fifth of households increased from 44.1% to 46.3% during this. In contrast, the share of total income of the lowest fifth of households fell from 4.2% in 1980 to 3.8% in 1988, and the second poorest fifth fell from 10.2% to 9.6%. The National Debt In order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $997 billion to $2.85 trillion. As a result, the United States went from being the world’s largest international creditor to becoming the world’s largest debtor. Reagan described the new debt as the “greatest disappointment” of his presidency. U.S. Culture: From Hippies to Yuppies The Reagan years were a complicated era of social, economic, and political change, with many trends operating simultaneously and sometimes at cross-purposes. While many suffered, others prospered. The 1970s had been the era of the hippie, and Newsweek magazine declared 1984 to be the “year of the Yuppie.” Yuppies, whose name derived from “(y)oung, (u)rban (p)rofessionals,” were akin to hippies in being young people whose interests, values, and lifestyle influenced American culture, economy, and politics, just as the hippies’ credo had done in the late 1960s and 1970s. Unlike hippies, however, yuppies tended to be materialistic and focused on image, comfort, and economic prosperity. Although liberal on some social issues, they were economically conservative. Ironically, some yuppies were former hippies who gave up their crusade against “the establishment” to become businessmen. Ronald Reagan sits a desk. As he speaks, he points to a poster about tax reduction. Reagan’s Address on Taxes: Ronald Reagan’s televised address from the Oval Office, in which he outlined his plan for tax reduction legislation; July 1981. Battles in the Courts and Congress President Reagan made many new court appointments during his administration and ran into challenges with the Democrats in Congress. Learning Objectives Assess Reagan’s Nominations for the Supreme Court, and his relationship with Congress Key Takeaways Key Points • President Reagan’s Court appointees included Sandra Day O’Connor, Anton Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, and William Rehnquist as Chief Justice. President Reagan appointed Justice Anthony Kennedy to the Supreme Court, after his initial nominee, Robert Bork, did not receive Senate confirmation. • President Reagan made a total of 376 judicial appointments, 83 to U.S. Court of Appeals, and 290 to U.S. District Courts; only nine were not confirmed. • Reagan’s appointees eschewed judicial activism, arguing that courts should interpret laws as enacted; however, critics charged that these judges were as active on behalf of big business interests as liberal justices had been on behalf of other interests. • Adherence to the principle of stare decisis ensured that the Supreme Court’s new conservative majority did not overturn the more controversial decisions of the outgoing Warren court. • Congressional Democrats resisted Reagan’s spending cuts in domestic programs, including Social Security, Medicaid, and federal education programs. Key Terms • Warren Court: The Supreme Court of the United States between 1953 and 1969. It led a liberal majority that used judicial power in dramatic fashion to the consternation of conservative opponents. During this time, civil rights, civil liberties, judicial power, and the federal power were expanded in dramatic ways. • Robert Bork: An American legal scholar who has advocated the judicial philosophy of originalism. He served as a Yale Law School professor, Solicitor General, Acting Attorney General, and judge for the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He was nominated in 1987 to the Supreme Court by President Ronald Reagan, but was rejected by the Senate. • stare decisis: A legal principle by which judges are obliged to respect the precedents established by prior decisions. The Judiciary Supreme Court Nominations In 1981, President Reagan nominated Sandra Day O’Connor to fill the Supreme Court Justice vacancy left by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart, as he had promised during his 1980 presidential campaign. O’Connor was a conservative Republican and strict constructionist. Though the far-right of the Republican Party was dissatisfied by O’Connor, who refused to condemn the Roe v. Wade decision that legalized abortion and supported the federal Equal Rights Amendment, Senate Republicans and the vast majority of Americans approved the pick, and she was confirmed unanimously by the Senate. O’Connor would later take more moderate positions. In 1986, during his second term, President Reagan elevated Justice William Rehnquist to succeed outgoing Chief Justice Warren Burger, and named Antonin Scalia to occupy the seat left by Rehnquist. In 1987, when Associate Justice Louis Powell retired, Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court. Within 45 minutes of Bork’s nomination to the Court, Democrat Ted Kennedy took to the Senate floor with a strong condemnation of Bork in a nationally televised speech, declaring: Robert Bork’s America is a land in which women would be forced into back-alley abortions, blacks would sit at segregated lunch counters, rogue police could break down citizens ‘ doors in midnight raids, schoolchildren could not be taught about evolution, writers and artists could be censored at the whim of the government, and the doors of the federal courts would be shut on the fingers of millions of citizens. The rapid response of Kennedy’s “Robert Bork’s America” speech stunned the Reagan White House; though conservatives considered Kennedy’s accusations slanderous ideological smears on a well-qualified candidate for the bench, the attacks went unanswered for two and a half months. Bork refused to withdraw himself and his nomination was rejected 58-42; Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place. Other Nominations Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals and 290 judges to the United States district courts. His total of 376 appointments is the most by any president. Reagan appointed many leading conservative academics to the intermediate United States Courts of Appeals, including Bork, Ralph K. Winter, Jr., Richard Posner, and Frank Easterbrook. Most of these nominations were not controversial, although a handful of candidates were singled out for criticism by civil rights advocates and other liberal critics. Nine nominees for various federal appellate judgeships were not confirmed. In some cases, the nominations were not processed by the Democratic-controlled Senate Judiciary Committee before Reagan’s presidency ended, while in other cases, nominees were rejected by the Senate Judiciary Committee or even blocked by unfriendly members of the Republican Party. Both his Supreme Court nominations and his lower court appointments were in line with Reagan’s expressed philosophy that judges should interpret law as enacted and not “legislate from the bench.” By the end of the 1980s, a conservative majority on the Supreme Court had put an end to the perceived “activist” trend begun under the leadership of Chief Justice Earl Warren. Some argued that the conservatives justices were equally activist, but that their sympathies lay with corporate America, rather than with civil rights. However, general adherence to the principle of stare decisis, along with minority support, left most of the major landmark case decisions (such as Brown, Miranda, and Roe v. Wade) of the previous three decades still standing as binding precedent. Relationship with Congress Reagan’s support for an increased defense budget at the height of the Cold War was supported by Congressional Democrats and Republicans. However, Congress was reluctant to follow Reagan’s proposed cuts in domestic programs. In accordance with Reagan’s less-government intervention views, many domestic government programs were cut or experienced periods of reduced funding during his presidency; these included Social Security, Medicaid, food stamps, and federal education programs. Though Reagan protected entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare, in one of the most widely criticized actions of his administration, Reagan attempted to purge tens of thousands of people with disabilities from the Social Security disability roles, alleging they were not “truly disabled.” Funding for government organizations, including the Environmental Protection Agency, were also reduced. He cut the EPA ‘s budget by 22%, and his director of the EPA, Anne M. Burford, resigned over alleged mismanagement of funds. Tax breaks and increased military spending resulted in an increase of the national budget deficit, and led Reagan and Congress to approve two tax increases, aiming to preserve funding for Social Security, though not as high as the 1981 tax cuts. Reagan with Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork, 1987: Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court. Within 45 minutes of Bork’s nomination to the Court, Ted Kennedy (D-MA) took to the Senate floor with a strong condemnation of Bork in a nationally televised speech. The Gay Rights Movement The Gay Rights Movement grew out of the Gay Liberation Movement of the 1970’s, pursuing equality through the framework of civil rights. Learning Objectives Analyze the Gay Rights Movement Key Takeaways Key Points • From the Gay Liberation Movement of the early 1970s arose a more reformist and single-issue Gay Rights Movement of the 80s and 90s, which portrayed gays and lesbians as a minority group and used the language of civil rights. Harvey Milk became the first openly gay American elected to public office in 1977, before he was assassinated in 1978. • The “Save Our Children” campaign supported a law that banned homosexuals from serving as teachers in public schools, leading to many firings of gay men and lesbians, and posing a setback to the Gay Rights Movement. • In the 1980s, the rise of HIV/AIDS, which became chiefly and inaccurately associated with the gay community, grew to crisis proportions as heterosexuals and the federal government failed to act. • In response to inaction by the government, gay men organized advocacy groups, such as ACT UP, to fight for research on HIV/AIDS. Key Terms • Gay Liberation movement: A social movement of the late 1960s and early to mid 1970s that urged lesbians and gay men to “come out” by publicly revealing their sexuality to family, friends, and colleagues as a form of activism, and to counter shame with gay pride. From the anarchistic Gay Liberation Movement of the early 1970s arose a more reformist and single-issue Gay Rights Movement of the 80s and 90s. This new movement portrayed gays and lesbians as a minority group and used the language of civil rights. Gay and lesbian rights advocates argued that one’s sexual orientation does not reflect on one’s gender. Gays and lesbians were presented as identical to heterosexuals in all ways except private sexual practices; from within this more conformist movement, butch “bar dykes” and flamboyant “street queens” were seen as negative stereotypes of lesbians and gays. Many transgender activists, such as Sylvia Rivera and Beth Elliot, were sidelined or expelled from the dominant Gay Rights Movement. Significant Events of the Period In 1977, Harvey Milk was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, becoming the first openly gay man elected to public office in the United States. Milk was subsequently assassinated by Dan White, a former city supervisor, in 1978. During that same year, Anita Bryant, a former Miss America contestant, began the “Save Our Children” campaign in Dade County, Florida. This proved to be a major set-back in the Gay Rights Movement. The campaign promoted an amendment to the laws of the county, which resulted in the firing of many public school teachers on the suspicion that they were homosexual. Mark Segal and Gay Press As a young gay activist, Mark Segal understood the power of media. In 1973, Segal disrupted the CBS evening news with Walter Cronkite—an event covered in newspapers across the country and viewed by 60% of American households, many seeing or hearing about homosexuality for the first time. Before the networks agreed to put a stop to censorship and bias in the news division, Segal went on to disrupt The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson and The Today Show with Barbara Walters. As a pioneer of the local gay press movement, he was one of the founders and former president of both The National Gay Press Association and the National Gay Newspaper Guild. He is also the founder and publisher of the award-winning Philadelphia Gay News (PGN). International Events In Canada, the coming into effect of Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1985 saw a shift in the Canadian gay rights movement, as Canadian gays and lesbians moved from liberation to litigious strategies. Premised on Charter protections and on the notion of the immutability of homosexuality, judicial rulings rapidly advanced rights, including those that compelled the Canadian government to legalize same-sex marriage. It has been argued that while this strategy was extremely effective in advancing the safety, dignity, and equality of Canadian gays and lesbians, its emphasis on sameness and conformity to the mainstream came at the expense of difference, and may have undermined opportunities for more meaningful change. The AIDS Crisis In the early 1980s, doctors noticed a disturbing trend—young gay men in large cities, especially San Francisco and New York, were being diagnosed with, and eventually dying from, a rare cancer called Kaposi’s sarcoma. Because the disease was seen almost exclusively in male homosexuals, it was quickly dubbed “gay cancer.” Doctors soon realized it often coincided with other symptoms, including a rare form of pneumonia, and they renamed it “gay related immune deficiency” (GRID), although people other than gay men, primarily intravenous drug users, were dying from the disease as well. The connection between gay men and GRID—later renamed human immunodeficiency virus/autoimmune deficiency syndrome, or HIV/AIDS—led heterosexuals to largely ignore the growing health crisis in the country, wrongly assuming they were safe from its effects. The federal government also overlooked the disease, and calls for more money to research and find the cure were largely ignored, due to embedded social stigma against gays and lesbians. Even after it became apparent that heterosexuals could contract the disease through blood transfusions and heterosexual intercourse, HIV/AIDS continued to be associated primarily with the gay community, especially by political and religious conservatives. Indeed, the religious right regarded it as a form of divine retribution meant to punish gay men for their “immoral” lifestyle. President Reagan, always politically careful, was reluctant to speak openly about the developing crisis, even as thousands faced certain death from the disease. The image depicts a pink triangle on a black background, with the words "SILENCE=DEATH" written below. Silence=Death: The AIDS crisis: The pink triangle was originally used in Nazi concentration camps to identify acts of homosexuality. Reclaimed by gay activists in New York as a symbol of resistance and solidarity during the 1970s, it was further transformed as a symbol of governmental inaction in the face of the AIDS epidemic during the 1980s. The Election of 1984 Reagan won the election of 1984 in a landslide, winning 58.8% of the popular vote to Mondale’s 40.6%, and a record 525 electoral votes. Learning Objectives Describe the election of 1984 Key Takeaways Key Points • Incumbent President Reagan was re-elected in the November 6 election in an electoral and popular vote landslide, winning 49 states. Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes total (of 538 possible), and received 58.8 percent of the popular vote. • Democratic candidate Walter Mondale ‘s 13 electoral college votes (from his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia ) marked the lowest total of any major presidential candidate since Alf Landon’s 1936 loss to Franklin D. Roosevelt. • Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against what he considered to be unfairness in Reagan’s economic policies and the need to reduce federal budget deficits. • Analysts of the election attributed the Republican victory to ” Reagan Democrats,” millions of southern whites and northern blue-collar workers who traditionally voted Democrat, but who voted for Reagan because they credited him with the economic recovery. Key Terms • Walter Mondale: An American Democratic Party politician who served as the 42nd Vice President of the United States (1977-1981) under President Jimmy Carter, and as a United States Senator from Minnesota (1964-1976); he was the Democratic Party’s presidential candidate in the United States presidential election of 1984. • Reagan Democrats: Traditionally Democratic voters, especially white working-class Northerners, who defected from their party to support Republican President Ronald Reagan in both the 1980 and 1984 elections. The United States presidential election of 1984 was held on Tuesday, November 6. The contest was between the incumbent President Ronald Reagan as the Republican candidate, and former Vice President Walter Mondale as the Democratic candidate. Reagan carried 49 of the 50 states, becoming only the second presidential candidate to do so, after Richard Nixon ‘s victory in the 1972 presidential election. Reagan’s success was aided by a strong economic recovery from the deep recession of 1981-1982. Mondale’s only electoral votes came from the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota, which he won by a mere 3,761 votes. Reagan’s 525 electoral votes (out of 538) is the highest total ever received by a presidential candidate. Mondale’s 13 electoral votes is also the second-fewest ever received by a second-place candidate, second only to Alf Landon’s eight in 1936. In the national popular vote, Reagan received 58.8% to Mondale’s 40.6%. No candidate since then has managed to equal or surpass Reagan’s 1984 electoral result. In addition, no post-1984 Republican candidate has managed to match or better Reagan’s electoral performance in the American Northeast, known to be a very Democratic region in modern times. The Primaries Only three Democratic candidates won any state primaries: Mondale, Gary Hart, and Jesse Jackson. Initially, Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy, after a failed bid to win the 1980 Democratic nomination for president, was considered the de facto front-runner of the 1984 primary. However, after Kennedy ultimately declined to run, former Vice-President Mondale was then viewed as the favorite to win the Democratic nomination. Mondale had the largest number of party leaders supporting him, and he had raised more money than any other candidate. However, both Jackson and Hart emerged as surprising opponents. Mondale gradually pulled away from Hart in the delegate count, and at the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco on July 16, Mondale received the overwhelming support of the un-elected super delegates from the party establishment to win the nomination. The Campaign Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against what he considered to be unfairness in Reagan’s economic policies and the need to reduce federal budget deficits. Reagan was the oldest president to have ever served (he was 73 years old by this point), and there were many questions about his capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency, particularly after Reagan had a poor showing in his first debate with Mondale on October 7. He referred to having started going to church “here in Washington,” although the debate was in Louisville, Kentucky; referred to military uniforms as “wardrobe”; and admitted to being “confused,” among other mistakes. However, in the next debate on October 21, Reagan effectively neutralized the issue by quipping, “I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent’s youth and inexperience. Reagan was re-elected in the November 6 election in an electoral and popular vote landslide. Analysts of the election attributed the Republican victory to “Reagan Democrats”—millions of Democrats who voted for Reagan, as in 1980. They characterized such Reagan Democrats as southern whites and northern blue collar workers who voted for Reagan because they credited him with the economic recovery, saw Reagan as strong on national security issues, and perceived the Democrats as supporting the poor and minorities at the expense of the middle class. The Democratic National Committee commissioned a study after the election that came to these conclusions; however, it suppressed the “explosive report” out of fear that it would offend its key voters. Electoral College 1984: 1984 presidential electoral votes by state. Reagan (red) won every state except for Mondale’s home state of Minnesota, and Washington, D.C. (blue). The Poor, the Homeless, and the Victims of AIDS President Reagan has been criticized for his political responses to poverty, homelessness, and the outbreak of the AIDS epidemic. Learning Objectives Analyze Reagan’s response to the AIDS epidemic, homelessness, and poverty Key Takeaways Key Points • Reagan’s signing of the Lanterman-Petris-Short Act greatly exacerbated homelessness among the mentally ill. The law lowered the standards for involuntary commitment in civil courtrooms, and was followed by significant de-funding of 1,700 hospitals caring for mental patients. • Churches, public libraries, and atria adopted stricter anti-vagrancy policies as the homeless population grew larger; together, these strategies effectively criminalized homelessness in many areas around the country. • The 1980s also saw a continuing trend of deinstitutionalization of mental-health hospitals; it is believed that a large percentage of released patients ended up in the homeless system. • Perhaps the greatest criticism of President Reagan involves his silence about the AIDS epidemic spreading in the 1980s. Although AIDS was first identified in 1981, Reagan did not mention it publicly for several more years. • Possibly in deference to the views of the powerful religious right, which inaccurately saw AIDS as a disease limited to the gay male community and spread by “immoral” behavior, Reagan prevented his Surgeon General from speaking out about the epidemic. Key Terms • ACT UP: The AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power; an advocacy group for people with AIDS and HIV-related illnesses, founded in 1987 on the premise of direct action. It is best known for its dramatic protests during the peak of the AIDS crisis in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Homelessness During the Reagan Era The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was a predisposing factor in setting the stage for homelessness in the United States. Long-term psychiatric patients were released from state hospitals, and were supposed to be sent to community mental health centers for treatment and follow-up. The community mental health centers, however, were not adequately supported, and members of the released population were often found living in the streets soon after release, with no sustainable support system. Many feel that Ronald Reagan’s signing of the Lanterman-Petris-Short Act (1967) greatly exacerbated homelessness among the mentally ill. This law lowered the standards for involuntary commitment in civil courtrooms, and was followed by significant defunding of 1,700 hospitals caring for mental patients. Anti-Vagrancy Laws Many places where people were once allowed freely to loiter, or purposefully be present, became areas that were off-limits to “vagrants.” Churches, public libraries, and atria became stricter as the homeless population grew larger. Park benches started to be designed so that no one could lie down on them. Some churches restricted access when mass or services were not being held. Libraries began enforcing “no eyes shut,” and sometimes even imposed dress codes. Some public places hired private security guards to carry out these policies, creating social tension. All of these strategies together effectively criminalized homelessness in many areas around the country. The homeless population was banished to sidewalks, parks, under bridges, and subway and railroad tunnels. Many homeless people tried to become socially invisible to avoid enforcement of new anti-vagrancy penalties. 1980s Homelessness Crisis The 1980s saw a continuing trend of de-institutionalizing mental health hospitals, and large numbers of released patients ended up homeless. Many existing shelters and soup kitchens had to expand their facilities to accommodate the larger number of homeless people. By the mid-1980s, there was also a dramatic increase in family homelessness. Tied to this was an increasing number of impoverished and runaway children, teenagers, and young adults creating a new sub-stratum of the homeless population. The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act In response to the ensuing homelessness crisis, there was a push from concerned citizens across the country for the federal government to provide assistance. Finally, in 1987, President Reagan signed into law the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act. The McKinney Act originally had fifteen programs providing a spectrum of services to homeless people, including the Continuum of Care Programs— the Supportive Housing Program, the Shelter Plus Care Program, and the Single Room Occupancy Program, as well as the Emergency Shelter Grant Program. This remains the only piece of federal legislation that allocates funding to the direct service of homeless people. Poverty Level During the period from 1980-1988, the percentage of the total population below the poverty level ranged from a low of 13.0% in 1980 and 1988, to a high of 15.2% in 1983. During Reagan’s first term, critics pointed to homelessness as a visible problem in America’s urban centers. In the closing weeks of his presidency, Reagan told The New York Times that the homeless “make it their own choice for staying out there.” Political opponents chided his “Trickle-down economics” policies, due to the significant cuts in taxes for the wealthiest Americans; supporters pointed to the drop in poverty after his policies took effect to validate that the tax cuts did indeed trickle down to the poor. Reagan’s Response to the HIV/AIDS Crisis Perhaps the greatest criticism surrounds Reagan’s silence about the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1980s. Although AIDS was first identified in 1981, Reagan did not mention it publicly for several more years, notably during a press conference in 1985 and several speeches in 1987. During the press conference in 1985, Reagan expressed skepticism in allowing children with AIDS to continue in school. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) had previously issued a report stating that “casual person-to-person contact as would occur among schoolchildren appears to pose no risk.” During his 1987 speeches, Reagan supported modest educational funding on AIDS, increased AIDS testing for marriage licenses, and mandatory testing for high-risk groups. Reagan was widely criticized for not supporting more active measures to contain the spread of HIV/AIDS. Most public officials and celebrities were too afraid to deal with this subject until celebrity Elizabeth Taylor spoke out publicly about the monumental amount of people quickly dying from the new disease. Reagan prevented his Surgeon General, C. Everett Koop, from speaking out about the epidemic, possibly in deference to the views of the powerful religious right, which saw AIDS as a disease limited to the gay male community and spread by “immoral” behavior. When, in 1986, Reagan was highly encouraged by many other public officials to authorize Koop to issue a report on the epidemic, he expected it to be in line with conservative policies; instead, Koop’s Surgeon General’s Report on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome greatly emphasized the importance of a comprehensive AIDS education strategy, including widespread distribution of condoms, and rejected mandatory testing. This approach brought Koop into conflict with other administration officials, such as Education Secretary William Bennett. Because of the awareness-raising actions of groups like ACT UP, Reagan responded in 1987 by appointing the Watkins Commission on AIDS, which was succeeded by a permanent advisory council.	<urn:uuid:401f4661-cd18-46f6-9cce-329cdae1ef45>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.05695098638534546, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9717850685119629, "url": "https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-reagan-administration/" }
Excel Tutorial for Arguments Separators Please follow and like us: Excel functions use a character to separate arguments to distinguish between each of them. In this Excel tutorial you will always notice that the arguments of the functions are separated by a comma (,). But maybe your computer is configured to use semicolons (;) especially if you are in European countries. Difference between lists separators This difference is due to the Windows regional settings, which is where the separator list that is used in all installed applications is specified. Lets see the settings that I have in my computer. I must go to the Control Panel and within the “Region and Language” section select the option Date and Time Formats. (more about lists and how to get the most out in Excel) Windows Regional and Language Settings List Separators Note that the selected Format in my computer is in English (United States). When you click in the Additional settings… button we are going to find the parameters. Those are the parameters that are established for different formats. One of them is the List Separators. List Separators Additional Format Settings Excel takes this configuration of Windows to separate the arguments of the functions. For that reason you will observe that in my examples of functions the comma (,) is always shown. This difference occurs mainly with European countries where the semicolon (;) is used as a list separator. Whereas in Latin American and North America countries the comma (,) is used. So, if you follow this website from a country that use the semicolon as separator of lists you should be aware of this difference that you will find in the posts. In the same way, it is possible that you are in Latin America but if the computer where you are working has the regional configuration for Europe you will also observe this difference in Excel. Other differences about Symbols Because Excel is an application where we use many numbers, the regional configurations of the computer will also make us differences. That occurs in terms of the character used as a decimal symbol and the thousands separation symbol. In my configuration, which is English (United States), the period (.) Is used as a decimal symbol and the comma (,) as the separation symbol of thousands. For a Spanish (Spain) configuration these characters will be inverted while for some Latin American countries they will be similar. However, these two types of separators can be modified within Excel if we wish. To make this change you must go to the File tab and click on Options. Then select Advanced and in the Edit Options section you will see the option Use system separators. Excel Tutorial Advanced Options If the check box is checked, Excel will use the Windows options, but if you uncheck the option you can specify the character of your preference. I hope these regional differences in our computers do not cause any confusion in the articles. In addition, I recommend you that always remember the regional settings that my computer has with which I write the articles of this Web site. Please follow and like us: One Comment Deja un comentario	<urn:uuid:15359d36-ba3e-4fd3-a647-89ffbc2c53d7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.020609557628631592, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8663869500160217, "url": "http://tutorialsfromabove.com/2017/11/11/excel-tutorial-for-arguments-separators/" }
1. 'BODMAS' Rule: Here B - Bracket, O - of, D - Division, M - Multiplication, A - Addition and S - Subtraction Thus, in simplifying an expression, first of all the brackets must be removed, strictly in the order (), {} and \|\|. After removing the brackets, we must use the following operations strictly in the order: (i) of (ii) Division (iii) Multiplication (iv) Addition (v) Subtraction. 2. Modulus of a Real Number: Modulus of a real number a is defined as \|a\| = a, if a > 0 -a, if a < 0 Thus, \|5\| = 5 and \|-5\| = -(-5) = 5. 3. Virnaculum (or Bar): When an expression contains Virnaculum, before applying the 'BODMAS' rule, we simplify the expression under the Virnaculum.	<urn:uuid:c2fa36c7-2033-4220-8260-1934cc275151>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.03125, "fasttext_score": 0.5421077609062195, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7891972661018372, "url": "http://infibee.com/general-aptitude/simplification/formulas" }
Everyday life in Germany during the war. Some aspects of life in Germany changed immediately upon the outbreak of war on 1 September 1939; others changed more slowly. Germany did not fully mobilise at first. In fact, it was not until 1943 that Germany focussed its economy on war production. Nazi policy was not to burden the people on the home front because they feared domestic unrest; something the Nazis believed had led to Germany’s capitulation in 1918. For most Germans, life during the early stages of the war was reasonably comfortable. Germany was blockaded by Britain so there were some shortages, especially of oil, rare metals, and to some foodstuffs. General building materials had been diverted to war purposes and were also hard to get. But thanks to the Nazi-Soviet Pact, large shipments of raw materials were being sent regularly from the Soviet Union. In addition, Germany ruthlessly plundered the countries it occupied. The Nazis seized military hardware, industrial plant, railway stock, manufactured goods, foodstuffs and livestock. After the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, life in Germany started to deteriorate. The supply of raw materials dried up and there would be a delay before arrangements could be made to plunder the Soviet Union on any meaningful scale. The retreating Soviet forces carried out a ruthless policy of scorched earth, destroying anything useful they could not carry away with them. Rationing was introduced to Germany in late August 1939, shortly before the outbreak of war. Initially most foodstuffs were rationed together with clothing, shoes, leather and soap. Rations were sufficient to live off, but did not permit luxuries. Whipped cream became unknown from 1939 until 1948, as well as chocolates, cakes with rich cremes etc. Meat could not be eaten every day. Other items were not rationed, but simply became unavailable as they had to be imported from overseas, coffee in particular. Vegetables and local fruit were not rationed, but imported fruits became unavailable. Ration stamps were issued to all civilians. These stamps were colour coded and covered sugar, meat, fruit and nuts, eggs, dairy products, margarine, cooking oil, grains, bread, jams and fruit jellies. Imitation coffee was made from roasted barley, oats, chicory and acorns. Various imitation foods were produced. Cooked rice mashed into patties and fried in mutton fat became ersatz meat. Rice was also mixed with onions and the oil reserved from tinned fish to ersatz fish. Flour for bread was eked out using ground horse-chestnuts, pea meal, potato meal, and barley. Salad spreads were made using chopped herbs mixed with salt and red wine vinegar. Nettles and goat’s rue were used in soups or were cooked and mixed together as spinach substitutes. Ration stamps did not entitle civilians to free hand-outs; items still had to be paid for. Food stamps were also needed to eat in restaurants. The waiter would remove all of the stamps needed to produce the meal in addition to taking payment. Theft of stamps or counterfeiting them was a criminal offence and typically resulted in a spell of detention at a forced labour camp. As the war went on it might mean a death sentence. As the war began to go against Germany in the Soviet Union and as Allied bombing began to affect domestic production, a more severe rationing program had to be introduced. The system allowed extra rations for men involved in heavy industry, but supplied only starvation rations for Jews and Poles in the areas occupied by Germany. In April 1942 bread, meat and fat rations all were reduced. This was explained to people at the time by poor harvest, lack of manpower for farming, and the increased need to feed the armed forces and the millions of forced labourers and refugees that had come to Germany.	<urn:uuid:a0625db8-9d5a-4194-b711-d32f30cea68c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.2993331551551819, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9877402782440186, "url": "https://ww2gravestone.com/everyday-life-germany-war/" }
An introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials Students take on a comprehensive examination of the nuremberg trials and evaluate in history, international law introduction, establishing the. Nürnberg trials: overview of the nürnberg trials, in which former nazi leaders were indicted and tried as war criminals united states history - nuremberg trials. Encyclopedia of jewish and israeli history, politics and culture, with biographies, statistics, articles and documents on topics from anti-semitism to zionism. The nuremberg trials - the complete proceedings vol 1942 this is the first volume in the complete proceedings of the nuremberg trial of a new military history. Holocaust history the nuremberg courtroom 10 june 2013 06 july 2013 nuremberg trials historycom introduction nuremberg trials. Introduction about the project the considered by many to be the most significant series of trials in history, these trials were established the nuremberg. Read the nuremberg trials this new e-book version includes an introduction by emmy award winning writer and historian bob the story of an indomitable. A timeline of nuremberg trials (usually referred to simply as the london charter or nuremberg ©2018 mchabu the history of us® and the history of the. Unlike most editing & proofreading services, we edit for everything: grammar, spelling, punctuation, idea flow, sentence structure, & more get started now. The nuremberg trials: the nazis and their crimes against humanity this is the story of the nuremberg trials. Introduction to the nuremberg trials in the introduction, written by karen phinney and edited by katie jo parris, you will find background. The nuremberg trials took place during the immediate aftermath of world war ii they were the first trials in history to indict an entire regime for aggressive war. The nuremberg trials served as a the trials marked the introduction of 10 things you may not know about the nuremberg trials url. Facebook twitter angelsecurity – an introduction to the presidency of james monroe is our annotated a history of the nuremberg trials guide to the most useful. Find out more about the history of nuremberg trials, including videos, interesting articles, pictures, historical features and more get all the facts on. Want to learn more about history, but don’t think you have the time think again the nuremberg trials, often dubbed history’s greatest trial, were the first and. Introduction view of the exhibition located at the original venue, the memorium nuremberg trials informs visitors about the background, conduct, and subsequent. Page 1 of 11 significance of nuremberg trial in the development of international humanitarian law neetij rai chapter i: introduction abstract. The nuremberg trials and crimes against humanity katie welgan portland state university challenge: modern european history december 15, 2013. What is the importance of the nuremberg trials a: laws and customs of war were formed as a result of the nuremberg trials, explains the history. User-created clip by craig mcandrew march 27, 2017 introduction of the nazi concentration and prison camps documentary during the nuremberg trials. Kids learn about the war crimes trials during world war ii including the nuremberg the nuremberg trials were called the greatest trial in history by one of the. Nuremberg: germany's most vibrant museum of history a city of emperors and princes, leaders and followers nuremberg trials memorial. An introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials an introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials Buy the nuremberg trials: the history and legacy of the nazi war crimes trials after world war ii by charles river editors (isbn: 9781503205765) from amazon's book store. A history of the nuremberg trial focusing on the judges the structure and purpose of the nuremberg trial includes an introduction to each chronological. Brief overview of the nuremberg trial nuremberg war crimes trial 1945-46: a documentary history c bassiouni, introduction to. • For decades the history of the us military tribunals at nuremberg (nmt) has been eclipsed by the first nuremberg trial-the international military tribunal or imt. • “a story of betrayal”: conceptualizing variants of capitalism in the nuremberg war crimes trials kim christian priemel humboldt university of berlin. • Video created by case western reserve university for the course introduction to international criminal law from the nuremberg trial to the case. The anatomy of the nuremberg trials: a personal memoir introduction chapter 1nuremberg biography & autobiography / lawyers & judges history / holocaust. People have heard of the nuremberg trial this book uncovers ten “forgotten trials” of the holocaust story plaque several hundred feet long containing the. an introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials an introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials an introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials an introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials Download an example of An introduction to the history of the nuremberg trials:	<urn:uuid:ccd11453-ed10-4fd2-8c5d-d7f6a984e331>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.021150290966033936, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9092947840690613, "url": "http://aoessayasre.newsglobal.us/an-introduction-to-the-history-of-the-nuremberg-trials.html" }
• Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month How does Arthur Miller use the stage and dramatic techniques to introduce the conflicts of the play? Extracts from this document... 'The Crucible' Coursework How does Arthur Miller use the stage and dramatic techniques to introduce the conflicts of the play? 'The Crucible' was written by Arthur Miller; the play is about the witch trials that took place in Salem, Massachutes in 1692. Arthur Miller wrote the play because the communist trials were taking place at that time in the United States. Miller and some of his friends were involved in the trials. Many of the conflicts of the communist trials were similar to the Salem witch trials, which is why I think that Miller wrote 'The Crucible'. In act 1 and act 2 Miller uses the staging and dramatic techniques to reflect these conflicts. The main conflicts of the play are: good verses evil, which is show in act 1. Public invading the private this is also show in act 1, and the personal relationship between John Proctor and Elizabeth Proctor, this is shown in act 2. Arthur Miller starts to introduce the conflicts of the play with his set design. ...read more. This symbolises that in act 2 characters are dark and gloomy people. In act 1 the bedroom is upstairs with a staircase leading downstairs, this symbolises that the characters in this scene start off with a high status but throughout the play they are moving downwards towards hell. There are also people downstairs, which shows the conflict of the public are intruding on their private lives, whereas the Proctors' lives are private and personal. The warmth in each sets also shows the differences between the characters, in act 1 the room is lit by only a candle, this symbolises that Reverend Parris is a cold-hearted man, however the Proctors' house is also very cold "it's winter in here". Another difference between the set designs is that act 1 has a clean spareness this shows that its empty of love and nurturing. In act 2 the room is cold because Elizabeth is cold of suspicion. The idea of a crucible plays a large part in both acts. A crucible removes impurities through intense heat, which is what the play is about, the characters are put thorough an intense trial which at the end will prove who is pure and who isn't. ...read more. The stew is a symbol of John and Elizabeth's relationship, the stew is plain like Elizabeth, so John spices it up with salt the same way he spiced up his life by committing adultery with Abigail. After that he washes his hands and sits down for dinner when Elizabeth joins him. He washes his washes his hands when he hears Elizabeth coming, this shows that it is a guilty act. She brings him his food and sits with him while he eats. When john is asked how the food tastes by Elizabeth he lies and says 'it's well seasoned' he lies to her to cover up the guilt of having an affair with Abigail. When they are talking to each other we can sense some distance between them, John is trying to make it up to her 'I mean to please you, Elizabeth' but Elizabeth is finding it hard to forgive him as she finds it hard to reply to him. In my opinion I think Arthur Miller's style was very effective. He used different ways to symbolise the differences between the scenes and characters. His set designs were very helpful to judge the type of people the play was about. Neha Bharadia 1 ...read more. The above preview is unformatted text Found what you're looking for? • Start learning 29% faster today • 150,000+ documents available • Just £6.99 a month Not the one? Search for your essay title... • Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month See related essaysSee related essays Related GCSE Arthur Miller essays 1. Peer reviewed 4 star(s) Now that Willy has taken his life, the past no longer matters and there is no longer conflict as only the present remains, represented by the apartment buildings. The idea of Willy being trapped, highlighted by the buildings around, is backed up by the fact that when he is gone he is finally free. 2. How effective are the closing scenes in the play at resolving the conflict presented ... the play, there is also a serious aspect as the cow bellowing shows us that there is no one to look after it as the owner may be in prison or one of the people who have already been hanged. 1. Saving Private Ryan The whistling of gunfire and flying specks of vibrant splatters of blood and flesh begins to dominate our senses as the bullets tear into the young soldier's bodies. Blood spatters appear on the screen, employed to create an authentic sense of vivid reality. 2. &quot;With Reference to Historical Context, Characterisation and Performance, Discuss the Use of Tension-Building Techniques ... Prior to this, everyone thought that this was all down to mass hysteria, but surely ergot isn't just to blame, it may have been that that started the events off, causing them to dance in the forest, but surely we cannot blame a middle-age form of LSD on all of their actions for the 10 months following that. In the film rocks are usually present during scenes of witchcraft, as in the first scene when the girls go dancing in the woods. We are shown a medium shot of Tituba so that we can see how utterly bemused she is by the whole situation. 2. What are the Key Themes of The Crucible and how does Miller introduce them ... He would not answer aye or nay to his indictment; for if he denied the charge they'd hang him surely, and auction out his property. So he stand mute, and died Christian under the law...' We are told how he died the next time she speaks: 'They press him John.' • Over 160,000 pieces of student written work • Annotated by experienced teachers • Ideas and feedback to improve your own work	<urn:uuid:ef73ef97-ee3b-4cec-8351-477dae5b88a2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.024300873279571533, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9772200584411621, "url": "http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/english/how-does-arthur-miller-use-the-stage-and-dramatic-techniques-to-introduce-the-conflicts-of-the-play.html" }
Many species of fish lived in the Sea of Galilee and the Jordan. They were sometimes caught with a hook (Matt. 17: 27) but more often by letting a net into the water in a semicircle and gradually drawing it ashore (Matt. 13: 47–50). There was an industry of fish‐curing at Taricheae. Pickled fish were sent up to Jerusalem. Early Christians used a fish as a cryptogram or symbol for Christ, especially in the Eucharist on account of the fish mentioned at the Feeding of the Multitude (Mark 6: 38). Moreover, additionally, the initial letters in Greek of Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, spelt out the word ichthus (fish).	<urn:uuid:e9897983-976c-4b7f-a011-f2d49ca4c0c6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.09572184085845947, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9600399136543274, "url": "http://www.oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/opr/t94/e678?_hi=17&_pos=19" }
Water in Concrete Curing Thumb Rule for Curing Water Requirement: 1 bag of cement = 50 kg cement – requires maximum 12 litres of water during the entire curing cycle. Evolution of Concrete Curing Few decades ago, sand was an easily available and unregulated resource. Hence it was considered as a free material. But as the sector developed and the demand-supply mechanisms started evolving, the government started regulating sand mining and formalized the sector through licensing which resulted in a formalized cost structure. Similarly, till the last decade, water was an easily available and unregulated resource. But as the sector evolved and the use increased by folds accompanied by water crisis induced by global warming, governments in many countries have started introducing regulatory policies to limit the usage and subsequently reduce wastage. Curing was an often-ignored process until the advent of high strength concrete and speedy project plans with faster slab cycles. Although the construction technology has evolved rapidly, there has been barely any innovation in concrete curing. Currently, the widely used methods such as ponding and sprinkling have no regulation on the amount of water and result in huge amounts of water loss. Since the run-off water contains minute concrete particles, it also results in ground water pollution through percolation. Today, given the water crisis and uncertain rainfall in arid regions, water wastage and ground water pollution are important issues to be addressed by the construction industry. The water requirement in concrete curing is dependent on the cement content, which is in turn subject to the grade – mix design of concrete. The water-cement ratio decides the quantity of water which needs to be added to during the mixing process of cement, sand, aggregate with water to form concrete. This is the actual amount of water required to react with the cement particles to induce strength. Owing to practical reasons such as slump of concrete, excess water cannot be added during the mixing process. Instead the water needs to be supplied consistently during the initial days of concrete strength gain. At this time, the unreacted cement particles require additional water for the settlement reaction to induce strength. Moreover, the water supplied during curing also compensates for moisture loss. Image Source: flickr User astrid westvang Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:afbe837e-ccad-4b6b-a4fa-b134dbf3d9de>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.02314174175262451, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.959671676158905, "url": "http://www.dripcuring.com/water-concrete-curing/" }
OML Search Fractions with Same Numerator Related Topics: Lesson Plans and Worksheets for Grade 3 Lesson Plans and Worksheets for all Grades More Lessons for Grade 3 Common Core For Grade 3 Videos, examples, solutions, and lessons to help Grade 3 students learn how to compare fractions with the same numerator pictorially. Common Core Standards: 3.NF.3d New York State Common Core Math Grade 3, Module 5, Lesson 28 Application Problem LaTonya has 2 equal sized hotdogs. She cut the first one into thirds at lunch. Later she cut the second hotdog to make double the number of pieces. Draw a model of LaTonya’s hotdogs. a. How many pieces is the second hotdog cut into? b. If she wants to eat 2/3 of the second hotdog, how many pieces should she eat? Concept Development Look again at your models of LaTonya’s hotdogs. Let’s change the problem slightly. What if LaTonya eats 2 pieces of each hotdog? Figure out what fraction of each hotdog she eats. She eats 2/3 of the first one and 2/6 of the second one. Did LaTonya eat the same amount of the first hotdog and the second hotdog? No. But she ate 2 pieces of each hotdog. Why is the amount she ate different? The number of pieces is the same, but the size of each piece is different. The more you cut up a whole, the smaller the pieces get. So eating 2 pieces of thirds is more hotdog than 2 pieces of sixths. Directions: Shade the models to compare the following fractions. Circle the larger fraction for each problem. 6. In science Saleem and Edwin used an inch ruler to measure the length of each of their small caterpillars. Saleem’s caterpillar measured 3 fourths of an inch, and Edwin’s caterpillar measured 3 eighths of an inch. Whose caterpillar is longer? Use a tape diagram to show your work. 7. Lily and Jasmine are baking the same size chocolate cake. Lily put 5/10 of a cup of sugar into her cake, and Jasmine put 5/6 of a cup of sugar into her cake. Who used less sugar? Use a tape diagram to show your work. OML Search [?] Subscribe To This Site follow us in feedly Add to My Yahoo! Add to My MSN Subscribe with Bloglines	<urn:uuid:07523c0b-8ab4-4d28-972c-9677bea19c6a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.9375, "fasttext_score": 0.02529764175415039, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9028627276420593, "url": "https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/fractions-same-numerator.html" }
Tikalon Header Blog Logo ALGOL and Algol May 8, 2012 Most computer scientists are familiar with the ALGOL programming language. Introduced in 1958, ALGOL (an acronym for algorithmic language), was one of the first programming languages. Like COBOL and Fortran, ALGOL is a compiled language. Fortran was introduced in the mid-1950s, just a few years before ALGOL. ALGOL was designed to be a more versatile language than the Fortran of the time. ALGOL is important in the history of computing mainly because its syntax acted as the inspiration for many other languages, including C and Pascal. BEGIN... END designators for code blocks were part of ALGOL, a feature found in Pascal. The ALGOL syntax was specified using Backus–Naur Form. Backus-Nauer Form definition example A BNF definition for a U.S. postal address. Note the assignment operator, ::=, and the "or" symbol, \|. (Example found on Wikipedia)) One feature of ALGOL is lexical scoping. This essentially means that variables can be local to a function. This bane of novice programmers, who scratch their heads wondering why their code gives the wrong results, is a very effective feature. It allows easy reuse of code and the calling of external functions without data collisions. Long before ALGOL, there was Algol. Algol is the second-brightest star in the constellation, Perseus. Algol is a variable star about 93 light years from Earth. It's magnitude changes with a regular period of 2.87 days. Superimposed on this periodicity is another, smaller period of 680.05 days. Map of the constellation Perseus Algol in the constellation, Perseus. Algol is also known as β-Persei, since it's the second brightest star of the constellation. The brightest star, Mirfak, is also known as α-Persei. (Modified Wikimedia Commons image)) Algol's brightness changes not because the star itself changes. Algol has a dimmer companion star that orbits it and obscures some of its light as seen from Earth. It's an eclipsing_binary system. There's a third star that adds its own contribution to the brightness change on a longer period. As can be seen from the figure, the brightness change is considerable. Figure caption Light curve of Algol in the vicinity of its magnitude dip. Stellar apparent magnitude is a logarithmic scale in which each magnitude corresponds to a brightness change of 2-1/2 times. (Fig. 6h of ref. 1 (modified), via ArXiv Preprint Server)) The discovery of Algol's variable brightness was made by Geminiano Montanari, an Italian astronomer, in 1667. Its periodicity wasn't determined until 1783 by English astronomer John Goodricke, who even proposed the eclipsing binary mechanism. A century later, spectroscopic studies showed a Doppler shift in Algol's spectrum, which confirmed that it and some companion were orbiting about a common center. Lest modern astronomers congratulate themselves too heartily, Algol's name in several languages translates to "demon." The idea of a dragon devouring celestial bodies has appeared in ancient cultures for quite a while, so there's the idea that Algol's variability was known to at least a few of the ancients. Now a thorough analysis (the paper is 35 pages long) of an ancient Egyptian manuscript, the Cairo Calendar, appears to contain a quantitative record of Algol's variability.[1-2] Egyptian astronomers looked to the stars for omens, so they were more like astrologers. In true astrological fashion, they would rate days as "lucky" or "unlucky" based on what was happening in the stars above. The Cairo Calendar contains a nearly complete record of a single year's time, around the time 1271–1163 B.C., for which each day is divided into three parts, and each part is rated to be either "good" or "bad." The synodic period of the Moon, about 29.5 days, was detected in the Cairo Calendar in 2008, and a few other periods were found. Now, team of physicists, and one historian, from the University of Helsinki, Finland, have done a reanalysis of the Cairo Calendar, and they've identified one of these periods as that of Algol. The interesting thing is that the period they obtained, 2.85 days is a bit smaller than today's value of 2.87 days. The authors propose that this is evidence of a change in Algol's period over the three millennia since the Cairo Calendar's publication. One argument that this might be true is that John Goodricke's observations were done, also, by the unaided eye, and his period was 2.867 days. The Egyptian value should have been at least as accurate; perhaps, more accurate because the atmosphere was likely to be clearer. Another is that modern astronomers have detected changes in Algol's period. One possible explanation of a changing period would be a transfer of mass between the two closest stars. 2.87 days is a very short period that's indicative of a close spacing of these stars. The motions of the three stars in the Algol system is a "three body" problem, so no direct solution is possible, even if all the variables were known to more precision. In this case, observation trumps theory. Not surprisingly, Algol has appeared in many science fiction books and films. 1. L. Jetsu, S. Porceddu, J. Lyytinen, P. Kajatkari, J. Lehtinen, T. Markkanen and J. Toivari-Viitala, "Did the ancient Egyptians record the period of the eclipsing binary Algol - the Raging one?" arXiv Preprint Server, April 27, 2012 2. Ancient Egyptians Recorded Algol's Variable Magnitude 3000 Years Before Western Astronomers, Physics arXiv Blog, May 1, 2012. 3. The American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) Web Site. Permanent Link to this article Linked Keywords: Computer scientist; ALGOL; programming language; COBOL; Fortran; compiler; compiled; syntax; C; Pascal; Backus–Naur Form; Wikipedia; lexical scoping; variable; subroutine; function; neophyte; novice; programmer; code reuse; static library; external function; Algol; constellation; Perseus; variable star; light year; Earth; apparent magnitude; period; Mirfak; Wikimedia Commons; star; eclipsing binary; Stellar apparent magnitude; logarithmic scale; ArXiv Preprint Server; Geminiano Montanari; Italian; astronomer; English; John Goodricke; Doppler shift; electromagnetic spectrum; orbit; dragon; celestial body; analysis; ancient Egypt; manuscript; Cairo; Calendar; omen; astrologer; B.C.; lunation; synodic period of the Moon; physicist; historian; University of Helsinki; Finland; millennia; mass; "three body" problem; theory; science fiction.	<urn:uuid:efa35c1a-fa31-412c-847d-852960c728f7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.3651832342147827, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9302485585212708, "url": "http://tikalon.com/blog/blog.php?article=2012/Algol" }
7.4.1 Enclosed sites The majority of enclosed sites in Argyll comprise structures classified as forts and duns with only 26 classified as enclosures and 6 sites categorised as brochs. The latter grouping is concentrated in the north and west of the area and, including a southerly example on Arran, are all located on the Argyll islands (Figure 90). Figure 90: Distribution of forts, duns, brochs and crannogs in Argyll © Kilmartin Museum Defensive structures in the west of Scotland, particularly Argyll, are often known as dùns, a Gaelic vernacular term that can be used to classify any fortified place, or even a naturally defensive place. The term 'dun' was adopted by RCAHMS and is now used to classify smaller (up to 375m²) thick walled stone enclosures dating from around 500 BC to the early historic period. Forts by inference are larger in size and could date to an earlier period than duns. As a classification, these at the time necessary groupings, now seem unsatisfactory as duns and forts (and brochs) form a heterogeneous group, varying in size with different structural morphologies and landscape locations. The function, date and social significance of these structures across Scotland have been much discussed, particularly that of the Atlantic Roundhouse, although this has tended to focus on the broch (and to a lesser degree the wheelhouse) conducted, with a few exceptions, within a decidedly insular framework (Neike 1990; Hingley 1992; Harding 1997, 2004a, Armit; 1991, 2004 Gilmour; 2000, 2005, Parker Pearson et al.; 1996, 1999, Henderson; 2000, 2007 MacKie; 2000, 2007, 2008, 2010). Similarly the chronology and typology of enclosed Iron Age sites in Argyll has been open to debate particularly that between Nieke/Alcock and Harding (Neike 1990; Alcock 2003, Harding; 1997, 2004a). Henderson and Gilmour have recently summed up the debate and argued that most of the excavated circular sites date to the second half of the 1st millenium BC and while many dun sites have produced artefacts of later date, they also have evidence of earlier but poorly dated occupation or constructional phases such as at Druim an Duin (NMRS No. NR79SE 1) and Ardifuir (NMRS No. NR79NE 2). They argue that few of the excavated sites have reliable 1st millennium AD dates for their construction (Henderson and Gilmour 2011). One of the major factors that influence this debate is the paucity of diagnostic finds from many excavated sites or the absence of securely provenance and dated finds where they are more abundant. The dates attributed to some artefacts, particularly from earlier excavations have also been questioned and are in need of systematic reassessment. With this caveat in mind and until this work is done we still in many cases have to rely on the dates given by the original publications or site reports. All excavation work at these type sites has however added something to the overall picture of Iron Age settlement in Argyll and the following summaries use the original RCAHMS typology of sites for ease of reference.	<urn:uuid:ec787f17-95f5-4431-bd19-6e34a307d939>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.05223679542541504, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9559631943702698, "url": "http://www.scottishheritagehub.com/node/1289" }
• Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month Uniformed Public Services Unit 2 Assignment 1 Extracts from this document... Styles of Leadership A definition of leadership is "the ability to impress the will of the leader on those led and induce obedience, respect, loyalty and co-operation (steward (1927))". Another is "the process (act) of influencing the activities of an original group in its efforts towards goal setting and goal achievement (Stodgill (1948)). Leaders are basically people that organise a group to perform a task(s). Achieving these tasks depends on good or bad leadership. It can also depend on the style of leadership used. These different styles can affect how the leader is seen by others and how the leader works to achieve the tasks set by them or others. Overall, the style used will determine the effectiveness of the leader and its team. Types of Leadership Authoritarian Leadership Authoritarian leadership is when the leader tells the people what they must do and leaves them with no room to use their own decisions. This style of leadership relies on the leader to give the image of a decisive and hard leader. They must also make it clear that they do not tolerate misconduct or dissent. The advantage of this style is that it gives quick decisions and maintains discipline. ...read more. This style recognises and encourages achievements, therefore motivating the team. This promotes team building and team spirit. This style of leadership how ever leads to lengthy decision-making. This may in turn compromise the effective use and cost of recourses. This style can also lead to a compromise of discipline. The team leader The team leader is responsible for the safety and work ethic of their assigned team. They must ensure that they are used effectively to achieve the goals set The cost of bad leadership Bad leadership can lead to... * Lack of motivation in staff * Leaving of staff * Wastage of recourses * Non-completion of objectives set * Compromise of safety * Lack of teamwork In the worst cases of bad leadership, mutiny can breakout in the team and the leader replaced. Emergence and selection of Leaders Leaders emerge in different ways... Birth People become leaders at birth. This is because they are the heirs of an already great leader. They there for have the leadership position passed on to them or inherit it when they die. This emergence of a leader is true of the reining monarch. Appointed by others Leaders are sometimes chosen by others. ...read more. These abilities can sometimes be exercised in other people. A common leader that is selected in this manner is a fitness instructor. Intellect abilities This is the same as physical abilities except the person is more intelligent and not fitter. A common leader with this quality would be a teacher of an intellectual subject like maths, science etc. Styles of leadership in the public services Authoritarian Leadership is well known to be used in the Military. It maintains good discipline, which in turn helps in team building and organisation. The military ensure that leaders are clearly shown by their epaulette. Threats are used sometimes to give the team more reason to be successful. This style of leadership is also used in the Police service except threats are rarely used and employees have more of an input. The medical service as a whole, use more than one style of leadership. The paramedics use a form of authoritarian leadership where quick decisions have to be made and goals have to be achieved. The employees, however, sometimes have to make their own decisions and the threat, although it is not given, is a patient may die because of their decision. Like the military and the police, the paramedics also have epaulettes to show who is in charge. ?? ?? ?? ?? Matthew Woolley Unit 2 Assignment 1 Page 4 ...read more. The above preview is unformatted text Found what you're looking for? • Start learning 29% faster today • 150,000+ documents available • Just £6.99 a month Not the one? Search for your essay title... • Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month See related essaysSee related essays Related AS and A Level Miscellaneous essays 1. Uniformed Public Services Unit 1 Assignment 1 Whichever person gets the highest numbers of votes wins the 'seat'. The Party with the most MPs becomes the governing or ruling party. They then choose the Prime Minister who in turn chooses his Cabinet of Ministers from his MPs. 2. There are many current affairs that have an impact on the uniformed public services. ... However the documentary had a positive impact because the racist officers were fired, so the public could see that something was being done about it. On the other hand it will not stop institutionalised racism within the police; the officers will just be more discreet about it. 1. Principles of the Building Control System concerned about the building work itself and whether it is consistent with the approved plans and complies with Building Regulations. There are effectively two different types of inspector. The first are those who enter the profession with a wealth of prior experience and knowledge about the construction industry because they 2. Travel and Tourism Unit 8 Task A Terrorism is an economic issue because of the huge impact that terrorist attacks have on a country's economy. Firstly because the physical damage created by an attack will be very expensive to repair. It is also likely that tighter security will be introduced, such as the thorough checks now made 1. Roles and Responsibilities of a Team Leader "A team leader who can take care of his soldiers earns the confidence of both his men and his supervisors."3 In order to attain the confidence and command the respect of their soldiers they must look to be an example for their soldiers. 2. Customer experience management in UK higher education of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), in order to facilitate liberalisation within higher education worldwide. And while the Bologna Process aims to create systems commensurate quality in higher education throughout the European Union program offers a strong economic dimension within the ambition of making Europe based economy most dynamic knowledge economy in the world. 1. Public Services Unit 3, Citizenship Uganda and Kenya, or from Gujarat, India Other smaller communities in the city include the African Caribbean and Somali communities, both at around 3% each, as well as Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, other African and a Chinese community 54% of Leicester?s school pupils have an ethnic minority background. 2. Public Services: international institutions. Police officers should have a general understanding of the ... http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/six-parts-un The impact the UN has had on UK public services are the following: peace-keeping, disaster relief, environmental concerns and conflict resolutions. The European Union, EU, was created in 1957 although Great Britain did not join until 1973. It was put in place for similar reasons as the UN but • Over 160,000 pieces of student written work • Annotated by experienced teachers • Ideas and feedback to improve your own work	<urn:uuid:4968e28c-bf9b-47f6-ac8d-a38f8348f45d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.96875, "fasttext_score": 0.02745366096496582, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9612898826599121, "url": "http://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/miscellaneous/uniformed-public-services-unit-2-assignment-1.html" }
How To: Remember "greater than" & "less than" symbols This video shows you how to easily remember "greater than" and "less than" math symbols. The first thing you have to remember is that "less than" symbol looks like the letter L ("less than" symbol is "<"). When you see this sign, remember that < looks like L and means "less than". The other symbol, "greater than" does not look like the letter L, therefore it cannot be "less than" and it's easier to remember. The "greater than" symbol is ">". That's it! Good Luck! How To: Use ">" (greater than) and "<" (less than) symbols In this video the author explains how to identify the less than (<) and greater than (>) symbols and when to use them. She explains to us to relate the numbers to animals stating that the smaller numbers are smaller animals and bigger numbers are bigger animals. Now she tells us to imagine that smaller animals are eaten up by the larger animals. So she shows a smaller number comes on the left side of '<' sign and bigger number comes on the right side of '<' sign stating that the bigger number... How To: Find a number given Its percent This how-to video is about how to find a number when its percent is given. This video is really helpful and effective in finding the number when the percent is given, the following steps are explained in the video to find the number when its percent is given: How To: Write A Letter From Teachers To Parents Parental involvement is a crucial ingredient in the success of many children. Teachers know the saying all too well that it takes more than a village to raise a child, for one - it takes parental involvement. Thus, it is important for teachers to reach out to parents in that first week of school. Teachers should write a formal letter that is welcoming and easily comprehensible to the parent and the student. This letter should be able to communicate that the teacher values the child’s educatio... Make Slime Without Borax: 5 Easy Recipes for Gooey Homemade Ooze One of the only things I remember from watching Nickelodeon as a kid is the epic green slime. Looking back, I don't know what was so great about it, but every kid my age thought that being drenched in slime would be the coolest thing on earth. Of course, the first thing I did was beg my parents to buy me some fake slime, but I never knew I could've easily made my own at home. One of the most common ways to make slime is to combine liquid glue with water and a household chemical called borax. ... How To: Use baby powder to reveal latent fingerprints This short video shows us how to reveal latent fingerprints on a glass surface by dusting. Anyone interested in forensic science would enjoy trying it as it shows simple steps in dusting and lifting fingerprints. It does not require any chemicals and we can do it with baby powder. The steps involved are so simple and easy to follow that even kids can try it out for fun. This gives a clear idea about fingerprints on different objects like porous, non porous and metals. Enjoy viewing and detect... How To: Divide small numbers by big numbers This is a mathematical educational video on how to divide a small number by a larger number. You are aware that it is easy to divide a larger number by a small number. For example, if you want to divide 379 by 9 it is easy to do so. But if you have to divide 9 by 379 it is a bit difficult. You have to add a zero and see if you can divide. You need to add one more zero so that you can divide 900 by 379. But you should know that the answer would start like this 0.0 as we have added 2 zeros alre... How To: Solve problems involving functions in algebra How To: Make fireballs you can hold in your hand This flame you CAN hold, without burning your skin off. Learn to make fireballs you can hold in your hand. This amazing video tutorial shows you how to do it. All you'll need for this little science experiment or fiery weapon is 100% cotton cloth, scissors, lighter fuel, cotton string, and a needle. Be careful to follow the directions in this how-to video carefully otherwise you'll really be playing with fire. How To: Figure out the domain & range of a piecewise function How To: Make hydrochloric acid from salt In this tutorial, we learn how to make hydrochloric acid from salt. First, you will pour some salt into a distil flask. After this, you will add in some concentrated sulfuric acid to the salt. Next, you will let these react with each other. You will start to see gasses bubble up and the excess hydrogen chloride gas come out through the top of the tube. To create a stronger reaction, you can add heat underneath the reaction. Then, test this by exposing it to ammonium chloride. If it's the righ... How To: Find a slope of a straight line with: Ax + By + C = 0 In this video the instructor shows how to find the slope of an equation which is in the form Ax + By + C = 0. He says that the formula to find the slope of a line in the above form is slope m = -A/B, where A and B are the numeric constants of the variables x and y in the given equation. He goes on and further shows how to do this with a couple of examples. He shows how to reduce any equation into the general form and how to apply the slope formula then. This video shows how to find the slope ... How To: Find the equation of a circle given: center & tangent In this video, the instructor shows how to find the equation of a circle given its center point and a tangent line to it. To do this, take a graph and plot the given point and the tangent on that graph. Now, from the center of the circle, measure the perpendicular distance to the tangent line. This gives us the radius of the circle. Using the center point and the radius, you can find the equation of the circle using the general circle formula (x-h)(x-h) + (y-k)(y-k) = rr, where (h,k) is th... How To: Find the area & perimeter of triangles & squares When you are figuring the area of a square, you only need to know the height and width of the shape. Once you know the height and width, multiply them to get the area of the square. To find the perimeter of the square, add all four sides together. To find the area of a triangle, multiply together two of the sides (not the hypotenuse) and then multiply that figure by 1/2. To find the perimeter of the triangle, add all three sides together. How To: Make a permanent, reusable glow stick Make a reusable glow stick, glow-in-the-dark-style! Imagine, you'll never have to buy one of those ChemLite's again, because you can reuse this homemade glow stick over and over again. This video tutorial will show you how to make a permanent, reusable glow stick. The materials in this experiment are simple: epoxy resin, straw, and some phosphor powder. How To: Determine if a point lies on a line in slope intercept In this video the author shows how to find out if a Point lies on a Line in Slope Intercept Form. He shows it by an example where he takes a point, which is an ordered pair in the form (x, y) and a line, which is an first degree equation. Now he substitutes the values of x and y in the equation and checks if both the sides of the equation match. If it matches we can conclude that the point lies on the line. By following the method given in this tutorial you can find out if a given point lies ... How To: Translate a sentence into math symbols We will be translating the sentence "twice y differs from 5 by more than two, “into a mathematical equation. The word twice generally means two times, so 2y (because y comes next in the sentence). Differs normally means is different and a difference from something in a mathematical sentence means subtraction most of the time, thus minus five. We don't know if we’re talking about below 5 or above 5 on the number line, so we put absolute value around the equation. More than implies a greater t... How To: Do long division without a calculator This video shows you step by step how to do long division without the use of a calculator. The video shows viewers two different ways to solve a division problem. It first shows how to do the problem the traditional way, then it shows how to do it according to the long division process. The long division process is where you write the whole division, multiplication, and subtraction process out showing all your work. Long division is mainly used when dividing large numbers. There are three com... How To: Find the area of a triangle when given 2 sides & angle This video shows you how to easily find the area of a triangle when you know the length of 2 sides and the angle between them. The first thing you have to do is mark the sides of the triangle by a, b, c, where a is the side between A and B, b is the side between B and C and c is the side between C and A. If you know 2 of these 3 sides an you know the angle between them you can find the area of the triangle very simple: Area= (a x b x sin c)/2, where a, b are the two sides and c is the angle b... How To: Use a Peltier module to create free electricity from heat A Peltier module allows you to turn heat into electricity. Because you can place it in areas that are normally warm anyway, the electricity created is "free" in a sense, though it does work best when one side of the module is cold and the other is hot. In other words, all you'll need for this project is the Peltier module and a cooler surface such as soil or water, and a warm area such as a well lit window or warm pan. Classic Chemistry: Colorize Colorless Liquids with "Black" Magic, AKA the Iodine Clock Reaction Want to make boring old colorless water brighten up on command? Well, you can control the color of water with this little magic trick. Actually, it's not really magic, but a classic science experiment known commonly as the iodine clock reaction, which uses the reactions between water and chemicals to instantly colorize water, seemingly by command. You can use different colorless chemicals to produce different colors, and you can even make the color vanish to make the water clear again. How To: Convert fractions to percents in two steps This video shows you how to easily convert fractions to percents. You can convert fractions to percents in 2 easy steps. The first step is multiplying the fraction by 100 (e.g.. your fraction is 3/5; 3/5 x 100 = 3/5 x 100/1 = 300/5). The second step is reducing the fraction, when possible (e.g.. 3/5 x 100/1 = 300/5 = 60). Don't forget to add the percent sign (%)(you obtained 60%). That's it! Good Luck! Prev Page	<urn:uuid:3f4f1426-e66d-4154-a361-df2035cbf866>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.7888633608818054, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9281920194625854, "url": "https://education.wonderhowto.com/" }
The Mass Audience The King's Book The Costs Of Books The Printed Newspaper Caught On A Daily Paper Called The Spectator Great-grandfathers Of Scientific Journalism Romans Were Masters Of Irony Livy (Titus Livius) (c. 59 B.C.-A.D.17) The Printed Record Of Mankind The British Tabloids True Television A Little Help Finding Your Way Around Contact Us Parting Shots \| Google Search Oneliners, Stories, etc. Who We Are Media Technologies All animal species have perfected a system of communication, but humans are the only species capable of spoken language. Effective communication is essential for a variety of reasons. It serves to inform, motivate, establish authority and control, and allows for emotive expression. For humans in particular, communication is also vital for creating a sense of social cohesion. Just as mankind has evolved over the centuries, our means of communication have followed suit. Communication has existed in various forms since man appeared on Earth. The methods, however, consisted of a disorganized set of signs that could have different meanings to each human using them. It wasn't until three million years after man's debut, around the year 30,000 B.C.E, that communication began to take on an intentional, manufactured format. Other forms of early communication existed, although they were less popular for a variety of reasons. Story telling was used to pass on important information in the days before the existence of the written word. However, since man still lived in separate tribes, this information could not be applied outside one's own tribal community. Drums and smoke signals were also used by primitive man, but were not the most practical means of communicating. Both methods could attract unwanted attention from enemy tribes and predatory animals. These methods were also difficult to standardize. Smoke signals are one of the oldest forms of communications. Soldiers guarding the great wall in ancient China used smoke signals to alert one another to the approach of an enemy. Greeks devised a very complicated system involving an entire alphabet of smoke signals used around 150 BC. The Greeks used torches. While most people in recent times think of smoke signals as being bound to a specific location where a large fire has been built these methods of carrying small combustible, but long burning materials meant the signals could be sent at anytime from anywhere. In fact, some tribes of Native Americans used this mobility as part of the signal itself. For example, signals from midway up a hill could indicate safety, while signals from the top meant danger. Explorers fearfully making their way through a jungle would hear the drums pick up tempo and volume, and they knew they were in deep trouble. Far from being a source of terror the drums in the jungles of Africa or Asia were really more the equivalent of the local news. In fact, drums were a simply method of communications across distances since tempo and volume could be used much the same way as Morse code. What began as primitive cave paintings has morphed into an endless variety of ways to express oneself to other humans. The earliest of this type of writings were believed to have been used since pre-historic times to tell stories, warn of danger, claim territories, and even to mark mass grave sites. The pictures were usually crude and created to look like a physical object. These symbols were employed at first to represent physical items, but later developed into ideograms, which could represent ideas. From early cave drawings to the detailed artistry of Chinese calligraphy this type of writing has developed into a complex and beautiful art form still practiced in some cultures. Writing is a system of linguistic symbols which permit one to transmit and conserve information. Writing appears to have developed between the 7th millennium BC and the 4th millennium BC, first in the form of early mnemonic symbols which became a system of ideograms or pictographs through simplification. The oldest known forms of writing were thus primarily logographic in nature. Later syllabic and alphabetic (or segmental) writing emerged. A great deal of knowledge that mankind guarded for centuries disappeared without a trace. Great people of human race either kept their thoughts and achievements for themselves or carried them in their graves, and the ones that for a change wrote all of that down weren't lucky-€¦ There was some smart guy that burnt it all down during the war or a revolution, or maybe those thoughts are still here, but well hidden. Obviously, we'll never know what great books and writings are lost through time, but we know something about some, although the facts that surround their disappearance are defeating. Little information concerning books in Ancient Greece survives. Several vases (6th century BC and 5th century BC) bear images of volumina. There was undoubtedly no extensive trade in books, but there existed several sites devoted to the sale of books. The spread of books, and attention to their cataloging and conservation, as well as literary criticism developed during the Hellenistic period with the creation of large libraries in response to the desire for knowledge exemplified by Aristotle. Book production developed in Rome in the 1st century BC with Latin literature that had been influenced by the Greek. Communication plays an important part in any revolution, and the gradual changes in communications technology have played an important role in changing the way revolutions occur -€" just as they have changed lives in general. Recently, there has been a lot of chatter about the impact of new media on events across the Middle East and North Africa. There seems no doubt that they have been important, just as Al Jazeera provides a new source of information, delivered in an established way, TV. Sometimes communications fail, and in the absence of reliable information, rumours fester. During the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin, the rebels seized the General Post Office (where else?) north of the river, but the British forces held the bridges across the Liffey, as well as Trinity College, in central Dublin. The rebels and government forces disabled the post, telegrams and phones in Dublin, but a city is too large and complex an organism to survive for long without effective communication. New media played a role in the Protestant Reformation too. In 1517, Martin Luther, a monk and an academic at the local university, nailed 95 Theses to the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, criticising various practices of the Catholic Church. The 'theses' were academic debating points, and Luther anticipated an academic debate. He wasn't the first scholar to criticize the Church, but what made things different from earlier reformers was Gutenberg's invention of moveable type. (Or rather, reinvention; the Chinese got there independently much earlier.) Faster communication was key. Once Luther's original words were printed and distributed, the criticisms of the established order spread faster than ever before possible: within a week they were all over Germany, within a month all over Europe. Once out there, these ideas generated other ideas, which multiplied and fragmented and took on new and different forms -€" and generated equally proliferating reactions as well. In 16th century terms, printing allowed ideas to spread faster than ever -€" across Europe in a month! In the 18th century, the ideas of the French Revolution crossed Europe within days, along established postal routes or by carrier pigeon. But we still face the same problem of separating ideas from rumours, and dealing with the proliferation and fragmentation of ideas. We can certainly communicate faster than ever before. But I suspect we still process that information at much the same speed as we did 500 years ago. Vaughan Bell. Don't Touch That Dial! Slate. February 2010. top of page back a page The Mass Audience \| The King's Book \| The Costs Of Books \| The Printed Newspaper Caught On \| A Daily Paper Called The Spectator \| Great-grandfathers Of Scientific Journalism \| Romans Were Masters Of Irony \| Livy (Titus Livius) (c. 59 B.C.-A.D.17) \| The Printed Record Of Mankind \| The British Tabloids \| True Television Take Me To: All Stories Begin With Once Upon A Time [Home]	<urn:uuid:82993e2f-1c6e-43f8-aeae-b266059ecaaa>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.035624563694000244, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9662512540817261, "url": "http://jcs-group.com/once/media.html" }
Lapis Lazuli Lapis Lazuli is a semi-precious stone. The principal ancient source for Lapis Lazuli was the region of Badakshan in north-eastern Afghanistan, where ancient quarries have been located. It was traded through Mesopotamia and the Levant, reaching as far as the Aegean. Lapis Lazuli from northeast Afghanistan was highly prized by the societies of Bronze Age Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean . No sources for Lapis Lazuli have been firmly identified in Egypt, but it was used in Egypt from c. 3500 BCE (Naqada IIc ), indicating the existence of trade networks at this period. Lapis Lazuli was highly prized by the Egyptians because of its brilliant blue colour, which was associated with water, and therefore having life-giving properties. Due to its colour and relative rarity, Lapis Lazuli was believed to have divine properties central to the Egyptian ideology: amulets of the goddess Maat (often interpreted as representing truth, justice, harmony) can be made from Lapis, and some deities can be shown with blue skin, such as Amun, understood to be Lapis Lazuli. Cleopatra allegedly used powdered Lapis Lazuli for eye-shadow. Interesting links: The Gemstone The National Gallery: stone, pigment and colour Lapis Lazuli at The British Museum 1 Comment 1. see the other post about Sulfur: sickly yellow sulfur, when its atoms are joined up to make rings. The blue colour , artistically and scientifically the opposite of yellow, of lapis is thought to be caused by tiny amounts of pairs of atoms of sulfur, fragments of a molecule trapped in the rock, and held in stasis. We’ll show you how intensely it glows when we make this fragment of sulfur during the lecture on Saturday 19th Nov. It will be fleeting, allowed to find its yellow, stable form, but in its short life will shine blue as bright as does Lapis through the ages, in its mineral cage. Frank Mair You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google+ photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:4f0b41fa-1d03-4a10-8745-a21aef053f46>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.1292230486869812, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9344741106033325, "url": "https://colourchroma.wordpress.com/2011/08/02/lapis-lazuli/" }
About Rajasthan The history of India dates back almost five thousand years, and Rajasthan plays a crucial and unique role, especially with regard to the development of Indian culture. Its impressive story reaches through a heroic past. Its extravagant splashes of bright hues against the desert landscape and the purity of its dry and sandy reaches, the miniature elegance of its small villages and impeccably maintained forts brings alive the story of the yore. The appearance of its grand forts perched on rocky hills still tell the story of the bravery of its men and the stoic sacrifice of its women, and the chivalrous old world manners of all. The history of India dates back almost five thousand years, and Rajasthan plays a crucial and unique role, especially with regard to the development of Indian culture. Its impressive story reaches through a heroic past. Its extravagant splashes of bright hues against the desert landscape and the purity of its dry and sandy reaches, the miniature elegance of its small villages and impeccably maintained forts brings alive the story of the yore. The appearance of its grand forts perched on rocky hills still tell the story of the bravery of its men and the stoic sacrifice of its women, and the chivalrous old world manners of all. The Rajputs rose to prominence in the 9th and 10th centuries, and were a major force to reckon with medieval India. Passionately attached to their land, family and honour, the Rajputs treated war as a sport, and followed a strong chivalric code of conduct. Myths and legends of their velour, gallantry, sacrifice and courage are legion. There are many heroes among the Rajputs, such as Prithviraj Chauhan, who fought successfully against the invader Muhammad Ghori in the battle of Tarain (1191), although he died on the same battlefield in the following year or the great Rana Pratap of Mewar, who defiantly withstood the might of the Mughal, and continued to raid on them even after his defeat. He died in 1597, and his son, Ambar Singh, took over the mantle of opposition to Mughal rule. Rana Pratap was the lone exception, as most of the leading Rajput clans finally married into Mughal royalty and nobility, and went into direct State service of the Mughal Empire. This was chiefly at the behest of the wise and farsighted Mughal emperor, Akbar, who was able to consolidate and expand his empire because of his close ties with the proud Rajputs, the men who made formidable enemies and also steadfast and loyal friends. At the time of independence on 15th august 1947, Rajasthan was known Rajputana (country of Rajputs). It comprised of 18 Princely States, two chieftains and a British administered province of Ajmer-Merwara besides a few pockets and territories outside its main boundaries. It took seven stages to form Rajasthan as defined today. In March 1948 the Matsya Union comprising of Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur and Karauli was formed. Also in March '48 Banswara, Bundi, Dungarpur, Jhalawar, Kishangarh, Kota, Pratapgarh, Shahpura and Tonk joined the Indian union and formed a part of Rajasthan. In April '48 Udaipur joined the state and the Maharana of Udaipur was made Rajpramukh. Therefore in 1948 the merger of south and southeastern states was almost complete. Still retaining their independence from India were Jaipur and the desert kingdoms of Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer. From a security point of view, it was vital to the new Indian Union to ensure that the desert kingdoms were integrated into the new nation. The princes finally agreed to sign the Instrument of Accession, and the kingdoms of Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Click to View Read More Jaipur were merged in March 1949. This time the Maharaja of Jaipur, Man Singh II was made the Rajpramukh of the state and Jaipur became its capital. Later in 1949, the United State of Matsya, comprising the former kingdoms of Bharatpur, Alwar, Karauli and Dholpur, was incorporated into Rajasthan. On January 26th 1950, 18 states of united Rajasthan merged with Sirohi to join the state leaving Abu and Dilwara to remain a part of Greater Bombay and now Gujarat. In November 1956 under the State Re-organization Act, 1956 the erstwhile part 'C' State of Ajmer, Abu Road Taluka, former part of princely State Sirohi (which were merged in former Bombay), State and Sunel Tappa region of the former Madhya Bharat merged with Rajasthan and Sirohi sub district of Jhalawar was transferred to Madhya Pradesh. Thus giving the existing boundary Rajasthan. Today with further reorganisation of the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Rajasthan has become the largest state of the Indian Republic. The princes of the former kingdoms were constitutionally granted handsome remuneration in the form of privy purses and privileges to assist them in the discharge of their financial obligations. In1970, Indira Gandhi, who was then the Prime Minister of India, commenced under-takings to discontinue the privy purses, which were abolished in 1971. Many of the former princes still continue to use the title of Maharaja but the title has little else power other than status symbol. Many of the Maharajas still hold their palaces and have converted them into profitable hotel while some have made good in politics. The democratically elected Government runs the state with a Chief Minister as its executive head and the Governor as the head of the state. The climate of Rajasthan can be divided into four seasons: Summers, Monsoon, Post-Monsoon and winter. A summer, which extends from April to June, is the hottest season, with temperatures ranging from 32 degree C to 45 degree C. In western Rajasthan the temp may rise to 48 degree C, particularly in May and June. At this time, Rajasthan's only hill station, Mt Abu registers the lowest temperatures. In the desert regions, the temperature drops at night. Prevailing winds are from the west and sometimes carry dust storms (we call them aandhi). The second season Monsoon extends from July to September, temp drops, but humidity increases, even when there is slight drop in the temp (35 degree C to 40 degree C). 90% of rains occur during this period. The fourth season is Winter or the cold season, from December to March. There is a marked variation in maximum and minimum temperatures and regional variations across the state. January is the coolest month of the year. And temp may drop to 0 degree C in some cities of Rajasthan, like Churu. There is slight precipitation in the north and northeastern region of the state, and light winds, predominantly from the north and northeast. At this time, relative humidity ranges from 50% to 60% in the morning, and 25% to 35% in the afternoon. Month Temp Rainfall: January to March 50F - 80F 10 degree C - 27 degree C 4MM - 7MM April to June 75F - 105F 24 degree C - 45 degree C 11MM - 30MM July to September 70F - 95F 21 degree C - 35 degree C 100MM - 165MM October to December 55F - 85F 13 degree C - 30 degree C 3MM - 8MM The Land and Topography: The State has an area of 343,000 sq km. / The capital city is Jaipur. These are average temp and rainfall of Rajasthan, and may vary for each city. The temperature is in degrees Fahrenheit. Amazing legends of heroism and romance still resound from its equally amazing architecture, which still stands to narrate its tale of a bygone era. The magic of Rajasthan is unequalled in the world for its heritage, culture, safaris, sand dunes and lush green forests with its wildlife. Rajasthan is often expressed as huge open-air museum with relic so well preserved for the travelers and the curious of the day. It is action-packed with outdoors too; take a safari on horses, camels, elephants or even jeeps with the Aravalis - India's oldest mountain range in the backdrop, or caress your eyes on the sloppy sand dunes, or trail a tiger or just watch birds on wetland. Or you can choose to pamper yourself in the lavish heritage properties. Rajasthan has something for everyone, just choose your activity. The Aravali Range runs across the state from southwest Guru Peak (Mount Abu), which is 1,722 m in height to Khetri in the northeast. This divides the state into 60% in the North West of the lines and 40% in the southeast. The northwest tract is sandy and unproductive with little water but improves gradually from desert land in the far west and northwest to comparatively fertile and habitable land towards the east. The area includes the Great Indian (Thar) Desert. The south-eastern area, higher in elevation (100 to 350 m above sea level) and more fertile, has a much diversified topography. In the south lies the hilly tract of Mewar. In the southeast a large area of the districts of Kota and Bundi forms a tableland, and to the northeast of these districts is a rugged region (badlands) following the line of the Chambal River. Further north the country levels out; the flat plains of the northeastern Bharatpur district are part of the alluvial basin of the Yamuna River. The Aravali outlines Rajasthan's most important division. The Chambal River, which is the only large and perennial river in the State, originates from its drainage to the east of this range and flows northeast. Its principal tributary, the Banas, rises in the Aravali near Kumbhalgarh and collects all the drainage of the Mewar plateau. Further north, the Banganga, after rising near Jaipur, flows east-wards before disappearing. The Luni is the only significant river west of the Aravali. It rises in the Pushkar valley of Ajmer and flows 320 km west-southwest into the Rann of Kachchh. Northeast of the Luni basin, in the Shekhawati tract, is an area of internal drainage characterized by salt lakes, the largest of which is Sambhar Salt Lake. In the vast sandy north-western plain extending over the districts of Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jalor, Sirohi, Jodhpur, Bikaner, Ganganagar, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Pali, and Nagaur, soils are predominantly saline or alkaline. Water is scarce but is found at a depth of 30 to 61 m. The soil and sand are calcareous (chalky). Nitrates in the soil increase its fertility, and, as has been shown in the area of the Indira Gandhi (formerly Rajasthan) Canal, cultivation is often possible where adequate water supplies are made availableThe soils in the Ajmer district in central Rajasthan are sandy; clay content varies between 3 and 9 per cent. In the Jaipur and Alwar districts in the east, soils vary from sandy loam to loamy sand. In the Kota, Bundi, and Jhalawar tract, they are in general black and deep and are well drained. In Udaipur, Chittaurgarh, Dungarpur, Banswara, and Bhilwara districts, eastern areas have mixed red and black and western areas red to yellow soils. Rajasthan is a northwesterly state of India. It is bound on the west and North West by Pakistan, on the north and northeast by the States of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, on the east and southeast by the States of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, and on the southwest by the State of Gujarat. As the state of Rajasthan was found by merging the princely states, it has many dialects. The four main dialects are Marwari (in western Rajasthan), Jaipuri or Dhundhari (in the east and southeast), Malvi (Malwi; in the southeast), and, in Alwar, Mewati is spoken, which shades off into Braj Bhasa in Bharatpur district. The main language written and spoken is Hindi. English is also commonly understood, except at the grass root levels. However, tourist guides and translators are also available in French, Spanish, German and Japanese. Rajasthan is a vibrant state where tradition and history blend with contemporary life styles. People are proud of their heritage and yet open to change western values. Modern Rajasthan is bringing in amenities like elsewhere in the world. It has remarkable roads and transport systems. Its roads are trafficked by some of latest cars and buses, rickshaws, camel carts and horse drawn Tongas as well as improvised tempos. The markets are lined with a shopping extravaganza with some of its store being very posh. Rajasthan offers wide ranging accommodations to some of the most elite and luxurious 5 star deluxe hotels in the world. Most of these five-starred deluxe hotels are properties converted from former palaces and forts and they offer a superlative and fulsome life style for experience. Each hotel has a restaurant and some even have a bar. Normally a Tourists Reception Centre is also located on the same premises and is handy for any information. International food chains like Mc Donald, Pizza Hut, Dominos etc exist along with international beverages like Coco Cola, Pepsi or Nescafe. Rajasthan is the largest state in the Republic of India and has vibrant trade and industry. It is rich in mineral resources and a recent exploration also found large deposits of oil. Modern Rajasthan has some of best banking service and is well serviced by ATM honoring all international credit and debit cards. Rajasthan Culture: Rajasthan is famous for its unique culture reflected in its exuberant celebrations and fair and festivals. A tour on palace on Wheels will take you to the vibrant state of Rajasthan, where you can explore the colorful bazaars, the myriad topography of the Thar Desert, the native people, and colorful fairs and festivals of Rajasthan. The state of Rajasthan offers its special festivities interspersed throughout the year, celebrating each season, each legend, each deity. Almost every festival has its own flavor with a meaningful identity; there are animal fairs, religious fairs, and fairs to mark the changing seasons. The barren desert land of Rajasthan glitters with the colors of joyous celebration and gay abandon with every fair and festival of Rajasthan. The fairs of Rajasthan are invariably a reflection of the genius of their arts and crafts and their ascetic refinement. The main attractions for many tourists are its bazaars, auctions, music and sport events. The native women dressed in colorful clothes create an atmosphere of merriment. Every festival in Rajasthan has its own specialty; the occasion is marked with mouth-watering dishes, dance, and music. The fairs and festivals of Rajasthan are popular amongst the tourists as it provides opportunity to gain an insight into the life of the people of Rajasthan. Rajasthan has all the usual Hindu and Muslim festivals, some celebrated with special local fervor as well as a number of festivals of its own. The exact dates, determined by the lunar calendar have specific religious significance. Other than the traditional fairs, recently established festivals that involve elephants, camel races, dance, and music have been specially organized for tourists. Among the better-known fairs and festivals of Rajasthan are: Pushkar Fair, Pushkar (November): The well known and marked with largest participation of all the festivals of Rajasthan, Pushkar is an important pilgrimage as well as the venue of mammoth cattle fair. Bazaars, auctions, music, and sports are highlight of this event. Desert Festival, Jaisalmer (Jan-Feb.): One of the most popular among the festivals of Rajasthan, the Jaisalmer Desert festival is a journey into the heart of the Rajasthan desert, the golden city of Jaisalmer. A true show on the sands, which attracts even the much-traveled visitor. Folk performers like musicians, ballad singers, snake charmers, and puppeteers all exhibit their traditional skills. There are exciting camel dances, camel acrobatics, camel races, and camel polo, competitions for the best decorated camel, tug-of-war between musclemen, a turban tying competition and a Mr. Desert contest. The culmination is a sound and light spectacle on a moonlit night amidst sand dunes. Elephant Festival, Jaipur (March-April): A festival to celebrate Holi, this is a great occasion for the visitor to watch several elephant sports and also play this festival of colors. A show is organized with the elephants turning out in their best finery. Gangaur Festival (March-April): A festival devoted to Goddess Parvati, the consort of Lord Shiva. It is time for young girls to dress up in their finery and pray for grooms of their choice while the married women pray for the well being of their husbands. This 18-day festival is laced with various activities and culminates in a grand procession marking the arrival of Shiva to escort his bride home. Marwar Festival, Jodhpur (October): A festival devoted mainly to the music and dance of the Marwar region. This is a festival that allows the visitor to understand and enjoy the folk traditions of this part of the state. Organized by the Department of Tourism, Government of Rajasthan, the Marwar Festival was originally known as the Maand Festival. Maand is a classical style of folk music centered on the romantic life style of Rajasthan's rulers, and Maand Raag recreates the old world charm and graceful dances of the desert. A must for those interested in folk music during their holidays in Rajasthan. Camel Festival, Bikaner (January): An enchanting desert city, which comes alive with music and dance during the famed Camel Festival of Bikaner. It is fast gaining popularity as the visitor finds an opportunity to see some unusual folk performances, camel, race camel dance etc. Teej Festival, Jaipur (July-August): A festival to mark the advent of monsoon. Processions, women dressed in bright colours and a lot of merriment prevail during Teej. Essentially a women's festival, it is interesting to watch them enjoying in groups and at various bazaars where they turn up to shop in all their finery. Nagaur Fair, Nagaur (Jan-Feb.): Essentially an animal fair, it provides an opportunity to participate in some of the local sports. Situated half way between Bikaner and Jodhpur, Nagaur awakens with the thronging of cattle, horses and camels accompanied by their colorfully turbaned owners. There is earnest bargaining between owners and buyers, and plenty of fun and festivity. Games, tug-of-war contests, camel races, and strains of ballads create a joyful atmosphere with the setting sun in the background. Mewar Festival, Udaipur (March-April): A festival to welcome the spring season. There is song, dance, processions, devotional music, and fireworks where almost everybody participates. Not to be missed during your Rajasthan tour and travel. Urs Ajmer Sharif, Ajmer (According to Lunar Calendar): Held in the memory of the revered Sufi Saint Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti, it is an occasion for thousands of believers to congregate at the shrine and offer their prayers. All of Ajmer seems to take on a festive air and several programmes are organized to mark the festival. Summer Festival, Mount Abu (June): Organized in the only hill station of Rajasthan, this is the coldest place at this time of the year. Folk dances and a general atmosphere of gaiety prevail in this tiny hill resort and the tourist has ample time to relax and enjoy himself. Tourist destinations of Rajasthan, India reveal the most bewitching sights that leave you spellbound, you marvel at the intricate carvings and the artistic patterns that are an expression of the artistic skill of the Rajasthan craftsmen. The Hindustan Travel offers tour packages that are tailored to suit your travel tour needs. You could choose from an option of numerous tour packages that take you on tours to the forts and palaces in Jaipur, the sand dunes in Jaisalmer, pilgrimage sites in Ajmer and Pushkar the havelis of the Shekhawati region. Tourist Destinations of Rajasthan as follows: Destination to Ajmer Destination to Chittorgarh Destination to Jodhpur Destination to Udaipur Destination to Alwar Destination to Jaipur Destination to Pushkar Destination to Bikaner Destination to Jaisalmer Destination to Shekhawati Destination to Mount Abu Destination to Ranthambhor National Park Destination to Sariska National Park Destination to Ajmer, Rajasthan: Ajmer in Rajasthan, India is world famous for the Ajmer-e-Sharief shrine. The Hindustan Travel takes you on destination to Ajmer that was established sometime in the 7th century. This ancient city is a fertile and green tract in the midst of barren hills and desert and offers excellent tour opportunities for those interested in exploring the wonders of nature. The culture and traditions followed by the locals in Ajmer in Rajasthan, India is an enchanting amalgamation of Hindu and Muslim culture that has evolved over the ages and is a part and parcel of the vibrant culture of this ancient state that was an important center of Chauhan power in the ancient times and later became an integral part of the Sultanate and finally came under the Mughal rulers. Over the years these rulers left their impact on the architecture, culture and traditions of Ajmer in Rajasthan, India. A destination to Ajmer in Rajasthan, India takes you to one of the most holy spots of the Muslims, the Ajmer-e-Sharief, or the dargah of the Muslim saint Moinuddin Chishti. This Mausoleum is rated as second only to Mecca, which is the most important Muslim pilgrimage for the Muslims all over the world. Urs at Ajmer Sharif, Ajmer: The Hindustan Travel makes all arrangements & reservations to the grandly religious celebration of Urs in Ajmer Sharif, Ajmer, located in Rajasthan, North India. A travel tour to Ajmer located in Rajasthan, in North India, is a good opportunity to experience the religious fervor and charm of Urs, which is celebrated in Ajmer sharif, located in Ajmer, Rajasthan, North India. The Hindustan Travel would be a fruitful one as it is a rich resource of travel related information about Urs in Ajmer, Rajasthan, North India, and so is a guided travel tour to Ajmer, located in Rajasthan, North India. As a travel tour to Ajmer Sharif, located in Ajmer, Rajasthan, North India, showcases, Urs is a reference to the six day prayer time which was taken by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, in the year 1265 A.D, before bidding adieu for the heavens above. As a travel tour to Ajmer sharif, located in Ajmer, Rajasthan, North India, shows to us, it is the month of August every year which sweeps the town of Ajmer, with colors and festoons as people, belonging to all faiths and religions congregate at this holy shrine of the Muslims located in Ajmer, Rajasthan, North India. Urs is one celebration, which is a proud testament to the spirit of communal bonhomie and peaceful co existence, which are in great demand in today's troubled times. Destination to Chittorgarh, Rajasthan: Chittorgarh, the land of the martial Rajput fighters, beckons you to come and visit its forts and palaces that are a legacy of the splendid royal past of Rajasthan, India. During your tours to Chittorgarh in Rajasthan, India you get a golden opportunity to see for yourself the land of the gallant, courageous and passionate romantics. Chittorgarh forms the subject of popular local ballads sung by the bards of Rajasthan, India that speak of the famous wars, romantic and royal intrigues. Destination to Chittorgarh in Rajasthan, India must definitely include tours to the Chittorgarh Fort that has a very tumultuous history. This fort was attacked on a number of occasions; the goriest war took place when the Sultan of Gujarat attacked Chittorgarh that is when thousands of Rajput women committed 'Johar' i.e. 'mass-scale suicide'. Destination to Chittorgarh in Rajasthan, India unveils to you the land of the brave who would rather face death with dignity than suffer disgrace at the hands of their enemies. In the year 1568 the Mughal ruler Akbar attacked the Chittorgarh Fort and destroyed it to a great extent. During your Chittorgarh tours you are welcome to stay at any of the hotels located in the main Chittorgarh Township that is spread all over the plains below the hill, which is crowned by the Chittorgarh Fort. Destination to Jodhpur, Rajasthan: Jodhpur in Rajasthan, India is popularly known as the blue city and is one of the most prominent travel destinations located in Rajasthan, India. Fortified Jodhpur was established in the year 1459 A.D. by a local Rajput chieftain Rao Jodha. The term Jodhpur is synonymous with stories of love, war and intrigue, the majestic Mehrangarh Fort, the awe inspiring Jaswant Thada, romantic gold sands that were silent spectators to many a love story that took birth and dissolved in these sandy stretches and constitute the theme of many a folk song. Destination to Jodhpur with the travel guide takes you to almost every historical site and place of tourist interest located in each and every corner of Jodhpur in Rajasthan, India. The entire Jodhpur city may be divided into four clear sections, the Ratanada, Shastri Nagar, Sadarpur and the new city. You are free to choose from amongst the wide variety of tour packages that take you to the part of the Jodhpur city in Rajasthan, India that you would prefer to visit. Destination to Udaipur, Rajasthan: Udaipur is synonymous with the phrase 'the city of lakes'. Udaipur is one of the very popular tourist destinations in Rajasthan, India. The mere mention of Udaipur in Rajasthan, India evokes a feeling of romantic thrill and brings to mind the popular lores of love, royal life, sacrifices, wars and more. There are a number of architectural wonders that ornament Udaipur that is considered to be one of the most romantic destinations in Rajasthan, India. Udaipur is a honeymooner's paradise with its azure lakes that form a clear contrast with the essential dry and desert environs. During your tours to Udaipur, you can go on tours to the places of tour interest such as the City Palace, Lake Palace, Saheliyon Ki Bari, Jagdish Temple, Fateh Sagar Lake, Maharana Pratap Memorial, Gulab Niwas Garden and the Government Museum. Each of these tour destinations located in different parts of Udaipur offers you a special visual treat, for example while you go on the Lake Palace, that is incidentally a heritage hotel now, you will discover that this erstwhile place located right at the center of the Lake Pichola in Udaipur in Rajasthan, India gives the impression of a huge white lotus afloat. Saheliyon Ki Bari is another unique tourist spot with artistically carved marble fountains that water tiny picturesque water pools located throughout this artificially created garden that was especially constructed for the ladies of the royal household. Destination to Alwar, Rajasthan: Alwar in Rajasthan, India is a green valley that lies at the center of barren hills and is a welcome respite in the barren environs of this part of Rajasthan. The fact that Alwar has a long history that is very easily traceable to the prehistoric times makes Alwar the oldest city of Rajasthan and adds to its romantic charm. You also visit the important places of tourist interest that you must visit are the Alwar Fort, Vinay Vilas Palace, Tomb of Fateh Jung and the Moosi Maharani Chattri. Each of the above-mentioned historical sites have a special significance of their own and every monument has been witness to some event in history that has had some role in shaping the history of Alwar in Rajasthan. Though Alwar as it exists today was established in the 11th century by Maharaja Alghuraj. Destination to Jaipur, Rajasthan: Come and visit the pink city and feast your eyes on the eternal and unbroken views of this perfectly planned city. The nine divisions of the pink city as Jaipur in Rajasthan, India is commonly referred to as are said to be a reflection of the fact that the Universe has nine divisions. During your tours of Jaipur in Rajasthan, you can avail of tour packages to the celebrated Amber Fort, Jaigarh Fort, Jantar Mantar and the Hawa Mahal. Besides these tourist places Jaipur in Rajasthan offers you a complete heritage tour package to tourist sites such as the Chandra Mahal and the Ram Niwas Gardens, heritage hotels such as the Samode Haveli, Ramgarh Lodge, Narain Niwas Palace and the Hotel Bissau Palace. The importance of these heritage hotels lie in the fact that they were actually forts and palaces that were built and inhabited by the royalty of Jaipur in Rajasthan. The special experience of staying at these royal palaces adds a dash of regal adventure to your Jaipur tours to Rajasthan, India. While on your pink city tours you can actually devour the picture perfect visual panorama that is created during the twilight hours with the setting sun casting its red-gold glow over the buildings that are uniformly painted in pink. The most exciting Jaipur tours that you are bound to enjoy are the trek on elephant-back up to the Amber Fort located on top of a hill that overlooks a pretty lake. A trip to the Chandra Mahal located in Jaipur in Rajasthan, India can be especially educative with respect to Rajputana architecture. Your accommodations are to the heritage hotels of Jaipur in Rajasthan, India reveals the royal lifestyle dripping in luxury and comfort that reflects the living style of the erstwhile Rajput rulers of Jaipur in Rajasthan, India. These heritage palaces were converted into hotels after India became independent. Destination to Pushkar, Rajasthan: The Hindustan Travel offers you tours to the places of tourist interest located in Pushkar in Rajasthan, India. Destination to Pushkar tours with The Hindustan Travel takes you to this tiny and peaceful, sleepy desert town that spring to life every year during the Pushkar fair that happens to be the largest camel fair in the world. Pushkar in Rajasthan, India is synonymous with Lord Brahma, the sacred lakes and the annual camel fair. As a common legend goes Pushkar in Rajasthan, India came into existence under the patronage of the Hindu deity Lord Brahma. The three sacred lakes located in Pushkar in Rajasthan, India are said to have sprung up when Lord Brahma accidentally dropped three lotus petals on the Pushkar sands. Travel to Pushkar in Rajasthan, India takes you to a somniferous world where people go about their village chores at a leisurely pace, herds of sheep, goats, cattle and camels greet you and offer you a picture perfect village world. Destination to Bikaner, Rajasthan: Destination to Bikaner in Rajasthan, India will take you into a world of orange-gold sands that reflect the golden glow of the sun with camel caravans moving at a slow pace across the desert sands. Bikaner has a lot to offer in terms of places of tourist interest, snack foods, sweetmeats and a lot more. During your travel to Bikaner in Rajasthan, India you get a golden opportunity to be an integral part of the color and lively atmosphere of Bikaner in Rajasthan, India. The perfect way to feel the traditional Bikaner romance is to go on camel safari tours that unravels a world full of old world charm that is much the same as it was in the yesteryears. Travel to Bikaner in Rajasthan, you takes a traditional world of mythical beliefs, ancient traditions and at the same time a region that has developed in terms of infrastructure, as an illustration one may note that Bikaner in Rajasthan, was the first Indian state to be completely electrified during the post independence period. Destination to Jaisalmer, Rajasthan: Come and visit the desert land of Jaisalmer, shrouded in enigma with the tours of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, India. Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, India is synonymous with vast expanses of golden sands dotted with yellow sandstone monuments that blend in perfectly with the picturesque environs. You can visit here in Jaisalmer the places of tourist interest such as the Jaisalmer Fort, Patwon Ki Haveli, Salim Singh Ki Haveli, Bara Bagh, Desert National Park, Lodurva Jain Temple and the Gadsisar Sagar Tank. The very mention of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, India evokes images of camel caravans moving at a leisurely pace, their shadows tracing the boundaries of the gold sands in the reddish glow of the setting sun. You must ensure that you choose a tour package that takes you on desert safaris or camel safaris across the Jaisalmer sands in Rajasthan. It is definitely not an experience that you would want to miss; in fact a trip to Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, is incomplete without a camel safari. Destination to Shekhawati, Rajasthan: The Hindustan Travel offers a travel to Shekhawati, located in Rajasthan, North India, would too point out in the direction of the richness and artistic beauty of the Shekhawati region, is a rich and clear reflection of the artistic worth and the breathtakingly charming murals painted on the walls, ceiling and the back portions of gates, in the now empty havelis of Shekhawati, located in Rajasthan, North India. you also find here an insight into the charm and artistic finesse of the small cities of the order of Jhunjhunu, Mandwa, Nawalgarh, Bissau, Churu, and Dundlod. A luxury travel tour to Shekhawati, located in Rajasthan, North India, would portray the wall paintings in the large mansion sized havelies which normally have giant wooden entrances studded with iron nails. The mansion owners used to beautify their havelis in order to outmatch each other in pageantry and pomp. The Seths of the order of Dalmias, Khetans, Birlas, Goenkas, Piramals, Singhanias, are the big and popular names who have their havelis in the Shekhawati region, which can also be referred to by the sobriquet of the open-air art gallery of Rajasthan, North India. A unique destination for Adventure and eco tourism : The flora and fauna enjoys the adulation of the tourist to the fullest. Among the flourishing ranges is the highest point of the Aravalli is the 'Gurushikhar' with a vast sanctuary that shelters a number of species like langur, wild boars, Sambar, leopards and many more along with a number of flowering trees thus enhancing the whole scenario. This glorious ambience suited mainly to the likes of sages and tribals and both made a great impact in the history of the region. The tribes still conducting there authentic life styles in the wake of 21st century are rather interesting and so is the collection of various monuments of different religious sects like the famous shrines of Jainism. The Dilwara temple is famous for architectural genius. The intricate carving on the marble stone is simply mesmerizing leaving the senses spell bound with its neat structuring. A cluster of Hindu temples also marks the land with their historical past. The Brahmkumari Ashram is another world famous religious community center. Dilwara Temples [3 krns] : Mount Abu was an important Vaishnava and Shaivite pilgrim center up to the 11th century. Today, it is recognized the world over for it's magnificent Jain temples. No visit to Abu can be complete without a trip to the famed Dilwara temples. These temples are the greatest draw of Abu, apart from its salubrious clime. Half hidden by mango groves their sober exterior belies the wealth of their interior ornamentation. Wondrously carved in marble, the Dilwara temples enshrine various Jain tirthankaras, saints. Built between the 11th and 13th century, are famous for their superb carvings in marble. Vimal Vasahi is the oldest temple, was built by Vimal Shah, Minister of Solanki ruler of Gujarat in 1031 A.D. It is dedicated to Adinath, the first of the Jain tirthankaras. Constructed out of white marble from Arasoori Hill, near Ambaji, 23 km from Abu Road, It is an outstanding example of Jain temple architecture. The central shrine has an image of Rishabhdev and large courtyard with 52 small shrines, each housing a beautiful statue of thirthankaras with 48 elegantly carved pillars from the entrance to the courtyard. The Vasahi Temple, dedicated to me 22nd tirthankara. - Neminath was built in 1231 A .D by two brothers - Vastupal and Tejpal, Minister of Raja Virdhavala, a ruler of Gujrat belonging to the Porwal Jain community. The door casings, friezes, architraves, pillars, the sculptures of porticos, are astonishing in their workmanship. Rewards in the from of silver and gold equivalent to the weight of marble covered, were offered to the laborer. A great deal of inspiration, devotion, love and encouragement was involved in the construction of this temple. The most striking feature of this Jain temple built in the Solanki style of architecture is the marble pendant in the dome of the porch. It drops from the ceiling like an enchanting cluster of half-open lotuses with cups so finely carved that they appear to be transparent. Sunset Point It provides a lovely view of the setting sun, South-West of Nakki lake, where the sun gradually drowns itself in the azure sky between two mountain peaks, steps lead up to high terrace which offers an awe inspiring view of the setting sun. Achalgarh (08 km) Medieval monument of Mt Abu, is the Achalgadh fort commissioned by Rana Kumbha, who was responsible for dozens of gigantic fortresses in southern Rajasthan, with massive battlemented walls and a situation on a mountain peak offering great views. A steeply winding path leads up to the 15th century fortress and the temples within the fortified walls, great for a view of the countryside. The carved Jain temples are a 10 minute climb, worthwhile for the view and the sculpture. Below the path is the Achleshwar temple, with a Nandi said to be made of the five metals-gold, silver, copper, brass and zinc, called Panchadattu, and weigh more than 4 tons. The temple is believed to have been built in the 9th century around a toe print of lord Shiva, with a hole claimed to reach the netherworld, a natural Shivalinga and idols of a crystal like stone, which looks opaque, but when a candle is placed behind it sparkles like crystal. Nearby is the pleasant looking Mandakini Lake, enclosed by rocky hills, with images of a Rajput king and buffaloes. According to legend, the tank was filled with ghee and the watering hole of demons disguised as buffaloes until they were shot by Raja Adi Pal. Gurushikhar(15 km) : The highest peak on the mount (1722 mts above the sea level) allows a bird eye view of the sylvan surroundings of Mount Abu. A small shrine and a temple of Dattatreya standing on the shikhar are worth a visit. Gaumukh Temple (Vashistha Ashram): Mount Abu Wildlife Sanctuary The sanctuary comprises the oldest mountain ranges The sanctuary is rich in herbal medicinal plants also. About 81 species of tree, 89 species of shrubs, 28 species of climbers and 17 species of tuberous plants of medicinal importance have been identified. A variety of fauna including highly rare, threatened and endangered species are found in this sanctuary. The past history of Mount Abu indicates the presence of Lion (last recorded in 1872) and Tiger (last reported in 1970). Presently the Panther is the apex predator. Other animals found here are Sambhar, Jungle Cat, Small Indian Civet, Wolf, Hyaena, Jackal, Indian Fox, Common Langoor, Wild Boar, Pangolin, Rate!, Common Mongoose, Indian Hare, Porcupine, Hedgehog, etc. The sanctuary provides an ideal habitat for Sloth Bear; the population of Sloth Bear is increasing regularly as it can be seen while going through the forests or motoring on the road. Nakki Lake [1 km] : Toad Rock: Overhanging the Nakki Lake, so called because of its likeness to gigantic toad about to leap into the water Summer Max : 37.0 degree C Min. 23.0 Degree C Winter Max : 29.0 degree C Min. 9.1 Degree C Total area : 392.5 sq. kms. – Ranthambhor National Park (core) 274.50 sq. kms. / Buffer area to R.N.P. 118.00 sq. kms. Airport : Nearest Airport Jaipur 180 km. Several flights from Delhi, Mumbai and other parts of India. Ranthambhor National Park, before a princely game conserve is the scene where the celebrated Indian Tiger is best seen. Ranthambhor Tiger Reserve lies on the junction of Aravali and Vindhyas just 14 Kms from Sawai Madhopur in Eastern Rajasthan. It sprawls over a varying and undulating landscape. The scenery changes dramatically from gentle and steep slopes of the Vindhyas and sharp and conical hills of the Aravali. A tenth century fort also blends amicably with the background. Pure sands of Dhok (Anogeissus pendula) interspersed with grasslands at the plateaus, meadows in valleys and luxuriant foliage around the canals make the jungle. Three big lakes – Padam Talab (meaning Lake), Malik Talab and Raj Bagh – are similar turquoises studded in the vast forest that abounds with aquatic vegetation including duckweeds, lilies and lotus. A significant geological feature within the park is the 'Great Boundary Fault' where the Vindhaya plateau meets the Aravali range. The Rivers Chambal in the South and the Banas in the North bound the National Park. The park is dotted with steep rocky hills and the dominating architecture of Ranthambhor Fort (built in the 10th century), adds to its landscape. The rugged park terrain alternates between dry deciduous forest, open grassy meadow, dotted by several lakes and rivers that are only made passable by rough roads built and maintained by the Forest Service. The tiger is not the only attraction at Ranthambhor; although it is the one park resident that people come to see. A variety of birds including Owlets, the ubiquitous Langur (monkey), Leopard, Caracal, Hyena, Jackal, Jungle Cat, marsh Crocodiles, Wild Boar, Bears and various species of Deer are the other attractions. Ranthambhor is plagued by the typical problems encountered by all game reserves in India - people living in and around the parks and grazing by livestock! Between 1976-1979, 12 villages within Ranthambhor National Park were resettled outside the designated park area with only a few people now residing in scattered hamlets within the park. Of course poachers continue their activities with increasing demand from China for Tiger parts. There are no accurate figures on how many tigers and poachers kill other species, but on occasion evidence appears in the form of large numbers of skins and other body parts found on couriers. The park is well staffed and the folk who man the centres and the mandatory guides - one for every vehicle, are knowledgeable of the terrain and some even know the Latin names of most species. The tiger is not the only attraction at Ranthambhor; although it is the one park resident people come to see. We were lucky to see several varieties of birds including these owlets peering through their burrow pictured here on the right and of course the ubiquitous langur monkey. Other animals in the reserve include leopard, caracal, hyena, jackal, jungle cat, marsh crocodiles, wild boar, bears and various species of deer. The main food source for the tiger is the swamp deer like Barasinsga and on occasion the wild buffalo and also wild boar etc. If you wish to stay near the park, the facilities on offer are superb. The park gates open a half hour before sunrise and close half hour after sunset. The timings are vigorously imposed and no exceptions are made to this rule. Tiger Moments: Tiger Burning Bright in rare and relaxed moments exhibits it lovable beauty. It is in these moments that the sheer beauty and power of this animal comes out so mesmerizing. It is an experience that no one should fail to spot. If your grand mother has told you that cat the maternal aunt of the tiger did not teach a tiger to climb trees so he can’t climb trees then she was probably not wholly right. A commendable photographs shows that tigers can scale trees like other cats but only upto 16 months of age of after which they too heavy to do so. These pictures depict the world around the tiger and are expected to arouse passion for the tiger. The tiger is waging a lonely battle for survival – you must stand for restoring the eco-balance. Save Tiger: Like oil lamps flickering in the wind, the world's tiger population is unhurriedly being snuffed out. Several books and literature have been produced to describe the most intriguing, the most powerful and the most majestic of all animals. The Hindu tradition and culture have a place of honor and worship for tiger. In India people had added Singh, Sher and Nahar on their names to upgrade their class. Yet people have been incredibly scant to the cause of the tiger. This web site aims in graphics, pictures and prose to advance the level of wakefulness and concern for this mythical and secretive striped beauty that placidly roams the jungles. There is enormous pressure on the habitat of the tigers, the Ranthambhore Foundations hopes to strike an ecological balance and complete harmony between man and the beast. Summer Max : 41.0 degree C Min. 28.0 Degree C Winter Max : 23.0 degree C Min. 8.0 Degree C Rainfall : 57.77 cms Humidity : 70 percent Total Area : 866sq.km. – Sariska (core) area 498sq.km. ACCESS Airport : Nearest Airport: Jaipur 180 km. Several flights from Delhi, Mumbai and other parts of India. The park is open almost whole year-round, but for wildlife viewing and your comfort it is best to visit from October to April. 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Teleportation-Seminar-Topic.Teleportation seminar topic explains about new way of communication system where objects information is scanned and details are sent to other end, at receiving end object is reconstructed based on received information. This seminar topic explains about introduction to teleportation technology, History of this technology, steps involved in teleportation, types of teleportation, human teleportation details and feature of this technology. This technology was a created by Hollywood fiction film makers which was later became a reality. IBM was the first company to research on teleportation technology, they had experimented by sending original objects scanned information which is replica to that object and on receiving end object is reconstructed using received information which is not the original object but replica of that object this experiment is conduction on atom by sending it on coaxial cable for a shorter distance which was successful. Teleportation machine is similar to fax machine but it can capture 3d and 2d images which are used to capture information of the object before transmitting them. After the success of teleportation experiment scientists are working of transmitting human teleportation. This paper presentation will explain details of other teleportation applications. download Teleportation Seminar Topic , paper presentation.	<urn:uuid:74dcc533-5ef9-4ba3-befe-8674139477fe>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.09411448240280151, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9478225708007812, "url": "http://1000projects.org/teleportation-seminar-topic.html" }
Kevlar-based artificial cartilage mimics the magic of the real thing Kevlar-based artificial cartilage mimics the magic of the real thing Synthetic materials couldn't match it—until "Kevlartilage" was developed by researchers at the University of Michigan and Jiangnan University. "We know that we consist mostly of water—all life does—and yet our bodies have a lot of structural stability," said Nicholas Kotov, the Joseph B. and Florence V. Cejka Professor of Engineering at U-M, who led the study. "Understanding cartilage is understanding how life forms can combine properties that are sometimes unthinkable together." Many people with joint injuries would benefit from a good replacement for cartilage, such as the 850,000 patients in the U.S. who undergo surgeries removing or replacing cartilage in the knee. The other synthetic materials that mimic the physical properties of cartilage don't contain enough water to transport the nutrients that cells need to thrive, Kotov said. The new Kevlar-based hydrogel recreates the magic of cartilage by combining a network of tough nanofibers from Kevlar—the "aramid" fibers best known for making bulletproof vests—with a material commonly used in hydrogel cartilage replacements, called polyvinyl alcohol, or PVA. This mechanism enables high impact joints, such as knees, to stand up to punishing forces. Running repeatedly pounds the cartilage between the bones, forcing water out and making the cartilage more pliable as a result. Then, when the runner rests, the cartilage absorbs water so that it provides strong resistance to compression again. An electron microscope image of the synthetic cartilage matrix. Image credit: Lizhi Xu, Kotov LabThe synthetic cartilage boasts the same mechanism, releasing water under stress and later recovering by absorbing water like a sponge. The aramid nanofibers build the framework of the material, while the PVA traps water inside the network when the material is exposed to stretching or compression. Even versions of the material that were 92 percent water were comparable in strength to cartilage, with the 70-percent version achieving the resilience of rubber. Kotov is a member of the Biointerfaces Institute, which provides shared space for researchers from U-M's engineering and medical schools. He is also a professor of chemical engineering, materials science and engineering, and macromolecular science and engineering. The study, recently published in Advanced Materials, is titled "Water-rich biomimetic composites with abiotic self-organizing nanofiber network." It was supported by the National Science Foundation, with additional funding from the Department of Defense. The university is seeking patent protection and partners to bring the technology to market. mage credit: Joseph Xu, Michigan Engineering	<urn:uuid:d17a5778-631f-4910-9f20-bc865e16f18c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.0996435284614563, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9377769827842712, "url": "https://nano-magazine.com/news/2017/11/15/kevlar-based-artificial-cartilage-mimics-the-magic-of-the-real-thing" }
Terrestrial Transect Survey 2015 The Site: Your team will select a dune area on East Beach. The location is well-exposed to the sun, so bring your sunscreen and hat! You will need to bring with you a transect line, a sampling frame, your field notebook, pencil, and sampling bags and/or tape. You will choose a specific site that goes from the strand line inland to locate your transect for analysis. You will notice that from the strand line toward the interior, the vegetation changes in kinds, amount, and size. Questions to Consider: What is the basis for the observed zonation of terrestrial plants from the strand to the interior? What are the differences in microenvironment as you move from the strand to the backdune (think of temperature, light exposure, wind, salinity, fresh water availability, soil or substrate type, etc.)? What percentage of the ground (substrate) is covered by vegetation? Why are certain sites less suitable for plant growth? How many individual plants of each species are found in each microenvironment? What is the dominant species of plant? Which of the microenvironment parameters seem to be most important in determining which species become dominant? What characteristics of the dominant plants permit them to be competitive in these environments? Which adaptations are missing in the rarer species? Which microenvironments lead to greater species diversity? How did these species arrive on San Salvador? Which characteristics (protoadaptations) allowed certain species to become established in their habitat? Which species are colonizing new areas? What are these colonizers doing to the substrate? Is succession completed or is it underway? Is there a climax community on this dune? Would a similar transect elsewhere on the island provide different findings? Obviously many of these questions cannot be answered with certainty, but evidence can be gathered to support various points of view. This list of questions is meant only generate ideas for your discussion. strand wrack foredune foreslope foredune crest foredune backslope interdune meadow backdune foreslope backdune crest Figure 1. A profile of a "classic" dune showing the relative position of two dunes from the strand and the relative elevation of the two dunes above the strand. The profile is divided into several named zones. Vegetation Survey: You will lay out a transect line perpendicular to the strand line heading inland toward the backdune crest zone. The transect line should be held by one partner at the wrack and the line pulled taut by another partner to provide a straight pathway for the transect. You could choose the starting point at the strand, recording its GPS location, and orient the transect at 90° to the strand line. You want to select a location on the dune system that has abundant vegetation on it, and is not traversed repeatedly by walking trails. So you will be somewhat selective in positioning your transect line. The transect line is simply knotted at 1-meter intervals; you might want to secure the line at each end to some vegetation or other structure during your analysis. You will want to record in your notebook your observations about the site of the transect; be sure to include some description of the environmental factors you are noticing. You need an objective method for assessing environmental data for your report. So we will use the Kestrel Weather Station instrument to gather air temperature, humidity, wind-speed, and wind-direction information. This instrument will be held at the level of the top leaves in the vegetation (ignoring Uniola flower/fruit stalks) to determine parameters at plant level. The wind speed will be determined as an average over a two-minute period with the vanes directed into the prevailing wind direction. You need to record this information in your field data record. You also need an objective method for assessing the plants found along the transect. Generally the sampling frame is laid at the knot on a particular side (your choice) of the transect line. At each meter-interval, the kinds, numbers, height, and percent-cover of individual plant species inside the sampling frame are recorded in a data table in your field notebook. The sampling frame is a 1-meter × 1-meter quadrat formed by string with a knot in each corner. To get the full meter-squared area, you need to hold the knots so that all four sides are taut and the corner angles are all 90°. You also want to record where you are along the transect (strand, foreslope of the foredune, crest of the foredune, backslope of the foredune, interdune meadow, foreslope of the backdune, crest of the backdune). For plants that cannot be identified in the field, you will need to take a sample with stem, leaf, flower, and fruit (if possible) present to key out later in the laboratory. The sample should be labeled with tape and/or bagged so that it can be kept together until your return to the lab. When recording a sample's transect information, you can use its sample label name (Species A for example) in the table temporarily. You may need to reset your line to extend your transect further into the interior. The transect ends when the sampling frame is in the impenetrably dense sea grape thicket near the backdune crest. Please record a separate row in your data table for each quadrat that is dedicated to only the NUMBER of Uniola paniculata flower/fruit stalks that are rooted in that quadrat. These plants will be counted twice, once in the row for Uniola number and percent cover, and once again in the row for Uniola F/F stalks. This might be useful for your paper. With your transect data recorded, consider whether your "slice" of this environment is truly representative or not of the foredune, the interdune meadow, and the backdune communities. Walk through the dune system near your transect and record any additional species you find in a roving survey of these communities of the dune system. You need to record which zone(s) of the dune profile each new species is found as well. Be sure to discuss these rarer members of the communities in your paper! In the GRC laboratory, you will need to observe any sample clippings and correct your table entries with correct taxonomic names. Use your field guides and, if necessary, the large Correll and Correll tome on the Bahamas Flora to key out and identify your samples. This must be done before the samples deteriorate and definitely before we leave San Salvador. These identifications and reference sources are part of your Materials and Methods section (and cited in the literature section)! Data Analysis: With your data table fully completed, back in Connecticut, you will need to prepare some graphs to answer the natural questions for your transect. You will want to plot the number of individuals or % cover (both! in separate figures) as a function of distance along the transect. Each species would have a different line and symbol on these graphs. You need to indicate the zones of the dune profile that correlate along the x-axis! These graphs should show which species are distributed in just certain zones, and which species are more generalists. These two graphs are differently biased, one is biased for showing species with small bodies, the other is biased for showing species with large bodies! To answer some of the questions you have chosen for study, you might need some math assistance. In each sampling frame quadrat, the diversity of species should be estimated by a value called the Shannon-Wiener species diversity index (Shannon, 1948). This index is: H' = n (pi)(- log pi) where n is the number of species in the environment, pi is the proportion of ith species individuals among the total population of all species in the environment. The index value will help you assign a number to the observed diversity in the sample frame. This value can then be plotted as a function of position along the transect. What is the lowest possible index value, and does it correspond to the most-diverse situation or the least-diverse situation? What is the highest possible index value and to what kind of assemblage would it correspond? Maybe only part of the formula can be used to answer certain questions in your project. Maybe the formula can be adapted to better address the questions you are posing! The following chart serves as an example of how to calculate the species diversity index (H') for each quadrat along your transect. Microsoft Excel or another spreadsheet program could crunch the numbers for you very easily; just watch out for how the software distinguishes natural and common logs in the formulae! The example data for this one quadrat are completely fictitious. Taxon # or % pi=number/total log pi pi(−log pi Total251.00 0.22 = H' You will need two more figures, one showing the quadrat diversity indices along the transect based on number of individuals in the quadrats as a function of distance from the strand. The other will show the quadrat diversity indices as a function of percent cover. Both need those dune profile zone indications as well! These answer the questions about the level of species diversity across this dune profile. Another comment that, based on student papers, needs to be pointed out is that among species diversity index data, 0 is a meaningful datum. Data points of 0 values should be plotted. Thus, the values for quadrats between the strandline and the leading edge of the foredune will strongly influence your graphs! Also, please don't try to force curvilinear data into a linear regression analysis! You might try a polynomial fit of various orders to get more realistic curve fits for such data! Well before the deadline due date, prepare a standard laboratory/field report on this project. You should consult the Pechenik (or Knisely) style manual, and your experience in our four core (freshman and sophomore) courses to guide you in formatting the report. Your results section should include all tables and graphs and a supportive text. One scatter (line) graph might plot the species diversity index (based on number of individuals rooted in the quadrat) for each quadrat on the Y axis and the quadrat position (meters from the strand line) on the X axis. Another graph might plot the same axes with data based on percent cover. These graphs should include information about how position from the strand relates to the dune profile (strand, foredune foreslope, foredune crest, foredune backslope, interdune meadow, backdune foreslope, backdune crest). Some smaller graphs might show several line graphs of the number of individuals per quadrate of major species in the transect as a function of distance (and dune profile) from the strand line. You should include a list of all taxa observed along the transect. Your raw data should be attached as an appendix. Your discussion should integrate the observed results with your environmental observations of substrate, exposure, soil moisture, etc. The discussion should address the characteristics of the vegetation along the transect. Your discussion should present a general progression of taxa from strand to backdune crest as a summary table. Your grade will be determined, in part, by how effectively you discuss the species-diversity index values you calculate! For those hoping to receive Bio 3** credit for the biology major/minor, you must also read pertinent articles from the bibliography, and choose wisely at least five articles that best support your project! Most of these articles are available for downloading on the course website: http://plantphys.info/bahamas/. For access to these copyrighted materials you need the username:________________ and password:_____________________. Another major part of your grade is how well you compare, contrast, and integrate into your discussion, the findings in the articles you choose from the bibliography. To do this, you need to at least scan all of the articles to make intelligent selections from the bibliography (yes, those choices count in your grade too!). So you want to be selective! Deductions will be made for listing articles not actually cited, and for making a citation without having thoroughly read the article! Yes, faculty can tell when you cite something you have not actually read! Your literature cited section should provide complete citations in CBE/CSE style of all library references and all field guides that you do choose to incorporate into your paper…in alphabetical order. The style below is acceptable. Bonus points will be issued to students providing a clean pdf (preferred) or photocopy of any good and useful dune vegetation article that is NOT referenced below! Dune Vegetation Bibliography Anonymous. 1999. Beach Dune, Coastal Strand, and Maritime Hammock [in] Sam D. Hamilton. South Florida multiple species recovery plan. S.E. Regional US Fish and Wildlife Service, Bethesda, MD. http://www.fws.gov/verobeach/Programs/ Recovery/vbms5.html (5-16-2007). Arens, S. M. 1996. Patterns of sand transport on vegetated foredunes. Geomophology 17: 339-350. Asprey, G. F. and R. G. Robbins. 1953. The vegetation of Jamaica. Ecological Monographs 23: 359-412. Cousins, S. H. 1991. Species diversity measurement: choosing the right index. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 6: 190-192. Costa, C. S. B., C. V. Cordazzo, and U. Seeliger. 1996. Shore distrubance and dune plant distribution. Journal of Coastal Research 12: 133-140. Doing, H. 1985. Coastal fore-dune zonation and succession in various parts of the world. Vegetatio 61: 65-75. Espejel, I. 1987. A phytogeographical analysis of coastal vegetation in the Yucatan peninsula. Journal of Biogeography 14: 499-519. Gerace, D. T., G. K. Ostrander, G. W. Smith. 1998. San Salvador, Bahamas. [in] CARICOMP: Caribbean coral reef, seagrass, and mangrove sites. B. Kjerfve, ed. UNESCO, Paris. http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers/gerace.htm (5-16-2007) Greaver, Tara L. and Leonel L. Sternberg. 2006. Linking marine resources to ecotonal shifts of water uptake by terrestrial dune vegetation. Ecology 87(9): 2389-2396. Greaver, Tara L. and Leonel S. L. Sternberg. 2010. Decreased precipitation exacerbates the effects of sea level on coastal dune ecosystems in open ocean islands. Global Change Biology 16: 1860-1869. Herwitz, S. R. 1992. Quaternary vegetation change and dune formation on Bermuda: a discussion. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 2(3): 65-70. Howard, R. A. 1950. Vegetation of the Bimini Island group: Bahamas, B. W. I. Ecological Monographs 20: 317-349. Lane, C., S. J. Wright, J. Roncal, and J. Maschinski. 2008. Characterizing environmental gradients and their influence on vegetation zonation in a subtropical coastal sand dune system. J. Coastal Res. 24: 213-224. Liddle, M. J. and P. Grieg-Smith. 1975. A survey of tracks and paths in a sand dune ecosystem. II. Vegetation. The Journal of Applied Ecology 12: 909-930. Maun, M. A. 1998. Adaptations of plants to burial in coastal sand dunes. Canadian Journal of Botany. 76: 713-738. Moreno-Casasola, P. 1988. Patterns of plant species distribution on coastal dunes along the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Biogeography 15: 787-806. Moreno-Casasola, P. and I. Espejel. 1986. Classification and ordination of coastal sand dune vegetation along the Gulf and Caribbean Sea of Mexico. Vegetatio 66: 147-182. Oosting, H. J. and W. D. Billings. 1942. Factors effecting vegetational zonation on coastal dunes. Ecology 23: 131-142. Ripley, B. S. 2001. The ecophysiology of selected coastal dune pioneer plants of the eastern Cape. PhD Dissertation, Rhodes University, South Africa. Rodgers, J. C. 2002. Effects of human disturbance on the dune vegetation of the Georgia sea islands. Physical Geography 23: 79-94. Shannon, C. E. 1948. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal 27: 379-423, 623-656. Stallins, J. A. and A. J. Parker. 2003. The influence of complex systems interactions on barrier island dune vegetation pattern and process. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 93: 13-29. Thomas, M. L. H. and A. Logan. 1992. A guide to the ecology of shoreline and shallow-water marine communities of Bermuda. Bermuda Biological Station for Research Special Publication #30. Ferry Reach, Bermuda. Pp. 189-203. Whittaker, R. H. 1972. Evolution and measurement of species diversity. Taxon 21: 213-251. Willis, A. J., B. F. Folkes, J. F. Hope-Simpson, and E. W. Yemm. 1959. Braunton Burrows: the dune system and its vegetation. The Journal of Ecology 47: 1-24. At some point during your data collection, take a break from the transect (remembering where you stopped by leaving the quadrat in place!). During this break, use the Kestrel Weather Station to collect the following environmental data. Be sure to set the unit to the proper metric units (or collect in English units and remember to convert them to metric before writing your report!). The wind speed should be measured so that the unit determines an average wind speed taken over at least two minutes (to minimize the impact of gusts). Dune Transect Environmental Data Observation Date_______ Local Time_______ Location: East Beach, San Salvador Island, Bahamas GPS:______________________ Dune Profile Loc. Code Wind Direction 2-min Average Wind Speed Air Temperature °C Relative Humidity % When you are finished with your transect, it is time to do the Roving survey. Scan each area of the dune system, looking for plants that you did NOT pick up in your transect survey. Note the location code for each new species (obviously it is possible that multiple codes apply to some new species, but seems unlikely since you did not find it quadrats along your transect). Roving Survey Data Loc. Codes: S=strand F=foredune I=Interdune B = Backdune joined to F=foreslope C=crest B=backslope e.g.: FF = foredune foreslope FB = foredune backslope LocSpecies LocSpecies Dune Transect Data Observation Date_______ Local Time_______ Location: East Beach, San Salvador Island, Bahamas GPS:_____________________ e.g.: FF = foredune foreslope FB = foredune backslope Quadrat #LocSpecies ID# individuals% cover Dune Transect Data (continued) e.g.: FF = foredune foreslope FB = foredune backslope Quadrat #LocSpecies ID# individuals% cover	<urn:uuid:948b5428-2563-4913-b1a2-a9e697af963c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.043385207653045654, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8685381412506104, "url": "http://plantphys.info/bahamas/copyright/terrestrial.transect.shtml" }
Home > Articles Writing Lingo Scripts • Print • + Share This This chapter is from the book Chapter 3: Writing Lingo Scripts - Title Page In This Chapter • What Is Lingo? • Creating Scripts • Understanding Lingo Elements • Navigation with Lingo • Understanding Messages and Behaviors • Writing Lingo Code • Troubleshooting • Did You Know? What Is Lingo? Lingo is the programming language used in Director movies. Unless you stick to bare bones, PowerPoint-like presentations or linear animations, you need to learn Lingo to use Director to its full capabilities. Lingo code is stored in cast members called scripts. There are three different types of script members: movie scripts, behavior scripts, and parent scripts. In addition, other cast members, such as bitmaps, can have scripts embedded inside them. These are usually referred to as cast scripts. The difference between script types is not in what they look like or how they behave, but in when they act. Here is a summary: • Movie script—Contains handlers that can be accessed by any other script. Cannot be assigned to specific sprites or frames. • Behavior script—Assigned to sprites or frames. Controls the sprite or frame that it is assigned to. • Parent script—Can be used only by object-oriented programming techniques. • Cast script—Exists inside a cast member. Only affects that one cast member, but affects every sprite instance of the cast member. A movie script is a global presence in a movie. If a movie script produces a system beep whenever the mouse is clicked, this script sounds the beep whenever the mouse is clicked anywhere in the movie. Thus the name movie script: It acts on the entire movie. A behavior script does nothing until it is placed on a sprite or in a frame script channel. When a behavior script is placed on a sprite, the Lingo commands inside the script are active only as far as the sprite is concerned. If you have a behavior that plays a beep when the mouse is clicked, for example, and you apply that behavior to a sprite, the beep sounds only when users click that sprite. Behavior scripts are sometimes called sprite or Score scripts for this reason. They act only on a sprite in the Score to which they are assigned. For more information about behaviors, see "Creating Simple Behaviors," p. 319. Behavior scripts can also be assigned to the frame script channel of the Score. When they are, they act like movie scripts, but only for the frame or frames to which they are assigned. Behaviors used this way are sometimes called frame scripts. Parent scripts are a different type of script. They actually don't do anything until you use some object-oriented programming Lingo commands to tell them how and when they are to be used. You would use parent scripts if you like object-oriented programming. This means that the code and the data exist in special objects that can be duplicated and modified. For more information about parent scripts, see "Using Parent Scripts," p. 345. Cast scripts, on the other hand, are easy to use. You can create one by selecting a member, such as a bitmap, and clicking the Script button at the top of the Cast panel. This opens the Script panel and enables you to add a script to that particular member. Cast scripts act only on that one cast member. If you place a script with a cast member that makes the system beep when users click the mouse, that action affects only that one cast member when it is on the Stage. If you use that cast member more than once in the Score, the script that is a part of that cast member is active in all those places. Cast scripts are not used much with modern Lingo programming. Behaviors can accomplish the same tasks and are much more flexible. However, they do come in useful when you want to create some quick buttons without crowding a Cast with both the button members and the scripts that are assigned to them. • + Share This • 🔖 Save To Your Account	<urn:uuid:03f5f3b8-c56b-40ee-a179-a1dad26885cb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.019432783126831055, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.932659387588501, "url": "http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=31952&seqNum=6" }
From the community: HJH 8th graders demonstrate keen understanding of physics Design skateparks using cardboard, knowledge of momentum and force Homer Junior High School eighth-graders clearly understand the concept of physics. On Dec. 8, they displayed skate parks they created from cardboard, popsicle sticks and straws and demonstrated how they used their understanding of gravity, force and momentum to position the tubes and ramps in such a way that a ball could travel through without help. "They're learning physics while doing," said Discovery teacher Amanda Monahan who guided students through the six-week project. Students worked in teams, building a maze of tubes and ramps. It took some trial and error to get the tubes and ramps positioned just right. They then had to explain to a panel of judges, which included Principal Troy Mitchell, Assistant Principal Greg Zurales, Dean of Students Kelly Kardas, Dean of Students Jason Skube, social worker Jamie Callan, secretary Sharon Rachan and head custodian Bill Kocanda, how the skate parks work and why. "The goal is for them to explain physics so that you understand it," Monahan told the judges. They listened as students explained how they used gravity to get the ball rolling, gentle curves to compensate for friction and elbow chutes to reduce momentum at key times to keep the ball from flying off the track. "It's safe but still exciting," students assured the judges. Like us on Facebook at Copyright © 2018, Chicago Tribune	<urn:uuid:f44ba2ad-db7d-4d92-9a8c-22f52f941ea8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.08134597539901733, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9579887390136719, "url": "http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/orland-park-homer-glen/community/chi-ugc-article-hjh-8th-graders-demonstrate-keen-understandin-2017-12-08-story.html" }
Vole Infestation vole tree damage Vole infestations harm not only lawns, but trees, too. Vole infestations occur when food becomes scarce. Dry weather is often the culprit for a vole infestation because it causes a reduction in the green food supply. Voles need roots, greens, and water in order to survive. During a dry weather they may find that their food sources have diminished. When this happens, they move out and go on to search for greener pastures. Another reason for a vole infestation is also related to food; if a colony becomes too large for the resources available in an area, the colony may split and some of them will leave and look for a new place to forage. This prevents the colony from over-taxing an area and enables it to survive. Once the voles find a luscious lawn that supplies them with roots, greens and water, they settle down and stay there. They will eat tree roots, grasses, garden plants, and other kinds of plant matter. A vole infestation can occur overnight, and can do a lot of damage in a short amount of time. It is best to take quick action against a vole infestation.	<urn:uuid:57f74265-e049-489c-b62a-55294dce260c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.05312180519104004, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9247787594795227, "url": "https://allstateanimalcontrol.com/animals/voles/vole_infestation.php" }
Study your flashcards anywhere! Download the official Cram app for free > • Shuffle Toggle On Toggle Off • Alphabetize Toggle On Toggle Off • Front First Toggle On Toggle Off • Both Sides Toggle On Toggle Off • Read Toggle On Toggle Off How to study your flashcards. H key: Show hint (3rd side).h key A key: Read text to speech.a key Play button Play button Click to flip 170 Cards in this Set • Front • Back What was the theory of Geosynclines first used to account for? It was one of the early-mountain building theories What is a geosyncline? What are the two types of Geosynclines? 1) Miogeosynclines 2) Eugeosynclines What is the difference between a miogeosyncline and a eugeosyncline? A Miogeosyncline develops along the continental margin on the continental crust. They have lithologies that correspond with shallow marine sediments (Graywackes and cherts) Eugeosynclines have lithologies that correspond with deep marine sediments What is the large scale breccia formed near the accretionary wedge in an ocean-continent orogenesis (near the eugeosyncline)? What kinds of deep and shallow sediments, respectively, will one find as a mountain erodes in an ocean-continent orogeny? Deep Sediments = Flysch Shallow Sediments = Molasse What is a decollement? A décollement horizon is a tectonic surface that acts as a gliding plane between two masses in a thrust fault relationship What is a foredeep? It is a big basin in which sediment is deposited. Who was the first to provide an idea of what constituted a species? Buffon - he bounded species as animals that could not interbreed with other species He also asserted that animals are closely related Who was the first to start mentioning some of the forces that drive evolution? Erasmus Darwin What are some of the forces that Erasmus Darwin linked to evolution? 1)Sexual Selection 2) Food gathering 3) Security What primitive mechanism did Erasmus Darwin envision for his ideas of evolution? New characteristics are acquired so that an animal fits in a new environment and these characteristics are passed on Who was next in the lineage of evolutionary thought after Erasmus Darwin? What did Lamarck believe about the inheritance of acquired traits? He believed that a change in environment leads to a change in needs which leads to a change in habits which leads to a change in characteristics which leads to new speices What other facets distinguish Lamarck's conceptualization of evolution? 1) Animals have built-in drive for "perfection" 2) Organisms have the capacity to be adapted to their environment 3) Spontaneous Generation Who was Charles Darwin? The father of modern evolutionary thought What was the name of the ship Charles Darwin was on and for what years was he on it? The HMS Beagle from 1831-1835 What did Charles Darwin do on his voyage pertaining to his later theory? 1) He noted the rich diversity of life he observed 2) He came to believe that along with environmental change, only the fittest for that particular environment survived, as opposed to Lamarckian thought which was that organisms could change to their environments impromptu What is a summary of Charles Darwin's conceptualization of Evolutionary theory? 1) The World is not static - species change, new ones form, old ones go extinct 2) Evolution is gradual 3) Natural Selection is the mechanism Struggle for Survival => Reproductive success is key What is a Phylogeny and what is an Ontogeny? Phlogeny = How species change over time Ontogeny = The development of one species over its lifetime Who is Haeckel and what did he do? He is a dude in the 1800's that is famous for his "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" theory What did Haeckel believe evolution does? He believed it simply added stages at the end of life What is orthogenesis? The idea that evolution functions by an intrinsic drive towards perfection; natural selection unimportant. Characters produced may be totally non-adaptive, i.e. have no survival value. How does orthogenesis procede? In a striahgt, linear fashion A=>B=>C=>D=>ad infinitum=>(Perfection) What is the synthetic theory of evolution? It is the same as NeoDarwinism and basically is that evolution is gene based and that it is the survival of the fittest genes, increasing the frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic effects promote survival. What are the changes in DNA due to, and how frequently do these changes occur? The changes in DNA are due to mutations. They occur 1 to 8 times per 100,000 What does natural selection do? It eliminates non-adaptive characters and pressures adaptive ones What was the consequence for the Lamarckian theory of evolution after the Synthetic theory of evolution gained steam? Larmakian evolution was no longer beleived; the inheritance of acquired genes was shown to be incompatible; the acquisition of genes came through random mutation, not through habit The theory of Synthetic evolution is characterized by what attributes? 1) Gradual evolution 2) Natural selection 3) Genetic variability - recombination, mutation, chance events 4) Interbreeding populations and into species - gene pool What is a genotype? The actual full complement of genes that the individual has What is the phenotype? It is the physical expression of those genes, and it is also dependent on environmental conditions - Genotype + Environment= Phenotype What causes genes to change? What two kinds of genes is DNA composed of? 1) Structural genes 2) Nonstructural genes What do structural genes do? They code for all the things in your body What do nonstructural genes do? They turn structural genes on and off What are point mutations of chromosomes? * nonsense mutations: code for a stop, which can truncate the protein. * missense mutations: code for a different amino acid. * silent mutations: code for the same amino acid. For example , sickle-cell disease is caused by a single point mutation (a missense mutation) in the beta hemoglobin gene that converts a GAG codon into GTG, which encodes the amino acid valine rather than glutamic acid. Point mutations that occur in non-coding sequences are most often without consequences, although there are exceptions. If the mutated base pair is in the promoter sequence of a gene, then the expression of the gene may change. Also, if the mutation occurs in the splicing seat of an intron, then this may interfere with correct splicing of the transcribed pre-mRNA. What are chromosomal mutations? Mutations may involve whole chunks of chromosome, rather than single bases. A length of chromosome may be translocated to another place on the chromosome, or be inverted. Whole chromosomes may fuse, as has happened in primate evolution; chimpanzees and gorillas have 24 pairs of chromosomes whereas humans have 23. In other cases, some or all of the chromosomes may have been duplicated. It is more difficult to generalize about the phenotypic effects of these chromosomal mutations. If the break-points of the mutation divide a protein, that protein will be lost in the mutant organism. But if the break is between proteins, any effect will depend on whether the expression of a gene depends on its position in the genome. In theory, it might not matter whether a protein is transcribed from one chromosome or another; though in practice gene expression is probably at least partly regulated by relations between neighboring genes and a chromosomal mutation will then have phenotypic consequences. What is the precise definition of a species for this class? A Species is an array of populations which are actually or potentially interbreeding and which are reproductively isolated from other such arrays under natural conditions What are the two kinds of populations? 1) Allopatric 2) Sympatric Species must work to maintain _________? What is Speciation? The evolutionary process of species formation What is the definition of sympatric speciation? The splitting of lineages whereas phyletic (allopatric) speciation is evolution w/in an established lineage How do Genotype and Environment interact to produce a Phenotype? Genetic mutation combined with natural selective pressures from the environment will determine what phenotype is prevalent What do environental changes cause to develop? New niches What is the substance of the constant-environment-stability-time hypothesis? 1) Generalist organisms have broad tolerance due to changing environment; therefore, they have low diversity because there is no selective pressure 2) Constant environment will cause higher levels of diversity; animals specialized to microniches so there is less competition among them What is Phyletic Gradualism? Sympatric Speciation It is speciation that occurs in the absence of geographic isolation; it occurs through very slow, gradual change What is Geographic Speciation - Punctual Equilibrium? * Allopatric speciation * Divergence from parent stock The local populations are geographically isolated from one another => different environmental pressures => different species formed (more like subspecies) What are polytypic and monotypic species? Polytypic = Species has 2 or more subspecies Monotypic = Species w/o subspecies Why is recognition of polytypic species important for scientists? It simplifies classification What are sibling species? Corliss's description = reproductively isolated w/ little morphological differences Wikipedia = cryptic species complex is a group of species that satisfy the scientific definition of species — that is, they are reproductively isolated from each other — but which are not morphologically distinguishable. The individual species within the complex can only be separated using non-morphological data, such as from DNA sequence analysis, bioacoustics, or thorough life history studies. They can, but need not be, parapatric, quite often are sympatric, and sometimes allopatric. What is a cline? In population genetics, a cline is a gradual change of a character or feature (phenotype) in a species over a geographical area, often as a result of environmental heterogeneity. The change in phenotype does not result in different species as long as the geographically spread populations can interbreed with one another. This meaning of cline was introduced by Sir Julian Huxley. What are subspecies? Subspecies are geographically isolated populations that result from allopatric speciation. They are not units of evoltion (they can still reproduce together but they are not perpetuated). What is a trinomen??? , or trinominal name, refers to the name of a subspecies. A trinomen is a name consisting of three names: generic name, specific name and subspecific name. All three names are typeset in italics, and only the generic name is capitalised. No indicator of rank is included: in zoology, subspecies is the only rank below that of species. Buteo jamaicensis borealis is one of the subspecies of the red-tailed hawk. (Buteo jamaicensis). What are the three components of a trinomen? What are the Other terms we need to know regarding speciation? 1) Ring Species 2) Founder Effect What is a ring species? In the case where the cline bends around, populations next to each other on the cline can interbreed, but at the point that the beginning meets the end again, the genetic differences that have accumulated along the cline are great enough to prevent interbreeding (represented by the gap between pink and green on the diagram). The interbreeding populations in this circular breeding group are then collectively referred to as a ring species. What is the Founder Effect? Corliss's Explanation= Different from allopatric subspecies because in a transition of specis from A=>B, in allopatric speciation, B is a random subspecies, whereas with founder's effect, the B must have first separated themselves due to a slight difference What are the two main factors of Natural Selection? 1) Generation time 2) Rate of evolution - should be proportional to variability What are some generalizations about evolutionary rates? 1) Evolution rapid in large populations that are subdivided 2) Well-established species evolve slowly What are some biological methods of species discrimination? A) Morphology, physiology, behavior, ecology B) Amounts of A between species is reasonably constant within a group C) Phenotypic change- and assume two species cannot live sympatrically without being different species What does geological separation cause speciation? Bad Question, but the notes are weird in this part 1)The morphology between ancient and modern species is different 2) Most species are distinct => Long isolations lead to big differences Division of Lineage => How subjective is species designation? It's pretty subjective; There is a diagram of 1=>2=> 3 and 4 via different branches. Do we separate the species exactly at fork, or do we do it above the fork, or is the fork really just one species continuing with another branching off, therefore making it 3 species instead of 4? What are chronospecies? A chronospecies is a species which changes physically, morphologically, genetically, and/or behaviorally over time on an evolutionary scale such that the originating species and the species it becomes could not be classified as the same species had they existed at the same point in time. Throughout this change, there is only one species in the lineage living at any point in time, as opposed to cases where one species branches off into many through divergent evolution. Review => What is the difference between Allopatric speciation and Phyletic Gradualism ? Allopatric Speciation = Punctuated Equilibrium (sudden appearance) Phyletic Evolution = Continuous Change What is adaptive radiation? Many new taxa come in a short period => a large burst of evolution What is mass extinction? Short interval of time in which many species go extinct What often happens after a Mass Extinction? Adaptive Radiation => After a mass extinction, many new niches open up Who was the father of modern Taxonomy? Carolus Linnaeus When did Carolus Linnaeus live? What is classification of organisms based on? 1) Phylogeny 2) Morphology What are the names of the categories of the classification of organisms? King Phillip Can Only Find Green Slippers What is a precambrian shield and where are they? It is a vast area or areas of exposed ancient rocks that are found on all continents What are platforms? Platforms are the areas of the continent that expand out from the precambrian shields and contain buried ancient rocks What is a craton? Together, the precambrian shield and its platform make up a craton What three main categories of Finches did Darwin observe? 1)Ground Finches 2) Tree Finches 3) Warbler-like Finches What was the significance of Darwin's finches? he showed that there were multiple species of the same bird that had evolved to the environments based on the weather, geography and diet. They differed only in the size of their beaks. Why was the Pre-Paleozoic and Archean phases of Earth history particularly economically important? 1) Iron-ore=> Formed banded iron deposits 2) Gold, silver, copper, nickel, chromium, uranium 3) 1/2 of the metallic minerals we find were from this period What is the timescale for these periods of earth history and what is it based on? Archean = 3.8=>2.5 byo Proterozoic = 2.5=>0.54 byo Based on Isotope Dating from the Great Lakes and Scandinavia How much of the precambrian shield rocks are exposed on the surface? Less than 20% What are "Cratons" ? The stable parts of the continents that are surrounded by mobile tectonic belts What happens to the Precambrian shields over time? They grew by the addition of material over the margin; by accretion at the margin It began as a small bit of continental material that grew as it was involved in more and more collisions What is the shield in North America that we are interested in? The Canadian Shield What four categories can the Canadian shield be subdivided into based on structure and lithology? 1) Structure 2) Lithology 3) Minerals 4) Age There are pattersn in the geology based on these characteristics What two main groups can the Canadian Shield rocks be subdivided into? 1) Granulates 2) Green Stone belts What are granulates? They are high-grade metamorphic rocks They contain little environmental information (because they are so metamorphosed) and if you look and one and the other they kind of look the same and don't give you much info What are Green Stone Belts? What is a common mineral in Green Stone Belts (the one that makes them green)? They are metamorphosed rocks and volcanics with sediments. Green chlorite What is the main point about these "Green Stone Belts"? They are small blocks or features that developed during this time as opposed to large continents. *Think of small blocks with subduction under each one that creates all of these backyard basins." Are Green Stone Belts being presently formed? What were the Green stone belts like? We must likely have the presence of basins flanked by volcanoes and small steep-sided blocks of felsic crust Small "mini-continents" that are spread out among the globe We also have the presence of banded iron formation in these sequences These are a source of iron ore. Iron-rich layers alternating with quartz layers The chert, or the quartz, is precipitated from seawater These probably tell us about the chemistry of the seawater in the old Archean rocks How common were Non-marine and Continental Shelf deposits during the Archean? Rare. Most archean sedimenst are deep water. Shallow water sediments are quite rare Terrestrial and fresh water deposits are unknown There were NO large continents Tell me about Archean Tectonics. There were Cratons Cratons at that time = small, steep-sided, felsic protocontinents, separated by numerous basins that accumulate lava and volcanic sediments to form a greenstone belt What major geological formation was finally formed at the end of the Archean? How old is one of the oldest and where is it located? Cratons; occurred in late archean. On some of the oldest cratons, like South Africa, you'll find rocks that are 3.6 billions years old What was the stability of the crust like during the archean and why? It was very unstable becaue of all the heat and volcanic activity occurring. What is one the big differences between the Proterozoic and the Archean? The proterozoic has broad shallow seas that existed What does it take to develop a continental margin? It takes a lot of erosion to pile thousands of feet of sediments to build that margin at the edge of the continent. What happens to cratons when orogenies take place? Craton Growth- The suturing of microplates, associated with a lot of igneous activity What where the four intervals over which Laventia was formed? 1)Kenorian Orogeny => 2.5 bya 2) Hudsonian Orogeny => 1.7 bya 3) Elsonian Orogeny => 1.4 bya 4) Grenvillian => 1.0 bya What do each of the four intervals during the North American supercontinent formation also correspond with? They also correspond with provinces => ancient zones of orogenic activity Why does the geology get complicated with these orogenies? Multiple events are occurring, the collision of microcontinents at different places and different times What was involved in the Kenorian Orogeny? The Kenoran appeared to have united many small Archean blocks into a large stable craton What happened during the Elsonian orogeny? Most of the Canadian Shield had been accumulated What happened during the Grenvillian orogeny? And when did this occur? A new event; the craton being formed BROKE APART. In other words, rifting occurred. This happened from 1.0-1.3 bya It is referred to as the mid-continental rift. Thus, there is actually spreading in Larentia (a spreading center existed) along with faulting and igeneous rocks being produced What kinds of igneous rocks were produced during the Mid-Continental rifting in the Grenvillian interval? 1) Lava 2) Keweenawan basalts What ultimately happens to the rift that formed during the Grenvillian interval? The rifting ceased and the continent stops breaking and becomes stable. Thus, it its an example of a FAILED rift. Where were some of the Grenville rocks deposited in the USA? In New York, the Blue Ridge Mountains, and other areas near the Appalachians These are some of the oldest rocks in the USA In North America, what kind of deposits were found in the western United States and what did they provide possible evidence for? They found sedimentary deposits that are locally preserved from 1.4-1.5 bya. They may be evidence that some rifting occurred in western parts of North America as well, which might be slightly older than the eastern continental rifting What is Rodinia? What time was it asssembled? When did it split apart? It is the larger supercontinent which the grenville and previous orogenic events are thought to be part of which was thought to have been assembled by 1 billion years ago It split apart about 800-700 mya What is the Pan-African Orogeny and when did it occur? It is another supercontinent that was thought to have possibly come together after the split that occurred When did the first evidence of large scale glaciers occur? During the Proterozoic period. How long ago was the Gowganda formation and what is it? It was about 2 bya, and there is evidence of extensive glaciation They had well-laminated mudstones = "varves" Sediment deposits during the warm part, and then the clay solidifies during the cold period, so you get these really well-layered varves When was the Late Proterozoic glaciation? It was 800-850 mya This was the time that people popuplarly refer to as "Snowball Earth" It is thought that the entire earth was glaciated at that time What are tillites and tills? They are deposits left by glaciers What do the ages of the glaciation during the Proterozoic range from? They range from 1bya to about 600mya. It is thought that there were several episodes of glaciation What started to appear during the Proterozoic that wasn't in the Archean (geological stuff)? 1) Large Cratons 2) Sediments => lots of quartz sands formed, which implies a lot of weathering (which didn't occur during the Archean) What evidence do we have in proterozoic rocks regarding atmospheric oxygen? There are examples of unoxidized carbon in sulfur minerals in the Precambrian => This means that there was not abundant oxygen at the time Also pyrite and uranium would be unstable in the presence of oxygen and these are found in rocks older than 2 billion years What are iron-banded formations and why are they significant? About what time did they show that _______ levels were high? 1) Really colorful white and reddish (dark colored rocks) 2) The iron here is at least weakly oxidized 3) Indicates that some oxygen is present 4) The Oxygen is thought to be relatively high by about 2.0 bya What was the first signs of PreC life? Primitive Bacteria and Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) 1) These are the only life that is present in Archean rocks 2) These are prokaryotic celss 3) They lack a nucleus and internal organelles 4) DNA is not clustered into chromosomes What are two main ideas regarding how these early cells developed? 1) Lived in an environment filled with nutrients (nutrient broth in a shallow environment) 2) Perhaps new-life formed at mid-ocean ridges (hot water, rich in dissolved compounds) Where did the Eukaryotes come from? They evolved from the Prokaryotes. What is the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? 1) They have chromosomes and organelles and are generally larger 2) In general, they are about 60um or larger whereas prokaryotes are around 20um or smaller How do people think prokaryotes developed? 1) One prokaryotes consumed another one and the one inside became the mitochondria and thus they became a eukaryote What is one common fossils that is a super important part of our information regarding early life? The Stromatolite -They are some of the earliest evidence of life These things are basically structures with layers of carbonate sediments which are rich in organic matter alternating with carbonates Its not an actual organism, it is the sediments that are left by cyanobacteria It looks like a toadstool with the cyanobacteria growing on top and they make the organic material and the carbonates land on top too What are the characteristics of Stromatolites? 1)They have banded cabbage-like structures rich in organic matter 2) They are formed by B-G algae which lays down the organic matter 3) CaCO3 trapping occurs 4) Stromatolites can be supersmall (just microns) and up to tens of meters as well What is the oldest stromatolites that have been found and where? 3.4-3.5 bya in Australia That being said, Archean stromatolites are present but rare. They are important however, because they represent the presence of blue-green algae What is the Fig Tree Formation? And when did it occur? -It is a formation caused by blue-green algae that occurred about 3 billion years ago -There are filaments of organic carbon suggesting that there was primitive but vigorous microscopic life at the time About what time did Stromatolites start becoming abundant? About 2.3-2.2 bya What are the Gunflint fossils (ALSO ON TEST!!)? How many species of BG Algae where in them? They are direct evidence of the life found at 1.9bya. They are a black chert in a banded iron formation near Lake Superior. Here we have on the order of 12 species of Blue-Greens What are three formations that had eukaryotes and when did they occur? 1) Neggunee Fron Formation => 2.1 bya 2) Beck Springs Dolomote => 1.3 bya 3) Bitter Springs Formaiton, Australia =>0.9-1.0 bya 4) Acritarchs => Plankton =>1.4 bya What time span was the Eocambrian Period? From 540-100 mya What were the characteristics of the Eocambrian period? 1) Evolution occurred 2) Eukaryotes=> colonies, specialized cells arose When did the Ediacara fauna exist? 670-545 mya What are some examples of Ediacara fauna? 1) 1947 in Austrailia they found Pound Quartz 2) Impressions of jellyfish, corals, worms and echinoderms found What are some of the significant things about the Ediacara fauna? 1) The first glimpse we have of our ancestors? 2) Highly unusual occurrence => shows that life back then was more diverse than we thought 3) There are no skeletons from this period Give me a summary of the dates of life in the Eocambrian Eukaryotes => 2 bya Trace Fossils => <1 bya Multicellular organisms = <1 bya What time period was the tommotion stage? 530 million years ago and lasted for about 3 million years What was the most significant thing about the tommotian stage? It had the acquisition of skeletons!! Where was the Burgess Shale Fauna found? Field, British Columbia - Middle Cambrian Who discovered the Burgess Shale fauna? Charles Walcott in 1909,1910 What level of diversity of species was found in the Burgess Shale? >120 species The Largest Diversity of fossils yet They were unusually well-preserved; even had some soft parts What environment were the fossils in the Burgess Shale preserved in? They were at the base of reefs; there was turbidity current; There were anaerobic conditions; They were buried at all angles What were the characteristics of the assemblage of the fossils? 1) They were 20% trilobytes, brachiopods echinoderms 2) Antropods, prifera, coelenterates, mollusks, annelids, chordates What was there a sudden radiation of at the end of the ediacaran fauna? There was a sudden metazoan (animalian) radiation following the Ediacaran fauna What major extinctions occurred in the Cambrian? Trilobytes and Nautiloids Why did Trilobytes and Nautiloids go extinct? -Sudden sea level change doesn't occur -Sudden cooling => perhaps the cause What are some characteristics of Ordovician life? 1)Trilobyes => not as diverse (they are going out) 2) Brachiopods - Expansion 3) Graptolites 6) Vertebrates 7) Corals 8) Echinoderms 9) Colonial animals Tell me about Graptolites. 1) They were common in the Ordovician and Silurian 2)They are found in black shales 3) They are good index fossisl 4) They are from planktonic orkanisms Tell me bout Conodonts. They were worm-like animals They had a broad distribution What happened to the mollusks? 1) Nautiloids=> expansion 2) Cephalopods=> 6m long; they were large predators (Giant Squid) 3) Bivalves did well What about Vertebrates? 1) Jawless Fish did good 2) Predators = starfish, nautiloids How about Corals? 1) Ragose Corals (horn corals); Prominent during this period, almost always made casts becuase it would get filled with stuff What about EChinoderms? 1) Crinoids very important (sea lillies) 2) Sea urchins too What kind of Colonial Animals were around in the Ordovician? 1) Bryazoa = ??? a)Stromatoparoides = ??? b)Tabulate Corals=> "Honeycomb corals" What are Archeocyathids? Reefs that look like hollowed out horn corals that are sponge-like in nature How big could the tabulate corals get in the Ordovician? 100 meters across, 6.7 meters high What was happening with the Stromatolites during this whole Cambrian=> Ordovician switch? They were abundant at the end of the Cambrian and at the beginning of the Ordovician They declining sharply by the end of the Ordovician What happened at the End of the Ordovician? There was a terminal mass extinction event; 1/2 of the brachiopods and bryozoans died out in N. America -Coincided with sea level change and global cooling What was the sealevel like in the Cambrian and then throughout the Ordovician? The sealevel rose during the Cambrian so that the craton kept getting smaller and smaller as the sea rose At the beginning of the Ordovician the sea level was high; it regressed a big at the end of the early Ordovician, but then it stayed high after that. What kinds of sediments were deposited during the Ordovician? 1) CaCO3 was predominate 2) Oolites are common -They are small spheres of CaCO3 What are Oolites? Small spheres of CaCO3 Where are Oolites found and how do they form? They are found in the Grand Baham banks, and they are accretionarily formed over time in shallow water as a small bit of shell or something aggregates layers of CaCO3 What is Central Laurasia like during Ordovician? 1) The area is exposed 2) there is well-sorted sandstone => called St. Peter's sandstone; many pure quartz crystals, sandstone indicates reworking, erosion (sea level regression) Tell me about the progression of Appalachian Tectonic Activity. 1) During Precambrian= only siliciclastics stuff 2) Early Cambrian/ Cambrian = Trangression of sea and CaCO3 becoming prominent again with the rising sea level 3) Mid-Ordovician => CaCO3 increases; flysch deposits occur What is the name of the formation that is made of organic rich darker sediments - flysch - that we are going to visit on our fieldtrip? Martinsburg formation What does the Martinsburg formationn have? 1) Black Shales 2) Turbidites When did Mountain Building begin? the Middle Ordovician What is the Taconic Orogeny and when did it begin? It is the first phase of the Appalachain mountain building and it began middle-late ordovician What happens to the flysch at the end of the ordovician (deep water)? It turns into molasse (sandstone, shale, shallow water)as foredeep fills with mountain eroded sediment What happens with plate tectonics during the Ordovician? 1) The Iapetus ocean forms and separates Laurentia from Baltica 2) Volcanism produced on land margins due to subduction Tell me about the paleoclimates during the Cambrian The early Cambrian had cool conditions 1) cool 2) warming -many continents (NA,Europe,Antartica) near equator -The presence of evaporites and limestones at high latitudes (not only equator) indicate a warm climate What happened with the paleoclimate during the Late Ordovician? There is evidence for glaciation on Gondwanaland 1) Glacial Deposits in Sahara Desert c)ice-rafted boulders 2)Gondwana Land (Africa part of) -Located over South Pole -Enhanced chance for glaciation but were times w/ land over South pole w/o glaciation	<urn:uuid:93a5bf43-780b-4df7-83bf-9d15f1fc0746>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.9967655539512634, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9351118803024292, "url": "http://www.cram.com/flashcards/study-guide-for-exam-2-of-eos107l-historical-geology-at-duke-university-454159" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Tourniquets) Jump to: navigation, search A tourniquet can be defined as a constricting or compressing device used to control arterial and venous blood flow to a portion of an extremity for a period of time. Pressure is applied circumferentially around a portion of a limb at a desired location; this pressure is transferred to the walls of blood vessels, causing them to become temporarily occluded or restricted. In surgical settings, a tourniquet is used to occlude arterial blood flow following exsanguination to produce a relatively bloodless operative field and to minimize blood loss. In emergency settings, a tourniquet is used stop traumatic bleeding such that medical care can be provided in time before the injured person bleeds out. In rehabilitation settings, a tourniquet is used to restrict arterial blood flow at a consistent and safe pressure for short periods of time during low intensity exercise to more rapidly increase muscle size and strength. A traditional tourniquet system: the tourniquet itself and a wooden stick. A primitive tourniquet can be made from a stick and a rope (or leather belt). The rope is made into a loop that fits over the damaged limb and the stick is inserted through the loop. The loop is tightened by twisting the stick. The primitive device may stem the flow of blood but side-effects such as soft tissue damage and nerve damage may occur due to the application of unknown, uncontrollable and excessively high pressures and pressure gradients. It is well established by evidence in the clinical literature that higher tourniquet pressures are associated with higher probabilities of tourniquet-related injuries.[1][2] Modern pneumatic tourniquet systems are microcomputer-based, allowing more accurate and automatic pressure control and many important safety features to minimize the risk of patient injury. Recent trends toward personalized care has increased patient safety by allowing perioperative staff to measure and select a personalized tourniquet pressure based on the patient’s Limb Occlusion Pressure, and select and apply a personalized tourniquet cuff that can adapt the shape of the tourniquet cuff to a wide range of non-cylindrical limb shapes.[3] Petit tourniquet engraving from 1798 During Alexander the Great’s military campaigns in the fourth century BC, tourniquets were used to stanch the bleeding of wounded soldiers.[4] Romans used them to control bleeding, especially during amputations. These tourniquets were narrow straps made of bronze, using only leather for comfort.[5] In 1718, French surgeon Jean Louis Petit developed a screw device for occluding blood flow in surgical sites. Before this invention, the tourniquet was a simple garrot, tightened by twisting a rod (thus its name tourniquet, from tourner = to turn). In 1785 Sir Gilbert Blane advocated that, in battle, each Royal Navy sailor should carry a tourniquet: Sir Gilbert Blane advocates the issue of a tourniquet to each man in battle “It frequently happens that men bleed to death before assistance can be procured, or lose so much blood as not to be able to go through an operation. In order to prevent this, it has been proposed, and on some occasions practised, to make each man carry about him a garter, or piece of rope yarn, in order to bind up a limb in case of profuse bleeding. If it be objected, that this, from its solemnity may be apt to intimidate common men, officers at least should make use of some precaution, especially as many of them, and those of the highest rank, are stationed on the quarter deck, which is one of the most exposed situations, and far removed from the cockpit, where the surgeon and his assistants are placed. This was the cause of the death of my friend Captain Bayne, of the Alfred, who having had his knee so shattered with round shot that it was necessary to amputate the limb, expired under the operation, in consequence of the weakness induced by loss of blood in carrying him so far. As the Admiral on these occasions allowed me the honour of being at his side, I carried in my pocket several tourniquets of a simple construction, in case that accidents to any person on the quarter deck should have required their use.”[6] Joseph Lister is credited for being the first to use a tourniquet device to create a bloodless surgical field in 1864. He also recommended exsanguinations prior to tourniquet application by limb elevation. In 1873, Friedrich von Esmarch developed a rubber bandage that would both control bleeding and exsanguinate. This device is known as Esmarch's bandage for surgical haemostasis or Eschmarch's Tourniquet. At the time this device was superior to Petit’s device because Petit’s cloth bandages tore, the screw could untwist, and pressures that were very high, unknown and uneven were applied to the underlying limb, resulting in hazards and injuries. In 1881, Richard von Volkmann showed that limb paralysis can occur from the use of the Esmarch tourniquet. Many cases of serious and permanent limb paralysis were reported from the use of non-pneumatic Esmarch tourniquets.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] In view of reports of serious injuries and limb paralysis with non-pneumatic tourniquets, in 1904, Harvey Cushing created a pneumatic tourniquet. This type of tourniquet compressed the underlying blood vessels using a compressed gas source to inflate a cylindrical bladder. This was superior to the Esmarch tourniquet in two ways: (1) the tourniquet could be applied and removed quickly; and (2) this method of limb occlusion decreased the incidence of nerve paralysis. August Bier used two tourniquets for administering segmental anesthesia in 1908. In this procedure circulation is isolated in a limb and the limb is then infused intravenously. In 1963 Hamilton E. Holmes reintroduced Bier’s method as a single tourniquet technique. Today, the two-tourniquet technique is used frequently and is called intravenous regional anesthesia (IVRA). It is also commonly referred to as Bier block, or Bier’s method.[15] Modern tourniquet system attached to a modern wide contour cuff In the early 1980s microprocessor-controlled tourniquets were invented by James McEwen,[16] a biomedical engineer in Vancouver, Canada.[17] The first US patent for an electronic tourniquet system was awarded to Dr. McEwen in 1984 and to date he has been awarded many more US and foreign patents for tourniquet improvements. Modern tourniquet systems based on Dr. McEwen’s invention have self-checks and self-calibration to ensure that the systems are safe for use. They are also self-contained as they do not require external compressed gas sources to function. They provide accurate control over the cuff pressure through electronic regulators, and have various safety features such as audio-visual alarms for pneumatic leakage and inflation time. The use of automatic tourniquet systems has significantly improved tourniquet safety. Modern automatic tourniquets are self-calibrating and self-contained. These new tourniquet devices also provide a variety of safety features that are not possible in older mechanical tourniquets.[4] [18] As a result of these advances in tourniquet technology, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration classified pneumatic tourniquets as Class I medical devices, indicating that they present minimal harm to the user and do not present a reasonable source of injury through normal use by properly trained clinicians. In the 2000s, the silicon ring tourniquet, or elastic ring tourniquet, was developed by Dr. Noam Gavriely, a professor of medicine and former emergency physician.[19][20] The tourniquet consists of an elastic ring made of silicone, stockinet, and pull straps made from ribbon that are used to roll the device onto the limb. The silicone ring tourniquet exsanguinates the blood from the limb while the device is being rolled on, and then occludes the limb once the desired occlusion location is reached.[21] Unlike the historical mechanical tourniquets, the device reduces the risk of nerve paralysis.[22][23] The surgical tourniquet version of the device is completely sterile, and provides improved surgical accessibility due to its narrow profile that results in a larger surgical field. It has been found to be a safe alternative method for most orthopedic limb procedures, but it does not completely replace the use of contemporary tourniquet devices.[24][25] More recently the silicone ring tourniquet has been used in the fields of emergency medicine and vascular procedures.[20][26] Recently, Feldman et. al. reported 2 cases of pulmonary embolism after silicon ring tourniquet application in patients with traumatic injuries.[7] The serious and potentially fatal complication was reported involving procedures performed on the lower limb when silicone ring tourniquet was used for exsanguination on the affected limb.[7] Recent advances in tourniquet safety have led to the development of personalized pneumatic tourniquet systems. These state-of-the-art modern pneumatic tourniquet systems automatically measure the minimum pressure required to occlude or stop arterial blood flow in a limb (Limb Occlusion Pressure – LOP) and recommend a cuff pressure to be used during surgery that is personalized for each individual patient based on the LOP.[27] They also have specially designed personalized tourniquet cuffs and matching limb protection sleeves that can conform to the limb shape and size of each individual patient.[28] The personalization of the tourniquet instrument, cuff and sleeve for each patient further improves safety by allowing lower cuff pressures and lower pressure gradients to be used.[2][29][30][31][32] It is estimated that modern pneumatic tourniquets are used in over one million surgical cases annually.[33] After World War II, the US military reduced use of the tourniquet because the time between application and reaching medical attention was so long that the damage from stopped circulation was worse than that from blood loss. Since the beginning of the 21st century, US authorities have resuscitated its use in both military and non-military situations because treatment delays have been dramatically reduced. The Virginia State Police and police departments in Dallas, Philadelphia and other major cities provide tourniquets and other advanced bandages. In Afghanistan and Iraq, only 2 percent of soldiers with severe bleeding died compared with 7 percent in the Vietnam War, in part because of the combination of tourniquets and rapid access to doctors.[citation needed] Between 2005 and 2011, tourniquets saved 2,000 American lives from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.[34] In civilian use, emerging practices include transporting tourniquetted patients even before emergency responders arrive and including tourniquets with defibrillators for emergency use. Tourniquet complications[edit] It is reliably estimated that pneumatic tourniquets are used in more than one million surgical procedures annually in North America. The potential for injury is significant, although the use of lower, personalized tourniquet pressure levels and shorter tourniquet times are reducing the number, nature and extent of reported injuries. Injuries resulting from pneumatic tourniquet use are most commonly pressure-related, resulting either from the use of an excessively high tourniquet pressure level or from the use of an insufficiently low tourniquet pressure level. Ischemic injuries can also result from prolonged tourniquet time periods. The majority of such injuries may be transient, and perhaps not noticed clinically, but some injuries are permanent, or reversible only over extended time periods with prolonged disability being experienced by the afflicted patient. Complications and injuries related to the use of a surgical tourniquet include: nerve injury, post-tourniquet syndrome, intraoperative bleeding, compartment pressure syndrome, pressure sores and chemical burns, digital necrosis, toxic reactions, thrombosis and other complications such as tourniquet pain, thermal damage to tissues, hyperthermia, Rhabdomyolysis and metabolic changes.[35] Risk of complications and injuries can be minimized by taking all reasonable preventative measures when using surgical tourniquets.[36] There are three types of tourniquets: surgical tourniquets, emergency tourniquets, and rehabilitation tourniquets. Surgical tourniquets are frequently used in orthopedic surgery while emergency tourniquets are limited to emergency situations to control blood loss. Rehabilitation tourniquets are used to restrict arterial blood flow at a consistent and safe pressure for short periods of time during low intensity exercise to more rapidly increase muscle size and strength. Surgical tourniquets[edit] A surgical pneumatic tourniquet with a limb protection sleeve in preparation for surgery Surgical tourniquets prevent blood flow to a limb and enable surgeons to work in a bloodless operative field. This allows surgical procedures to be performed with improved precision, safety and speed. Tourniquets are widely used in orthopedic and plastic surgery, as well as in intravenous regional anesthesia (Bier block anesthesia) where they serve the additional function of preventing local anesthetic in the limb from entering general circulations. Modern pneumatic tourniquet systems consist of a pneumatic tourniquet instrument, tourniquet cuffs, pneumatic tubing, and limb protection sleeves. Personalized tourniquet instruments are state-of-the-art, modern pneumatic tourniquet instruments. They include automatic means of estimating the Limb Occlusion Pressure (LOP) of each patient, permitting individualized setting of safer and lower tourniquet pressures.[37] LOP can be defined as the minimum pressure required, at a specific time in a specific tourniquet cuff applied to a specific patient’s limb at a specific location, to stop the flow of arterial blood into the limb distal to the cuff. LOP is therefore personalized to each individual patient and each individual surgical procedure. Setting the tourniquet pressure on the basis of LOP minimizes the pressure and related pressure gradients applied by a cuff to an underlying limb, which helps to minimize the risk of tourniquet-related injuries. Personalized tourniquet instruments have an intuitive user interface; accurate and automatic pressure control for one or more pneumatic channels; audiovisual alarms; and numerous features to improve usability, reduce errors and ultimately increase patient safety. To facilitate LOP measurement and adaptation of tourniquet operation during surgery, some personalized tourniquet instruments include provision for connection of the tourniquet instrument to physiologic monitors.[38][39] Personalized tourniquet instruments are also becoming more integrated with a wide range of pneumatic cuffs that are connectable to them, to optimize the performance of the overall system for greatest safety, accuracy and reliability.[40][41][42] User interface[edit] Personalized tourniquet instruments have digital displays and easy-to-use user interfaces. Typically, the tourniquet instrument allows the perioperative staff to set the tourniquet pressure, inflate or deflate the tourniquet cuff, and adjust safety settings such as the maximum allowed pressure and time limits. The digital display and control buttons give the surgical staff a straightforward method of monitoring the tourniquet pressure and time, and for changing the various tourniquet settings. Personalized tourniquet instruments have non-volatile memory to enable surgical staff to store specialized settings most appropriate for certain surgeries (e.g. paediatric and hand surgery), relevant data about significant surgical events related to tourniquet usage, and to enable a data printout or transfer to an operating room information network. In addition, personalized tourniquet instruments use intuitive audio-visual alarms to alert the surgical staff of events related to patient safety. Pressure control[edit] The tourniquet cuff bladder requires a source of compressed gas to supply a carefully controlled amount of tourniquet pressure. The gas used may be ambient air, nitrogen, or some other gas. Most modern tourniquet systems utilize low-pressure gas provided by pumps, while a few systems use high-pressure gas sources. Note that nitrousoxygen should never be used to inflate the tourniquet cuff, because of the increased risk of fire. Personalized tourniquet systems utilize an internal electrical pump to compress ambient air to a low pressure; these systems do not require external high-pressure sources, such as portable canisters, portable tanks, or built-in hospital systems. The pressure regulator adjusts and controls the gas pressure in the cuff bladder. Older, non-computerized tourniquet systems utilize valves that attempt to respond mechanically to changes in pressure. For example, if pressure in the cuff bladder falls, a valve may open to allow more gas to enter the regulator from the gas source; if pressure exceeds a certain level, the pressure may force a release valve to open and expel gas into the environment. Sometimes, the pressure levels at which these two valves turn on and off are quite different and cuff pressure may fluctuate within a certain range above and below the selected pressure. Due to the sensitive mechanical components of these systems, it is very important to follow the manufacturer’s instructions regarding frequent testing, and calibration and to perform these checks before each surgical procedure as recommended. In general, tourniquet systems with mechanical regulators are now considered to be inaccurate, unreliable, and are not suitable for incorporation with modern tourniquet safety features. In personalized tourniquet instruments, the internal electrical pump, pressure display, and pressure regulator are combined in a single instrument in which a microprocessor continuously monitors and compensates for changing levels of pressure in the cuff bladder. Regulation does not rely on mechanical (pressure) forces to turn valves off and on. Instead, the microprocessor can detect extremely small changes in the cuff pressure and automatically regulate the flow of gas to control the pressure. Some personalized tourniquet systems use a sophisticated “dual-port” system which gives the most accurate control of cuff pressure and the fastest response to pressure changes. In a dual-port system, each cuff bladder has two ports and is connected to the personalized instrument using two hoses. One port is for monitoring the pressure (“sensing port”); the other port is for inflating and deflating the cuff and for automatically supplying and releasing small amounts of gas during use to control cuff pressure (“supply port”). In some more basic systems, a single port performs both functions for each cuff bladder. Single-port tourniquet systems are less accurate than dual-port tourniquet systems. Personalized pressures[edit] Many studies published in the medical literature have shown that higher tourniquet pressures and pressure gradients are associated with higher risks of tourniquet-related injuries.[2][43][44][45][46][33][47] The safest tourniquet pressure is the lowest pressure that will stop the flow of arterial blood past a specific cuff applied to a specific patient for the duration of that patient’s surgery.[2][48][31] Personalized tourniquet instruments reduce the risk of tourniquet-related injuries by enabling the application of lower tourniquet pressures and pressure gradients to the patient. This is accomplished by the instrument automatically measuring each patient’s Limb Occlusion Pressure (LOP) and recommending a tourniquet pressure based on LOP. LOP can be defined as the minimum pressure required, at a specific time in a selected tourniquet cuff applied to an individual patient’s limb at a desired location, to stop the flow of arterial blood into the limb distal to the cuff.[40] The purpose of a tourniquet cuff is to safely stop or restrict arterial blood flow into a portion of an extremity by applying a uniform circumferential pressure around the extremity at a desired location. Personalized tourniquet cuffs are state-of-the-art tourniquet cuffs that are designed to better match patient limb shape and size, and thus provide more efficient application of cuff pressure to the limb, allowing lower and safer tourniquet pressures to be used.[49] Personalized cuffs better match patient limb shapes through a variable-contour design that allows the user to adapt the shape of the tourniquet cuff to a wide range of non-cylindrical (i.e. conical) limb shapes. They also better match patient limb sizes through pediatric, adult and bariatric cuff designs. Tourniquet cuff[edit] In order to select the correct personalized tourniquet cuff it is important to understand the key properties of a tourniquet cuff. This includes the cuff shape, size, reusability and stabilizer. Tourniquet cuffs can be cylindrical or contour in shape. Cylindrical tourniquet cuffs are designed to fit optimally on cylindrically shaped limbs. However, human limbs may be conically-shaped (i.e. tapered), particularly in extremely muscular or obese individuals. Applying a cylindrical cuff on a tapered limb can result in poor fit, sliding of the cuff distally on the limb during the procedure, and inability to achieve a bloodless field at normal pressures. Contour cuffs have an arc-shaped design that, when wrapped around a limb, gives them a smaller diameter distally than proximally. Contour cuffs enhance comfort in patients with tapered limbs and reduce the risk of mechanical shearing. It has been reported that contour tourniquet cuffs occlude blood flow at lower inflation pressures than standard rectangular cuffs of equal width, which may be attributable to better cuff fit and more efficient transmission of pressure to deep tissues.[50] There are two types of contour cuff designs; fixed-contour and variable-contour. Fixed-contour cuffs are designed to optimally fit one specific limb shape. Applying a fixed-contour cuff on a limb with a different shape will result in a distal gap. Fixed-contour cuffs cannot be adjusted to fit a wide range of limb shapes. Variable-contour cuffs are better for non-cylindrical limb shapes, as explained below. Variable-contour cuffs are contour cuffs that can be adjusted to the shape of the limb. They have pivoting fastening straps that allow the proximal and distal circumferences to be adjusted, allowing the cuff to conform to a variety of limb shapes, and thus be personalized to each patient. Variable-contour cuffs enhance comfort in patients with tapered limbs, decrease the risk of mechanical shearing, and can occlude blood flow at lower pressures due to the improved fit to the limb. Tourniquet cuffs come in a variety of sizes. Different cuff sizes are used on the upper arms, forearms, thighs, and lower legs. Cuff size is also specific to the patient population, with different sizes used for pediatric, adult, and bariatric patients. It has been shown that a cuff with a wider bladder occludes blood flow at a lower pressure level than a cuff with a narrower bladder.[50][51][32] This may be related to more efficient pressure transmission to the deeper tissues with a wider cuff. Lower pressures, and associated lower pressure gradients, may reduce the risk of pressure-related injuries to the patient.[2][48] Furthermore, Estebe et. al demonstrated that a wide tourniquet cuff is less painful than a narrow cuff if inflated at lower pressures and at these lower pressures it is still effective at occluding blood flow.[31] Extra care must be taken with unusually small adult patients and pediatric patients to ensure that the correct cuff width is used and that the cuff edges do not lie close to the joints of the limb to reduce the risk of nerve injury. Reusable and single use tourniquet cuffs are available. Sterile, disposable cuffs are available for situations that require placement of a sterile tourniquet near the operative site, or for use in contaminated surgical cases.[35] The design and materials of disposable cuffs are suitable for a single sterilization cycle and single use only and must not be re-sterilized or reused. If a disposable cuff is selected, it must be discarded at the end of the procedure. Reusable cuffs are not designed to be sterilized and must be used with sufficient sterile draping to isolate the cuff from the sterile field. Reusable cuffs are intended to be used multiple times and cleaned following proper procedures between each use. Tourniquet Cuff with a Tie Ribbon Stabilizer Tourniquet Cuff with a Releasable Application Handle Stabilizer. The cuff stabilizer is used to assist snug cuff application and to prevent the cuff from shifting during use. Cuff shifting can interfere with the surgical site and may result in loss of arterial occlusion. Generally, tie ribbons are used as the stabilizer, as shown in the top figure to the left. However, some newer cuffs use releasable application handles as the stabilizer, as shown in bottom figure to the left. Releasable application handles allow more consistent cuff application, faster cuff removal, and maintain the cuff in a stable position on the limb during use. Limb protection[edit] Wide, contoured arm cuff applied over matching limb protection sleeve For some cuffs, a matching limb protection sleeve is available to help protect soft tissues under the cuff.[52][53] Without proper protection, underlying soft tissue is prone to damage caused by wrinkling, pinching or shearing.[54] Sleeves are sized according to the cuff width and the patient’s limb circumference. They are intended to fit snugly and extend beyond the edge of the cuff to ensure that there is no direct contact between cuff and skin. Sleeve materials that do not shed loose fibers are chosen to avoid lint becoming trapped in the cuff’s hook and loop fasteners, which reduces their effectiveness. Hazards of non-pneumatic surgical tourniquets[edit] Caution should be exercised before using non-pneumatic tourniquets in surgical settings. They may apply unknown, uncontrollable and excessively high tourniquet pressures and pressure gradients to the patient’s limb. They do not have the audiovisual safety alarms present in modern pneumatic tourniquets systems, and, recently, Feldman et. al. reported 2 cases of pulmonary embolism after silicon ring tourniquet application in patients with traumatic injuries.[7] The serious and potentially fatal complication was reported involving procedures performed on the lower limb when silicone ring tourniquet was used for exsanguination on the affected limb.[7] Silicone ring tourniquets, or elastic ring tourniquets, are self-contained mechanical devices that do not require any electricity, wires or tubes. The tourniquet comes in a variety of sizes. To determine the correct product size, the patient's limb circumference at the desired occlusion location should be measured, as well as their blood pressure to determine the best model.[21] Once the correct model is selected, between two sterile medical personnel will be needed to apply the device. It should be noted, unlike with the pneumatic tourniquet, the silicone ring tourniquet should be applied after the drapes have been placed on the patient. This is due to the device being completely sterile.[55] The majority of the devices require a two-man operation (with the exception of the extra large model): 1. One person is responsible for holding the patient's limb, the other will place the device on the limb (with the extra-large there are two people needed). 2. Application: 1. Place the elastic ring tourniquet on the hand/foot. Take care to ensure that all the fingers/toes are enclosed within the device. 2. The handles of the tourniquet should be positioned medial-lateral on the upper extremity or posterior-anterior on the lower extremity. 3. The person applying the device should start rolling the device while the individual responsible for the limb should hold the limb straight and maintain axial traction. 4. Once the desired occlusion location is reached, the straps can be cut off or tied just below the ring. 5. A window can be cut or the section of stockinet can be completely removed. 6. Once the surgery is completed the device is cut off with a supplied cutting card. The elastic ring tourniquet follows similar recommendations noted for pneumatic tourniquet use: 1. It should not be used on a patient's limb for more than 120 minutes. 2. The tourniquet should not be placed on the ulnar/peroneal nerve. 3. The silicone ring device cannot be used on patients with blood problems such as DVT, edema, etc. 4. A patient suffering from skin lesions or a malignancy should use this type of tourniquet.[56] Emergency tourniquets[edit] Pneumatic tourniquets have been developed for military and emergency use, based on surgical designs proven to be safe and effective over many years. Such pneumatic devices are deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq and in other pre-surgical emergency settings. Pneumatic military tourniquets are more commonly used by medics than by individual soldiers in combat, but both types are designed to be suitable for rapid, one-handed self-application in the field. Comparatively narrow, non-pneumatic tourniquet straps were developed to be very small in size and light in weight so they could be carried in backpacks by all soldiers, and were developed to be suitable for rapid one-handed self-application by wounded soldiers in combat situations. While effective in helping to stop potentially fatal arterial blood flow in combat, such narrow non-pneumatic tourniquet straps may produce hazardously high, inconsistent and uncontrolled pressures around limbs and may further produce high pressure gradients near the strap edges. Amphibious Tourniquet[edit] The Amphibious Tourniquet is the only wearable, and marine environment specific tourniquet for water sports and maritime professionals. It comes equipped with a stainless steel ratcheting buckle which works in tandem with a ladder strap system as its means of mechanical advantage. Tourniquet Water Sports Leash[edit] The Tourniquet Water Sport Leashes are the only surfboard leash that comes equipped with an integrated tourniquet. The surfboard leashes come in short board, long board, big wave, and competition. Other variants specific to body boards, spearfishing, and stand-up paddle boarding are also available. Mass Casualty Tourniquet[edit] S.T.A.T. Tourniquet is currently the only tourniquet that has an automatic counting timer and can be applied in 5 seconds by a person with no experience. S.T.A.T. Tourniquet is designed to keep multiple Tourniquet Preloaded on a carabiner for Mass Casualty situations. S.T.A.T. can occlude blood flow on limbs as small as 20mm making it the most ideal tourniquet for pediatric and K9 use. Silicone Ring Auto-Transfusion Tourniquet[edit] The silicone ring auto-transfusion tourniquet (SRT/ATT/EED), or Surgical Auto-Transfusion Tourniquet (HemaClear), is a simple to use, self-contained, mechanical tourniquet that consists of a silicone ring, stockinet, and pull straps that results in the limb being exsanguinated and occluded within seconds of application.[57] The tourniquet can be used for limb procedures in the operating room, or in emergency medicine as a means to stabilize a patient until further treatment can be applied.[58] Combat Application Tourniquet[edit] The Combat Application Tourniquet (C-A-T) was developed by Composite Resources, Inc. and is used by the U.S. and Coalition military to provide soldiers a small and effective tourniquet in field combat situations, and is also in use by NHS ambulance services, and some UK fire and rescue services. The unit utilizes a windlass with a locking mechanism and can be self-applied. The (C-A-T) has been adopted by military and emergency personnel around the world.[59] Rehabilitation tourniquets[edit] Personalized Blood Flow Restriction[edit] Recently, pneumatic tourniquets have been successfully used for a technique called Personalized Blood Flow Restriction Rehabilitation (PBFRR) to accelerate the rehabilitation of orthopaedic patients, injured professional athletes, and wounded soldiers.[60] Typically, a person is required to lift loads at or above 65% of their one repetition maximum to have noticeable increase in muscle size and strength.[61] However, injured patients undergoing rehabilitation may be limited to performing low-load resistance exercise in which strength and size benefits are less evident compared to high-load resistance exercise.[60] Patients undergoing PBFRR follow a low-load resistance exercise protocol personalized to their needs while restricting the arterial blood flow in the limb being rehabbed at a personalized restriction pressure based on the patient’s Limb Occlusion Pressure. Arterial blood flow restriction is achieved through the use of a surgical-grade pneumatic tourniquet cuff and surgical-grade tourniquet instrument. A recently published study demonstrated the addition of PBFFR interventions to a postoperative therapy program can induce improvements in strength, muscular hypertrophy, function, and patient-reported measures safely after knee arthroscopy.[62] See also[edit] 1. ^ McEwen, J. A. (July 1981). "Complications of and improvements in pneumatic tourniquets used in surgery". Medical Instrumentation. 15 (4): 253–257. ISSN 0090-6689. PMID 7300701. 2. ^ a b c d e Noordin, Shahryar; McEwen, James A.; Kragh, John F.; Eisen, Andrew; Masri, Bassam A. (December 2009). "Surgical tourniquets in orthopaedics". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume. 91 (12): 2958–2967. doi:10.2106/JBJS.I.00634. ISSN 1535-1386. PMID 19952261. 3. ^ " Introduction". Retrieved 2017-10-03. 4. ^ a b SCHMIDT, MICHAEL S. (January 19, 2014). "Reviving a Life Saver, the Tourniquet". New York Times. 5. ^ "Thigh tourniquet, Roman, 199 BCE-500 CE". July 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-19. 6. ^ Blane, Gilbert (1785). Observations on the diseases incident to seamen. London: Joseph Cooper; Edinburgh: William Creech. pp. 498–499. 7. ^ a b c d e Feldman, Viktor; Biadsi, Ahmad; Slavin, Omer; Kish, Benjamin; Tauber, Israel; Nyska, Meir; Brin, Yaron S. (December 2015). "Pulmonary Embolism After Application of a Sterile Elastic Exsanguination Tourniquet". Orthopedics. 38 (12): e1160–1163. doi:10.3928/01477447-20151123-08. ISSN 1938-2367. PMID 26652340. 8. ^ Middleton, K. W. D.; Varian, J. P. (1974-05-01). "Tourniquet Paralysis1". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery. 44 (2): 124–128. doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.1974.tb06402.x. ISSN 1445-2197. 9. ^ McLaren, A. C.; Rorabeck, C. H. (March 1985). "The pressure distribution under tourniquets". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume. 67 (3): 433–438. doi:10.2106/00004623-198567030-00014. ISSN 0021-9355. PMID 3972869. 10. ^ Klenerman, L. (November 1962). "The tourniquet in surgery". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume. 44–B: 937–943. ISSN 0301-620X. PMID 14042193. 11. ^ Richard, RL (1951). "Ischaemic lesions of peripheral nerves: a review". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 14: 76–87. doi:10.1136/jnnp.14.2.76. 12. ^ Fletcher, I. R.; Healy, T. E. (November 1983). "The arterial tourniquet". Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 65 (6): 409–417. ISSN 0035-8843. PMC 2494408Freely accessible. PMID 6357039. 13. ^ MOLDAVER, JOSEPH (1954-02-01). "TOURNIQUET PARALYSIS SYNDROME". Archives of Surgery. 68 (2): 136. doi:10.1001/archsurg.1954.01260050138002. ISSN 0096-6908. 14. ^ The Tourniquet Manual — Principles and Practice \| Leslie Klenerman \| Springer. 15. ^ McEwen, James A (June 2009). "Tourniquet Overview". Retrieved 2009-06-10. 16. ^ US patent 4469099, James A. McEwen, "Pneumatic tourniquet", issued 1982-12-20 17. ^ McEwen, James A (July 2009). "About the Author". Retrieved 2009-07-06. 18. ^ McEwen, James A (June 2009). "How are advances improving safety, accuracy, and reliability?". Retrieved 2009-06-19. 19. ^ "Unit of Physiology and Biophysics- Noam Gavriely". 20. ^ a b Tang, DH; Olesnicky, BT; Eby, MW; Heiskell, LE (6 December 2013). "Auto-transfusion tourniquets: the next evolution of tourniquets". Open Access Emergency Medicine. 2013 (5): 29–32. doi:10.2147/OAEM.S39042. 21. ^ a b Drosos, GI; Ververidis, A; Stavropoulos, NI; Mavropoulos, R; Tripsianis, G; Kazakos, K (June 2013). "Silicone ring tourniquet versus pneumatic cuff tourniquet in carpal tunnel release: a randomized comparative study". J Orthop Traumatol. 14 (2): 131–5. doi:10.1007/s10195-012-0223-x. 22. ^ Mohan, A; Baskaradas, A; Solan, M; Magnussen, P (March 2011). "Pain and paraesthesia produced by silicone ring and pneumatic tourniquets". J Hand Surg Eur Vol. 36 (3): 215–8. doi:10.1177/1753193410390845. 23. ^ Gavriely, N (May 2010). "Surgical Tourniquets in Orthopaedics". J Bone Joint Surg Am. 92A (5): 1318–1322. 24. ^ Demirkale, I; Tecimel, O; Sesen, H; Kilicarslan, K; Altay, M; Dogan, M (29 October 2013). "Nondrainage Decreases Blood Transfusion Need and Infection Rate in Bilateral Total Knee Arthroplasty". J Arthroplasty. 29: 993–997. doi:10.1016/j.arth.2013.10.022. 25. ^ Drosos, GI; Ververidis, A; Mavropoulos, R; Vastardis, G; Tsioros, KI; Kazakos, K (September 2013). "The silicone ring tourniquet in orthopaedic operations of the extremities". Surg Technol Int. 23: 251–7. 26. ^ Ladenheim, E; Krauthammer, J; Agrawal, S; Lum, C; Chadwick, N (April–June 2013). "A sterile elastic exsanguination tourniquet is effective in preventing blood loss during hemodialysis access surgery". J Vasc Access. 14 (2): 116–9. doi:10.5301/jva.5000107. 27. ^ "Limb Occlusion Pressure". Retrieved 2017-10-03. 28. ^ "Tourniquet Cuff Technology". Retrieved 2017-10-03. 29. ^ McEwen, JA (2002). "Tourniquet Safety: Preventing Skin Injuries" (PDF). The Surgical Technologies. 30. ^ Tredwell, S. J.; Wilmink, M.; Inkpen, K.; McEwen, J. A. (September 2001). "Pediatric tourniquets: analysis of cuff and limb interface, current practice, and guidelines for use". Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics. 21 (5): 671–676. doi:10.1097/01241398-200109000-00023. ISSN 0271-6798. PMID 11521040. 31. ^ a b c Estebe, J. P.; Le Naoures, A.; Chemaly, L.; Ecoffey, C. (January 2000). "Tourniquet pain in a volunteer study: effect of changes in cuff width and pressure". Anaesthesia. 55 (1): 21–26. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2044.2000.01128.x. ISSN 0003-2409. PMID 10594429. 32. ^ a b Younger, Alastair S. E.; McEwen, James A.; Inkpen, Kevin (November 2004). "Wide contoured thigh cuffs and automated limb occlusion measurement allow lower tourniquet pressures". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (428): 286–293. doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000142625.82654.b3. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 15534554. 33. ^ a b "Measurement of hazardous pressure levels and gradients produced on human limbs by non-pneumatic tourniquets (PDF Download Available)". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 34. ^ "Trauma medicine has learned lessons from the battlefield". The Economist. 12 October 2017. 35. ^ a b Guideline for care of patients undergoing pneumatic tourniquet-assisted procedures. AORN. 2013. 36. ^ "Tourniquet Injuries: Mechanisms and Prevention". Retrieved 2017-10-03. 37. ^ McEwen, JA (2009). "Surgical tourniquet apparatus for measuring limb occlusion pressure". Google Patents. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 38. ^ McEwen, JA (2011). "Adaptive surgical tourniquet apparatus and method". Google Patents. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 39. ^ McEwen, J. A.; McGraw, R. W. (February 1982). "An adaptive tourniquet for improved safety in surgery". IEEE transactions on bio-medical engineering. 29 (2): 122–128. doi:10.1109/TBME.1982.325018. ISSN 0018-9294. PMID 7056555. 40. ^ a b McEwen, James A (1984). "Adaptive pneumatic tourniquet". Google Patents. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 41. ^ McEwen, James A (2011). "Surgical tourniquet cuff for limiting usage to improve safety". Google Patents. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 42. ^ McEwen, James A (2012). "Low-cost disposable tourniquet cuff apparatus and method". Google Patents. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 43. ^ Murphy CG, Winter DC, Bouchier-Hayes DJ. “Tourniquet injuries: Pathogenesis and modalities for attenuation.” Acta Orthop Belg. 2005; 71(6):635-645. 44. ^ McGraw, RW (1987). Unsatisfactory results in hand surgery: The tourniquet. New York: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 5–13. 45. ^ Ochoa, J; Fowler, T J; Gilliatt, R W (December 1972). "Anatomical changes in peripheral nerves compressed by a pneumatic tourniquet". Journal of Anatomy. 113 (Pt 3): 433–455. ISSN 0021-8782. PMC 1271414Freely accessible. PMID 4197303. 46. ^ Gilliatt, R. W.; Ochoa, J.; Rudge, P.; Neary, D. (1974). "The cause of nerve damage in acute compression". Transactions of the American Neurological Association. 99: 71–74. ISSN 0065-9479. PMID 4463565. 47. ^ GRAHAM, B.; BREAULT, M. J.; McEWEN, J. A.; McGRAW, R. W. (1992-06-01). "Perineural Pressures under the Pneumatic Tourniquet in the Upper Extremity". Journal of Hand Surgery. 17 (3): 262–266. doi:10.1016/0266-7681(92)90111-E. ISSN 0266-7681. 48. ^ a b Olivecrona, Charlotta; Ponzer, Sari; Hamberg, Per; Blomfeldt, Richard (2012-12-19). "Lower tourniquet cuff pressure reduces postoperative wound complications after total knee arthroplasty: a randomized controlled study of 164 patients". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume. 94 (24): 2216–2221. doi:10.2106/JBJS.K.01492. ISSN 1535-1386. PMID 23318611. 49. ^ "Current concepts in tourniquets (PDF Download Available)". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 50. ^ a b Pedowitz RA, Gershuni DH, Botte MJ, et al. “The use of lower tourniquet inflation pressures in extremity surgery facilitated by curved and wide tourniquets and an integrated cuff inflation system.” Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1993; 287:237-244. 51. ^ Graham, B.; Breault, M. J.; McEwen, J. A.; McGraw, R. W. (January 1993). "Occlusion of arterial flow in the extremities at subsystolic pressures through the use of wide tourniquet cuffs". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (286): 257–261. doi:10.1097/00003086-199301000-00038. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 8425355. 52. ^ Delfi Medical Specialty tourniquets 53. ^ McEwen, James A. US Patent No. 6,361,548, March 26, 2002, “Limb Protection Sleeve for Matching Tourniquet Cuff”. 54. ^ McEwen JA, Kelly DL, Jardanowski T, Inkpen K. “Tourniquet safety in lower leg applications.” Orthop Nurs. 2002; 21(5):55-62. 55. ^ Thompson, SM; Middleton, M; Farook, M; Cameron-Smith, A; Bone, S; Hassan, A (November 2011). "The effect of sterile versus non-sterile tourniquets on microbiological colonisation in lower limb surgery". J Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 93 (8): 589–90. doi:10.1308/147870811X13137608455334. 56. ^ Norman, D; Greenfield, I; Ghrayeb, N; Peled, E; Dayan, L (December 2009). "Use of a new exsanguination tourniquet in internal fixation of distal radius fractures". J Orthop Traumatol. 13 (4): 173–5. doi:10.1097/BTH.0b013e3181b56187. 57. ^ HemaClear Instructional Video for the Orange Model (Large) on YouTube 58. ^ EmergencyEED 59. ^ Reference: "Testing of Battlefield Tourniquets" by Dr. Thomas Walters, US Army Institute of Surgical Research, presented at Advanced Technology Applications for Combat Casualty Care 2004 (ATACCC) Conference, published in the Conference Proceedings, Aug 16-18 2004, St. Petersburg, FL. 60. ^ a b "How can personalized tourniquet systems accelerate rehabilitation of wounded warriors, professional athletes and orthopaedic patients? (PDF Download Available)". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2017-10-03. 61. ^ American College of Sports Medicine (March 2009). "American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults". Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 41 (3): 687–708. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181915670. ISSN 1530-0315. PMID 19204579. 62. ^ Tennent, David J.; Hylden, Christina M.; Johnson, Anthony E.; Burns, Travis C.; Wilken, Jason M.; Owens, Johnny G. (May 2017). "Blood Flow Restriction Training After Knee Arthroscopy: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study". Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 27 (3): 245–252. doi:10.1097/JSM.0000000000000377. ISSN 1536-3724. PMID 27749358. External links[edit] Klenerman, L. (1962). "The tourniquet in surgery" (PDF). The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 44 (4): 937–943. Media related to Tourniquets at Wikimedia Commons	<urn:uuid:f1a32eca-0e01-4fff-8b59-4030481ff2f1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.04181373119354248, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8545177578926086, "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourniquets" }
Monday, 16 May 2011 Komodo dragon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Komodo dragon[1] Conservation status Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Lacertilia Family: Varanidae Genus: Varanus Subgenus: V. (Varanus) Species: V. komodoensis Binomial name Varanus komodoensis Ouwens, 1912[2] Komodo dragon distribution The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) is a large species of lizard found in the Indonesian islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Gili Motang and Gili Dasami.[3] A member of the monitor lizard family (Varanidae), it is the largest living species of lizard, growing to a maximum of length 3 metres (9.8 ft) in rare cases and weighing up to around 70 kilograms (150 lb).[3] Their unusual size has been attributed to island gigantism, since there are no other carnivorous animals to fill the niche on the islands where they live.[4][5] However, recent research suggests that the large size of komodo dragons may be better understood as representative of a relict population of very large varanid lizards that once lived across Indonesia and Australia, most of which, along with other megafauna,[6] died out after the Pleistocene. Fossils very similar to V. komodoensis have been found in Australia dating to greater than 3.8 million years ago, and its body size remained stable on Flores, one of the handful of Indonesian islands where it is currently found, ever since Flores (along with neighboring islands) were isolated by rising sea levels approximately 900,000 years ago.[6] As a result of their size, these lizards dominate the ecosystems in which they live.[7] Komodo dragons hunt and ambush prey including invertebrates, birds, and mammals. The diet of big Komodo dragons mainly consists of deer, though they also eat considerable amounts of carrion.[3] Mating begins between May and August, and the eggs are laid in September. About twenty eggs are deposited in abandoned megapode nests or in a self-dug nesting hole.[3] The eggs are incubated for seven to eight months, hatching in April, when insects are most plentiful. Young Komodo dragons are vulnerable and therefore dwell in trees, safe from predators and cannibalistic adults. They take about eight to nine years to mature, and are estimated to live for up to 30 years.[3] Komodo dragons were first recorded by Western scientists in 1910.[8] Their large size and fearsome reputation make them popular zoo exhibits. In the wild their range has contracted due to human activities and they are listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. They are protected under Indonesian law, and a national park, Komodo National Park, was founded to aid protection efforts. The Komodo dragon is also known as the Komodo monitor or the Komodo Island monitor in scientific literature, although this is not very common.[1] To the natives of Komodo Island, it is referred to as ora, buaya darat (land crocodile) or biawak raksasa (giant monitor).[9][10] Evolutionary history The evolutionary development of the Komodo dragon started with the Varanus genus, which originated in Asia about 40 million years ago and migrated to Australia. Around 15 million years ago, a collision between Australia and Southeast Asia allowed the varanids to move into what is now the Indonesian archipelago, extending their range as far east as the island of Timor. The Komodo dragon was believed to have differentiated from its Australian ancestors 4 million years ago. However, recent fossil evidence from Queensland suggests that the Komodo dragon evolved in Australia before spreading to Indonesia.[6][11] Dramatic lowering of sea level during the last glacial period uncovered extensive stretches of continental shelf that the Komodo dragon colonized, becoming isolated in their present island range as sea levels rose afterwards.[6][10] Closeup of a Komodo dragon's skin In the wild, an adult Komodo dragon usually weighs around 70 kilograms (150 lb),[12] although captive specimens often weigh more. The largest verified wild specimen was 3.13 metres (10.3 ft) long and weighed 166 kilograms (370 lb), including undigested food.[10] The Komodo dragon has a tail as long as its body, as well as about 60 frequently replaced serrated teeth that can measure up to 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length. Its saliva is frequently blood-tinged, because its teeth are almost completely covered by gingival tissue that is naturally lacerated during feeding.[13] This creates an ideal culture for the virulent bacteria that live in its mouth.[14] It also has a long, yellow, deeply forked tongue.[10] The Komodo dragon does not have an acute sense of hearing, despite its visible earholes, and is only able to hear sounds between 400 and 2000 hertz.[10][15] It is able to see as far away as 300 metres (980 ft), but because its retinas only contain cones, it is thought to have poor night vision. The Komodo dragon is able to see in color, but has poor visual discrimination of stationary objects.[16] Komodo dragons video.wmv.OGG A Komodo dragon on Komodo Island uses its tongue to sample the air The Komodo dragon uses its tongue to detect, taste, and smell stimuli, as with many other reptiles, with the vomeronasal sense using the Jacobson's organ.[14] With the help of a favorable wind and its habit of swinging its head from side to side as it walks, Komodo dragons may be able to detect carrion from 4–9.5 kilometres (2.5–6 mi) away.[13][16] The dragon's nostrils are not of great use for smelling, as the animal does not have a diaphragm.[13][17] It only has a few taste buds in the back of its throat.[14] Its scales, some of which are reinforced with bone, have sensory plaques connected to nerves that facilitate its sense of touch. The scales around the ears, lips, chin, and soles of the feet may have three or more sensory plaques.[13] Close-up of a Komodo dragon's foot and tail The Komodo dragon prefers hot and dry places, and typically lives in dry open grassland, savanna, and tropical forest at low elevations. As an ectotherm, it is most active in the day, although it exhibits some nocturnal activity. Komodo dragons are solitary, coming together only to breed and eat. They are capable of running rapidly in brief sprints up to 20 kilometres per hour (12.4 mph), diving up to 4.5 metres (15 ft), and climbing trees proficiently when young through use of their strong claws.[12] To catch prey that is out of reach, the Komodo dragon may stand on its hind legs and use its tail as a support.[18] As the Komodo dragon matures, its claws are used primarily as weapons, as its great size makes climbing impractical.[13] For shelter, the Komodo dragon digs holes that can measure from 1–3 metres (3–10 ft) wide with its powerful forelimbs and claws.[19] Because of its large size and habit of sleeping in these burrows, it is able to conserve body heat throughout the night and minimize its basking period the morning after.[20] The Komodo dragon hunts in the afternoon, but stays in the shade during the hottest part of the day.[21] These special resting places, usually located on ridges with a cool sea breeze, are marked with droppings and are cleared of vegetation. They serve as a strategic location from which to ambush deer.[22] Komodo dragons on Rinca Komodo dragons are carnivores. Although they eat mostly carrion,[4] they will also ambush live prey with a stealthy approach. When suitable prey arrives near a dragon's ambush site, it will suddenly charge at the animal and go for the underside or the throat.[13] It is able to locate its prey using its keen sense of smell, which can locate a dead or dying animal from a range of up to 9.5 km (6 miles).[13] Komodo dragons have been observed knocking down large pigs and deer with their strong tail.[23][24] Komodo dragons eat by tearing large chunks of flesh and swallowing them whole while holding the carcass down with their forelegs. For smaller prey up to the size of a goat, their loosely articulated jaws, flexible skull, and expandable stomach allow it to swallow its prey whole. The vegetable contents of the stomach and intestines are typically avoided.[22] Copious amounts of red saliva that the Komodo dragons produce help to lubricate the food, but swallowing is still a long process (15–20 minutes to swallow a goat). A Komodo dragon may attempt to speed up the process by ramming the carcass against a tree to force it down its throat, sometimes ramming so forcefully that the tree is knocked down.[22] To prevent itself from suffocating while swallowing, it breathes using a small tube under the tongue that connects to the lungs.[13] After eating up to 80 percent of its body weight in one meal,[7] it drags itself to a sunny location to speed digestion, as the food could rot and poison the dragon if left undigested for too long. Because of their slow metabolism, large dragons can survive on as little as 12 meals a year.[13] After digestion, the Komodo dragon regurgitates a mass of horns, hair, and teeth known as the gastric pellet, which is covered in malodorous mucus. After regurgitating the gastric pellet, it rubs its face in the dirt or on bushes to get rid of the mucus, suggesting that it, like humans, does not relish the scent of its own excretions.[13] A young Komodo dragon photographed on Rinca feeding on a water buffalo carcass The largest animals eat first, while the smaller ones follow a hierarchy. The largest male asserts his dominance and the smaller males show their submission by use of body language and rumbling hisses. Dragons of equal size may resort to "wrestling". Losers usually retreat though they have been known to be killed and eaten by victors.[13] Komodo excrement is mostly white as the stomach is not capable of digesting the calcium found in the bones of the animals they eat. The Komodo dragon's diet is wide-ranging, and includes invertebrates, other reptiles (including smaller Komodo dragons), birds, bird eggs, small mammals, monkeys, wild boar, goats, deer, horses, and water buffalo.[25] Young Komodos will eat insects, eggs, geckos, and small mammals.[4] Occasionally they consume humans and human corpses, digging up bodies from shallow graves.[18] This habit of raiding graves caused the villagers of Komodo to move their graves from sandy to clay ground and pile rocks on top of them to deter the lizards.[22] The Komodo dragon may have evolved to feed on the extinct dwarf elephant Stegodon that once lived on Flores, according to evolutionary biologist Jared Diamond.[26] Because the Komodo dragon does not have a diaphragm, it cannot suck water when drinking, nor can it lap water with its tongue. Instead, it drinks by taking a mouthful of water, lifting its head, and letting the water run down its throat.[13] A sleeping Komodo dragon. Its large, curved claws are used in fighting and eating. Auffenberg described the Komodo dragon as having septic pathogens in its saliva (he described the saliva as "reddish and copious"), specifically the bacteria: E. coli, Staphylococcus sp., Providencia sp., Proteus morgani and P. mirabilis.[27] He noted that while these pathogens can be found in the mouths of wild Komodo dragons, they disappear from the mouths of captive animals, due to a cleaner diet and the use of antibiotics.[27][28] This was verified by taking mucous samples from the external gum surface of the upper jaw of two freshly captured individuals.[27][28] Saliva samples were analyzed by researchers at the University of Texas who found 57 different strains of bacteria growing in the mouths of three wild Komodo dragons including Pasteurella multocida.[10][29] The rapid growth of these bacteria was noted by Fredeking: "Normally it takes about three days for a sample of P. multocida to cover a petri dish; ours took eight hours. We were very taken aback by how virulent these strains were".[30] This study supported the observation that wounds inflicted by the Komodo dragon are often associated with sepsis and subsequent infections in prey animals.[29] How the Komodo dragon is unaffected by these virulent bacteria remains a mystery.[30] In late 2005, researchers at the University of Melbourne speculated that the perentie (Varanus giganteus), other species of monitor, and agamids may be somewhat venomous. The team believes that the immediate effects of bites from these lizards were caused by mild envenomation. Bites on human digits by a lace monitor (V. varius), a Komodo dragon, and a spotted tree monitor (V. scalaris) all produced similar effects: rapid swelling, localized disruption of blood clotting, and shooting pain up to the elbow, with some symptoms lasting for several hours.[31] In 2009, the same researchers published further evidence demonstrating that Komodo dragons possess a venomous bite. MRI scans of a preserved skull showed the presence of two venom glands in the lower jaw. They extracted one of these glands from the head of a terminally ill specimen in the Singapore Zoological Gardens, and found that it secreted a venom containing several different toxic proteins. The known functions of these proteins include inhibition of blood clotting, lowering of blood pressure, muscle paralysis, and the induction of hypothermia, leading to shock and loss of consciousness in envenomated prey.[32][33] As a result of the discovery, the previous theory that bacteria were responsible for the deaths of komodo victims was disputed.[34] Kurt Schwenk, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Connecticut finds the discovery of these glands intriguing, but considers most of the evidence for venom in the study to be "meaningless, irrelevant, incorrect or falsely misleading". Even if the lizards have venomlike proteins in their mouths, Schwenk argues, they may be using them for a different function, and he doubts that venom is necessary to explain the effect of a Komodo dragon bite, arguing that shock and blood loss are the primary factors.[35][36] Mating occurs between May and August, with the eggs laid in September.[10] During this period, males fight over females and territory by grappling with one another upon their hind legs with the loser eventually being pinned to the ground. These males may vomit or defecate when preparing for the fight.[18] The winner of the fight will then flick his long tongue at the female to gain information about her receptivity.[7] Females are antagonistic and resist with their claws and teeth during the early phases of courtship. Therefore, the male must fully restrain the female during coitus to avoid being hurt. Other courtship displays include males rubbing their chins on the female, hard scratches to the back, and licking.[37] Copulation occurs when the male inserts one of his hemipenes into the female's cloaca.[16] Komodo dragons may be monogamous and form "pair bonds", a rare behavior for lizards.[18] A Komodo dragon with its long tail and claws fully visible The female lays her eggs in burrows cut into the side of a hill or in the abandoned nesting mounds of the Orange-footed Scrubfowl (a moundbuilder or megapode), with a preference for the abandoned mounds.[38] Clutches contain an average of 20 eggs which have an incubation period of 7–8 months.[18] Hatching is an exhausting effort for the neonates, who break out of their eggshells with an egg tooth that falls off soon after. After cutting out the hatchlings may lie in their eggshells for hours before starting to dig out of the nest. They are born quite defenseless, and many are eaten by predators.[13] Young Komodo dragons spend much of their first few years in trees, where they are relatively safe from predators, including cannibalistic adults, who make juvenile dragons 10% of their diet.[18] According to David Attenborough, the habit of cannibalism may be advantageous in sustaining the large size of adults, as medium-sized prey on the islands is rare.[23] When the young must approach a kill, they roll around in fecal matter and rest in the intestines of eviscerated animals to deter these hungry adults.[18] Komodo dragons take about three to five years to mature, and may live for up to 50 years.[19] A parthenogenetic baby Komodo dragon, Chester Zoo, England A Komodo dragon at London Zoo named Sungai laid a clutch of eggs in late 2005 after being separated from male company for more than two years. Scientists initially assumed that she had been able to store sperm from her earlier encounter with a male, an adaptation known as superfecundation.[39] On December 20, 2006, it was reported that Flora, a captive Komodo dragon living in the Chester Zoo in England, was the second known Komodo dragon to have laid unfertilized eggs: she laid 11 eggs, and 7 of them hatched, all of them male.[40] Scientists at Liverpool University in England performed genetic tests on three eggs that collapsed after being moved to an incubator, and verified that Flora had never been in physical contact with a male dragon. After Flora's eggs' condition had been discovered, testing showed that Sungai's eggs were also produced without outside fertilization.[41] On January 31, 2008, the Sedgwick County Zoo in Wichita, Kansas became the first zoo in the Americas to document parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons. The zoo has two adult female Komodo dragons, one of which laid about 17 eggs on May 19–20, 2007. Only two eggs were incubated and hatched due to space issues; the first hatched on January 31, 2008 while the second hatched on February 1. Both hatchlings were males.[42][43] Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex-determination system, as opposed to the mammalian XY system. Male progeny prove that Flora's unfertilized eggs were haploid (n) and doubled their chromosomes later to become diploid (2n) (by being fertilized by a polar body, or by chromosome duplication without cell division), rather than by her laying diploid eggs by one of the meiosis reduction-divisions in her ovaries failing. When a female Komodo dragon (with ZW sex chromosomes) reproduces in this manner, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes. This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg, which develops parthenogenetically. Eggs receiving a Z chromosome become ZZ (male); those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop.[44][45] It has been hypothesized that this reproductive adaptation allows a single female to enter an isolated ecological niche (such as an island) and by parthenogenesis produce male offspring, thereby establishing a sexually reproducing population (via reproduction with her offspring that can result in both male and female young).[44] Despite the advantages of such an adaptation, zoos are cautioned that parthenogenesis may be detrimental to genetic diversity.[46] Discovery by the Western world Komodo dragon coin, issued by Indonesia Komodo dragons were first documented by Europeans in 1910, when rumors of a "land crocodile" reached Lieutenant van Steyn van Hensbroek of the Dutch colonial administration.[47] Widespread notoriety came after 1912, when Peter Ouwens, the director of the Zoological Museum at Bogor, Java, published a paper on the topic after receiving a photo and a skin from the lieutenant, as well as two other specimens from a collector.[2] Later, the Komodo dragon was the driving factor for an expedition to Komodo Island by W. Douglas Burden in 1926. After returning with 12 preserved specimens and 2 live ones, this expedition provided the inspiration for the 1933 movie King Kong.[48] It was also Burden who coined the common name "Komodo dragon."[21] Three of his specimens were stuffed and are still on display in the American Museum of Natural History.[49] Komodo in the emblem of East Nusa Tenggara province A basking Komodo dragon photographed at Disney's Animal Kingdom. The Komodo dragon is a vulnerable species and is found on the IUCN Red List.[52] There are approximately 4,000 to 5,000 living Komodo dragons in the wild. Their populations are restricted to the islands of Gili Motang (100), Gili Dasami (100), Rinca (1,300), Komodo (1,700), and Flores (perhaps 2,000).[50] However, there are concerns that there may presently be only 350 breeding females.[9] To address these concerns, the Komodo National Park was founded in 1980 to protect Komodo dragon populations on islands including Komodo, Rinca, and Padar.[53] Later, the Wae Wuul and Wolo Tado Reserves were opened on Flores to aid with Komodo dragon conservation.[51] Volcanic activity, earthquakes, loss of habitat, fire,[13][51] loss of prey due to poaching, tourism, and illegal poaching of the dragons themselves have all contributed to the vulnerable status of the Komodo dragon. Under Appendix I of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), commercial trade of skins or specimens is illegal.[17][54] On Padar, a former population of the Komodo Dragon became extinct, of which the last individuals were seen in 1975.[55] It is widely assumed that the Komodo dragon died out on Padar after a strong decline of the populations of large ungulate prey, for which poaching was most likely responsible.[56] In captivity Komodo dragons have long been great zoo attractions, where their size and reputation make them popular exhibits. They are, however, rare in zoos because they are susceptible to infection and parasitic disease if captured from the wild, and do not readily reproduce.[9] In May 2009, there were 13 European, 2 African, 35 North American, 1 Singaporean, and 2 Australian institutions that keep Komodo dragons.[57] A variety of different behaviors have been observed from captive specimens. Most individuals are relatively tame within a short period of time,[58][59] and are capable of recognizing individual humans and discriminating between more familiar keepers.[60] Komodo dragons have also been observed to engage in play with a variety of objects, including shovels, cans, plastic rings, and shoes. This behavior does not seem to be "food-motivated predatory behavior."[7][10][61] Even seemingly docile dragons may become aggressive unpredictably, especially when the animal's territory is invaded by someone unfamiliar. In June 2001, a Komodo dragon seriously injured Phil Bronstein—executive editor of the San Francisco Chronicle—when he entered its enclosure at the Los Angeles Zoo after being invited in by its keeper. Bronstein was bitten on his bare foot, as the keeper had told him to take off his white shoes, which could have potentially excited the Komodo dragon.[62][63] Although he escaped, he needed to have several tendons in his foot reattached surgically.[64] See also • Dragon • Papua monitor (Varanus salvadorii) – A monitor lizard often asserted to be the longest lizard • Toxicofera – A hypothetical clade encompassing all venomous reptiles, including the Komodo dragon • Varanus priscus (formerly known as Megalania prisca) – A huge extinct varanid lizard of Pleistocene Australia • Whiptail lizards – Lizards widely studied for their parthenogenesis Tuesday, 3 May 2011 Batik, the Traditional Fabric of Indonesia Some great restuarants in Jakarta Advice and resources for conducting business in Indonesia Info on expatriate community organizations in Indonesia Shops, Products and Services Links to other useful Indonesian or expat-related web sites Site Map Return to the Home Page A Brief History Selection and Preparation of the Cloth for Batik Batik Design Tools For close-up pictures of canting. Design Process Special Treatments to the Batik Cloth Prada or Gold Cloth Batik Designs Wedding Batik Washing Batik Modern Batik Batik Home Furnishings Additional informaiton on Batik in Indonesia Batik Canting - beautiful wall hangings from antique batik Canting Batik - traditional hand batiking tool from Indonesia Links to other sites with good info on Indonesian batik Golden Crane Award Ping Blog Step 1 Blog URL: Blog Title (optional): Blog RSS Feed (optional): I agree with terms of service. Step 2	<urn:uuid:ea9bbe4e-c719-4dbf-84a4-453528a80e53>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.033566176891326904, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9543551802635193, "url": "http://indonesia-guide-information.blogspot.com/2011/05/" }
Tech Terms: Typeface A typeface is a set of characters of the same design. These characters include letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and symbols. Some popular typefaces include Arial, Helvetica, Times, and Verdana. While most computers come with a few dozen typefaces installed, there are thousands of typefaces available. Because they are vector-based (not bitmaps), typefaces can be scaled very large and still look sharp. The term “typeface” is often confused with “font,” which is a specific size and style of a typeface. For example, Verdana is a typeface, while Verdana 10 pt bold is a font. It’s a small difference, but is good to know. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google+ photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:c8363318-5706-4186-ae0c-0efaa65c7866>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.44267886877059937, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8747144341468811, "url": "https://zerofailse.wordpress.com/2015/09/15/tech-terms-typeface/" }
The founding of Subic Bay is credited to Juan de Salcedo who was the grandson of famed explorer Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. The original name of the bay was “Hubek”, which literally meant “pillow head”, and its said that the name was often mispronounced as Subiq by the Americans. They mispronounced the name yet again rendering it as Subig. Eventually, the name reverted back to Subiq but the letter “q” was replaced with a “c” thus its current name, Subic Bay. This area has been eyed as a naval port since the time of the Spanish colonization. King Alfonso II issued a decree in 1884 that declared Subic as “a naval port and the property appertaining thereto set aside for naval purposes”. Construction of an arsenal and ship repair yard was initiated March 8 the following year, as ordered by the new settlers Naval Commission. Subic Bay’s potential as naval station reached the land of Commodore George Dewey in 1898 and shortly thereafter he and his men engaged in a fierce battle with the Spaniards. The great naval battle ensued the bay’s waters and the Spanish forces stationed in the bay were eventually destroyed. The area came under American control in 1899. The bay was then converted into a Naval base and repair station. In 1902, Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, Commander of the Asiatic Stations, directed 200 Marines for an expeditionary force for the first US fleet exercise in Asian waters. Guns were erected on Grande Island and Admiral Evans laid plans for emergency repairs of the station at Subic Bay but was denied. Five years later, the US Congress finally appropriated funds for a full-scale Subic Bay Naval Reservation. Words from then President Theodore Roosevelt goes: Subic Bay, a Promising Harbour Subic Bay was on the rise of being one of the best training areas in the Corps. But with the US – Japan tension heating up, appropriations for operation and maintenance of the base fell short. Funds were directed to the development of Pearl Harbor as US main Naval base in the Pacific and Subic Bay, the promising harbor, was left as a small repair station. When the US was drawn into World War I, Filipinos and Americans worked hand in hand to prepare battleships for the war. Workers at Subic Bay overhauled 26 German ships that had been used to transport American troops across the Atlantic to Europe. Likewise, this period gave way for different developments; Olongapo had a taste of some of its best years; the base was lined with trees and plants, and several recreational facilities were constructed. But the skies over the Bay were suddenly raining with stick bombs – the Japanese claimed Subic and Olongapo on January 10, 1942, days after the Pearl Harbor attack, bringing with them the devastation of World War II. Many Filipinos and Americans were killed, several buildings were destroyed, seven seaplanes were sunk, and telephone- and telegraphs lines were sabotaged. The US Marines were ordered to withdraw into Bataan before being forced to pull back all the way to El Corregidor, burning all buildings left standing. Filipinos torched all the war’s ruins in Olongapo. It would take three years of Japanese rule before the Americans managed to make a forceful rebound and reoccupy the base on January 29, 1945. Another accomplishment at the height of the cold war was ammunition bunkers and buildings that occupied over 12,400 acres of the South-Western part of Subic Bay. Set in the tropical rainforest, ammunition and ordinance from these facilities played a big role in the Vietnam War and in the Gulf War of 1991. On June 15, 1991, volcanic ashes and debris rained over the bay, devastating Subic Bay and neighboring provinces. Mt. Pinatubo’s fury has left the navy and air force no option but to evacuate all their dependents. When Mt. Pinatubo’s rage came to a halt, American and Filipino personnel restored the base, bringing it back to business in no time. Uncertainty continued hovering the Philippine Senate with regard to the termination of the 1947 treaty. Months-long discussions were held, parliamentary proceedings were organized, and a pro-bases rally was staged, but to no avail. September 16, 1991 surfaced a conclusion – The US had to withdraw its forces and equipment from Clark and Subic. Having received the rejection of 12 senators on the earlier proposed new treaty, the lowering of the American flag followed suit. The Navy bid farewell to America’s nine decades of military presence on Philippine soil. If you’re interested in the history of the bay watch The Subic Bay Story, Rising Above The Storm, a four episodes long story about Subic Bay that can be watched on Youtube. [Back to Dive Sites]	<urn:uuid:652b3c35-eee5-4c96-82d5-f42425a2187c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.028499364852905273, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9732263684272766, "url": "http://elcoralreefdivecenter.ph/history/" }
Examples of Figurative Language in 'The Red Badge of Courage' Updated April 17, 2017 In his novel "The Red Badge of Courage," Stephen Crane introduces the reader to the fictitious story of Henry Fleming, a young Union soldier fighting in the American Civil War. Through the use of many types of figurative language, including symbolism, imagery, irony and personification, Crane pulls the reader into the scenes of the war and allows the reader to enter the mind of a confused young soldier. The title of the novel draws the reader's attention to one of the main symbols in the book. Henry, the main character, views a wound in battle as a symbol of courage. Crane does, however, insert other examples of symbolism throughout the novel. For example, the dead man that Henry sees as he flees from battle represents the capriciousness of life and death. The corpse, covered with crawling ants, gave Henry the opportunity to consider the fact that nature did not care about the lowly soldier, and that death could come to a person no matter how brave. Throughout the book, the vivid imagery allows the reader to "see" the battlefield in all its glory -- and all its gore. Descriptions of armies preparing for battle, of a dead body lying in the field covered by insects, of the bloody injuries of Henry's comrades, all bring the novel to life. Crane describes each aspect of the story with words that appeal to the reader's senses, helping to create a believable storyline. In fact, the novel was considered "impressionist," based on the author's vivid descriptions of both visual beauty and internal confusion, according to PBS.org's website on "The American Novel." The primary example of irony in the book revolves around the "red badge of courage" in the novel's title. Henry believes that in order to be seen as brave, he needs to earn a "badge" -- a wound -- in battle. Ironically, when Henry finally does receive a wound, it is while escaping from battle and running away from his friends in need. This is the opposite of courage, and yet Henry hides the cause of his wound from his friends and goes on to be known as a courageous fighter. Crane also uses personification to give groups of people a collective personality. The regiment is often discussed as if it were one person, rather than a collection of people all awkwardly going through the same action. This use of personification shows the mentality of the soldiers and emphasizes the fact that they were to act as a single unit rather than as individuals. About the Author	<urn:uuid:5102a03d-d82b-459b-8687-ddc510000f9e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.019220948219299316, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9640315771102905, "url": "https://penandthepad.com/examples-figurative-language-the-red-badge-courage-19640.html" }
Science and research NEWS Research NEWS Leave a comment Gonorrhea Becoming More Resistant to One Antibiotic: CDC Leave a comment What Is Naloxone And How Can It Help Save Drug Users Who Overdose? Naloxone, commonly known as Narcan, is a medicine that temporarily reverses the effects of opioid drugs such as heroin, morphine and oxycodone. If a person overdoses on an opioid, administering naloxone can help revive them. Naloxone has been widely used in hospital emergency departments and many ambulance services since the 1970s. It has been shown to be remarkably safe, reliable and effective. In most countries, including Australia, naloxone is only available in the community on prescription. But since the mid-1990s, clinicians and advocates have called for regulators to make naloxone more widely available to opioid users, their peers and family members who might be present or nearby when an overdose occurs. Earlier this month Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) heeded this advice and recommended rescheduling naloxone to allow over-the-counter (OTC) purchase of single-use pre-filled syringes through pharmacies. It is likely that from February 2016 Australia will become the second country (after Italy in 1995), to have naloxone formally available without a prescription. Prescription Take-Home Naloxone Programs Take-home naloxone programs involving supply through prescription have successfully operated in Australia since April 2012, when a program was launched in the Australian Capital Territory. This was soon followed by programs in New South Wales, Western Australia, Victoria and South Australia. A recent evaluation found that over two years, the ACT program reversed 57 overdoses. The program trained more than 200 participants (mostly opioid users) in overdose-prevention and management, and naloxone administration. A 2010 survey of naloxone programs operating in the United States since 1996 found that 53,000 kits containing naloxone were distributed through 188 programs across 16 US states. This distribution was reported to have resulted in over 10,000 successful overdose reversals. Growing international research on implementation of take-home naloxone programs provides further evidence that people who are at risk for overdose and other bystanders are willing and able to be trained to prevent overdoses and administer naloxone. Recent research shows that even very brief minimal training in using the medicine can be all that is needed to safely administer naloxone. There is no evidence that wider availability of naloxone leads to riskier or more widespread drug use. In 2014 the World Health Organization recommended that people likely to witness an overdose should have access to naloxone. How Does Naloxone Reverse Overdoses? When a person has an opioid overdose, they lose consciousness and their breathing can slow and even eventually stop. This results in damage to the brain and other organs and, eventually, death. Most opioid overdoses occur among experienced users. People are most at risk of overdose when their opioid tolerance drops after a period of abstinence or reduced opioid use, such as after prison release, or if they use other drugs such as alcohol or sleeping pills in addition to the opioids. Research shows that most overdose deaths occur more than an hour after last injection and that others, such as friends or family, are usually nearby. However, in most fatal cases, tragically, there is no intervention before death. This is primarily because most people are ill-equipped to respond to overdose (wrongly) assuming, for example, that the deep snoring or gurgling associated with impending respiratory collapse means that the person can be left to “sleep it off”. But opioid overdose can be managed by monitoring the person, maintaining their airway, providing ventilation (with rescue breathing), basic life support and calling an ambulance. Naloxone administration can greatly assist in reversing overdose by helping to quickly restart normal breathing. Naloxone has a very specific action in reversing the effects of opioid intoxication. It does not produce any intoxication itself and has no effect on people who don’t have opioids in their system. In an emergency situation, naloxone is typically administered by injection into a muscle. It can also be provided in a device so it can be sprayed into the nostrils, but naloxone is not licensed for nasal use in Australia. Taking The Next Step While over-the-counter access to naloxone will be an important step in facilitating wider access to the medicine, a number of measures will be needed to expand naloxone availability sufficiently to have a significant impact on the rate of lethal overdoses in the community. Work will be done over the next few months to make the naloxone product packaging and instruction materials suitable for lay people buying it over-the-counter. Systems must also be developed to train people in how to use the medicine, such as through brief advice from pharmacy staff. Naloxone is not a silver bullet for preventing overdose deaths. But its wider availability should be one important component of an effective strategy to prevent opioid overdose fatalities. The rescheduling of naloxone in Australia will set a new precedent for other countries and will help save lives for years into the future. Leave a comment Protein discovery promises to improve mapping of brain tumors mri scanner Highlights edges of both primary and secondary brain tumors Prof. Sibson concludes: Leave a comment Sperm whales’ clicks suggest the animals have culture The whales appear to learn sounds to socialize, similar to the way humans learn language sperm whale Sperm whales love to chitchat. They talk to each other in clicks. Now, scientists say, those clicks hold hints that the whales have culture. Culture is a way of life passed on from generation to generation through learning. “There’s a lot of debate if culture is exclusive to humans or if you can find it in animals, too,” says Maurício Cantor. He is a biologist at Canada’s Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Earlier research had suggested that dolphins, primates, birds and a few other wild animals have culture. Sperm whales should be added to that list, Cantor and his colleagues now argue in the September 8 Nature Communications.Sperm whales can make some of the deepest dives of all the animals in the sea. They can plunge up to 2,250 meters (7,380 feet) below the ocean’s surface. And they can stay underwater for nearly 90 minutes. When diving, the whales send out loud clicks and listen for the echoes that bounce back after the clicks hit something close by. This is calledecholocation. It’s the animal equivalent of sonar, and the whales use it to hunt — mainly for large squid. But when the whales are not hunting, they use those clicks to chat with each other. Females and their calves do most of the talking. Tens of thousands of them hang out in the warm waters of the South Pacific Ocean. They usually swim in small units of 12 or so moms, grandmas, aunts and friends. These gals all work together to raise their pod’s babies. These units are part of larger groups of 30 to 300 whales, which belong to even larger communities, called clans. Individuals in each clan talk to each other using distinct patterns of clicks. These varying patterns are similar to dialects in human speech. A dialect is a regional pattern in speech. People in Boston, Mass., and Dallas, Tex., both speak English, for example. Yet they may use words differently or give them a different pronunciation. Those differences reflect their regional dialects. Cantor and his colleagues wanted to know how the whales got their distinct dialects. The researchers followed groups of whales around the Galápagos Islands, off South America. Along the way, they recorded the whales’ identities and behaviors. The scientists logged the whales’ sounds and tracked with which other groups these sperm whales interacted. Back in their lab, the scientists loaded all of these data into a computer. Then they programmed it to test different ways the whale dialects could have developed over thousands of generations. Perhaps the dialects developed by chance. Or there might have been some innate bits of sound passed from mom to baby through DNA. The computer program ruled out both of those scenarios. Instead, the analysis showed that the whales had to have learned their distinct dialects from the other whales around them.Scientists refer to this as social learning. “Social learning is the foundation of culture,” Cantor says. Because sperm whales learn their dialects from their extended family, there are cultural differences between clans. The clans actually exist because of those cultural differences, he says. Luke Rendell is a biologist at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. He was not involved in the study. He points out that the new finding is based on a computer model of how the sperm whale dialects came to be. A model, though, can only simulate the real world. It is not a direct observation of what actually occurred. “Like all models, it is wrong, but it is also useful,” Rendell says. The model suggests whales have a bias for the sounds of their own clan members, which shapes their society, Rendell notes. This kind of conformity, or sticking with individuals who behave the same, is thought to underpin a lot of human culture. In non-humans, however, it is considered rare. Finding hints that it exists in sperm-whale clans “really starts to lift the lid on cultural processes in non-human societies,” he says. Cantor notes that the scientists are not suggesting that the whales’ sounds or culture are as complex or diverse as human cultures are. But, he says, “Whale culture, like human culture, seems to be very important for the whales’ social structure.” Power Words (for more about Power Words, click here) bias The tendency to hold a particular perspective or preference that favors some thing, some group or some choice. Scientists often “blind” subjects to the details of a test so that their biases will not affect the result. clan A large family or group of families that have much in common, both genetically and culturally. dialect A form of language or pattern of communication that is distinct to a specific place or a social group. echolocation (in animals) A behavior in which animals emit calls and then listen to the echoes that bounce back off of solid things in the environment. This behavior can be used to navigate and to find food or mates. It is the biological analog of the sonar used by submarines. innate Something such as a behavior, attitude or response that is natural, or inborn, and doesn’t have to be learned. pod (in zoology) The name given to a group of toothed whales that travel together, most of them throughout their life, as a group. programming (in computing) To use a computer language to write or revise a set of instructions that makes a computer do something. The set of instructions that does this is known as a computer program. scenario A possible (or likely) sequence of events and how they might play out. simulate (in computing) To try and imitate the conditions, functions or appearance of something. Computer programs that do this are referred to as simulations. social learning A type of learning in which individuals observe the behavior of others and modify their own behavior based on what they see. sonar A system for the detection of objects and for measuring the depth of water. It works by emitting sound pulses and measuring how long it takes the echoes to return. sperm whale A species of enormous whale with small eyes and a small jaw in a squarish head that takes up 40 percent of its body. Their bodies can span 13 to 18 meters (43 to 60 feet), with adult males being at the bigger end of that range. These are the deepest diving of marine mammals, reaching depths of 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) or more. They can stay below the water for up to an hour at a time in search of food, mostly giant squids. zoology The study of animals and their habitats. Scientists who undertake this work are known aszoologists.	<urn:uuid:db78f96b-ab70-4407-8d08-72387a531a0b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.14677166938781738, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9410071969032288, "url": "https://journalpublication.wordpress.com/2015/11/" }
Matt Gunther introduces the alloy that links armour-piercing bullets and ball point pens Chemistry World Tungsten carbide was originally published in Chemistry World as part of the Chemistry in its elements: compounds series. Tungsten carbide saw cutting metal Source: Yellowj / Tungsten carbide cutting disc Richard Feynman once said there was a ‘sleeping dragon’ lying dormant in the bowels of the Los Alamos Laboratory. And there were a few scientists who decided to tickle its tail, with fatal consequences. In 1946, Harry Daghlian Jr., a physicist from MIT, was looking at neutron reflection. He surrounded a plutonium-239 core with metal reflection bricks to see how many would be needed, and in what position, to make the core go critical. As he was positioning the bricks around the spherical metal core, Harry noticed it was about to go super-critical and tried to remove a brick. It fell into the plutonium, which immediately set-off a runaway chain reaction. Exposed to a lethal dose of gamma radiation, Harry was the first peacetime casualty in a nuclear incident. The ultra-hard metal composite that landed on the dragon was one of the toughest materials on Earth: tungsten carbide. This compound’s history can be traced back to the 1700s when tungsten was first extracted from the ore wolframite by Juan Jose de Elhuyar and his brother Fausto. The two brothers simply reduced tungstic acid using charcoal to form the metal. In doing so, they found the element with the highest melting point of all the known metals at a staggering 3422°C. But it was to be the accidental synthesis of tungsten carbide by the Nobel prize winner Henri Moissan in 1896 that would revolutionise industry and impact society at large. Seeking to produce artificial diamond, Henri heated sugar and tungsten oxide in a furnace. The sugar acted as a reducing agent for the oxide to produce melted tungsten carbide. Although it demonstrated some desirable properties, it was far too brittle to use in any commercial sense. The Osram Lamp Works of Berlin however, recognising the carbide’s potential, soon seized on the opportunity to develop metallic cement, with tungsten carbide particles embedded in a cobalt matrix. The carbide was incredibly tough and four times as dense as titanium. Industry quickly employed the metallic compound in its manufacturing processes, using it as a drawing die to resize the tungsten filament wires used in incandescent light bulbs. It was also used in a wide array of cutting tools, as it could slice through stainless steel like a knife through butter. The only other material available that was equally up to the task was the far more expensive diamond. But its properties were not just attractive to industry. The metal composite also raised eyebrows within the military. The fruits of their curiosity would go on to have a huge impact on the second world war. Seeing its toughness as an asset, Germany developed tungsten carbide armour-piercing rounds and loaded them into the most feared aircraft in the Luftwaffe: the Stuka JU-87G, also known as the ‘tank killer’. In the process of manufacturing these shells, Germany had managed to shore up the world’s supply of tungsten, ramping up its price in the process. The Home Front suffered as a result; industrial equipment could not use tungsten carbide in cutting implements and it took several years before the Allies were able to source enough of the material to rival the Germans. Following tungsten carbide’s tortuous path during the war, its uses in modern society are rather delicate by comparison. The cemented composite is now a popular material for wedding rings, offering great scratch resistance and durability. From extra-grippy cycling tyres to precise surgical instruments, it’s hard to find a durable product that doesn’t use some form of the carbide. Even the ballpoint pen you use on a daily basis contains a tungsten carbide ball bearing. To know that your pen contains a material that once woke a sleeping dragon just proves the old mantra that the pen really is mightier than the sword.	<urn:uuid:4224abf9-7994-4bd9-9045-ca1531c8bfc9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.08485066890716553, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9534022212028503, "url": "https://eic.rsc.org/magnificent-molecules/tungsten-carbide/3008556.article" }
New phylum discovered in 1983 The discovery of a new species is fairly big news, but that is nothing compared to the discovery of a new phylum. There are about 30 phyla in the animal kingdom (the number is somewhat approximate because biologists disagree about some classifications), of which our phylum, chordata is one. To put this in perspective, everything with a backbone or a reasonable facsimile, from sea squirts to us, is a chordate. To say that an animal is in a different phylum is to say that it has less in common with us than we have with sea squirts. The discovery of Loricifera reads like a detective story, complete with unexpected plot turn. In 1982 Danish zoologist R.M. Kristensen was visiting the marine laboratory at Roscoff, France. It was his last day there, and he was in a hurry. He skipped over his established collection techniques and hastily washed his marine sediment sample with fresh water. Dislodged from their firm grip on tiny pieces of sediment by the osmotic shock were numerous examples of this tiny, previously unknown organism. Loricifera are minute invertebrates, rarely attaining 0.5mm in size. They live firmly attached to rocky and shelly marine substrata. Their tiny size and solid attachment to the marine bed explain their late discovery. Since the initial discovery of Nanaloricus mysticus off the French coast by Kristensen, a further approximately twenty species of Loriciferan have been identified. The range for this phylum has also been extended to include the coastal regions of North America, and a global distribution seems likely. The name Kristensen gave them means "corset bearers," and their hind ends are encased in a vase-shaped structure (the "lorica") constructed of six cuticular plates. A mouth cone sticks out the end, and can be withdrawn. Male and female genders are separate. They seem to have a well-developed brain. Some have called them "brush heads" from their appearance. Images are available on the internet. As yet, Loricifera have never been observed alive; they can only been induced to relinquish their tight grip on the rock by a powerful osmotic shock with fresh water, which kills them. Accordingly little is known of their habits. Several larval forms have been found, together with empty loricas, which last suggest that growth and development are by molting. But most of what we know - or think we know - is mere guesswork.	<urn:uuid:aa86e8f0-abb9-41fb-bda1-bdb7e3aa9c96>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.15361279249191284, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9783333539962769, "url": "https://everything2.com/user/ZorroBandito/writeups/Loricifera" }
Thesis Statements  Through showcasing the suffering of Billy Pilgrim and other POWs during WWII, Vonnegut attempts to counteract the glamorization of war that previous novels and Hollywood movies have  Billy not only suffers physically during his imprisonment, but suffers mentally long after his experiences in WWII; Vonnegut wants the reader to empathize with Billy and see how war destroys the human body, mind, and spirit. Theme Statement  Suffering is unjust, often afflicting those who do not deserve it; furthermore, unnecessary suffering, like suffering as a result of war, has everlasting devastating effects on human  Billy, after all, had contemplated torture and hideous wounds at the beginning and the end of nearly every day of his childhood. Billy had an extremely gruesome crucifix hanging on the wall of his little bedroom in Ilium. A military surgeon would have admired the clinical fidelity of the artist's rendition of all Christ's wounds--the spear wound, the thorn wounds, the holes that were made by the iron spikes. Billy's Christ died horribly. He was pitiful. So it goes.  (Vonnegut 48)  In the first chapter of Billy’s story, Billy is thinking this after Roland Weary talks to him about the various torture devices he has brought with him.  It shows that Billy has been exposed to pain and suffering even as a young innocent child. Vonnegut uses sarcasm to connect the violence in both religion and war.  Vonnegut attempts to show how we have become desensitized to such images because we are overexposed. For Catholics, it is such a part of their imagery, they often lose sight of the real suffering behind the image much like we have lost sight of the real suffering behind war.  Before Billy opened his eyes, it seemed to him that the tones might have been those used by the friends of Jesus when they took His ruined body down from His cross. So it goes. Billy opened his eyes. A middle-aged man and wife were crooning to the horses. They were noticing what the Americans had not noticed--that the horses' mouths were bleeding, gashed by the bits, that the horses' hooves were broken, so that every step meant agony, that the horses were insane with thirst. The Americans had treated their form of transportation as though it were no more sensitive than a six-cylinder Chevrolet. They made Billy get out of the wagon and come look at the horses. When Billy saw the condition of his means of transportation, he burst into tears. He hadn't cried about anything else in the war.  (Vonnegut250)  In the final chapter of Billy’s story, as the POWs return to Dresden after the bombing, Billy weeps over the suffering of the horses that are pulling his  The horses’ suffering is related directly back to the crucifix and Jesus’ suffering, bringing this theme full circle. Billy has been exposed to suffering from his childhood and has witnessed first hand the suffering of war, however it is only when Billy is the direct cause of another’s suffering, albeit an animal, he finally is able to weep. He is finally able to empathize and connect to another’s suffering.  Vonnegut is putting forth the question: Why do we need to be the direct cause of another’s suffering in order to empathize and therefore put a stop to it? Suffering ms. Hanna Slaughterhouse-Five	<urn:uuid:e4c075bb-89d3-49c0-8e99-b8e02bd05775>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.21296775341033936, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9525223970413208, "url": "http://studylib.net/doc/5216175/suffering-ms.-hanna-slaughterhouse-five" }
History of guerrilla warfare: Wikis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The history of guerrilla warfare stretches back at least since Classical Antiquity, when many strategies and tactics were used to fight foreign occupation that anticipated the modern guerrilla. An early example was the hit-and-run tactics employed by the nomadic Scythians of Central Asia against Darius the Great's Persian Achaemenid Empire and later against Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire. The Fabian strategy applied by the Roman Republic against Hannibal in the Second Punic War could be considered another early example of guerrilla tactics: After witnessing several disastrous defeats, assassinations and raiding parties, the Romans set aside the typical military doctrine of crushing the enemy in a single battle and initiated a successful, albeit unpopular, war of attrition against the Carthaginians that lasted for 14 years. In expanding their own Empire, the Romans encountered numerous examples of guerrilla resistance to their legions as well.[1] The success of Judas Maccabeus in his rebellion against Seleucid rule was at least partly due to his mastery of irregular warfare. The victory of the Basque forces against Charlemagne's army in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass, which gave birth to the Medieval myth of Roland, was due to effective use of a guerrilla principles in the mountain terrain of the Pyrenees. Mongols also faced irregulars composed of armed peasants in Hungary after the Battle of Mohi. In the 15th century, Vietnamese leader Le Loi launched a guerrilla war against Chinese.[2] One of the most successful guerrilla wars against the invading Ottomans was led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg from 1443 to 1468. In 1443 he rallied Albanian forces and drove the Turks from his homeland. For 25 years Skanderbeg kept the Turks from retaking Albania, which due to its proximity to Italy, could easily have served as a springboard to the rest of Europe.[3] In 1462, the Ottomans were driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula. Vlad was unable to stop the Turks from entering Wallachia, so he resorted to guerrilla war, constantly organizing small attacks and ambushes on the Turks.[4] During The Deluge in Poland guerrilla tactics were applied.[5] In the 100 years war between England and France, commander Bertrand du Guesclin used guerrilla tactics to pester the English invaders. The Frisian warlord and freedom fighter Pier Gerlofs Donia fought a guerrilla against Philip I of Castile[6] and with his co-commander Wijerd Jelckama against Charles V.[7][8] During the Dutch Revolt of the 16th century, the Geuzen waged a guerrilla war against the Spanish Empire.[9] During the Scanian War, a pro-Danish guerrilla group known as the Snapphane fought against the Swedes.Shivaji started guerrilla warfare against the Mughals and other powers in 1645 leading to establishment of the Maratha state in 1674, sowing seeds of what would become the last great empire(Maratha empire) in pre-British India. In the 17th century Ireland, Irish irregulars called tories and rapparees used guerrilla warfare in the Irish Confederate Wars and the Williamite war in Ireland. Finnish guerrillas, sissis, fought against Russian occupation troops in the Great Northern War, 1710-1721. The Russians retaliated brutally against the civilian populace; the period is called Isoviha (Grand Hatred) in Finland. Vendéan Counter-Revolution From 1793-1796 a revolt broke out against the French Revolution by Catholic royalists in the Department of the Vendée. This movement was intended to oppose the persecution endured by the Roman Catholic Church in revolutionary France (see Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution#The Revolution and the Church) and ultimately to restore the monarchy. Though ill-equipped and untrained in conventional military tactics, the Vendéan counter-revolution, known as the “Royal Catholic Army,” relied heavily on guerrilla tactics, taking full advantage of their intimate knowledge of the marsh filled, heavily forested countryside. Though the Revolt in the Vendée was eventually “pacified” by government troops, their successes against the larger, better equipped republican army were notable. Works such as “La Vendée” by Anthony Trollope (http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/8vend10.txt ), G.A. Henty’s “No Surrender! A Tale of Rising in the Vendée” (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20091/20091-h/20091-h.htm) detail the history of the revolt. Napoleonic Wars Prussian officer during the Peninsular War, while fighting with French regulars against Spanish guerrillas [10] In the Napoleonic Wars many of the armies lived off the land. This often led to some resistance by the local population if the army did not pay fair prices for produce they consumed. Usually this resistance was sporadic, and not very successful, so it is not classified as guerrilla action. There are three notable exceptions, though: Siege of Saragossa : The assault on the San Engracia monastery. • In Napoleon's invasion of Russia of 1812 two actions could be seen as initiating guerrilla tactics. The burning of Moscow after it had been occupied by Napoleon's Grand Army, depriving the French of shelter in the city, resembled guerrilla action insofar as it was an attack on the available resources rather than directly on the troops (and insofar as it was a Russian action rather than an inadvertent consequence of nineteenth-century troops' camping in a largely abandoned city of wooden buildings). In a different sense, the imperial command that the Russian serfs should attack the French resembled guerrilla tactics in its reliance on partisans rather than army regulars. This did not so much spark a guerrilla war as encourage a revengeful slaughter of French deserters by Russian peasants.[11] Meanwhile, Fieldmarshal Kutuzov permitted than-Hussar Leutenant-Colonel Denis Davydov to open the Partisan War against the French communications. Davydov, Selyavin, Figner an others are since known in Russia as the 'Partisan Rangers of the Year '12' (Russian: Партизаны [Отечественной войны 18] '12-го года). They were successful in their operations making the French troops unable to fight or even move, because of food and ammunition shortage, and not just because of the Russian Winter as is usually stated. • In the Peninsular War Spanish guerrillas tied down tens of thousands of French troops and killed hundreds of thousands. The continual losses of troops caused Napoleon to describe this conflict his "Spanish ulcer". This was one of the most successful partisan wars in history and was where the word guerrilla was first used in this context. The Oxford English Dictionary lists Wellington as the oldest known source, speaking of "Guerrillas" in 1809. Poet William Wordsworth showed a surprising early insight into guerrilla methods in his pamphlet on the Convention of Cintra: Irish War of Independence and Civil War IRA Flying Column during the Irish War of Independence. The wars between Ireland and the British state have been long, and over the centuries have covered the full spectrum of the types of warfare. The Irish fought the first successful 20th century war of independence against the British Empire and the United Kingdom. After the military failure of the Easter Rising in 1916, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) resorted to guerrilla tactics involving both urban guerrilla warfare and flying columns in the countryside during the Irish War of Independence of 1919 to 1921. The chief IRA commanders in the localities during this period were Tom Barry, Dan Breen, Liam Lynch, Seán Mac Eoin, and Tom Maguire. The IRA guerrilla was of considerable intensity in parts of the country, notably in Dublin and in areas such as County Cork, County Kerry and County Mayo in the south and west. Despite this, the Irish fighters were never in a position to either hold territory or take on British forces in a conventional manner. Even the largest engagements of the conflict, such as the Kilmichael Ambush or Crossbarry Ambush constituted mere skirmishes by the standards of a conventional war. Another aspect of the war, particularly in the north-eastern part of the province of Ulster, was communal violence. The Unionist majority there, who were largely Protestant and loyal to Britain were granted control over the security forces there, in particular the Ulster Special Constabulary and used them to attack the Nationalist (and largely Catholic) population in reprisal for IRA actions. Elsewhere in Ireland, where Unionists were in a minority, they were sometimes attacked by the IRA for aiding the British forces. The extent to which the conflict was an inter-communal one as well as war of national liberation is still strongly debated in Ireland. The total death toll in the war came to a little over 2000 people. By mid 1921, the military and political costs of maintaining the British security forces in Ireland eventually proved too heavy for the British government. In July 1921, the UK government agreed to a truce with the IRA and agreed to meet representatives of the Irish First Dail, who since the 1918 General Election held seventy-three of the one hundred and five parliamentary seats for the island. Negotiations led to a settlement, the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It created the Irish Free State of 26 counties as a dominion within the British Empire; the other 6 counties remained part of the UK as Northern Ireland. Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Army split into pro- and anti-Treaty factions with the Anti-Treaty IRA forces losing the Irish Civil War (1922–23) which followed. The partition of Ireland laid the seeds for the later Troubles. The Irish Civil War is a striking example of the failure of guerrilla tactics when used against a relatively popular native regime. Following their failure to hold fixed positions against an Irish Free State offensive in the summer of 1922, the IRA re-formed "flying columns" and attempted to use the same tactics they had successfully used against the British. However, against Irish troops, who knew them and the terrain and faced with the hostility of the Roman Catholic Church and the majority of Irish nationalist opinion, they were unable to sustain their campaign. In addition, the Free State government, confident of its legitimacy among the Irish population, sometimes used more ruthless and effective measures of repression than the British had felt able to employ. Whereas the British executed 14 IRA men in 1919-1922, the Free State executed 77 anti-treaty prisoners officially and its troops killed another 150 prisoners or so in the field (see Executions during the Irish Civil War). The Free State also interned 12,000 republicans, compared with the British figure of 4,500. The last anti-Treaty guerrillas abandoned their military campaign against the Free State after nine months in March 1923. World War I In a successful campaign in German East Africa, the German commander Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck fought against the numerically superior allied forces. Even though he was cut off from Germany and had few Germans under his command (most of his fighters were African askaris), he won multiple victories during the East Africa Campaign and managed to exhaust and trouble the Allies; he was undefeated up until his acceptance of a cease-fire in Northern Rhodesia three days after the end of the war in Europe. He returned to Germany as a hero. A major guerrilla war was fought by the Arabs against the Ottoman Turks during the Arab Revolt (1916–1918). Another guerrilla war opposed the German Occupation of Ukraine in 1918 and partisan and guerrilla forces fought against both the Bolsheviks and the Whites during the Russian Civil War. This fighting continued into 1921 in Ukraine, in Tambov province, and in parts of Siberia. Other guerrillas opposed the Japanese occupation of the Russian Far East. World War II Soviet partisan fighters behind German lines in Belarus in 1943. At least 5,295 Belarusian settlements were destroyed by the Nazis. In total, one-quarter of the Belarusian population were killed in the war.[12] Many clandestine organizations (often known as resistance movements) operated in the countries occupied by German Reich during the Second World War. These organizations began forming as early as 1939 when, after the defeat of Poland, the members of what would become the Polish Home Army began to gather. A guerrilla movement in Ethiopia was formed to rout out Italian forces as early as 1935. Other clandestine organizations operated in Denmark, Belgium, Norway, France (Resistance), France (Maquis), Czechoslovakia, Slovakia, Yugoslavia (Royalist Chetniks), Yugoslavia (Partisans), Soviet Union, Italy, Albania and Greece. From the second half of 1944, the total forces of the Yugoslav Partisans numbered over 800,000 men organized in four field armies, which engaged in conventional warfare.[13] By 1944 the Polish resistance was thought to number 400,000.[14] Many of these organizations received help from the British operated Special Operations Executive (SOE) which along with the commandos was initiated by Winston Churchill to "set Europe ablaze." The SOE was originally designated as 'Section D' of MI6 but its aid to resistance movements to start fires clashed with MI6's primary role as an intelligence-gathering agency. When Britain was under threat of invasion, SOE trained Auxiliary Units to conduct guerrilla warfare in the event of invasion. Even the Home Guard were trained in guerrilla warfare in the case of invasion of England. Osterly Park was the first of 3 such schools established to train the Home Guard. Not only did SOE help the resistance to tie down many German units as garrison troops, so directly aiding the conventional war effort, but also guerrilla incidents in occupied countries were useful in the propaganda war, helping to repudiate German claims that the occupied countries were pacified and broadly on the side of the Germans. Despite these minor successes, many historians believe that the efficacy of the European resistance movements has been greatly exaggerated in popular novels, films and other media. Contrary to popular belief, in the Western and Southern Europe the resistance groups were only able to seriously counter the German in areas that offered the protection of rugged terrain. In relatively flat, open areas, such as France, the resistance groups were all too vulnerable to decimation by German regulars and pro-German collaborators. Only when operating in concert with conventional Allied units were the resistance groups to prove indispensable. All the clandestine resistance movements and organisations in the occupied Europe were dwarfed by the partisan warfare that took place on the vast scale of the Eastern Front combat between Soviet partisans and the German Reich forces. The strength of the partisan units and formations can not be accurately estimated, but in Belorussia alone is thought to have been in excess of 300,000.[15] This was a planned and closely coordinated effort by the STAVKA which included insertion of officers and delivery of equipment, as well as coordination of operational planning with the regular Red Army forces such as Operation Concert in 1943 (commenced 19 September) and the massive sabotage of German logistics in preparation for commencement of Operation Bagration in the summer of 1944.[16] When the U.S. entered the war, the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS) co-operated and enhanced the work of SOE as well as working on its own initiatives in the Far East. British soldiers waged a guerrilla war against Japanese forces in Burma. Chindits were formed into long range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the jungle in 1943. Baltic anti-soviet campaigns After World War II, during the 1940s and 1950s, thousands of fighters in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (see Forest Brothers, Latvian national partisans, Lithuanian partisans (1944–1953)) participated in unsuccessful guerrilla warfare against Soviet occupation.[17] In Lithuania guerrilla warfare was massive until 1958 and the last fighter in Estonia was discovered and killed in 1978. Northern Ireland conflict In the late 1960s the Troubles began again in Northern Ireland. They had their origins in the partition of Ireland during the Irish War of Independence. They came to an end with the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. The violence was characterised by an armed campaign against the British presence in Northern Ireland by the Provisional Irish Republican Army, British counter-insurgency policy, and attacks on civilians by both loyalists and republicans. There were also allegations of collusion between loyalist paramilitaries and British security forces, and to a lesser extent, republicans and both British and Irish security forces.[18][19][20][21][22] Although both loyalist and republican paramilitaries carried out terrorist atrocities against civilians which were often tit-for-tat, a case can be made for saying that attacks such as the Provisional IRA carried out on British soldiers at Warrenpoint in 1979 was a well planned guerrilla ambush.[23] However media coverage of the attack was overshadowed by their killing of Louis Mountbatten and three other people on a fishing boat in Sligo on the same day. The Provisional Irish Republican Army, Loyalist paramilitaries and various anti-Good Friday Agreement splinter-groups could be called guerrillas but are usually called terrorists by governments of both the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland governments. The news media such as the BBC and CNN will often use the term "gunmen" as in "IRA gunmen"[24] or "Loyalist gunmen".[25] Since 1995 CNN also uses guerrilla as in "IRA guerrilla" and "Protestant guerrilla".[26] Reuters, in accordance with its principle of not using the word terrorist except in direct quotes, refers to "guerrilla groups".[27] Europe since 2000 The Greek Marxist 17 November disbanded around 2002 following the capture and imprisonment of much of its leadership. Currently, the National Front for the Liberation of Corsica (FLNC) continues to exist. The ongoing war between pro-independence groups in Chechnya and the Russian government is currently the most active guerrilla war in Europe. Most of the incidents reported by the Western news media are very gory terrorist acts against Russian civilians committed by Chechen separatists outside Chechnya. However, within Chechnya the war has many of the characteristics of a classic guerrilla war. See the article History of Chechnya for more details. In Northern Ireland, the Real Irish Republican Army and the Continuity Irish Republican Army, two small, radical splinter groups who broke with the Provisional Irish Republican Army, continue to exist. They are dwarfed in size by the Provisional IRA and have been less successful in terms of both popularity among Irish republicans and guerrilla activity: The Continuity IRA has failed to carry out any killings, while the Real IRA's only attacks resulting in deaths were the 1998 Omagh bombing, which killed 29 civilians, a booby trap torch bomb in Derry which killed a former Ulster Defence Regiment soldier, and a 2009 attack on a Northern Ireland military installation which killed 2 British soldiers and wounded several others. American Revolutionary War While the American Revolutionary War is often thought of as a guerrilla war, guerrilla tactics were uncommon, and almost all of the battles involved conventional set-piece battles. Some of the confusion may be because Generals George Washington and Nathanael Greene successfully used a strategy of harassment and progressively grinding down British forces instead of seeking a decisive battle, in a classic example of asymmetric warfare. Nevertheless the theater tactics used by most of the American forces were those of conventional warfare. One of the exceptions was in the south, where the brunt of the war was upon militia forces who fought the enemy British troops and their Loyalist supporters, but used concealment, surprise, and other guerrilla tactics to much advantage. General Francis Marion of South Carolina, who often attacked the British at unexpected places and then faded into the swamps by the time the British were able to organize return fire, was named by them The Swamp Fox. However, even in the south, most of the major engagements were set-piece battles of conventional warfare. However the guerrilla tactics in the south were a key factor in the prevention of British reinforcement to the north, and that was a decisive factor in the outcome of the war. See also Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys, for another American Revolutionary War example. American Civil War Partisan warfare, in contrast, more closely resembles Commando operations of the 20th century. Partisans were small units of conventional forces, controlled and organized by a military force for operations behind enemy lines. The 1862 Partisan Ranger Act passed by the Confederate Congress authorized the formation of these units and gave them legitimacy, which placed them in a different category than the common 'bushwhacker' or 'guerrilla'. John Singleton Mosby formed a partisan unit which was very effective in tying down Federal forces behind Union lines in northern Virginia in the last two years of the war. Lastly, deep raids by conventional cavalry forces were often considered 'irregular' in nature. The "Partisan Brigades" of Nathan Bedford Forrest and John Hunt Morgan operated as part of the cavalry forces of the Confederate Army of Tennessee in 1862 and 1863. They were given specific missions to destroy logistical hubs, railroad bridges, and other strategic targets to support the greater mission of the Army of Tennessee. By mid-1863, with the destruction of Morgan's raiders during the Great Raid of 1863, the Confederacy conducted few deep cavalry raids in the latter years of the war, mostly because of the losses in experienced horsemen and the offensive operations of the Union army. Federal cavalry conducted several successful raids during the war but in general used their cavalry forces in a more conventional role. A good exception was the 1863 Grierson's Raid, which did much to set the stage for General Ulysses S. Grant's victory during the Vicksburg Campaign. Federal counter-guerrilla operations were very successful in preventing the success of Confederate guerrilla warfare. In Arkansas, Federal forces used a wide variety of strategies to defeat irregulars. These included the use of Arkansas Unionist forces as anti-guerrilla troops, the use of riverine forces such as gunboats to control the waterways, and the provost marshal military law enforcement system to spy on suspected guerrillas and to imprison those captured. Against Confederate raiders, the Federal army developed an effective cavalry themselves and reinforced that system by numerous blockhouses and fortification to defend strategic targets. However, Federal attempts to defeat Mosby's Partisan Rangers fell short of success because of Mosby's use of very small units (10–15 men) operating in areas considered friendly to the Rebel cause. Another regiment known as the "Thomas Legion," consisting of white and anti-Union Cherokee Indians, morphed into a guerrilla force and continued fighting in the remote mountain back-country of western North Carolina for a month after Lee's surrender at Appomattox. That unit was never completely suppressed by Union forces, but voluntarily ceased hostilities after capturing the town of Waynesville on May 10, 1865. In the late 20th century several historians have focused on the non-use of guerrilla warfare to prolong the war. Near the end of the war, there were those in the Confederate government, notably Jefferson Davis who advocated continuing the southern fight as a guerrilla conflict. He was opposed by generals such as Robert E. Lee who ultimately believed that surrender and reconciliation were better than guerrilla warfare. See also Bushwhackers (Union and Confederate) and Jayhawkers (Union). Latin America In the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920, the populist revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata employed the use of predominantly guerrilla tactics. His forces, composed entirely of peasant farmers turned soldiers, wore no uniform and would easily blend into the general population after an operation's completion. They would have young soldiers, called "dynamite boys", hurl cans filled with explosives into enemy barracks, and then a large number of lightly armed soldiers would emerge from the surrounding area to attack it. Although Zapata's forces met considerable success, his strategy backfired as government troops, unable to distinguish his soldiers from the civilian population, waged a broad and brutal campaign against the latter. In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, Latin America had several urban guerrilla movements whose strategy was to destabilize regimes and provoke a counter-reaction by the military. The theory was that a harsh military regime would oppress the middle classes who would then support the guerrillas and create a popular uprising. While these movements did destabilize governments, such as Argentina, Uruguay, Guatemala, and Peru to the point of military intervention, the military generally proceeded to completely wipe out the guerrilla movements, usually committing several atrocities among both civilians and armed insurgents in the process. Several other left-wing guerrilla movements, sometimes backed by Cuba, attempted to overthrow US-backed governments or right-wing military dictatorships. US-backed Contra guerrillas attempted to overthrow the left-wing elected Sandinista government of Nicaragua, though most of these groups should be considered mercenary juntas rather than rooted guerrillas. The Sandinista Revolution saw the involvement of Women and the Armed Struggle in Nicaragua. South African War Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War. Guerrilla tactics were used extensively by the forces of the Boer republics in the First and Second Boer Wars in South Africa (1880–1881; 1899–1902) against the invading British Army. In the First Boer War, the Boer commandos wore their everyday dull-coloured farming clothes. The Boers relied more on stealth and speed than discipline and formation and, being expert marksmen using smokeless ammunition, the Boer were able to easily snipe at British troops from a distance. So the British Army relaxed their close-formation tactics. The British Army had changed to Khaki uniforms, first used by the British Indian Army, a decade earlier, and officers were soon ordered to dispense with gleaming buttons and buckles which made them conspicuous to snipers. In the third phase of the Second Boer War, after the British defeated the Boer armies in conventional warfare and occupied their capitals of Pretoria and Bloemfontein, Boer commandos reverted to mobile warfare. Units led by leaders such as Jan Smuts and Christian de Wet harassed slow-moving British columns and attacked railway lines and encampments. The Boers were almost all mounted and possessed long range magazine loaded rifles. This gave them the ability to attack quickly and cause many casualties before retreating rapidly when British reinforcements arrived. In the early period of the guerrilla war, Boer commandos could be very large, containing several thousand men and even field artillery. However, as their supplies of food and ammunition gave out, the Boers increasingly broke up into smaller units and relied on captured British arms, ammunition, and uniforms. To counter these tactics, the British under Kitchener interned Boer civilians into concentration camps and built hundreds of blockhouses all over the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Kitchener also enacted a scorched earth policy, destroying Boer homes and farms. Eventually, the Boer guerrillas surrendered in 1902, but the British granted them generous terms in order to bring the war to an end. This showed how effective guerrilla tactics could be in extracting concessions from a militarily more powerful enemy. Second Sino-Japanese War Despite a common misconception, both Nationalist and Communist forces maintained active underground resistance in Japanese-occupied areas during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Even before the outbreak of total war in 1937, partisans were already present in Manchuria hampering Japan's occupation of the region. After the initial phases of the war, when large swaths of the North China Plain rapidly fell to the Japanese, underground resistance, supported by either Communist sympathizers or composed of disguised Nationalist soldiers, would soon rise up to combat the garrison forces. They were quite successful, able to sabotage railroad routes and ambush reinforcements. Many major campaigns, such as the four failed invasions of Changsha, were caused by overly-stretched supply lines, lack of reinforcements, and ambushes by irregulars. The Communist cells, many having decades of prior experience in guerrilla warfare against the Nationalists, usually fared much better, and many Nationalist underground groups were subsequently absorbed into Communist ones. Usually in Japanese-occupied areas, the IJA only controlled the cities and railroad routes, with most of them countryside either left alone or with active guerrilla presence. The People's Republic of China has emphasized their contribution to the Chinese war effort, going as far to say that in addition to a "overt theatre", which in many cases they deny was effective, there was also a "covert theatre", which they claim did much to stop the Japanese advance. Israel and the West Bank & Gaza European Jews fleeing from anti-Semitic violence (especially Russian pogroms) immigrated in increasing numbers to Palestine. When the British restricted Jewish immigration to the region (see White Paper of 1939), Jewish immigrants began to use guerrilla warfare against the British for two purposes: to bring in more Jewish refugees, and to turn the tide of British sentiment at home. Jewish groups such as the Lehi and the Irgun - many of whom had experience in the Warsaw Ghetto battles against the Nazis, fought British soldiers whenever they could, including the bombing of the King David Hotel. They also conducted attacks against Palestinian civilians, and prepared the infrastructure for the coming 1948 conflict. The Jewish irregular forces were fighting the British Empire, which had just emerged victorious from World War II. Some of these groups were amalgamated into the Israel Defence Force and subsequently fought in the 1948 War of Independence. Bangladesh Liberation War Mukti Bahini (Bengali: মুক্তি বাহিনী "Liberation Army") collectively refers to the armed organizations who fought against the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was dynamically formed by (mostly) Bengali regulars and civilians after the proclamation of independence for Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) on March 26, 1971. Subsequently by mid-April 1971 the former members of East Pakistan armed forces formed the "Bangladesh Armed Forces" and M A G Osmani assumed the command of the same. The civilian groups continued to assist the armed forces during the war. After the war "Mukti Bahini" became the general term to refer to all forces (military and civilian) of former East Pakistani origin fighting against the Pakistani armed forces during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Often Mukti Bahini operated as an effective guerrilla force to keep their enemies on the run. It has been compared to the French Maquis, the Viet Cong, and the guerrillas of Josip Broz Tito in their tactics and effectiveness.[28] Bengal Insurgency and Maoists The Bengal insurgency was the beginning of the rising of Maoists in eastern India. The Naxals, begun their People's War through radical students in the city of Calcutta, however it continues today, having its bases in rural India and an area which now covers half of the country. The area under maosist control has been viewed as a war zone and the group itself has been called the biggest threat to Indian Security by the Prime Minister. Khalistan Movement Khalistan movement was a movement initiated by the Sikhs of the Indian Punjab, backed by Pakistan and the US. The movement's aim was to separate and then combine the Indian Punjab with the Pakistani Punjab, creating Khalistan or Pure land. the Punjab region is of historical and religious significance for Sikhs and was contested during the separation of United India. Khalistan movements downfall begun with the now notorious Operation Bluestar in which the Indian Army attacked the most holy temple of the Sikhs i.e. the Golden temple at Amritsar. The army was also alleged to have captured and tortured Sikh youth. The Khalistan movement still has supporters across the world, mainly in Canada, and the British Sikh Community. One of the proponents of the ideology are the Khalistan Zindabad Force, the leader of which Ranjit Singh is believed to be living in Lahore, Pakistan and has its support base in the Sikhs of Jammu. The Taliban uprising The Taliban uprising took place after Afghanistan's Invasion by Allied forces. As in the earlier wars against the British and Soviets, Afghan resistance to the American invaders took the traditional form of a Muslim holy war (Jihad) against the infidels.[29] Initially the Taliban took refuge in Pakistani Mountain areas and continue to move between Afghanistan and Pakistan, often evading Pakistani and NATO forces. The Taliban have now become a dominant role in the Afghan life once again. The Pakistani Government have been accused of supporting and/or turning a blind to the Afghan Taliban, while the Pakistani Government has accused NATO of doing the same. but know with pakistan deciding to fight the taliban. and with the help of local tribsman the taliban have been pushed back. Vietnam War The National Liberation Front (NLF), drawing its ranks from the South Vietnamese peasantry and working class, used guerrilla tactics in the early phases of the war. However, by 1965 when U.S. involvement escalated, the National Liberation Front was in the process of being supplanted by regular units of the North Vietnamese Army. The Cu Chi Tunnels (Ðịa đạo Củ Chi) was a major base for guerrilla warfare during the Vietnam War. Located about 60 km northwest of Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City), the Viet Cong (NLF) used the complex system tunnels to hide and live during the day and come up to fight at night. Despite the aggressiveness of the Vietnamese forces, the VietCong failed to achieve their objective. The defeat of the VietCong outlined the flaws of large scale guerrilla warfare over an extended time. These lessons were later exploited by SAS and Delta Force units during the Gulf War who worked in small teams instead of armies. Throughout the Vietnam War, the Communist Party closely supervised all levels of the conflict. The bulk of the VC/NLF were initially southerners, with some distinctive southern issues and sensibilities. Nevertheless, the VC/NLF was associated with the Northern Lao Dong Party which furnished it with supplies, weaponry and trained cadres, including regular NVA/PAVN troops. The Southern Communist party, the Peoples Revolutionary Party (PRP) organized in 1962, to participate in the insurgency, and COVSN, Central Office for Southern Vietnam, which partially controlled military activity. The general replacement of CV irregulars with NVA troops supplanted the original VC goals with those proposed by the NVA. As the 1968 Tet Offensive was primarily a VC operation in which large numbers of VC fighters were killed, increasing the role of the NVA in the war effort. This is a set of tactics which were used frequently in the Vietnam War by the NVA. Iraq (since 2003) Many guerrilla tactics are used by the Iraqi insurgency against the U.S.-led coalition. Such tactics include the bombing of vehicles and human targets, suicide bombings, ambushes, sniper attacks, and traditional hit and run raids. Although it is unclear how many U.S. casualties can be attributed to insurgent guerrilla action because of the high numbers of non-combat related injuries and deaths being included in all available statistics of total coalition casualties, it is estimated that they have injured more than 18,000 coalition troops and killed over 3,900, including more than 3,000 U.S. soldiers. In addition the Sunni insurgents established de facto control over the Al Anbar Governorate and Diyala Governorate, over a third of Iraq's land [1]. Insurgent control was maintained despite a series of coalition campaigns; the worsening violence in Baghdad led to the recall of coalition forces, ensuring continued insurgent control. [2] [3][4] List of historical examples Successful guerrilla campaigns Unsuccessful guerrilla campaigns See also 1. ^ Robert Brown Asprey (2008), "guerrilla warfare", Encyclopædia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248353/guerrilla-warfare, retrieved 2008-12-17 2. ^ Le Loi And The Le Dynasty 3. ^ Scanderbeg 4. ^ Vlad The Impaler: Brief History 5. ^ The reign of the Vasa dynasty (1587-1668) the wars with Sweden and the events of the Swedish Deluge 6. ^ Geldersche Volks-Almanak Published 1853 7. ^ Kalma, J.J. (1970). (ed.) de Tille. ed. Grote Pier Van Kimswerd. Netherlands. pp. 50. ISBN 90-7001-013-5. 8. ^ Kok, Jacobus (1791). "Pier Gerlofs Donia". Vaderlandsch Woordenboek. 24 (P–R). Amsterdam: Johannes Allart. pp. 17–21. 9. ^ Geuzen, or Gueux (Dutch history) 10. ^ Guerrilla Warfare by John Talbott, Virginia Quarterly Review, Spring 1978 Issue 11. ^ Book Fourteen: 1812 - Chapter III 12. ^ "Khatyn" - Genocide policy \| Punitive operations 13. ^ Armies of Yugoslav Partisans and Yugoslav Army 14. ^ Poland - World War II 15. ^ The Partisan War 16. ^ Министерство обороны Российской Федерации \| 19 сентября в военной истории России 17. ^ Could the Baltic States have resisted to the Soviet Union?; Crimes of Soviet Communists—Wide collection of sources and links about Guerrilla war in the Baltic states against Soviet occupation 18. ^ CAIN 19. ^ BBC News 20. ^ BBC News 21. ^ BBC News 22. ^ BBC News 23. ^ "BBC ON THIS DAY: 27 : 1979: Soldiers die in Warrenpoint massacre". August 27, 1979. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/27/newsid_3891000/3891055.stm. Retrieved November 19, 2005. 24. ^ "BBC - History - War and Conflict". http://web.archive.org/web/20060114222029/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/troubles/hungerstrikes/negotiations.shtml. Retrieved January 14, 2006. 25. ^ "CNN - Almanac - 27 November 1996". http://www.cnn.com/almanac/9611/27/. Retrieved November 19, 2005. 26. ^ "CNN - IRA splinter gang kills top Protestant guerrilla - December 27, 1997". http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9712/27/n.ireland.killing/. Retrieved November 19, 2005. 27. ^ "http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=584330&section=news". http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=584330&section=news. Retrieved November 19, 2005. 28. ^ WHY THE MOVEMENT FOR BANGLADESH SUCCEEDED: A military appreciation by Mumtaz Iqbal 29. ^ Reason to hope Canadians don't repeat history in Afghanistan, Alan G. Jamieson, The Edmonton Journal, July 31, 2006 30. ^ See, for example, the guerilla operations in the cordillera of Northern Luzon lead by then-COL Russell Volckmann, United States Army, who escaped from Corregidor in the last hours before the capture of the rest of its military defenders, and who wrote a memoir, (1954) [We Remained http://www.archive.org/stream/weremainedthreey011059mbp/weremainedthreey011059mbp_djvu.txt]. Volckmann was later promoted a general. Got something to say? Make a comment. Your name Your email address	<urn:uuid:5fea7a5a-9ad0-4ab6-b80d-de3177ba9e8d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.12308967113494873, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9608853459358215, "url": "http://www.thefullwiki.org/History_of_guerrilla_warfare" }
Eloquence and Authenticity: Who Are You and Why Should I Listen to You? byRachel Stayton The purpose of this unit is to transform students into creative and informed critics. They will gain an enhanced awareness of rhetorical tropes both in American history and contemporary popular culture while learning that eloquence is artifice as a means to sincerity. We will compare the successfulness of eloquence in four different works: Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Edward Everett's Oration at Gettysburg, Kendrick Lamar's album "good kid, m.A.A.d. city" and Jay Z's album "Magna Carta Holy Grail." In each pair of works, one succeeds much more in stirring the passions through eloquence and a sense of authenticity. This unit will not only examine what eloquence means, but how the speaker achieves credibility and a sense of "truth" through it. At the end of the unit, students will create a rhetoric rubric for the perfect hip hop song and write a persuasive review of a musical album. This unit will give students ownership of literature by helping them develop a nuanced approach to aesthetic evaluation. (Recommended for English and AP English, Grades 11-12) Comments (0) Be the first person to comment	<urn:uuid:d4f023ab-9397-4b20-894c-f5be0480b53f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.21875, "fasttext_score": 0.020780444145202637, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9262723326683044, "url": "http://teachers.yale.edu/curriculum/viewer/initiative_14.04.10_g" }
Curriculum – Grade 7 Literacy and Language Arts This is a one year course which aims to develop a stronger understanding of literary elements and a deeper appreciation of the use of language, not only in a literary environment, but also with their own writing and oratory skills. The course investigates themes that aim to enhance inquiry driven lessons using texts, short stories, poetry, and other forms of literary prose to develop and nurture language comprehension. Units such as Writing about Reading create the stage for group discussions, text analysis, grammar workshops, and language use to engage in a variety of activities that range from literature circles to essay writing. Texts for the course may include short stories by Maya Angelou, Roald Dahl, Cynthia Rylant, and Amy Tan, a variety of books and in the book cafe’ (Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Animal Farm, Beowulf, and The Outsiders) along with an array of poetry and prose that focus on grade 7 concepts. Reading Units of Study Module 1: Short Stories Module 2: Classic and Contemporary Fiction Module 3: Nonfiction Module 4: Poetry Module 5: The Oral Tradition: Myths, Legends, Folk Tales, and Fables Writing Units of Study Module 1: Launching the Writer’s Workshop Module 2: Writing Realistic Fiction: Symbolism, Syntax, and Truth Module 3: Writing About Reading: From Reader’s Notebooks to Companion Books Module 4: Poetry Module 5: The Art of Argument: Research-Based Essays Word Study and Grammar Units of Study Module 1: Parts of a Sentence Module 2: Parts of Speech Module 3: The Phrase Module 4: The Clause Module 5: Usage: Agreement Module 6: Sentence Structure Module 7: Mechanics Mathematics and Numeracy Mathematics Units of Study Module 1: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Module 2: Rational Numbers Module 3: Expressions and Equations Module 4: Percent and Proportional Relationships Module 5: Statistics Module 6: Geometry Science Units of Study Module 1: Interdependent Ecosystems Module 2: Photosynthesis & Respiration Module 3: Cells and Body Systems Module 4: Evidence of Evolution Module 5: Inheritance and Genetics Module 6: Natural Selection Module 7: Ecosystem Interactions, Revisited Social Studies World History Social Studies Units of Study Module 1: Rome Module 2: The Islamic World Module 3: Early African Civilizations Module 4: China Module 5: Japan Module 6: The Early Americas Module 7: The Early Middle Ages Module 8: The Later Middle Ages Module 9: The Renaissance and Reformation Module 10: Science and Exploration Module 11: Enlightenment and Revolution	<urn:uuid:82b7aaa7-ff74-4f05-b3d0-b4694f6e8d2f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.16515225172042847, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7952924370765686, "url": "https://oakhillca.org/curriculum-grade-7/" }
The Modern Gaulish Language The revival of the Gaulish language: Galáthach hAthevíu 2. A comprehensive English-Modern Gaulish-English dictionary: 4. A memrise course: 8. A translation of Asterix The Gaul in modern Gaulish: 9. A translation of Agrippa, a manga about Vercingetorix: Appendix I: Galataca Sena Galataca Sena is an unintentional and accidental spin-off product of the development of the modern Gaulish language. It was devised in response to calls from interested parties to write modern Gaulish texts in a way that would be intelligible to those with general background knowledge of the ancient language, but not of the modern version. Therefore, Galataca Sena was conceived as a hypothetical point somewhere between ancient Gaulish and modern Gaulish, but much closer to the former. As such, it represents a stage of the language after the erosion and collapse of the case system and after the onset of initial consonant mutations, but before the modernising sound changes. The hypothetical timeframe for Galataca Sena would be approximately the 6th - 7th century CE, a century after ancient Gaulish was last attested in writing. It is convenient here to sketch a broad outline of the evolution of the language and to situate the various stages in it: I. Ancient Gaulish: 1). Early ancient Gaulish: appr. 7th century BCE-2nd century BCE. Centres around the Lepontic and Greco-Gaulish inscriptions. 2). Middle ancient Gaulish: 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE: the age of Vercingetorix, Ambiorix and the invasion 3). Late ancient Gaulish: 2nd century CE – 6th century CE: the language of Chateaubleau, gradual erosion of case system and start of loss of final syllables II. Old Gaulish: Galataca Sena, which translates literally as “Old Gaulish”. 6th – 7th century CE. The state of the language after the loss of the case system, but before the sound changes. It is a hypothetical state, not attested, but the onset of which can be discerned in the language of Chateaubleau. The stage prior to the extinction of the language. Estimates for the language vary from the 8th century, time of the enforcement of christianity as state religion by Charlemagne and the erosion and loss of the foothold of the language among the rural population of Gaul a a result (a notion considered plausible by e.g. Mees 2010), to the 12th century. The notion that Gaulish survived in the high Alps between Helvetia and Gaul (Haute-Savoie) is supported by some, e.g. Bhrghros (2012). III. Modern Gaulish The revived language of the 21st century. Subject of this document. Brief Outline of Galataca Sena Without going into too much detail, GS is basically a preliminary version of Galáthach hAthevíu which features the same syntax, but which has retained 1) open vowel word endings which do no longer determine case 2). fully conjugated verbal paradigms 3). pre-sound change phonology 4). mutations which are only marked by an apostrophe Verbal conjugation follows a thematic pattern, as opposed to the athematic pattern which became the default position in GhA: to carry, present tense: beru mi beres ti beret e/i/id beremu ni berete suis berent sies passive: beror All tenses are derived exactly the same way as in GhA, but retain the present tense endings throughout: Past Tense Future Tense re beru mi bersiu mi re beres ti bersies ti re beret e/i/id bersiet e/i/id re beremu ni bersiemu ni re berete suis bersiete suis re berent sies bersient sies past participle: bertu to be: present: past future emi bue mi bie mi es ti bues ti bies ti esi e/i/id buet e/i/id biet e/i esemu ni buemu ni biemu ni esete suis buete suis biete suis esent sies buent sies bient sies past participle: etu And so on. In terms of morphology, masculine words end in –o and feminine words end in –a. There are some attested as ending in –i in ancient Gaulish, these retain the –i ending. Adjectives follow the nouns and are declined for gender both with an apostrophe at the start of the word to indicate mutation which is not written, and at the word final syllable which takes –o or –a as required. All phonology is as per pre-sound change. Pural is marked as per nominative plural, but without the final –s if there was one. Verbal nouns are conceived as neuter nouns and end on –on, -ion for stems on stops. Example text: Galataca Sena: Esi id uiro o ne esent doni elui lavarentiou inda Galataca inte dago, extero esemu ni en cerdion ad auuion sinde uer dago. Galáthach hAthevíu: Esi í gwír o né hesi doné élu en lhavar in Galáthach in dhái, éithr esi ni en gerdhi a hávó sin gwer dhái. It is true that there are not a lot of people who speak Gaulish well, but we are working to make it better. Galataca Sena is only ever used as a companion language to GhA to provide an easily understandable bridge between the old and the new.	<urn:uuid:63274577-0f98-4779-b053-d4982f489e9f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.272066593170166, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8109484314918518, "url": "http://moderngaulish.com/galataca-sena/" }
What is convergence? From the Latin word convergere—meaning “to incline together”—convergence describes a tendency for phenomena or objects to meet. This tendency to meet (convergence) results in a common result or conclusion. We see convergence in nature as the location where airflows or ocean currents meet. When airflows meet, the result can be anything from a cloudy day to a raging storm. The meeting of warm and cold ocean currents results in an equal distribution of temperature on earth and plentiful fishing grounds. How? When cold and warm currents come together, the warm current rises, maintaining earth’s temperature, while the cold current stirs up nutrients, fueling the production of phytoplankton blooms that feed fish and marine mammals. Bottom line: Convergence happens in nature, and the results benefit the earth and its inhabitants. Digital convergence Like convergence in nature, digital convergence represents a meeting place that leads to a result or conclusion. Specifically, digital convergence is the tendency for different technologies, media, content, services, and applications to become more similar with time and available via a single access point. The most obvious example is the smartphone. In your hand, you access the World Wide Web, allowing you to check the weather in Omaha, monitor your finances, stay informed, read a favorite book, compose a piece of music, make reservations, get driving directions, calculate a tip, join teleconferences, check your email, text acceptance of your upcoming dental appointment, and even make a phone call. The result is debatable, and conclusions are yet to be drawn. Smartphones have either made our lives more connected or less so; more seamless or more complex. Bottom line: Digital convergence capitalizes on existing technologies and results in increased access to information. I leave it to you to determine the conclusion. . Digital convergence in education Digital convergence brings opportunity and challenge to education. Individual and, in some cases, student-owned devices allows for access to multiple sources of information as easily as it allows for access to information that may disrupt learning. In other ways, digital convergence holds the potential to alter the balance of power in teaching and learning, where tradition holds that the teacher controlled what was learned as well as which resources were used to garner that learning. Even in light of those challenges, convergence in education triggers a move away from predetermined sorts of adaptive software to software that is more intuitive and responsive to the learners’ prior knowledge, level of progress, and readiness for learning. For a thorough discussion, please see this article on digital convergence. Instructional convergence We’ve explored convergence as collaborations in nature, technology, and educational technology. Now, we look at convergence in human interaction. For example, in ophthalmology, convergence is the coordinated turning of the eyes to bear upon a near point. That focus on a near point brings us to instructional convergence. As any educator will tell you, we have “eyes” in the form of networks, devices, and information. Our work strengthens as we coordinate these “eyes” to bear upon the near point—the drive to move each student forward. Instructional convergence uses multiple information sources, such as technology, data, knowledge of exceptional teaching, and deep understandings about how students learn. Simply stated, instructional convergence is the place where data, learning analytics, and teacher expertise meet. The result of instructional convergence is informed instruction that leads to greater student outcomes. The conclusion is that now is the time to implement it. Looking for more educational terms? Explore the Renaissance Blog Return to main Edwords page	<urn:uuid:94617feb-e6b9-4b6e-8656-60f0ce2c4f60>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.2897748351097107, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9177829623222351, "url": "https://www.renaissance.com/edwords/convergence/" }
The Coahuiltecans BY: Giselle Kieweg What region did the Coahuiltecans live in? The Coahuiltecans lived in the South of Coastal Plains. They did not live in one area of the Coastal plains though, because they were nomadic. That means that they moved where all their resources did. Their Food The Coahuiltecans were hunter gatherers, which means that they didn't grow anything. So they got their food by hunting and finding in the wild or even stealing from other tribes. They hunted animals like deer, antelope, but they did not eat bears, birds or fish. The food that they found in the wild are things like fruits, roots and nuts, and those were to break their large meat diet. The Coahuiltecans Houses They lived in house called Wickiups, Wickiups were like round tepees. They are covered with brush or grass and had an oval frame. Even though they are not tepees they are still mobile, but are harder to take with. That is because it is all connected and cannot fold up like a tepee so they have to take it apart, and then once they find a place to settle they build it back up. Weapons & Tools The Coahuiltecans used weapons like bows and arrow, which they made from long cane roots. They also used spears that use rock arrow heads, the arrow heads are not smooth though it is rugged. Some tools that they used are knives, scrappers, hammers and curved wooden sticks that were used for digging, scrapping, and prying. Traditions and Religion They believed in many gods and held many religious ceremonies which were called mitotes. At mitotes they had feats and danced many dances, and mitotes were held regularly Organization of Leadership The Coahuiltecans didn't follow a chief, they followed a shaman. The shaman were their spiritual and medical leaders. They were very skilled and healed people with plants and animals, the shaman healed things like illness within their tribe. What Became of Them Many of the Coahuiltecans died in the 1700's when the Spaniards began establishing missions to study their marriages, conversations, etc. When they came they spread disease, increased warfare and pushed the Coahuiltecans out of their normal routine. Unique Facts The Coahuiltecans had many tattoos on their faces, arms, legs and torsos. To do that they would numb the persons skin and use a sharp object to make incisions and rubbed charcoal to make it black. Even boys were given tattoos to mark their transition form a boy to a man.	<urn:uuid:f1f46702-8af1-4ef0-b7e9-2e23a36d1297>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.9870123863220215, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9875765442848206, "url": "https://www.smore.com/y5h0s" }
What is Zoning? Zoning is a local government's ability to regulate the use and development of land. It is designed to protect property values by preventing the location of incompatible uses in close proximity to each other. Planning involves the development of programs, plans, and policies for the creation of a better community. Zoning and Planning are closely related. The Planning Department administrates the Zoning Ordinance and it is one of the ways the planning is implemented.	<urn:uuid:ac7aef28-e2bd-45fe-a6be-0b93804aae3d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.1454993486404419, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9472705125808716, "url": "https://www.mansfieldtexas.gov/question/what-is-zoning" }
By Julie Hammonds Office of the Vice President for Research Over the past 16 centuries, it’s been buried, soaked, lost, looted, sold across international borders, feared, destroyed by war, painted with shellac and set between sheets of glass. Its writers, followers of a visionary named Mani, wrote their religion’s oral traditions on papyrus. Damaged by moisture and blackened by age, this precious manuscript—known as the “Dublin Kephalaia”—was almost unreadable in 2007 when Northern Arizona University professor Jason BeDuhn, an expert in comparative religions in the Department of Comparative Cultural Studies, began a translation. An NAU seed grant gave BeDuhn and two colleagues their start; larger grants from the Australian Research Council and the National Endowment for the Humanities totaling $500,000 followed. This month, after 10 years of analysis, the manuscript’s ancient stories will be heard again. Filling a gap in history Found in Egypt, the Kephalaia manuscript describes a diverse, vibrant society at the crossroads of East and West. “It’s the first Western manuscript that tells us about Iranian culture at that time,” BeDuhn said of the tales of court life and folklore. “It represents a very cosmopolitan society. At the same time, it tells how one philosopher figure founded a religious tradition.” Mani was raised in a Jewish-Christian community and considered himself an apostle of Jesus, but his movement incorporated many different traditions. “He said Jesus, Zoroaster and the Buddha were sent by God, but they did one thing wrong: they didn’t write down their own teachings,” BeDuhn said. “Time had distorted their messages. So, Mani said, God had sent another messenger to sort it out: him.” Mani organized a church whose missionaries spread his ideas from Spain to China in the next 1,000 years. Then, Manicheism died out. “Its original texts and manuscripts were lost, but in the last hundred years, some texts have been found,” DeBuhn said. “Our text is one of the largest manuscripts surviving from antiquity. It contains stories created within a century of Mani’s death.” A lost treasure found Now stored in the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin, Ireland, the manuscript was written in Coptic, the last form of ancient Egyptian, which BeDuhn reads. But translating the manuscript was not a simple matter of reading the text. In the 1950s, a conservator used chemicals that preserved the fragile papyrus but obscured the ink, making it difficult to tell what was papyrus and what was lettering. BeDuhn and his colleagues applied multispectral and computer-enhanced photographic techniques and viewed the pages in ultraviolet light. “But a lot of our analysis involved sitting in the library looking at each papyrus leaf from different angles under magnification,” he said. “It was painstaking work.” “The book tells dramatic stories, and there’s debate as Mani tries to win over other philosophers.” Some of the debates were esoteric. “For example: If a chick inside an egg dies, how does its soul get out of the egg? That was a difficult translation; we weren’t sure what they were talking about.” On the other hand, the manuscript asks fundamental questions, such as whether the world is eternal or had a beginning. “It’s an essential question in Buddhist thought, and Mani debates it with a person from the East named, essentially, Bodhisattva—a name for an aspiring Buddha.” BeDuhn and his colleagues found such connections throughout the text. “Iran had close contact with the Greco-Roman West as well as with India. It was a rich cultural crossroads—one we now see in much greater detail, thanks to this manuscript.” BeDuhn is excited to see the first volume of the translation reach publication. The next three volumes will be published at the rate of one per year, concluding in 2021. “The ‘Dublin Kephalaia Codex’ makes it clear that ancient cultures we think of as separate and distinct knew exactly what was going on with each other and were part of a larger conversation,” he said. BeDuhn is a Guggenheim and National Humanities Center Fellow and past chair of NAU’s Department of Humanities, Arts and Religion. He is writing one book about Augustine of Hippo and another on how Manicheans viewed the soul.	<urn:uuid:dfbc4f0c-d236-46f8-a767-4060a36f4274>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.029225170612335205, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9716680645942688, "url": "http://news.nau.edu/jason-debuhn-manichean-manuscript/" }
Blue Wildebeest 2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Mammals iBlue Wildebeest Blue Wildebeest Blue Wildebeest Conservation status Lower risk Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla Family: Bovidae Genus: Connochaetes Species: C. taurinus Binomial name Connochaetes taurinus ( Burchell, 1823) The Blue Wildebeest is a large ungulate mammal of the genus Connochaetes which grows to 1.4 meters shoulder height and attains a body mass of up to 270 kilograms. They range the open plains, bushveld and dry woodlands of Southern and East Africa, realizing a life span in excess of twenty years. This herbivore is a grazing animal that is often sighted in open grasslands or clearings in a savanna. The male is highly territorial using scent markings and other devices to protect his domain. The largest population is in the Serengeti, numbering over one million animals. Even though it has a beefy muscular front-heavy appearance with a distinctive robust muzzle, it strides with relatively slender legs and moves gracefully and quietly most of the time, belying the reputation for stampeding in herds; however the stampeding characteristic may sometimes be observed. The name “Blue Wildebeest” derives from a conspicuous silvery blue sheen to his short haired hide, differentiating this species from the plainer black genus member Black Wildebeest. Blue Wildebeest from rear angle showing stripes that look like wrinkles Blue Wildebeest from rear angle showing stripes that look like wrinkles Probably the most conspicuous feature of the Blue Wildebeest are the large horns shaped like parentheses, extending outward to the side and then curving up and inward . In the male the horns can attain a total span of almost 90 centimeters, while the female's horn width is about half the size of the male. These cow-like horns of both sexes are somewhat broad at the base and are without ridges. However, as further sexual dimorphism, the male horns have a boss-like structure joining the two horns. The male is larger than the female with a total body length of up to 2.5 meters. Young Blue Wildebeest arrive in the world tawny brown, and begin to take on their adult colouration at age nine weeks. The adult's hue actually varies from a deep slate or bluish gray all the way to light gray or even grayish-brown. The dorsal coat and flanks are slightly lighter in hue than the ventral hide and underparts. Dark brown vertical bands of slightly longer hair mark the neck and forequarters, and from a distance lend a perception of skin wrinkling. The manes of both sexes appear long, stiff, thick and jet black, a colour assumed by the tail and face as well. Sexual dichromism is exhibited by the males displaying decidedly darker colouration than the females. All features and markings of this species are bilaterally symmetric for both sexes. Range and habitat Blue Wildebeest are found in open and brush-covered savanna in south and east Africa, thriving. in areas that are neither too wet nor too arid. They can be found in places that vary from overgrazed areas with dense bush to open woodland floodplains. Wildebeests prefer the bushveld and grasslands of the southern savanna The terrestrial biome designations for these preferred habitats are savanna, grassland, open forest and scrub forest . Blue Wildebeests, Lapalala Wilderness, Waterberg, South Africa Blue Wildebeests, Lapalala Wilderness, Waterberg, South Africa Large herds numbering into the thousands may be observed on the Tanzania Serengeti equatorial plain, in annual migration. Smaller herds of about thirty are found in northern Botswana, Zimbabwe and the South African locations of Waterberg, Kruger National Park and Mala Mala. Some herds can be found almost to the southern tip of South Africa. The Serengeti herds are purely migratory and abandon the usual plains after the rainy season has ended, in order to seek higher grasses in wetter areas. Grasslands bordering alkaline lakes or pans are particularly choice dry season (winter) habitats. Herds may be mixed gender with a dominant male, female only or bachelor only. Sometimes Blue Wildebeest graze together with other species such as Burchells zebra for purposes of mutual protection. Blue Wildebeests can attain a speed of up to 80 kilometers per hour. Blue Wildebeest are unusually territorial, adult males occupying their territories for a month or for the entire year. The physical size of territories ranges from one to two hectares. The bucks mark territory boundaries with dung heaps, preorbital gland secretions, hoof scent glands and pawing of the earth. When competing over territory, males grunt quite loudly, make a thrusting motion with their horns and perform other displays of aggression. Territories are advertised by actions of the bull as well as scent marking. Body language used by the territorial male include standing at an erect posture, profuse ground pawing and horning, frequent defecation, rolling on his back and bellowing the sound "ga-noo", viz. origin of the word "gnu". To attract the opposite sex at the beginning of courtship the male (and less frequently the female) will rub its preorbital gland on a tree and then proceed with a destructive horning of said tree. This behaviour is not only effective in enticing a mate, but serves the function of providing more grassland for future Wildebeest generations by promoting grassland extent. Males exhibit rivalry when staking out territory and when competing for females. In the actual clashes between males, they face off resting on bent front knees, exchanging horn thrusts for brief periods. Elaborate individual displays are made in the rivalry and courtship process, where males bellow, snort and protrude their horns into the soil. The mating process is thought to begin at the first full moon at the end of the rainy season. Once territory is established, the male attempts to lure or corral the female into his domain. A female may copulate with several different males, visiting several different territories. Most mating occurs during a three to four week period at the end of the rainy season (March to April), when this species is at its maximum vigour. The female reaches sexual maturity at age three, and the male at age four; however, it is more typically age five when the male has developed sufficient strength and experience to defend territory. Generally fewer than half of the adult males create territories in a given year. In the Serengeti, population densities are so high that there may be 270 territorial bulls within one square kilometer. Estes terms the total volume of noise created during the Serengeti rutting season as “indescribable” in its amplitude and variety of snorting, bellowing and fighting. When the dry season is well underway about August, territories cease to exist. The gestation period is approximately 8.5 months, with calves able to stand within seven minutes and run with the herd in less than two hours from birth. These precocial features are warranted since the Blue Wildebeest is a staple of the lion's diet; however the spotted hyena, cheetah, leopard, and the Nile crocodile also take Wildebeest as prey. To escape predation calves remain close to the mother for a significant time, and in fact may suckle for up to one year. In large herds 80 percent of Wildebeest offspring survive the first month, compared to a 50 percent survival rate within small herds. Nomenclature and classification A Blue Wildebeest grazing in Etosha National Park, Namibia A Blue Wildebeest grazing in Etosha National Park, Namibia The Blue Wildebeest and Black Wildebeest or White-tailed Gnu (C. gnou) are the two species of the genus Connochaetes, within the family Bovidae, which includes antelopes, cattle, goats, and other even-toed horned ungulates. The Blue Wildebeest is sometimes called Brindled Gnu. The ( plural of Wildebeest is denoted either Wildebeest or Wildebeests). Another common term for the Wildebeest is gnu ( pronounced /nu/ or /nju/). C. taurinus is comprised of five distinct subspecies. C. t. taurinus (Blue Wildebeest or Brindled Gnu; central to southern Africa) individuals are silvery slate gray in colour, the origin of the common name "blue" wildebeest. C. t. johnstoni (Nyassaland Wildebeest), occurring in southern Tanzania and Mozambique), is the largest subspecies. The Western white-bearded wildebeest (C. t. mearnsi) is the smallest and is found only in Kenya and western Tanzania. C. t. mearnsi is the darkest hued wildebeest while C. t. albojubatus(Eastern White-bearded Wildebeest) is the palest in colouration and found in Kenya and eastern Tanzania. The last subspecies, Cookson's Wildebeest (C. t. cooksoni), is restricted to the Luangwa Valley. Conservation and outlook Bushveld habitat in Waterberg, South Africa Bushveld habitat in Waterberg, South Africa The Serengeti boasts over one million Blue Wildebeests, but Southern Africa's large herds have diminished over the last several centuries under pressure from hunting, cattle ranching and habitat intrusion stemming from overpopulation of humans. In southern Africa some efforts are being made to enhance grasslands and repair damage of cattle grazing and excessive fencing. These activities are particularly evident in the Waterberg Biosphere, where invasive brush (induced by excess cattle grazing) is being extirpated and many fences are coming down to promote wildlife migration. While the species status is considered secure as a whole, there is concern for smaller herds in the southern Africa habitats which have already become marginalized. Retrieved from ""	<urn:uuid:96abf850-dcf3-44c3-b77c-3e56dab6ef54>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.025918304920196533, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.912192165851593, "url": "https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/b/Blue_Wildebeest.htm" }
The Nika Revolt Violent Uprising in Early Medieval Byzantium Hippodrome of Byzantinum before the ottoman conquest Hippodrome of Byzantinum before the ottoman conquest. clu / Getty Images The Nika Revolt was a devastating riot that took place in early medieval Constantinople, in the Eastern Roman Empire. It threatened the life and reign of Emperor Justinian. The Nika Revolt was also known as: the Nika Rebellion, the Nika Uprising, the Nika Riot, the Nike Revolt, the Nike Rebellion, the Nike Uprising, the Nike Riot The Nika Revolt took place in: January, 532 C.E., in Constantinople The Hippodrome The Hippodrome was the site in Constantinople where enormous crowds gathered to watch exciting chariot races and similar spectacles. Several other sports had been outlawed over the preceding decades, so chariot races were particularly welcome occasions. But events in the Hippodrome sometimes led to violence among the spectators, and more than one riot had begun there in the past. The Nika Revolt would begin and, several days later, end in the Hippodrome. Fans in the Hippodrome would cheer on their favorite charioteers and chariot teams with the cry, "Nika!", which has been variously translated as "Conquer!", "Win!" and "Victory!" In the Nika Revolt, this was the cry the rioters took up. The Blues and the Greens The charioteers and their teams were garbed in specific colors (as were their horses and the chariots themselves); the fans who followed these teams identified with their colors. There had been reds and whites, but by the time of Justinian's reign, the most popular by far were the Blues and the Greens. The fans that followed the chariot teams retained their identity beyond the Hippodrome, and at times they wielded considerable cultural influence. Scholars once thought that the Blues and the Greens each associated with particular political movements, but there is little evidence to support this. It is now believed that the primary interest of the Blues and the Greens was their racing teams, and that occasional violence sometimes spilled over from the Hippodrome into other aspects of Byzantine society without any real direction from fan leaders. For several decades, it had been traditional for the emperor to choose either the Blues or the Greens to support, which virtually guaranteed the two most powerful teams would not be able to join together against the imperial government. But Justinian was a different breed of emperor. Once, years before he took the throne, he had been believed to favor the Blues; but now, because he wanted to remain above partisan politics even of the most superficial kind, he did not throw his support behind any charioteer. This would prove to be a serious mistake. The New Reign of Emperor Justinian Justinian had become co-emperor with his uncle, Justin, in April of 527, and he became sole emperor when Justin died four months later. Justin had risen from humble beginnings; Justinian was also considered by many senators to be of low birth, and not truly worthy of their respect. Most scholars agree that Justinian had a sincere wish to improve the empire, the capital city of Constantinople, and the lives of the people who lived there. Unfortunately, the measures he took to accomplish this proved disruptive. Justinian's ambitious plans to reconquer Roman territory, his extensive building projects, and his ongoing war with Persia all required funding, which meant more and more taxes; and his wish to end corruption in the government led him to appoint some overzealous officials whose severe measures caused resentment in several levels of society. Things looked very bad when a riot broke out over the extreme strictures employed by one of Justinian's most unpopular officials, John of Cappadocia. The riot was put down with brutal force, many participants were jailed, and those ringleaders that were captured were sentenced to death. This engendered further unrest among the citizenry. It was in this heightened state of tension that Constantinople was suspended in the early days of January, 532. The Botched Execution When the ringleaders of the riot were supposed to be executed, the job was botched, and two of them escaped. One was a fan of the Blues, the other a fan of the Greens. Both were hidden away safely in a monastery. Their supporters decided to ask the emperor for leniency for these two men at the next chariot race. The Riot Breaks Out On January 13, 532, when the chariot races were scheduled to begin, members of both the Blues and the Greens loudly pleaded with the emperor to show mercy to the two men that Fortune had rescued from the gallows. When no response was forthcoming, both factions began to cry out, "Nika! Nika!" The chant, so often heard in the Hippodrome in support of one charioteer or another, was now directed against Justinian. The Hippodrome erupted in violence, and soon the mob took to the streets. Their first objective was the praetorian, which was, essentially, the headquarters of Constantinople's police department and the municipal jail. The rioters released the prisoners and set the building on fire. Before long a substantial portion of the city was in flames, including the Hagia Sophia and several other great buildings. From Riot to Rebellion It is not clear how soon members of the aristocracy became involved, but by the time the city was on fire there were signs that forces were attempting to use the incident to overthrow an unpopular emperor. Justinian recognized the danger and tried to appease his opposition by agreeing to remove from office those responsible for conceiving of and carrying out the most unpopular policies. But this gesture of conciliation was rebuffed, and rioting continued. Then Justinian ordered General Belisarius to squelch the riot; but in this, the estimable soldier and the emperor's troops failed. Justinian and his closest supporters stayed holed up in the palace while the riot raged and the city burned. Then, on January 18, the emperor tried once more to find a compromise. But when he appeared in the Hippodrome, all of his offers were rejected out of hand. It was at this point that rioters proposed another candidate for emperor: Hypatius, nephew of the late Emperor Anastasius I. A political coup was at hand. Though related to a former emperor, Hypatius had never been a serious candidate for the throne. He'd led an undistinguished career-- first as a military officer, and now as a senator -- and was probably content to remain out of the limelight. According to Procopius, Hypatius and his brother Pompeius had stayed with Justinian in the palace during the riot, until the emperor grew suspicious of them and their vague connection to the purple, and threw them out. The brothers did not want to leave, fearing they would be used by the rioters and the anti-Justinian faction. This, of course, is exactly what happened. Procopius relates that his wife, Mary, took hold of Hypatius and wouldn't let go until the crowd overwhelmed her, and her husband was carried to the throne against his will. The Moment of Truth When Hypatius was borne to the throne, Justinian and his entourage left the Hippodrome once more. The revolt was now too far out of hand, and there seemed no way to take control. The emperor and his associates began to discuss fleeing the city. It was Justinian's wife, Empress Theodora, who convinced them to stand firm. According to Procopius, she told her husband, "... the present time, above all others, is inopportune for flight, even though it bring safety ... For one who has been an emperor, it is unendurable to be a fugitive ... consider whether it will not come about after you have been saved that you would gladly exchange that safety for death. For as for myself, I approve a certain ancient saying that royalty is a good burial-shroud." Shamed by her words, and buoyed by her courage, Justinian rose to the occasion. The Nika Revolt is Crushed Once more Emperor Justinian sent General Belisarius to attack the rebels with Imperial troops. With most of the rioters confined to the Hippodrome, the results were far different than the general's first attempt: Scholars estimate that between 30,000 and 35,000 people were slaughtered. Many of the ringleaders were captured and executed, including the unfortunate Hypatius. In the face of such a massacre, the rebellion crumpled. Aftermath of the Nika Revolt The death toll and the extensive destruction of Constantinople were horrific, and it would take years for the city and its people to recover. Arrests were ongoing after the revolt, and many families lost everything due to their connection to the rebellion. The Hippodrome was shut down, and races were suspended for five years. But for Justinian, the results of the riots were very much to his advantage. Not only was the emperor able to confiscate a number of wealthy estates, he returned to their offices the officials he'd agreed to remove, including John of Cappadocia -- although, to his credit, he did keep them from going to the extremes they'd employed in the past. And his victory over the rebels garnered him new respect, if not true admiration. No one was willing to move against Justinian, and he was now able to go forward with all his ambitious plans -- rebuilding the city, reconquering territory in Italy, completing his law codes, among others. He also began instituting laws that curbed the powers of the senatorial class that had so looked down on him and his family. The Nika Revolt had backfired. Though Justinian had been brought to the brink of destruction, he had overcome his enemies and would enjoy a long and fruitful reign. The text of this document is copyright ©2012 Melissa Snell. You may download or print this document for personal or school use, as long as the URL below is included. Permission is not granted to reproduce this document on another website.	<urn:uuid:224a2211-b454-4cb2-8c06-361949ceb497>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.038713932037353516, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9841844439506531, "url": "https://www.thoughtco.com/the-nika-revolt-1788557" }
Definitions of extension 1. an addition that extends a main building 3. an addition to the length of something 6. act of stretching or straightening out a flexed limb 7. an additional telephone set that is connected to the same telephone line 9. the spreading of something ( a belief or practice) into new regions 12. That property of a body by which it occupies a portion of space. 14. The straightening of a limb, in distinction from flexion. 16. Capacity of a concept or general term to include a greater or smaller number of objects; - correlative of intension. 17. The act of reaching or stretching out; the state of being lengthened; enlargement. 18. The act of extending or stretching: the state of being extended; enlargement; expansion: in physics and metaph. that property of a body by which it occupies a portion of space; extension is an essential as well as a general property of matter, for it is impossible to form a conception of matter, however minute may be the particle, without connecting with it the idea of its having a certain bulk and occupying a certain quantity of space; every body, however small, must have length, breadth, and thickness- that is, it must possess the property of extension; figure or form is the result of extension, for we cannot conceive that a body has length, breadth, and thickness, without its having some kind of figure, however irregular: in surg. the act of pulling the broken part of a limb in a direction from the trunk, in order to bring the ends of the bone into their natural situation: in comm. a written engagement on the part of a creditor, allowing a debtor further time to pay a debt: in logic, the extent of the application of a general term, that is, the objects collectively which are included under it; sphere; compass; thus, the word figure is more extensive than triangle, circle, parallelogram, etc.; European more extensive than French, Frenchman, German, etc. Matter and mind are the most extensive terms of which any definite conception can be formed. 19. Act of extending; enlargement; prolongation; quality of occupying space. 20. The act of extending; extent. 21. An annex; addition. 22. The property of occupying space. 23. The act of extending; the state of being extended; enlargement in breadth or continuation in length; that property of a body by which it occupies a portion of space in each of its three dimensions- length, breadth, and thickness; a written engagement on the part of creditors, allowing a debtor further time for the payment of his debts; the operation of straightening a limb that has been bent or dislocated; the range of the application of a term, in contrast to its comprehension. See Extend. 24. The act of enlarging or stretching out; enlargement; an essential property of bodies, because they must occupy a part of space however small. Usage examples for extension 1. There were the arrangements to be made for the Funeral, and for the extension of hospitality to relatives and friends who came from a distance to attend it. – The Dop Doctor by Clotilde Inez Mary Graves 2. In truth, as you know, the case is even more gross than I have supposed it, because the most important case of this extension was that in which a portion of Bessarabia was handed back to Russia. – Selected-Speeches-on-British-Foreign-Policy-1738-1914 by Jones, Edgar R. (Edgar Rees), Sir 3. There is no danger that an extension of the Forest laws should be the chosen mode of oppression in this age. – The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke, Vol. I. (of 12) by Edmund Burke 4. It is open to all; full of flowers and fruits that all can enjoy; and it only depends on his own choice and his own literary and intellectual powers whether his prelections shall take actual rank as literature with the very best of that other literature, with the whole of which, by custom, as an extension from poetry, he is at liberty to deal. – Matthew Arnold by George Saintsbury 5. She frowned at a piece of toast and ate it very slowly, as though she wished to convey the impression that the process hurt her more than it hurt the toast; but no extension of hospitality on Clovis's behalf rose to her lips. – The Chronicles of Clovis by Saki 6. Feudalism was as much opposed to the establishment of general order as to the extension of general liberty. – The World's Greatest Books, Vol XI. by Edited by Arthur Mee and J.A. Hammerton 7. This most valuable effort, for which the Board of Agriculture deserves the thanks of all, is surely capable of very great extension. – Another Sheaf by John Galsworthy 8. But how is this proved by the extension of the analogy? – Modern Atheism under its forms of Pantheism, Materialism, Secularism, Development, and Natural Laws by James Buchanan 9. Then I say 'go'; which means that I'd like to go- on to the end of the extension. – Empire Builders by Francis Lynde 10. " It can not be urged," said he, " that the proposed extension of suffrage in the District of Columbia is necessary to enable persons of color to protect either their interests or their rights." – History of the Thirty-Ninth Congress of the United States by Wiliam H. Barnes 12. It tends to produce inquiry, and that will, probably, in its turn, lead rather to a reduction than an extension of your privileges. – Letters on International Copyright; Second Edition by Henry C. Carey 13. 11; rendered glorious by its extension over the heathen, ver. – Christology of the Old Testament: And a Commentary on the Messianic Predictions, v. 1 by Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg 14. There's a little matter on now, about an extension of the Truro Railroad to Harwich, which wouldn't interest you, but you can't conceive what a nuisance it has been to watch that House day and night, as I've had to. – The Complete PG Edition of The Works of Winston Churchill by Winston Churchill 15. We have later to return to the fuller discussion of this extension. – Lectures on Stellar Statistics by Carl Vilhelm Ludvig Charlier 16. The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of extension. – The Grammar of English Grammars by Goold Brown 17. She even joined in the entreaties which, on their way home, he made with evident earnestness, for an extension of their visit to a month. – David Elginbrod by George MacDonald 18. On January 8th, 1860, the men of the companies of the 1st West India Regiment stationed at Nassau specially distinguished themselves at an alarming fire that there broke out at Fort Charlotte, and the following Garrison Order was published on the subject: Lieutenant- Colonel Bourchier takes the earliest opportunity in his power of expressing his thanks to Major R. D'O. Fletcher, the officers, the non- commissioned officers, and the men of the 1st West India Regiment, for the prompt manner in which they turned out and lent their efforts to avert the extension of the late fire at Fort Charlotte. – The History of the First West India Regiment by A. B. Ellis	<urn:uuid:847c237a-90e3-4f50-b345-b9745eac330d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.023552894592285156, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9536533951759338, "url": "http://www.dictionary.net/extension" }
Consolidation of Sweden From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Approximate borders of Sweden in the 12th century before the incorporation of Finland during the 13th century. Blue and yellow represents the Geats and Suiones tribes; their unification marks the consolidation of Sweden (in one commonly held view). The consolidation of Sweden involved an extensive process during which the loosely organized social system consolidated under the power of the king. The actual age of the Swedish kingdom is unknown.[1] Also, for various reasons, scholars differ in defining early Sweden as either a country, state or kingdom. Unlike the histories of Denmark and Norway, there is no agreement on a reliable date for a unified Sweden. Historians judge differently the sources for the history of Sweden's consolidation. The earliest history blends with Norse mythology. Early primary sources are foreign; secondary sources were written at a later date. Older sources[edit] Based on the origins of the name of the kingdom as meaning (Kingdom of the Swedes), some historians have argued that Sweden was unified when the Swedes first solidified their control over the regions they were living in. The earliest date for this is based on a brief section in the Roman historian Tacitus discussing the Suiones tribe.[2] This would imply that a Swedish kingdom would have existed in the first to second centuries AD. However, with the increased rigour of historical method advanced in 20th century historical research, in Sweden as elsewhere, historians such as Curt Weibull maintained that these perspectives have become obsolete. Modern historians noted that a millennium had passed between Tacitus and more in-depth and reliable documented accounts (or notices of contemporary events relating to Sweden by Frankish and German writers) of Swedish history. The work of Birger Nerman (1925), who argued that Sweden held a senior rank among the existing European states at the time represents a nationalist reaction to the academic historiography, the latter taking a critical or cautious view of the value of old layers of sources of history[3] especially if these documents and traditions are unsupported by any direct traces, any footprint of events and social or political conditions in the archaeological records, buildings, coinage etc. of the age in question. Geats-Swedes arguments[edit] A common definition of Sweden is that it was formed when the Swedes and Geats were ruled by one king.[citation needed] The names Swedes and Geats are attested in the Old English poems Beowulf (written down in the 11th century) and Widsith (from the 8th century) and building on older legendary and folklore material collected in England. In both poems, an Ongentheow (corresponding to Angantyr in Icelandic sagas) is named as the King of the Swedes, and the Geats are mentioned as a separate people. Beowulf also tells how the Geats are defeated by the Swedes. Based on another event in the story, this conquest has been placed in the sixth century. These names of peoples living in present-day Sweden, the Anglo-Saxon references and now lost tales they were attached to must have travelled across the North Sea. The first time the two peoples are documented to have had a common ruler is during the reign of Olof Skötkonung about AD 1000.[4] Broadly speaking, Kings of Sweden, and the nobility of the land, have seen Götaland and Svealand (as well as growing parts of Finland) as equally important parts of the kingdom at least since the mid-13th century and, in some cases, considerably earlier. Timeframe arguments[edit] Rather than the unification of tribes under one king, others maintain that the process of consolidation was gradual. Nineteenth-century scholars saw the unification as a result of a series of wars based on evidence from the Norse sagas. For example, according to the Norwegian Historia Norwegiae and the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturlusson, a 7th-century king called Ingjald illråde burnt a number of subordinate kings to death inside his hall, thus abolishing the petty kingdoms in the consolidation of Sweden. To solve the problem of defining an early history of Sweden that coincides with reliable sources, a group of modern Swedish historians have contended that a real state could only exist, in the Middle Ages, if had the backing of Christianity and the clergy. The same connection between Christianity and consolidation is used in other countries where written sources are less scarce, such as England or Harald Bluetooth's Denmark. The definition is based on the fact that English and German priests would have brought organizational and administrative skills needed for statehood (including by local rulers). The process of consolidation would have required this important ideological shift. While an Iron Age Germanic king would claim the elective support of his people, and the Norse gods, a crowned Christian king would claim that his rule was divinely inspired. According to this definition the unification should be completed in 1210 when Erik Knutsson was crowned by the church, or perhaps in 1247 when the last separatist rising was defeated at Sparrsätra. A major problem sometimes pointed out with that view is that it entails circular proof: we know next to nothing about how the authority of the ruler was envisaged in heathen times, while we know some more of the Christian ideology of kingship, and obviously the Christian kingdom would underline the break with the pagan past, but this does not really allow the conclusion that there could have been no fixed and religiously connected ideas of the authority of the ruler in pre-Christian times. Moreover, we have no solid testimonies fixing it as a fact that the king residing in Central Sweden (the lake Mälar/Östergötland area) was actually recognized as king in all of the area that was called Sweden by the 13th century, when the mist really clears. There may have existed local kings in Western Sweden, even though their names have not been preserved. That Sweden went through a process of consolidation in the early Middle Ages is generally agreed upon, but royal authority was often contested all through the Middle Ages, and sometimes barely even exercised. Gustaf Vasa (1523–60) determinedly strengthened the central power and mightily increased the authority and resources of the crown, and his reign marked the beginning of the early modern Swedish state. The full and complete process of territorial consolidation behind natural borders (the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and woodland and mountains separating the country from Norway) reached a decisive point only in the 17th century with the treaty of Roskilde (1658); however, at the time, the idea of "natural borders" or even territorial continuity was not seen as essential to a state. The current borders of Sweden were not settled until 1809 with the loss of Finland to Russia in the Finnish War. With the loss of Finland, which was seen as a national disaster by contemporary Swedes and certainly redefined the nation, and a few years later of its last German possessions (acquired in the Peace of Westphalia), the country had reached the shape it still has, and also entered a period of peace in relation to its neighbours. See also[edit] 1. ^ Hadenius, S; Nilsson, T and Åselius, G. (1996:13): "Hur och när det svenska riket uppstod vet vi inte. Först under 1100-talet börjar skriftliga dokument produceras i Sverige i någon större omfattning [...]" "How and when the Swedish kingdom appeared is not known. It is not until the 12th century that written documents begin to be produced in Sweden in any larger extent [...]" 2. ^ "Suionum hinc civitates", Germania 44, 45 3. ^ Nordic historiography in the 20th century, 2000, ISBN 82-550-1057-2 4. ^ Nationalencyclopedin online (in Swedish), retrieved 2016-01-11 :"Olof Skötkonung brukar anföras som den förste kung som med säkerhet kan sägas ha regerat över såväl Svealand som Götaland.", "Olof Skötkonung is usually given as the first king that we know for sure ruled over both Svealand and Götaland".	<urn:uuid:daeacb6a-e380-4a34-a18d-76c80c806998>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.26969534158706665, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9628840684890747, "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidation_of_Sweden" }
Encyclopedia of Entomology 2008 Edition \| Editors: John L. Capinera Flash Colors • Malcolm Edmunds Reference work entry Flash colors are colors that are exposed when an animal moves but are hidden when it is at rest, e.g., the bright hind wings of underwing moths (Catocala, Triphaena), hawkmoths (Macroglossum), and grasshoppers (Trilophidia, Oedipoda) all make the insect conspicuous while it is flying but as soon as it comes to rest and folds its hind wings beneath the cryptic forewings, the color vanishes. It is thought that predators may initially be startled when a hitherto cryptic insect is disturbed and flies off, suddenly exposing bright colors. The predator may then follow the bright color as it flies, preparing to attack it, but when it lands and the color vanishes the predator is baffled because it was following the color rather than the insect. This is how flash colors are thought to work; they certainly deceive humans in this way, so it is reasonable to suppose that birds also may be deceived, but there has been no experimental demonstration that they reduce predation by natural predators. 1. Cott HB (1940) Adaptive coloration in animals. Methuen, London, UK, 508 ppGoogle Scholar 2. Edmunds M (1974) Defence in animals: a survey of anti-predator defences. Longman, Harlow, UK, 357 ppGoogle Scholar Copyright information © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008 Authors and Affiliations • Malcolm Edmunds • 1 1. 1.University of Central LancashirePrestonUnited Kingdom	<urn:uuid:85efff77-22ac-4a5c-954c-256784d6b45c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.06734603643417358, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8900970816612244, "url": "https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_3826" }
artificial limb Related to artificial limb: prosthesis artificial limb, mechanical replacement for a missing limb. An artificial limb, called a prosthesis, must be light and flexible to permit easy movement, but must also be sufficiently sturdy to support the weight of the body or to manipulate objects. The materials used in artificial limbs include willow wood, laminated fibers and plastics, various metallic alloys, and carbon-fiber composites. One model of artificial leg is made of layers of stockinette cloth coated with plastic; it has duraluminum joints at the knee and ankle, rubber soles on the feet, and a leather cuff cushioning the stump. The cuff fits around the thigh like a corset, holding the artificial leg firmly in place, and connects to a leather belt around the waist. Often, spring joints are employed on foot pieces to give natural-looking movements. Microprocessors and an array of sensors are used to operate the mechanical and hydraulic system of some artifical legs, providing more natural locomotion. Sensors, microprocessors, and nerve stimulators can also be used to transmit stimulatory signals to nerve endings in the stump, allowing the amputee to feel more lifelike sensations from the artificial foot. Other artificial legs sacrifice a natural appearance to achieve greater mobility, such as the C-shaped carbon-fiber Flex-Foot used by amputees to participate in track-and-field sports. Artificial legs may also be secured by suction between socket and stump. Artificial arms, not having to support the weight of the body, may be made of lighter metals and plastics. They are usually strapped to the trunk and controlled by a shoulder harness. Bionic arms have been developed that permit a person to use thought to control the limited movements of the motorized prosthesis. The commands are transmitted through chest muscle that has been surgically connected to the remaining nerves associated with the lost limb; electrodes linked to the artificial arm convert the sensed electrical signals of the muscle into arm movement. Tests with monkeys have shown that robotic arms can be controlled by the brain's electrical signals directly, using probes implanted in the brain and computer software to interpret the signals, and in laboratory experiments a person has similarly controlled a robotic arm. Artificial hands vary in structure and utility; research and development has resulted in devices that are both cosmetic and functional. For example, an artificial hand has been devised that utilizes a split hook resembling a lobster claw; this is enclosed within a flexible plastic glove that can be made remarkably lifelike, even having fingerprints. The biceps muscle can be attached to the prosthesis by a surgical procedure called cineplasty, which permits grasping in the terminal device while dispensing with shoulder harnesses. A more recent artificial hand has separate motors for each finger, allowing for a more natural and useful grip and movement; the prosthesis is controlled by electrical signals generated by the arm muscles that normally control the hand. Software and electronics have improved sufficiently that some artificial hands can supply feedback to sensory nerves, enabling the user to feel the size, shape, and rigidity or flexibility of the object being handled. References in periodicals archive ? 03 ( ANI ): With the backdrop of World War II, an Artificial Limb Center (ALC) has been functioning in Maharashtra's Pune city since the year 1944, with an aim to provide best possible solutions and comprehensive rehabilitation to the amputee soldiers. She was immediately transferred to Forward Kahuta and was re-operated on November 12, 2017, for preparation for artificial limb grafting. The Artificial Limb and Appliance Service at Wrexham looks after more than 800 prosthetics wearers across the region. Sa'ad Hashim slowly makes his way down one of the corridors at the Artificial Limbs and Physiotherapy Center in Sana'a. Unfortunately, however, the artificial limb has had more disabling consequences for Welsh people through the ways in which it has marked individuals as impaired and dislocated them from the wider community through the influence of prejudice, bigotry and dominant ideas of physical capacity and economic productivity. Thanks to modern technology the artificial limbs are very well designed, he said. The camp served beneficiaries from across Sri Lanka with one of the world's best and cheapest artificial limbs, the famous "Jaipur Foot". It signed a $550,000 (BD207,900) deal with Islamic Relief Worldwide to manufacture artificial limbs for more than 1,000 handicapped Palestinians, including children. Queen Mary's Hospital at Roehampton, south-west London, was set up especially to create and fit artificial limbs. Little Nadine Conway suffers from cerebral palsy and had waited months for the manual chair from Wrexham Artificial Limb & Appliance Service. Maybe Mark Price thinks core Waitrose customers want to pick up a spare hip or an extra set of dentures alongside their free-range quail eggs, safe in the knowledge that any artificial limb will have been responsibly sourced, preferably locally. Full browser ?	<urn:uuid:8016a07d-b0a7-4030-984a-119584778004>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.029662728309631348, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9448137283325195, "url": "http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/artificial+limb" }
City Line (Jerusalem) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search 1948–1967 City Line City Line (Hebrew: הקו העירוני‎, Pronounced: HaKav HaIroni) is the name given to a segment of the Green Line that divided the city of Jerusalem from 1948 to 1967. It was 7 km in length, and constituted a temporary boundary line in accordance with Israel's Armistice Agreement with Jordan, which divided the city between East Jerusalem which was part of the Kingdom of Jordan, and West Jerusalem, the capital of the State of Israel. The Old City bordered the City line on the east side, and thus had been part of the "Jordanian Jerusalem". On both sides of the City line fortifications and obstacles were deployed, and different buildings in the city along the line were used as military posts. In November 30, 1948, after the end of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War in Jerusalem, Moshe Dayan, commander of the Israeli Etzioni Brigade, and Abdullah el-Tell, the Jordanian commander, met in an abandoned house in Musrara neighborhood. The two officers drew a map at the scale of 1:20,000, which outlined the boundaries of the ceasefire in Jerusalem. Dayan drew the positions under Israeli control with a green wax pencil line, and el-Tell used a red pencil to outline the positions under Jordanian control. The area between the two lines, along with the thickness of pencils that drew the two lines on the map, determined a No Man's Land along the lines. At the time, it seemed to the parties that it was a temporary ceasefire line, and thus they attached no special significance to the inaccuracies and errors resulting from the thickness of the pencils, slight deviations in the drawings, and segments of discontinuous lines.[1] A few months later, in April 1949 during the meetings in Rhodes over the 1949 Armistice Agreements at the end of the war, the Dayan and el-Tell map was found to be the only official document indicating the line dividing Jerusalem that was agreed upon by both parties. The inaccurate lines that were drawn loosely thus became a binding international border. The rough map lines had cut across neighborhoods, streets and houses, and were the source of many disputes between the two states. Along the lines, both sides came to hold positions and fortifications, some in residential and urban public institutions. In the No Man's Lands, landmines were deployed. The entire Old City and the neighborhoods north of it, and the Mount of Olives, were in the Jordanian territories. The west of the city, as well as the Mount Scopus enclave in the north-east of the city was within the Israeli territories. The British Government House (Armon HaNetziv) area was a demilitarized zone controlled by the United Nations, and the house itself was determined to be the headquarters for UN observers. Between the two parts of the city was the Mandelbaum Gate. The crossing was managed by Jordanian and Israeli customs, and primarily served diplomats and UN personnel, as well as Christian pilgrims at Christmas. The crossing also oversaw a bi-weekly convoy to the Israeli enclave on Mount Scopus. In West Jerusalem, neighborhoods along the line were considered dangerous, and became slum neighborhoods populated by indigents and characterized by poverty and neglect. These included the Shmuel HaNavi neighborhood, Mea Shearim, Musrara, Mamilla, and Yemin Moshe. The city line divided Jerusalem for 19 years, until the Six-Day War in June 1967. At noon on June 5, 1967, the Jordanians occupied the British Government House from the UN, which marked the beginning of the ground fighting in Jerusalem. The very same day the Israeli Jerusalem Brigade (Brigade 16) captured the British house and the positions to its south. At dawn on June 6, the second day of the war, Israeli paratroop forces broke into the city line in the north, and proceeded to capture the neighborhoods north of the Old City, joining the isolated Mount Scopus. At noon on June 6, the Jerusalem Brigade broke the fences dividing the Abu Tor neighborhood, and the neighborhood conquest completed the encirclement of the Old City. The Old City fell to the IDF on June 7, 1967. Immediately upon the end of the war, fences and concrete walls dividing streets and neighborhoods were torn down, the fortifications were dismantled, and the mines were removed. Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem was established, and the two parts of the city were consolidated under the Israeli Jerusalem Municipality, which has made great efforts to obscure and hide the scars of the former city line. The City line no longer exists as a political border, but in many ways it continues to exist to this very day, dividing the city along ethnic and cultural lines. It is commonly referred as the "Seam line", where the crossing of it is still felt, even in the absence of walls and fences. Route of the City line (Green Line) compared to the current municipal boundaries (in red) No Man's Land in Jerusalem, between Israel and Jordan. The photo (taken approx. 1964) depicts the Old City wall, Dormition Abbey (on the far right), and Tower of David (center-left). It was taken from the building of the Geology dep. of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, then located on Mamilla street. The Green Line encircled Israeli Jerusalem (West Jerusalem) on the south, east and north in the form of a backwards "C". The southern side of the line crossed through the Arab village of Beit Safafa (today a neighborhood in Jerusalem), dividing it in two, separating clans, and leaving families on both sides of the border. From there it went eastward, encircling Kibbutz Ramat Rachel and separating it from the Arab village of Sur Baher, then it turned north, separating the eastern border of the Arnona and Talpiyot neighborhoods from the demilitarized No Man's Land. The future Diplomat Hotel's (former Ganey Yehuda Hotel) western corner would be within 100 meters of the line where it passes through the U.S. consular services building complex. East of Talpiyot the line crosses the ridge containing the 1933 British Government House (Armon HaNetziv) in the demilitarized No Man's Land under UN auspices where the headquarters of UN observers who supervised the armistice was located. Continuing north, the line crossed through the Abu Tor neighborhood and divided it into two. Unlike in Safafa, there were no Arabs left on the western side of the line; their homes were abandoned and later occupied by Jews, who lived very close to their Arab neighbors across the border. From the Abu Tor ridge the line went down to the Gehenna vally and Sultan's Pool, crossing through the remains of neighborhoods of Bete Shamaa and Jurat al Anab ("Hutzot Hayotzer"), on the way including in the Israeli territories Mount Zion, adjacent to the Old City on the south, but with no road leading to it. It was only in 1964 that Israel and Jordan jointly built the "Pope's Road" that connected western Jerusalem and Mount Zion, in honor of the visit of Pope Paul VI to the Holy Land. The Sultan's Pool was in No Man's Land, which bordered the houses of the Mishkenot Sha'ananim and Yemin Moshe neighborhoods. From there the line continued north, where it separated the western wall of the Old City (where the Jaffa Gate and the Tower of David are located) from the Mamilla neighborhood and the Jerusalem Historical City Hall Building. The historic Town Hall, which is located at the IDF Square, still carries to this very day bullet holes as evidence of the conflicts at this location. From the City Hall building the line paralleled the north-west section of the old city wall, where it separated the Christian Quarter in the north-west of the Old City from the religious institutions that were built by the Christians outside the wall in the "French compound": Saint-Louis Hospital and the Notre-Dame de Jérusalem. The line passed along the northern wall of the Old City past the New Gate to the Damascus Gate along what is now called Paratroopers Street, and then turned north through the Musrara houses along the route now known as the "Engineering Corps Road" and "Bar Lev Road". It is in this area where the Street of the Prophets was partitioned, where the central and western parts of the street were in Israeli territories, while the eastern part remained in Jordan. It separated the neighborhoods of Mea Shearim and Beit Yisrael on the Israeli side from the neighborhood of Husseini, the American Colony and Sheikh Jarrah on the Jordanian side. It is also in this area where the Mandelbaum Gate border crossing was agreed upon, which enabled the passage between the two parts of the city and the Israeli connection to its Mount Scopus enclave. The northern section of the line, in the area of Jerusalem's contemporary neighborhoods of Ma'alot Dafna and Ramat Eshkol, passed between the neighborhoods of Shmuel HaNavi and Sanhedria on the Israeli side, and the Jordanian positions on Ammunition Hill, the Police Academy, and Givat HaMivtar. Near the line in that section is Sanhedria Cemetery, which was established by the Israelis as an alternative to the cemetery on Mount of Olives, which was controlled by the Jordanians after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. See also 1. ^ "Who Owns Jerusalem?"[1] Oct. 30, 2014 Retrieved from "" This content was retrieved from Wikipedia : This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article "City Line (Jerusalem)"; it is used under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA). You may redistribute it, verbatim or modified, providing that you comply with the terms of the CC-BY-SA	<urn:uuid:d50f2ef1-6e45-4cb6-b048-d3bb2732f505>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.024946987628936768, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9678272008895874, "url": "http://hitchhikersgui.de/City_Line_(Jerusalem)" }
San pedro in ancient peruvian ceramics Archeology shows that the San Pedro cactus has been used ceremonially by shamans for thousands of years. The cactus has been depicted on ceramic pieces coming from several ancient Peruvian cultures. In the early art of the Andes, people with feline traits are often portrayed. For example, on this pot, a persons face is transforming into a feline with large teeth and a wrinkled nose. The priests of this time consumed San Pedro cactus juice that had hallucinogenic effects, and this consumption generated transcendent experiences that included transformations into animals such as the jaguar. "This is a ceramic drum representing a shaman... The face of the personage is covered with a funerary mask. Two snakes emerge from the nose of the shaman, and on his cheeks two star-shaped motifs are portrayed. These could represent a cross section of the San Pedro cactus (Trichocereus pachanoi), which was one of the plants consumed by shamans of ancient Peru to make contact with other worlds." "These [land] snails feed on, among other plants, the San Pedro cactus that contains mescaline, which when consumed by humans, produce altered states of consciousness." Credits: All media Translate with Google	<urn:uuid:fb22c40c-d29c-422a-83a1-8b1a5ea3f3e2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.027329325675964355, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9547207355499268, "url": "https://artsandculture.google.com/usergallery/eQIiLrPqxTj7Ig" }
Item PT025001: Earth's plates move along with the slightly softened rock material below them. Which of the following is TRUE about the movement of earth’s plates? 1. They do not move because they sit on a layer of solid rock. 2. They move along with the layer of slightly softened rock below them. 3. They move by floating on a layer of completely melted rock below them. 4. They do not move until the solid rock layer beneath them temporarily melts and moves. Distribution of Responses Chart showing distrubtion of responses for Item PT025001 Percent of students responding correctly Grades 6–838% Grades 9–1236% Primary Language is English36% Primary Language is not English48% View data table	<urn:uuid:38aea000-04dc-4f84-9de0-68dd7c55fa92>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.7643734812736511, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8731352686882019, "url": "http://assessment.aaas.org/items/PT025001" }
The Mannequin & the Diary Activity 1: Understanding the Mannequin & the Diary Download a PDF version of the lesson plan [PDF 128 KB] Download a PDF version of the worksheet [PDF 77 KB] To open the PDF file, you can download Adobe Acrobat Reader here. Grade Level: Grades 8 -12 Subject: Social Studies, Canadian History, Remembrance Day Activities Materials: Access to computer/ high-speed Internet • Students will understand and reflect upon the experience of ordinary Canadians during war. • Students will be able to identify social implications of conflict. • Students will be able to do basic research into the identity and background of individual WWI Canadian soldiers. Instructions: Steps for self-guided questions for Videos 1-5: Step 1: Watch Introductory Video. Step 2: Select The Mannequin & the Diary story line. Step 3: Watch Video 1 segment and answer questions. Step 2: Repeat process with four other videos. Step 3: Watch Video 6. Students will need to visit the ‘Themes & Images’ on the website to answer some of the questions. Video 1: Signing Up & Training 1. What happened in 1914 that caused Byron Cooper Sisler to stop working at his job with the bank? Answer: Great Britain declared war on Germany and soon after Canada did as well. 2. What did Byron Cooper Sisler have to do to prepare for the battlefields of Europe? Answer: He had to go to Camp Niagara in Ontario to receive training. 3. Why do you think Byron Cooper Sisler signed up for the war? Answers may vary. Research question 4. Look up Byron Cooper Sisler’s Attestation papers and find one piece of information about him that is not covered in the video. • Step 1: Click on the link below. • Step 2: Enter Byron Cooper Sisler’s name in the Search box. • Step 3: Click on image of Attestation papers, there is both a front and back image to explore. Answers: Regimental number, marital status, next of kin, religion, hair colour, height are all possible answers. Video 2: Headed for Europe 1. In the opening scene, Lottie uses a map that identifies most of the countries involved in WWI. List the countries. Can you name any countries that are missing? Answer: England, France, Belgium and Germany. Countries that are missing: United States, Italy, Russia, Serbia, Japan etc. 2. Describe at least two characteristics of Sisler’s day to day life while at training camp (meals, routine etc.). Possible Answers: Had to sleep on floor, march in the rain, train in shooting and assembling machine guns, etc. 3. In his diary, Byron Cooper Sisler says that the soldiers were trained to assemble their guns while blind-folded. Why do you think this would be a useful skill? Possible answer: Had to assemble gun in the dark or under duress in battle if gun jammed etc. Research question 4. Byron Cooper Sisler crossed the Atlantic on the S.S. Lapland. Go to the Themes and Images section of this site to find out what famous ship had a connection with the S.S. Lapland. Answer: The Titanic Video 3: Far from Home 1. When at the training camp in Shorncliff in England, how close was Byron Cooper Sisler to the Western Front? What separated the training camp from the Western Front? Answer: Sisler was close enough to hear the battle raging at the front. They were separated by the English Channel. 2. Who were the canaries and why did they get that nickname? Answer: The canaries were the young women who worked in the munitions plants during the war. The nickname came from the yellow tinge to their skin caused by toxic jaundice through exposure to chemicals used in the munitions production. 3. How do you think things changed for Canadian women during the war? Answers may vary; possible answers include greater independence, opportunity to work out of the home, increased skills etc. 4. Women on the home front contributed in many ways to the war effort, but so did children. Visit the Themes and Images section for the ‘Far From Home’ video segment and identify two other ways children helped with the war effort. Answers: Children raised money to buy important war-related equipment like the ambulances, they collected spare metal to be used in munitions production and participated in organizations like needle battalion, knitting and sewing clothing for soldier’s overseas. Video 4: Surviving the Trenches 1. Two trenches are mentioned by name in the video. What are the two names? Answer: The Regina Trench and the Walker Trench. 2. Name one important difference between the two trenches? Answer: The Walker trench is a communication trench. 3. Sisler writes in his diary that after the Battle for Regina Trench the soldiers had moved forward 150 yards. Do you think this is very far? Answers may vary. 4. Visit the ‘Themes and Images’ on the website for the “Surviving the Trenches” video segment and find out what the expression “going over the top” means. Answer: ‘Going over the top’ is when the soldier leaves the trench and heads into battle. Video 5 Going Home 1. Sisler spent the best part of the war in the army. What other branch of the Armed Forces did he try before the war ended? Answer: The airforce. 2. Throughout the video, Sisler refers to 3 different battles that he fought in; name three of them. Answers: Calonne Trench Raid, Vimy Ridge, Passchedaele. 3. In the lead up to the Calonne Trench raid, Sisler stops writing n his diary. Why was it important for the soldiers not to write in their diaries about this? Possible answer: The planned trench raid was top secret; if a soldier was captured by the enemy and had his pocket diary with him, he could give away important information. 4. Visit the ‘Themes and Images’ section for the “Going Home” video segment and find out what the symbols of the lion and the eagle represent on the ‘Death Penny”. Answers: The lion represents Imperial England, the dolphins the prowess of the British Navy and the eagle represents Germany.	<urn:uuid:90c4c37a-1098-4ef1-99ff-1eb15cf0f1e2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.3323398232460022, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9047569036483765, "url": "http://smalltowncanadaatwar.com/enseignants-teachers/activite-activity-1s1-eng" }
• Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month Investigating the Effects of Salt Solutions on Potato Tubers. Extracts from this document... Investigating the Effects of Salt Solutions on Potato Tubers Aim To investigate the effect of varying concentration of a certain salt solution on the amount of osmotic activity between the solution and a potato chip of a given size. Hypothesis I predict that the piece of potato in the 100% salt solution will become most flaccid and therefore the smallest and lightest potato chip. The piece of potato in 75% salt solution will be the next smallest and lightest because that is a little bit less flaccid than the chip in the 100% salt solution. The chip in 50% salt solution will be the next lightest and smallest and so on. The piece of potato in 0% salt solution will be the least flaccid (the most turgid) and will therefore be the heaviest and biggest potato chip. When a cell becomes flaccid, the water from the cell will pass from the cell to the surroundings that have a lower water concentration so the water concentration will balance out. If the cell has a lower water concentration than it's surroundings, the cell will gain water and become more turgid. This process is called osmosis. Using the theory of osmosis, the potato chip in the 0% salt solution has less water than it's surroundings so the chip gains water and therefore becomes heavier and bigger. ...read more. It is important to keep the measurements constant to ensure a fair test so the experiment shows fair results and it can be as accurate as possible. The only things that remain constant are the weight and length of the chips at the start and the amount of liquid in the test tubes. The only variants are the amount of water in the test tubes and the amount of salt solution in the test tubes. The results from the experiment are shown in the following tables and two graphs (that are shown on a separate piece of graph paper. Results Mass of chips at start Length of chips at start 1.78 grams 4.1 centimetres Mass of chips at end (grams) 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 2.19 1.40 1.42 1.48 1.46 2.22 1.26 1.38 1.46 1.48 2.02 1.32 1.26 1.46 1.32 Average: 2.14 Average: 1.33 Average: 1.35 Average: 1.47 Average: 1.42 Length of chips at end (centimetres) 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 4.5 4.1 3.8 4.0 3.8 4.8 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 4.5 4.0 3.7 3.8 3.8 Average: 4.6 Average: 4.0 Average: 3.8 Average: 3.9 Average: 3.8 The weight is measured to one hundredth of a gram and the length is measured to one twentieth of a centimetre. ...read more. Evaluation In my opinion, I think the experiment was equally successful as it was unsuccessful. I obtained a large quantity of accurate results from which I was able to create some detailed and informative graphs. I even think I carried out the experiment in a fair way, although the things that have could have gone wrong are listed above in the conclusion. I think I have plenty of results from which I can draw a conclusion but those results could be slightly incorrect. With some slight abnormalities in the results, you can conclude that the more salt solution there is in the test tube, the smaller and lighter the chips become because of osmosis. Perhaps if I took some more results, say ten, and I got one freak result then it wouldn't make much of an impression on the overall average result. This would be almost impossible to do in one lunchtime but if I was a scientist with my own laboratory I would take ten results spread over a day. An unfair test may have occurred when weighing the potato before or after the experiment, the same could have happened when I was measuring the length of the potato tuber. Despite these possible human errors, both graphs showed the same trends and overall I think my experiment was a success. ...read more. The above preview is unformatted text Found what you're looking for? • Start learning 29% faster today • 150,000+ documents available • Just £6.99 a month Not the one? Search for your essay title... • Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month See related essaysSee related essays Related GCSE Life Processes & Cells essays 1. Marked by a teacher To determine the water potential of a potato tuber cell using varying salt solution. 5 star(s) Bacteria affect the cells and could cause them to stop working. This means that bacteria or could have spread and reduced the chances of osmosis across the cells. Ph levels can also affect the level of osmosis as hydrogen bonds affect the polarity of the molecules. 2. Marked by a teacher An experiment to investigate how the effect of varying concentrations of salt solutions play ... 4 star(s) When placed in a dilute solution, water moves out of the cell and this causes wilting in plant cells as most of the cells become squashy and flaccid. They become plasmolyzed. However, if a cell is placed in an external solution of same concentration, there is no movement of water Next came Part 5: Making a Broth Culture. The materials needed were: the E. coli 101 plate culture, the B. subtilis plate culture, two 15 milliliter centrifuge tubes, a test tube rack, LB Broth, an inoculating loop, a flame stick, a p-1000 micropipette, micropipette tips, and an incubator set at 37oC. 2. The effects of different salt solutions on potatoes Equipment List - (and why I've chosen it) Timer - To measure length of time potato samples are in salt solution McCartney Bottles (10) - To hold salt solution and potato pieces Potatoes - Cells inside potato used for water to move in/out of by osmosis Labels - To write amounts of salt solutions on, and original mass of potato pieces to put on containers. 1. The aim of my experiment is to investigate the effect of osmosis via potato ... Plant cells become "turgid" when they are put in dilute solutions. Turgid means swollen and hard. The pressure inside the cell rises, eventually the internal pressure of the cell is so high that no more water can enter the cell. 2. Structures and functions in living organisms. Revision Notes The walls of the Bowman?s capsule and capillaries are only one cell think, so the pressure of the blood in the glomerulus squeezes many small molecules out from the blood and into the capsule. These molecules include water, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, vitamins and urea, which together form the glomerular • Over 160,000 pieces of student written work • Annotated by experienced teachers • Ideas and feedback to improve your own work	<urn:uuid:f489aa3c-26e2-44b4-aaa2-a40f9aff7a9c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.051420509815216064, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9372946619987488, "url": "http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/science/investigating-the-effects-of-salt-solutions-on-potato-tubers.html" }
Thursday, February 28, 2013 les CM2 remontent le temps avec la découverte des fossiles As part of a unit about Evolution, 4th and 5th graders are studying fossilization. Therefore, they did an experiment with water, soil and sand in order to understand the meaning of sedimentation. Replacing soil with plaster allowed us to visualize how fossils are formed in a fun way. First, we filled our container with water, then we added some plaster of Paris. We needed to make sure that it was the prefect mix- it could not be too hard or too liquid. Once done, we added some shells from different species: Snails, mussels, clams. To make sure they would not stick to the plaster, we rubbed some cooking oil on the shells first. After couples of days, we removed the shells and were able to see our fossils.	<urn:uuid:5a996da0-442d-436e-96a4-530ae8f3f445>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.02008521556854248, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9433125853538513, "url": "http://lecolefrancaisedumaine.blogspot.com/2013/02/les-cm2-remontent-le-temps-avec-la.html" }
Samurai groups and farming villages The Japanese feudal system began to take shape under the Kamakura bakufu, though it remained only inchoate during the Kamakura period. Warrior-landlords lived in farming villages and supervised peasant labour or themselves carried on agriculture, while the central civil aristocracy and the temples and shrines held huge public lands (kokugaryō) and private estates in various provinces and wielded power comparable to that of the bakufu. These shōen were managed by influential resident landlords who had become warriors. They were often the original developers of their districts who became officials of the provincial government and agents of the shōen. Under the Kamakura bakufu, many such individuals became gokenin and were appointed jitō in lands where the bakufu were allowed access. As leaders of a large number of villagers, these jitō laboured to develop the rice fields and irrigation works in the areas under their jurisdiction, and they and other influential landlords constructed spacious homes for themselves in the villages and hamlets where they lived. Among these landlords, some were vassals of the shogun, while others were connected to the aristocracy or the temples and shrines. The jitō owed their loyalty to the shogun, for whom they performed public services such as guard duty in Kyōto and Kamakura. In return, the shogun not only guaranteed these men security of tenure in their traditional landholdings but rewarded them with new holdings in confiscated lands—such as from the Taira or the supporters of Go-Toba. This connection between lord and vassal, on which grants of landownership or management were based, gave Japanese society a somewhat feudal character. But these lands were by no means complete fiefs: the Kamakura bakufu did not possess large tracts of its own land that it could grant to its vassals as fiefs in return for service. Kamakura warriors could control traditional land types (shōen and kokugaryō) or be newly appointed into confiscated lands. In either case, there was a nominal absentee central proprietor—temple, shrine, or aristocratic or royal family—who maintained substantial control over the land. Thus, there was a limit on the degree to which the Kamakura warrior could exploit the land and people under his control. Conflict was endemic between central proprietor (usually a local representative of the proprietor) and jitō: the former wished to maintain as much control and income as possible while the latter was concerned with expanding his share. Since the jitō was entirely under the control of Kamakura, disputes flooded the warrior headquarters from landowners seeking to curtail jitō encroachments. Thus, the primary focus of Kamakura activity became the dispensing of justice in legal cases involving land disputes. The Kamakura bakufu gained a reputation for fairness, issuing countless orders of admonition to its vassals to follow the precedents on the land in question. By various means, however, Kamakura warriors managed to whittle away significantly the absentee control of shōen proprietors. Conflict also was endemic between the farming population and the warriors, stemming from the efforts of the former to increase personal and economic autonomy, as well as to enlarge their holdings within the shōen or kokugaryō. There were several different statuses among the peasantry, including myōshu, prominent farmers with taxable, named fields (myōden) of significant size and long standing; small cultivators with precarious and shifting tenures; and others who paid only labour services to the proprietor or jitō. These groups, while distinct from one another, were also quite separate from transient agriculturalists present in many estates. The lowest peasant category, called genin (“low person”), was made up of people who were essentially household servants with no land rights. The samurai, in theory, performed military service on the battlefield and during times of peace, in addition to managing agricultural holdings, engaging in hunting and training in the martial arts, and nourishing a rugged and practical character. Medieval texts speak of kyūba no michi (“the way of the bow and horse”), or yumiya toru mi no narai (“the practices of those who use the bow and arrow”), indicating that there was an emerging sense of ideal warrior behaviour that grew out of this daily training and the experience of actual warfare. Pride of family name was especially valued, and loyal service to one’s overlord became the fundamental ethic. This was the origin of the more highly developed sense of a warrior code of later ages. Like his Heian predecessor, the Kamakura warrior was a mounted knight whose primary martial skill was equestrian archery. The status of women in warrior families was comparatively high; like their Heian predecessors, they were allowed to inherit a portion of the estates and even jitō posts, a practice that gradually came to be restricted. After the middle of the Kamakura period, the farming villages in which the warriors resided underwent changes as agricultural practices advanced; other aspects of society were changing as well. Artisans were frequently attached to the proprietors of the shōen and progressively became more specialized, responding to a specific growth of consumer demand. Centres for metal casting and metalworking, paper manufacture, and other skills appeared outside the capital, in various provincial localities, for the first time. The exchange of agricultural products, manufactured goods, and other products thrived; local markets, held on three fixed days a month, became common. Copper coins from Sung China circulated in these markets, while itinerant merchants increased their activity. Bills of exchange were also used for payments to distant localities. In the large ports along the Inland Sea and Lake Biwa, specialized wholesale merchants (toimaru) appeared who, as contractors, stored, transported, and sold goods. Further, it became common for many merchants and artisans to form guilds, known as za, organized under the temples, shrines, or civil aristocrats, from whom they gained special monopoly privileges and exemptions from customs duties. Kamakura culture: the new Buddhism and its influence During the Kamakura period the newly arisen samurai class began to supersede the ancient civil aristocracy, which nonetheless continued to maintain the classical culture. Vigorous overseas trade expanded contacts with the continent, fostering the introduction of Zen Buddhism (in Chinese, Ch’an) and Neo-Confucianism from Sung China. Chinese influences could be seen in monochrome painting style (suiboku-ga), architecture, certain skills in pottery manufacture, and the custom of tea drinking—all of which contributed to the formation of early medieval culture and exerted an enormous influence on everyday life in Japan. In matters of religion, the great social changes that took place between the end of the Heian period and the early Kamakura period fostered a sense of crisis and religious awakening and caused the people to demand a simple standard of faith, in place of the complicated teachings and ceremonies of the ancient Buddhism. The warriors of the farming villages, in particular, demanded a religion that would suit their personal experience. Several new Buddhist sects sprang up that eschewed difficult ascetic practices and recondite scholarship. Among these may be included the Jōdo, or Pure Land, sect mentioned earlier and its offshoot, the Shin (True) school, which sought reliance on the saving grace of Amida, and the sect established by the former Tendai priest Nichiren, which sought salvation in the Lotus Sutra. By contrast, the Zen school sought to open the way to insight by self-effort (jiriki); hence, it met with a ready response, satisfying the demands of many samurai. At the same time, scholarship and the arts were still deeply linked with the Tendai and Shingon sects of esoteric Buddhism, which was a vigorous influence even in Shintō circles. Nonetheless, the new forms of worship expanded popular participation in Buddhism tremendously. In scholarly and literary circles, the Kyōto nobility confined themselves largely to the annotation and interpretation of the ancient classics and to the study of precedents and ceremonies. But at the beginning of the Kamakura period, a brilliant circle of waka poets around the retired emperor Go-Toba produced a new imperial selection of poems entitled the Shin kokin wakashū. The waka of this period is characterized by the term yūgen, which may be described as a mood both profound and mysterious. Just before the Jōkyū Disturbance the Tendai monk Jien (a member of the Fujiwara family) completed his Gukanshō (“Jottings of a Fool”). This is the first work of historical philosophy in Japan to incorporate a notion of historical causality, and it provides an interpretive picture of the rise and fall of political powers from a Buddhist viewpoint. Meanwhile, as warriors began to contend and mingle with court nobles, many warrior leaders developed a love of scholarship and a delight in waka poetry. One was Hōjō Sanetoki, who collected Japanese and Chinese books and founded a famous library, the Kanazawa Bunko, in the Shōmyō Temple (at what is now Yokohama). Reflecting the rise of the warrior class, military epics became popular. The most famous is the anonymously written The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari), the various tales of which were first recited throughout the country by Buddhist troubadours called biwa hōshi. After the middle Kamakura period, as Buddhist pessimism grew fainter, various kinds of instruction manuals and family injunctions were composed, while collections of essays such as Yoshida Kenkō’s Essays in Idleness (Tsurezuregusa) also made their appearance. The new nationalistic fervour aroused by the successful struggle against the Mongols found expression in Kokan Shiren’s Genkō shakusho (1332), a 30-volume history of Buddhism in Japan. In the visual arts the carving of wooden images of famous monks flourished, and, after the middle of the Kamakura period, Chinese styles of the Sung dynasty also influenced Kamakura wood carving. In painting as well as sculpture, Buddhist themes began to give way to more secular works; especially popular were picture scrolls (emakimono), which took as their themes the history of temples and shrines, the biographies of founders of religious sects, and, increasingly, military epics and the secular life of both courtiers and warriors. Decline of Kamakura society During the troubled state of society at the end of the Kamakura period, the gokenin faced difficult times. They had borne virtually all the expense of military service against the Mongols, but their claims for reward went largely unanswered, since no lands or other wealth were confiscated from the invaders. Thus, they were financially pressed and often in debt. At the same time, important structural changes occurred in warrior houses. First, since warriors proliferated over generations while landholdings remained constant, the practice of dividing lands among heirs gave way to single inheritance, often entirely to the eldest son. The shift from divided to single inheritance was accelerated in the post-Mongol era and became the primary means of inheritance in warrior families. Power thus became concentrated in the head of the house, to whom other family members were of necessity subordinated. Second, deputies sent out by the heads of eastern warrior families to oversee their distant landholdings often broke with the main family. They formed strong ties with other local warrior houses, perhaps even becoming vassals of a shugo. Minimally, their ties to the Kamakura regime weakened. General economic conditions began to undermine the position of the bakufu vassals. Yet, despite the social crises among the landholders, trade was flourishing. Coins came increasingly into circulation, and the urban lifestyle began to be imitated in the provinces. But landowners were often unable to meet their expenditures from the income of their limited holdings, even if they practiced single inheritance. Therefore, they borrowed money at high rates of interest from rich moneylenders, and many were forced to surrender their holdings when unable to repay their loans. The bakufu responded with debt-cancellation edicts, which gave temporary relief but neglected the long-term problem. Consequently, the gap between rich and poor became marked among the bakufu. In particular, some shugo, who had the right to raise troops, attempted to turn resident landlords into their vassals. Thus, the vassalage structure of the Kamakura regime began to unravel, and powerful local magnates, nominally Kamakura vassals, began to challenge the authority of the Hōjō regents in the bakufu. The Ashikaga, Sasaki, Shōni, and Shimazu families were among the most powerful among these. Buffeted by economic changes beyond its control, the bakufu began to totter, shaken also by the disputes between the Hōjō family and the rival shugo. The Adachi family was forced into revolt and defeated by the Hōjō in 1285, along with other warrior houses accused of plotting with them. Subsequently, the main Hōjō house turned increasingly inward and autocratic, further alienating other vassal houses. When the Andō family raised a revolt in Mutsu province at the end of the Kamakura period, the bakufu found it difficult to suppress, partly because of the remoteness of the site of the uprising. In addition, regional unions of small landlords developed in the Kinai (the five home provinces centered around Kyōto). Elsewhere as well, local warriors with grievances increasingly took the law into their own hands, seizing crops or otherwise disturbing local order. Termed akutō by the authorities, they included many different elements: frustrated local warriors, pirates, aggrieved peasants, and ordinary robbers. Cultivators as well took advantage of unsettled times to rise up against jitō or shōen proprietors. These accumulating weaknesses of the bakufu prompted a movement among the Kyōto nobility to regain political power from the military. The occasion was provided by the question of the imperial succession. In the mid-13th century two competing lines for the succession emerged—the senior line centred on the Jimyō Temple in Kyōto and the junior line centred on the Daikaku Temple on the western edge of the city. In the last half of the century, each side sought to win the support of the bakufu. In 1317 Kamakura proposed a compromise that would allow the two lines to alternate the succession. But the dispute did not cease. Finally, in 1318 Prince Takaharu of the junior line acceded to the throne as the emperor Go-Daigo. The Muromachi (or Ashikaga) period (1338–1573) The Kemmu Restoration and the dual dynasties On the accession of Go-Daigo, the retired emperor Go-Uda broke the long-established custom and dissolved the office of retired emperor (in no chō). As a result, the entire authority of the imperial government was concentrated in the hands of a single emperor, Go-Daigo. A party of young reforming court nobles gathered around the emperor, who strove to renovate the government. But to realize his ideal of a true imperial restoration, it was necessary for Go-Daigo to rid himself of the interference of the bakufu. His plans for its overthrow were discovered, however, and he was arrested and exiled to Oki Island. But in the Kinai area, local leaders, supported by militant Buddhist monks, raised an army to overthrow the bakufu. The imperial forces were led by Prince Morinaga (or Moriyoshi) and Kusunoki Masashige, but the decisive victory was brought about by the two powerful Kantō warrior families of Ashikaga Takauji and Nitta Yoshisada, discontented vassals of the Hōjō family. In 1333 Takauji turned on the Hōjō and attacked the Hōjō headquarters in Kyōto. Yoshisada meanwhile destroyed the bakufu in Kamakura, at which time most of the Hōjō leaders perished in battle or by their own hand. Thus, after 140 years’ rule, the bakufu government was brought to an end. The return of Go-Daigo to Kyōto in 1333 is known as the Kemmu Restoration. The emperor immediately set about to restore direct imperial rule. He abolished the powerful office of kampaku and set up a central bureaucracy. He revived the Records Office (Kirokusho) to settle lawsuits in the provinces and established the Court of Miscellaneous Claims (Zassho Ketsudansho) to handle minor suits and a guard station (musha-dokoro) to keep order among the warriors in Kyōto. He placed Morinaga in charge of his military forces and set up members of the imperial family as provincial leaders in the north and east. Many local warriors, however, who had joined the imperial forces in the overthrow of the bakufu were disappointed in the division of the spoils and the direction of the emperor’s reforms. Ashikaga Takauji now turned against Go-Daigo, raising a revolt that in 1336 drove the emperor from Kyōto. Takauji enthroned an emperor from the senior imperial line, while Go-Daigo and his followers set up a rival court in the Yoshino Mountains near Nara. For the next 60 years political power was divided between the Southern Court in Yoshino and the Northern Court in Kyōto. It remained for Takauji’s grandson Yoshimitsu to establish peace (1392) between the two courts; thereafter, imperial succession remained with the descendants of the Northern Court. Throughout the long dispute, however, local warriors attached themselves to shugo, who increasingly asserted their independence from central authority. The establishment of the Muromachi bakufu After the withdrawal of Go-Daigo to Yoshino, Ashikaga Takauji set up a bakufu at Nijō Takakura in Kyōto. But in 1378 Takauji’s grandson, the shogun Yoshimitsu, moved the bakufu to the Muromachi district in Kyōto, where it remained and took final shape. Yoshimitsu, assisted by the successive shogunal deputies (kanrei) Hosokawa Yoriyuki and Shiba Yoshimasa, gradually overcame the power of the great military governors (shugo) who had been so important in the founding of the new regime. He destroyed the Yamana family in 1391, and, in uniting the Northern and Southern courts, attacked and destroyed the great shugo Ōuchi Yoshihiro, thus gaining control of the Inland Sea. Yoshimitsu was now raised to the highest office of prime minister, or dajō-daijin. He constructed the famed Golden Pavilion (Kinkaku-ji; see below The establishment of warrior culture) northeast of the capital in Kitayama, taking great pride in its luxurious display, and also reestablished trade and diplomacy with Ming dynasty China under the title “King of Japan.” Muromachi government structure The Muromachi bakufu inherited almost unchanged the structure of its Kamakura predecessor (see above The establishment of warrior government), setting up a Mandokoro, Monchūjo, and Samurai-dokoro. But after the appointment of Hosokawa Yoriyuki as kanrei, this post became the most important in the bakufu government. The official business of the Mandokoro was to control the finances of the bakufu; and later the Ise family, who were hereditary retainers of the Ashikaga, came to inherit this office. The Samurai-dokoro, besides handling legal judgments, was entrusted with the control of the capital. Leading officials called shoshi who held the additional post of shugo of Yamashiro province (now in Kyōto urban prefecture) were next in importance to the kanrei. New offices were established to streamline judicial decisions and handle financial matters, and the Ashikaga maintained their own private guard, the hōkōshū. In local administration, a special administrator was set up in Kamakura to control the 10 provinces of the Kantō area. This office came to be held by heads of the Ashikaga Motouji family. The 11 provinces of Kyushu were placed under control of an office known as the Kyushu tandai. The crucial difference between the two bakufu, however, was the difference in the role of the shugo. Appointed first by Takauji in the chaos of the war between the courts, many rose to positions of great power in one or several provinces under their purview. By Yoshimitsu’s time, their number had been reduced and their powers somewhat curtailed. But the structure of the bakufu was essentially a delicate balance between the Ashikaga shogunal house and about a dozen major shugo houses, almost evenly divided between collateral Ashikaga houses and nonrelated warrior families. Yoshimitsu made them all establish primary residence in Kyōto, where they ruled in council with the shogun. This retarded their abilities to develop stronger vassalage ties with local warriors in their provinces, and they often sent out deputies to manage their provincial areas in their absence. Consequently, in later years many powerful shugo from the early and middle parts of the Muromachi period were overthrown by their own deputies. The finances of the Muromachi bakufu could not be met simply from its receipts from the lands under its direct control, as Kamakura had managed to do. So, according to bakufu needs, the shugo and jitō of each province were ordered to levy monetary taxes on either every unit of land or every household; this, however, also was not fully effective in meeting financial needs. As a result, the bakufu extracted taxes from such dealers as pawnbrokers and sake brewers, who were among the wealthiest merchants of the time. Financial deficiencies also were supplemented by trading with China. Despite this more diversified tax structure, the Muromachi regime maintained only a shaky hold on the nation. The foundations of the bakufu began to be shaken by the increasing power of the shugo and by the frequent uprisings of local samurai and farmers. In the Kamakura period the authority of the shugo was essentially limited to security matters—suppressing rebellion, apprehending murderers, and mustering out vassals for service in Kyōto. In the latter half of the Northern and Southern courts period, their executive power over the areas under their control was increased. As the number of disturbances grew, they gained wide powers of military command. Sometimes estates were made depots for military supplies on the pretext of protecting them from the depredations of local warriors, and half their yearly taxes were given to the shugo. This was called the equal tax division, or hanzei. Many shugo succeeded to their domains by inheritance, and in cases such as that of the Yamana family a single shugo sometimes held a number of provinces. If the primary agent of the Kamakura bakufu had been the jitō, the shugo was the defining office of the Muromachi regime. From the outset, the controlling power of the Ashikaga bakufu was relatively weak, and, especially after the death of Yoshimitsu, the tendency for powerful shugo to defect became marked. Hence, as time passed the office of shogun became increasingly impotent. The growth of local autonomy In the villages around Kyōto, the status of farmers rose markedly as agriculture became more highly developed, and commerce and small-scale manufacturing prospered. Also, confederations of the middle and small landlords, or myōshu, proceeded apace and often led to uprisings against absentee control. Such confederations appeared where farming by the larger myōshu had dissolved and middle and small myōshu had established themselves on a wide scale. These smaller landlords endeavoured to defend themselves against the ravages of local warfare, forming unions to manage the forests in common and to maintain irrigation works. In such confederations, a leader called the elder (otona) would be selected to head village government. Assemblies were held regularly among its members at the village shrine or temple, and regulations were drawn up for the maintenance of community life. As self-government became strong in the communities, the resistance of farmers became fierce. After the unification of the Northern and Southern courts, armed uprisings broke out among the farming villages, the peasants demanding reductions in yearly taxes from the old proprietors and a moratorium on debts owed to the moneylenders. A large-scale uprising of this kind took place in 1428 in the last years of Yoshimitsu’s rule. In 1429 an uprising broke out in Harima province (now part of modern Hyōgō prefecture) aimed at the expulsion of the warriors from the province. In 1441 farmers living around Kyōto attacked the pawnbrokers and demanded that the bakufu declare a moratorium on debts. Thereafter, uprisings occurred on a greater or lesser scale almost yearly—testimony to the fading power of both the shōen system and the bakufu. Trade between China and Japan Trade with Ming dynasty China began after the bakufu agreed to suppress Japanese piracy. Ashikaga Takauji had sent ships of the Tenryū Temple to trade with the Yüan (Mongol) dynasty. But trade then ceased because of the internal disturbances, and pirates from the maritime districts of western Japan raided both China and the Korean peninsula. When Korea came under the control of the Chosŏn (Yi) dynasty and in China the Ming dynasty emerged, they both requested that the bakufu open formal trade relations, hoping to suppress piracy. Yoshimitsu, both in response to the desires of the merchants and in order to supplement bakufu finances, began formal trade relations with Ming China and Korea, repatriating a large number of Chinese who had been taken captive by the pirates. In response, the Ming also began to trade with Japan, under the form of tribute from Yoshimitsu, “King of Japan,” to the emperor of China. In order to distinguish between pirate ships and trading ships, seals received from the Ming called kangōfu were used, hence the use of the term kangō, or tally, trade. Profits from the China trade were important to the bakufu, but control of this trade later came into the hands of the western shugo families of the Hosokawa and Ōuchi, under whose protection trading merchants became active in the ports of Hakata, Hyōgo, and Sakai. After the Ōnin War (see below The Ōnin War [1467–77]), the Ōuchi controlled the trade—albeit in competition and often conflict with the Hosokawa—but with the destruction of the Ōuchi the kangō trade ceased and piracy again became rife. Trade with Chosŏn dynasty Korea was carried on through the agency of the Sō family of Tsushima, and various shugo and the merchants of Hakata were actively involved in it, importing cotton and other goods. Japanese traders even established settlements in southeastern Korea, including Pusan. Also included in the trade with China and Korea were goods imported by Japanese merchants from the Ryukyu Islands, lying between Japan and Taiwan, and dye materials, pepper, and other special products from the South Seas. More About Japan 192 references found in Britannica articles You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Tips For Editing Thank You for Your Contribution! 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Sports are a hit with kids both on the field and in the classroom. Teachers can bring the ball play inside with these engaging resources from KQED in PBS LearningMedia. Here are two great resources that connect baseball to physics. Take a swing at connections between your curriculum and baseball. Below are two of the top resources California educators are cheering for. The Physics of Baseball In this video, adapted from QUEST, two scientists from San Francisco Bay Area institutions break down a few of the many different ways that baseball is a great way to learn about the physics of motion and energy, including aerodynamics and vibrations. Anatomy of a Homerun Use this resource to investigate the basic physics principles behind the techniques used by baseball players, understand how and why a curve ball curves, and gain information on the physics of hitting a ball. Almetria Vaba Sponsored by Become a KQED sponsor	<urn:uuid:a48011be-5cd4-408e-afd3-6e063bf9c60e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.039974987506866455, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9220283627510071, "url": "http://ww2.kqed.org/learning/2012/06/04/play-ball-in-pbs-learningmedia-resources-california-educators-are-cheering-for/" }
January 30, 2017 How Der Freischütz helped define community and culture in Germany The nineteenth century was a time of European nationalism as borders and governments underwent massive change following the Napoleonic wars. German nationalism was a slow process for some seventy years, not counting the temporary split of East and West in the modern era. Furniture of the Biedermeier period. Photo © Geolina Art played an important role in this process. To become one unified German nation, it wasn't enough to encourage a sense of community among all the many disparate states and kingdoms of the region. It was also necessary to answer these simple questions: What does it mean to be "German"? How should German culture be defined? How, culturally, are Germans different from Italians and Germans? When Carl Maria von Weber created Der Freischütz, his aim was not merely an entertaining box-office hit, although he certainly achieved that in spectacular fashion. He was aware of the unification movement. He intended the opera to speak to his audiences on these larger issues. He also intended it, along with his other works, as a flat-out rejection of Italian opera. Although he led many performances of Rossini's works from the podium as conductor, Weber did not approve of the excesses of the florid bel canto vocal style or the librettos, which he considered frivolous. As is well-known, the path he carved out in Der Freischütz became a template for German Romantic opera for Wagner, Marschner and others. Here are three examples of cultural messaging in Der Freischütz: 1) The pivot of the chorus in their treatment of Max. The show opens with a scene dominated by the chorus of huntsmen and villagers. Max, the lead tenor role, is despondent following a miserable showing in a shooting competition in which he missed every target. The important aspect of this scene in terms of this post is the two-fold manner in which the chorus interacts with him. At first, the villagers are inclined to give Max a hard time. Killian, the peasant who unexpectedly beat him, sings a smug ditty that we can loosely translate as "Nanny-nanny boo boo". Then the chorus joins him with a merciless and mocking tone. You knw how, in basketball, when a shooter misses the rim the crowd begins chanting "AIR BALL! AIR BALL!"? Yeah, that's the vibe here. The women cackle "hee hee hee" along with the orchestra while the men shout out insults: But when Max takes the teasing badly, something significant happens. The crowd realizes that he's not just downcast, he's seriously grieving. As I pointed out in my previous post, he's actually in an Existential crisis, but no one thought in those terms in 1821. At any rate, both his marriage plans and career are at risk. So they immediately pivot, coming together in an uplifting chorus of encouragement, urging Max to have faith: Here's why that's a big deal - other, of course, than being gorgeous. Weber is subtly contrasting German history (disunity and division) with his vision of the future; namely, a close-knit community of like-minded people who become stronger when they stick together and pull for one another. The message was not ignored by his audiences. 2) Agatha: a very Biedermeier soprano Frankly, when we try to explain the relative unpopularity of Der Freischütz outside of Germany, we have to assign Agatha some of the blame. And then we have to get over it! Agatha's arias are lovely. I find them ravishing and exquisite. But for opera-lovers accustomed to the emotional roller-coaster of a typical Italian soprano aria, Agatha's solos can come off as curiously lacking in the passion and urgency of an Aida or a Tosca. Also, they lack the coloratura fireworks of Rossini and Donizetti. I can imagine casual opera fans thinking "SLOW AND BORING". To better understand Agatha's affect, we again have to bear in mind Weber's extra-musical agenda of nationalism, now seen through the prism of a particular school of furniture design and home decor known as the Biedermeier period. Following the trauma of the Napoleonic wars, Germanic people (among others) sought comfort; above all else they wanted to feel safe and secure. This led to a highly domestic ethos. Like you and I on a snow day, they wanted to stay home, keep their modest homes neat and tidy, and (in effect) watch old movies on TV (i.e. read Grimm's Fairy Tales), pop popcorn and wear their fuzzy slippers. Furniture of the Biedermeier era was of plain, functional, utilitarian design. Expensive antiques? No thanks - a simple table and chair were all that was desired. This, in part, accounts for the presentation of Agatha: she is the emblem of modest domesticity. And that word "modest" is very significant. Besides emulating Biedermeier values, Weber intended Agatha to serve as a role model of German womanhood - the prototype of an ideal to hold up before young people. You'll have noticed, perhaps, that there is no love duet for Max and Agatha. Further, her arias express no sexual longing for Max - no sensual expression of being in his arms and so on. "That", Weber is saying, "is fine for Italian or French women. But we Germans are made of finer stuff." A devout Catholic, Weber was adamant that his prima donna NOT be objectified sexually; NOT be made the woman valued only for her beauty as in so many Italian works. No love triangle here; no baritone lusting for Agatha; no kindling of "love at first sight". The focus of the opera is good vs. evil, not raging hormones. So Agatha is deliberately virtuous, chaste, spiritual and modest, and these qualities are what come through in her music. She is the very model of a Biedermeier heroine. The problem? That "roller coaster" of fluctuations of extreme emotional states we find in Italian works is addictive. We get a visceral thrill from agony and ecstasy; we expect it in all operas; and there could be a let-down when it's missing. My advice: rather than fretting about what Weber doesn't provide, listen for and savor the pleasures that are present in Agatha's utterances. 3) That Huntsman's chorus Long before Der Freischütz, Germans loved amateur choral societies, including their version of male glee clubs. They still do! So that celebrated number from Act 3 with its yodeling hunting horns and crisply rhythmic writing for tenors and basses hit home from two points of view. First, it's an ode to a big element of German life and culture, namely forestry and hunting, thus contributing to the definition of "being German". But also, it was a celebration of men's singing groups. Community. Domesticity. Forestry. And singing. Four ways in which Carl Maria von Weber laid out a blueprint for the united German nation to come. January 22, 2017 Smart bullets & Existentialism: the prophecies of Der Freischütz Here's a partial list of famous prophets: • Isaiah • Nostradamus • Carl Maria von Weber Carl Maria von Weber: prophet Actually, as this post will demonstrate, Weber was WAY more accurate than that faker Nostradamus. The thing is, the composer of Der Freischütz was an unwitting prophet; he didn't know he was nailing future events in his opera. Take those magic bullets on which the entire plot-line rests. Caspar (Bad Guy), hoping to trap Max (Good Guy) in a scheme to get a reprieve from the demon who owns his soul. The bait consists of "free bullets", magic chunks of lead that never miss their target, thanks to the demon's supernatural powers. Fantasy, right? "As if", right? No such thing, right? I dismissed "free bullets" as fiction up until the moment I was watching a rerun of CSI: Miami on cable the other night. (Don't judge - there was nothing else on any better.) The plot involved a murder victim killed by a bullet that followed a path around the corner of a building in its flight. Intrigued, I went to the Internet. Was this also fantasy, or could there be science behind this? We've all heard of smart bombs, but even a little projectile like a bullet? How smart could that be? Pretty damn smart, it turns out. As this CNN article documents, "self-guided" bullets are a thing. On this and other websites, I read about ammunition embedded with microchips that can receive data to locate targets. I read about bullets that self-destruct if they miss their target, preventing "friendly fire". Bullets that can change their trajectory during flight. Remember how Keanu Reeves dodged bullets in The Matrix? Bad news, buddy - that move is SO 20th-century. Score one for Der Freischütz But the other example of Weber's vision of the future is even cooler. Consider Max. As an exemplar of a tenor protagonist, Max is ......... different. Simply put, he is by far the most MISERABLE, UNHAPPY, PATHETIC "hero" in some four centuries of opera history. Consider: • As the opera opens, he's lost a shooting contest he was favored to win. Didn't make a single shot. • The chorus of villagers mocks him - the women cackling in staccato giggles, the men shouting out "shade" (look it up in the Urban Dictionary • He makes bad decision after bad decision, chief among them listening to "Evil Yoda", a.k.a. Caspar • He lamely confesses all his screw-ups in the final scene, leading to banishment by the Prince. • It takes the intervention of The Hermit to save his bacon and be put on probation. • As the show closes, he's not out of trouble yet: he has to keep his nose clean for an entire year. If he can manage that (and little we've observed gives ME confidence on that score), then he can marry Agathe. Oof. Some hero. And Max is aware of how badly he's doing; he constantly expressess his misery. He pretty much wallows in it. This is what makes him different from your standard tenor. • Don Jose? He's got a lot to be happy about UNTIL Act 3, when he devolves into a hot mess for the rest of Carmen. • Rodolfo? He's happy-go-lucky until his pathological jealousy ruins his love affair. And then, when Mimi dies, that's a bummer too, clearly. • Radames? Yes, he's convicted of treason and is buried alive, but prior to that everyone in Egypt thinks he's "da MAN". They have this whole big parade in his honor - camels, horses, the whole shebang. BUT MAX! The happiest his music ever sounds is in the opening lyrical section of his Act 1 aria "Durch die Waelder", and that's only because he's remember when he USED to be happy in the past! But it's in the concluding animated section of the aria in which, once again, Weber uncannily predicts an important phenomenon that was still decades away from emerging into prominence. Max isn't just unhappy; he's in a full-blown existential crisis. Look at what he's saying: “Despair clutches, mockery torments me! O will no ray pierce through this night? Does fate rule blind? Is there no God?I can no longer bear the misery, the fear that robs me of all hope.” That's not "sadness", that's despair; and it rings the bell in terms of the definition of Existential Despair. Despair, in existentialism, is generally defined as a loss of hope. More specifically, it is a loss of hope in reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the defining qualities of one's self or identity. MAX, in his Act 1 aria, rings all the bells in terms of Existential despair. The “defining quality”, the “particular thing” in which he has “invested his being”, is being a good shooter; a skilled huntsman. With this skill taken away by Kaspar’s magic, Max’s identity is crumbling. Here's the thing: Der Freischütz premiered in 1821, when Existential thought had not yet been conceived. It wouldn't be until decades later, in the writings of Kierkegaard, that the precepts of Existentialism would first appear, and not until the 1930's when it would be codified by Camus and others. Yet, if unnamed, the basis for Existential thought is right there on the stage in 1821 in a classic crisis of the breakdown of Max's defining self-identity. Hey Weber - got any inside dope on the Super Bowl? Private message me, okay? January 17, 2017 Der Freischütz and the origins of a "Star Wars" scene Carl Maria von Weber had several goals in mind when crafting Der Freischütz, the opera currently in production at Virginia Opera. He wanted to create a new kind of music drama, one that would A depiction of the Wolf's Glen scene. • reject the empty virtuosity of the Italian coloratura vocal style favored by Rossini and his bel canto acolytes -- the rapid runs, trills and other extremes of technique -- in favor of a melodic style more faithful to the text; • foster a sense of unity and community among the various Germanic regions and kingdoms as they struggled toward becoming the modern nation we know today; • employ a story glorifying traditional German pastimes of forestry and hunting; • increase the scope and role of both orchestra and chorus; • incorporate folk materials, whether authentic or simulated; and most important to this post, • introduce supernatural elements to the plot. All these elements, taken together, add up to a significant achievement in opera history: the first truly Romantic opera ever written. Good job, Weber! One for the books. Now, when I say "supernatural", I'm not talking the fun & games magic of Tamino's magic flute in Mozart's singspiel; we're talking SCARY HORROR-INDUCING TRAUMATIZING TERROR, I tell you. Think Edgar Allan Poe! Think Stephen King! (Weber would've love The Shining.) Think Harry Potter! And, really and truly, think Darth Vadar, Luke Skywalker, Yoda and Obi-wan Kenobi. For real. In my opinion, the central scene in Der Freischütz is the genesis of a corresponding scene in The Empire Strikes Back, otherwise known as Episode V in the nine-episode arc of the Star Wars franchise. The similarities are fundamental; the differences insignificant. The two scenes I have in mind are the "Wolf's Glen" scene in Act 2 of Weber's opera versus the scene in Empire when Luke travels to the planet Dagobah to receive Jedi training from Yoda. Let's give a short synopsis of each to compare: Der Freischütz Max, unable to shoot accurately, reluctantly agrees to meet the evil Kaspar at midnight at the Wolf's Glen, where Caspar will show him how to make magic bullets that never miss their target. Once there, Max sees visions: he sees his dead mother warning him to leave; he sees his sweetheart Agathe plunging from a bridge into a void. As Kaspar casts each bullet, new and terrifying visions appear: a charging boar, ghostly hunters, a cataclysmic storm and finally, with the seventh bullet, the satanic demon Samiel. At his appearance, Max and Caspar faint. The Empire Strikes Back Both scenes fall into the literary category of phantasmagoria, or the depiction of a sequence of real or imaginary images like those seen in a dream. See, both Max and Luke are experiencing what we may call an Existential Crisis (more about that in a future post): they both feel incomplete somehow - unprepared to fulfill their individual destinies. Dagobah is equally forbidding and eerie as the Wolf's Glen. Like Luke, Max receives supernatural warnings. The various characters match up nicely: MAX = LUKE. A hero who is still developing his heroic traits. Rifle = light saber. CASPAR = YODA. Except that Caspar is "bad evil Yoda". Yoda is training Luke in the good side of The Force, whereas Caspar is training the unwitting Max in the dark side of The Force. SAMIEL = DARTH VADAR. The sudden appearance of each is climactic, dramatic and unnerving. Each represents Evil Incarnate. Actually, the Star Wars team returned to a scene of phantasmagoria in last year's addition to the franchise, Episode VII: The Force Awakens. A new character, a scavenger called Rey, is the latest to experience a "Wolf's Glen" scene. Here's that synopsis: A castle sub-chamber... an Evil Cave... the Wolf's Glen... they're all the same place: a hostile forbidding place to which we must go to confront our deepest fears and anxieties; the place we go to learn more about who we are and what we're about. The place where magic and evil hover. It's clear that we are living in a Neo-Romantic period in America. The movies that make the most money have continued the legacy of Der Freischütz, bringing us the pleasurable trauma of fantastical beasts, monsters, magic, wizards and things that go bump in the night. December 12, 2016 Why I had to stop watching "Whiplash" It's Sunday evening. I'm in full Relaxation Mode. The opera season is on pause for a few weeks, The church choir I direct sang our Christmas presentation at the 11 AM service this morning, and it went well. Washington beat the Eagles this afternoon. My beagle Joy is curled up on her bed beside me. James Pellerite: my own personal Fletcher About an hour ago, I was scanning the cable channels in search of something besides reruns and a football game I didn't really care about, when the feature on the Sundance channel caught my eye. It was Whiplash, the 2014 movie starring J. K. Simmons as a jazz professor at a big-time music conservatory. I missed the movie in the theaters, and it was still in the first few minutes, so I tuned in. I've seen a lot of Simmons' work and always liked him. In case you don't recognize the name, there's a good chance you've seen him unless you never watch TV or go to the movies. He was the staff psychologist Emil Skoda on Law and Order, he was Chief Pope on The Closer, he was Ellen Page's dad in Juno, he was the bombastic editor in a few Spiderman movies, and literally too many other productions to mention. Oh, and he's done a string of commercials as the spokesman for an insurance company, the one whose jingle includes the eloquently tongue-in-cheek lyrics "pum pa-dum pum pum pum pum" He has a knack for projecting unpretentious straight-shooters; I was curious to see him stretch his range as Fletcher, the tyrannical percussion guru of Whiplash. I suppose I was expecting a variation on the theme presented some 40 years ago by the late John Houseman in The Paper Chase, playing a law professor who didn't suffer fools gladly ("You come here with skulls full of MUSH!") So I was unprepared both for Simmon's character and the effect it would have on me. Bottom line: Simmons' Professor Fletcher is to Houseman's Professor Kingsfield as Walter White is to Sherrif Andy Taylor. I had to turn away and go back to football. Here's the scene that had my body tensing up: Andrew, the student played by Miles Teller, is attending his first rehearsal in an ensemble directed by Fletcher. Andrew is relaxed and confident - he knows he's talented; he knows his future is bright, and so far Fletcher has been friendly and encouraging., But then things go off the rails. Fletcher stops the rehearsal, tells Andrew he's rushing. Start again. Stop. "My tempo, please." Start again. Stop. "You're rushing!" Start. Stop. "You're dragging!" Start. Stop. Over and over. The other student instrumentalists sit frozen, not wanting to draw attention to themselves, wishing they were elsewhere. Start. Stop. Start. Stop. In his face now: "Were you rushing or dragging? ?" The student so tied up in knots he know longer knows which - in fact, he no longer knows how to play the drums. Fletcher hurls something at him - I think it was a cymbal. He slaps him. I watched, barely able to breathe. If you didn't go to music school, you should know that personalities like this are indeed found working with budding musicians in conservatories and music departments. Yes, the slapping and throwing were over-the-top exaggerations to drive home the dramatic conflict, although one pianist I know once had her teacher throw a metronome at her in her undergraduate years. Here's MY "Fletcher moment". I'm the holder of three degrees in piano performance. The last one was a Doctor of Music from Northwestern University; the first two were earned at Indiana University's Jacobs School of Music. (Back in my day, the '70's, it was just "the School of Music".) My piano professor was the virtuoso Jorge Bolet. We got along well - he wasn't my "Fletcher". I went on to teach college-level piano, play some fine recitals, appear as soloist with a few local orchestras, and enjoy playing with chamber partners. What I'm trying to say is that, though I'm no immortal artist, at no point in my career has anyone seriously questioned my talent and musicianship. That's by way of preface and context to what follows. My Fletcher? That would be James Pellerite, professor of flute. He was just one member of the impressive line-up of distinguished and celebrated musicians IU's faculty boasted in the '70's. His career as an instructor was as stellar as that of principal flute in orchestras, soloist and published author. He was, indisputably and by common consent, The Real Deal in all matters flute. In the normal course of events, I would never have met him, much less interacted with him. My two areas of interest were the piano (duh) and IU's great opera theater, in which I was thrilled to participate in the opera chorus. So when I accompanied applied lessons, it was generally for singers; the friends I made backstage. I can no longer remember who it was from Pellerite's studio who asked me to come in and accompany his private lesson as a substitute for his regular pianist. I looked over the piece he'd be playing - it was one of the Mozart flute concertos (again, I no longer recall which one). But it didn't appear to be very challenging. Lots of repeated triads, the occasional graceful melody. I could whip it into shape with a minimum of preparation. I agreed to play for his lesson. The trouble came when one of those repeated-chord passages cropped up during the lesson. This sort of thing: In terms of piano difficulty, it's the kind of thing one can execute without undue effort. "Cruise control" might have described my approach. Big mistake. "Mr. Pianist", interrupted Pellerite, "please play the eighth-notes with rhythmic evenness. Do it again." "Oh, I'm sorry", I probably said, "Sure, no problem". Geez, I thought, what a stickler. Okay, Winters, let's bear down and play 'em perfectly even. We started again. I set my inner computer to the highest "even eighths" setting and played: plink plink plink plink plink plink plink... "Mr. Pianist! You are not perfectly even. Alone, please, without the flute. Huh? How uneven could it have been? FINE! I'll show HIM! Plink plink plink plink plink plink... "Evenly, Mr. Pianist, EVENLY. Again!" Faithful reader, try it yourself. You don't need a keyboard: just tap the fingers of both hands on whatever surface is in front of you: a desktop or laptop lid will do fine. Tap your fingers moderately quickly, over and over, with the perfectly-spaced rhythmic evenness of a sewing machine bobbin. Easy, right? You'd think. I won't belabor my reconstruction of that lesson. No, Pellerite didn't throw anything, he didn't call me names or slap me or make me cry. Frustrated? Oh yeah - I felt plently of frustration. The whole thing felt surreal; I wish I could hear a recording of that lesson, because from my current vantage point of a 60-something professional musician, I am dubious that my repeated chords were a problem. It really isn't that hard to play precisely. Pellerite was not the only tyrant-professor I've run into; I witnessed other students being subjected to withering humiliation by other instructors. I once saw Tibor Kozma, a former Metropolitan Opera conductor on the IU faculty, stop a dress rehearsal of an opera to tell a soloist that he was "a completely useless member of society" in front of orchestra, cast and crew. And there are so many other examples I could mention. These personalities exist in every sphere of activity, but there's something about the arts that creates the perfect environment for them to wield their powers of intimidation. I don't know how the movie turned out; that scene caused way too much PTSD for either me or my wife (also a musician, with her own memories of demanding teachers) to keep watching. I presume that Fletcher and Andrew went on a journey, a journey ending with Andrew's having realized that, as ignoble as his teacher's methods may have been, the goal of perfection is what really matters in one's musical education. That's the other reason I didn't need to keep watching: like Andrew, that was the gift my training imparted to me as well, all those decades ago in the course of my own journey. In other words: been there, endured that. November 21, 2016 "Mrs. Spoilsport": how Rossini's second wife saved his life "We are unwell... it is from eating too much.... the Maestro and I live to eat ... and we acquit ourselves of this duty religiously." -- Olympe Pélissier (painting by Vernet, 1830) The Maestro? That would be Gioachino Rossini. The writer of the amazing description above? Meet Rossini's second wife, the woman he jokingly referred to as "Mrs. Spoilsport (Madame Rabatjoie) No. 2". Here's another quote: "I am neither proud nor gracious. I am a fat woman who is occupied from morning to evening with digesting." Wow... In a previous post I introduced you to the composer's first wife, the glamorous opera singer Isabella Colbran. Now I'll tell you a little about Olympe Pélissier: model for paintings by Horace Vernet, courtesan whose lovers included the writer Honoré de Balzac and, by turns, Rossini's nurse, cook, lover and, ultimately, wife. You don't really know Rossini until you know the women he lived with! Rossini's first marriage ended in a way that does not reflect much credit on either party. After Colbran's voice gave out, forcing an end to her career as a prima donna, Rossini was still traveling constantly, overseeing productions and just generally living the life of a musical celebrity. Isabella chafed at her forced retirement. She was discouraged at being virtually abandoned to live with her husband's father, Giuseppe Rossini. She was bored out of her skull, a problem leading to the downward spiral of compulsive gambling and the loss of a personal fortune. She was driven to taking private voice students in an attempt to replenish her funds. For his part, Rossini left her behind when he departed for Paris in 1830; he would not see her again for four years. He was seven years younger than Colbran, her gambling disgusted him, and he had no trouble finding available women to satisfy his prodigious sexual appetite. That appetite contributed to a sorry state of declining physical and emotional health. It seems apparent that Rossini suffered from what would be called bi-polar disorder today. The writer Antonio Zanolini described the composer's mood swings as fluctuating violently from upbeat and joking to bitterness and exhausted despair. In addition, he was beset with chronic ailments requiring the long-term use of a catheter, and the application of leeches to treat hemorrhoids. (Yeah, that's pretty gross. That's a visual image we could all do without, and a bit of irony in light of Figaro's cheerful reference to leeches in his "Largo al factotum".) Enter Olympe in the fall of 1832. An attractive woman in her 30's, she already had a colorful history in Parisian society behind her. She was born out of wedlock to an unmarried woman. Though her mother married a certain Monsieur Pélissier (who adopted Olympe), it was assumed from the girl's childhood that she would follow her mother's "career path" with a collection of wealthy "protectors". After gaining Rossini's attention and becoming part of his circle, Olympe found herself immersed in the world of music for the first time, quickly developing a taste for Bellini and Donizetti in addition, of course, to Rossini. Rossini found that, given his new lover's less-than-respectable backstory, awkward situations arose when introducing Olympe in elite social circles. No less a ladies' man than the pianist and composer Franz Liszt said of Mlle. Pélissier, in a letter to his mistress the Countess d'Agoult, that 'she pleases me". The Countess, however, was not impressed. Rossini had Olympe act as hostess at the musical soirees he presented in Milan during the late 1830's, but d'Agoult said that women of standing in polite society stayed away from them. Rossini and Pélissier lived together as man and wife without being married as long as Isabella lived on in retirement. When Rossini received news in 1845 that Colbran was on her death-bed, he and Olympe traveled to her villa at Castenaso to pay respects. Olympe waited in an ante-room while Rossini spent a few final minutes with his first wife, saying the things that needed to be said. Ten months later, Olympe and Rossini entered into matrimony, a happy event to be followed by dark days of misery. Giaochino Rossini spent the next several years in near-fatal physical and mental health, often on the brink of collapse. During the late forties and early fifties, Herbert Weinstock (whose excellent biography Rossini is the source of the biographical details here) notes that the composer spent up to eight months of each year combating his weakened state with ineffective cures. There were prolonged periods in which he reported that, due to what he termed "hydrophobia", food had lost all flavor; at times, he sobbed uncontrollably; he told a friend of his "constantly increasing mental impotence"; he was often confined to bed. Through it all, on good days when he felt up to socializing, and on bad days when he could barely hang on, Olympe Pélissier Rossini was as devoted and caring as a wife could be. He likely owed his life to her. Rossini appears to have touched bottom in 1855. He reported to a Signor Mordani that he had been unable to sleep for more that five minutes at a time for over a year. "Death is better than living this way", he concluded. Given all this, opera-lovers shouldn't wonder at Rossini's having retired from composition so early in life. The reality of his frailty belies the common perception that his retirement was an uninterrupted period marked by witty banter, rich food and the Good Life. Rossini also intimated to a few people in his circle that the changing nature of musical style left him feeling alienated and disenfranchised, as though he had outlived his time artistically. He complained to colleagues of the increasingly "learned" quality in Italian music. He was repelled by the mid-century trend toward violent and bloody subjects such as Verdi's Il Trovatore. It's also true that he had no need to make a living at composition; his fortune was large and secure, managed by trusted financiers. But in time, Olympe's care proved effective. In 1856 the clouds of illness and depression began to lift. By the following year, Rossini returned to writing music, though certainly with no intention of another opera. He wrote a piano prelude and six songs for voice and piano, the collection called Musique Anodine. The dedication is especially touching: I offer these modest songs to my dear wife Olympe as a simple testimonial of gratitude for the affectionate, intelligent care of which she was prodigal during my overlong and terrible illness. (April 15, 1857) As life with Olympe settled into something more stable in Paris, more music came, including the famous Petit Messe Solennelle in 1864. Following Rossini's death in 1868, Olympe remained in their Paris residence for another decade until her death at age 81. Isabella Colbran may have been his Muse for a short while, but Olympe Pélissier was his protector and companion; her devotion saw him through years of crisis. She deserves the thanks of those of us who love her husband's music. November 8, 2016 Diagetic music in Barber of Seville and other operas I just learned a new music term, and I have The Godfather to thank for it. And it's a term that is very useful in opera as well as film! Opera Appreciation via The Godfather I was watching Francis Ford Coppola's Mafia epic this afternoon. As always, I marveled at the soundtrack heard in the climactic scene of the baptism; the scene in which Michael Corleone stands as godfather to his sister Connie's baby while, simultaneously, hit men carry out executions of rival crime-family heads in a bloody montage. Music plays a key role in this masterfully conceived and (no pun intended) executed section. We are in the sanctuary of an immense cathedral somewhere in the outskirts of New York. As a priest intones the baptism ritual in Latin, organ music sets the scene. (It happens to be, for the most part, Bach's Passacaglia & Fugue in C Minor.) The music continues without interruption even when the church scene is intercut with shots of mayhem and murder. That's helpful to the audience, as it clarifies that the executions are happening at the same moment as the church service. It provides a bit of order to the chaos. The music also darkens and becomes more chromatic as the scope of Michael's revenge is revealed. This is GREAT filmmaking. The important thing to observe here is that the underscoring is (here's the fancy new term) diegetic. That is to say, the music is meant to be understood as occurring naturally in the fictional world of the drama, rather than traditional composed underscoring. We're in a church, a service is in progress, so naturally, an organist is providing music. No fancy leit-motifs; just the actual sounds the characters themselves would be hearing. (Note: I encountered the term on a website called The Cine' Files.) Another typical example of diagetic music from the world of cinema would be the the piano music played in saloons in countless Westerns. Bottom line: diagetic music means that the characters themselves hear the music. Got the concept? I knew you would - you're quick like that! So now that we're all glorying in the acquisition of a cool vocabulary word, let's see how it works in opera. It gets tricky in this context since, obviously, operas contain music throughout; the scoring is continuous other than in exceptions such as operetta and opera comique. Nevertheless, diagetic music is more common than you might realize unless you stop and think about it. I've stopped and thought about it. Rossini's Barber of Seville (Virginia Opera's current production) employs it no less than three times. Let's examine those, and then (just for fun) compile a list of other great diagetic moments in opera history. From the Barber: • "Ecco ridente" This is Almaviva's first serenade to Rosina at the top of Act 1. Expanding on Beaumarchais, the Count has sprung for a small orchestra to accompany him. As he warbles his coloratura, the onstage banda mimes the bowing and tooting of strings and winds actually being produced in the orchestra pit below. But the point is: this is an opera character, and while we expect that everyone in an opera will sing, the Count knows he is singing, as opposed to, say, carrying on a conversation with someone in which only the audience perceives that he's singing. • "Se il mio nome" A second song; a second serenade. Extra points to the artist playing the Count if he can manage to play the guitar will enough to provide his own accompaniment. • Rosina's lesson scene. In Act 2, the Count arrives at Bartolo's home in disguise as Alonso, Rosina's "substitute voice tutor". So when she sings a solo, it's another moment of diagetic music. The Count sits at a spinet, making a show of playing along with her. Odd, since we in the audience hear an orchestra, not a piano, but let it pass... let it pass...In contrast, when Rosina sang "Una voce poco fa" in Act 1, she was not performing music, she was simply delivering a soliloquy about her interest in "Lindoro". Here are some other moments we can all now take pride in (yes, ostentatiously) classifying as diagetic: TOSCA. In Act 2, Baron Scarpia is interrogating Tosca's lover Cavaradossi when suddenly he is distracted by vocal music coming through the open window of his quarters at the Palazzo Farnese. It's Tosca herself, making a living as a celebrated soprano. The music consists of a cantata with chorus she's performing that evening. Scarpia closes the window and resumes his cross-examination. DIE FLEDERMAUS 1 No surprise that diagetic music would occur throughout Act 2 - after all, it's a party. But the outstanding example is Rosalinde's Czardas, the vocal equivalent of a Hungarian Rhapsody complete with slow lassan and lively friska. The supposed "Hungarian Countess" is graciously performing for Orlovsky's guests. DIE FLEDERMAUS 2 In the final act, Adele, under the impression that the jailer Frank the "Chevalier Chagrin", a French theatrical impressario, auditions for him with the hope that he will advance her ambitions in the theater. DON GIOVANNI 1 Serenades are the most obvious scenario in which to insert diagetic music into an opera, though not the only way. In Act 2, Giovanni sings "Deh vieni alla finestra" to Donna Elvira's chambermaid. DON GIOVANNI 2 A particularly brilliant example of diagetic music that is purely instrumental occurs in the ballroom scene concluding Act 1. With astonishing contrapuntal dexterity, Mozart employs no fewer than three onstage bands, each representing the different social classes present at the Don's palace. Characters sing while the dance music is being played, but their singing is not diagetic; they are simply interacting in the normal manner of opera music. In this case, it's the closest example to the Godfather baptism scene; a diagetic passage of instrumental music underscoring dialogue. DON GIOVANNI 3 I'm pretty sure Mozart really enjoyed putting together the dinner music heard in the opera's final scene as Giovanni dines alone, moments before being interrupted by Elvira and then a certain ghostly statue. There are plenty of in-jokes here, ending with the band playing a tune from The Marriage of Figaro, prompting Leporello to make a snide remark. Dinner music in an opera - I guess, technically, that would be "digestively diagetic"? Yeah, that was pretty lame... November 3, 2016 The woman who deprived the world of more Barber of Sevilles. ...or would that more correctly be "Barbers of Seville"? I'm not sure. This isn't a grammar blog, okay? Isabella Rossini nee Colbran (1785-1865) In my last post, I briefly mentioned Beethoven's admiration for The Barber of Seville. The young Rossini went to visit the famous German composer in 1822 (a year, as we shall see, that was important to Rossini in other ways). In 1860, he described the meeting to Richard Wagner, who also held Rossini in high esteem, as incongrous as that may strike us now. Assuming that Rossini's account of his conversation with Beethoven was accurate all those decades later, this was what the master had to say (my source for this translation is Herbert Weinstock's excellent biography of Rossini): "Ah, Rossini, you are the composer of Il Barbiere di Siviglia? I congratulate you; it is an excellent opera buffa. I read it with pleasure (Beethoven was stone deaf by this time), and it delights me. It will be played as long as Italian opera exists. Never try to do anything but opera buffa; wanting to succeed in another genre would be trying to force your destiny." The composer of Fidelio went on to throw shade on Rossini's dramatic works, including Otello and Tancredi. The conversation ended shortly after; owing to the cumbersome problem of Rossini's writing everything he wanted to say in Beethoven's conversation books. As the Italian made his way to the door of Beethoven's apartment, there was one final admonition: "Above all, make a lot of Barbers." And yet, in 1822 Rossini was in the middle of a twelve-year stretch during which he ignored comedies and wrote only dramas. This period began immediately after Barber of Seville in 1816 and lasted until the composition of Le Comte Ory in 1828. The closest he came to a comedy was Il Viaggio a Reims, called a "dramma giocoso"; it was a monumental flop. What happened? A woman happened. And what a woman she was! Before there was "Bennifer" (Affleck + Lopez) or "Brangelina" (Pitt + Jolie), there was "Gioachabella". Now, I wouldn't say that Gioachino Rossini and Isabella Colbran were history's first celebrity couple - "Marcopatra" down in Egypt pre-dated them by several centuries - but the story of their affair and short-lived marriage did provide a template of sorts for modern tabloid lovers: an affair, a wedding, and a separation. And it's Colbran who directly altered the course, albeit temporarily, of Rossini's career. It's Colbran who caused her lover-turned-husband to turn away from sparkling comedies. Two centuries later, their story still smolders with the faint smoky residue of notoriety, super-stardom, a gambling addiction and ultimate dysfunction. Isabella Colbran was a native of Madrid. By age 20 she was not only rocketing to international stardom as a soprano sfogata (an archaic term for a mezzo-soprano capable of singing the E or even F above high C), she was a figure of glamour as well; a 19th-century "it girl". The writer Stendhal described her with frank admiration: "She was a beauty of the most imposing sort: with large features that are superb on the stage, magnificent stature, blazing eyes..., a forest of the most beautiful jet-black hair and ... an instinct for tragedy. If this description reminds opera buffs of Maria Callas at the height of her career, I get that. She must have been something. She could sing, too! In 1807, when Colbran was just 22 years old, a critic wrote this of her abilities: "The organ of her voice is truly an enchantment for smoothness, for strength, and for prodigious extension of tones: from the bass G to the high E - that is, for almost three octaves - it makes itself heard in a progression always even in mellowness and energy." She was also known for an astounding command of coloratura: rapid runs, trills and leaps were tossed off with spectacular effect.This Spanish bundle of talent also composed a bit, writing four collections of songs for voice and piano. At the start of her career she came under the wing of Domenico Barbaja, an influential opera impresario. It's widely assumed that she was his mistress as well. So Rossini's first relationship with her was professional: the San Carlo opera commissioned him to write a historical drama as a showcase vehicle for Colbran. This was Elisabeth, Queen of England, which debuted in October, 1815 - just four months before Barber. Rossini put a lot of care into Elisabeth, a shamelessly fictional account of Queen Elizabetrh's love life. He dispensed with the custom of secco recitativo, the type of sung dialogue accompanied by keyboard, although the device was to remain in Barber. Even more notably, the composer attempted to put the kaibosh on the kind of distortions resulting from singers and their out-of-control "improvised" ornamentations. Rossini carefully notated every roulade, leap and trill, expecting vocalists to adhere to his intentions. The result was a spectacular, giddy, enthusiastic success. Colbran's celebrity reached new heights and southern Italy warmed to Rossini as never before. (NOTE: interestingly, one of Elizabeth's arias in the first act was "recycled" by the composer as the second theme in Rosina's "Barber" aria "Una voce poco fa". Rossini was an inveterate "recycler" of his own material.) Is it any wonder that the 24-year old Rossini fell hard for the beautiful diva, who was seven years older? She clearly became his lover, a reality that appears not to have caused hard feelings with Signor Barbaja, who arranged for several new works by Rossini. A series of Colbran vehicles ensued in quick succession, and NONE of them were comedies; Colbran was less Carol Burnett and more Cate Blanchett on stage. Armida (1817) was followed by Moses in Egypt (1818), Ricciardo and Zoraide (1818), Hermione (1818), The Lady of the Lake (1819) Mehmed II (1820), Zelmira (1822), and Semiramide (1823). Interspersed among these Colbran-centric operas were a few works not involving her but, oddly, all of these were dramas. Rossini was to give the world only one more comedy before his abrupt and mysterious retirement at age 37: Count Ory (1828). If Beethoven was disappointed, he never expressed it for posterity. Composer and diva were a serious couple by 1820, their committment out in the open. When Colbran's father passed away in the spring of 1820, Rossini secretly arranged for an elaborate sculpture to be created as a monument in his memory. He requested that it depict Isabella weeping at the graveside and a musician "chanting his glories". This artwork was a surprise for his lover. It was inevitable that a marriage would take place. Gioachino and Isabella were wed shortly after the last performance of Zelmira on March 16, 1822. The opera world being then what it always has been and remains today, the ink was hardly dry on the marriage contract before gossips began dishing dirt on the famous couple. People said that this was no marriage, it was a business deal. It's true that the union increased Rossini's wealth considerably, with a dowry worth six figures in today's economy as well as real estate, villas and other assets. Cruel jokes were made about Colbran, including lengthy lists of former lovers, and her "advanced age"; though she was just 37, estimates went as high as 50; obviously, she was a viewed as a 19th-century "cougar", as we would put it these days. The marriage lasted about eight years before a permanent separation. What went wrong? The same stresses that always afflict professional couples working in the arts: too much time away from each other. With Rossini constantly on the road supervising operas, they grew apart. As for Colbran, her career ground to a halt as her once-splendid voice gave way to the wear and tear of too much virtuosic singing in too short a time. Her vocal estate severly degraded, she could no longer appear in public. She distracted herself by a serioius gambling problem; a prior pastime was now a compulsion. Soon, Rossini was to forego public life as well, retreating to a lavish apartment in Paris to live out his days as a divorce survivor, gourmand and lively commentator on the arts scene. Here's the thing: of the operas that followed The Barber of Seville, none have approached Figaro's story in popularity or status in the standard international repertoire. True, Armida, The Lady of the Lake and especially Semiramide have had their champions in revivals, and Rossini's final work, the gargantual epic William Tell is currently being done at the Metropolitan Opera. But on balance, the "Colbran factor" steered Gioachino Rossini from the area in which his genius (most would agree) shone most brightly: the farce and hilarity of comic opera. The lesson here? Perhaps it's that when Beethoven tells you what kind of talent you have in music... ...you should listen.	<urn:uuid:d1228ec5-70dc-41df-96f9-79614bbf068b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.047163426876068115, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9700016379356384, "url": "http://dropera.blogspot.com/" }
Adaptation for Survival HideShow resource information 1. Which of the following is a special adaption for a carnivore? • Becoming invisible • Competing over food • Having a wide taste of food • Competing to avoid being prey 1 of 20 Other questions in this quiz 2. Why do plants often reduce the surface area of their leaves? • To reduce heat loss. • To reduce water loss. • Because it looks cool. • To fit in with the other plants around them. 3. How do plants acquire water in hot and dry climates? • They tend to move towards water, moving around a millimetre each day. • They have extensive root systems that spread over a wide area. • They hibernate until it rains, when they begin to grow again. • They start to wilt and pretend to die so that they can be watered. 4. Which is a non-living factor that affects the distribution of polar bears? • pH • Temperature • Sunlight • Rainfall • Strength of wind 5. Where do you loose the most body heat through? • Exercising excessively • Body surface (mainly skin) • Breathing in and out • Sleeping No comments have yet been made Similar Biology resources:	<urn:uuid:a85c8ede-e024-4fb6-a300-ad02c2c6bb5a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.17820602655410767, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9024931788444519, "url": "https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-tests/adaptation-for-survival" }
What are the functions of auxins and gibberellins? Quick Answer Both auxins and gibberellins are plant hormones that function to promote plant growth through cell elongation. Auxins, in particular, respond to the influences of light availability and gravity, and also promote the differentiation of vascular tissue. Gibberellins are more responsible for growing shoots and promoting cell division in addition to cell elongation. Continue Reading Full Answer Auxins and gibberellins are both types of plant growth hormones but they differ in substantial ways. Auxins are classified purely by their function, and the only biologically active natural form is indole acetic acid. Auxins also inhibit budding off the side of stems and branches, instead promoting budding at the tip of the growth. They play a critical role in flowering and fruiting and can actually stimulate fruiting in unfertilized flowers. Synthetic auxins are often used as herbicides. Gibberellins, in contrast, are classified by function and chemical makeup, and around 125 different hormones fall into this category. They share a function of promoting fruit and flower development with auxins, and also promote seed germination. Like auxins, they can promote the development of seedless fruit development. They also act as sex hormones, promoting maleness in flowers with only one sex. Their presence delays the death and shedding of leaves. Learn more about Botany Related Questions	<urn:uuid:6fb19b2c-e3dc-4e84-a046-56474cc11a16>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.04362010955810547, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9447821378707886, "url": "https://www.reference.com/science/functions-auxins-gibberellins-915978715e5dd09d" }
From ChoralWiki Jump to navigation Jump to search A villanella is a form of light secular vocal music which originated in Italy just before the middle of the 16th century. It first appeared in Naples, and influenced the later canzonetta, and from there also influenced the madrigal. The subject matter is generally rustic, comic, and often satirical; frequently the mannerisms of art music, such as the madrigal, are a subject of parody. The villanella became one of the most popular forms of song in Italy around mid-century. The music of the early villanella (known as the canzone villanesca) is invariably for three unaccompanied voices. The first composers of villanellas were the Neapolitans Giovanni Domenico da Nola and Giovan Tomaso di Maio; later composers of villanellas, no longer from Naples, included Adrian Willaert, Luca Marenzio, Adriano Banchieri, Orlando di Lasso and others.	<urn:uuid:dbec5062-9387-48d9-a4d8-0f6c5369122a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.32712024450302124, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9480376243591309, "url": "https://cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Category:Villanellas" }
Environment - Life Science Removing Noisy Neighbors is Not Easy Conservationists remove a pest bird species from Australian forests—only to find that it keeps coming back. The noisy miner is, as its name suggests, not the most peaceful of birds. Widely found across Eastern Australia, it is a highly social species, living in large colonies of up to several hundred individuals. While interactions between colony members can be somewhat combative, noisy miners save their real anger for other bird species entering their territory who they will hyper-aggressively attack. This behavior has become a severe problem in recent years as noisy miner numbers have increased substantially. This population growth is primarily because human activities, such as heavy grazing, have thinned out much of the woodlands in Eastern Australia creating more open habitats in which noisy miners thrive. This has been bad news for other birds native to these habitats; areas with high densities of noisy miners have fewer numbers of many other small birds, including several endangered species. This has led to a consensus among conservationists and land managers that noisy miner numbers need to be reduced. Past attempts at passive management approaches have proven unsuccessful, but small scale trials of active removal of noisy miners from certain areas had positive results. New research, published in Ecology and Evolution by a research team led by Martine Maron of The University of Queensland, is the first attempt to replicate this success on a larger scale. The researchers removed as many noisy miners as possible from 12 different areas of eucalypt woodland remnants, leaving 12 similar areas untouched to act as controls. A substantial number of noisy miners were removed from the treatment areas; over 3000 individuals in total, an average of 300 birds per area. Yet, remarkably, when researchers went back to these sites 3–4 weeks later, the number of noisy miners was no lower than in the untouched control areas. It seems that noisy miners from neighboring areas very quickly colonized the woodlands vacated by their departed compatriots. The experiment thus suggests that active removals are ineffective at reducing noisy miner numbers. Surprisingly though, the experiment did still benefit other bird species; there was an increase in the richness and abundance of small birds in the treatment sites in the 3–4 weeks following noisy miner removals. The researchers speculate this is because the newly arrived noisy miners were still establishing their complex social groups during this time, leaving them far too distracted to aggressively exclude other bird species from their territories. Of course, this also implies that the benefits of the experiment will be short-lived. The researchers conclude that the best way to contain proliferating noisy miners remains unresolved. To Top	<urn:uuid:322180b4-2ddd-4656-b693-e5028d9d425b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.02644127607345581, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9671631455421448, "url": "https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/removing-noisy-neighbors-is-not-easy/" }
Mictēcacihuātl, Aztec Heroine of The Dead Mexicans observe their traditional Day of the Dead ancestral festival on November 1st. Here is an Ancient Aztec goddess that is revered on this Day of the Dead. Mictēcacihuātl, Lady of The Dead. According to Aztec legends, Mictēcacihuātl means “Lady of the Dead” she is Queen of Mictlan which is the underworld, Mictēcacihuātl governs over the dead with her deity husband, Mictlantecuhtli. Mictēcacihuātl main job is to over see the deceased’s dead and direct the ancient festivals of the dead. These ancient festivals emerged from Aztec traditions into the present Day of the Dead after blending with Spanish traditions. Mictēcacihuātl also, watches over the modern festival. Her claim to fame, as the “Lady of the Dead”, was that she was born, then sacrificed as a baby. Mictecacihuatl was displayed with a decayed body and with her jaw wide- opened, to gobble the stars in daytime. Sources & References: Fernández, Adela (1992, 1996). Dioses Prehispánicos de México (in Spanish). Mexico City: Panorama Editorial. ISBN 968-38-0306-7. OCLC 28801551	<urn:uuid:725b3fc4-2b42-425f-88af-d332c27b4fb7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.03206866979598999, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8561166524887085, "url": "https://folklorefun.wordpress.com/tag/mexican-folklore/" }
Figure 2.7 A schematic representation of random mating as a cloud of gas where the frequency of A alleles is 14/24 and the frequency of a alleles is 10/24. Any given A has a frequency of 14/24 and will encounter another A with probability of 14/24 or an a with the probability of 10/24. This makes the frequency of an A-A collision (14/24)2 and an A-a collision (14/24)(10/24), just as the probability of two independent events is the product of their individual probabilities. The population of A and a alleles is assumed to be large enough so that taking one out of the cloud will make almost no change in the overall frequency of its type. colliding. To calculate the probabilities of mating among the three different genotypes we can make a table to organize the resulting mating frequencies. This table will predict the mating frequencies among genotypes in the initial generation, which we will call generation t. A parental mating frequency table (generation t) is shown below. 0 0 Post a comment	<urn:uuid:bb4b34ee-f898-44e9-817c-437e41bbb964>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.05088174343109131, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9204437136650085, "url": "https://www.fossilhunters.xyz/genetic-drift/a.html" }
What is an Endeme? An Endeme Set: A set of (optimally 22) words that can be placed in a series any order yielding a different meaning for each order, in which: • The first word in the series has the greatest effect on the resulting meaning. • Each word thereafter has a gradually decreasing effect. An Endeme: An instance in which each word is represented by a different letter, An endeme is a list of 22 aspects of a situation which stores their relative strengths. Generally, each characteristic is assigned a letter and an endeme looks like a string of 22 letters. I call it an endeme because endeme means together in Old English and what an endeme does is it welds a number of pieces of data together and creates a piece of information as an emergent property. Endemes are one of the main information data structures used to power level 3 of This Stack. Thinking of your three favorite pizza toppings in order creates an endeme. The endeme set is the set of common pizza toppings, the endeme is the three that you chose in order. Endemes are good for working with combinations of concepts. 26 thoughts on “What is an Endeme? 1. Pingback: Database Endemes \| 2. Pingback: This Stack \| 3. Pingback: Fuzzy Semantics \| 4. Pingback: Level 3 Exists \| Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Google+ photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:6b348db8-ac6c-4a86-8c10-16cee1a36f07>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.02459043264389038, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8665096163749695, "url": "https://thisstack.wordpress.com/2016/01/09/what-is-an-endeme/" }
Early History Caribbean Early History The Caribbean has a rich and varied history. While many people know that Christopher Columbus "discovered" the Caribbean, what most do not don't know is that the Caribbean Islands had an interesting history well before Columbus' arrival. In fact, the first people to live on the Caribbean Islands were tribes of people called the Arawaks and Caribs. Both tribes caught and ate marine life, they also routinely ate lizards, snails, turtles, and birds as well. Every day's catch would be added to a pepper pot, which was a stew that simmered and cooked for weeks. Today, pepper pots are still a native Caribbean dish.	<urn:uuid:8bebf630-c12e-4e17-b9ce-24a767a8a59f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.5525770783424377, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9913471937179565, "url": "http://www.leviroots.com/caribbean/" }
Return to Headlines Westward Bound! Westward Bound Gameboard Poquoson Middle School 6th grade students are Westward Bound in Mrs. Blackstock and Mr. Grabowski’s classes. The group of adventurers (students) were tasked with creating a game board that reflects what they have learned about the Lewis and Clark Expedition and Westward Expansion. They were instructed to create 25-30 questions for their game board and include the answers. The questions covered a variety of topics such as how the U.S. acquired the territory, what did they discover, what events took place during the trip and much more. Deploying this activity in the library allowed the students immediate access to various tools that would help them explore the lands acquired in the Louisiana Purchase and the Oregon Territory using the readily available technology, books, and magazines. Pictured: Smitha Manikandan	<urn:uuid:282abf3f-8b80-4ce3-a38a-23f5a159c956>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.5220124125480652, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9602697491645813, "url": "https://www.poquoson.k12.va.us/site/default.aspx?PageType=3&DomainID=526&ModuleInstanceID=10472&ViewID=6446EE88-D30C-497E-9316-3F8874B3E108&RenderLoc=0&FlexDataID=28880&PageID=3263" }
Daily Lessons for Teaching The Tempest Buy The Tempest Lesson Plans Lesson 1 (from Act 1, Scene 1) The initial scene of The Tempest sets up a number of different things for the play. The storm, or tempest, serves as the core motif that characterizes the different relationships and the plot as the play progresses. The objective of this lesson is to discuss the significance of the storm in the opening scene. 1) For class discussion: Was the storm a good way to open the play? What does it do for the plot? The audience? How is the storm an effective metaphor? 2) Have each student write a list of other tempest-like occurrences that could have been used in place of the storm. Do the other instances have the same dramatic effect as the storm? 3) For homework. Has there ever been an event in your life that figuratively mirrored a storm like that in the play's opening scene? A family member's life? A friend's life... (read more Daily Lessons) This section contains 5,496 words (approx. 19 pages at 300 words per page) Buy The Tempest Lesson Plans Follow Us on Facebook	<urn:uuid:57e53a3d-3396-4389-88c8-57d48e49ee9e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.15625, "fasttext_score": 0.05392998456954956, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9114652276039124, "url": "http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/tempest/lessons.html" }
The Italian Almanac walking on water Moon Walking (on Water) The discovery that people could likely walk on water if on the Moon, but not on Mars, landed a team of researchers in Italy with the 2013 annual Ig Nobel prize in the physics category. Alberto Minetti, of the University of Milan, and researchers from Rome's Tor Vergata university, studied just how weak gravity would have to be on a planet for someone to be able to tip toe across water without sinking. "The experiment actually cost very little and it was done using evidence we had gathered from the rehabilitation of patients with limited mobility, such as those with spinal cord injuries or who had suffered a stroke," researcher Francesco Lacquaniti said. The Ig Nobels, which are handed out by Nobel prizewinners, are awarded to science that first makes people laugh, and then makes them think. Other winners for the 23rd annual award that covers a number of categories included a joint astronomy and biology prize for the discovery that dung beetles navigate using the stars and that mice who have undergone heart surgery survive longer when they listen to opera.	<urn:uuid:b5a2b6eb-e58c-4497-86bc-ddf573c91b9d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.3853289484977722, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9698976874351501, "url": "http://italianalmanac.org/life/moonwalking.htm" }
Roger Bacon states formulas for gunpowder and gives exact instructions for its manufacture. He noted the potential power of gunpowder if confined and suggested that it may be useful in war, its use in guns appeared early in the following century. Bacon was an ardent supporter of research and experimental study as the way forward in science and had a laboratory for alchemical experiments where he carried out some systematic observations with lenses and mirrors. He is most noteworthy for suggested experiments that he never actually carried out and for his predictions of future inventions such as hot air balloons and mechanically propelled ships and carriages. Bacon believed that the earth was spherical and that it could be circumnavigated. Further info Wikipedia - http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon	<urn:uuid:3d310a58-030a-46ee-8bf7-2df2ba6bbc77>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.40670669078826904, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9654202461242676, "url": "http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/timeline/pages/1242.html" }
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Manuscript Illumination in Northern Europe Thematic Essays By Category By Geographical Region & Time Period By Department Unlike the mass-produced books of our time, an illuminated manuscript is a unique, handmade object. In its structure, layout, script, and decoration, every manuscript bears the signs of the unique set of processes and circumstances involved in its production, as it moved successively through the hands of the parchment maker, the scribe, and one or more decorators or illuminators. Early manuscripts were made in monasteries, but by the twelfth century an urban bookseller, called a libraire, coordinated the various stages of production. The city of Paris was renowned as a major center of illumination in the early fifteenth century, yet by the 1440s its status was rivaled by vigorous book production in the great urban centers of the Burgundian Netherlands such as Bruges, Ghent, and Valenciennes. Despite the escalating popularity of printed books in the sixteenth century, many of Europe's rulers and aristocrats continued to commission books of hours for private devotion. Among the most famous illuminators in the history of the medium are the Limbourg brothers, Herman, Paul, and Jean, who were employed by the extravagant collector Jean, duke of Berry, a prince of the royal French house of Valois. Their work exemplifies the courtly style prevalent in various European centers around 1400, which combined elegant, sinuous figures, decorative color, and selective realism in pictorial details such as animals, insects, or plants. These traits are shown in the scenes of the Crucifixion and Annunciation from their Belles Heures (54.1.1) of around 1406–8/9. As the principal miniature of the manuscript, the Annunciation displays a luxurious border of Italianate acanthus leaf. A second important phase in book production was stimulated by the patronage of the Valois duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, who inherited the passion of his house for expensive illuminated books. From the 1440s onward, he built up a significant library totaling nearly a thousand titles by his death. It included many secular histories and romances, subjects that broadened the pictorial repertoire of illuminators in the fifteenth century. The illuminated frontispiece of the duke's Chroniques de Hainaut, a secular chronicle, depicts the ceremonial presentation of the book to the duke by its scribe and translator, thereby commemorating not only the duke's literacy and wisdom, but also his political role as legitimate successor to the counts of Hainaut. Throughout the fifteenth century, lavishly illuminated manuscripts were highly prized items, and important books were frequently given as diplomatic gifts, or to celebrate dynastic marriages. Oil paintings, so highly esteemed in our day, achieved a status similar to manuscripts only in the later fifteenth century. A number of artists, such as Simon Marmion, active in Valenciennes, or Jean Fouquet (ca. 1425–1478), who was employed at the French court, worked both in books and on panel. This required a different approach, for illuminators worked in egg tempera on parchment, in contrast to the oil medium used by panel painters. Nonetheless, Marmion's miniature of the Holy Virgins Greeted by Christ as They Enter the Gates of Paradise (1975.1.2477) displays a refined, muted color scheme of whites and pastel shades that is comparable to the pale tonalities in his oil painting The Lamentation (1975.1.128). Fouquet’s miniature The Right Hand of God Protecting the Faithful against Demons (1452–60), which contains an accurate view of contemporary Paris, demonstrates his extraordinary ability to infuse miniature paintings with a striking sense of breadth, detail, and geometrical structure (Hours of Étienne Chevalier, 1975.1.2490). Despite the escalating popularity of printed books in the sixteenth century, many of Europe's rulers and aristocrats continued to commission books of hours for private devotion. In an Adoration of the Magi (48.149.15) of about 1520, the powerful illusion of spatial depth and vivid re-creation of the long journey of the magi were intended to sustain continued viewing and private meditation. In his self-portrait of 1558, the most famous illuminator of his day, Simon Bening, visualized his claim to social status above the rank of artisan through his self-confident signature and relatively refined costume (Self-Portrait, 1975.1.2487). As a self-contained miniature painting, the image marks a point of transition between illumination in books, which was to die out over the coming century, and the emerging genre of the portrait miniature. Susan Jones Department of Art, Caldwell College Thomas P. Campbell (Director) and Timothy B. Husband (Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters) discuss Herman, Paul, and Jean Limbourg's Belles Heures of Jean of France, Duc of Berry (54.1.1) (2010).	<urn:uuid:c814f64a-6dcb-4067-8d21-0037a985d07e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.037486374378204346, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9458106756210327, "url": "http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/manu/hd_manu.htm" }
Health Highlights: Feb. 20, 2017 Related Health News NASA Sends 'Superbug' to the Space Station A staph germ resistant to multiple antibiotics -- a so-called "superbug'' -- was planned to be sent via rocket to the International Space Station on Sunday. According to CNN, NASA astronauts plan to study the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) germ in the unique zero-gravity environment of space, to better understand how these dangerous germs mutate around antibiotics. MRSA is a common "superbug," responsible for tough-to-treat blood infections, plus pneumonias and skin infections. "We are excited to put MRSA on the International Space Station [ISS] and investigate the effects of microgravity on the growth and mutation patterns of these bugs," Dr. Anita Goel said at a NASA news conference last week. She's a medical doctor, physicist and CEO of biomedicine company Nanobiosym. "I have this hypothesis that microgravity will accelerate the mutation patterns," Goel explained. "If we can use microgravity as an accelerator to fast-forward and get a sneak preview of what these mutations will look like, then we can essentially build smarter drugs on Earth." Prior research has shown that zero-gravity may help microbes grow faster. "If indeed we can use the ISS as an accelerator, an incubator, to know what future mutations of superbugs like MRSA will be, we [can] use that info to develop better algorithms on Earth to inform drug discovery and faster ways to get to smarter drugs that are more personalized and more precisely targeted to a bug or strain at hand," Goel reasoned. She added that rigid precautions are being taken to ensure that the astronauts aboard the space station cannot come into direct contact with the MRSA superbug.	<urn:uuid:32d72cc4-514e-472f-94c1-05612891e36b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.025315523147583008, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9220478534698486, "url": "http://news.healingwell.com/index.php?p=news1&id=719839" }
Timpani 1 Feb 27, 2017 The timpani, also called kettledrums, have been regular members of the orchestra since about 1700. Their history can be traced back to ancient times in the Middle East, but they first appeared in Europe in the 1400's—they were originally imported from Turkey for use in cavalry bands. Timpani are tuned drums—they play notes, not just booms. Up until the early 1800's, they were generally used in pairs, in the orchestra, one note to each drum, and their role was usually just to team up with trumpets to provide festive or martial effects. It was Beethoven who liberated the timpani from the trumpets, expanding their role and the range of notes they played, and even writing solo passages for them. Later composers such as Berlioz and Wagner expanded the timpani’s role still further, writing brilliantly for them and expanding the number of timpani regularly found in the orchestra.	<urn:uuid:4f2f31eb-5632-4be8-93fd-342700235fe4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.09239357709884644, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.981082022190094, "url": "http://southcarolinapublicradio.org/post/timpani-1" }
Question Info This question is public and is used in 1 group and 948 tests or worksheets. Type: Multiple-Choice Category: Capitalization and Punctuation Level: Grade 3 Standards: CCRA.L.2, L.3.2 Score: 8 Tags: Proper nouns Author: delilahjane Last Modified: 2 years ago View all questions by delilahjane. Capitalization and Punctuation Question View this question. Grade 3 Capitalization and Punctuation CCSS: CCRA.L.2, L.3.2 Identify the words that should be capitalized in the following sentence: Thirteen colonies joined together to become the united states of america. 1. United, America 2. United, States, America 3. United, States, Of	<urn:uuid:eea99eea-c863-4ceb-af7c-fa6a4ae8b35e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.502673864364624, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8471019268035889, "url": "http://www.helpteaching.com/questions/77628/identify-the-words-that-should-be-capitalized-in-the-followi" }
Over 30 different subtypes of EB have now been described. Thanks to medical research over the last few decades we now know much more about the underlying causes. Skin consists of a tough protective outer layer known as the epidermis, an underlying dermis, where the blood vessels and nerves reside and a basement membrane in between. There are a number of different genes that, when faulty, can cause EB but all are responsible for making proteins that play a role in the area of the basement membrane. These proteins are responsible for the structure of the skin and for ‘gluing’ the epidermis and dermis to each other. Broadly, EB can be divided into three major types: EB Simplex EB simplex (EBS) is caused by mutations (or faults in the DNA) in the keratin 5 and keratin 14 genes and is almost always inherited in a dominant fashion. These keratin genes are responsible for making proteins that are involved in maintaining the structure of the upper layer of skin, above the basement membrane. In milder forms of EBS, the blistering tends to be mainly limited to the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, although friction can cause blistering elsewhere. There are however, more severe forms of EBS, such as the Dowling-Meara form, where blistering can be widespread and internal tissues, such as the oesophagus and intestines, may be affected. Junctional EB Junctional EB (JEB) is divided into two major subtypes, both of which are inherited in a recessive manner; Herlitz and non-Hertlitz JEB. The Herlitz variant is a very severe form of EB and is often associated with infant mortality. It is caused by changes in the COL17A1 which makes the collagen 17 protein or by changes in the genes LAMA3, LAMB3 and LAMC2, all of which are responsible for making parts of the laminin-32 protein. The non-Herlitz form is also caused by mutations in the LAMA3, LAMB3 and LAMC2 genes. There is also a rare and very severe form of JEB known as JEB with pylorus atresia, (caused by problems in the α6β4 integrin gene) which is additionally complicated by a blockage between the stomach and intestines and is often fatal in the first few months of life. All JEB proteins are involved in maintaining the structure of the skin through the basement membrane. In addition to skin problems, patients with JEB may suffer from problems with the eyes, teeth, nails, internal tissues and may experience hair loss. Dystrophic EB Dystrophic EB (DEB) can be either dominant or recessive but all forms are caused by mutations in the collagen 7A1 gene. The collagen 7 protein is a major part of what are known as anchoring fibrils, which are responsible for attaching the dermis and epidermis to each other. As the skin defects in this form of EB are deeper (below the basement membrane) than in the other forms, DEB is often associated with scarring. Recessive DEB is usually (but not always) very severe with internal linings affected, reduced flexibility of the joints, fusion of the fingers and toes and problems with the teeth, nails and eyes. It is also additionally complicated by the high risk of an aggressive form of skin cancer from early adulthood. In general the dominant form of DEB tends to be considerably milder, with a very low risk of skin cancer, although blistering may be widespread.	<urn:uuid:adeb3f4b-85fb-467c-be0a-8de367cfccae>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.1408250331878662, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9615079164505005, "url": "https://debraireland.org/about/what-is-eb/did-you-know/" }
Dunwich Museum Saxon Dunwich Saxons on the beach at Dunwich As the Romans lost their grip on Northern Europe, Angle and Saxon invaders from what is now Denmark and Germany landed on these beaches to plunder the failing empire.The Romans left, the Anglo Saxons stayed, and within a few hundred years they had created an important trading centre with post-Roman Europe. In the 7th century the Saxon king of East Anglia made a momentous decision: he converted to Christianity and brought a friend, a Burgundian monk, to Dunwich to convert his kingdom. The monk was St Felix and his mission was a resounding success. Saint Felix Felix set up a bishopric in Dunwich and the town became an ecclesiastical centre for centuries. The last bishop of Dunwich was Aethilwald in the 9th century and his seal is one of the treasures of the British Museum. The bishop of Dunwich title was restored in modern times but only as a suffragan (assistant).	<urn:uuid:343a5854-56b2-45ec-abab-85f583391dbb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.1653043031692505, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9747769236564636, "url": "http://www.dunwichmuseum.org.uk/whathappened/saxons.php" }
Candide Chapter 16 Summary & Analysis Candide and Cacambo flee from the Jesuit camp into the unknown territory. They come across two women being chased by two monkeys. Candide shoots the two monkeys, assuming that he is rescuing the two women, and also that this is appropriate penance for having killed the Inquisitor and the Jesuit Commandant. To his great surprise, the women begin weeping over the slain monkeys, who turn out to have been their lovers—as well as a quarter human. The next morning, Cacambo and Candide have been tied up by the Oreillons, natives of the area who intend to punish the “Jesuits,” for their crimes against the Oreillons. Though Candide has good intentions, his ignorance of the land causes him to kill the lovers of the two women. He resembles European missionaries who intended to help indigenous peoples, but ended up doing terrible harm because of their ignorance of local customs. The Enlightenment and Social Criticism Theme Icon Love and Women Theme Icon The Oreillons are making preparations to boil Candide and Cacambo alive. Candide despairs. However, at the last moment, Cacambo makes a speech to convince the Oreillons that he and Candide are not in fact Jesuits, but rather enemies of the Jesuits. He manages to convince them, and the two are freed. The Oreillons give them refreshments, women, and lead them out of the territory in good cheer. The sudden change of attitude by the Oreillons mocks the importance placed on religious affiliation. Candide and Cacambo do not prove that they are innocent of murdering the monkeys, only that they aren't Jesuits—and for this small difference of sect, they are forgiven. The Enlightenment and Social Criticism Theme Icon Religion and Philosophy vs. The World Theme Icon	<urn:uuid:8a08f3c4-bb2a-44a6-a95d-3ab60b560a29>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.025209367275238037, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9367027878761292, "url": "http://www.litcharts.com/lit/candide/chapter-16" }
A gravity board is a convenient and quick way to determine the location of the center of gravity of a person. It consists of a horizontal board supported by a fulcrum at one end and a scale at the other end. To demonstrate this in class, your physics professor calls on you to lie horizontally on the board with the top of your head directly above the fulcrum point as shown in the figure. The fulcrum is 2.00 m from the scale. In preparation for this experiment, you had accurately weighed yourself and determined your mass to be 90.0 kg. When you are at rest on the gravity board, the scale advances 275 N beyond its reading when the board is there by itself. Use this data to determine the location of your center of gravity relative to the top of your head. 1 m Get this answer with Chegg Study	<urn:uuid:f3fc542f-1f85-4f6d-9f66-f18b68eda55c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.16273385286331177, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9351459741592407, "url": "http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/gravity-board-convenient-quick-way-determine-location-center-gravity-person-consists-horiz-q1249406" }
Indonesian Tools Kamus Besar Sinonim Kata Rima Kata English Tools English Dictionary English Thesaurus Definisi 'remove' English to English 1. degree of figurative distance or separation Terjemahkan just one remove from madness\|it imitates at many removes a Shakespearean tragedy source: wordnet30 2. The act of removing; a removal. Terjemahkan source: webster1913 3. remove something concrete, as by lifting, pushing, or taking off, or remove something abstract Terjemahkan remove a threat\|remove a wrapper\|Remove the dirty dishes from the table\|take the gun from your pocket\|This machine withdraws heat from the environment source: wordnet30 4. remove from a position or an office Terjemahkan source: wordnet30 5. dispose of Terjemahkan Get rid of these old shoes!\|The company got rid of all the dead wood source: wordnet30 6. cause to leave Terjemahkan The teacher took the children out of the classroom source: wordnet30 7. shift the position or location of, as for business, legal, educational, or military purposes Terjemahkan He removed his children to the countryside\|Remove the troops to the forest surrounding the city\|remove a case to another court source: wordnet30 8. go away or leave Terjemahkan He absented himself source: wordnet30 9. kill intentionally and with premeditation Terjemahkan The mafia boss ordered his enemies murdered source: wordnet30 10. get rid of something abstract Terjemahkan The death of her mother removed the last obstacle to their marriage\|God takes away your sins source: wordnet30 11. To move away from the position occupied; to cause to change place; to displace; as, to remove a building. Terjemahkan source: webster1913 12. To change place in any manner, or to make a change in place; to move or go from one residence, position, or place to another. Terjemahkan source: webster1913 Visual Synonyms Link to this page:	<urn:uuid:b411342c-23f4-462a-92c8-360c795759e0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.6189624667167664, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7606446146965027, "url": "http://www.artikata.com/arti-152535-remove.html" }
[hah-see-en-duh; Sp. ah-syen-dah] also called estancia (Argentina and Uruguay) or fazenda (Brazil) In Latin America, a large landed estate. The hacienda originated in the colonial period and survived into the 20th century. Labourers, ordinarily Indians, were theoretically free wage earners on haciendas, but in practice their employers, who controlled the local governments, were able to bind them to the land, primarily by keeping them in a state of perpetual indebtedness. By the 19th century, as much as half of Mexico's rural population was entangled in the peonage system. Many haciendas were broken up by the Mexican Revolution. Learn more about hacienda with a free trial on Britannica.com. Hacienda is a Spanish word for an estate, usually, but not always, a vast ranch. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities. The hacienda system of Argentina, parts of Brazil, Mexico and New Granada was a system of large land-holdings that were an end in themselves as the marks of status. The hacienda aimed for self-sufficiency in everything but luxuries meant for display, which were destined for the handful of people in the circle of the patrón. Haciendas originated in land grants, mostly made to minor nobles, as the grandees of Spain were not motivated to leave, and the bourgeoisie had little access to royal dispensation. It is in Mexico that the hacienda system can be considered to have its origin in 1529, when the Spanish crown granted to Hernán Cortés the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, which entailed a tract of land that included all of the present state of Morelos. Significantly, the grant included all the Indians then living on the land and power of life and death over every soul on his domains. There was no court of appeals governing a hacienda. The unusually large and profitable Jesuit hacienda Santa Lucia near Mexico, established in 1576 and lasting to the expulsion in 1767, has been reconstructed by Herman W. Konrad (1980) from archival sources. This reconstruction has revealed the nature and operation of the hacienda system in Mexico, its serfs, its systems of land tenure, the workings of its isolated, interdependent society. In Mexico, the owner of a hacienda was called the hacendado or patrón. Aside from the small circle at the top of the hacienda society, the remainder were peones (serfs), campesinos (peasants), or mounted ranch hands variously called vaqueros, gauchos, etc. The peones worked land that belonged to the patrón. The campesinos worked small holdings, and owed a portion to the patrón. The economy of the eighteenth century was largely a barter system, with little specie circulated on the hacienda. Stock raising was central to the ranching haciendas. Where the hacienda included working mines, as in Mexico, the patrón might be immensely wealthy. The Catholic Church and its orders, especially the Jesuits, were granted vast hacienda holdings, linking the interests of the church with the rest of the landholding class. In the history of Mexico and other Latin American countries, this resulted in hostility to the church, including confiscations of their haciendas and other restrictions. In South America, the hacienda remained after the collapse of the colonial system in the early nineteenth century. In some places, such as Santo Domingo, the end of colonialism meant the fragmentation of the large plantation holdings into a myriad small subsistence farmers' holdings, an agrarian revolution. In Argentina and elsewhere, a second, international, money-based economy developed independently of the haciendas which sank into rural poverty. The hacienda system and lifestyles were also imitated in the Philippines which was colonized by Spain through Mexico for 300 years. Attempts to break up the hacienda system in the Philippines through land reform laws during the second half of the 1900's have proven moderately successful. In popular culture, haciendas are often portrayed in telenovelas like A Escrava Isaura and Zorro. Famous haciendas See also External links Search another word or see haciendaon Dictionary \| Thesaurus \|Spanish Copyright © 2014 Dictionary.com, LLC. All rights reserved. • Please Login or Sign Up to use the Recent Searches feature	<urn:uuid:7b92da82-1ffd-460c-a52e-97a7af47baa9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.034566402435302734, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9495964646339417, "url": "http://www.reference.com/browse/hacienda" }
Timeline small square Timeline created by gbarab26 Event Date: Event Title: Event Description: Trebucht small square 1st Jan, 1000 First use of the noun: Engineer The word engineer roots back to around 1000-1200 AD. The word was used to describes a person who works on catapults, assault towers, and battering rams. The root of this word comes from "in genere" meaning "to create. Engineers in that time period stretched from europe to the far east of china. C300a321a0017bdb2cc1fcb7b0547b58 small square 1st Jan, 1450 Johanne Gutenberg Creates first printing press In 1450 Johanne Gutenberg printed thef first book. Creating the printing press but a huge impact on the world. Books began being mass produced, newspapers, bibles, even bills. The printing was definitly in the top inventions of the last millenium, V3100052 steam engine designed by james watt spl small square James Watt creates first Model Steam Engine In 1760 James Watt created the first model steam engine James Watt created this machine to pump water out of coal mines. James Watt with the help of Matthew Boulton created hundreds of steam engines to be mass produced throughout to world. Humphrydavy small square Sir Humphry Davy discovers potassium In 1807 Sir Humphry Davy discovered potassium. Potassium was the first alkali metal discovered by electrolysis. Sodium was also discovered in the same year by Davy. Davy went on to discover Calcium in 1808. Davy throughout his life, working with electrolysis, discovered: Magnnesium, Boron, and Barium Volta firstbattery small square Alessandra Volta created first battery In 1827 Alessandra Volta created the first battery by putting to metals together with moisture in betweens. Came to be known as the Voltaic Pile. It consisted of coppar and zinc disks piled on top of eachother with a moistened cloth in between. Michael faraday small square Michael Faraday first presented magnetic induction In 1831 Michael Faraday first presented magnetic induction. Electromagnetic Induction is the production of an electric current across a conductor, moving through a magnetic field. Faraday's law of induction predicts how a magnetic field interacts with an electric current to produce an electromotive force. Shield small square American society of civil engineers formed in 1857. In 1852 twelve engineers met together and formed the American Society of Civil Engineers. The American Society of Civil Engineers was the first society of engineers formed in America. Architecture was included in the society but was dropped in 1857 when the American institute of architecture was formed. Today the American Society of Civil Engineers has twelve different divisions. Imageview.php small square Alexander Parkes demonstrates first use of plastic In 1862 Alexander Parkes demonstrated his product of plastic. He called it Parkesine. An organic material was derived from cellullose when heated could be molded. 220px alexander graham bell small square In 1875 Alexander graham bell created the first telephone In 1875 Alexander Graham Bell created the first telephone. Bell and Joseph henry used an electric multi-reed aparatus to send and recieve the human voice. Discovered only one reed was needed. In 1876 The patent Bell applied for was accepted. 3792919082 ea5301da7d z small square Karl Benz creates first boxer engine In 1896 Karl Benz created the first boxer engine. A boxer engine is an internal combustion engine that uses multiple pistons to move on a horizontal plane. He patented this design in 1896, and began producing automobiles Arco idaho small square First Nuclear City In 1954 the first town was town was ran on solely nuclear power. Arco Idaho was the first town to be ran on nuclear power. It is twenty miles away from a nuclear power plant, and takes its power from a nuclear reactor. Iss small square International Space Station The first two modules of the International Space Station are joined together in orbit on December 5 by astronauts from the Endeavour. Astronauts connect cables between the two modules from the United States and Russia open the hatches between the two spacecraft. Text view	<urn:uuid:392a4d37-3d96-4eb7-8a0c-5cce0b94ed60>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.06333565711975098, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9339849948883057, "url": "http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/timeline--838" }
Forgot your password? The Old Gringo Essay Topics & Writing Assignments Purchase our The Old Gringo Lesson Plans Essay Topics The old gringo has many names in the course of the novel: the old gringo, the American, and Ambrose Bierce. Explain how the old gringo gained each of these three names, and explain what each of the names means to him as a character. General Arroyo had a very rough childhood leading up to his days in the revolution. Write out a time line of events that pushed Arroyo toward his position as a revolutionary. Then, explain how Arroyo's childhood problems came back to haunt him while he was living his military life. The three main characters in the novel, the old gringo, Harriet, and Arroyo, each have strained relationships with their fathers. Briefly describe the relationship each character had with their father, and then explain how those relationships affected each character into their adulthood. The women in the Mexican village play an important role in distinguishing gender... (read more Essay Topics) This section contains 989 words (approx. 4 pages at 300 words per page) Purchase our The Old Gringo Lesson Plans Follow Us on Facebook	<urn:uuid:d0a22c81-d1b2-428c-b2a9-1fa0afa49a52>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.359661340713501, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9566576480865479, "url": "http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/oldgringo/essaytopics.html" }
Cacops, extinct amphibian genus found as fossils in Early Permian, or Cisuralian, rocks in North America (the Early Permian Period, or Cisuralian Epoch, lasted from 299 million to 271 million years ago). Cacops reached a length of about 40 cm (16 inches). The skull was heavily constructed, and the otic notch, the region in the hind part of the skull that housed the hearing mechanism, was extremely large and closed behind by a bony bar. With its strongly developed legs and limb girdles, the animal was well equipped to move about on land. The tail was relatively small, and the thick plating of bony armour on the back was probably an adaptation against attack.	<urn:uuid:deca2015-86ff-4aef-9a8b-d4f85709235e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.07812511920928955, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9734318852424622, "url": "http://www.britannica.com/print/topic/87829" }
1,200 Year Old Egyptian City Discovered Underwater The history we were taught in school was clearly a lie! Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (1) 1,200 years ago the ancient Egyptian city of Heracleion disappeared beneath the Mediterranean. Founded around 8th century BC, well before the foundation of Alexandria in 331 BC, it is believed Heracleion served as the obligatory port of entry to Egypt for all ships coming from the Greek world. Prior to its discovery in 2000 by archaeologist Franck Goddio and the IEASM (European Institute for Underwater Archaeology), no trace of Thonis-Heracleion had been found (the city was known to the Greeks as Thonis). Its name was almost razed from the memory of mankind, only preserved in ancient classic texts and rare inscriptions found on land by archaeologists. Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (4) Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (5) The Discovery With his unique survey-based approach utilising sophisticated technical equipment, Franck Goddio and his team from the IEASM were able to locate, map and excavate parts of the city of Thonis-Heracleion, which lies 6.5 kilometres off today’s coastline about 150 feet underwater. The city is located within an overall research area of 11 by 15 kilometres in the western part of Aboukir Bay. [Source] Findings to date include: - The remains of more than 64 ships buried in the thick clay and sand that covers the sea bed - Gold coins and weights made from bronze and stone - Giant 16-ft statues along with hundreds of smaller statues of minor gods - Slabs of stone inscribed in both ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian - Dozens of small limestone sarcophagi believed to have once contained mummified animals - Over 700 ancient anchors for ships Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (6) Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (3) Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (7) What Caused the Submergence? Research suggests that the site was affected by geological and cataclysmic phenomena. The slow movement of subsidence of the soil affected this part of the south-eastern basin of the Mediterranean. The rise in sea level also contributed significantly to the submergence of the land. The IEASM made geological observations that brought these phenomena to light by discovering seismic effects in the underlying geology. [Source] Analysis of the site also suggests liquefaction of the soil. These localized phenomena can be triggered by the action of great pressure on soil with a high clay and water content. The pressure from large buildings, combined with an overload of weight due to an unusually high flood or a tidal wave, can dramatically compress the soil and force the expulsion of water contained within the structure of the clay. The clay quickly loses volume, which creates sudden subsidence. An earthquake can also cause such a phenomenon. These factors, whether occurring together or independently, may have caused significant destruction and explain the submergence of Thonis-Heracleion. [Source] Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (2) Lost city of Heracleion egypt franck goddio (8) Franck Goddio - Maritime Archaeologist Franck Goddio is a pioneer of modern maritime archaeology. After graduating from the École Nationale de la Statistique et de l’Administration Economique in Paris, Franck Goddio conducted economic and financial counselling missions in Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia for the United Nations, and later for the French Foreign Ministry. In the early 1980’s he decided to dedicate himself entirely to his passion – underwater archaeology – and founded theInstitut Européen d’Archéologie Sous-Marine (IEASM), of which he is currently president. Goddio has initiated and directed a number of excavations on shipwrecks including seven junks from the 11th-16th century, two Spanish galleons and two trading vessels of the British East India Company. Originally posted on: Twisted Sifter	<urn:uuid:52614e63-230d-4fa7-8249-a2dee5e309cd>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.02392667531967163, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9297731518745422, "url": "http://higherperspective.com/2013/07/1200-year-old-egyptian-city-discovered.html" }
Continental Drift Diagram 6 Nov 2010 . The diagrams at right illustrates the break-up of this supercontinent, the existence of which figured prominently in the theory of continental drift. Compare and contrast Wegner's and Bullard's theory of continental drift on a venn diagram. 2. What technology was available to one of them and not the other in . Continental Drift and Sea-Floor Spreading . What was Wegener's Theory of Continental Drift? 2. . Below is a diagram of the super continent Pangaea. Continental Drift [view Though plate tectonics is by no means synonymous with continental drift, the term encompasses this idea and derives much of its impact from it. Wegener came . 7 Aug 2012 . The diagrams below show the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea . According to the continental drift theory, the supercontinent Pangaea . Continental drift or "continental drift" is Continental Drift diagram I. Continental drift concept Continental Fit 14 Nov 2012 . Petrified-Tree-Upright-No-Roots · Petrified-Tree-Petrified-Forest-Namibia · Pangaea-diagram-continental-drift · Paleozoic-map-movement . 31 Jul 2012 The continents seem to fit together like a giant jigsaw puzzle: . The idea that continents can drift about is called, not surprisingly, CONTINENTAL DRIFT. . In the diagram below you can see that the continental crust is beginning to separate . of continental drift. Continental drift is happening as tectonic plates move, with earthquakes and . Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift at the beginning of the . Free Essays on Continental Drift for students. Use our papers to . Identifying and using text features (photographs, captions, diagrams, and/or maps). Overview. Continental Drift: What's the Big Idea? is a student-directed . Continental drift. Download this simulation! Only $6 Add to cart; OR; Subscribe Everything in our catalogue! Schools, libraries, individuals . The diagram to the left shows a map fit of the continental masses--this is a piece . Accretion of continental material is also an important during continental drift to . These areas of ancient rocks are termed cratons or continental shields. . This diagram (right) shows a proposed sequence of such continental drift through the . In the early 1900's Alfred Wegener proposed the idea of Continental Drift. . Pangaea Continent Maps · Plate Tectonics: Theory, Diagrams and Boundaries . Continental drift Though plate tectonics is by no means synonymous with continental drift, . The diagrams below show the break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea (meaning . 24 Oct 2012 . Piper and Stiff diagrams. • Rose & Stereonet diagrams. • Statistical tools including . the Continental Drift hypothesis. IN THIS ISSUE. 18 . Below is a true-scale diagram The theory of Continental Drift is also one of the primary lines of reasoning by popular science publications and the .. The diagram below illustrates this point. 16 Jun 2011 . Pangean Breakup and Continental Drift, flat Earth. animations 03/10 . Subduction* (Cretaceous California), block diagram. animation 05/10 . 10 Feb 2011 22 Jul 2008. plates (100 to 150 km thick) that drift around the Earth's surface, highlighted in the diagram. . What evidence is there for continental drift? Tectonic Plates, fossil correlations in Pangea and notional diagram of plate motions . Tectonic plates move around on the Earth's surface ("continental drift") at a . 19 Dec 2012 . Continental drift theory states that all continents originated from one super- continent, and then drifted apart, . A diagram of Pangaea. Watch the . Continental Drift Diagram Stiff diagrams used by mar type of puzzle reasoning by orliac. Meaning the history of evolution started way before dinosaurs roamed . Marie Tharp's physiographic diagrams of the ocean floor, illustrated to the world, the theories of plate tectonics and continental drift. The story involves a lot of . Diagram showing how continental drift has affected the New Mexico climate, life, and landscape through time (click the image to download a PDF file) . Continental drift: how the knowledge came about and evolved. . In this work, Snider gave the first diagram showing the continents bordering the Atlantic before . Continental Drift in the past Diagram-of-Continental-Drift - What is continental drift? : Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other. The hypothesis t. 27 Apr 2007 . Structure and Agency in the Global System Untitled (choreographic sketch by by Trisha Brown, 1980) The Internet is the vector of a new . 19 Jul 2010 . These early theories of continental drift were based on the following . The diagram in Figure 2 illustrates the process of crustal creation and the . 1 Oct 2009 . Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift . Diagram Courtesy of USGS . It finds its foundations in two theories, continental drift and sea-floor . 21 May 1997. scientific papers. These are based on the actual diagrams used by the discoverers of plate tectonics. . The Confirmation of Continental Drift . What does the Theory of Continental Drift state? b. What is the . 4. Look at the diagram under the Oceanic-continental convergence information: Label diagram. 25 Oct 2012 . See the diagram below for the three main pieces of evidence that . What was missing from Alfred Wegener's Theory of Continental Drift? Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) first proposed the theory of Continental Drift, which states that the . Then we can complete Cornell notes and then a venn diagram! Communication is a two way process explain with the help of diagram? send and receive. How is continetal drift explains today's position of the continents? 22 Nov 2010 . Review Continental Drift 3. Brainstorm Plate Tectonic Summary 4. Venn Diagram 5. Drafting 6. Wrap-Up Homework: Complete a final draft of . Continents and ocean basis are continental drift diagram, hasbro family game night 3, black ops zombies ascension easter eggs, uk top 40 logo, traditional irish dancing dresses, vincent . Continental drift 19 Nov 2012 . Vocabulary words for Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading quiz. Includes studying games and . LOOK AT UR DIAGRAM ON. SEAFLOOR . 16 Jan 2012 . Wegner's Theory of Continental Drift. Alfred Wegner ... On a schematic diagram like the one in the section above where it starts talking about . Break-up of Gondwana (overall Continental Drift - History Of Wegener's Theory, Evidence Of The Theory, . The relative movement of continents is explained by the movement Diagram . . how the continents have changed through what was first called continental drift and now is known as plate tectonics. Maps, diagrams, and illustrations round . 4 Sep 2012. addition in order to help show the degree of “continental drift” which has happened in recent years. Basically this is a four-quadrant diagram. envision continental drift This question was the central sticking point of continental drift's acceptance, and . (All diagrams of the Earth on this page are from the Serif ArtGallery CD-ROM. Evidence Supporting the Theory of Continental Drift. Scientists are . support continental drift. .. of electromagnetic radiation are shown in the diagram below. Continental Drift, the theory that continents move slowly about the earth's surface, changing their positions relative to one another and to the poles of the earth. nating summary exercise for the Sea Floor and Continental Drift lesson package. .. representations (including charts, graphs, and labeled diagrams) and . iRubric N8BB75: Rubric title 3 CIRCLE VENN DIAGRAM-CONTINENTAL DRIFT. Built by nichellesmith1 using Free rubric builder and assessment . IMPORTANT: It is believed that the force driving continental drift is convection currents . 2) Correlation of rocks from opposite areas of continents (see diagram ).	<urn:uuid:cdcfb365-7cde-4a8b-869c-0ab0128e5056>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.953125, "fasttext_score": 0.032263219356536865, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8516297340393066, "url": "http://vyturelis.com/continental-drift-diagram.htm" }
Species at Risk Pitcher's Thistle Cirsium pitcheri What is the Pitcher's thistle? A close-up of Pitcher’s thistle flowers. Pitcher's thistle blossoms once, then dies once the flowers have gone to seed. © Parks Canada / Dr. John Morton Pitcher's thistle is a whitish-green plant that lives only in the sand dunes of the upper Great Lakes. This pretty plant has a slender, white, wooly stalk about 1 metre in height. When not flowering, it grows in a low ring of leaves, forming a rosette shape. It has a downy appearance and the fine white hairs that cover its leaves make it less prickly than other thistles. Pitcher's thistle blossoms only once, between the ages of 2 and 10. Beautiful, pale pink or whitish flowers-anywhere from 2 to 125 of them-appear at the top of the stalk. The flowers produce seeds that are spread by the wind. After going to seed, the original plant dies. Species at Risk - Who Knew? Pitcher's Thistle was named after Dr. Zina Pitcher, a 19th century American medical doctor and botanist. He first documented the plant in 1827. Where is Pitcher's thistle found? The largest part of the Pitcher's thistle range is in the state of Michigan, where there are at least seven populations of over 10,000 plants. Although more than 25% of the geographic range of Pitcher's thistle lies in Canada, we host less than 10% of the total population. In Canada, Pitcher's thistle is endemic to the sand dunes of Lake Huron and Lake Superior. This means it is only found in these areas. There are only about 10,000 plants in Canada at about 23 known sites, most of which are on Lake Huron. A map of Pitcher’s thistle locations in Canada. The most northerly population of Pitcher's thistle in the world is in Pukaskwa National Park on Lake Superior. © Parks Canada Pukaskwa National Park of Canada on Lake Superior is home to the most northerly population of Pitcher's thistle in the world. The park has two natural Pitcher's thistle colonies, as well as one colony created by the transplantation of seeds.	<urn:uuid:17d802ca-12af-4b11-b0cd-a5a580f5ae92>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.01872152090072632, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9542261958122253, "url": "http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/nature/eep-sar/itm3/eep-sar3e.aspx" }

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