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Slideshows Images Quizzes
Trachoma facts
• Blindness from trachoma is preventable by screening and treatment with an antibiotic.
What is trachoma? Is trachoma contagious?
How does trachoma manifest itself?
What is the cause of trachoma?
Although trachoma is caused by a small parasitic bacteria, poor sanitation, unclean water supply, and reduced personal and community hygiene allow the bacteria to infect and reinfect eyes of individuals living in endemic areas. Prevention of vision loss requires adequate, prompt treatment, in addition to education and teaching proper hygiene to the parents and children.
Trachoma is an ancient disease and was once prevalent throughout the world except in colder climates. It has been eliminated in more advanced countries but is still endemic in about 55 third-world nations, primarily in Africa and the Middle East. Approximately 10 million people have significant visual loss from the corneal scarring caused by trachoma.
Trachoma is spread by direct or indirect contact with eye, nose, or throat secretions of an individual with trachoma, or indirectly via flies or other insects carrying those secretions on their legs or bodies. Common denominators are poor hygiene, unsanitary water supplies, and shared towels. It is most common in small children (3-5 years of age) who spread it to their siblings, mothers, and playmates. Within endemic areas, the incidence of the infection is highly variable from village to village and concentrates in families or other pockets.
Throughout the entire world, Chlamydia trachomatis also causes sexually transmitted disease and conjunctivitis of the newborn, transmitted from the mother during the birth process.
What are trachoma symptoms and signs?
How is trachoma diagnosed?
What is the treatment for trachoma?
The World Health Organization (WHO) developed the SAFE strategy.
• S = surgical care
• A = antibiotics
• F = facial cleanliness
• E = environmental improvement
How long does trachoma last?
Many individuals who have trachoma infection of the eyes will have it only once and scarring will not necessarily occur. However infections may reoccur until proper diagnosis is made and treatment is instituted.
Can trachoma be prevented?
Blindness from trachoma is essentially totally preventable at relatively low cost. This can be accomplished by teaching sanitation, especially cleanliness of the face, and treating all infected individuals within a heavily infected community with oral antibiotics or antibiotic eye ointment early in the disease process. Many countries have eradicated trachoma using these steps.
What is the prognosis for trachoma?
If diagnosed early, before scarring of the cornea, the prognosis is excellent.
There is an International Trachoma Initiative (ITI) dedicated to eliminating trachoma by following the World Health Organization (WHO) SAFE strategy. It is partnering with governmental and private organizations, such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. If successful, trachoma may become a disease of the past in two generations; 15 countries are targeted for elimination of trachoma by 2020.
What are complications of trachoma?
Trachoma causes irritation of the eye, starting with simple redness of the eye and lids, progressing to inward turning of the lids and irritation and scarring of the cornea, which may then progress to an opaque cornea resulting in blindness. These complications are avoidable with adequate diagnosis and treatment.
With development of the later stages of trachoma with scarring of the lids and conjunctiva, vision is often decreased to the point where the individual is no longer able to work, resulting in disruption of the family. Children drop out of school to take care of a parent with blindness and the family may have severe economic problems.
Because of profound visual disturbance or blindness, there may be an increased number of related injuries or even accidental death.
What research is being done on trachoma?
Health Solutions From Our Sponsors
Medically reviewed by William Baer, MD; Board Certified Ophthalmology
International Trachoma Initiative. <>.
Health Solutions From Our Sponsors
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Hugh Mercer and the Flying Camp
Hugh Mercer and the Flying Camp
Hugh Mercer fled Scotland as a young man and began a new life in America. His hatred for the British brought him to the Revolutionary Cause easily.
Mercer led troops early in the war and his death in the field made him a martyr to the Founding Generation.
Hugh Mercer
Hugh Mercer fled Scotland after he supported an unsuccessful attempt at dethroning the King in favor of Charles Edward Stuart.
He arrived in Pennsylvania and set up shop as a doctor.
Soon after he participated in the French and Indian War. During this time, Hugh became friendly with many Virginians, most notably George Washington.
After being wounded in Western Pennsylvania, Mercer traveled alone and hurt through the wilderness for two weeks. When he arrived back at camp, he was promoted.
He found himself in charge of Fort Pitt and led the construction of the first buildings in what would become Pittsburgh.
Brigadier General
After the war, Mercer purchased land from Washington and moved to Fredericksburg, VA.
He started a new medical practice and apothecary with many notable patients.
When British hostilities began, Hugh became a member of his town’s Committee of Safety.
After a brief stint in the Virginia Militia, Mercer was appointed to the position of Brigadier General in the Continental Army.
The Flying Camp Battalion
Hugh Mercer was chosen by the Continental Congress as the leader of the Flying Camp Battalion.
Flying camps, common at the time, were segments of the military whose purpose was to be able to change locations very quickly. In doing so, they could defend a much larger area of land than a standard battalion.
America’s Flying Camp Battalion was to be made up of men from Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland. These colonies were chosen because the middle of the Union was vulnerable, and it was thought wise to choose soldiers who lived in the area they were defending.
That being said, the Flying Camp Battalion quickly found themselves in New Jersey.
The Mercer Oak
Mercer participated in the loss of Fort Washington and subsequently retreated with the Continental Army.
He was present when Washington crossed the Delaware and led his men bravely at the battle of Trenton.
The next day, on the way to Princeton, Mercer and his men were ambushed by redcoats.
Hugh’s horse was shot out from under him and he was surrounded. After refusing to be taken captive and beginning to fight, he was bayonetted and beaten.
Legend has it that when his men tried to remove him from the field, Mercer refused to leave. He was propped up under a large tree on the battlefield and continued to command the troops until Washington arrived to drive off the British.
This tree - the Mercer Oak - would stand for over 200 years as a symbol of the fight for independence.
Hugh Mercer would remain bedridden and die the following week. Mercer became a martyr to the American Cause.
Hugh Mercer fled the British as a young man. When the time came to fight in the American Revolution, he readily took up the cause. Assembling the Flying Camp Battalion to defend a large area of land in the Middle Colonies, he was killed early in the war during the triumphant march through New Jersey.
Don't forget to subscribe to our email list for a new Founder every day.
For more on Hugh Mercer, the Waterman biography is the most authoritative option. Purchases through this site go to Amazon at no extra cost to you.
Dr. Benjamin Rush - The Founder of American Psychiatry
Dr. Benjamin Rush - The Founder of American Psychiatry
George Clinton Governs New York
George Clinton Governs New York
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In ancient times Kom Ombo was known as Pa-Sebek (Land of Sobek), after the crocodile god of the region. It became important during the Ptolemaic period, when its name was changed to Ombos and it became the capital of the first Upper Egyptian nome during the reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor. Kom Ombo was an important military base and a trading centre between Egypt and Nubia. Gold was traded here, but more importantly it was a market for African elephants brought from Ethiopia, which the Ptolemies needed to fight the Indian elephants of their long-term rivals the Seleucids, who ruled Alexander’s former empire to the east of Egypt.
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About the poem “Childe Harold Pilgrimage” by G. G. Byron
At the end of June 1809, Byron went on a two-year journey, during which he visited Portugal, Spain, Albania, Turkey and Greece. Byron was interested in the peoples of these countries, their life, culture. Particularly struck by his social contrasts: he saw the unlimited arbitrariness of local and foreign tyrants, the complete lack of rights of peoples. During the journey, he realized the public purpose of poetry and the civic vocation of the poet. In these two years he created the first two songs of the poem “Childe Harold Pilgrimage”.
The poem “Childe Harold Pilgrimage” is the first work of Byron-romance, romance of a new type, distinct from all predecessors. The poet does not flee from reality, he defends the freedom of peoples, their right to national liberation struggle, speaking out in defense of the individual from violence and humiliation, he demands active actions from the person himself, stigmatizes him for his shame because he could bow his head to tyranny. Like all romantics, Byron glorified nature, but not abstractly, but in relation to man, arguing that only a free and spiritually developed person can achieve harmony between himself and nature. All the poem is pervaded by the connection of times: the past is illuminated by the light of modernity and, together with the present, allows us to look into the future.
The first song tells about the invasion of the Napoleonic troops on the Iberian Peninsula. The sympathies of the poet
are entirely on the side of the Spaniards fighting with the invaders. Byron manages to show people in action, in mass scenes, when people fight, work, have fun. He stops and on individual heroic personalities, for example, a virgin from Saragossa. In the unity of the hero with the people, Byron sees the guarantee of the success of the struggle of the Spaniards for a just cause, which was important not only for Spain itself:
… waiting for the enslaved peoples,
Will Spain achieve freedom,
So that more countries would rise up for it
The poet writes.
The topic of the struggling people continues to develop in the second song. Childe Harold travels to Albania, then turns up in Greece. Much of the song is dedicated to Greece. The poet always sees the contrast between the great past of this country and the humiliated position of the Greeks under the Turkish yoke. Delight before the “beautiful Hellas” is replaced by anger against her descendants who have submitted to the foreign yoke:
… the Greek is silent, and the slaves are bending their backs,
And under the whips of the Turkish humiliated,
stretched out, Treaded in the mud.
But anger gives way to the hope that in the people “the former force of indomitable freedom lives,” and the poet calls: “O Greece, rise up to fight!”.
The poet’s love for Greece is invariable, and the verses about her in the poem help to better understand why Byron is joining the ranks of the fighters for the freedom of the Greek people.
March 10, 1812, the first two songs of Childe Harold are published, and Byron is widely known. “Childe Harold” stands the edition after the publication, the poet’s popularity is growing day by day.
Once in Switzerland, Byron tries to capture in his letters, in the diary everything that he sees remarkable: historical places, nature, people, their way of life. These observations were then embodied in the third song of Childe Harold. This song reflected his travel experiences, he was forced to leave his homeland and go to Switzerland. Here he reflects on the Battle of Waterloo and the defeat of Napoleon.
From the battle of Waterloo, the poet looks at the majestic nature, but does not cease to reflect on how wars at all times have destroyed both natural and man-made beauty. Thoughts of war reappear when the lyrical hero in Switzerland compares with the Waterloo the battle for the independence of the city of Morata in the 15th century: “There won the battle not tyrants, / Liberty, and Citizenship, and the Law.” Only such goals can justify wars in Byron’s eyes.
The nature of Switzerland leads the poet to the idea that Man is a part of Nature, and in this unity the joy of life: “Blessed is whose life with nature is one… / I’m not locked in there. / There I am a part of Nature, its creation.” Developing this idea, Byron glorifies Rousseau, an enlightener who promoted the connection between man and nature, proclaiming the ideas of equality and freedom of people. He also recalls another thinker, who prepared the minds for the revolution, Voltaire, whose “mind on the foundation of doubts / Dared to create a rebellious idea of the temple.”
In the third song, a reflection of Byron’s thought about the events that worried the whole world then is found. In a free, laid-back narrative, hymns to nature, laconic and accurate characteristics of historical figures, a genre scene depicting the ball before the Battle of Waterloo are woven.
The fourth song of the “Childe Harold Pilgrimage” was written in Italy and published in 1818. Italy became for Byron a country in which many of its creative and life plans were embodied in reality. There he found a personal happiness, meeting with Teresa Guiccioli.
In the fourth song, the most voluminous poem, the poet seeks to give a whole and diverse image of the country, which in fact became his second homeland. With all the love for Italy, admiration for its historical past and high artistic culture, Byron looks at it with the eyes of a man who does not forget his own country and his people. AND; “while the language of Britain sounds,” he believes that she will live in his memory.
Italy in the image of Byron is a country that can not be foreign to other peoples. “Italy, peoples must stand up / For your honor, quarrels sweeping away…”, he exclaims with conviction. But the Italians themselves are encouraged by the poet to fight and remember examples from the heroic history of his country, not to forget her great sons. Turning to Venice, he recalls the “thousand-year freedom” – the poet can not see it resigned to the loss of independence, because only in the struggle “the soul of the people is ripening and growing.” In Ferarre, the lyrical hero recalls Torquato Tasso, an outstanding poet, who was declared insane by order of the duke and kept in custody for seven years. The name of the Duke would have been long forgotten, Byron writes, if his atrocities “did not entwine the poet’s fate.” Poets, thinkers and heroes of Italy are dear to everyone, Byron calls Florence – the birthplace of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio – “an ungrateful city,” because there they “do not even have busts.” Rome was “the land of his dreams,” and he devoted a lot of stanzas. Through monuments, ruins, the poet’s sight tends to penetrate into the depths of centuries, to revive in his imagination the long-gone times.
The fourth song is filled with descriptions of the sights of Italy, but it shows how the poet seeks to overcome the romantic idea of the historical experience of mankind and, restraining his fantasy so as not to go into abstract reasoning, often amazes the foresight of the future. In stanzas dedicated to the French Revolution, Byron expresses the hope that in the future “the sown seeds… will not give a bitter fruit”.
As well as in the previous songs, the poet enthusiastically sings the nature: unforgettably the description of the sea in the finale, a picture conveying the beauty of Velino waterfall. According to Byron, it is nature that enables man to come into contact with eternity. Eternity in the mind of the poet is a category unchanged. Time is fleeting, it is in motion. The running of time often plunges the poet into despondency and sadness, but with him he connects and hopes that those who slander him will be exposed, because only Time is “the judgments of the false faithful ruler.”
The poem “Childe Harold’s pilgrimage” was completed. She absorbed the life experience of Byron from his youth to the beginning of the most fruitful period of creativity.
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Ideas for Reports and Papers
1. Compare Dracula with its film adaptation or with later vampire literature. How are these later works influenced by the novel?
2. Compare Dracula with earlier vampire literature, such as the novella Carmilla by Sheridan LeFanu. Does Stoker seem to have been influenced directly by one or more of these works?
3. Analyze the character of Lucy and her importance in the novel. Look especially at the vampire role as associate of both the good and evil characters.
4. Compare Lucy and Mina, the only two major female characters in the novel. Although they are friends, they are quite different, and Stoker clearly intends his readers to admire Mina more than Lucy.
5. Analyze the characters who make up Van Helsing’s band. What does each contribute to the group? Could any one of them alone have defeated Dracula?
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Tour Scotland
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Scotland Becomes Feudal
The result of the domestic policy of David was to bring all accessible territory under the social and political system of western Europe, “the Feudal System.” Its principles had been perfectly familiar to Celtic Scotland, but had rested on a body of traditional customs, as in Homeric Greece, rather than on written laws and charters signed and sealed. Among the Celts the local tribe had been, theoretically, the sole source of property in land. In proportion as they were near of kin to the recognised tribal chief, families held lands by a tenure of three generations; but if they managed to acquire abundance of oxen, which they let out to poorer men for rents in kind and labour, they were apt to turn the lands which they held only temporarily, “in possession,” into real permanent property. The poorer tribesmen paid rent in labour or “services,” also in supplies of food and manure.
In the feudal system of western Europe these old traditional customs had long been modified and stereotyped by written charters. The King gave gifts of land to his kinsmen or officers, who were bound to be “faithful” (fideles); in return the inferior did homage, while he received protection. From grade to grade of rank and wealth each inferior did homage to and received protection from his superior, who was also his judge. In this process, what had been the Celtic tribe became the new “thanage”; the Celtic king (righ) of the tribe became the thane; the province or group of tribes (say Moray) became the earldom; the Celtic Mormaer of the province became the earl; and the Crown appointed vice-comites, sub-earls, that is sheriffs, who administered the King’s justice in the earldom.
But there were regions, notably the west Highlands and isles, where the new system penetrated slowly and with difficulty through a mountainous and almost townless land. The law, and written leases, “came slowly up that way.”
Under David, where his rule extended, society was divided broadly into three classes; Nobles, Free, Unfree. All holders of “a Knight’s fee,” or part of one, holding by free service, hereditarily, and by charter, constituted the communitas of the realm, we are to hear of the communitas later, and were free, noble, or gentle, men of coat armour. The “ignoble,” “not noble,” men with no charter from the Crown, or Earl, Thane, or Church, were, if lease-holders, though not “noble,” still “free.” Beneath them were the “unfree” nativi, sold or given with the soil.
The old Celtic landholders were not expropriated, as a rule, except where Celtic risings, in Galloway and Moray, were put down, and the lands were left in the King’s hands. Often, when we find territorial surnames of families, “de” “of” this place or that, the lords are really of Celtic blood with Celtic names; disguised under territorial titles; and finally disused. But in Galloway and Ayrshire the ruling Celtic name, Kennedy, remains Celtic, while the true Highlands of the west and northwest retained their native magnates. Thus the Anglicisation, except in very rebellious regions, was gradual. There was much less expropriation of the Celt than disguising of the Celt under new family names and regulation of the Celt under written charters and leases.
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Monday, 1 November 2010
Late in Henry’s reign, shell castles , or shell-keeps, appeared. High walls, sometimes 36 feet high, formed an outer shell on the top of the motte, sometimes in circular shape, sometimes polygonal. They enclosed the area at the top of the motte, but were not roofed.
Sometimes the motte was not stable enough to supposrt the weight of a keep and the walls, and in such a case, the walls were deemed more important than the keep. A flight of steps led up from the inner bailey to the shell-keep. Domestic buildings, roofed and built in the normal way, leant against the shell wall on both left and right, leaving a courtyard or garden in the centre space.
At Harbottle, the gatehouse defended the entrance to the inner bailey and therefore access to the shell keep. Towers strengthened the curtain wall, and the gatehouse was a twin-towered affair with a central passage over the actual gate and living accomodation above.
The lord’s hall was often built in the bailey, allowing for a more spacious building than could be built in the shell keep. A garrison might be housed inside the shell walls. The pic shows what is left of the massive gatehouse that once stood at Harbottle.
Anonymous said...
Really appreciate what you're doing here!
Vicky said...
This history of castles is really fascinating, Jen! Thanks so much for your posts.
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Courtesy Reuters
The Three Moroccos
THE modern history of Morocco may be said to have begun in 1904 with the Anglo-French Agreement of that year. For some time previous the Moorish Empire had been breaking up. A strong Sultan, Mulai Hassen, had died in 1894 leaving as heir to his throne one of his younger sons, Mulai Abdul Aziz, a mere boy. For several years the power lay in the hands of the Grand Vizier and it was not till his death in 1901 that the young Sultan emerged from the precincts of the secluded palace to take over the reins of government. Well-intentioned, weak, misled, and shockingly robbed, Mulai Abdul Aziz was incapable of maintaining order over the turbulent tribes whom a long period of repression and extortion had rendered only too ready to revolt. His plight was not rendered any the happier by the fact that the two powers most interested at that period in Morocco--England and France--were united by no ties of friendship. France, intent upon rounding off her great possessions in North Africa, coveted the rich but almost unknown country that lay between the Algerian frontier and the Atlantic Ocean. England, desiring nothing for herself in Morocco--unless it was Tangier, which she knew could never be hers--was firmly determined to combat all France's schemes to obtain a preponderating influence in the country. Accordingly the British Government strongly supported the young Sultan in resisting the constant French pressure. Germany and Spain, jealous of France's African possessions, gave England a moderate measure of support. But the bolstering up of the decaying Moorish Government could not save the situation. Tribal revolt, misgovernment, corruption, disturbances on the Algerian frontier and near the Spanish "Presidios" on the Mediterranean coast, indicated the end of Moorish independence. The British Government realized at length that no assistance that it was prepared to give--and the assistance had always been more in advice than in substance--could prolong for any but a very short period the life of the decaying empire.
There remained but one purpose
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Maria-Theresa of Austria, at the center of 18th century power
Ahead of International Women’s Day and on the occasion of the release of her book, Le Pouvoir au féminin, Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche l’impératrice-reine about Maria Theresa of Austria, Elisabeth Badinter tells us about the monarch and major female figure in European diplomacy. What makes Maria Theresa such an important figure in the history of powerful women?
What was the origin of women’s "unfitness" to rule?
The idea that women were incapable of ruling was connected to their supposedly "inferior" intellectual and physical condition. Considered more fragile, a woman’s primary function was to bear children, especially male heirs in the reigning families. That idea had its roots in the Bible - where God says to the man "by the sweat of your face you shall eat bread" and to the woman "in pain you shall bring forth children" - and in Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotelian philosophy, in which man represents mind and woman matter.
Without a grandson, the Habsburg emperor Leopold I amended the law of succession so that the daughters of his eldest son Joseph I would be allowed to reign. By that act, he authorised succession by females. His younger son, Charles VI, subsequently betrayed the pact by amending the Pragmatic Sanction to allow his own daughters to take precedence over his nieces. Although Maria Theresa was destined to reign by law, she was not prepared to rule in practice, because Charles VI still hoped to have a son. Maria Theresa was not brought up to rule, but received the education of a princess, instructed in the arts, languages, theology and ancient history. Although Charles VI wanted his eldest daughter to reign, he did not prepare her for the role.
In the eighteenth century, women became mathematicians, astronomers and physicists. Others played a leading role in intellectual and social life. Women began to enjoy these more prominent roles in several European countries, from England to Italy, via France. In Austria and Prussia, however, women still had a more traditional status. Furthermore, these new roles were the preserve of women from the privileged classes. Moreover, Émilie du Châtelet complained bitterly that only the domain of knowledge was open to women, not that of power.
Unlike her arch-enemy Frederick II of Prussia, the embodiment of virility, Maria Theresa had to combine masculinity and femininity, while playing her three roles of wife, mother and queen, sometimes at the cost of acute tension and failure. Her co-regency with her son Joseph illustrated for example the conflict between her roles as mother and monarch, as she wrote herself. "I adore him, although he torments me." When she signed the new alliance with France, against her husband’s wishes, the monarch conflicted with the wife and she put politics ahead of her personal feelings. Subsequently, she remained loyal to the reversal of alliances and worked fully to ensure their success despite the hostility she encountered around her. Her loyalty and reputation for honouring her word made her unusual in eighteenth-century diplomacy. Ultimately, she embodied Christian morality more than politics.
How did Maria Theresa of Austria consolidate her power?
Today, the German media refers affectionately to Angela Merkel as "Mutti" ("Mum"). Is that a legacy of the same personal diplomacy?
Angela Merkel does have the image of a mother in Germany. However, she does not have 16 children to manage and she places no importance on her physical appearance. By contrast, Maria Theresa of Austria was highly coquettish, at least until she was widowed. The German chancellor’s model is more one of gender neutrality. Today, women are practically forced to wear a neutral suit, as if the aim were to make their femininity invisible. Hillary Clinton and Theresa May are elegant, but no more than that. It is quite the opposite for the wives of powerful men, who are expected to be feminine, to embody the class or the beauty of the women of their countries, or to be perfect hostesses. Even today, femininity is not considered the mark of seriousness. Women have to fit into a masculine mould, since for millennia masculinity has embodied competence and seriousness. While Barack Obama could have the luxury of crying twice in public, it is embarrassing for a woman to give in to tears. But Maria Theresa could play the card of emotion and seduction.
Maria Theresa was crowned "king" of Hungary. What was the significance of that title?
You devote a sub-chapter to "women’s diplomacy". What was the role of those ambassadors behind the scenes?
When Maria Theresa came to power, she did not want women to be involved in politics. Several years later, however, she wrote to Count Rosenberg saying that she had no reason to deprive herself of women’s abilities if they were competent. Over the years, she forged political and friendly ties with women based on trust and complicity. Friends like Antonia of Bavaria rendered great services to the monarch. Entrusting women with diplomatic assignments was another of Maria Theresa’s innovations.
When researching your book, you drew on the notes and letters of ambassadors from the time. What is your assessment of that diplomatic work?
My answer today is different from the one I would have given a year ago. New rights are no longer at the top of the agenda. Instead we need to defend the rights we thought we had already secured. We need to pay careful attention to how things develop and hold onto the ground we have gained since the war. The situation in the world, and specifically in the United States and in Poland, stops us from campaigning for new rights. Abortion was already not available to all women in those countries. But even in France, slogans such as "abortion is child murder", which we hadn’t heard since the Veil Act (which legalised abortion in 1975), are coming back. I am worried. We cannot fight on several fronts at once. We have to focus our energy on what is most urgent. And it is vital to secure the rights we have already gained because, as Simone de Beauvoir and Benoîte Groult said, women’s rights can always be called into question for one reason or another.
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What is Olefin?
Read More
Olefin is a very common term used in organometallic compound chemistry. Let’s discuss the olefins meaning, olefins are generally called alkenes. These are the family of hydrocarbons that contain double bonds. Hydrocarbons are the compound made up of hydrogen and carbon. Alkenes or olefins are unsaturated hydrocarbons
Olefins Examples
The common olefins examples are propane, ethene, butene, and pentene. In the IUPAC naming system, the name of the olefins suffixes with the “ene”. Olefins are unstable compounds. The reactivity of the paraffin is lower than the olefins. Olefins due to low solubility react with various compounds.
What is an Olefinic Bond?
The olefinic bond is the type of bond present in the unsaturated hydrocarbon. These are unsaturated bonds or pi bonds (double bonds) present in the hydrocarbon. It is represented as >C=C<. The presence of an olefinic bond in the alkenes makes the compound insusceptible for movement or rotation. Therefore, these compounds do not show conformer isomers. These compounds do not undergo a substitution reaction.
Name and Formulae of Alkenes
Formula (CnH2n)
Olefin Structure
Few Examples Showing Olefin Structure Are Given Below
(Image to be added soon)
The above-shown compounds are olefin compounds as they all have double bonds. The general olefin chemical structure is represented as >C=C< (Carbon-carbon double bond). The unsaturated carbons in the olefins are sp2 hybridised.
Types of Olefins
1. Aliphatic olefins
2. Aromatic olefins
3. Cyclic olefins
Aliphatic Olefins - These are the compounds that do not participate in the resonance. It can be further divided into two parts: cyclic olefins and acyclic olefins. When these olefins exist in cyclic form these are called cyclic form and when they exist in an open-chain form these are called acyclic olefins.
Aromatic Olefins - these are the unsaturated compounds that exist in the ring form and the double bonds in them are arranged in an alternate manner. Due to such an arrangement, these compounds show resonance. The aromatic olefins are more stable than the aliphatic hydrocarbon due to the resonance energy. Aromatic olefins follow huckel's rule.
Monolefins and Diolefins - Monolefins contain single double bonds and diolefins contain two double bonds. Diolefins are more unsaturated than monolefins.
Properties of Olefins
Physical Properties of Olefins
• These compounds exist in solid, liquid, and gases form. The lower alkenes (ethene, propene, and butene) exist in the gas state, the next fourteen-member exist in the liquid phase, and the higher number of carbon olefins exist in the solid-state.
• Olefins are colourless compounds.
• Olefins are odourless compounds, except ethene.
• Olefins are generally insoluble in polar compounds like water.
• Olefins are soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene.
• The boiling point of the olefins depends on the number of a carbon atom. It increases with the increase in the number of a carbon atom. The boiling point of the olefins is inversely proportional to the surface area of the compound. Therefore, the boiling point of the branched olefins is lower than that of straight-chain olefin compounds.
• The melting point of the olefins depends on the position of the double bond. The melting point of the cis olefin isomer is lower than that of the trans olefin isomer.
• These are the non-polar compounds.
Chemical Properties of the Olefins
Alkenes undergo an additional reaction.
1. Hydrogenation Reaction - Alkenes (olefins) undergoes a hydrogenation reaction in the presence of palladium or platinum.
2. Halogenation Reaction - Alkenes gives a halogenation reaction in the presence of bromine or chlorine.
(Image to be added soon)
1. Hydration Reaction - alkenes undergo a hydration reaction in the presence of water and form alcohol.
(Image to be added soon)
1. Alkenes or olefins undergo combustion reaction.
2. Olefins decolourise the bromine water.
3. Olefins have the ability to undergo polymerisation reactions.
4. Olefins give Markovnikov reactions and anti-Markovnikov reactions.
Olefin Chemical Formula
The olefins are generally known as alkenes. The olefin formula is CnH2n. The carbon at the double bond position is sp2 hybridised. The double bond present in the olefins acts as a functional group.
Did You Know?
• Olefins can be prepared by the cracking of alkanes.
• Dehydration of alcohols leads to the formation of alkenes.
• The pi bonds present in the olefins are loosely held together.
• The most common reaction given by olefins is an ozonolysis reaction. It is a type of oxidation reaction in the presence of ozone and water. Aldehydes, ketones, and acids are formed as a product in this reaction.
FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)
1. Name some reagents with which the olefins give a reaction.
Olefins can react with bromine or chlorine, potassium manganate, hydrogen, hydrogen halide, and steam.
2. Why are there no olefins that can be formed with only one carbon atom?
Olefins are the unsaturated compound, which means they contain carbon-carbon double bonds. So for the formation of a double bond we need at least two carbons. Therefore, no single carbon olefins exist.
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Rallies Along The Rails
Harry S. Truman campaigns from the platform of a private railcar in 1948. Photo: US National Archives
Origin of the Whistlestop Campaign
In 1836, William Henry Harrison became the first presidential candidate to give speeches from the back of a train. However, it was Theodore Roosevelt who, over six decades later, launched the practice that would become known as the whistlestop campaign. Roosevelt’s high-energy succession of rapid-fire, trackside rallies reached deep into America’s heartland and fundamentally changed the way candidates interact with the electorate.
The term ‘whistlestop’ was borrowed from the railroads’ practice of signaling stops at small, occasionally used railway stations. Incoming trains announced their approach with a blast of the steam whistle. If passengers, mail, or freight were waiting to be picked up, the depot master raised a tower signal alerting the engineer to stop. If no stop was necessary, a different signal told the engineer he could pass on through. Similarly, as presidential candidates criss-crossed the country by train, the engineer whistled his approach to the station, the candidate addressed crowds from the rear platform of a private railcar, and the train traveled on to the next town. The entire stop might last only ten to twenty minutes.
Before the whistlestop, many presidential candidates avoided travel altogether, choosing to woo voters at home over the proverbial chicken dinner or to deliver speeches from their front porch. In 1888, Benjamin Harrison campaigned from his residence in Indianapolis. In 1896, William McKinley’s orations from his front porch in Canton, Ohio, drew crowds that aggregated some 700,000 over the duration of the campaign. This form of low-key persuasion was considered dignified, and it was left to surrogates to fan out around the country spreading the candidate’s message.
Theodore Roosevelt - 1900
In 1900, McKinley again chose to wage a front-porch campaign. However, his running mate, Theodore Roosevelt, took to the rails in a populist bid to connect directly with voters in small towns throughout rural America. In one of the most famous political campaigns in U.S. history, Roosevelt embarked on a whirlwind crusade that encompassed 480 stops in 23 states. Everywhere he went, Roosevelt was met by admiring throngs of hundreds, thousands, and even tens of thousands of citizens eager to see and hear a candidate for national office. The grueling schedule paid off. Eighteen of the states he toured gave a plurality of votes to the McKinley-Roosevelt ticket, a gain of five states for the Republicans over 1896.
Since that first whistlestop campaign, every U.S. president except William G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Donald Trump has used the private railcar tour to connect with voters in small-town America. The interaction between candidates and the electorate has continued to evolve through the decades, yet despite the advent of large rallies, televised debates, and social media messaging, the allure and romance of the legendary whistlestop continues to entice presidential candidates to hold rallies along the rails.
Truman's 1948 Whistlestop Campaign
Harry S. Truman’s 1948 whistlestop campaign saved his presidency.
Elected in November 1944 as Vice President in Franklin Roosevelt’s administration, Truman had served a mere 82 days in office when Roosevelt died of a massive stroke. As he took the presidential oath of office in April 1945, Truman faced monumental challenges abroad: rebuilding postwar Europe, ending the war in the Pacific, curbing the spread of Communism, and the emergence of a Cold War. On the home front, the nation was struggling to transition to a peacetime economy. Labor disputes, inflation, shortages of consumer goods, and a national railroad strike headlined the list of domestic woes.
To make matters worse, Truman had difficulty getting his message across. His personality was less charismatic and his speech-making style less polished than his predecessor and his political rivals. By June 1948, his popularity had dropped from 80 to 35 precent. Truman’s opponent, New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, was considered such a shoo-in that the pollsters stopped polling. Truman’s chances of reelection looked bleak.
In a risky strategic gamble, the pint-sized, plucky haberdasher from Missouri resolved to appeal directly to the American people in a whistlestop tour. The campaign took place over the summer and fall of 1948 and consisted of three legs: a cross-country trip to California, a six-day sprint through the Midwest, and a ten-day run through the large population centers of the Northeast.
As he made his way through town after town, Truman relentlessly attacked the Republican Congress as “do nothing” and uninterested in “…the welfare of the common, everyday man.” He tailored his speeches to each community, using local references and mentioning hometown events. Crowds turned out to see him at all hours. In the days before television, it was a rare opportunity for rural Americans to see a famous dignitary in person.
Face-to-face with ordinary Americans, Truman was more confident and relaxed. His off-the-cuff, energetic style played well in the heartland. He understood their needs, and his homey, wise-cracking tone spoke their language. Speaking from the rear platform of a private railcar, communication with the assembled crowds was immediate and direct. If during a speech someone yelled at him, Truman answered back. People began calling him by his first name, and
“Give ‘em hell, Harry!” became the battle cry of his uphill campaign battle.
“Everyone in town and others from the surrounding area came to see
the man who thought we were important enough to address.”
Marilyn Harlan
Pacific Junction, Iowa
Population 500
Truman barnstormed the country nearly to election day. He traveled 31,000 miles and made 352 speeches, many of them to voters in cities and towns most Americans had never heard of. When he returned home to Missouri on October 31st, he was still behind in the polls. In a final appeal to the electorate Truman wrote, “From the bottom of my heart I thank the people of the United States for their cordiality to me and their interest in the affairs of this great nation and of the world. I trust the people, because when they know the facts, they do the right thing . . .”
An incorrect banner headline appeared on the front page of the Chicago Daily Tribune (later Chicago Tribune) on November 3, 1948.
The election results were a stunner. Truman carried 28 states, winning 24,105,812 votes or 49.6 percent of the popular vote to Dewey’s 21,970,065 or 45.1 percent. Truman’s come-from-behind, whistle-stop tour was an unexpected success. The four-month marathon on the rails energized his underdog campaign and pushed a struggling president to a second term.
Click on selected cities in the box at right to see images and hear speeches
from Truman’s 1948 Midwest campaign tour.
1. Cincinnati, OH
2. Hamilton, OH
3. Dayton, OH
4. Sidney, OH
5. Lima, OH
6. Ottawa, OH
7. Deshler, OH
8. Fostoria, OH
9. Willard, OH
10. Rittman, OH
11. Akron, OH
12. Richmond, IN
13. Greenfield, IN
14. Crawfordsville, IN
15. Danville, IL
16. Tolono, IL
17. Decatur, IL
18. Springfield, IL
19. Adams, WI
20. Altoona, WI
21. Spooner, WI
22. Superior, WI
23. Duluth, MN
24. St. Paul, MN
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Barrett Branch Library
Historical Significance
In August 1939 - more than 20 years before the sit-in at a Greensboro, N.C., lunch counter thrust the Civil Rights movement into the spotlight - five young black men held a sit-in at the whites-only public library at 717 Queen Street in Alexandria. One by one, the well-dressed men entered the library and politely requested library cards. They were each refused. They sat down and began to read. The librarian called the police, who arrested the men for trespassing and charged them with disorderly conduct.
The protest was organized by African-American attorney Samuel W. Tucker, who was born in Alexandria in 1913. Tucker sued the city, and a local judge found that no regulation limited the library's use to whites. Rather than open the library to blacks, however, the city hastily built a separate library for blacks in the Parker-Gray neighborhood. Angered at the continued injustice, Tucker refused to accept a library card. The black community slowly accepted the Robert Robinson Library, however, despite its shorter hours and cast-off books. The 1939 sit-in has been chronicled in a documentary called "Out of Obscurity," available at Alexandria libraries.
Tucker went on to win groundbreaking civil rights cases across the state. He served as the lead lawyer in Virginia for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (N.A.A.C.P) in many school desegregation cases, and was a founding partner in the prominent Richmond law firm Hill, Tucker and Marsh. Tucker died in 1990. Ten years later, a new elementary school in western Alexandria was officially dedicated as the Samuel W. Tucker Elementary School.
The Barrett Branch Library (part of the Alexandria Library system) was built in 1937 and named in honor of Kate Waller Barrett, a humanitarian, social crusader and political reformer. The library was not integrated until the 1950s. The building at Alfred and Wythe streets that housed the city's black library, the Robert Robinson Library, is now part of the Alexandria Black History Museum.
Physical Description
Constructed on top of the Quaker burial ground, the 1937 Alexandria Library has been modified several times. The most recent improvement resulted in the archaeological recovery of 66 burials and the identification of nearly 100 more graves. The 1995 addition capped the burial ground and preserved the unexcavated graves. The individuals and artifacts which were excavated were reinterred in the front plaza of the library. The Alexandria Monthly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends owns the burial ground and lot, while the city leases the land for use as a library. The new library contains special collections which include many archival sources for studying black history and genealogy.
Geographical and Contact Information
717 Queen St.
Alexandria, Virginia
Phone: 703-838-4555
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Provider: JSTOR Database: JSTOR Content: text/plain; charset="us-ascii" TY - CHAP TI - Liguria A2 - HALLER, HERMANN W. AB -
Throughout the Middle Ages, Liguria was a plurilingual region, in which Latin and particularly Provengal tended to prevail as literary languages over the Genoese vernacular. The proximity to Provence, and to a certain extent the linguistic similarity between Provencal and the Gallo-Italic dialects, explain perhaps why Raimbaut de VaqueirasʹsContrasto bilingue(in Provençal and Genoese) and theDiscorso plurilinguewere among the very first Italo-Romance literary texts, followed soon by the Genoese rhymes ofLʹAnonimo Genovese, whose name may have been Loreto according to a recent edition. Only in the fourteenth century did the Genoese vernacular gain more prestige, while
EP - 103 PB - University of Toronto Press PY - 1999 SN - 9780802044242 SP - 94 T2 - The Other Italy T3 - The Literary Canon in Dialect UR - Y2 - 2021/05/14/ ER -
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Rhyme Desk
Find rhyming words!
Definition of "Bound" :
noun: a light, self-propelled movement upwards or forwards
noun: the greatest possible degree of something
"What he did was beyond the bounds of acceptable behavior."
noun: a line determining the limits of an area
verb: place limits on (extent or amount or access)
verb: spring back; spring away from an impact
verb: move forward by leaps and bounds
"The horse bounded across the meadow."
verb: form the boundary of; be contiguous to
adjective: confined by bonds
"Bound and gagged hostages."
"Bound volumes."
adjective: (usually followed by to') governed by fate
"Bound to happen."
adjective: confined in the bowels
"He is bound in the belly."
adjective: bound by contract
adjective: headed or intending to head in a certain direction; often used as a combining form as in college-bound students'
"Children bound for school."
adjective: covered or wrapped with a bandage
"An injury bound in fresh gauze."
adjective: bound by an oath
"A bound official."
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Chaparral Explained
Chaparral is a shrubland or heathland plant community found primarily in the US state of California and in the northern portion of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico. It is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers) and wildfire, featuring summer-drought-tolerant plants with hard sclerophyllous evergreen leaves, as contrasted with the associated soft-leaved, drought-deciduous, scrub community of coastal sage scrub, found below the chaparral biome. Chaparral covers 5% of the state of California and associated Mediterranean shrubland an additional 3.5%.[1] The name comes from the Portuguese and Spanish word Spanish; Castilian: chaparro (from the Basque word Basque: txaparro), for evergreen oak shrubland.
In its natural state, chaparral is characterized by infrequent fires, with intervals ranging between 30-50+ years. The fires are high intensity and stand-replacing. Recent human activity has increased fire frequency. The shoots of the Chaparral plants do not have thick bark, therefore, they are not very resistant; however, the vegetative recovery is resilient (with long fire-free periods) because its regeneration is rapid from dormant seed banks and root-crowns.
There are two kinds of Chaparral plant species:
Because sprouters can respond with more rapid growth than seeders, they tend to dominate the early years after a fire. If fires become frequent (<10 years), seeders cannot reach reproductive size before the next fire. System shifts to sprouter-dominance. If fire become even more frequent (< 5 years), sprouters exhaust their below- ground reserves and there will be a conversion to a non-chaparral (grassland) biome.
Mature chaparral (stands that have survived for greater intervals between fires) is characterized by nearly impenetrable, dense thickets (except the more open chaparral of the desert). These plants are highly flammable during the late summer and autumn months when conditions are characteristically hot and dry. They grow as woody shrubs with thick, leathery, and often small leaves, contain green leaves all year (are evergreen), and are typically drought resistant (with some exceptions[2]). After the first rains following a fire, the landscape is dominated by small flowering herbaceous plants, known as fire followers, which die back with the summer dry period.
Similar plant communities are found in the four other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the Mediterranean Basin (where it is known as maquis), central Chile (where it is called matorral), the South African Cape Region (known there as fynbos), and in Western and Southern Australia (as kwongan). According to the California Academy of Sciences, Mediterranean shrubland contains more than 20 percent of the world's plant diversity. The word chaparral is a loan word from Spanish Spanish; Castilian: chaparro, meaning both "small" and "dwarf" evergreen oak (typically holm oak and kermes oak species), which itself comes from a Basque word, Basque: txapar, that has the same meaning.
Conservation International and other conservation organizations consider chaparral to be a biodiversity hotspot[3] – a biological community with a large number of different species – that is under threat by human activity.
California chaparral
California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion
See main article: California chaparral and woodlands. The California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome, has three sub-ecoregions with ecosystemplant community subdivisions:
Chaparral and woodlands biota
California cismontane and transmontane chaparral subdivisions
Another phytogeography system uses two California chaparral and woodlands subdivisions: the cismontane chaparral and the transmontane (desert) chaparral.
California cismontane chaparral
Cismontane chaparral ("this side of the mountain") refers to the chaparral ecosystem in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome in California, growing on the western (and coastal) sides of large mountain range systems, such as the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the San Joaquin Valley foothills, western slopes of the Peninsular Ranges and California Coast Ranges, and south-southwest slopes of the Transverse Ranges in the Central Coast and Southern California regions.
Cismontane chaparral plant species
Cismontane chaparral bird species
The complex ecology of chaparral habitats supports a very large number of animal species. The following is a short list of birds which are an integral part of the cismontane chaparral ecosystems.
Species essential to the health of the ecosystem include:
Very common inhabitant species include:
California transmontane (desert) chaparral
Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparraltransmontane ("the other side of the mountain") chaparral—refers to the desert shrubland habitat and chaparral plant community growing in the rainshadow of these ranges. Transmontane chaparral features xeric desert climate, not Mediterranean climate habitats, and is also referred to as desert chaparral.[4] [5] Desert chaparral is a regional ecosystem subset of the deserts and xeric shrublands biome, with some plant species from the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion. Unlike cismontane chaparral, which forms dense, impenetrable stands of plants, desert chaparral is open, with only about 50 percent of the ground covered. Individual shrubs can reach up to 10feet in height.
Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparral is found on the eastern slopes of major mountain range systems on the western sides of the deserts of California. The mountain systems include the southeastern Transverse Ranges (the San Bernardino and San Gabriel Mountains) in the Mojave Desert north and northeast of the Los Angeles basin and Inland Empire; and the northern Peninsular Ranges (San Jacinto, Santa Rosa, and Laguna Mountains), which separate the Colorado Desert (western Sonoran Desert) from lower coastal Southern California.[6] It is distinguished from the cismontane chaparral found on the coastal side of the mountains, which experiences higher winter rainfall. Naturally, desert chaparral experiences less winter rainfall than cismontane chaparral. Plants in this community are characterized by small, hard (sclerophyllic) evergreen (non-deciduous) leaves. Desert chaparral grows above California's desert cactus scrub plant community and below the pinyon-juniper woodland. It is further distinguished from the deciduous sub-alpine scrub above the pinyon-juniper woodlands on the same side of the Peninsular ranges.
Transmontane chaparral distribution
Transmontane (desert) chaparral typically grows on the lower (3500feet–4500feetft (–ft) elevation) northern slopes of the southern Transverse Ranges (running east to west in San Bernardino and Los Angeles counties) and on the lower (2500feet–3500feetft (–ft)) eastern slopes of the Peninsular Ranges (running south to north from lower Baja California to Riverside and Orange counties and the Transverse Ranges).[7] It can also be found in higher-elevation sky islands in the interior of the deserts, such as in the upper New York Mountains within the Mojave National Preserve in the Mojave Desert.
The California transmontane (desert) chaparral is found in the rain shadow deserts of the following:
Transmontane chaparral plants
Transmontane chaparral animals
There is overlap of animals with those of the adjacent desert and pinyon-juniper communities.[8]
Chaparral is a coastal biome with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The Chaparral area receives about 38cm–100cmcm (15inches–00inchescm) of precipitation a year. This makes the chaparral most vulnerable to fire in the late summer and fall.
The chaparral ecosystem as a whole is adapted to be able to recover from infrequent wildfires (fires occurring a minimum of 15 years apart); indeed, chaparral regions are known culturally and historically for their impressive fires. (This does create a conflict with human development adjacent to and expanding into chaparral systems.) Additionally, Native Americans burned chaparral to promote grasslands for textiles and food.[9] Before a major fire, typical chaparral plant communities are dominated by manzanita, chamise (also called greasewood; Adenostoma fasciculatum) and Ceanothus species, toyon (which can sometimes be interspersed with scrub oaks), and other drought-resistant shrubs with hard (sclerophyllous) leaves; these plants resprout (see resprouter) from underground burls after a fire. The shoots of these plants are, however, not resistant to chaparral crown-fire regimes as the bark is simply not thick enough. Plants that are long-lived in the seed bank or serotenous with induced germination after fire include chamise, Ceanothus, and fiddleneck. Some chaparral plant communities may grow so dense and tall that it becomes difficult for large animals and humans to penetrate, but may be teeming with smaller fauna in the understory. Many chaparral plant species require some fire cue (heat, smoke, or charred wood, and chemical changes in the soil following fires) for germination. Others, such as annual and herbaceous species like Phacelia require fires to allow sunlight to reach them, and are known as fire followers.[10] During the time shortly after a fire, chaparral communities may contain soft-leaved herbaceuous annual plants that dominate the community for the first few years – until the burl resprouts and seedlings of chaparral perennials create an overstory, blocking the sunlight from other plants in the community. When the overstory regrows, seeds of annuals and smaller plants may lie dormant until the next fire creates the conditions required for germination. Mid-sized plants such as Ceonothus fix nitrogen, while others cannot, which, together with the need for exposure to the sun, creates a symbiotic relationship of the entire community with infrequent fires.
Because of the hot, dry conditions that exist in the California summer and fall, chaparral is one of the most fire-prone plant communities in North America. Some fires are caused by lightning, but these are usually during periods of high humidity and low winds and are easily controlled. Nearly all of the very large wildfires are caused by human activity during periods of very hot, dry easterly Santa Ana winds. These man-made fires are commonly caused by power line failures, vehicle fires and collisions, sparks from machinery, arson, or campfires. In natural Chaparral communities without human interference, the fires are ignition-prone as there are plenty of ground fuels and the temperatures are fire-permitting during the dry season.
Though adapted to infrequent fires, chaparral plant communities can be exterminated by frequent fires. A moderate frequency of fire (less than ten years) will result in the loss of seeder plants such as Manzanita spp. This moderate frequency disallows seeder plants to reach their reproductive size before the next fire and the community shifts to a sprouter-dominance. High frequency fires (less than five years) can cause the additional loss of sprouters by exhausting their reserves below-ground. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from a native shrubland to non-native annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under drought brought about by climate change.[11] [12]
Wildfire debate
There are two assumptions relating to California chaparral fire regimes that appear to have caused considerable debate, and sometimes confusion and controversy, within the fields of wildfire ecology and land management.
1. That older stands of chaparral become "senescent" or "decadent", thus implying that fire is necessary for the plants to remain healthy,[13]
2. That wildfire suppression policies have allowed dead chaparral to accumulate unnaturally, creating ample fuel for large fires.[14]
The perspective that older chaparral is unhealthy or unproductive may have originated during the 1940s when studies were conducted measuring the amount of forage available to deer populations in chaparral stands. However, according to recent studies, California chaparral is extraordinarily resilient to very long periods without fire[15] and continues to maintain productive growth throughout pre-fire conditions.[16] [17] Seeds of many chaparral plants actually require 30 years or more worth of accumulated leaf litter before they will successfully germinate (e.g., scrub oak, Quercus berberidifolia; toyon, Heteromeles arbutifolia; and holly-leafed cherry, Prunus ilicifolia). When intervals between fires drop below 10 to 15 years, many chaparral species are eliminated and the system is typically replaced by non-native, invasive, weedy grassland.[18] [19] [20]
The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires was originally proposed in the 1980s by comparing wildfires in Baja California and southern California . It was suggested that fire suppression activities in southern California allowed more fuel to accumulate, which in turn led to larger fires (in Baja, fires often burn without active suppression efforts). This is similar to the argument that fire suppression in western United States has allowed ponderosa pine forests to become "overstocked". In the past, surface fires burned through these forests at intervals of anywhere between 4 and 36 years, clearing out the understory and creating a more ecologically balanced system. However, chaparral has a crown-fire regime, meaning that fires consume the entire system whenever they burn, with a historical frequency of 30 to 50 years. In one study, a detailed analysis of historical fire data concluded that fire suppression activities have been ineffective at excluding fire from southern California chaparral, unlike in ponderosa pine forests.[15] In addition, the number of fires is increasing in step with population growth. Chaparral stand age does not have a significant correlation to its tendency to burn.[21] Low humidity, low fuel moisture, and high winds appear to be the primary factors in determining when and where a chaparral fire occurs and how large it becomes. Fires can be beneficial to plant communities by clearing away canopies of litter, inducing serotenous germination, and sanitizing the soils from pathogens.
See also
External links
Notes and References
1. Web site: Discovering Rainforest Locations . California Academy of Sciences .
2. Venturas. Martin D.. MacKinnon. Evan D.. Dario. Hannah L.. Jacobsen. Anna L.. Pratt. R. Brandon. Davis. Stephen D.. 2016-07-08. Chaparral Shrub Hydraulic Traits, Size, and Life History Types Relate to Species Mortality during California's Historic Drought of 2014. PLOS ONE. 11. 7. e0159145. 10.1371/journal.pone.0159145. 27391489. 4938587. 1932-6203.
3. Web site: The Biodiversity Hotspots_Conservation International . . dead . 2007-07-14 .
4. A Natural History of California, Allan A. Schoenerr, Figure 8.9 – 8.10, Table 8.2
5. County of San Diego Department of Planning and Land Use Multiple Species Conservation Program, Web site: Archived copy . 2010-09-14 . dead . . 2010-11-06 .
6. A Natural History of California, Allan A. Schoenherr, pp.8–9, 357, 327,
8. Book: Knowling, Doug. Ecological Restoration: Wildfire Ecology Reference Manual. 2016-10-10. 9781365453458. en.
9. Book: Fire, native peoples, and the natural landscape. 2002. Island Press. Vale, Thomas R., 1943-. 9781559638890. Washington, DC. 614708491.
10. Thanos. C. A.. Rundel. P. W.. 1995. Fire-Followers in Chaparral: Nitrogenous Compounds Trigger Seed Germination. Journal of Ecology. 83. 2. 207–216. 10.2307/2261559. 2261559.
11. Syphard. Alexandra D.. Radeloff. Volker C.. Keeley. Jon E.. Hawbaker. Todd J.. Clayton. Murray K.. Stewart. Susan I.. Hammer. Roger B.. 2007-07-01. Human Influence on California Fire Regimes. Ecological Applications. en. 17. 5. 1388–1402. 10.1890/06-1128.1. 17708216. 1939-5582.
12. Pratt. R. Brandon. Jacobsen. Anna L.. Ramirez. Aaron R.. Helms. Anjel M.. Traugh. Courtney A.. Tobin. Michael F.. Heffner. Marcus S.. Davis. Stephen D.. 2014-03-01. Mortality of resprouting chaparral shrubs after a fire and during a record drought: physiological mechanisms and demographic consequences. Global Change Biology. en. 20. 3. 893–907. 10.1111/gcb.12477. 24375846. 1365-2486.
13. Hanes. Ted L.. 1971-02-01. Succession after Fire in the Chaparral of Southern California. Ecological Monographs. en. 41. 1. 27–52. 10.2307/1942434. 1557-7015. 1942434.
14. Minnich. Richard A.. 1983-03-18. Fire Mosaics in Southern California and Northern Baja California. Science. en. 219. 4590. 1287–1294. 10.1126/science.219.4590.1287. 0036-8075. 17735593.
15. Keeley. Jon E.. Pfaff. Anne H.. Safford. Hugh D.. 2005-10-03. Fire suppression impacts on postfire recovery of Sierra Nevada chaparral shrublands*. International Journal of Wildland Fire. en. 14. 3. 255–265. 10.1071/wf05049. 1448-5516.
16. Book: Hubbard, R.F.. Stand Age and Growth Dynamics in Chamise Chaparral. Master's thesis, San Diego State University. 1986. San Diego.
17. Larigauderie. A.. Hubbard. T.W.. Kummerow. J.. 1990. Growth dynamics of two chaparral shrub species with time after fire. Madroño. 37. 225–236.
18. Keeley. Jon E.. 1995. 41425064. Madroño. 42. 2. 175–179. Future of California Floristics and Systematics: Wildfire Threats to the California Flora.
19. Haidinger. Tori L.. Keeley. Jon E.. 1993. Role of high fire frequency in destruction of mixed chaparral. Madroño. 40. 141–147.
20. Zedler. P.H.. 1995. Keeley. J.E.. Scott. T. Fire frequency in southern California shrublands: biological effects and management options. Brushfires in California Wildlands: Ecology and Resource Management. 101–112.
21. Moritz. Max A.. Keeley. Jon E.. Johnson. Edward A.. Schaffner. Andrew A.. 2004-03-01. Testing a basic assumption of shrubland fire management: how important is fuel age?. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. en. 2. 2. 67–72. 10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0067:tabaos];2. 1540-9309.
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The Forgotten Sámi
Who are the Sámi people and what challenges do they face as the European Union’s only indigenous group? This article dives into the political and legal dimensions the Sámi face in their effort to define and validate themselves as an individual group with their own history and culture, but simultaneously as a part of a changing international community and political climate.
Who are the Sámi people? When confronted with this question, our mind might jump into the stereotypical pictures of reindeers, snowy slopes and colourful indigenous costumes, but what remains void is the deep flourishing history, culture and skill set that has formed this diverse group of people. The Sámi are an indigenous Finno-Ugric people, inhabiting parts of Finland, Sweden, Norway and the Kola Peninsula in Russia. They also happen to be the only indignenous group in the EU, only now via the peak of modern visibility, starting to gain the needed attention to gain the rights and public platform belonging to them.
The political history of the Finnish Sámi offers an insight to a suppressed road, which finally led to the birth of the self-governed Sámi Parliament in 1996. Before the change in Finland’s constitution, providing the necessary conditions for this development, the Sámi representation was handled through the Sámi Delegation throughout 1973-1995, which was founded under a decree. The purpose of this change was to create a tool where the Sámi can genuinely manage their own ideally sovereign society in the North of Finland, but still remain as a part of a larger political totality. The way it works concretely is through the parliament of 21 members and 4 deputies, being their own supreme political body and a legal entity of public law, while working under the supervision and guidance of the Finnish Ministry of Justice. The dialogue and cooperation is supported through the possibility of making initiatives, statements to authorities and proposals over various topics.
Looking at the progress, one’s perception might be positively affected by the changes made, and for a valid reason. Not only is there currently a somewhat autonomous parliament, but there’s a significant amount of attention growing on other important aspects of equality and diversity with the Sámi people, through innovations and aims to level the playfield in language and educational dimensions for instance.The other side however remains as a looming dimension, as the official rights of the Sámi are strongly contingent on the Finnish government and the EU. This power positioning in itself provides a worrisome aspect of an uneven distribution of political forces and therefore opportunities.
A current example of this phenomena is the ILO 169- convention regarding the rights of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, and how it still remains to be fulfilled in Finland. The convention was on its way to being processed in 2014, but due to political and legal aspects, was cancelled in 2019, pending another possible process in the future. As it is on one hand understandable that circumstances tend to change in the often stormy political climate, is it on the other hand right for a long awaited validation of a minority group to be dismissed and postponed, yet again?
The convention is vital to the rights of indignenous groups, as it aims to the “Recognising the aspirations of these peoples to exercise control over their own institutions, ways of life and economic development and to maintain and develop their identities, languages and religions, within the framework of the States in which they live, and. Noting that in many parts of the world these peoples are unable to enjoy their fundamental human rights to the same degree as the rest of the population of the States within which they live, and that their laws, values, customs and perspectives have often been eroded. Calling attention to the distinctive contributions of indigenous and tribal peoples to the cultural diversity and social and ecological harmony of humankind and to international co-operation and understanding..”
These objectives hold important objectives, regarding also the internationality of indigeous groups. It is known, that the Sámi people have showed an interest in having a position in the European Union’s decision making, unable to yet secure a official position there and thus a chance to have a stance regarding issues relating directly to them, but also issues they’d have unique perspective and even a responsibility to address as a flourishing part of the union. Not so say there hasn’t been any efforts to include the Sámi, but instead of escalating, the efforts have stayed the same or even diminished as simultaneously the Sámi growingly pursue possibilities to enhance the situation.
Why is it so vital that we talk about the Sámi people? Not only are they the only indigenous group in the area of the European Union, but the way they are treated goes far to determine the nature of our democracy as well. How can a political entity define and value itself, if not through the way it treats others and especially those it holds a larger power over? These larger entities have a chance and as their values dictate a will, to pursue development and innovations. These dimensions however thrive only when they include as many diverse and unique groups as possible, especially these indigenous too often underrated ones, which hold a massive historical and cultural value in the European Union.
The EU’s fundamental values are respect for human dignity and human rights, democracy, freedom, equality and the rule of law. It is said that these values unite all the member states and no country that does not recognise these values can belong to the Union. These values are reflected in the member states, like Finland, and they are regularly evaluated through the given criteria. Finland has received remarks on their lacking behaviour regarding the Sámi, yet an example from the union itself as a strong includor, could be a groundbreaking and necessary step, in ensuring the continuity of these values and democracy and the validity this forgotten group by all measures deserves. As an encouraging fact, the EU has been successful in providing some international and intercultural projects such as the YES6-initiative with the Sámi so far, it remains to be seen if this fruitful cooperation would deepen in the future, providing both sides with a safe space and potential for learning and dialogue.
To briefly end this article, I’ll boldly use myself as an example of a product of the modern society and how it reflects within this theme, to gain a shared perspective on the challenges we have in recognizing indigenous groups as a part of our history and current day. The fact that I am writing this, as a person with a university degree and years of societal and political progress both scientifically as well as personally, and even after a thorough effort of collecting information for this article I still find myself with more questions than answers regarding this historical and significant group of the Sámi people. Is it the lack of education on the matter or in fact, the lack of simple interest deriving from unequal exposure in the media and other platforms?
Frankly, it could be considered as a failure of our society in equal representation and as a smear in the cape of democratic values us Europeans so proudly wrap ourselves in. However, not to make it too harsh and definite, a light can be found at the end of the tunnel, if we agree to step beyond our comfort zone and the often politically correct frames upon us and simply ask with the intention of listening, instead of assuming or fearing the weight of the possible guilt of not upholding the values promised before. History does not in fact define future action, but can work as a guide to the current sphere of societal and political change when considered as a learning experience, instead of a deprived and polarized situation of triumph or failure. The European Union and Finland with all their progress and ideals stand as a proof of the fact that it is never too late.
TEXT Amani Al-mehsen
PICTURE European Union, 2014, Source: EC – Audiovisual Service
The writer is a political sciences masters student from the University of Jyväskylä. Her special interests consist of crisis and conflicts studies, and the human rights perspective on an international political and humanitarian sphere.
Kategoriat: Arktinen alue, Artikkelit, Eurooppalainen identiteetti, Ihmisoikeudet, In English, Nostot, Pohjoismaat
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CBC Digital Archives CBC butterfly logo
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Lesson Plan:
For Teachers: Bombardier’s Opportunity in the Snow
Type: Introductory
Subjects: Social Studies, Business Studies
Duration: 1 lesson
Purpose: To identify the factors that led to the development and introduction of the snowmobile
Summary: In this introductory activity, students will explore the Bombardier Corporation and the history of the snowmobile in Canada.
Before Exploring
Students will work in groups of three or four to brainstorm and record what they know about various forms of transportation in Canada, noting seasonal and geographical variations across the country. Have each group share its ideas with the rest of the class.
Outline the Opportunity
Direct students to the topic Bombardier: The Snowmobile Legacy on the CBC Digital Archives website. Students will thoroughly review all elements of the clip 'The tireless inventor' and, in their original groups, outline the reasons and events that led to the development of the snowmobile. If time permits, students can browse the topic to find other pertinent information.
Revisit and Reflect
Gather the class and compile a master list of the details found by the groups. Ask: How has the snowmobile changed from its original form and purpose? Identify its transition from a means of transportation for a difficult climate to a recreational vehicle.
Students can explore additional clips on the website about how the snowmobile is used in different parts of Canada and for different purposes. They can work in pairs to discuss other inventions and products whose use has evolved from the original purpose.
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What is the Importance of Fume Hood Face Velocity?
The speed at which air is drawn into a fume hood is of great importance for the safe and effective operation of a fume hood. A speed that is too high or too low can compromise the performance of the fume hood, leaving those near the hood in danger. So why does this airspeed matter? What is so significant about face velocity measurements on a fume hood?Chemical Laboratory Fume Hood-605
What is a Fume Hood Face?
If we are going to talk about face velocity on a fume hood, we better know the important components of a fume hood, especially the fume hood’s face. The fume hood’s face is the imaginary plane between the bottom of the sash and the work surface. This is the opening in which air is pulled from the laboratory into the fume hood. It is the same opening that serves as the entry point for a worker’s hands to enter the work area. Across this imaginary plane is where fume hood face velocity is measured using an appropriate monitor or meter.
What is Fume Hood Face Velocity?
Face Velocity is a measurement of the speed at which air enters a fume hood’s face opening. It is generally recommended that a fume hood’s face velocity is between 0.3 m/s (60 fpm) and 0.5 m/s (100 fpm), however, it is best to check with local safety regulations before using a fume hood because variations exist by state and by use. Several governmental and industry organizations have adopted fume hood safety standards as it relates to face velocity. These standards are intended to measure the ability of a fume hood to contain fumes and are based on the speed at which air enters a fume hood’s face opening. The purpose behind such standards is that if face velocities on a fume hood are too high, air turbulence will occur between the fume hood’s face and a worker. And if face velocities are set too low, the hood will not be adequately exhausting dangerous fumes, vapors, gasses, dust, or the like, from the room.
Using Face Velocity for Fume Hood Testing
Although face velocity has been accepted as an adequate measure of a fume hood’s performance, it is not the be-all and end-all for fume hood performance standards. Many organizations (OSHA, NFPA, ANSI, SEFA, NIOSH, etc.) use face velocity as the only performance standard for fume hood testing, but by all means, this does not guarantee that the fume hood’s performance is optimal when it meets face velocity standards.
ASHRAE, The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, has created the ASHRAE 110-2016 Method of Testing Performance of Laboratory Fume Hoods. This process does not specify ranges for fume hood face velocities, but instead, it provides a more thorough protocol for fume hood performance testing. The three-part test includes:Fume Hood w/ Flammable Storage Cabinets
• Measurements of face velocity
• Air-flow visualization with digital collection
• Tracer gas containment
This process goes beyond strictly measuring the performance of a fume hood by its face velocity rating and also tests the fume hood’s ability to contain and exhaust fumes.
Air-Flow Collection
To measure air-flow visualization a smoke stream is created at various points in the fume hood work area. Then visually, one can see and understand the air flow currents that exist inside the fume hood. Although airflow is observed through sight, data is collected digitally for more exact results.
Tracer Gas Containment
The tracer gas containment test involves the release of gas inside the hood while a gas monitoring device is placed in the estimated breathing zone of a worker positioned near the fume hood. The device measures the presence of the tracer gas outside of the fume hood.
Face Velocity as the Only Test
Since face velocity is the only test required by most regulatory organizations, face velocity tests are often the only test performed on fume hoods. Even though other, more costly tests, can provide a better measurement of a fume hood’s effectiveness and its ability to contain hazardous substances.
Additionally, there are factors unique to each setting that have a significant impact on a fume hood’s ability to contain hazardous fumes. These factors include:
• Location of the fume hood in the laboratory setting
• Laboratory supply air location and distribution
• Amount of equipment stored within the fume hood
Although these factors may not affect the fume hood’s face velocity, they do impact the fume hoods ability to contain hazardous substances. Many fume hoods routinely meet face velocity requirements but are not able to pass air-flow and tracer gas tests.
Even if a fume hood’s face velocity is within safety recommendations by a local regulatory agency, it may not serve as a guarantee of complete containment. As with many situations, ensuring total safety is more complicated than a single test and actually requires the addressing of multiple issues. It is great to keep face velocity in mind when you purchase your next fume hood, but it is also good to keep in mind that measuring face velocity is not the only test you need when determining if your fume hood is providing a safe work environment.
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... is a sound often heard in saltmarshes. The bright red legs are the reason for the bird's name. The redshank is primarily found in areas near the coast.
Way of life
Redshanks are diurnal meadow birds. The birds find their food by probing their bills into the soil or by picking it from the ground. These slim waders move quickly on their red legs. During breeding season the redshank has small territories, which it defends against intruders. Outside the breeding season redshanks are sociable.
Redshanks are typical inhabitants of saltmarshes and wet meadows. Damp or wet areas with low vegetation and incomplete plant cover are important for them. Around their nests they prefer higher growth, which covers their clutch of eggs. Redshanks find their food in mud flats, shallow water and wet meadows. On inland meadows redshank families favour unmown areas near the edges of ditches.
The redshank's year
Redshanks colonise their breeding areas from March onwards. From mid April they start breeding. The first chicks hatch in early May. For 5-6 weeks the young birds are led by the parents to places with short vegetation and plenty of food. In June and July they leave their breeding areas. Redshanks are medium to long distance migrants and spend the winter mainly on the Atlantic coast of France and Great Britain. If weather conditions are favourable, the birds spend the winter in the Wadden Sea.
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An analysis and a history of hammurabis code and hammurabi the first king to record the laws of his
Every city had a large number of resident aliens. Sale was the delivery of the purchase in the case of real estate symbolized by a staff, a key, or deed of conveyance in return for the purchase money, receipts being given for both.
Law Code of Hammurabi (1780 B.C.)
Men act from immediate and interested motives like these for which they have waged war, and the consequences come out of the forces which are set loose. An unwarranted seizure for debt was fined, as was the distraint of a working ox. They are ruthless robbers and murderers, but a guest in the tent is perfectly safe and entitled to their best hospitality.
Scheil in tome iv.
Online Library of Liberty
Every member of another group is a stranger; he may be admitted as a guest, in which case rights and security Edition: Water traffic on the Euphrates and canals was early very considerable. Family law Marriage Marriage retained the form of purchase, but was essentially a contract to be man and wife together.
Law Code of Hammurabi (1780 B.C.)
These cases are calculated to delight the hearts of the advocates of strenuosity. This was a form of apprenticeship, and it is not clear that the apprentice had any filial relation.
It is a very noteworthy feature that these people have no notion of rights. The Code itself was carefully and logically arranged and the order of its sections was conditioned by their subject-matter.
Online Library of Liberty
Their deed of agreement was drawn up in the temple by a notary public, and confirmed by an oath "by god and the king. Adoption Adoption was very common, especially where the father or mother was childless, or had seen all his children grow up and marry away.
Tribes also agree to take wives from each other. They cooperate in the struggle for existence, and the size of the group is fixed by the number who can work together to the greatest advantage under their mode of life.
Agreements, declarations and non-contentious cases were usually witnessed by one judge and twelve elders. A definite area was bound to find a bowman together with his linked pikeman who bore the shield for both and to furnish them with supplies for the campaign.
This was a form of apprenticeshipand it is not clear that the apprentice had any filial relation. In the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation the public general peace of the empire was introduced inbut the emperors never had the means to enforce it, and it did not exist until The codification of the law written in the Hammurabi code, is the oldest known code of law and it was adequate in all the sense.
As the house becomes larger and better the peace-taboo extends from the fireplace to the whole house and then to the yard or enclosure. Against outsiders it was meritorious to kill, plunder, practice blood revenge, and to steal women and slaves; but inside none of these things could be allowed because they would produce discord and weakness.
The rarity of any reference to him in contemporary documents makes further specification conjectural."The Code of Hammurabi, or the world's first written law code, the top image shows Hammurabi receiving the law code from the god Shamash, giving his laws legitimacy." "Code of Hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code of ancient.
The Hammurabi code was the first written codified set of laws in history as far as we know. The code was just to everyone in the empire being rich, poor or slave.
Code of Hammurabi
Share to. Hammurabi (also known as Khammurabi and Ammurapi, reigned BCE) was the sixth king of the Amorite First Dynasty of Babylon, assumed the throne from his father, Sin-Muballit, and expanded the kingdom to conquer all of ancient Mesopotamia.
One of the evident misinterpretations, talked about in this paper, occurred recognizing recorded record composed by ruler of Mesopotamia. Our course book, Arts and Culture, (p 98) presents Hammurabi's Code as a "Law Code" of King Hammurabi.
The Code of Hammurabi (also known as the Codex Hammurabi and Hammurabi's Code), created ca. B.C.E., is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia.
Hammurabis code Hammurabi was the King of Babylonia from about BC to BC Hammurabi is believed to be the sixth ruler of the Amorite Dynasty. Although he was a successful governmental and military leader, his name will always be known for his Codes of Law.
Hammurabi was the first Ki.
Rated 4/5 based on 16 review
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Some tropical crops contain cyanogenic glycosides, toxic substances that release hydrocyanic acid (HCN; also referred to as cyanide) when cells are crushed. Consuming these plants without cooking them can cause cyanide poisoning, with varying effects depending on cyanide levels and how long a person or animal has been eating that plant. Cassava roots and leaves contain cyanogenic glycosides, so people whose diets are heavily dependent on cassava are especially at risk. Traditional methods to process and detoxify cassava roots include fermentation, prolonged soaking and boiling. Chaya leaves also contain cyanogenic glycosides; it is best to cook chayaleaves before eating them, to boil off the HCN rather than ingesting it. To determine if a plant is safe to consume, either by humans or livestock, a simple cyanide screening test is very helpful. At the 2014 ECHO International Conference in Florida, Dr. Ray Smith provided ECHO with sample strips of Cyantesmopaper for screening plant material for HCN.
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How to make word banks about nature
Make topical word banks about nature, science, or geography that kids can use again and again when describing a place or writing reports and poems.
Disclosure: This article contains affiliate links for products we recommend.
word bank is a list of words related to a topic or theme. Kids collect subject-specific vocabulary, organize it in a word bank, and then use it to enhance their writing.
This activity will help students create any number of nature-themed portable word banks they can use again and again when describing a place or writing nature-centered reports and poems. Encourage them to make word banks about nature topics that interest them or that you’re studying about in science or geography.
Make a Portable Word Bank
For each word bank your child wants to make, you’ll need a manila file folder. On the folder tab, write the theme of that word bank, such as “Seasons.”
Some children will enjoy gluing related magazine pictures to the front of the folder (showing sun, clouds, snow, etc.). On the front of the file folder, write “Seasons” (or “Words about Seasons”) as the title.
• Younger children’s word banks can be pretty general, such as Seasons, Plants, Animals, or Ocean.
• Older kids may enjoy creating more specific word banks that go along with their studies, such as Land Forms, Weather, Trees, Mammals, or Tide Pools.
• Teens’ word banks should be the most specific, as they zero in on even more focused topics, such as Storms, Conifers, Woodland Mammals, or Mollusks.
As they discover or think of related vocabulary, they can write the words on the inside of the file folder. Some students find it helpful to make columns by category and add specific terms under each appropriate heading.
For instance, a word bank about seasons could have columns for Spring, Summer, Fall (or Autumn), and Winter, while a word bank about mammals might be categorized by Carnivore, Herbivore, and Omnivore.
Expand Your Word Bank
Word banks are cumulative, so encourage your kids to build them over time. They can grow their nature word banks in several ways.
1. Be General or Specific
Either make a fairly broad word bank (about biomes, for example), or create specific word banks about individual biomes such as Tundra or Desert.
A basic word list featuring bodies of water might expand into several separate word banks (like oceanspond habitats, or the Amazon). It’s always more meaningful to do this in conjunction with subjects you’re currently studying.
2. Commune with Nature
Visit a natural setting and collect nature words. Include plants, animals, and objects you can see. Listen for and jot down sounds of birds, water, and weather. Notice odors and fragrances that waft to your noses. Run your hands over surfaces and write down their textures.
3. Read About It
Collect brochures and pamphlets from nature centers, botanical gardens, visitor centers, aviary, or even your local nursery. Later, you can scour these resources for new words and add them to the word banks.
4. Forage Through Field Guides
Explore a field guide, nonfiction book, or nature website to find topical vocabulary words and terms about the subject.
5. Get Descriptive
Use a thesaurus to find interesting synonyms for common descriptive words like green, rough, or hot.
Write with Word Banks
Word banks make a great resource for students to draw from when they’re writing about a specific topic. Most students (younger and more reluctant writers in particular) can find it challenging to include specific details in their writing. Their new word banks will help them use precise and vivid vocabulary. And as a parent, you’ll be thrilled to see your kids using less-familiar words without constantly asking you how to spell them! This helps promote independent writing, especially in younger children.
Whether you store the word banks in an expandable file folder or punch holes and insert them in a binder, keep them handy so they’re accessible and, therefore, more likely to get used.
Pull out the word games for activities such as these:
• Preparing a science or nature report
• Describing a geological feature or phenomenon of nature
• Summarizing a field trip experience
• Writing stories that include descriptions of outdoor spaces, scenery, or weather
• Creating poetry (It’s fun, for example, to introduce onomatopoeia when discussing nature sounds like the “boom!” of thunder or the “crackle” of leaves. Invite your children to write their own individual poems, using their word bank as a resource.
• Writing vocabulary-rich sentences about a science or nature topic you’re learning about (perfect for younger learners)
How else do you use word banks?
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Lev Manovich
New Media: a User’s Guide
How Media Became New
On August 19, 1839, the Palace of the Institute in Paris was completely full with curious Parisians who came to hear the formal description of the new reproduction process invented by Louis Daguerre. Daguerre, already well-known for his Diorama, called the new process daguerreotype. According to a contemporary, "a few days later, opticians' shops were crowded with amateurs panting for daguerreotype apparatus, and everywhere cameras were trained on buildings. Everyone wanted to record the view from his window, and he was lucky who at first trial got a silhouette of roof tops against the sky." The media frenzy has begun. Within five months more than thirty different descriptions of the techniques were published all around the world: Barcelona, Edinburg, Halle, Naples, Philadelphia, Saint Petersburg, Stockholm. At first, daguerreotypes of architecture and landscapes dominated the public's imagination; two years later, after various technical improvements to the process, portrait galleries were opened everywhere — and everybody rushed in to have their picture taken by a new media machine.
In 1833 Charles Babbage started the design for a device he called the Analytical Engine. The Engine contained most of the key features of the modern digital computer. The punch cards were used to enter both data and instructions. This information was stored in the Engine's memory. A processing unit, which Babbage referred to as a "mill," performed operations on the data and wrote the results to memory; final results were to be printed out on a printer. The Engine was designed to be capable of doing any mathematical operation; not only would it follow the program fed into it by cards, but it would also decide which instructions to execute next, based upon intermediate results. However, in contrast to the daguerreotype, not even a single copy of the Engine was completed. So while the invention of this modern media tool for the reproduction of reality impacted society right away, the impact of the computer was yet to be measured.
Interestingly, Babbage borrowed the idea of using punch cards to store information from an earlier programmed machine. Around 1800, J.M. Jacquard invented a loom which was automatically controlled by punched paper cards. The loom was used to weave intricate figurative images, including Jacquard's portrait. This specialized graphics computer, so to speak, inspired Babbage in his work on the Analytical Engine, a general computer for numerical calculations. As Ada Augusta, Babbage's supporter and the first computer programmer, put it, "the Analytical Engine weaves algebraical patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves." Thus, a programmed machine was already synthesizing images even before it was put to process numbers. The connection between the Jacquard loom and the Analytical Engine is not something historians of computers make much of, since for them image synthesis and manipulation represent just one application of the modern digital computer among thousands of others; but for a historian of new media it is full of significance.
We should not be surprised that both trajectories — the development of modern media, and the development of computers — begin around the same time. Both media machines and computing machines were absolutely necessary for the functioning of modern mass societies. The ability to disseminate the same texts, images and sounds to millions of citizens thus assuring that they will have the same ideological beliefs was as essential as the ability to keep track of their birth records, employment records, medical records, and police records. Photography, film, the offset printing press, radio and television made the former possible while computers made possible the latter. Mass media and data processing are the complimentary technologies of a mass society.
For a long time the two trajectories developed in parallel without ever crossing paths. Throughout the nineteenth and the early twentieth century, numerous mechanical and electrical tabulators and calculators were developed; they were gradually getting faster and their use was became more wide spread. In parallel, we witness the rise of modern media which allows the storage of images, image sequences, sounds and text in different material forms: a photographic plate, film stock, a gramophone record, etc.
Let us continue tracing this joint history. In the 1890s modern media took another step forward as still photographs were put in motion. In January of 1893, the first movie studio — Edison's "Black Maria" — started producing twenty seconds shorts which were shown in special Kinetoscope parlors. Two years later the Lumière brothers showed their new Cinématographie camera/projection hybrid first to a scientific audience, and, later, in December of 1895, to the paying public. Within a year, the audiences in Johannesburg, Bombay, Rio de Janeiro, Melbourne, Mexico City, and Osaka were subjected to the new media machine, and they found it irresistible. Gradually the scenes grew longer, the staging of reality before the camera and the subsequent editing of its samples became more intricate, and the copies multiplied. They would be sent to Chicago and Calcutta, to London and St. Petersburg, to Tokyo and Berlin and thousands and thousands of smaller places. Film images would sooth movie audiences, who were too eager to escape the reality outside, the reality which no longer could be adequately handled by their own sampling and data processing systems (i.e., their brains). Periodic trips into the dark relaxation chambers of movie theatres became a routine survival technique for the subjects of modern society.
The 1890s was the crucial decade, not only for the development of media, but also for computing. If individuals' brains were overwhelmed by the amounts of information they had to process, the same was true of corporations and of government. In 1887, the U.S. Census office was still interpreting the figures from the 1880 census. For the next 1890 census, the Census Office adopted electric tabulating machines designed by Herman Hollerith. The data collected for every person was punched into cards; 46, 804 enumerators completed forms for a total population of 62,979,766. The Hollerith tabulator opened the door for the adoption of calculating machines by business; during the next decade electric tabulators became standard equipment in insurance companies, public utilities companies, railroads and accounting departments. In 1911, Hollerith's Tabulating Machine company was merged with three other companies to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company; in 1914 Thomas J. Watson was chosen as its head. Ten years later its business tripled and Watson renamed the company the International Business Machines Corporation, or IBM.
We are now in the new century. The year is 1936. This year the British mathematician Alan Turing wrote a seminal paper entitled "On Computable Numbers." In it he provided a theoretical description of a general-purpose computer later named after its inventor the Universal Turing Machine. Even though it was only capable of four operations, the machine could perform any calculation which can be done by a human and could also imitate any other computing machine. The machine operated by reading and writing numbers on an endless tape. At every step the tape would be advanced to retrieve the next command, to read the data or to write the result. Its diagram looks suspiciously like a film projector. Is this a coincidence?
If we believe the word cinematograph, which means "writing movement," the essence of cinema is recording and storing visible data in a material form. A film camera records data on film; a film projector reads it off. This cinematic apparatus is similar to a computer in one key respect: a computer's program and data also have to be stored in some medium. This is why the Universal Turing Machine looks like a film projector. It is a kind of film camera and film projector at once: reading instructions and data stored on endless tape and writing them in other locations on this tape. In fact, the development of a suitable storage medium and a method for coding data represent important parts of both cinema and computer pre-histories. As we know, the inventors of cinema eventually settled on using discrete images recorded on a strip of celluloid; the inventors of a computer — which needed much greater speed of access as well as the ability to quickly read and write data — came to store it electronically in a binary code.
In the same year, 1936, the two trajectories came even closer together. Starting this year, and continuing into the Second World War, German engineer Konrad Zuse had been building a computer in the living room of his parents' apartment in Berlin. Zuse's computer was the first working digital computer. One of his innovations was program control by punched tape. The tape Zuse used was actually discarded 35 mm movie film.
One of these surviving pieces of this film shows binary code punched over the original frames of an interior shot. A typical movie scene — two people in a room involved in some action becomes a support for a set of computer commands. Whatever meaning and emotion was contained in this movie scene has been wiped out by its new function as a data carrier. The pretense of modern media to create simulation of sensible reality is similarly cancelled; media is reduced to its original condition as information carrier, nothing else, nothing more. In a technological remake of the Oedipal complex, a son murders his father. The iconic code of cinema is discarded in favor of the more efficient binary one. Cinema becomes a slave to the computer.
But this is not yet the end of the story. Our story has a new twist — a happy one. Zuse's film, with its strange superimposition of the binary code over the iconic code anticipates the convergence which gets underway half a century later. The two separate historical trajectories finally meet. Media and computer — Daguerre's daguerreotype and Babbage's Analytical Engine, the Lumière Cinématographie and Hollerith's tabulator — merge into one. All existing media are translated into numerical data accessible for the computers. The result: graphics, moving images, sounds, shapes, spaces and text become computable, i.e. simply another set of computer data. In short, media becomes new media.
This meeting changes both the identity of media and of the computer itself. No longer just a calculator, a control mechanism or a communication device, a computer becomes a media processor. Before the computer could read a row of numbers outputting a statistical result or a gun trajectory. Now it can read pixel values, blurring the image, adjusting its contrast or checking whether it contains an outline of an object. Building upon these lower-level operations, it can also perform more ambitious ones: searching image databases for images similar in composition or content to an input image; detecting shot changes in a movie; or synthesizing the movie shot itself, complete with setting and the actors. In a historical loop, a computer returned to its origins. No longer just an Analytical Engine, suitable only to crunch numbers, the computer became Jacqurd's loom — a media synthesizer and manipulator.
Principles of New Media
The identity of media has changed even more dramatically. In the following I tried to summarize some of the key differences between old and new media. In compiling this list of differences I tried to arrange them in a logical order. That is, the principles 3 and 4 are dependent on the principles 1 and 2. This is not dissimilar to axiomatic logic where certain axioms are taken as staring points and further theorems are proved on their basis.
1. Discrete representation on different scales.
This principle can be called "fractal structure of new media." Just as a fractal has the same structure on different scales, a new media object has the same discrete structure throughout. Media elements, be it images, sounds, or shapes, are represented as collections of discrete samples (pixels, polygons, voxels, characters). These elements are assembled into larger-scale objects but they continue to maintain their separate identity. Finally, the objects themselves can be combined into even larger objects -- again, without losing their independence. For example, a multimedia "movie" authored in popular Macromedia Director software may consist from hundreds of images, QuickTime movies, buttons, text elements which are all stored separately and are loaded at run time. These "movies" can be assembled into a larger "movie," and so on.
We can also call this "modularity principle" using the analogy with structured computer programming. Structural computer programming involves writing small and self-sufficient modules (called in different computer languages routines, functions or procedures) which are assembled into larger programs. Many new media objects are in fact computer programs which follow structural programming style. For example, an interactive multimedia application is typically programmed in Macromedia Director’s Lingo language. However, in the case of new media objects which are not computer programs, an analogy with structural programming still can be made because their parts can be accessed, modified or substituted without affecting the overall structure.
2. Numerical representation. Consequences:
2.1. Media can be described formally (mathematically). For instance, an image or a shape can be described using a mathematical function.
2.2. Media becomes a subject to algorithmic manipulation. For instance, by applying appropriate algorithms, we can automatically remove "noise" from a photograph, alter its contrast, locate the edges of shapes, and so on.
3. Automation.
Discrete representation of information (1) and its numerical coding (2) allow to automate
many operations involved in media creation, manipulation and access. Thus human intentionally can be removed from the creative process, at least in part.
The following are some of the examples of what can be called "low-level" automation of media creation, in which the computer modifies (i.e., formats) or creates from scratch a media object using templates or simple algorithms. These techniques are robust enough that they are included in most commercial software: image editing, 3-D graphics, word processing, graphic layout. Image editing programs such as Photoshop can automatically correct scanned images, improving contrast range and removing noise. They also come with filters which can automaticaly modify an image, from creating simple variations of color to changing the whole image as though it was painted by Van Gog, Seurat or other brand-name artist. Other computer programs can automatically generate 3-D objects such as trees, landscapes, human figures and detailed ready-to-use animations of complex natural phenomena such as fire and waterfalls. In Hollywood films, flocks of birds, ant colonies and even crowds of people are automatically created by AL (artificial life) programs.Word processing, page layout, presentation and Web creation software comes with "agents" which offer the user to automatically create the layout of a document. Writing software helps the user to create literary narratives using formalized highly conventions genre convention. Finally, in what maybe the most familiar experience of automation of media generation to most computer users, many Web sites automatically generate Web pages on the fly when the user reaches the site. They assemble the information from the dataabses and format it using templates and scripts.
The researchers are also working on what can be called "high-level" automation of media creation which requires a computer to understand, to a certain degree, the meanings embedded in the objects being generated, i.e. their semantics. This research can be seen as a part of a larger initiative of artificial intelligence (AI). As it is well known, AI project achieved only very limited success since its beginnings in the 1950s. Correspondingly, work on media generation which requires understanding of semantics is also in the research stage and is rarely included in commercial software. Beginning already in the 1970s, computers were often used to generate poetry and fiction. In the 1990s, the users of Internet chat rooms became familiar with bots -- the computer programs which simulate human conversation. Meanwhile, the researchers at New York University showed the systems which allow the user to interact with a "virtual theatre" composed of a few "virtual actors" which adjust their behavior in real-time. The researchers at MIT Media Lab demonstrated "smart camera" which can automatically follow the action and frame the shots given a script. Another Media Lab project was ALIVE, a a virtual environment where the user interacted with animated characters. Finally, Media Lab also showed a number of versions of a new kind of human-computer interface where the computer presents itself to a user as an animated talking character. The character, generated by a computer in real-time, communicates with user using natural language; it also tries to guess user’s emotional state and to adjust the style of interaction accordingly.
The areas of new media where the avarage computer user encountered AI in the 1990s was not, however, human-computer interface but computer games. Almost every commercial game includes a component called AI engine. It stands for part of the game’s computer code which controls its characters: car drivers in a car race simulation, the enemy forces in a straregy game such as Command and Conquer, the single enemies which keep attacking the user in first-person shooters such as Quake. AI engines use a variety of approaches to simulate intelligence, from rule-based systems to neural networks. The characters they create are not really too intelligent. Like AI expert systems, these computer-driven have expertise in some well-defined areas such as attacking the user. And because computer games are highly codified and rule-based and because they severaly limit possible behaviors of the user, these characters function very effectively. To that exent, every computer game can be thought off as being another version of a competition between a human chess player and a computer opponent. For instance, in a martial arts fighting game, I can’t ask questions of my opponent, nor do I expect him to start a conversation with me. All I can do is to "attack" him by pressing a few buttons; and within this severaly limited communication bandwidth the computer can "fight" me back very effectively. In short, computer characters can display intelligence and skills only because they put severe limits on our possible interactions with them. So, to use another example, once I was playing against both human and computer-controlled characters in a V R simulation of some non-existent sport game. All my opponents apeared as simple blobs covering a few pixels of my VR display; at this resolution, it made absolutely no diffirence who was human and who was not. The computers can pretend to be intelligent only by tricking us into using a very small part of who were are when we communicate with them.
Along with "low-level" and "high-level" automation of media creation, another area of media use which is being subjected to increasing automation is media access. The switch to computers as a means to store and access enormous amound of media material, exemplified by the Internet’s "media assets" distributed across numerous Web sites, creates the need to find more efficient ways to classify and search media objects. Word processors and other text management software for a long time provided the abilities to search for specefic strings of text and automatically index documents. In the 1990s software designers started to provide media users with similar abilities. Virage introduced Virage's VIR Image Engine which allows the user to search for visually simular image content among millions of images as well as a set of video search tools to allow indexing and searching video files. By the end of the 1990s, the key Web search engines already included the options to search the Internet by specefic media such as images, video and audio.
The Internet also crystallized the basic condition of the new information society: over-abundance of information of all kind. One response was the popular idea of "agent" software. Some "Agents" are supposed to act as filters which deliver small amounts of information given user' criteria. Other are allowing users to tap into the expertise of other users, following their selections and choices. For example, MIT Software Agents Group developed such agents as BUZZwatch which "distills and tracks trends, themes, and topics within collections of texts across time" such as Internet discussions and Web pages; Letizia, "a user interface agent that assists a user browsing the World Wide Web by… scouting ahead from the user's current position to find Web pages of possible interest"; Footprints which "uses information left by other people to help you find your way around."
At the end of the twentieth century, the problem was no longer how to create a new media object such as an image; the new problem was how to find the object which already exists somewhere. That is, if you want a particular image, chances are it is already exists somewhere but it may be easier to create one from scratch when to find the one already stored. Historically, we first developed technologies which automated media construction: a photo camera, a film camera, a tape recorder, a video recorder, etc. These technologies allowed us, over the course of about one hundred and fifty years, to accumulate an unprecedented amount of media materials: photo archives, film libraries, audo archives…This then led to the next stage in media evolution: the need for technologies to store, organize and effeciently access these media. The computer provided a basis for these new technologies: digital archives of media; hyperlinking, hierarchical file system and other ways of indexing the digital material; and sofware for content-based search and retrieval. Thus automation of media access is the next logical stage of the process which was already put into motion when a first photograph was taken.
4. Variability: a new media object (such as a Web site) is not something fixed once and for all but can exist in different (potentially infinite) versions. This is another consequence of discrete representation of information (1) and its numerical coding (2).
Old media involved a human creator who manually assembled textual, visual or audio elements (or their combination) into a particular sequence. This sequence was stored in some material, its order determined once and for all. Numerous copies could be run off from the master, and, in perfect correspondence with the logic of an industrial society, they were all identical. New media, in contrast, is characterized by variability.
Stored digitally, rather than in some permanent material, media elements maintain their separate identity and can be assembled into numerous sequences under program control. At the same time, because the elements themselves are broken into discrete samples (for instance, an image is represented as an array of pixels), they can be also created and customized on the fly.
The logic of new media thus corresponds to the post-industrial logic of "production on demand" and "just in time" delivery which themselves were made possible by the use of digital computers and computer networks in all stages of manufacturing and distribution. Here "culture industry" is actually ahead of the rest of the industry. The idea that a customer determines the exact features of her car at the showroom, the data is transmitted to the factory, and hours later the new car is delivered remains a dream, but in the case of computer media, it is reality. Since the same machine is used as a showroom and a factory, and since the media exists not as a material object but as data which can be sent through the wires with the speed of light, the response is immediate.
Here are some particular cases of the variability principle:
4.1. Media elements are stored in a media database; a variety of end-user objects which vary both in resolution, in form and in content can be generated, either beforehand, or on demand, from this database.
4.2. It becomes possible to separate the levels of "content" (data) and interface. A number of different interfaces can be created to the same data. A new media object can be defined as one or more interfaces to a multimedia database.
4.3. The information about the user can be used by a computer program to automatically customize the media composition as well as to create the elements themselves. Examples: Web sites use the information about the type of hardware and browser or user's network address to automatically customize the site which the user will see; interactive computer installations use information about the user's body movements to generate sounds, shapes, or control behaviors of artificial creatures.
4.4 A particular case of 4.3 is branching-type interactivity. (It is also sometimes called menu-based interactivity.) The program presents the user with choice(s) and let her pick. In this case the information used by a program is the output of user's cognitive process (rather than the network address or body position).
4.5. Hypermedia: the multimedia elements making a document are connected through hyperlinks. Thus the elements and the structure are separate rather than hard-wired as in traditional media. By following the links the user retrieves a particular version of a document. (World Wide Web is a particular implementation of hypermedia in which the elements are distributed throughout the network).
Out of these four principles, the principle of variability maybe be the most interesting. On the one hand, such popular new media forms as branching-type interactivity and hypermedia can be seen as particular instances of variability principle. On the other hand, this principle demonstrates how the changes in media technologies are closely tied up with changes in social organization. Just as the logic of old media corresponded to the logic of industrial mass society, the logic of the new media fits the logic of the post-industrial society of personal variability. In industrial mass society everybody was supposed to enjoy the same goods -- and to have the same beliefs. This was also the logic of media technology. A media object was assembled in a media factory (such as a Hollywood studio). Millions of identical copies were produced from a master and distributed to all the citizens. Broadcasting, film distribution, print technologies all followed this logic.
In a post-industrial society, every citizen can construct her own custom lifestyle and "select" her ideology from a large (but not infinite) number of choices. Rather than pushing the same objects/information to a large group, marketing tries to target each individual separately, The logic of new media technology reflects this new condition perfectly. Every visitor to a Web site automatically gets her own custom version of the site created on the fly from a database. Every hypertext reader gets her own version of the text. Every viewer of an interactive installation gets her own version of the work. And so on. In this way new media technology acts as the most perfect realization of the utopia of a perfect society composed from unique individuals. New media objects assure the users that their choices — and therefore, their underlying thoughts and desires — are unique, rather than pre-programmed and shared with others. As though trying to compensate for their earlier role in making us all the same, today desdentans of the Jacqurd's loom, The Hollerith tabulator and Zuse's cinema-computer are now working to convince us that we are all different.
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Emergency Evacuation Information
• What are School Bus Evacuations?
During School Bus Evacuation Drills, student's learn what to do in the event of an emergency and they must evacuate the school bus by way of Front Entrance Door, Side Emergency Windows/Doors, Rear Emergency Door/Window, Roof Hatches, and Front Windshield.
Students are shown how to use the two-way radio, emergency flashers, overhead flashers as well as stop arm. They are shown how to open the Front Entrance Door with power switch as well as manually. They learn what to do should their driver become incapacitated including slowing and stopping the bus by way of service brake or the Emergency Brake. Students are shown how to place the bus into neutral and set the parking brake.
Are School Bus Evacuation Drills Mandatory?
Yes. Following is the State Requirement.
At least twice during every school year, a school shall conduct an evacuation drill of a school bus at the school that includes every passenger who rides a school bus and is in school on the day of the evacuation drill. At least 14 days before an evacuation drill, a school shall submit to the Department a written notice stating the date, time, and location of the evacuation drill. Each school bus driver shall participate in a minimum of two evacuation drills during every school year. Evacuation drills shall include:
• Practice and instruction in the location, use, and operation of the emergency exits, fire extinguishers, first aid equipment, windows as a means of escape, and communication systems;
Practice and instruction in when and how to approach, load, unload, and move away from the school bus a minimum of 100 feet;
• Instructions on how weather-related hazards affect emergency procedures; and
• Instructions on the importance of orderly conduct.
Should my student do anything to prepare for the drills?
Yes. We ask that the women not wear short skirts, and we ask that, for their safety, both men and women not wear sandals or flip-flops. Of couse, bring a positive attitude!
Are evacuation drills different between Regular Buses and Special Needs Buses?
In someways, yes. The difference is, on Special Needs Buses, the driver and assistant practice un-securing a tied down wheel chair quickly as well as practice using the wheelchair lift manually. They also acquaint themselves with their specific students and what the special needs are. This way, they will know which students will need additional help during a real evacuation.
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Alexander Pushkin and the Cultural Identity of Modern Russia
Alexander Pushkin (1799 – 1837)
Alexander Pushkin (17991837)
On June 6, 1799Russian poet, playwright, and novelist of the Romantic era Alexander Pushkin was born. Pushkin is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet and the founder of modern Russian literature.
Alexander Pushkin was born in Moscow, Russia, as the second of five children of former guard officer Sergei Lvovich Pushkin and his wife Nadezhda Ossipovna, née Hannibal. On his father’s side, he came from an old noble family. On his mother’s side was his great-grandfather Abraham Petrovich Hannibal, originally an African slave, who gave to Tsar Peter the Great, whose godchild became and later ascended to Major General and Governor of Reval.
Pushkin published his first poem at the age of 15. While still a student, Pushkin was admitted in his absence to the Petersburg literary society Arsamas of V.A. Zhukovsky, which opposed traditional, encrusted language concepts of established literature and advocated the further development of Russian high and written language. The poet’s early poetry radiates his insatiable lust for life. When he left school, Pushkin had already built a reputation in the Russian literary scene. In 1820, Pushkin published Ruslan and Ludmila which was received controversially due to its style and topic. The epic fairy tale tells the story of the abduction of Ludmila, the daughter of Prince Vladimir of Kiev, by an evil wizard and the attempt by the brave knight Ruslan to find and rescue her.
As his career continued, Pushkin became more and more committed to social reforms. Eventually he became a spokesman for literary radicals and faced troubles with the government. In the spring of 1820 Pushkin had to answer for some satirical poems in which he ridiculed public figures such as the Minister of War and the Minister of Education. He escaped exile to Siberia by protecting influential friends. However, he had to leave Petersburg in connection with a transfer to General Insow in Ekaterinoslaw in early summer. Pushkin went to the Caucasus and to Crimea and then to Kamianka and Chișinău, where he became a Freemason. He further joined the secret organisation Filiki Eteria which had the goal to overthrow the Ottoman rule in Greece and create an independent Greek state. Meanwhile Pushkin continued writing poems including The Captive of the Caucasus and The Fountain of Bakhchisaray. In 1824 Pushkin was dismissed from the civil service after he had expressed his sympathy for atheism in a letter. After moving to Odessa Pushkin got in trouble with the government again and spent the next years at Mikhailovskoye near Pskov. After an audience with Tsar Nicholas I, Pushkin was again allowed to live in Moscow and Petersburg from 1826 to 1831, but his works were censored personally by the Tsar and his work and way of life were strongly controlled. There he wrote further love poems and worked on his verse-novel Eugene Onegin.
During 1825, Pushkin wrote one of his most famous plays, Boris Godunov. However, he was not able to publish it until five years later due to political troubles. The original and uncensored version of the drama was not staged until 2007. His marriage to Natalya Goncharova in 1831 brought about a change in Pushkin’s circumstances, after they met in 1830. In view of the wedding, Pushkin received from his father the village of Boldino, 250 km from Nizhny Novgorod. Pushkin only wanted to visit it briefly, but a cholera epidemic prevented his return to Moscow. Pushkin was forced to stay in the province and it became his greatest creative period. The couple moved to St. Petersburg in 1831, where with the support of Goncharova’s wealthy relatives they were able to participate in the glamorous life of the tsar’s court – which frustrated Pushkin, who longed for independence.
During the early 1830s, Pushkin had established a significant reputation and met Nikolai Gogol.[7] After reading Gogol’s 1831/32 volume of short stories Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka, Pushkin supported him and would feature some of Gogol’s most famous short stories in the magazine The Contemporary, which he founded in 1836.
For most of his compatriots Pushkin is considered to be THE Russian national poet (far ahead of writers such as Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky, Gogol or Pasternak, who are well known abroad). Until Napoleon’s invasion of Moscow in 1812, the Russian upper class spoke French. After the subsequent fire in Moscow, one wondered why one actually spoke the language of the enemy. Pushkin paved the way for the use of colloquial language in his poems, dramas and narratives; he created a narrative style that mixed drama, romance and satire – a style that has been inseparable from Russian literature ever since and has massively influenced numerous Russian poets. His romantic contemporaries were Byron and Goethe; he was influenced by Voltaire and the Shakespearean tragedies.
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Rock Drawings in Valcamonica
Rock Drawings In Valcamonica
Cultural Italy Europe And North America Province Of Brescia, Lombardy
The rock engravings of Valcamonica, which date back over 8,000 years, constitute an extraordinary figurative documentation of prehistoric customs and mentality. The systematic interpretation, topological classification, and chronological study of these configurations in stone have made a considerable contribution to the fields of prehistory, sociology and ethnology.
Valcamonica is home to the greatest complex of rock drawings in subalpine Italy and there are approximately 250,000 petroglyphs drawn on hundreds of exposed rocks depicting scenes of agriculture, navigation, war and magic. The area where the rock carvings were most plentiful was in the lowest section of the valley between the Concarena and Pizzo Badile Camuno peaks.
Several periods of carving can be identified that correspond to the evolution of Cammunic society:
Upper Palaeolithic (c. 8000 BC) showing scenes depicting hunting and early civilisation;Neolithic (4000-3000 BC) towards the end of the glaciation period, the first depictions of a religious nature appear. The human figure became fundamental to the carvings along with depictions of daily life. This period was the high point in Cammunic art. Eneolithic (3000-2000 BC): the quality of the drawings improved and they almost became a narrative with highly detailed hunting and rural life scenes. A very important element is the appearance of scenes depicting female initiation rituals;after 1000 BC the isolation of the Cammuni ended and they began to meet new people, often while defending their territory. Battle scenes are carved into the rocks as well as drawings showing huts, wagons, harvests and weapons. This was when Cammunic art was at its highest point and from then on it began to wane.
The first rock drawings by man date back to the pre-Boreal climatic interval in the 8th millennium that was characterized by dense pine and birch forest. The first hunters from the Cammuni tribe lived in groups on the hillsides and not the valley floor, especially during thaws, as landslides were commonplace.
Between the 16th century BC and AD 476, Valcamonica was occupied by the Romans. There were iron mines in this area and Celtic craftsmen were able to produce high-quality steel from it. Full governmental autonomy and Roman citizenship was granted to the residents of the area. Even during Roman times, Valcamonica sustained raiding parties by barbarians. The Herulians arrived after the fall of the Roman Empire and were followed by the Ostrogoths, who brought much death and destruction in 542.
The Langobards ruled the valley between 568 and 774 when it was taken over by the Franks. Benedictines, sent to the valley to bring Christianity to the community, built churches and alms-houses to help the needy. Around 1000, the farming community began to feel some sense of self-identity and to request self-rule. This was how Le Vicinie were formed - an association of vicini. Communes started to appear after 1164 with approval of the emperor. From 1428, Valcamonica came under the Republic of Venice despite many disputes between Milan and Venice over the acquisition of the valley over the next quarter-century.
The thriving economy of Valcamonica was based on wool production by the monks, but pastoral work, especially in the high valleys, was also important. The villages that had iron mines began to gain importance. Brescia was overcome by the French in 1769 and Valcamonica took the name of 'Cantone della Montagna' and was split up into seven townships. The borough of Serio was formed in 1797 and included the communes on the right bank of the River Oglio, whereas communes on the left bank came under Brescia. In 1801 all of Valcamonica broke away from Brescian jurisdiction and its annexation by Serio. Agriculture and stock farming suffered drastically during Napoleonic rule. Austria reannexed the valleys to Serio. Between 1815 and 1818, Valcamonica was stricken by famine and plague. At the start of the period of the Kingdom of Italy, the 52 communes were split up in the three districts of Breno, Edolo and Pisogne with Breno as the main district.
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The Other Blue Planet
July 11, 2013
Earth is known as the ‘blue planet’ because of the vast oceans that cover two-thirds of its surface. When seen from space, our world looks like a pale blue dot. You might recognise image 2, it is a photograph of the Earth that was taken in 1990 by the Voyager 1 spacecraft when it was 6 billion km away! But now, for the first time ever, astronomers have uncovered the colour of a planet orbiting a distant star—and it's blue, too!
But that's where the similarities between the two planets end. The new world, or the ‘deep blue dot’, is an enormous gas giant, similar in size to Jupiter, the largest planet in our Solar System. It orbits very close to its star, leading its atmosphere to reach scorching temperatures of over 1000°C. You might wonder how blue oceans can survive in this extreme environment. Well, unlike Earth, it isn't water that gives this world its lush blue colour. Its atmosphere is filled with something similar to glass particles, called ‘silicates’, which sparkle blue.
Ajawatal juq'attzij
So far, the ‘pale blue dot’ is the only picture to have been taken of our planet from such a large distance. But on 19 July this year, the Cassini spacecraft will be pointed at Earth for a photo-shoot. Cassini is currently over one billion km away, orbiting Saturn. Get ready to smile!
This Space Scoop is based on a Press Release from ESA.
Okib'al rech Man k'ax ta utz'ajtz'ib'axik
Nik'aj chi Space Scoops
¿K'o kawaj kaweta'maj na? chaweta'maj nik'aj chik...
¿Jas uwach ri' Space Scoop?
Chariqa' nik'aj chik Unik'oxik uwakaj
Uk'utik chi kiwach k'ak' taq nik'ol uwakaj
Achi'il rech Space Scoop
We uxaq web' xwinaqirisax rumal le cholb'al chak rech le Wokaj rech Europa Horizon 2020, ruk' le uwujil uk'amik chak rech tob'anem n° 638653.
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Ocular Myasthenia Gravis
Myasthenia gravis is a condition that causes weakness of specific muscles in the body. Normally nerves send a signal to muscles using a chemical called acetylcholine, which tells the muscles when to move. In patients with myasthenia gravis, the body’s immune system mistakenly interferes with the muscles’ receptors for acetylcholine. When these receptors cannot work properly, the affected muscles tire easily. The amount of weakness typically fluctuates and may be worse at the end of the day.
How is ocular myasthenia gravis different from generalized myasthenia gravis?
Ocular myasthenia gravis only affects the muscles that move the eyes and eyelids. The symptoms of ocular myasthenia gravis include double vision (seeing two images instead of one), trouble focusing, and drooping eyelids. On the other hand, generalized myasthenia gravis affects muscles throughout the body. In addition to visual symptoms, generalized myasthenia gravis may cause trouble speaking, trouble swallowing, and weakness in the arms or legs.
Why does myasthenia gravis typically cause double vision?
The brain finely controls the eye muscles in order to keep the eyes aligned properly. Weakness of the eye muscles leads to misalignment of the eyes, which causes the eyes to perceive the same object in two different locations. Double vision is a common symptom of myasthenia gravis because this condition very frequently affects the strength of the eye muscles.
How often does myasthenia gravis only affect the eyes?
For about one half of patients with myasthenia gravis, the first symptoms are visual. About 15% of these patients will remain only having visual symptoms, even years after their diagnosis. In the other 85% of patients, however, symptoms of weakness will develop in another part of the body, usually within the next three years. At that time, these patients are considered to have generalized myasthenia gravis.
How is myasthenia gravis diagnosed?
Your doctor will begin by asking about your symptoms and performing a physical examination. It will be important to carefully test the eyelids and eye movements, and to see what happens to the muscles when they are fatigued and when they have rested.
Your doctor may request additional tests to confirm a diagnosis of myasthenia gravis. A blood test can check if the immune system is blocking the signals that travel from the nerves to the muscles. In patients with ocular myasthenia gravis (who have visual symptoms only) this blood test has lower accuracy, so a negative result might require additional testing.
One important test to help diagnose myasthenia gravis is called a nerve conduction study/electromyogram (sometimes called “EMG” for short). In part of this test, a small electrical stimulation is delivered to a nerve, and the responses are measured from a muscle. The most accurate test to diagnose myasthenia gravis is called a single fiber electromyogram (SFEMG). An SFEMG test involves very small needles that can measure responses from two nearby muscle fibers. Both the EMG and SFEMG tests can reveal a pattern of responses that suggests myasthenia gravis.
What are the treatments for myasthenia gravis?
One of the medications that is commonly used to treat myasthenia gravis is called pyridostigmine (Mestinon®). This medication helps build higher levels of the chemical acetylcholine, which is the signal that tells a muscle to move. The side effects of pyridostigmine can include diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. Another medication called glycopyrrolate can be used to reduce these effects.
Corticosteroid medications, such as prednisone, can also be used to help patients with myasthenia gravis. These medicines can be very effective at controlling the immune response that causes myasthenia. Unfortunately, long-term use of steroids is also associated with side effects that include osteoporosis (weakening of bones), diabetes, high blood pressure, sleep disturbance, and emotional changes. In some cases, other medications can be used to help control the immune system and lower the dosage of prednisone. These medications include azathioprine (Imuran®), cyclosporine, and mycophenolate mofetil (Cellcept®). Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) is another medication that can be used intermittently and can be very effective.
If myasthenia gravis is diagnosed, a CT scan of the chest should be performed in order to look for a type of benign tumor called a thymoma. Many experts believe that if the thymus is enlarged, removing it can improve the symptoms of myasthenia. Thymomas are present more often in patients with generalized myasthenia gravis compared to those with ocular myasthenia gravis.
How can double vision be treated?
Double vision that results from myasthenia gravis is most often treated by blocking the vision from one eye. Either an eye patch can be worn or scotch tape can be placed over one lens in the eyeglasses. If one eyelid is very droopy and blocks the vision in that eye, the double vision will not require a separate treatment. Usually special glasses with prisms are not helpful because of the considerable fluctuation in the amount of double vision in patients with myasthenia gravis.
What medications should be avoided?
Certain medications can worsen the symptoms of myasthenia and should be avoided. These medications include specific antibiotics (called aminoglycosides and quinolones), beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and phenytoin (Dilantin®). If a patient with myasthenia gravis requires a surgical procedure, the anesthesiologist should be aware and in order to use the proper medications.
How can I support Neuro-Ophthalmology patient education?
About BWH
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Skipping A Beat- Literally!!!
Ever wondered how your heart skips a beat each time you encounter a scary or an exciting situation? Even though ‘skipping a beat’ is used as an idiom, there is a simple physiological cause underlying it. Our heart, the vital pumping organ of our body, can perform its function only if it receives electrical signals (called impulses). Our heart also has a resting period (called refractory period) within which it doesn’t pump blood even on arrival of an impulse.
Sometimes, when we’re scared or excited, it so happens that our heart receives extra unexpected impulses apart from the normal ones. These unexpected impulses supplement a normal impulse to increase the vigour of the heart beat and prolongs the pumping activity such that the heart’s refractory period coincides with the arrival of the next normal impulse, causing a period of inactivity. The heart doesn’t respond to the next impulse due to the prolonged pumping activity causes by the extra impulse.
Thus the heart literally ‘skips a beat’ which was supposed to occur under normal circumstances. In medical terms, this phenomenon is called extrasystole or ectopic beat and the comparatively long pause of inactivity (due to the unexpected impulse) is called compensatory pause.
To compensate for this loss, the heart pumps the next beat with a slightly greater energy (by an intrinsic mechanism) as compared to a normal beat, which can sometimes be felt as a palpitation. This is called post-extrasystolic potentiation.
To explain this interesting phenomenon graphically, assume that the normal heart function is shown in (a). The peaks correspond to the vigour (amplitude) of the heart beat while the flat, horizontal lines correspond to the refractory period. A heart beat consists of two small peaks, one large peak and a flat line following one small peak.
normal ecg (a)
In (b), we can see that the large peak following the arrow pointing to ‘extrasystole’ has a very high amplitude as compared to other beats. This is the combined effect of an unexpected and a normal impulse. One can also observe that the flat line succeeding this high- amplitude beat is longer that the flat lines of other beats. This corresponds to the prolonged period of inactivity, the compensatory pause. After the pause, we see that the large peak following the pause has a slightly greater amplitude than other normal beats. This is post-extrasystolic potentiation to compensate for the ‘lost’ beat.
So, having said all this, the heart does undergo a sea of changes when it skips a beat and also compensates for the skipped beat in a very efficient manner. The next time you come across the idiom ‘skipping a beat’, I know you’ll be more than able to explain how it exactly works.
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Displaying 1 - 6 of 6 items.
Neurospora crassa Life Cycle
Format: Graphics
Subject: Organisms, Processes, Theories
Beadle's One Gene-One Enzyme Hypothesis
Between 1934 and 1945, George Beadle developed a hypothesis that each gene within the chromosomes of organisms each produced one enzyme. Enzymes are types of proteins that can catalyze reactions inside cells, and the figure shows that each enzyme controls a stage in a series of biochemical reactions. The top box in this figure represents a normal process of enzyme production and biochemical reactions, and the bottom box shows how Beadle's experiments affected the normal biochemical process.
Format: Graphics
Subject: Theories, Processes
Beadle and Tatum's 1941 Experiments with Neurospora Revealed that Genes Produce Enzymes
Format: Graphics
Subject: Theories, Experiments
Neurospora crassa
Format: Graphics
Subject: Organisms
Beadle and Ephrussi Show that Something Besides Eye Tissue Determines Eye Color in Fruit Flies
In the 1930s, George Beadle and Boris Ephrussi discovered factors that affect eye colors in developing fruit flies. They did so while working at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. (1) They took optic discs (colored fuchsia in the image) from fruit fly larvae in the third instar stage of development. Had the flies not been manipulated, they would have developed into adults with vermilion eyes.
Format: Graphics
Subject: Experiments, Organisms
Beadle and Ephrussi’s Technique to Transplant Optic Discs between Fruit Fly Larvae
Format: Graphics
Subject: Technologies, Experiments, Organisms
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"url": "https://embryo.asu.edu/search?text=Arthur%20St.%20George%20Joseph%20McCarthy%20Huggett&%3Bamp%3Bf%5B0%5D=dc_subject_embryo%3A52&%3Bf%5B0%5D=dc_subject_embryo%3A52&f%5B0%5D=dc_description_type%3A2989"
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Aden Protectorate
(redirected from Aden Protectorates)
Aden Protectorate
from 1839 until 1967 a colonial possession of England. It consisted of the Crown Colony of Aden, which included the city of Aden, the islands of Perim and Kuria Muria, the East and West Aden protectorates, and the island of Kamaran. English colonial rule in Aden began with the seizure of the city of Aden in 1839; English control over the entire territory of Aden was established completely by the 1930’s. Aden was administered by the English government in India until April 1937, when it became a Crown Colony of Great Britain. With the aim of strengthening their rule during the violent uprising of the Aden peoples’ war of liberation, the English imperialists created the Federation of South Arabia in early 1959 on part of Aden’s territory. On Nov. 30, 1967, as a result of the victory of the national revolution, the People’s Republic of Southern Yemen was created on the territory of Aden. On Nov. 30, 1970, it became the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen.
Val’kova, L. V. Angliiskaia kolonial’naia politika ν Adene i adenskikh protektoratakh. Moscow, 1968.
L. N. KOTLOV [1–639–2; updated]
References in periodicals archive ?
In what were the Aden Protectorates to the south, ruled for half a century by tribal leaders and petty 'sultans' guided by British political officers, security was generally maintained, but local government was rudimentary and sealed roads were almost non-existent.
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Sustainable Energy
A New Twist on Artificial Muscles
Carbon nanotube yarns produce as much torque as an electric motor.
Oct 14, 2011
Thin fiber: A scanning electron microscope shows a 3.8-micrometer-diameter carbon nanotube yarn that twists when connected to an electrode and immersed in conductive liquid.
Artificial muscles are typically made from polymers and metals that change size and shape. But to be truly useful, these materials need to twist or rotate when an electric current is applied, and very few such materials created so far can do this.
In a paper published on the website of the journal Science today, the researchers show that the new yarn can spin a paddle 1,800 times heavier than itself at 590 revolutions per minute. They demonstrated how a simple device based on this concept could be used to mix two liquids on a microfluidics chip; in a fluid mixer, a 15-micrometer-wide yarn rotated a paddle that was 200 times wider and 80 times heavier than itself at up to one rotation per second.
Mix it up: A 15-micrometer-thick carbon nanotube yarn spins a paddle back and forth to mix blue- and yellow-dyed water.
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MILITARY dogs in First World War were positioned in a variety of roles, depending on their size, intelligence and training.
Generally, the roles fell into the category of sentry dogs, scout dogs, casualty dogs, explosive dogs, ratters and mascot dogs.
Sentry dogs: These dogs were patrolled using a short lead and a firm hand.
They were trained to accompany usually one specific guard and were taught to give a ROLES OF MILITARY DOGS warning signal such as a growl, bark or snarl to indicate when an unknown or suspect presence was in the secure area such as a camp or military base.
Dobermans have traditionally been used as sentry dogs and are still widely used today as guard dogs.
Scout dogs: These dogs were highly trained and had to be of a quiet, disciplined nature.
Their role was to work with soldiers on foot patrolling the terrain ahead of them.
They were useful to the military because they could detect enemy scent up to 1,000 yards away. Instead of barking and thus drawing attention to the squad, the dogs would stiffen, raise its shackles and point its tail, which indicated that the enemy was encroaching upon the terrain.
Scout dogs were widely used because they were highly efficient in avoiding detection.
Casualty dogs: Casualty or 'Mercy' dogs were vital in First World War. Originally trained in the late 1800s by the Germans, they were later utilised across Europe.
Known as 'Sanitatshunde' in Germany, these dogs were trained to find the wounded and dying on battlefields and were equipped with medical supplies to aid those suffering.
Those soldiers who could help themselves to supplies would tend to their own wounds, whilst other more gravely wounded soldiers would seek the company of a Mercy dog to wait with them whilst they died.
Messenger dogs: Dogs were used as messengers and proved to be as reliable as soldiers in the dangerous job of running messages.
The complexities of trench warfare meant that communication was always a problem.
Field communication systems were crude and there was always the very real possibility that vital messages from the front would never get back to headquarters or vice versa.
Human runners were potentially large targets and weighed down by uniforms there was a big chance that they would not get through, particularly in the heat of battle under artillery bombardment.
Vehicles were also problematic as they could break down or the 'roads' such as they were, or what few tracks were available were regularly destroyed.
Dogs were the obvious solution to this pressing problem - faster than a human runner, less of a target to a sniper and they could travel over any terrain.
Above all, dogs proved to be extremely reliable if they were well trained.
A dog training school was established in Scotland and a recruit from this school travelled over 4,000 metres on the Western Front with an important message to a brigade's headquarters.
The dog travelled this distance (war records classed it as "very difficult" terrain) in less than 60 minutes. All other methods of communicating with the headquarters had failed - but the dog had got through.
Mascot dogs: Dogs also had another role to play on the Western Front.
For men trapped in the horrors of trench warfare, a dog in the trenches (whether a messenger dog or not) was a psychological comfort that took away, if only for a short time, the horrors they lived through.
For many soldiers on any of the sides that fought in the trenches, a dog must have reminded them of home comforts.
FROM humble beginnings Sergeant Stubby served on the Western Front in the First World War to become one of the most decorated and highly-ranked service dogs in military history.
His talents were endless from keeping injured soldiers company until help arrived on the battlefield as well as sniffing out the danger of poisonous gas or the advancing enemy.
And he was not the only dog to assist in battle.
It's estimated that by 1918, Germany had employed 30,000 dogs, Britain, France and Belgian over 20,000 and Italy 3,000.
And while America, at first, did not use dogs, except to utilise a few hundred from the Allies for specific missions, it's the story of Sgt Stubby that was to pave the way for things change.
A stray Bull Terrier cross, his first military encounter came as he wandered through an army training session at Yale Field, Connecticut After befriending the soldiers, one in particular named Corporal Robert Conroy took a shine to him.
Conroy named him Stubby, believed to be on account of his short and stubby tail.
Legend has it that Corporal Conroy was so smitten with Stubby that when it came time to ship out the Western Front, he smuggled the dog onto his vessel bound for France.
Even when he was discovered, he to to was allowed to remain with Conroy and so found himself on the Western Front in the thick of combat.
Stubby remained with the 102nd Infantry, 26th Division, known as the Yankee division and was present at many key battles, including at Chateau-Thierry, the Marne and St. Mihiel.
Sgt Stubby had a few near misses but survived a number of injuries, including those from shrapnel and gas attacks.
It is said he became so wellknown and admired that he was treated in Red Cross hospitals, as human soldiers were.
His acute hearing also allowed him the advantage of hearing even the quietest sounds from advancing enemy and so proved excellent at silently alerting his comrades when he could hear the enemy was near.
A major triumph was when he heard a German spy who had tried to sneak into Conroy's camp during the dead of night.
The loyal and diligent Stubby managed to grab the intruder's leg and immobilize him until Conroy and other troops came to investigate and imprison the German. Stubby also asserted himself as a 'mercy' dog, scanning the battlefields for injured soldiers and comforting them whilst they lay dying or alerting paramedics to the wounded.
The Bull Terrier was ultimately named a hero, to the point where, after the liberation of Chateau Thierry, - one of the first actions of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) under General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing - the women of the town made him a special chamois blanket, for which his many medals and service chevrons were displayed.
Stubby returned home a hero and became something of an American celebrity.
Such was the country's pride in Stubby that on his death, the New York Times submitted an obituary for him.
LOTS of dog breeds were used during First World War, but the most popular type of dogs were medium-sized, intelligent and trainable breeds.
Two in particular were used because of their superior strength, agility, territorial nature and trainability; the Doberman Pinscher and German Shepherd Dog, both native to Germany. Doberman's were used because they are both highly intelligent and easily trainable, and possess excellent guarding abilities.
Being of slight frame and extremely agile, their dark coat allowed them to slip undetected through terrain without alerting the enemy. They were employed most frequently in Germany. German Shepherd's were used also because of their strength, intelligence and trainability, being eager to please their masters.
Other breeds associated with the First World War were smaller such as terriers (pictured), who were most often employed as 'ratters'; dogs trained to hunt and kill rats in the trenches.
ADOLF Hitler kept a terrier called Fuchsl - which means Little Fox - with him in the German trenches.
It is reported that the terrier had been the mascot of English soldiers when it ventured out into No Man's Land while The dog jumped into a German trench where Hitler caught it and kept it.
He apparently taught it tricks and it never left his side until 1917 when it was stolen, allegedly by a railway official who had earlier offered 200 Marks for Hitler said he would not take 200,000 Marks for the dog, adding: "I can look at him like I look at a human being. I am crazy about him."
Later Hitler was temporarily blinded in a British gas attack in Flanders - which he may have avoided had he still had Fuchsl.
AN annual ceremony to celebrate working dogs takes place on Cannock Chase each November. Every year, Cannock Chase Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) invites working dogs and their owners to the event. It was inspired by Freda, a Dalmatian-type dog that was the New Zealand Rifles' mascot, when the regiment was stationed on Cannock Chase during the First World War. She died in 1918, while the regiment was training on Cannock Chase, and is buried there. In memory of Freda, and dogs like her, the AONB holds a ceremony at her grave, which is off Chase Road, near Stafford. Those attending gather at Freda's grave to take part, listen to readings and poems and lay wreaths on the grave. Ruth Hytch, Cannock Chase AONB Officer, said: "This is always a popular and moving ceremony. The efforts of our working dogs are sometimes forgotten, and so this is a chance to remember them and to thank them for their loyalty and service." " Freda's grave is 0.6 miles south east of Brocton Village, near Stafford. The Milford Common Trail passes the grave. A leaflet is available from the nearby Cannock Chase Visitor Centre at Marquis Drive in Cannock Chase CountryROLES OF MILITARY DOGS
An inspection of Red Cross Dogs in Paris in 1915; Belgians decorate their dogs with hats of German soldiers, 1914; and a French Army dispatch dog jumps over a soldier in the trenches as it leaves with a message tied to his collar
COPYRIGHT 2014 Birmingham Post & Mail Ltd
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Publication:Birmingham Mail (England)
Date:Feb 15, 2014
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How does this fit into the bigger picture?
Kindertransport in 1938
The Kindertransport (also Refugee Children Movement or "RCM'") is the name given to the rescue mission that took place during the nine months prior to the outbreak of the Second World War. The United Kingdom took in nearly 10,000 predominantly Jewish children from Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Free City of Danzig.
After Kristallnacht in 1938 a delegation of British Jewish leaders appealed to the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Neville Chamberlain and requested that the British government permit the temporary admission of Jewish children. In Germany, a network of organisers was established, and these volunteers made priority lists of those most at risk: teenagers who were in concentration camps or in danger of arrest, Polish children or teenagers threatened with deportation, children in Jewish orphanages, children whose parents were too impoverished to keep them, or children with a parent in a concentration camp. Once the children were identified, their guardians or parents were issued a travel date and departure details. They could only take a small sealed suitcase with no valuables and only ten marks or less in money.
The children were placed in British foster homes, hostels, and farms. The RCM ran out of money at the end of August 1939 and decided it could not take more children. The last group of children left Germany on 1 September 1939, the day Germany invaded Poland.
Most of the rescued children survived the war. A small number were reunited with parents who had either spent the war in hiding or survived the Nazi camps, but the majority, after the war, found their parents had been killed.
Arrival London
Task for students:What do you think are the messages of these memorials? Compare the memorials with the ones for Finnish war children; can you find any differences? What do you think are the reasons for these differences?
Click on the following pop-ups to see the Kindertransport memorials:
Click here to view the Kindertransport memorial in Liverpool.
Click here to view the Kindertransport memorial in Berlin.
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WRI Tracks Nutrient Pollution in Coastal Waters
Within the past 50 years, eutrophication—the over-enrichment of water by nutrients such as nitrogen phosphorus—has emerged as one of the leading causes of water quality impairment. Eutrophication can result in hypoxia (or oxygen depletion), which can destroy aquatic life and create dead zones in coastal regions. “Until now, a lack of information and monitoring has been a major impediment to understanding the extent and impacts of ‘dead zones’ and eutrophication in coastal ecosystems,” said Mindy Selman, senior water quality analyst at WRI. “This website is an important step forward because it compiles the current information into a central location to raise awareness and offer solutions for controlling nutrient pollution.”
Blue Raster developed the user-friendly application using ArcGIS Server and Flex API to create a comprehensive look at historical and recent eutrophic and hypoxic events around the world. The interactive map allows users to investigate 762 coastal areas around the globe that have been affected by eutrophication and hypoxia. The data, which was compiled by analysts at WRI and the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, includes 479 sites identified as experiencing hypoxia, 55 sites that once experienced hypoxia but are now improving, and 228 sites that experience other symptoms of eutrophication, including algal blooms, species loss, and impacts to coral reef assemblages.
Using Flickr, YouTube and Delicious, Blue Raster provided users with the ability to access and share other resources on eutrophication and hypoxia, including publications, photographs, and video. The site also allows users to provide updates to the maps and databases based on their knowledge of local coastal water conditions. To learn more, please visit WRI’s website on nutrient pollution in coastal waters.
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"url": "https://www.blueraster.com/wri-tracks-nutrient-pollution-in-coastal-waters/"
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Why is Mount Everest so Tall?
This Why is Mount Everest so Tall? video also includes:
Many years ago, when the Indian plate collided into the Eurasian plate, the highest mountain on Earth was formed. But what gives Mount Everest its shape? Watch an informative video to learn what factors make the prominent peak so tall.
32 Views 19 Downloads
CCSS: Adaptable
Instructional Ideas
• Flip the classroom and have pupils view the video at home, saving instruction time for discussion and quiz
Classroom Considerations
• Video assumes learners have knowledge in plate movement and tectonics
• Along with the video, the resource includes questions for guiding discussion, links for further investigation, and a quiz to check for understanding
• Provides an easy to understand, visual representation of how Mount Everest came to be
• None
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"url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/why-is-mount-everest-so-tall"
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Stock Markets
Explained by Common Craft
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Video Transcript:
The numbers we see every business day can tell us important information about our economy, but where do they come from and what do they mean?
Let's get started by talking about companies. There are two basic types. The first is called a private company. Ownership in these companies is private, which means it's not available to everyone. They are usually small to medium-sized and there are a lot of them, from the bakery down the street to a local trucking company. Private companies are typically owned by an individual or a small group of people. Because ownership is limited, we won't worry about them.
Our focus is on companies that offer ownership to everyone. These are called "public" companies. Here's how they work.
Let's say Zipper Corp is a successful company that has big plans. It wants to expand and build a button factory, but it doesn't have enough money. Because it's a public company, Zipper Corp can divide up the ownership of part of the company into thousands of pieces and sell them to people like Maya. These are company stock, also called shares. This way, Maya gets to own a small part of the company and Zipper Corp can raise money for their new factory. Being a public company allows Zipper Corp to raise money from lots of new owners like Maya.
Now, Maya's share of the company has a value that typically changes each business day. When Zipper Corp is doing well, the future of the company can look promising. This means the value of the company and the value of her shares may go up. People like Maya buy shares because they can make money by selling them at the right time. The big idea is to buy shares at a low price and sell them at a higher price. Of course, this is risky, because a company's future is hard to predict.
For example, people who believe the button factory is a good move, may want to buy Zipper Corp shares because they think the value will increase. People who believe the button factory is a bad idea, may want to sell Zipper Corp shares because they think the value will decrease. This means the company stock has both buyers and sellers.
Each business day, shares change hands, depending on how people feel about the company's future value. Some days there's more buying which can cause the stock price to rise. Some days there's more selling which can cause the stock price to fall. This is true for each public company in the market. As people buy and sell shares, stock prices can change each day. It's these exchanges, across thousands of companies and millions of people that make up a stock market.
When you see news that a stock market rose, it generally means that across public companies, the value of shares went up more than they went down. This is usually considered good news. People feel good about the future, and they're buying shares.
Now, because there are thousands of companies, there has to be an easy way to see the big picture across the market. We do this with an index, which is an average of a specific group of stock prices. Indices help us understand if markets went up or down on a given day by looking at the performance of a group of companies. For example, the Dow Jones Industrial Average is an average of the stock prices of 30 large US companies. The S&P 500 is an average of 500 companies.
We hear a lot about stock markets in the U.S., but there are stock markets all over the world. In each market, companies share ownership with the public and that ownership is exchanged over and over. And we get to see how it all comes together across public companies thanks to indices we see in the news each business day.
What it teaches:
This video is an introduction to the basic ideas behind stock markets, including:
• Why companies offer stock to the public
• Why people buy and sell stock
• Why stock prices change
• How we measure the stock markets using indices
Video Info:
• Duration: 03m 34s
• Captions Available: YES
• Lesson Plan: YES
• Category: Money
• ISTE Standard: Knowledge Constructor, Indicator 3d
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The Dik Duk Book
Pirchei Shoshanim Books
The Hebrew Language is built around three-letter root words, each of which forms the core of the nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech relating to that root. The nuances of eating, feeding, being fed, digesting, being eaten, gluttony, slaughtering knife, devouring, eatable and, indeed, the word “food” itself, are all created by the addition of predictable and consistent prefixed, suffixed, infixes (inserted letters), and vowels which attach to a single, unique, three-letter root (shoresh). The keys to understanding are: identifying the root and identifying the function of the letters and vowels attaching to the root. This book can teach you to do that, in just a few hours.
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Women in Classical Music History
March is Women's History Month as we make up for lost time, all that time lost by glossing over—or entirely ignoring—the contributions of women in history.
While we fill in the blanks by telling the stories of women who contributed to math, science, innovations, politics and cultural development, we also recognize the contributions women have made to classical music throughout history.
They had quite a time of it, those talented women in past centuries who had a mark to make in the field of composition and music performance. In polite society, it was considered immodest for women to perform in public, and it was a common belief that women's brains weren't designed to handle the complex work of composing. They made excellent audience members, though, and their piano and vocal skills were great fun at parties.
The thing is, women did make great contributions to music, despite the restraints put on them.
Of course, we know about Mozart and Mendelssohn's sisters, Maria and Fanny. And we're familiar with Clara Schumann's work. But are we as familiar with Hildegard von Bingen, the 12th-century composer of music and morality plays for the church? Most of her work survives today.
What about Francesca Caccini, whose songs and operas were often attributed to her father? In the 1620s, she was the highest paid musician in the court. And then there was Louise Farrenc, the 19th-century pianist, composer and respected educator who successfully campaigned to receive equal pay for her work at the Paris Conservatory.
There are many more composers and performers who also happened to be women. You can read about a few of them here, in a New York Times article complete with sound files.
Note: The painting above is of Hildegard von Bingen.
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A multiplet, in spectroscopy, is a set of closely spaced, spectral lines showing fine structure. A multiplet arises from the splitting of a single line by, for example, electron spin or spin-orbit coupling.
In nuclear physics, a group of elementary particles, all hadrons with about the same mass, identical in all other properties except electric charge, usually having two or three members. The nucleons and pions form multiplet. In strong nuclear force interactions, members of a multiplet are all equivalent. A supermultiplet is a larger, more sophisticated and symmetrical grouping of hadrons involving eight quantum numbers, all of whose members have identical spin.
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Trapezium zoom
How many times increase area of trapezoid if all sides and altitude increase 5 times?
x = 25
Solution in text x =
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isoscele_trapezoid Trapezoid YSED (YS||ED) is isosceles. The size of the angle at vertex Y is 17 degrees. Calculate the size of the angle at vertex E.
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Slavery Prevented These Black Geniuses From Being Recognized
History credits Cyrus McCormick as the sole inventor of the mechanical reaper which modernized farming.
But it was actually his enslaved fieldhand, Jo Anderson, who worked into the night improving the machine that would later be patented by, credited to, and profitable for Cyrus alone.
Working as the manager of his owner’s general store, an enslaved man named Benjamin Montgomery found a solution to late deliveries.
Realizing supply boats carrying goods could not navigate river depths well, he created a steam-operated propeller to speed up the process. His patent was rejected because he was enslaved.
Master carpenter Henry Boyd wouldn’t let his enslavement and lack of patent keep him from making money off of his invention, the Boyd Bedstead.
He stamped each product for credit and sales earned him enough money to buy freedom for him and his siblings.
Benjamin Bradley was another Black man whose invention - the first steam engine to power a 1840s naval warship - helped fund freedom for himself and his family.
Despite schemes and rejections, many Black inventors got the last laugh!
The U.S. Patent office denied slave owner Oscar J. E. Stuart his application for trying to claim his captive Ned’s cotton scraper invention (a device Stuart could not even explain) as his own! Smh.
We have a quick favor to ask:
• We fight for CRIMINAL JUSTICE REFORM to protect our community.
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Alternative forms[edit]
Etymology 1[edit]
From Middle English threp (a rebuke), from the verb (see below).
Alternative etymology derives Middle English threp, from Old English *þrēap (contention, strife) (attested only as Old English þrēap, in the sense of "troop, band"), ultimately from the same Germanic origin below.
threap (plural threaps) (Scotland)
1. an altercation, quarrel, argument
2. an accusation or serious charge
3. stubborn insistence
4. a superstition or freet
Etymology 2[edit]
From Middle English threpen (to scold), from Old English þrēapian (to reprove, reprehend, punish, blame), from Proto-Germanic *þraupōną (to punish), from Proto-Germanic *þrawō (torment, punishment), from Proto-Germanic *þrawjaną (to torment, injure, exhaust), from Proto-Indo-European *trōw- (to beat, wound, kill, torment). Akin to Old English þrēagan (to rebuke, punish, chastise), þrēa (correction, punishment), þrōwian (to suffer). More at throe.
threap (third-person singular simple present threaps, present participle threaping, simple past and past participle threaped or threapt) (Scotland)
1. (transitive) To contradict
2. To scold; rebuke
3. To cry out; complain; contend
4. To argue; bicker
• Percy's Reliques
It's not for a man with a woman to threap.
5. To call; name
6. To cozen or cheat
7. To maintain obstinately against denial or contradiction.
He threaped me down that it was so.
• 1785, Burns, Robert, Epistle To William Simson Schoolmaster, Ochiltree:
Some herds, weel learn'd upo' the beuk, / Wad threap auld folk the thing misteuk;
8. To beat or thrash.
9. To insist on
Derived terms[edit]
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The Full Wiki
Belgian Resistance: Map
Wikipedia article:
Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:
Belgian resistance during World War II to occupation of Belgiummarker by Nazi Germany took different forms. "The Belgian Resistance" was the common name for the Netwerk van de weerstand - Réseau de Résistance or Resistance Network (RR), a group of partisans fighting Nazi occupation of Belgium. Belgian resistance fighters performed various roles, including sabotaging Nazi installations and helping rescue downed Allied fliers.
Andrée de Jongh organized the Comet Line (Komeet Lijn - Le Reseau Comète) for escaped Allied soldiers. Albert Guérisse organized escape routes for downed Allied pilots under the alias of Patrick Albert "Pat" O'Leary; his escape line was dubbed the Pat Line.
Andree Antoine Dumon helped rescue 27 Allied fliers and worked as a courier for the resistance. Baron Georges Schnek, operating mainly in Francemarker and who was Jewish, helped provide false ID papers and ration coupons to fleeing Jewish families.
Georges Schoeters, co-founder and member of the FLQ, worked as a courier towards the end of the war until he was captured by the Nazis.
Belgium was a neutral country but by November 1939 intelligence reports of an impending German attack reached a peak. The Germans had invaded Polandmarker and Francemarker had declared war on Germany. The Germans wanted to remove potential aggressors to their west to avoid fighting on two fronts, a strategy which crippled their abilities in World War I. The German Army needed to push through neutral Belgium in order to attack France. The French and British sent soldiers to aid in the fight against the Germans but despite their efforts, the Germans secured the unconditional surrender of Belgium after 18 days of fighting. The King of Belgium, King Leopold III, went against his cabinet by deciding to surrender the country. King Leopold III was taken as a prisoner of war and was later accused by his countrymen of collaborating with the Germans. Despite this, while imprisoned, in 1942 he sent a letter to Adolf Hitler which has been credited with saving an estimated 500,000 Belgian women and children from deportation to munitions factories in Germany. The members of the cabinet retreated to England, where they set up government. Immediately after the surrender, resistance groups were formed to harass the German Army. Due to Germany's failure to sway the Belgian citizens during the German occupation in World War I, the invading army sought to establish itself as a liberating force from British imperialism. However, many citizens were quick to aid in the fight against the Germans. The situation in Belgium is documented in Roger Motz's book Belgium Unvanquished in which Motz describes the atmosphere of resistance as being "relentless".Due to the large number of Belgian citizens who were willing to aid the resistance fighters, supply lines were established and evasion routes were charted. The Belgian resistance fighters were determined to aid the Allies in any way they could.
Unusually the Belgian resistance would also come to include the Légion Belge, a far right resistance movement led by dissident Rexists who opposed occupation and the National Legion of Paul Hoornaert.
The Independence Front, a mostly communist-led resistance network, was one of the most important in Belgium. It included a specific Austrian communist network, the Österreichische Freiheitsfront.
Downed Airmen
The Germans sent out patrols of men with dogs and motorcycles to search for any Allied soldier who was shot down. The resistance groups were quick to beat the Germans to the downed flyers. Parachutes needed to be immediately buried and pilots were hidden from the Germans. The Comet Line had a series of safe houses throughout Belgium. Allied airmen were given civilian clothes and frequently moved from house to house, staying with Belgian families who supported the resistance. The resistance would aid the airmen by giving them false papers and guiding them to either neutral or Allied occupied territory. German soldiers would fail to recognize that some of the men passing through their checkpoints were actually allied pilots who were being transported out of Belgium. One incident was captured on film where a German soldier was shown lighting the cigarette of an American Navigator who was disguised as a Belgian civilian.Miller, Russell. The Resistance:WWII Time Life Education. 1979. Though many airmen were able to escape successfully, many others were caught by the Germans, sometimes after months of successful evasion. Captured soldiers were interrogated by the Gestapo before being imprisoned in Belgium or transported back to German POW camps.
Bridge over the Ambleve River
German troops were moved by train from stations in Belgium. The resistance network monitored these transport trains to determine the patterns of German troop movement. Herman Bodson was a Belgian chemist before the war broke out in Europe. Bodson was heavily involved with the Comet line and worked with allied Special Forces during the war. He also served as a medic during the Battle of the Bulge He worked with several resistance units in and around Brussels. Allied commanders passed on targets to the men, who would carry out the sabotage missions. Bodson had received reports that the German Army was constantly sending trains full of German soldiers throughout Belgium. The resistance network quickly identified when and where troop trains would be traveling. The plan was to destroy a vital bridge between the towns of La Gleize and Stoumontmarker. A group of nearly 40 members of the Belgian Resistance assembled at the bridge and quickly began placing explosives on the bridge's center arch. As a German troop train approached the bridge, the explosives were detonated. The train, unable to stop in time, crashed into the river killing all 600 German soldiers aboard.Belgian saboteurs received much of their supplies, including explosives and arms by stealing them from German munitions dumps and during skirmishes with the German Army. One faction of the resistance, known as Group G carried out numerous successful sabotage missions. The Germans were continuously tested by the resistance groups. Throughout the war Group G caused the Germans to expend 20 million man-hours of labor to repair damages done by the underground.Miller, Russell. The Resistance:WWII Time Life Education. 1979.
Resistance fighters were constantly working to overthrow the occupying Germans. Their missions often went unseen but any resistance fighters captured by the Germans would either be imprisoned or shot. Losses were felt hard in the resistance community. Members were always at risk of being captured or betrayed. The Germans had special agents working against the resistance forces. The agents were told to make connections within the underground communities in order to gather intelligence. Escape routes were sometimes traps and many downed airmen, as well as resistance fighters, were captured this way. German soldiers, working within the resistance groups were responsible for the arrests of hundreds of Belgian citizens, Allied soldiers and resistance fighters.
One of the objectives of the resistance was to provide an evasion route for Allied pilots who had been shot down over areas occupied by the Germans. Many of the resistance fighters sought to harass the German Army into withdrawing from Belgian territories.
Resistance fighters were also credited with stopping a train which was transporting Jewish prisoners to Auschwitzmarker. This train was labeled the Twentieth convoy.William Herskovic />.
The use of sabotage as an effective weapon was not heavily utilized until World War II. The German Army lost thousands of trains during the war due to acts of sabotage. German units were spread throughout Europe and many smaller units were targeted by resistance fighters. Ambushes were a common tactic used. Rail lines were very often targeted to disrupt the flow of materials and men for the German Army. Stretches of track were rigged with explosive charges and would be set to explode as the train passes over them. The resistance groups costs the German Army millions of dollars worth of equipment and had a large psychological effect on the German soldiers. By stalling and delaying the German forces, the Belgian Resistance group prevented the Axis from ever establishing a stable base of operations in occupied Belgium.
Popular Culture
A 1977 film, Secret Agents, dealt with the Belgian Resistance.
A BBC series, Secret Army, was filmed during the late 1970s based on Comète Line
An American documentary in 2006 called "Last Best Hope" premiered in Brussels for Prince Phillipe, the Belgian Army, and diplomats from five countries. Film makers David Grosvenor, Mat Hames, Ramona Kelly, and Walter Verstraeten presented the film to surviving Belgian Resistance members Andrée de Jongh, Raymond Itterbeek, Michou and Nadine Dumon and others. An edited version aired in the U.S. on PBS in 2006 and 2007 and on European television in 2007.
A History Channel documentary called Nazi Ghost Train was released in 2000 and interviews members of the Belgian Resistance at a reunion. Surviving Allied pilots also attend to pay respect to the men and women who risked their lives to keep them from falling into German hands.
See also
4.José GOTOVITCH. Du Rouge au tricolore : les communistes belges de 1939 à 1944 : un aspect de l’histoire de la Résistance en Belgique. Bruxelles : Éd. Labor, 1992. (Archives du futur – Histoire). 609 p.
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Socratic Irony
Definition and Connection to Socratic Method of Teaching
statue of Socrates sitting and thinking
thegreekphotoholic/Getty Images
Socratic irony is a technique used in the Socratic method of teaching. Irony is a communication technique employed when someone says something that conveys a message that contradicts the literal words. In the case of Socratic irony, Socrates might pretend to think his students wise or he might denigrate his own intelligence, as by pretending he doesn't know the answer.
According to the article "Socratic irony" in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Simon Blackburn. Oxford University Press, 2008), a Socratic irony is "Socrates's irritating tendency to praise his hearers while undermining them, or to disparage his own superior abilities while manifesting them."
Someone attempting to use Socratic irony might sound like the old television detective Columbo who always disparaged his own talents to make the suspect think he was an idiot.
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Play Video
Scientists use ‘x-ray vision’ to see how catfish nab prey
(Credit: Pexels)
Scientists used a powerful X-ray imaging system to discover how catfish move joints throughout their head in a concerted manner to suck in their prey.
The imaging system, which tracked catfish as they caught and swallowed prey, helped scientists develop a precise understanding of the complex set of motions required to create the suction necessary to eat. They found that many of the bones in the catfish skull work in a coordinated manner to catch food—but move more independently when it’s time to swallow.
“Fish have the most mobile skulls of vertebrates,” says Aaron Olsen, a postdoctoral research associate in Brown University’s ecology and evolutionary biology department. “Fish have over a dozen moving pieces in their skull, and they’re all connected together by joints and ligaments in these closed loops called ‘linkages’ in engineering.
A video of a catfish catching and swallowing an earthworm that shows the coordinated head movements necessary to feed. (Credit: Brainerd Lab/Brown)
“In comparison, humans have moving lower jaws and middle ear bones, but that’s it. The heads of fishes also have very diverse shapes, so we can study how these complex systems evolved in lots of different linages of fishes.”
Bones and muscles
To make the observations, researchers used a 3D-imaging technology called X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology (XROMM). The technology combines CT scans of a skeleton with high-speed X-ray video, aided by tiny implanted metal markers, to create visualizations of how bones and muscles move inside humans and animals.
The technique is so precise that scientists can track movements with errors equivalent to only the width of a human hair.
“XROMM basically gives us X-ray vision to watch how multiple bones move within an animal as they perform a behavior,” Olsen says.
catfish skull image
A model of a catfish skull with each bone highlighted in a different color. Catfish have over a dozen moving pieces in their skull. (Credit: Aaron Olsen/Brown)
In this study, the team used XROMM to watch three catfish catch and swallow prey—including food pellets, bits of squid, and earthworms. First, the fish move their whisker-like barbels back and forth in the tank.
Immediately after a barbel touches a piece of food, four primary bones that surround the mouth and throat expand outward in a consistent and coordinated manner to form the suction necessary to catch it.
On the other hand, these bones move more independently and less consistently as the fish swallow. Olsen isn’t certain why swallowing is less coordinated.
The result of the XROMM video of catfish capturing and then swallowing prey
The result of the XROMM video of catfish capturing and then swallowing prey, showing the strong coordination the four primary skull bones during prey capture and the more independent movements of the bones during swallowing. (Credit: Brainerd Lab/Brown)
“It seems like different tasks need different levels of coordination,” Olsen said. “But what determines a good level of coordination for a specific task is an open question. What our study shows is that these natural behaviors have different levels of coordination. We’re not sure if they strictly require different levels of coordination.”
Different shapes, same tasks
Previous research from the lab of professor and senior researcher Elizabeth Brainerd used XROMM to study the feeding behavior of other fish, including bass and sharks. Largemouth bass protrude their jaws, which helps catch prey, but catfish can’t protrude their jaws that way, Olsen says. Instead, the bone critical for that action in bass evolved into the base of the whisker-like barbels in catfish.
Bamboo sharks are distantly related to all bony fish, including catfish. However, both bamboo sharks and catfish have powerful shoulders, or pectoral girdles, that both species move extensively during feeding, Olsen says.
Comparing different species of fish with different body shapes, skull structures, and feeding behaviors can clarify how fish with different body shapes evolved different structures and mechanisms to solve similar tasks, Olsen says.
Olsen is in the process of constructing a model to explain how the bones and ligaments that comprise the catfish skull move together as a complex system.
The paper appears in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Additional coauthors are from Brown and George Washington University. The National Science Foundation and the Bushnell Research and Education Fund supported the research.
Source: Brown University
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Of Mice and Men. How does the Soledad ranch represent 1930s America?
Extracts from this document...
How does the Soledad ranch represent 1930s' America? Steinbeck wrote the novel 'of mice and men' in 1937. He wrote the novel to portray how migrant workers lived. The message he was trying to convey was the American dream and the great depression. Steinbeck conveys this message through the variety of characters he uses in the book. In my essay I will be examining racism, sexism , loneliness , isolation and itinerant workers. The presence of Curley's wife is inappropriate in the ranch as she not seen to be participating in any of the work that is done there. Steinbeck conveys this image of curleys wife in order to comment upon sexism in the 1930s', by showing that women weren't suitable to work on ranches he writes that "her fingernails were red" . The choice of the colour red is to portray Curley's wife in a provocative image as the colour red signifies passion and sexuality. ...read more.
Steinbeck writes about him as a hard working character; although crooks' life is difficult, he appears to remain dedicated to his job. The fact that he opens the door 'quietly' is perhaps an indication of crooks respect towards the other men on the ranch. Steinbeck wants the reader to feel apologetic for crooks, given that this book was aimed at a 1930s' audience; maybe he wanted the reader to query their ideas about race. The way Steinbeck picks and orders the language effectively shows crooks' qualities and how hard-working he was. Steinbeck does this to show 1930s' America and how migrant and itinerant workers acted on ranches. Candy is isolated and has no friend's apart from an animal. His dog is his company and his sole equivalent to a friend. "I had him since he was a pup." This quotation shows the loneliness and effects of the great depression in the 1930s. ...read more.
This shows that they live in an uncared and unstable habitat. The Soledad ranch represents the poor conditions that people in ranches were living in during the 1930s. The American dream was an opportunity for every American to have a dream about fame, money and peace. Steinbeck uses the dream as a goal that all the characters want to aim for. George and lennie have a dream: their dream is to work get money and live the American dream. Steinbeck shows this when George and lennie are talking by the brush. "With us it aint like that. We got a future. They hold on to their dream as it gives them something to look forward to. Curley's wife also has a dream: she wants to be a movie star "he says he was gonna put me in the movies. Says I was a natural. Soon he got back to Hollywood he was gonna write to me about it. This also shows that Curleys wife is a 1930s unconventional housewife which Links back to sexism, as Curley's wife is shown to be holding on to a dream that is unlikely to happen. ...read more.
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See related essaysSee related essays
Related GCSE John Steinbeck essays
George Milton and Lennie Small seem to have a father-son relationship. But, eventhough they have a good relationship, there are flaws. George has the huge burden of caring for Lennie all of the time. As a result of this, George is isolated and lonely.
2. How does life on the ranch reflect the social issues of 1930's America
The weakest had to cope with a hard life and were sometimes eliminated from the society with loneliness and even death. As a great example of this, Steinbeck created a character in his novel called Candy, who was old and had lost his left hand in an accident.
In a way, Lennie idolises George and you can see that from the way Lennie used to listen and hang on to every word George said. Even though he forgot what was said to him most of the time, I think, whatever George said to him was in his mind somewhere.
2. 'How does the novel Of Mice And Men reflect life in the 1930s'
Also when Lennie Crushed Curley's hand Slim tells him to say that he hurt his hand in a machine. Curley is the boss' son, he has a big ego and is very aggressive and quick tempered. He tries to pick fights with every one possibly because he wants control.
1. What does the novel 'Of mice and men' tell you about the way of ...
Why'n't you shoot him Candy?" Later on Carlson shoots him in the back of the head. This shows us that life in the 1930's was unpleasant and not many people knew the meaning of true friendship. It also shows us that people that lived in that time were very selfish and didn't care about other people's feelings.
Curley's wife is lonely so she comes to Crooks' bunk for some company. Unexpectedly Curley's wife enters the room, she disguises her need to be around people and asks "Any you boys seen Curley?" but Crooks and Curley rudely welcome her and says, "Curley ain't been here."
1. How does the novel Of Mice And Men reflect life in the 1930s?
came into the bunkhouse looking for a fight slim just stood up and Curley backed down. Also when Lennie Crushed Curleys hand slim tells him to say that he hurt his hand in a machine. Curley is the boss' son, he has a big ego and is very aggressive and quick tempered.
? Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world?. Steinbeck re-introduces and anchors the possibility of the dreams. The use of the superlative ?loneliest? reinforces the isolation which migrant workers experienced. However, the use of divergent pronouns such as ?us?, ?we? and ?them? establish their division from the rest of the migrant workers.
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SEM-Photographs of Bacillariophyceae
Bayerisches Landesamt für Wasserwirtschaft
The diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) with their approximately 16,000 genera represent the richest group among the algae. They exist as individuals or in colonies, with every diatom consisting of one single cell surrounded by a rigid cellular wall. Unique in the entire realm of plants, the diatoms have a cellular wall, where silicate is embedded in a way that it forms each type of typical structures of amazing beauty. The two valves of the cellular wall form a box, where the edges of the top surpass the edges of the bottom. Diatoms can be found almost everywhere; there is hardly a biotope, humid permanently or at least periodically, which is not occupied by them. As the base of the food chain, they are playing an important ecological part.
Diatoms exist since the Jurassic-Age, which means since approximately 190 millions of years. Their shells have built whole geological formations called diatomite.
After Simonsen (1979) the diatoms are divided in two orders:
1. Structural center normally formed by a point, auxospore formation by oogamy: Centrales
2. Structural center normally formed by a line, auxospore formation not by oogamy: Pennales
Literature: Simonsen, R. (1979). the Diatom System: Ideas on Phylogeny. Bacillaria 2: 9–71. J.Cramer, Braunschweig.
© Bayerisches Landesamt für Wasserwirtschaft 2001–2019. All rights reserved.
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The male resplendent quetzal bird has evolved to have tail feathers that are approximately 60 cm long. The female quetzal has short tail feathers. Using the quetzal as your example, describe how the mechanism of natural selection may have led to the evolution of the male quetzal’s extraordinarily long tail feathers.
Apr 5, 2019
It's probably that the female prefers long tail feathers - your guess is as good as mine why she would - so the females allow the males with longer tail feathers to mate with them. Since the males with long tail feathers mate more, there are more long-tailed offspring to carry that trait and keep passing it on.
Apr 5, 2019
It has to be understood that the reason behind the male quetzal’s extraordinarily long tail feathers must have been due to the preferring of males with long feathers by the females. this ultimately led to the extinction of the males with smaller feathers. I hope that this is the answer that has come to your help.
-- 7H3_5H4D0W
Apr 5, 2019
13 Online Users
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The Oromo (Oromo: OromooOromo), are an ethnic group inhabiting Ethiopia, northern Kenya, and parts of Somalia. With 30 million members, they constitute the single largest ethnicity in Ethiopia and the wider Horn of Africa, at approximately 34.49% of Ethiopia’s population according to the 2007 census. Oromos speak the Oromo language as a mother tongue (also called Afaan Oromo and Oromiffa), which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. The name was given as Ilm’ Orma (“Sons of Men” or an eponymous ‘Orma’) in the 19th century; the present form is probably an obsolete plural of the same word orma
Oromos are the largest Cushitic-speaking group of people living in Northeast Africa. Available information suggests that they have existed as a community in the Horn of Africa for several millennia (Prouty et al., 1981). Bates (1979) contends that the Oromo “were a very ancient race, the indigenous stock, perhaps, on which most other peoples in this part of eastern Africa have been grafted”. While further research is needed to precisely comprehend their origins, the Oromo are believed to have originally adhered to a pastoralist/nomadic and/or semi-agriculturalist lifestyle. Many historians agree that some Oromo clans (Bale) have lived in the southern tip of present-day Ethiopia for over a millennium. They suggest that a Great trade-influenced Oromo migration brought most Oromos to present-day central and western Ethiopia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Historical maps of the ancient Aksum/Abyssinian Empire andAdal/Somali empires indicate that Oromo people are newcomers to most of modern-day central Ethiopia
The Oromo speak the Oromo language as a mother tongue (also known as Afaan Oromo and Oromiffa). It belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. According to Ethnologue, there are around 40,467,900 Oromo speakers worldwide.]The Oromo language is divided into four main linguistic varieties: Borana-Arsi-Guji Oromo, Eastern Oromo, Orma and West Central Oromo. Modern writing systems used to transcribe Oromo include the Latin script. The Ethiopic script had previously been used by Oromo communities in west-central Ethiopia up until the 1990s. Additionally, the Sapalo script was historically used to write Oromo. It was invented by the Oromo scholar Sheikh Bakri Sapalo (also known by his birth name, Abubaker Usman Odaa) during the 1950s. The Arabic script has also traditionally been used in areas with Muslim population
The Tutsis are thought to have originally been cattle-herding warriors, similar in culture to the famous Maasai, but from a different racial stock. They brought with them hump less cattle, new to the area. The Bantu people were farmers and fishers, though they also kept the Zebu cattle popular all over Africa, and common among the Bantu peoples. Gold work has been practiced in some parts of Oromia. Goldsmiths specialize in making earrings, necklaces, and other gold objects. There are Oromos who specialize in making other utensils from horn, pottery, and leather. Mugs, spoons, and containers for honey wine are made from horn. Basins, dishes, water jars, and vessels are made from pottery. Various kinds of bags to hold milk are made from leather.
Waaq (also Waq or Waaqa) is the name of God in the traditional Oromo religion, which only about 3% of the population of Oromia follows today, those who do usually living in the Borena Zone. In the 2007 Ethiopian census in the 88% Oromo region of Oromia, 47.5% were Muslims, 30.5% Orthodox Christians, 17.7% Protestant Christian, 3.3% Traditional. Protestant Christianity is the fastest growing religion inside the Oromo community. In urban areas of Oromia, Orthodox Christianity constitutes 51.2% of the population, followed by Islam 29.9% and Protestants 17.5%. adherence to traditional practices and rituals is still common among many Oromo people regardless of religious background
Some Oromo men wear woya (toga-like robes), and some women wear wandabiti (skirts). Others wear leather garments or animal skin robes, and some women wear qollo and sadetta (women’s cloth made of cotton).Modern garments from around the world are also worn. In cash-producing areas and cities, Oromos wear modern Western-style clothes. Oromos have clothes designated for special days. They call the clothes that they wear on holidays or other important day’s kitii and the clothes that they wear on working days logo
en.www.wikipedia.com, www.everyculture.com
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Modular Number System
By:Goh Yingyan Go See Yee Lee Fang Mei Ng Qi An
Carl Friedrich Gauss
Modular arithmetic
modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" after they reach a certain valuethe modulus.
A familiar use of modular arithmetic is its use in the 12-hour clock. In which the day is divided into two 12 hour periods.
For Example
Suppose a doctor prescribes you a pill which you have to take every 4 hours.What time should you take the next pill if you had taken the first pill at 11am.
For Example
Suppose you are canning pickles following a recipe that calls for soaking mangoes in brine for 30 hours.If you put the mangoes into brine at 10.00am,determine when you have to take them out.
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What Is A Scutoid? It Is A New Shape Maybe All Over You
The epithelium is tissue formed of cells organized in layers. It serves covering, secretory and protective functions. Pictured here is a typical depiction of epithelial cells. But are they really shaped this way? (Photo by: QAI Publishing/UIG via Getty Images)
The scutoid of trust.
A scutoid peg in a round hole.
Bizarre love scutoid.
The word scutoid hasn't quite reached everyday lexicon as a shape yet because it is a really, really new shape. As described by a publication in Nature Communications entitled "Scutoids are a geometrical solution to three-dimensional packing of epithelia", a team from the Universidad de Sevilla, Campus Universidad Pablo de Olavide, and Lehigh University discovered and named a new shape.
Where can you find this shape? Look at yourself. No, your entire body is probably not shaped like a scutoid. But parts of you may be. Many, many parts. Many very very small parts called epithelial cells, the cells that help form the outer surface of your skin and line the insides of your organs such as your intestines.
Epithelial cells form protective barriers and thus must stay tightly packed together to not allow gaps and to communicate with each other. Traditional three-dimensional shapes such as columns or cubes may not permit the cells to remain tightly beside each other when an epithelial layer is curved, because, as you know, your skin and your organs are not completely flat unless you are a cartoon character.
Therefore, the team developed computational models of epithelial layers to determine the cell shapes that would allow close packing when the surfaces are curved. The result was a new shape that they ended naming the scutoid, pronounced SCOO-Toid. While this sounds sort of like a steroid for Scooby Doo, the team decided on the name because the shape resembles the scutum or scutulum, a part of the thorax of a beetle, the insect and not a member of the musical group. A scutoid kind of looks like a prism but not really as shown by this Tweet from one of the study authors:
After the computational model identified this shape, the researchers searched for and found similar shapes in the epithelial cells of fruit flies and zebra fish.
So add the scutoid to the list of obscure shape names that you can use to impress someone on a date that includes squircles (which is what happens when a square mates with a circle), heptagrams (which is a 7-pointed star), and annuli (which is not dirty but a ring shape). Is it only a matter of time before scutoid hats reach the catwalk?
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Marginal value theorem
The marginal value theorem (MVT) is an optimality model that usually describes the behavior of an optimally foraging individual in a system where resources (often food) are located in discrete patches separated by areas with no resources. Due to the resource-free space, animals must spend time traveling between patches. The MVT can also be applied to other situations in which organisms face diminishing returns.
The MVT was first proposed by Eric Charnov in 1976. In his original formulation: "The predator should leave the patch it is presently in when the marginal capture rate in the patch drops to the average capture rate for the habitat."[1]
All animals must forage for food in order to meet their energetic needs, but doing so is energetically costly. It is assumed that evolution by natural selection results in animals utilizing the most economic and efficient strategy to balance energy gain and consumption. The Marginal Value Theorem is an optimality model that describes the strategy that maximizes gain per unit time in systems where resources, and thus rate of returns, decrease with time.[2] The model weighs benefits and costs and is used to predict giving up time and giving up density. Giving up time (GUT) is the interval of time between when the animal last feeds and when it leaves the patch. Giving up density (GUD) is the food density within a patch when the animal will choose to move on to other food patches.
When an animal is foraging in a system where food sources are patchily distributed, the MVT can be used to predict how much time an individual will spend searching for a particular patch before moving on to a new one. In general, individuals will stay longer if (1) patches are farther apart or (2) current patches are poor in resources. Both situations increase the ratio of travel cost to foraging benefit.
As animals forage in patchy systems, they balance resource intake, traveling time, and foraging time. Resource intake within a patch diminishes with time, as shown by the solid curve in the graph to the right. The curve follows this pattern because resource intake is initially very fast, but slows as the resource is depleted. Traveling time is shown by the distance from the leftmost vertical dotted line to the y-axis. Optimal foraging time is modeled by connecting this point on the x-axis tangentially to the resource intake curve. Doing so maximizes the ratio between resource intake and time spent foraging and traveling.
At the extremes of the loading curve, animals spend too much time traveling for a small payoff, or they search too long in a given patch for an ineffective load. The MVT identifies the best possible intermediate between these extremes.
1. The individual is assumed to control when it leaves the patch in order to maximize the ratio between resource intake and time.
2. The consumer depletes the amount of resources in the patch where he/she is foraging; therefore, the rate of intake of food in that patch decreases as a function of time.
3. If there is variation in the quality of patches, the MVT assumes that different patches are distributed randomly throughout the landscape.
A common illustration of the MVT is apple picking in humans. When one first arrives at a new apple tree, the number of apples picked per minute is high, but it rapidly decreases as the lowest-hanging fruits are depleted. Strategies in which too few apples are picked from each tree or where each tree is exhausted are suboptimal because they result, respectively, in time lost travelling among trees or picking the hard to find last few apples from a tree. The optimal time spent picking apples in each tree is thus a compromise between these two strategies, which can be quantitatively found using the MVT.
Optimal foraging in great tits
Great tits are a species of bird found throughout Europe, northern Africa, and Asia. They are known to forage in “patchy” environments, and research has shown that their behavior can be modeled by optimal foraging models, including the MVT. In a 1977 study by R.A. Cowie,[3] birds were deprived of food and then allowed to forage through patches in two different environments (the environments differed only in distance between patches). As predicted, in both cases birds spent more time in one area when the patches were farther away or yielded more benefits, regardless of the environment. In a similar experiment by Naef-Daenzer (1999),[4] great tits were shown to have a foraging efficiency 30% better than random foraging would yield. This is because great tits were specifically spending more time in resource-rich areas, as predicted by the MVT. This data supports the use of the MVT in predicting the foraging behavior of great tits.
Feeding in hairy armadillos and guinea pigs
Experimental evidence has shown that screaming hairy armadillos and guinea pigs qualitatively follow MVT when foraging.[5] The researchers ran several parallel experiments: one for each animal under consistent patch quality, and one for guinea pigs with varying patch quality. While the qualitative foraging trend was shown to follow MVT in each case, the quantitative analysis indicated that each patch was exploited further than expected.
Plant root growth
The MVT can be used to model foraging in plants as well as animals. Plants have been shown to preferentially place their roots, which are their foraging organs, in areas of higher resource concentration. Recall that the MVT predicts that animals will forage for longer in patches with higher resource quality. Plants increase root biomass in layers/areas of soil that are rich in nutrients and resources, and decrease root growth into areas of poor-quality soil. Thus, plants grow roots into patches of soil according to their wealth of resources in a manner consistent with the MVT.[6] Additionally, plant roots grow more quickly through low-quality patches of soil than through high-quality patches of soil, just as foraging animals are predicted to spend less time in low-quality areas than high-quality areas.
Copulation time in dung flies
The MVT can be applied to situations other than foraging in which animals experience diminished returns. Consider, for example, the mating copulation duration of the yellow dung fly. In the dung fly mating system, males gather on fresh cow droppings and wait for females to arrive in smaller groups to lay their eggs. Males must compete with each other for the chance to mate with arriving females—sometimes one male will kick another male off of a female and take over mating with the female mid-copulation. In this instance, the second male fertilizes about 80% of the eggs.[7] Thus, after a male has mated with a female he guards her so that no other males will have the opportunity to mate with her and displace his sperm before she lays her eggs. After the female lays her eggs, the male must take the time to search for another female before he is able to copulate again.
The question, then, is how long the dung fly should spend copulating with each female. On one hand, the longer a male dung fly copulates the more eggs he can fertilize. However, the benefits of extra copulation time diminish quickly, as the male loses the chance to find another female during long copulations. The MVT predicts that the optimal copulation time is just long enough to fertilize about 80% of the eggs; after this time, the rewards are much smaller and are not worth missing out on another mate.[7] This predicted value for copulation time, 40 minutes, is very close to the average observed value, 36 minutes.
In dung flies, the observed values of copulation time and time searching for another mate vary with body weight. Heavier males have shorter search times and shorter copulation times. These shorter search times are likely due to increased cost of travel with increased body weight; shorter copulation times probably reflect that it is easier for heavier males to successfully take over females mid-copulation. Additionally, researchers have taken into account “patch quality,” i.e. the quality of females arriving on the various cowpats. Research also shows that males copulate for longer with the larger females who hold more eggs and have larger reproductive tract dimensions. Thus, males change their copulation time to maximize their fitness, but they are doing so in response to selection imposed by female morphology. Even with these variations, male dung flies do exhibit close-to-optimal copulation time relative to their body size, as predicted by the MVT.[8]
Many studies, such as the examples presented above, have shown good qualitative support for predictions generated by the Marginal Value Theorem. However, in some more quantitative studies, the predictions of the MVT haven’t been as successful, with the observed values substantially deviating from predictions. One proposed explanation for these deviations is that it is difficult to objectively measure payoff rates. For example, an animal in an unpredictable environment may need to spend extra time sampling, making it hard for researchers to determine foraging time.[9]
Beyond this imprecision, some researchers propose that there is something fundamental missing from the model. Namely, animals are probably doing more than just foraging, whether it be dealing with predation risks or searching for mating opportunities.[9] Natural selection is not the only force influencing the evolution of species. Sexual selection, for example, may alter foraging behaviors, making them less consistent with the MVT. These researchers point out that the marginal value theorem is a starting point, but complexity and nuances must be incorporated into models and tests for foraging and patch-use.
One other type of model that has been used in place of MVT in predicting foraging behavior is the state-dependent behavior model. Although state-dependent models have been viewed as a generalization of the MVT,[10] they are unlikely to generate broadly applicable predictions like those from the MVT because they test predictions under a specific set of conditions. While the predictions of these models must be tested under precise conditions, they might offer valuable insights not available from broader models such as MVT.[9]
See also
1. ^ Charnov, E. L. 1976. Optimal foraging: the marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology 9:129–136
2. ^ Parker, G.A. “Marginal Value Theorem with Exploitation Time Costs: Diet, Sperm Reserves, and Optimal Copula Duration in Dung Flies” (1992) The American Naturalist 139(6):1237–1256
3. ^ Cowie, R. J. (1977) “Optimal foraging in great tits (Parus Major)” Nature 268:137–139
4. ^ Naef-Daenzer, Beat (1999) “Patch time allocation and patch sampling by foraging great and blue tits” Animal Behavior 59:989–999
5. ^ Cassini, Marcelo H., Alejandro Kacelnik, and Enrique T. Segura (1990) “The tale of the screaming hairy armadillo, the guinea pig, and the marginal value theorem” Animal Behavior 39(6):1030–1050
6. ^ McNickle, Gordon G. and James F. Calhill Jr. “Plant root growth and the marginal value theorem” (2009) Proceedings of the National Academ of Sciences of the United States of America 106(12):4747–4751
7. ^ a b Parker, G. A. and R. A. Stuart (1976) “Animal Behavior as a Strategy Optimizer: Evolution of Resource Assessment Strategies and Optimal Emigration Thresholds” The American Naturalist 110(976):1055–1076
8. ^ Parker, Geoffrey A., Leigh W. Simmons, Paula Stockley, Doreen M. McChristie, and Eric L. Charnov. (1999) “Optimal copula duration in yellow dung flies: effects of female size and egg content.” Animal Behavior 57:795–805
9. ^ a b c Nonacs, Peter. “State dependent behavior and the marginal value theorem.” (2001) Behavioral Ecology 12(1):71–83
10. ^ Wajnberg Eric, Pierre Bernhard, Frederic Hamelin and Guy Boivin (2006). "Optimal patch time allocation for time-limited foragers." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 60, 1–10
Bacterivores are free-living, generally heterotrophic organisms, exclusively microscopic, which obtain energy and nutrients primarily or entirely from the consumption of bacteria. Many species of amoeba are bacterivores, as well as other types of protozoans. Commonly, all species of bacteria will be prey, but spores of some species, such as Clostridium perfringens, will never be prey, because of their cellular attributes.
Decomposers are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, they carry out the natural process of decomposition. Like herbivores and predators, decomposers are heterotrophic, meaning that they use organic substrates to get their energy, carbon and nutrients for growth and development. While the terms decomposer and detritivore are often interchangeably used, detritivores must ingest and digest dead matter via internal processes while decomposers can directly absorb nutrients through chemical and biological processes hence breaking down matter without ingesting it. Thus, invertebrates such as earthworms, woodlice, and sea cucumbers are technically detritivores, not decomposers, since they must ingest nutrients and are unable to absorb them externally.
Dominance (ecology)
Most ecological communities are defined by their dominant species.
In many examples of wet woodland in western Europe, the dominant tree is alder (Alnus glutinosa).
In temperate bogs, the dominant vegetation is usually species of Sphagnum moss.
Tidal swamps in the tropics are usually dominated by species of mangrove (Rhizophoraceae)
Some sea floor communities are dominated by brittle stars.
Exposed rocky shorelines are dominated by sessile organisms such as barnacles and limpets.
Energy Systems Language
Eric Charnov
Charnov gained his B.S. in 1969 from the University of Michigan and his PhD in evolutionary ecology from the University of Washington in 1973. He is a Distinguished Professor (Emeritus) of Biology at the University of New Mexico and the University of Utah.
His research interests are: metabolic ecology (temperature and body size in the determination of biological times and rates), evolutionary ecology (population genetics), evolutionary game theory, and optimization models to understand the evolution of life histories, sex allocation, sexual selection, and foraging decisions.
Feeding frenzy
In ecology, a feeding frenzy occurs when predators are overwhelmed by the amount of prey available. For example, a large school of fish can cause nearby sharks, such as the lemon shark, to enter into a feeding frenzy. This can cause the sharks to go wild, biting anything that moves, including each other or anything else within biting range. Another functional explanation for feeding frenzy is competition amongst predators. This term is most often used when referring to sharks or piranhas. It has also been used as a term within journalism.
Eric Charnov, who developed the marginal value theorem to predict the behavior of foragers using patches;
Sir Kevin Durant, with work on the optimal diet model in relation to tits and chickadees;
John Gross-Custard, who first tested the optimal diet model against behavior in the field, using redshank, and then proceeded to an extensive study of foraging in the common pied oystercatcher
A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria.
A lithoautotroph or chemolithoautotroph is a microbe which derives energy from reduced compounds of mineral origin. Lithoautotrophs are a type of lithotrophs with autotrophic metabolic pathways. Lithoautotrophs are exclusively microbes; macrofauna do not possess the capability to use mineral sources of energy. Most lithoautotrophs belong to the domain Bacteria, while some belong to the domain Archaea. For lithoautotrophic bacteria, only inorganic molecules can be used as energy sources. The term "Lithotroph" is from Greek lithos (λίθος) meaning "rock" and trōphos (τροφοσ) meaning "consumer"; literally, it may be read "eaters of rock". Many lithoautotrophs are extremophiles, but this is not universally so.
Lithoautotrophs are extremely specific in using their energy source. Thus, despite the diversity in using inorganic molecules in order to obtain energy that lithoautotrophs exhibit as a group, one particular lithoautotroph would use only one type of inorganic molecule to get its energy.
MVT may refer to:
Maldives time, UTC+05:00
Mapnik Vector Tile, vector tile format
The Marchetti MVT, an Italian fighter aircraft of 1919
Marginal value theorem, a behavioral ecology theorem
Marrakesh VIP Treaty
Mean value theorem, a mathematical theorem
Minimum Viable Technology, agile principles applied to engineering/technology teams
Mississippi Valley-Type carbonate hosted lead-zinc ore deposits
Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks, an option of mainframe computer operating system
Multivariate testing (disambiguation)Mvt or mvt or MVT may refer to:
Movement (music), a large division of a larger composition or musical notes
Mesotrophic soil
A mycotroph is a plant that gets all or part of its carbon, water, or nutrient supply through symbiotic association with fungi. The term can refer to plants that engage in either of two distinct symbioses with fungi:
Many mycotrophs have a mutualistic association with fungi in any of several forms of mycorrhiza. The majority of plant species are mycotrophic in this sense. Examples include Burmanniaceae.
Some mycotrophs are parasitic upon fungi in an association known as myco-heterotrophy.
Optimal foraging theory
Optimal foraging theory (OFT) is a behavioral ecology model that helps predict how an animal behaves when searching for food. Although obtaining food provides the animal with energy, searching for and capturing the food require both energy and time. To maximize fitness, an animal adopts a foraging strategy that provides the most benefit (energy) for the lowest cost, maximizing the net energy gained. OFT helps predict the best strategy that an animal can use to achieve this goal.
OFT is an ecological application of the optimality model. This theory assumes that the most economically advantageous foraging pattern will be selected for in a species through natural selection. When using OFT to model foraging behavior, organisms are said to be maximizing a variable known as the currency, such as the most food per unit time. In addition, the constraints of the environment are other variables that must be considered. Constraints are defined as factors that can limit the forager's ability to maximize the currency. The optimal decision rule, or the organism's best foraging strategy, is defined as the decision that maximizes the currency under the constraints of the environment. Identifying the optimal decision rule is the primary goal of the OFT.
An organotroph is an organism that obtains hydrogen or electrons from organic substrates. This term is used in microbiology to classify and describe organisms based on how they obtain electrons for their respiration processes. Some organotrophs such as animals and many bacteria, are also heterotrophs. Organotrophs can be either anaerobic or aerobic.
Antonym: Lithotroph, Adjective: Organotrophic.
A planktivore is an aquatic organism that feeds on planktonic food, including zooplankton and phytoplankton.
Recruitment (biology)
In biology, especially marine biology, recruitment occurs when a juvenile organism joins a population, whether by birth or immigration, usually at a stage whereby the organisms are settled and able to be detected by an observer.There are two types of recruitment: closed and open.In the study of fisheries, recruitment is "the number of fish surviving to enter the fishery or to some life history stage such as settlement or maturity".
Relative abundance distribution
In the field of ecology, the relative abundance distribution (RAD) or species abundance distribution describes the relationship between the number of species observed in a field study as a function of their observed abundance. The graphs obtained in this manner are typically fitted to a Zipf–Mandelbrot law, the exponent of which serves as an index of biodiversity in the ecosystem under study.
Species homogeneity
In ecology, species homogeneity is a lack of biodiversity. Species richness is the fundamental unit in which to assess the homogeneity of an environment. Therefore, any reduction in species richness, especially endemic species, could be argued as advocating the production of a homogenous environment.
Food webs
Example webs
Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components
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CGW - Construct the Great Wall
no tags
A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city or settlement from potential aggressors. From ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements.
Generally, these are referred to as city walls or town walls. Even though, our ancestors decided to build a Great Wall to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire against invasion by various nomadic groups.
The map is given as an rectangle area of size N×M. Each grid is an empty area, a city or an enemy. The Great Wall is a simple polygon build alone the edge of the grids, enclosing all the cities and keeping all the enemies out.
The Great Wall is not easy to build, so we should make the Great Wall as short as possible. Now it is your job to calculate the length of the shortest Great Wall so that it can protect all the cities from the enemies.
The first line contains an integer T (1 ≤ T ≤ 50), indicating the number of test cases.
Each test case contains several lines. The first line contains two integer H, W (1 ≤ H, W ≤ 8), indicating the number of rows and columns of the map. The following H lines contains W chars, indicating the map. 'o' represents a city, '.' represents a empty area and 'x' represents an enemy.
You can assume that there will be at least one city on the map.
For each test case in the input, print one line: "Case #X: Y", where X is the test case number (starting with 1) and Y is the length of the shortest Great Wall (-1 if impossible).
3 3
4 4
5 5
Case #1: 14
Case #2: -1
Case #3: 28
A simple polygon is a closed polygonal chain of line segments in the plane which do not have points in common other than the common vertices of pairs of consecutive segments.
The solution for the first test case in sample is shown in Figure 1.
There is no solution for the second test case because no matter how you build the Great Wall, it will always intersects with itself(Figure 2).
Added by:Bin Jin
Time limit:8.441s
Source limit:50000B
Memory limit:1536MB
Cluster: Cube (Intel G860)
Languages:All except: ASM64
Resource:ACM/ICPC Regional Contest, Chengdu 2011
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Early modern warfare
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Use of gunpowder before the 16th century[edit]
Origins of gunpowder[edit]
The earliest methods of the use for gunpowder were accidentally discovered in China by alchemists who were trying to make medicines. Many concoctions were tested and hypothesized during the centuries leading up to the first official published record in 1044 by Wujing Jongyao; the chemicals of nitrate, sulfur, and charcoal, created a “fire medicine” which was an unintended discovery and led to a new generation of intrigue that would lay the foundations for the early modern warfare period. China had been tinkering around the concept of fire and how to harness its power, but using the chemicals correctly was a whole other issue for them; the chemicals had to be in the appropriate amounts in order to correctly light without the need for assistance from outside oxygen resources. Nitrates were the cure for this and allowed for the explosions to occur in lower level oxygen settings, which might sometimes be needed in order for certain tactical situations.[12]
China would lead the technical evolutionary innovation period until the early modern period in which the Europeans became prominent and at the forefront of technological advancements. A chief officer by the name is Chen Gui lead the efforts in the Siege of De’an, which documented some of the first conditions in which fire and the harnessed power of human use can first be seen on a contemporary historical analysis; the fortified compound that Gui was protecting had outside troops trying to use methods to get inside, but fire lances, and fire weapons were able to destroy the fortifications used by the enemy. This is an important date in 1132 CE because it shows how the fire lances were being referred as fire medicine still and how they were effective in controlling enemy movements. Arguments for the first use of direct firearms use is a highly debated question, but scholarly sources have made critical points that this documented battle had a significant impact on the origins of firearms; the Chinese would continue to innovate and created what we be known as the “Thunderclap bomb”. This bomb was a terrifying advancement on the devastation scale. Many sources and historical references shed light on this bomb as having the ability to demolish stone walls, and cause a rain like fire that would pummel any adversaries. Bigger and better weapons continued to be advanced by the Chinese and their technological innovation in the gunpowder science allowed for future generations to refine their original intent. [12]
It was always understood that early fire weapons were intended for structural damage and not meant to target individual targets because that would call for a certain type of accuracy. Gui’s movement to attack personnel on the ground and not just the structures themselves showed a clear change in warfare and leads to modern early warfare, in which the Europeans continued refining the chemicals used in order to fit them into smaller creations for mobility. Mobility in warfare is a critical and key ability in order to evade the enemy and minimize casualties.[12]
Beginning of polygonal fortifications[edit]
Model of city with polygonal fortifications
The period from 1500–1801 saw a rapid advance in techniques of fortification in Europe. Whereas medieval castles had relied on high walls to keep out attackers, early modern fortifications had to withstand artillery bombardments. To do this, engineers developed a style of fortress known as the trace italienne or "Italian style"; these had low, thick, sloping walls, that would either absorb or deflect cannon fire.
In addition, they were shaped like stars, with bastions protruding at sharp angles; this was to ensure that every bastion could be supported with fire from an adjacent bastion, leaving no "dead ground" for an attacker to take cover in. These new fortifications quickly negated the advantages cannon had offered to besiegers.
The complex and sophisticated designs of star forts that preceded them were highly effective against cannon assault, but proved much less effective against the more accurate fire of rifled guns and the destructive power of explosive shells; the polygonal style of fortification is also described as a "flankless fort". Many such forts were built in the United Kingdom and the British Empire during the government of Lord Palmerston, and so they are also often referred to as Palmerston forts, their low profile makes them easy to overlook.
The power of aristocracies vis à vis states diminished throughout Western Europe during this period. Aristocrats' 200- to 400-year-old ancestral castles no longer provided useful defences against artillery; the nobility's importance in warfare also eroded as medieval heavy cavalry lost its central role in battle. The heavy cavalry - made up of armoured knights - had begun to fade in importance in the Late Middle Ages; the English longbow and the Swiss pike had both proven their ability to devastate larger armed forces of mounted knights. However, the proper use of the longbow required the user to be extremely strong, making it impossible to amass very large forces of archers.
Decline of plate armour[edit]
Assault on a town, early 17th century
Transition to flintlock muskets[edit]
The arquebus, in use from 1410, was one of the first hand-held firearms that were relatively light (it still required a stand to balance on) and a single person could operate one. One of these weapons was first recorded as being used in the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, although this was still very much a medieval battle; the term musket originally applied to a heavier form of the arquebus, which fired a shot that could pierce plate armour, though only at close range. In the 16th century it still had to be mounted on a support stick to keep it steady; the caliver was the lighter form of the arquebus. By 1600, armies phased out these firearms in favour of a new lighter matchlock musket. Throughout the 16th century and up until 1690, muskets used the matchlock design.
Nature of war[edit]
This period saw the size and scale of warfare greatly increase; the number of combatants involved escalated steadily from the mid 16th century and dramatically expanded after the 1660s. For example, the King of France could field around 20,000 men in total for his wars against Spain in the 1550s, but could mobilize up to 500,000 men into the field by 1700 in the War of the Spanish Succession. Moreover, wars became increasingly deadly in this period; this may in part be attributed to improvements in weapons technology and in the techniques of using it (for example infantry volley fire).
The indecisive nature of conflict meant wars were long and endemic. Conflicts stretched on for decades and many states spent more years at war than they did at peace; the Spanish attempt to reconquer the Netherlands after the Dutch Revolt became bogged down in endless siege warfare. The expense caused the Spanish monarchy to declare bankruptcy several times, beginning in 1577.
The changes in warfare eventually made the mercenary forces of the Renaissance and Middle Ages obsolete; however this was a gradual change. As late as the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), most troops were mercenaries. However, after this conflict, most states invested in better disciplined and more ideologically inspired troops. For a time mercenaries became important as trainers and administrators, but soon these tasks were also taken by the state; the massive size of these armies required a large supporting force of administrators. The newly centralized states were forced to set up vast organized bureaucracies to manage these armies, which some historians argue is the basis of the modern bureaucratic state.
Moreover, popular revolts almost always failed unless they had the support and patronage of the noble or gentry classes; the new armies, because of their vast expense, were also dependent on taxation and the commercial classes who also began to demand a greater role in society. The great commercial powers of the Dutch and English matched much larger states in military might; as any man could be quickly trained in the use of a musket, it became far easier to form massive armies. The inaccuracy of the weapons necessitated large groups of massed soldiers; this led to a rapid swelling of the size of armies.
Winged Hussar
The rise of gunpowder reduced the importance of the once-dominant heavy cavalry, but it remained effective in a new role into the 19th century; the cavalry, along with the infantry, became more professional in this period but it retained its greater social and military prestige than the infantry. Light cavalry was introduced for skirmishing and scouting because of its advantage in speed and mobility; the new types of cavalry units introduced in this period were the dragoons or mounted infantry.
The one exception to this was the Ottoman Empire, which had been founded by Turkish horsemen; the Ottomans were some of the first to embrace gunpowder artillery and firearms and integrated them into their already formidable fighting abilities. As European infantry became better armed and disciplined, by about 1700, the Ottoman forces began to be regularly defeated by the troops of the Austria and Russia.
Naval warfare[edit]
The spread of European power around the world was closely tied to naval developments in this period; the caravel for the first time made unruly seas like the Atlantic Ocean open to exploration, trade, and military conquest. While in all previous eras, European navies had been largely confined to operations in coastal waters, and were generally used only in a support role for land-based forces, this changed with the introduction of the new vessels like the caravel, carack and galleon and the increasing importance of international waterborne trade in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; the new caravels were large enough and powerful enough to be armed with cannons with which they could bombard both shoreline defenses and other vessels.
Islamic empires[edit]
Ottoman Empire[edit]
Overall, the Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 18th centuries has been assessed as a military producer which copies existing technologies, but does not capture the underlying process of innovation or adaption.[15] Other research, though, complicates that view. A Chinese military manual published in 1644 compared Ottoman and European firearms in the following manner:[16]
15th century[edit]
The Ottoman Empire was one of the first states to put gunpowder weapons into widespread use.[dubious ] The famous Janissary corps of the Ottoman army began using matchlock muskets as early as the 1440s;[14] the army of Mehmed the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons.[17] The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city; the barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times.[18]
16th century[edit]
The 16th century saw the first widespread use of the matchlock musket as a decisive weapon on the battlefield with the Turks becoming leaders in this regard; the first of these campaigns was the campaign against the Persians in 1514 under Yavuz Sultan Selim, or Selim the Grim. Armed with gunpowder weapons, his army defeated the Persians at the Battle of Chaldiran.[19] After his victory over the Safavids, Selim turned his attention towards the Mamluk dynasty in Egypt; the decisive battle of his campaign against the Mamluks, and the battle which highlighted the importance of the musket in the Ottoman military, was the Battle of Raydaniyah, fought in 1517. There, Selim outflanked the entrenched Mamluk artillery, and attacked the Mamluk forces with his Janissaries; the Janissaries, armed with firearms, destroyed the Mamluk army, armed mostly with traditional swords and javelins.[20]
Reference was made by João de Barros to a sea battle outside Jiddah, in 1517, between Portuguese and Ottoman vessels; the Muslim force under Salman Reis had "three or four basilisks firing balls of thirty palms in circumference".[21] This was estimated to be a cannon of about 90 inch bore "firing cut stone balls of approximately 1,000 pounds (453 kg)".[21]
17th century[edit]
Although the cannon and musket were employed by the Ottomans long beforehand, by the 17th century they witnessed how ineffective the traditional cavalry charges were in the face of concentrated musket-fire volleys.[23] In a report given by an Ottoman general in 1602, he confessed that the army was in a distressed position due to the emphasis in European forces for musket-wielding infantry, while the Ottomans relied heavily on cavalry.[23] Thereafter it was suggested that the janissaries, who were already trained and equipped with muskets, become more heavily involved in the imperial army while led by their agha.[23]
Soon after the Ottoman Empire, two other Muslim gunpowder empires appeared: the Safavid Empire in Iran and the Mughal Empire in India, they both began in the early 16th century but later collapsed in the 18th century.
The refusal of their Qizilbash forces to use firearms contributed to the Safavid rout at Chaldiran in 1514.[25]
They used for arms, swords, lances, arquebuses, which all the soldiers carry and use; their arms are also superior and better tempered than those of any other nation; the barrels of the arquebuses are generally six spans long, and carry a ball little less than three ounces in weight. They use them with such facility that it does not hinder them drawing their bows nor handling their swords, keeping the latter hung at their saddle bows till occasion requires them; the arquebus is then put away behind the back so that one weapon does not impede the use of the other.
Mughal Empire[edit]
Kingdom of Mysore[edit]
East Asia[edit]
Western arquebuses and matchlocks were imported into Vietnam during the 16th century; the raging and lengthy wars between Le and Mac dynasties, and later Trinh and Nguyen clans invoked an arm race between the opposing factions. Gunnery and marksmanship rapidly spread across the country and soon Vietnamese musketeers became famous within Asia as masters of firearms.
See also[edit]
10. ^ Kelly 2004:29
11. ^ Norris 2003:19
12. ^ a b c ANDRADE, TONIO (2016). The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691135977.
21. ^ a b Guilmartin 1974, Introduction: Jiddah, 1517
23. ^ a b c Khan 2004:5–6
25. ^ Khan 2004:6
External links[edit]
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9514415860176086,
"url": "https://wikivisually.com/wiki/Early_modern_warfare"
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|
Overview of the Italian Language
Italian is primarily spoken in Italy, although there are smaller groups of speakers scattered in other countries. Italian pronunciation varies greatly between regions. In Tuscany, for example, Italian speakers pronounce "c" like an "h". Thus, "Coca-Cola con la cannuccia" (Coke with a straw) sounds more like "Hoha-Hola hon la hannuccia." These regional linguistic traits make it easy to identify the home region of someone who speaks Italian.
The modern Italian language that is spoken in Italy today developed in the 13th and 14th centuries. It arose out of Latin and the numerous dialects of the region, and was heavily influenced by the works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. Those literary giants wrote mainly in the Florentine dialect, which evolved into the so-called "Standard Italian" that is recognized today as Italy's national language. In fact, Florence is the only Italian city today that does not have a distinct dialect separate from Standard Italian. In all other regions, it is common to hear dialects spoken, particularly among residents who have lived in the same town for generations. These dialects, vaguely similar to Italian but often unintelligible to people not born in the area, are living reminders of Italy's feudal past and the isolation of its various regions prior to unification.
Italian Vocabulary
Italian vocabulary has contributed many words to the English language over the years. Some of these words include gondola, regatta, fresco, vendetta, broccoli, volcano, basilica, stucco, terracotta, and inferno. In music, one finds numerous Italian terms, such as concerto, sonata, tempo, aria, allegro, staccato, andante, and lento.
With some studying and a good sense of humor, English speakers can usually learn Italian with relative ease. One thing to watch out for when you're learning Italian, though, is false cognates. Cognates are words that have approximately the same spelling and meaning in two different languages. There are many true cognate words in English and Italian, but there are also a number of Italian vocabulary words that can fool you by their false resemblance to English.
For example, the Italian word camera is not something you take pictures with; it actually means room. If you use the word morbido to describe something gruesome, you are really saying that it is soft. And if you ask for confetti at a party, you may be surprised when you are given sugar coated almonds. Above all, don't ask for peperoni on your pizza when you speak Italian - unless you want hot peppers!
Formal and Informal Address in the Italian Language
When speaking Italian or writing Italian, there are two forms of address: formal and informal. The formal is used to show respect and should be used when speaking Italian with people outside of your circle of family and friends. For example, when you speak Italian to store clerks, waiters, teachers, bank tellers, and acquaintances you should address them with the formal "lei" form. Friends, family, children, and pets, on the other hand, may be addressed with the "tu" form. It is also customary for students and young people to use the "tu" form when speaking Italian among themselves, even if they are only passing acquaintances.
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"fasttext_score": 0.5952102541923523,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9577344655990601,
"url": "http://rytsol.biz/languages/italian.html"
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Tags: crypto rsa
## Solution
Notice that the flag is encrypted using _textbook-rsa_, which means that the plaintext is malleable. To illustrate the general idea, let us first solve a simpler version of this problem.
### Simpler version of the problem
If the problem given was the following,
for i in range(5):
if choice == '1':
m = bytes_to_long(input('\nPlaintext > ').strip().encode())
print('\nEncrypted: ' + str(encrypt(m)))
elif choice == '2':
c = int(input('\nCiphertext > ').strip())
if c == flag_encrypted:
print('Ho, ho, no...')
print('\nDecrypted: ' + str(m))
Since the ciphertext is malleable, then we can mutate the ciphertext in a way that is predictable to us.
ct_flag = encrypt(flag) = flag^e mod n
ct_two = encrypt(2) = 2^e mod n
ct_not_flag = ct_flag*ct_two = (flag*2)^e mod n
Therefore, `decrypted(ct_not_flag) = flag*2`
But this problem _does not allow_ this. So we have to look for a way to manipulate the ciphertext.
### Solving the current version
Let's say we have the public key `(n, e)`, then we can bypass the `Ho, ho, no...`
ct_flag = encrypt(flag) = flag^e mod n
ct_neg = encrypt(-1) = -1^e mod n = -1 mod n
ct_not_flag = ct_flag*ct_neg = (flag*-1)^e mod n
Which means that `decrypted(ct_not_flag) = flag*-1 mod n`, and we can easily recover the flag from that.
e = 65537
n = get_n()
m = flag*(n-1) % n
pt = decrypt(m)
But this requires us to be able to get `n` and `e`.
### Getting the public key
Getting `e` is easy because the default value is `e = 65537` and we are left to find `n`.
It's easy to show that for some `m`, then `m**65537 - encrypt(m)` is a multiple of `n`, and for some cases,
n = gcd(m1**65537 - encrypt(m1), m2**65537 - encrypt(m2))
You can get the GCD of several residuals to make it more likely that you have gotten `n`.
We implement this using,
e = 65537
def get_resid(i):
return i**e - encrypt(i)
def get_n():
curr = get_resid(bytes_to_long('a'))
for i in [bytes_to_long('b'), bytes_to_long('c')]:
curr = GCD(curr, get_resid(i))
return curr
Original writeup (https://github.com/pberba/ctf-solutions/tree/master/20181223_xmasctf/crypto-328-santas_list_(2.0)).
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.978114664554596,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.704278290271759,
"url": "https://ctftime.org/writeup/12725"
}
|
All Words > Magniloquent
Sunday, August 16
Part of speech: adjective
Origin: Latin, mid-17th century
Using high-flown or bombastic language.
Examples of Magniloquent in a sentence
"His speech was so magniloquent the audience was held in rapt attention."
"You might admire magniloquent language, but sometimes plain speaking is best."
Popularity Over Time
Popularity over time graph
About Magniloquent
In Latin, "magniloquus" combined "magnus" for great and "loquus" meaning speaking. Instead of telling someone "good job at the speaking thing," you can praise them for their magniloquent oratory.
Did you Know?
There are a few words that have expanded upon "eloquent" — meaning "fluent or persuasive in speaking or writing." There's "breviloquent," speaking with brevity, "grandiloquent," pompous in language and delivery, and then "magniloquent," which means using high-flown and fancy language.
Trending Words
Trending on the blog
What's the word?
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"fasttext_score": 0.02065068483352661,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9312984347343445,
"url": "https://www.wordgenius.com/words/magniloquent"
}
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The origins date back to the last glaciations of the Quaternary, when at the height of today’s Menaggio a branch of the so-called Abduano glacier that descended from Valtellina and Valchiavenna headed west along the fault that in geology is called the Menaggio line.
Glimpse of the lake Over time, the action of the ice led to an erosion of the mountain sides and a deposit of lateral moraines. With the retreat of the glacier, what remained was a typical glacial “U” valley (today’s Val Menaggio), filled by the waters of Lake Lugano in its western part. Then when the glacial tongues that occupied the Val Cavargna and Val Rezzo melted, the meltwater deposited a large amount of debris downstream which formed two large alluvial fans. The floods of the Cuccio and Rezzo streams thus created a large area of accumulation of clay, sand and minute debris which, in addition to the plant material dragged by the currents, led to the formation of a swamp. Thus it was that, in a progressive manner, the easternmost part of Lake of Lugano first became an appendage of the same, and then formed a part completely separate from the rest of the Ceresio:
Lake Area: 0,72
Depth: 13m
Hight: 276 m
Province: Province of Como
Created by: YouEric2010
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"fasttext_score": 0.10218936204910278,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9375536441802979,
"url": "https://goview.ch/lago-del-piano-2/"
}
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Problem: Write a Lewis structure for each molecule.CH3SH (C and S central)
FREE Expert Solution
We have to draw the Lewis structure for the CH3SH molecule.
A Lewis structure is a representation of a molecule that shows the numbers and locations of bond pairs and lone pairs in that molecule.
A Lewis structure can be drawn by these steps:
Step 1: Determine the central atom in the molecule.
Step 2: Calculate the total number of valence electrons present.
Step 3: Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule.
94% (126 ratings)
View Complete Written Solution
Problem Details
Write a Lewis structure for each molecule.
CH3SH (C and S central)
Frequently Asked Questions
Our tutors have indicated that to solve this problem you will need to apply the Lewis Dot Structure concept. You can view video lessons to learn Lewis Dot Structure. Or if you need more Lewis Dot Structure practice, you can also practice Lewis Dot Structure practice problems.
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{
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"edu_score": 4.34375,
"fasttext_score": 0.08101338148117065,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7859475016593933,
"url": "https://www.clutchprep.com/chemistry/practice-problems/107246/write-a-lewis-structure-for-each-molecule-ch3sh-c-and-s-central"
}
|
. Grade 2, Illustrative icon
Hand Span Measures
Illustrative MathematicsVaries
The size of the hand makes a difference in some sports that involve throwing or catching and some activities such as playing the piano. Hand span is a measure that has been used for many years. By placing the hand on the edge of a piece of paper and marking the tips of the thumb and little finger, the student can measure a straight line.
You must log inorsign upif you want to:*
*Teacher Advisor is 100% free.
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.5635369420051575,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9464921951293945,
"url": "https://teacheradvisor.org/2/activities/task_94"
}
|
The role of Cicero’s rhetoric in his listeners’ fear of Catiline
Cicero was a great roman orator who lived in the last days of the Roman republic. Cicero was a consul, one of the chief rulers of Rome. He had to deal with a conspiracy to take over Rome led by a man named Catiline. The first oration he delivered to Catiline himself, even though it seemed like he was addressing the senate at first. Cicero gave the other orations to the citizens of Rome and the senate about the intentions of Catiline and what they should do about him.
Cicero put fear, distrust, and disgust in the minds of the senate in his first oration. He hinted at several crimes that Catiline had been rumored to commit; including murdering his wife. He spoke of the information his spies and informants brought to him and used their information to put him forth as an enemy of the republic. He spoke of Catiline’s attempt to assassinate him and how he was able to protect himself due to his spies’ information. He told them that Catiline and his conspirators were to burn the city of Rome, massacre the citizens, and divide the land among himself and his associates.
After Catiline left Rome at Cicero’s request, Cicero convinced the people that Catiline was not going away forever. Catiline would be back, he said with an army. He said that if Catiline was victorious then he would be the downfall of the Roman republic. Cicero also said that as long as his conspiracy was alive, the survival of the republic was at risk. He described his conspiracy as the incarnation of evil, and the source of all evil in Rome. The conspiracy was described as a dangerous disease that must be gotten rid of for the people to be safe. Catiline, he said, still had supporters in the city, and that his supporters were even in the senate. He said that the republic would be saved if his conspiracy was removed from Rome. Through his rhetoric, Cicero managed to put fear of Catiline into the hearts of the Roman people.
He did not leave the people in fear, though. He portrayed Catiline’s forces as the dregs of society. He also spoke of all the different groups of people who had joined Catiline. He said that they were ethical rebels and ethical losers. He also identified them as economic failures. He described many of Catiline’s supporters as people run down in debt and wastrels who were irresponsible with their finances. He urged the people not to worry about rich men who were heavily in debt, and hoping that Catiline would cancel their debts, supported him. Others he described as worthless murderers and assassins who delighted in tumult and were happy to support him. However, he said, the gods of Rome would not let them get away with this, but would support Rome in defense against the rebels. In other words, ethics has consequences, and they are not an exception to the rule.
Cicero also convinced the people, without saying it outright, that some of the chief conspirators should be executed. He told the people that they deserved it and he invoked the gods and the citizens of Rome. He also told them the responsibility they had in their hands because what they did would be remembered through the ages.
Cicero was very effective with his words. He persuaded Catiline to leave Rome. He persuaded the people to join him against Catiline by putting fear of him in their minds. The imprisoned conspirators were executed, and as a result many people from Catiline’s army fled in fear. After that, the army under Catiline was easy to defeat.
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<urn:uuid:3629ee8c-5a2b-4347-a29f-8dd280303578>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
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"fasttext_score": 0.16789281368255615,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9916128516197205,
"url": "https://foosballoctopus.wordpress.com/2016/09/07/the-role-of-ciceros-rhetoric-in-his-listeners-fear-of-catiline/"
}
|
Cells Communicate Better When Not Squeezed Together, Research Shows
cancer cells
Cells communicate by exchanging molecules, allowing either short- and long-range communication. Purdue University biophysicist Andrew Mugler discovered that, contrary to his hypothesis, long-range communication for the cells was more accurate. (Purdue University image by Ken Ritchie)
Such collective cell movement requires communication, and a new study shows that cells are most effective at communication when they aren’t tightly packed together. This was a surprise, says Andrew Mugler, a Purdue University assistant professor of physics and astronomy who studies cell behavior.
“It would be as if you and I both had thermometers and wanted to measure the outdoor temperature,” he says. “If we are standing right next to each other but we are both in the direct sunlight or in deep shade, we might not get an accurate reading.
The research was published recently in the journal Physical Review Letters. Mugler’s graduate student Sean Fancher was the paper’s lead author. The research was funded by the Simons Foundation.
|
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"edu_score": 3.75,
"fasttext_score": 0.023486196994781494,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9615489840507507,
"url": "http://www.scienceandtechnologyresearchnews.com/cells-communicate-better-not-squeezed-together-research-shows/"
}
|
In chp 6 of "Animal Farm", what is the attitude of the animals to work in harsh conditions and setbacks?
Expert Answers
jessecreations eNotes educator| Certified Educator
The opening line of the chapter gives us an idea of this. It says, "All that year the animals worked like slaves. But they were happy in their work; they grudged no effort or sacrifice, well aware that everything that they did was for the benefit of themselves and those of their kind...".
Toward the early parts of the chapter, the animals seem willing enough to work harder to get their windmill built. Despite the lowering of rations and the increase in working hours, they maintain the state of mind that they are working now in order to make life easier in the future.
Then, when Napoleon plans to trade with humans, some of the animals are less confident. They remember that in the early days of the revolution, they had all agreed never to have any dealings with humans. They begin to doubt Napoleon's loyalty to the cause after this. Of course, they become more complacent when the dogs growl at them and Squealer convinces them they had never agreed to a ban on trade with humans in the first place. This same scenario plays out again when the pigs start sleeping in the beds in the farmhouse.
When the biggest setback of all happens and the windmill is destroyed, the animals are devastated. Of course, Napoleon's explanation that Snowball is to blame is readily accepted, and he urges them once again to continue their work.
Throughout the chapter, animals work grudgingly but willingly.
|
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"language_score": 0.9631562829017639,
"url": "https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/chp-6-what-attitude-animals-work-harsh-conditions-54355"
}
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Northern rebellion
HideShow resource information
How far do you agree with the view that the Northern Rebellion of 1569 posed a serious threat to Elizabeth?
The Northern Rebellion of 1569 was the greatest popular rising of Elizabeth’s reign, raising an army of around 8,000. However, historians have argued this was not a popular uprising similar to the Pilgrimage of Grace 1536, or the 1549 rebellions which were designed to air the grievances of the general population. Instead the Northern Rebellion is often viewed as a political plot orchestrated by high ranking nobility with the backing of overseas powers and therefore a very serious threat to Elizabeth’s crown.
The involvement of high ranking northern nobility is the most important reason why this rebellion posed such a significant threat. Firstly the nobility were the Crown’s method of putting down rebellion, the Crown had no standing army so relied on local lords crushing dissent. When it was the nobility raising the people, the Crown’s first line of defence was gone. Secondly, thanks to the survival of feudalism in the north, the nobility were able to raise a massive force which could pose a threat. Without leadership from the nobility such numbers couldn’t be raised. Thirdly, the nobility could gain the support of Mary Queen of Scots and her allies, (for example, Philip II) raising the “real or imagined possibilities of overseas support” mentioned in source 1. Source 2 emphasises how an alliance between Norfolk “The richest man in the kingdom” and cousin to the Queen could “strengthen her (Mary’s) political position” and further “destabilise the still shaky structure of Elizabethan politics”. Both had a legitimate claim to the throne which was a tremendous threat to Elizabeth, particularly following her being made illegitimate and delegitimized by Henry VIII.
Source 1 describes the possibility of overseas aid in quite a derogatory manner implying its “imagined possibility”. However, when one considers the plotting taking place between Philip’s ambassador and the leading nobility, as well as the excommunication of Elizabeth in 1570, an action designed to coincide with the
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"language": "en",
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"url": "https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/northern_rebellion"
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|
Definition 139 : Let x(s) = x(u1(s),u2(s)) be a curve on the surface x(u1,u2).
Then, with respect to the surface and the point we consider, the normal curvature of this curve is k = (x ..) . N (where x .. is the curvature vector in the direction of the principal normal n, and N the normal with length 1 on the surface in the direction of xu1xu2).
So k = κ n . N, where κ is the curvature of the curve (in the usual sense of the word).
Proposition 140 (MEUSNIER) :
Curves through a given point on the surface that have the same tangent in that point, also have the same normal curvature in that point, namely
k = (h1 1(du1)2 + 2 h1 2 du1 du2 + h2 2(du2)2) / (a1 1(du1)2 + 2 a1 2 du1 du2 + a2 2(du2)2).
Proof : (x ..).N = (xu1 u1 .. + xu2 u2 .. + xu1u1 (u1 .)2 + 2 xu1u2 (u1 . u2 .) + xu2u2 (u2 .)2) . N = h1 1(du1)2 + 2 h1 2 du1 du2 + h2 2(du2)2.
Explanation 140A : The curvature of the intersection curve of the surface and a plane through N is the normal curvature in that direction, because k = (x ..) . N = κ N . N = κ, since the principal normal is then also surface normal.
Explanation 141 : From 140 we also see
+1 = h1 1((du1/ds)(1/√|k|))2 + 2 h1 2 du1/ds(1/√|k|) du2(1/√|k|) + h2 2((du2/ds)(1/√|k|))2.
So we also find the indicatrix by taking in each direction the point at distance 1/√|k| (indeed, xu1du1/ds + xu2du2/ds is a vector with length 1).
So k=0 gives the asymptotic directions.
We call a curve on the surface that has in each point an asymptotic direction an asymptotic line of the surface. A simple example of an asymptotic line is a straight line on the surface.
So the net of the asymptotic lines is given by h1 1(du1)2 + 2 h1 2 du1 du2 + h2 2(du2)2 = 0.
Proposition 142 : If a curve on the surface has an asymptotic direction in some point, then in that point the osculating plane and the tangent plane coincide (or the curve is a straight line).
Proof: The osculating plane has vector representation xo + λ x . + μ x .. with N perpendicular to x . and (since k=0) also to x .. .
Proposition 143 : A surface is a plane if and only if the second fundamental form is identically 0 everywhere (k=0 in each point in each direction).
Proof : Check by calculation that the second fundamental form of a plane (u,v,a+bu+cv) is identically zero in each point.
Inversely, suppose the normal curvature is everywhere 0 in each direction.
From xui . N = 0 we find xuiuj . N = -xui . Nuj, so using hi j = 0 we find that xui is perpendicular to Nuj for i,j=1,2.
Since N . N = 1 we have N . Nuj = 0, so Nuj is perpendicular to xu1, xu2 and N, so Nuj = 0 (j=1,2), so N is constant.
Definition 144 : A planar point is a point where the second fundamental form is zero (h1 1 = h1 2 = h2 2 = 0, so k=0 in each direction).
Problem 145 : For which surface of revolution holds that the indicatrix is an orthogonal hyperbola in each regular point? (See 138.)
Answer: the catenoid, surface of revolution of the catenary.
Extra Problem :
Consider the surface x(u,v) = (u2, uv, v2).
a) Describe the parameter lines: what kind of figures are they?
b) Give the first fundamental form and an equation for the set of points on the surface where the parameter lines are perpendicular to each other. What kind of figure forms this set?
c) Give the second fundamental form and the indicatrix of Dupin. Prove that each non-singular point is parabolic. So what kind of figure is the indicatrix? Give the asymptotic lines by means of a parameter representation.
d) Give the differential equation for the orthogonal trajectories of the u-lines. Notice this equation is homogeneous. So substite u = vw, and separate the variables. Find the orthogonal trajectories by means of a relation between u and v.
e) Give an equation for the surface and prove it is a half of a cone by giving the top and a direction curve. Check by calculation that the tangent plane is constant along a straight line on the cone.
f) Show that λ(t2,t,1) is another parametrisation of the same surface. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the rules (straight lines on the surface). Explain.
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al-Tha‘alabi: Types of Loud Noises
Types of Loud Noises
Any forceful voice is al-ṣiyāḥ (to shout, cry). Al-Ṣurākh (and al-ṣarkha) is the sharp cry that comes from fright or calamity. Close to it in meaning is al-za‘qa (shriek) and al-ṣalqa (grating cry, especially during battle). Al-Ṣakhb is the noise made during argument and quarrel.
Al-‘Ajj is the raising of the voice when one says the ritual phrase, “Here I am to serve you!” or when one invokes the name of God during slaughter. Al-Tahlīl is to raise one’s voice in saying, “There is no god but God and Muhammad is the Prophet of God.” Al-Istihlāl is the first cry of the newborn child.
Al-Zajal is to raise the voice when one is moved by music. Al-Naq‘ is the loud scream. Al-Hay‘a is the cry of fright, as in the Prophetic tradition: “The best of men is the one who holds fast the reins of his steed and the one who, when he hears the shriek of fear, flies toward it.” Al-Wā‘īya is the crying lament over the dead. Al-Na‘īr is the shouting of the victor over the vanquished.
Al-Na‘īq is the sound of the shepherd calling his flock. Al-Hadīd (and al-hadda) is the fierce noise you hear when part of a building or mountain collapses. Al-Fadīd is the farmer's throaty call to oxen or donkeys while working in the field. As mentioned in the Prophetic tradition, “Brusqueness and harshness are traits of the loud-voiced men in the field.”
Al-Ṣadīd (to laugh out loud, to raise a clamor) is another loud noise, as is al-ḍajīj (to raise a tumult), and appears in the Qur’an: When Mary’s son was given as an example, your people howled with laughter (Surat al-Zukhruf: 57), which is to say: they raised a clamor, a tumult, a ruckus. Al-Jarāhīya is the sound of people when their words are spoken publicly and openly rather than in secret and, according to Abu Zayd, is similar to al-hayḍala (the hue and cry of battle).
Fiqh al-lugha wa-asrār al-‘arabīya, ed. Yāsīn al-Ayūbī (Saydā’: al-Maktaba al-‘Usrīya, 2008), 238-9
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The Classroom Package: Curriculum Connection
Proud to Be Bilingual
The Quichua people of Limoncocha are bilingual, speaking both Spanish and Quichua. Quichua, of course, is their mother tongue, but some know Spanish better than they know Quichua. Since some of them are learning English, they are trying to become trilingual. Do your students know what their "mother tongue" is? How many "mother tongues" are used by your students? Are any of your students bilingual or trilingual? For fun, see how many languages your students can count to ten in. If you have a multilingual class, figure out how many languages can be spoken by your students and ask students what prefix can be added to -lingual to describe the class with reference to how many languages it can speak. Ask them what they would call groups that can speak four (quadra-), five (penta-), six (hexa-), eight (octa-) and ten (deca-) languages. Ask them what other words they know that begin with these prefixes.
Language Arts Lesson Idea: Dissection of the words "bilingual and "trilingual" can
lead into fun and discovery-filled wordplay exercises. First, explain to students that the Latin base, lingua, means 'language,' and the suffix "-al" means "of" or "relating to." Considering the words "bicycle" and "tricycle," they should be able to figure out the meanings of the prefixes "bi-" and "tri-." Now, they'll be ready for some bi-tri- sleuthing. With words that have recognizable roots (bi/ trimonthly, bi/triweekly, bi/triyearly, bi/tricolor, bimetallic, biparental, binational, bicoastal, trisyllable, bipolar, triangle, bicultural, biplane, bistate, etc.), have them propose then verify meanings with a dictionary. For unfamiliar words with unrecognizable roots (biped, trilobite, trilogy, bimanual, bigamy, bicuspid, bi/trisect, bimillennium, binaural, bi/tricentennial, bi/trinomial, tridactyl, trifoliate, bi/trilateral, bilabiate, bicephalous, etc.), look up root meanings, propose and verify word meanings. Create matching exercises, crossword puzzles, or other word-games with familiar or easily teachable words (binoculars, biathlon, triathlon, bicycle, tricycle, triceratops, biceps, triceps, bikini, trilobite, triple, triple play, triplets, tripod, bifocals, etc.). And, of course, students can delve more deeply into the dictionary with individual or group research expeditions. Have them report findings and display discoveries when they emerge.... Or, take your findings and create poems.
Please choose another page below.
Amazon Rain Forest
The Galapagos Islands
Latin America Classrom Travel Resources
© 2007 OneWorld Classrooms - All rights reserved.
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Contents Page-10 Prev Next Page+10 Index
Log-log Example
Suppose that f(n) = 25 * n2 .
n f(n)
2 100
3 225
4 400
5 625
6 900
The log-log graph makes it obvious that f(n) is O(n2): if the slope of the line is k, the function is O(nk).
The points that are plotted from the function lie on a straight line that is parallel to a known O(n2) line.
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Definition of Actualise
1. Verb. Make real or concrete; give reality or substance to. "Did he actualise his major works over a short period of time?"; "Our ideas must be substantiated into actions"
Exact synonyms: Actualize, Realise, Realize, Substantiate
Generic synonyms: Create, Make
Specialized synonyms: Incarnate, Express
Derivative terms: Actualisation, Actual, Actual, Actual, Actualization, Realisation, Realisation, Realization, Realization
2. Verb. Represent or describe realistically.
Exact synonyms: Actualize
Generic synonyms: Represent
Derivative terms: Actual, Actual
Definition of Actualise
1. Verb. To make real; to realise. ¹
¹ Source:
Actualise Pictures
Lexicographical Neighbors of Actualise
acts of independent significance
acts out
acts up
actual bodily harm
actual cautery
actual damages
actual eviction
actual malice
actual occasions
actual parameter
actual possession
actual sin
actualise (current term)
Literary usage of Actualise
1. Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics by Eduard Zeller (1897)
"The concept of a thing is not different from its end, since to realise an end is to actualise a concept. But it is likewise possible to identify the concept ..."
2. The Monist by Hegeler Institute (1901)
"Thus I actualise goodness. The faithful I meet with faith, the faithless I also meet with faith, thus I actualise faith." My version differs from that of ..."
3. The Quarterly Review by William Gifford, George Walter Prothero, John Gibson Lockhart, John Murray, Whitwell Elwin, John Taylor Coleridge, Rowland Edmund Prothero Ernle, William Macpherson, William Smith (1905)
"When Shakespeare was brought over to Germany, where the opera was already in possession of the stage, an attempt was made to actualise his scenes, ..."
4. Studies in Seven Arts by Arthur Symons (1907)
5. The Use and Abuse of Money by William Cunningham (1891)
"That can only come from a personal power that cherishes a higher ideal than is given in its surroundings, and sets itself to actualise that ideal in ..."
6. A Students' Manual of Ethical Philosophy: Adapted from the German of G. Von by Georg von Gizycki (1889)
""The ideal forms struggle everywhere to actualise themselves." The fact which corresponds to this Platonic and poetic expression is that moral impulses ..."
7. The Higher Powers of Mind and Spirit by Ralph Waldo Trine (1917)
"Not, then, to sit and idly fold the hands, expecting it to actualise itself, but to take hold of the first thing that offers itself to do,—that lies ..."
Other Resources Relating to: Actualise
Search for Actualise on!Search for Actualise on!Search for Actualise on Google!Search for Actualise on Wikipedia!
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Musical instrument
Flageolet, wind instrument closely related to the recorder. Like the recorder, it is a fipple, or whistle, flute—i.e., one sounded by a stream of breath directed through a duct to strike the sharp edge of a hole cut in the side of the pipe. The name flageolet—which comes from the Old French flageol, meaning “pipe” or “tabor pipe”—was applied to such flutes at least from the 13th century, but from the late 16th century it has referred most specifically to a form of the instrument developed at that time in Paris. Its principal, or French, form has a contracting bore with four front finger holes and two back thumbholes. From the mid-18th century the beaked mouthpiece formerly used was replaced by a narrow tube of bone or ivory that led to a chamber maintaining steady air pressure and holding a sponge to absorb breath moisture.
• zoom_in
Flageolet, 19th century.
A popular amateur instrument, it also occupied in the 18th-century orchestra (as the flauto piccolo) the role now held by the modern piccolo. With keywork added it became the popular quadrille flageolet of the mid-19th century, made famous by the virtuoso Collinet. The English flageolet is a late 18th-century adaptation of the French form, with six front finger holes and, sometimes, keywork. Flageolets were often built as double pipes (the English also as triple pipes), all with a single mouthpiece.
The flageolet’s compass varied but, in the 19th century, was typically from the second G above middle C to the fourth A above and was notated a 12th below. “Flageolet” sometimes refers generically to any fipple flute.
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Fact Sheet: Antimony
Brief Overview:
Contaminant: Antimony
Category: Inorganic
Treatment: Coagulation/Filtration, Reverse Osmosis
Antimony is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. The most widely used antimony compound is antimony trioxide, used as a flame retardant. It is also found in batteries, pigments, and ceramics/glass.
In 1984, 64.5 million lbs. antimony ore was mined and refined. Production of the most commonly used antimony compound, the trioxide, increased during the 1980s to about 31 million lbs, reported in 1985. Industrial dust, auto exhaust and home heating oil are the main sources in urban air.
From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory antimony and antimony compound releases to land and water totaled over 12 million lbs. These releases were primarily from copper and lead smelting and refining industries. The largest releases occurred in Arizona and Montana. The greatest releases to water occurred in Washington and Louisiana.
What happens to Antimony when it is released to the environment? Little is known about antimonys fate once released to soil. Some studies indicate that antimony is highly mobile in soils, while others conclude that it strongly adsorbs to soil. In water, it usually adheres to sediments. Most antimony compounds show little or no tendency to accumulate in aquatic life.
Short-term: EPA has found antimony to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods of time: nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
Long-term: Antimony has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: AND/OR- Antimony is a (known/potential drinking water) human carcinogen. OR- No reliable data are available concerning health effects from long-term exposure to antimony in drinking water.
Coagulation/Filtration, Reverse Osmosis
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The European Physical Journal H
, Volume 41, Issue 4, pp 365–394
The source of solar energy, ca. 1840–1910: From meteoric hypothesis to radioactive speculations
DOI: 10.1140/epjh/e2016-70045-7
Cite this article as:
Kragh, H. EPJ H (2016) 41: 365. doi:10.1140/epjh/e2016-70045-7
Why does the Sun shine? Today we know the answer to the question and we also know that earlier answers were quite wrong. The problem of the source of solar energy became an important part of physics and astronomy only with the emergence of the law of energy conservation in the 1840s. The first theory of solar heat based on the new law, due to J.R. Mayer, assumed the heat to be the result of meteors or asteroids falling into the Sun. A different and more successful version of gravitation-to-heat energy conversion was proposed by H. Helmholtz in 1854 and further developed by W. Thomson. For more than forty years the once so celebrated Helmholtz-Thomson contraction theory was accepted as the standard theory of solar heat despite its prediction of an age of the Sun of only 20 million years. In between the gradual demise of this theory and the radically different one based on nuclear processes there was a period in which radioactivity was considered a possible alternative to gravitational contraction. The essay discusses various pre-nuclear ideas of solar energy production, including the broader relevance of the question as it was conceived in the Victorian era.
Copyright information
© EDP Sciences and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016
Authors and Affiliations
1. 1.Niels Bohr Institute, University of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
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Explore BrainMass
Themes in Susan Glaspell's The Inheritors
This excerpt gives students a few ideas about how to write a unique paper using Susan Glaspell's the Inheritors.
Solution Preview
Susan Glaspell's The Inheritors brings a lot of questions to the table. Of course everyone knows the about the tragic tales of how Indians/Native Americans were slaughtered during the Columbus era and the tragic fight for land, but this story adds a more personal perspective to things. Madeline Fejevary Morton is the granddaughter of Silas Morton, who owns a great deal of land that was benevolently dedicated as a shrine for the Blackhawk Indians, and a friend, Felix Fejevary. The shrine, of course, is a college "in the cornfields," where granddaughter Madeline matures into a thriving activist who ultimately ends up betraying her family. The most exciting part of the story is that Madeline is fighting for the freedom of a group of Hindus and a revolutionary, well-known activist who has recently been imprisoned for protesting the British overtake of American land from the Native Americans.
The question that Glaspell poses to readers is whether or not the settlers who stole the land from the Native Americans are worthy caretakers of the land since they possess the advancements in technology to exploit its full use. She also makes the reader question whether or not the land should be given back to those who originally owned it, regardless of the fact that it will probably be used for religious purposes and designated for wildlife, and the settlers have had control over it for so long. The very fact that something productive is being done with the land in regards to ...
Solution Summary
This entry adds a personal aspect to the story that will not only give you a better understanding of what the author intended for readers to take away from the piece, but additionally present ideas about how to critically analyze the material in 1012 words.
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Long pepper
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Long pepper
Piper longum print.jpg
Long pepper's leaves and fruits
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species: P. longum
Binomial name
Piper longum
Long pepper (Piper longum), sometimes called Indian long pepper (Pipli), is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. Long pepper has a taste similar to, but hotter than, that of its close relative Piper nigrum - from which black, green and white pepper are obtained.
The fruit of the pepper consists of many minuscule fruits — each about the size of a poppy seed — embedded in the surface of a flower spike that closely resembles a hazel tree catkin. Like Piper nigrum, the fruits contain the alkaloid piperine, which contributes to their pungency. Another species of long pepper, Piper retrofractum, is native to Java, Indonesia. The fruits of this plant are often confused with chili peppers, which belong to the genus Capsicum, originally from the Americas.
The first reference to long pepper comes from ancient Indian textbooks of Ayurveda, where its medicinal and dietary uses are described in detail. It reached Greece in the sixth or fifth century BCE, though Hippocrates discussed it as a medicament rather than a spice.[1] Among the Greeks and Romans and prior to the European rediscovery of the American Continents, long pepper was an important and well-known spice. The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of long pepper, though Theophrastus distinguished the two in the first work of botany. The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just piper; Pliny erroneously believed dried black pepper and long pepper came from the same plant. Round, or black pepper, began to compete with long pepper in Europe from the twelfth century and had displaced it by the fourteenth. The quest for cheaper and more dependable sources of black pepper fueled the Age of Discoveries; only after the discovery of the American Continents and of chili pepper, called by the Spanish pimiento, employing their word for long pepper, did the popularity of long pepper fade away.[2] Chili peppers, some of which, when dried, are similar in shape and taste to long pepper, were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe. Today, long pepper is a rarity in general commerce.
The word pepper itself is derived from the [Tamil] word for long pepper, pippali.[3][4][5] The plant itself, is a native to India. The word pepper in bell pepper, referring to completely different plants in the Capsicum family, is of the same etymology. That usage began in the 16th century.[6]
Dried long pepper catkins
Long pepper plant
Ganthoda, the root of long pepper
Today, long pepper is a very rare ingredient in European cuisines, but it can still be found in Indian, and Nepalese vegetable pickles, some North African spice mixtures, and in Indonesian and Malaysian cooking. It is readily available at Indian grocery stores, where it is usually labeled pippali. Pippali is the main spice of Nihari, a dish which is one of the national dishes of Pakistan.
Long pepper is known to contain the chemical compound piperlongumine (PL), which has shown activity against many cancers including prostate, breast, lung, colon, lymphoma, leukemia, primary brain tumors and gastric cancer.[7]
1. ^ Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, Anthea Bell, tr. The History of Food, revised ed. 2009, p.
2. ^ Philippe and Mary Hyman, "Connaissez-vous le poivre long?" L'Histoire no. 24 (June 1980).
3. ^ Sesha Iyengar, T.R (1989). "Dravidian India". ISBN 9788120601352.
4. ^ Rawlinson, H. G (2001-05-01). "Intercourse Between India and the Western World: From the Earliest Times of the Fall of Rome". ISBN 9788120615496.
5. ^ Barnett, Lionel D (1999-01-01). "Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan". ISBN 9788171564422.
6. ^ "Pepper entry in Online Etymology Dictionary". Douglas Harper. February 18, 2016.
7. ^ "Novel compound selectively kills cancer cells by blocking their response to oxidative stress". Science Daily. July 15, 2011.
External links[edit]
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1. Having certain or distinct; determinate in extent or greatness; limited; fixed; as, definite dimensions; a definite measure; a definite period or interval. Elements combine in definite proportions. (Whewell)
2. Having certain limits in signification; determinate; certain; precise; fixed; exact; clear; as, a definite word, term, or expression.
3. Determined; resolved.
4. Serving to define or restrict; limiting; determining; as, the definite article. Definite article, the essential law of chemical combination that every definite compound always contains the same elements in the same proportions by weight; and, if two or more elements form more than one compound with each other, the relative proportions of each are fixed. Compare law of multiple proportions, under multiple.
Origin: L. Definitis, p. P. Of definire: cf. F. Defini. See define.
Retrieved from ""
First | Previous (Defines) | Next (Definition) | Last
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Main Content
Located beneath the South Portico, this vestibule most clearly illustrates the system of vaulting James Hoban devised for the 1824 addition. The groined arch forming the ceiling of the vestibule makes the tall doors possible by redirecting the weight borne by a low-slung barrel vault that supports the heavy stone floor of the semi-circular South Portico above.
Jack E. Boucher, Historic America Buildings Survey
Arches and vaults are techniques of construction that serve to divert the support of heavy masses that would otherwise require bearing walls or pillars directly beneath them. They have been in use for millennia, forming the structural systems of buildings. Steel beams in the later nineteenth century rendered vaults and arches unnecessary, and indeed generally replaced them. James Hoban built the White House according to the only systems he knew, which included arches and vaulting. When President Harry S. Truman renovated the building from 1948 to 1952, he built it back with modern steel. Although vaulting was no longer necessary with the new system of steel beams, the original was nevertheless suggested in plaster, to look as it always had. Vaulting is striking to see, of course, but its true beauty lies in its utility.
In two parts of the house the bulldozers of the 1950s made no mark. The North and South Porticoes were unchanged. Their vaulted supports remain as Hoban built them, that on the South in 1824, and the North Portico between 1829 and 1831. The structural preciseness of the groin vaulting shows Hoban’s creative intellect as an engineer.
James Hoban won the competition for design of the President’s House in 1792 and had overseen its construction until 1803, when President Thomas Jefferson replaced him with Benjamin Henry Latrobe. Hoban was subsequently rehired in 1815 to rebuild the White House, after the invading British Army burned the building in the previous year. Hoban incorporated such remains of the original as he was able to, but almost all these elements of his earliest work and subsequent reconstruction were lost during the comprehensive Truman-era rebuilding. Yet Hoban’s engineering remains in the porticoes, both of which are underpinned with adapted groin vaulting to suit peculiarities of form and situation. These are among the only historic structural systems still performing their original job in the Executive Residence.
Diagram of a barrel vault
The intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults forms a groin vault
Finished in 1824, the rounded South Portico was a near-perfect addition to the river face of the White House. With a full width of 61 feet, the portico gave visual focus to the 168 foot expanse of the south elevation. It created a protected extension, a terrace or viewing platform, for the state parlors, as well as a serviceable entrance by means of an elegant double flight of stairs, rising almost 13 feet from the ground.
The South Portico is defined by six Ionic columns that step out and around the center bow or bay, as a fully three-dimensional continuation of the monumental “pilastrade,” or row of pilasters, that rings the house on three sides. Like the pilasters, the columns of the portico are raised on square plinths. The shafts are Seneca sand- stone, made in sections and pinned at their centers with iron. They are smooth, in contrast to the heavily rusticated treatment of the Ground Floor wall where the portico base, extending outward, becomes a high podium. Seven arched openings pierce the thick walls of this podium, providing the only outward expression of Hoban’s groin vaults, which support the portico.
A groin vault is formed when two barrel or “tunnel” vaults cross. The name is derived from the arcing edge produced at the intersection of the vaults, which is called a “groin.” In a perfect crossing, the groins define four equal-sized wedges that are the vault. Each of these elements is known as a “groined arch.” When used in small spaces, groin vaults sometimes have a dome-like quality, a loftiness that can belie dense masonry construction.
South Portico: A section and axonometric diagram of the South Entrance vestibule after sketches in the HABS field notes for the White House. The section conveys the irregular nature of the vaulting in this space. Because the top of the groined arches, over the interior and exterior door openings, do not meet the top of the barrel vault at the same height, a true groin vault is not formed. Hoban corrected a difficult situation with masterful adaptation.
HABS, Paul Homeyer and Robert R. Arzola, CA. 1990, Redrawn By Dena Lockett 2008
Why did Hoban trouble himself to build vaults for a more or less self-supporting addition like the portico? As with the original Ground Floor corridor, the vaults of the portico were intended to most efficiently direct the weight of the First Floor’s stone pavers. They also added assurance that the large addition would not compromise the physical integrity of the load-bearing walls of the residence. For both practical and aesthetic reasons, the vaults under the portico floor were a non-negotiable part of Hoban’s design. A solid base would have been materially wasteful and structurally unnecessary in addition to eliminating because of sheer bulk any ground-level access to the residence. The openings behind the seven archways lightened the heavy mass of the portico and also established visual interest, giving an element of shadowy depth to contrast with the out- ward curve and dramatic rustication of the podium. Hoban crafted these voids with a series of groin vaults and groined arches.
Vaulting is visible in six of the seven bays at the South Portico, while a modern dropped ceiling covers visible evidence in the seventh. Now used for an interior vestibule, the center bay most legibly conveys the manner in which Hoban conceived the vaulting system and some of its quirks.
A transverse, north-south, section through the residence and Ground Floor plan indicates that the groin vault that arches over the space is in fact irregular. It might even be better described as a barrel vault intersected by two groined arches, as the north-south vault
is smaller than the east-west one. consequently, the north and south groined arches can never fully intersect.
The complex vaulting beneath the South Portico is testimony to Hoban’s skill. Here he tailored conventional forms of groin vaulting to the extraordinary needs of the curving South Portico. Though irregular in form, his vaults still perform their primary function in shouldering and transferring weight safely through the arch to the wall. The barrel vault extending east to west, following the curve of the portico, effectively carries the compressive weight of the upper portions downward. Groined arches intersect this semicircular vault over each of the openings, redirecting the outward and down- ward thrust around them. Hoban used the resulting groin vaults for bays with an exterior opening for each. The remaining interior bays were firmly fixed on the solid south walls of the house and required only a single groined arch over the doorway. Portions of the vaulting were obscured when the outermost bays were enclosed as rooms, but the doorway part remains exposed.
Section through the segmental vault supporting the areaway bridge on the north side of the White House, created byBenjamin Henry Latrobe in 1807–8. James Hoban extended the vault one bay to the east and one to the west in1829–30 to support the North Portico. The shaded area on the left of the image marks the groined arch used to direct the downward thrust of the vault around a door opening in the north wall. When he expanded the vaulting, Hoban replicated this structural feature for the two windows flanking the door.
Library of Congress
Five years after the 1824 completion of the South Portico, Hoban was called back to build the North Portico on the Pennsylvania Avenue side of the house. Here a modest vault already existed, a narrow, single span built by Latrobe for Jefferson to support a bridge over the north areaway or light well to the front door. Hoban’s challenge was therefore less complex than with the South Portico. The sharp decline in the White House grounds from the north or Pennsylvania Avenue side to the south necessitated the areaway, so that the basement’s kitchens and service rooms would have natural light and ventilation, sunk as they were some 12 to 13 feet below grade on that side.
In 1807–8, Latrobe’s new bridge was an elegant, well-made addition to the President’s House and is still part of the support of the great North Portico. Latrobe’s broad segmental vault, made of brick faced on the east and west sides with stone to match the house, is still visible. A groined arch over the lower door—the kitchen door—joined engaged buttressing that flanked it to dis- tribute the load of the heavy masonry bridge above. The north end of the vault required no groining, for it met a “pier” formed by a small storage room of brick and rubble built into and extending into the earth beyond the stone retaining wall of the areaway.
In enlarging the bridge to serve the new portico in 1829, Hoban merely duplicated the segmental vault one bay to the east and one to the west, using an essentially identical arrangement of groin arches to clear the windows flanking the kitchen door.
Although the full arc of the vault under the North Portico remains visible, twentieth-century partitions obscure much of the underlying structure. Late in 2006, the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) of the National Park Service had the opportunity to document a segment of this vault. Fortunately, the area recorded by HABS contained part of Latrobe’s central vault with its stone facing with Hoban’s duplicate work beyond. This was a rare and welcome opportunity to see the construction methods and materials that have provided the grand North Portico a stable foundation for the better part of two centuries.
View of the Latrobe-Hoban segmental vault under the North Portico. The course of cut stone that formed the outer edge of Latrobe’s original vaulted bridge still reads clearly as a broad rectilinear rib arcing gently downward (northward) toward the rear of the space. Both the Latrobe (left-west) and Hoban (right-east) brick vaulting on either side is composed of three courses of stone at the point where it meets the rear wall, followed by neat brick courses laid in English bond, presumably returning all the way back to the residence. In total, this vault has supported the North Portico for nearly two centuries.
Historic American Building Survey
About HAbS
The Historic American Buildings Survey
The Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) is the nation’s first federal preservation program, begun in 1933 to document the nation’s architectural heritage. It is among the last surviving agencies of the New Deal. The originators of HABS were motivated primarily by the disappearing man-made landscape and the monuments of architecture that seemed threatened by progress. Architects interested in the colonial era had previously produced drawings and photographs of historic architecture, but only on a limited, local, or regional basis. In the tripartite agreement that designed HABS, including the American Institute of Architects, the Library of congress, and the National Park Service, groundwork was laid for a far more comprehensive approach. Today HABS is still vigorously adding to its massive collection at the Library of congress, which includes measured drawings in ink, large-format photographs, and written histories. The collection was purposefully designed to include all aspects of the built environment whether locally, regionally, or nationally significant, both vernacular and, as with the White House, high style. Buildings recorded by HABS can be seen on the Library of congress website and the collection itself is available to the public.
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Search Menu
Themes, Motifs & Symbols
The Oppression of Slavery and Entrapment
The specter of slavery and entrapment pervades Wide Sargasso Sea. The ex-slaves who worked on the sugar plantations of wealthy Creoles figure prominently in Part One of the novel, which is set in the West Indies in the early nineteenth century. Although the Emancipation Act has freed the slaves by the time of Antoinette’s childhood, compensation has not been granted to the island’s black population, breeding hostility and resentment between servants and their white employers. Annette, Antoinette’s mother, is particularly attuned to the animosity that colors many employer-employee interactions.
Enslavement shapes many of the relationships in Rhys’s novel—not just those between blacks and whites. Annette feels helplessly imprisoned at Coulibri Estate after the death of her husband, repeating the word “marooned” over and over again. Likewise, Antoinette is doomed to a form of enslavement in her love for and dependency upon her husband. Women’s childlike dependence on fathers and husbands represents a figurative slavery that is made literal in Antoinette’s ultimate physical captivity.
The Complexity of Racial Identity
Subtleties of race and the intricacies of Jamaica’s social hierarchy play an important role in the development of the novel’s main themes. Whites born in England are distinguished from the white Creoles, descendants of Europeans who have lived in the West Indies for one or more generations. Further complicating the social structure is the population of black ex-slaves who maintain their own kinds of stratification. Christophine, for instance, stands apart from the Jamaican servants because she is originally from the French Caribbean island of Martinique. Furthermore, there is a large mixed-race population, as white slave owners throughout the Caribbean and the Americas were notorious for raping and impregnating female slaves. Sandi and Daniel Cosway, two of Alexander Cosway’s illegitimate children, both occupy this middle ground between black and white society.
Interaction between these racial groups is often antagonistic. Antoinette and her mother, however, do not share the purely racist views of other whites on the island. Both women recognize their dependence on the black servants who care for them, feeling a respect that often borders on fear and resentment. In this manner, power structures based on race always appear to be on the brink of reversal.
The Link Between Womanhood, Enslavement, and Madness
Womanhood intertwines with issues of enslavement and madness in Rhys’s novel. Ideals of proper feminine deportment are presented to Antoinette when she is a girl at the convent school. Two of the other Creole girls, Miss Germaine and Helene de Plana, embody the feminine virtues that Antoinette is to learn and emulate: namely, beauty, chastity and mild, even-tempered manners. Mother St. Justine’s praises of the “poised” and “imperturbable” sisters suggest an ideal of womanhood that is at odds with Antoinette’s own hot and fiery nature. Indeed, it is Antoinette’s passion that contributes to her melancholy and implied madness.
Rhys also explores her female characters’ legal and financial dependence on the men around them. After the death of her first husband, Antoinette’s mother sees her second marriage as an opportunity to escape from her life at Coulibri and regain status among her peers. For the men in the novel, marriage increases their wealth by granting them access to their wives’ inheritance. In both cases, womanhood is synonymous with a kind of childlike dependence on the nearest man. Indeed, it is this dependence that precipitates the demise of both Antoinette and Annette. Both women marry white Englishmen in the hopes of assuaging their fears as vulnerable outsiders, but the men betray and abandon them.
Madness in Wide Sargasso Sea is intricately linked with images of heat, fire, and female sexuality. Madness is Antoinette’s inheritance: her father was mad, according to his bastard son Daniel, as was her mother, Annette. Antoinette’s upbringing and environment exacerbate her inherited condition, as she feels rejected and displaced, with no one to love her. She becomes paranoid and solitary, prone to vivid dreams and violent outbursts. It is significant that women like Antoinette and her mother are the most susceptible to madness, pushed as they are into childlike servitude and feminine docility. Their madness consigns them to live invisible, shameful lives. The predominance of insanity in the novel forces us to question whose recollections are trustworthy. The fragmented memory of a madwoman like Antoinette opens up the possibility for alternate stories and imagined realities.
Disease and Decline
In the Caribbean portrayed in the novel, an atmosphere of sickness reflects the perverse and unnatural subjugation of blacks by whites and of women by men. Repression explodes into fevers, fits, and madness, so that the body says what the mouth cannot. Both Antoinette and Rochester suffer near-fatal fevers, as if to mark their feelings of persecution and fear of the outside world.
Images of disease, rot, and illness also suggest the moral and financial decline of Antoinette’s family. Disease works as a kind of moral retribution, in that the Cosway family, after generations of abuse, inherits a legacy of alcoholism, madness, and deformity (the young boy Pierre is degenerate). Antoinette naïvely believes her family’s cure lies abroad, in England. On the night of the fire, she leans over the crib of her sleeping brother to assure him that, once Mr. Mason takes them to England, he will “be cured, made like other people.” However, England offers no cure, as Antoinette herself further deteriorates when she is there.
Death seemingly hovers over Antoinette’s every moment. One of the first memories she recounts from her childhood is that of her mother’s poisoned horse, lying dead in the heat and swarming with flies. This image creates a mood of sinister anticipation and points to an evil undercurrent haunting Coulibri. The death of the horse also foreshadows the deaths of Pierre, Antoinette’s mother, Aunt Cora, and Mr. Mason, all of which leave Antoinette without a family. So attuned to death’s presence in her childhood tale, Antoinette foreshadows her own violent end.
At Coulibri, allusions to zombies and ghosts further contribute to the eerie mood. Christophine’s supernatural tales, drawn from voodoo legends, share Antoinette’s fascination with death. Antoinette incorporates these superstitions, using a stick as a protective talisman and believing that her mother has become a zombie—a body without a soul. It is Antoinette’s faith in an invisible world that accounts for her peculiar preoccupation with death.
Magic and Incantation
In his decision to take Antoinette away from Jamaica, Rochester bitterly thinks to himself, “No more false heavens. No more damned magic.” The Windward Islands, where Granbois is located, are home to the magical, syncretic religions of their black inhabitants. Christophine’s unique powers, which command respect from her peers, derive from her expertise in obeah practices and her knowledge in casting spells. Antoinette incorporates Christophine’s superstitious beliefs, leading her to read signs and symbols in the natural world. On the night of the fire, for instance, Antoinette shrinks in horror when she sees her mother’s parrot burn alive, believing it is bad luck to kill a parrot or watch one die. This knowledge of magic is Antoinette’s one source of power and independence.
Fires recur throughout the novel, representing destruction, damnation, and smoldering passions. In Part One, Antoinette describes the fire that burned down Coulibri Estate and triggered her mother’s collapse into madness. In Part Two, Rochester describes the use of candles at night, paying particular attention to the moths that burn themselves in the flames. These descriptions not only recall the grotesque death of Annette’s bird, but they also mirror Antoinette’s perverse fascination with fire and foreshadow her own tragic end.
Forests and Trees
The Garden
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CAUCASUS ii. Language contact
CAUCASUS and Iran.
ii. Language Contact
Languages of the Caucasus. The linguistic map of the Caucasus is extremely variegated. The following language families are represented:
1. Caucasian (or Ibero-Caucasian) languages is the designation of those languages of the area that do not belong to any other known family of languages. They fall into four distinct groups: a) the Kartvelian or South Caucasian languages: Georgian, Svan, and Mingrelian (mainly spoken in the Georgian S.S.R.), and Laz (mostly spoken in Turkey). b) The Northwest Caucasian languages: Abkhaz (in the Karachai-Cherkes A.O., R.S.F.S.R.), Adyge (West Circassian, in the Adyge A. O., R.S.F.S.R.), Kabardian (East Circassian, in the Kabard-Balkar A.S.S.R., R.S.F.S.R.), and Ubykh (in Turkey, now all but extinct). c) The North-central Caucasian (Nakh) languages: Ingush and Chechen (in Chechen-Ingush A.S.S.R., R.S.F.S.R.) and Bats (in the Georgian S.S.R). d) The Northeast (Dagestanian) languages: Avar, the various Andi, Dido, Lak-Dargva, and Lezgian languages (Dagestanian A.S.S.R., R.S.F.S.R., and the Azerbaijanian S.S.R.). Some scholars include the Nakh languages in the Northeast Caucasian group. Otherwise the genetic affinities between the four groups are uncertain.
2. Turkic languages: a) Azeri (in the Azerbaijanian S.S.R and in northwestern Iran). b) Anatolian Turkish (in a few communities in Transcaucasia). c) Kumyk (mainly in Dagestanian A.S.S.R.). d) Nogay (in various places in north Caucasus). e) Karachai-Balkar (in the Karachai-Balkar A.S.S.R. and the Kabard-Balkar A.S.S.R.).
3. Indo-European languages: a) Armenian (mainly in the Armenian S.S.R., but also in the Georgian and Azerbaijanian S.S.R. and in various countries outside the Soviet Union). b) Greek (in the Georgian S.S.R. and in north Caucasus). c) Slavonic languages (Russian, Ukrainian, mainly in north Caucasus; Russian is also used as an administrative language all over the area, in part beside the indigenous languages). d) Various Iranian languages (see below).
The only Caucasian language with an old literary tradition is Georgian (texts since a.d. the 5th century); in some of the other languages literatures have arisen in modern times, mainly after the establishment of Soviet power. Today twelve of the Caucasian languages have status of literary languages: Georgian, Abkhaz, Abaza, Adyge, Kabard-Cherkes, Chechen, Ingush, Avar, Lak, Dargva, Lezgi, Tabasaran.
Christian literature in Caucasian Albanian (possibly a Lezgian language still surviving as Udi in northern Azerbaijan) is known to have existed in late Antiquity; it became extinct in the Middle Ages (Mnacakanjan; Schulze).
The Armenian literature dates back to a.d. the 5th century. The Greek and Slavic groups have no indigenous literature. For Iranian languages, see below. (For general surveys see Comrie and Hewitt; Deeters; Faensen; Yazyki narodov SSSR.)
Iranian Languages in the Caucasus. The following Iranian languages are spoken in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia (see Oranskij, Schmitt, in addition to the works referred to above): Kurdish (Kurmanji), in the Soviet republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia (ca. 75,000 speakers); Tati in southern Dagestan and northern Azerbaijan (ca. 10,000); Ṭāleši in Azerbaijan (ca. 10,000); and Ossetic (ca. 480,000) in the northern Caucasus and Georgia (South Ossetia; figures taken from the Soviet census of 1979, except that for Ṭāleši speakers, which is from 1959; see Faensen, pp. 103-04). Bilingualism (or multilingualism) is widespread, even the rule, in all these language communities. In Soviet Azerbaijan the majority of the Tati- and Ṭāleši-speaking populations also speak Azeri Turkish, which is the language of instruction and administration, and claim ethnic identification with Azeris; the census figures for these two languages may thus be too low. Ṭāleši is also spoken in Iranian Azerbaijan. Both Kurdish and Ossetic are written languages, with rich literatures. See also individual articles on Azeri (azerbaijan viii), Kurdish, Ossetic, Tati, and Ṭāleši, and cf. azerbaijan vii.
Kurdish. The Georgian Kurds, who live for the most part in the region of Tbilisi, are immigrants from Armenia, whereas the Kurds of Azerbaijan mainly occupy the territory along the Armenian border. The language of these communities is almost identical with that of the Armenian Kurds (see Bakaev, 1973, 1977).
Tati. Tati belongs to the group of so-called Southwest Iranian languages and is closely related to Persian (for bibliography see Oranskij, II) and should not be confused with the Tati dialects spoken in Azerbaijan, Zanjān and Qazvīn and which belong to the Northwest Iranian (see E. Yarshater, A Grammar of Southern Tati Dialects, The Hague and Paris, 1969). It is spoken by two main groups, one Jewish (Russ. gorskie evrei, mountain Jews), the other Muslim; there is also a small group of Christian Tati-speakers in Armenia. According to tradition, speakers of Tati are descended from military colonists of southwestern Iran who were settled in southern Dagestan in the Sasanian period (Yazyki narodov SSSR I, p. 281 ). For the Jews of this region Tati is also a literary language. Tati has drawn heavily upon the vocabulary of Azeri, the predominant language of the region. Even postpositions, conjunctions, and particles and derivational suffixes (e.g., -lik, -lýk, -lug, -lïq, primarily used to form abstract nouns; -či, denoting practitioner of a profession (Gryunberg, 1963, p. 19) have been borrowed. Numerous Arabic words, especially those relating to Islam, have also been adopted, partly through Azeri. Other borrowings include Persian words, either directly or through Azeri; modern Russian loanwords, usually in their Azeri form; and numerous words from the Northeast Caucasian (Lezgian) languages of southern Dagestan. Syntactic loans in the form of calques are frequent, but, despite the strong influence exerted by Azeri, Tati grammar remains predominantly Iranian. Azeri influence on the sound system manifests itself especially clearly in a tendency to introduce vowel harmony (Gryunberg, 1963, p. 11; in Yazyki narodov SSSR I, pp. 281-301; Oranskij, I, pp. 163-69; Sokolova, pp. 122-47).
Ṭāleši. Ṭāleši belongs to the group of so-called Northwest Iranian languages, which prevailed throughout Azerbaijan from antiquity to the later Middle Ages. Like Tati, Ṭāleši has borrowed extensively from Azeri. Paired Azeri and indigenous synonyms are common. Azeri suffixes like -lik (-li, -luk) and -či are found in derivations of Ṭāleši words. Azeri participles in -miš are used to form compound verbs (allatmiš karde “to deceive,” kečmiš be “to forgive”). In the 1930s an attempt was made to introduce a written form of Ṭāleši, but it was soon abandoned. (See Miller, in Yazyki narodov SSSR I, pp. 302-22; Sokolova, I, pp. 104-21.)
Ossetic. Ossetic is spoken in a comparatively small area in the central Caucasus flanked on all sides by Caucasian and Turkic-speaking areas. On the east it is bordered by the Nakh languages (Ingush, Chechen), on the west by Kabardian (Circassian) and Balkar (Turkic). In South Ossetia the bulk of the Ossetic population is bilingual in Ossetic and Georgian. Since the middle of the 18th century Russian has gradually spread through the northern Caucasus and must now be considered the predominant language of the area. There is evidence, however, that Ossetic (or its ancestor language, Alania, see alans) formerly had much greater currency, especially in the northwestern Caucasus, where in the Middle Ages it seems to have been a language of status. Iranian (Scythian, Sarmatian) languages have been spoken in southern Russia and the Ponto-Caspian steppes since at least as early as the first half of the 1st millennium b.c. It has even been maintained that the Scythians and Sarmatians may have been indigenous to those areas, the descendants of Aryan tribes who remained in their ancient habitat when the majority of their sister tribes migrated to the east and south (Abaev, 1965; Jettmar, pp. 62-64). Iranian cultural influence in the northern Caucasus was also apparently strong in former times. The epic cycle of the Narts, current in many parts of the northern Caucasus and in various languages, seems to be largely of Iranian origin (see Dumézil, tr., and 1968, pp. 441-575; Abaev, 1945; Nartị kaddżiṯä). The former spread of Ossetic (Alanic) is borne out by numerous place names in territories now occupied by Circassian (Kabardian) tribes: river names in -dan = Oss. don “water, river,” names of gorges or ravines in -kam = Oss. kom “mouth, gorge,” and so on. In these territories Ossetic has gradually been ousted by Turkic- and, in particular, Circassian-speaking tribes, who in the late Middle Ages began to spread north and east from the coasts of the Black Sea (Abaev, 1949, passim, and 1987; Gagloĭti; Kaloev; Istoriya Severo-osetinskoĭ ASSR I; see also čarkas). In the 16th and 17th centuries the feudal lords of Kabarda had hegemony over the northern Caucasus, and their language was predominant (Istoriya Severo-osentinskoĭ ASSR I, pp. 104-19). A number of lexical affinities between Ossetic and Circassian-Kabardian attest the close relations between the speakers of these languages (Abaev, 1949, I, p. 88 and passim; Thordarson, in Schmitt, ed.). Mutual borrowings have also taken place between Ossetic and Abkhas, Mingrelian, and Svan (Abaev, 1949, I, passim); today these language areas are separated from the Ossetic area by Turkic- and Circassian-speaking populations. On the other hand, there is some evidence that Ossetic is now spoken in territory that was formerly occupied by Nakh tribes: The oldest strata of the southern Ossetic-speaking population are descended from immigrants from the north who settled in the Java district around the upper reaches of the Didi Liaxvi river in the late Middle Ages or early modern times (Ocherki istorii I).
Today there are two chief dialects of Ossetic, Digor (West Ossetic) and Iron (East Ossetic). South Ossetic is a local variant of Iron but has been more strongly exposed than North Ossetic to lexical influence from Georgian (Abaev, 1949, I, pp. 494-506; Tedevi, 1983); plant names and other lexemes referring to local conditions in Transcaucasia are largely of Georgian origin (Tekhov, pp. 110-22 and passim). A number of lexical affinities that connect Digor and Kabardian are not shared by Iron. The population of the Ordzhonikidze area (eastern Ossetia) is partly bilingual in a Nakh dialect (Ingush) and Iron, which has resulted in a good deal of mutual lexical borrowing. Among Ossetic words that seem to have been adopted from Nakh at an early date are bäx “horse” (attested in the so-called “Yass word list,” written in Hungary in the 15th century but deriving from an Alanic colony established there in the 13th century; see Németh, 1959; Thordarson, in Schmitt, ed.) and läg “man” (a probable reading of the Alanic inscription from the Zelenchuk river, 11th-12th century; see Zgusta, 1987); the words for “hand,” “foot,” and “mouth” (I. kʾux/D. kʾox; kʾax; I. dzix/D. dzux; çʾux respectively), which have ousted the older words arm, fad, kom, may also have been borrowed from Nakh. All these words are common to both dialects.
Since Khazar times (a.d. 6th century) there have been language contacts between Ossetic (Alanic) and various Turkic tribes. The influence exerted by the Turkic languages upon Ossetic seems to have been much more profound than that of the Caucasian languages, at least as far as vocabulary is concerned. Turkic languages have apparently acted as intermediaries between Ossetic and Uralic and Altaic languages in southern Russia and Central Asia; quite a number of plant names seem to be migratory words that have entered the Caucasus from the north (see Tekhov). In the Zelenchuk inscription at least one Turkic proper name is attested (pakathar [in Greek script] = Bäqätar < Turk. *baγatur, cf. OTurk. batur, Mong. bagatur “hero,” which in various forms is used as a proper name all over the Caucasus). Today Ossetic shares numerous proper names of Turkic derivation with neighboring Caucasian languages. In modern Ossetic (I.) Asị/(D.) As(s)i, the ancient ethnic name of the Alans, is applied to the Balkars, a Turkic tribe occupying former Alanic territory (see asii).
Among the structural features of Ossetic that seem to reflect the influence of Caucasian or Turkic languages spoken in the area before the advent of the Ossetes (substratum) and later in neighboring areas (adstratum) are the following: 1. Phonology. The introduction of unvoiced glottal stops and affricates: ,, (čʾ, in Iron only), , and an unvoiced uvular stop: q (in Digor only in loanwords) is no doubt attributable to bilingual contacts. The same is true of the prosodic pattern (with word accent subordinate to syntagmatic accent), in which Ossetic seems to accord with Nakh and Georgian. 2. Morphology and syntax. In contrast to other Iranian languages Ossetic has developed a comparatively complex case system (nine cases in Iron, eight cases in Digor). Nothing quite parallel is found in neighboring languages, however, though there is some similarity to the case system of Nakh. On the other hand, the agglutinative character of the declensions (with the same case endings for singular and plural, in the latter with plural marker -t-) is of Iranian origin and has parallels in Sogdian and Yaghnobi. It also seems natural to attribute the vigesimal system of counting to the influence of neighboring languages. An important structural innovation is the gerund in -gæ ( < *-akā, the instrumental of a verbal noun in *-aka-), the use of which has parallels in neighboring Caucasian and Turkic languages. Subordination is, however, mainly achieved by means of conjunctions and finite clauses. Another innovation that is clearly attributable to influence from Caucasian languages is the two-dimensional system of local preverbs, in which both the direction of the action and the position of the observer are indicated: Ir. a-cịd “he went out (away from the observer)” versus ra-cịd “he came out (toward the observer),” etc. An analogous system is found in Georgian. There are also many loan translations and semantic and phraseological calques.
It should be stressed, however, that in many semantic, phraseological, and lexical similarities between Ossetic and one or more of the neighboring languages the direction of borrowing cannot be determined. Even when some influence is admitted as an explanation of typological change, it is difficult to establish with certainty which is the source language. (See Abaev 1949, I, passim; for other works by Abaev on the same subject see Isaev.)
Despite long-standing bilingual relations with various adjacent languages Ossetic has in fact been remarkably conservative and has largely retained the character of an “Eastern” Middle Iranian language, especially in the morphology and syntax of verbs (see, e.g., the relevant chapters in Schmitt, ed.). In lexical composition it also exhibits striking tenacity, most of the core vocabulary being of Iranian origin (see Bielmeier). Lexical borrowing is usually linked to geographical and cultural peculiarities of the Caucasus, that is, the word has been borrowed together with its referent.
Iranian influence on Caucasian languages. There is general agreement that Iranian languages predominated in Azerbaijan from the 1st millennium b.c. until the advent of the Turks in a.d. the 11th century (see Menges, pp. 41-42; Camb. Hist. Iran IV, pp. 226-28, and VI, pp. 950-52). The process of Turkicization was essentially complete by the beginning of the 16th century, and today Iranian languages are spoken in only a few scattered settlements in the area. Their social and cultural prestige is low, and in a few generations they will probably have become extinct. It is likely that Northeast Caucasian languages were formerly spoken much farther south and west than they are today and that they have shared the fate of the Iranian idioms of the area. Today Udi, which may be descended from the language of ancient Caucasian Albania, is spoken in only two villages in northern Soviet Azerbaijan and one small village in eastern Georgia (Schulze, pp. 281-93), which suggests that there may have been contact between Northwest Iranian and Northeast Caucasian (Dagestanian) languages in prehistoric times. Modern ignorance of these languages and their exact relations with later recorded languages hampers investigation of this question, however. Political and cultural influence from the Iranian empires was already apparent in Transcaucasia in pre-Christian times. Iranian loanwords may have entered Georgian as early as the Median period (Andronik’ašvili, pp. 11-40). During the Parthian and Sasanian periods Iranian proper name were fashionable among the aristocracy of Albania and eastern Georgia (Andronik’ašvili, chap. 3). Iranian influence was at its height under the Sasanians, when Mazdaism was the religion of the Iberian upper classes (Wesendonk). From inscriptions found at Armazi, in eastern Georgia it appears, however, that Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Near East, was used as a chancery language in the first centuries after Christ (bibliography in Gignoux, p. 44). Iranian (Parthian, Middle Persian) loanwords are found in the earliest Georgian texts (late 5th century), partly borrowed via Armenian; among them are a number of Zoroastrian terms: ešma, ešmakʾi “devil,” cf. Av. aēšma- “rage” (a demon), jojoxeti “hell,” (cf. Av. daožahva- “hell,” Pahl. dušox “hell,” Arm. d`ox-kʿ [plur. form]). In most instances lexical borrowings are linked with political, economic, and cultural relations between Iranians and Georgians and do not reflect direct bilingual contact. (See Andronik’ašvili.)
Caucasian languages in Iran. In Iran today Georgian is spoken in a few settlements in the county (šahrestān) of Farīdan (Georgian Pereidnelebi) by descendants of prisoners of war transported by Shah ʿAbbās at the beginning of the 17th century (Čikobava; Gigineišvili et al., pp. 251-68, texts and bibliography). The language of these settlements is only imperfectly known. The influence of Persian on the vocabulary seems to have been strong, whereas the grammatical structure has largely retained its Georgian character. Although Shah ʿAbbās also transferred a large number of Georgians to various other places in Iran (Khorasan, Māzanderān, Gīlān, Fārs), they were absorbed into the surrounding populations and lost their language. Colonies of “Circassians” (i.e., northwestern Caucasians) were also founded in Fārs, but nothing precise is known about their nationality or language (cf. Oberling).
Bibliography : V. I. Abaev, Nartovskiĭ èpos, Izvestiya Severo-osetinskogo nauchno-issledovatel’skogo instituta 10/1, Dzhaudzhikau, 1945. Idem, Osetinskiĭ yazyk i fol’klor I, Moscow and Leningrad, 1949. Idem, Istoriko-ètimologicheskiĭ slovar’ osetinskogo yazyka I-III, Moscow and Leningrad, 1958-79. Idem, Skifo-evropeĭskie izoglossy, Moscow, 1965. Idem, “Skifo-sarmatskie narechiya,” in Osnovy iranskogo yazykoznaniya I: Drevneiranskie yazyki, Moscow, 1987. M. Andronik’ašvili, Nark’vevebi iranul-kartuli enobrivi urtiertobidan (Studies in Iranian-Georgian linguistic contacts) I, Tbilisi, 1966. Ch. Kh. Bakaev, Yazyk Kurdov SSSR, Moscow, 1973. Idem, Rol’ yazykovykh kontaktov v razvitii yazyka Kurdov SSSR, Moscow, 1977. R. Bielmeier, Historische Untersuchung zum Erb- und Lehnwortschatzanteil im ossetischen Grundwortschatz, Europäische Hochschulschriften, ser. XXVII, vol. 2, Frankfurt, etc., 1977. A. Čikobava, “Pereidnulis mtavari taviseburebani” (The main peculiarities of the Georgian language of Farīdan), in T’pilisis universit’et’is moambe (Bulletin of the University of Tbilisi) 7, 1927, pp. 196-247 (contains texts and a glossary). B. Comrie and B. G. Hewitt, The Languages of the Soviet Union, Cambridge Language Surveys, Cambridge, 1981 , chaps. 2, 4, 5. G. Deeters, “Die kaukasischen Sprachen,” in HO I/VII: Armenisch und Kaukasisch, Leiden and Cologne, 1963. G. Dumézil, Mythe et épopée I, Paris, 1968. Idem, tr., Le livre des héros. Légendes sur les Nartes, Paris, 1965. N. G. Dzhusoĭty, Istoriya osetinskoĭ literatury, Tbilisi, II, pp. 99-207. J. Faensen, Sprachen in der USSR, Osnabrück, 1983 (location of languages and numbers of speakers). Y. S. Gagloĭti, Alany i voprosy ètnogeneza osetin, Tbilisi, 1966. I. Gigineišvili et al., Kartuli dialekt’ologia I, Tbilisi, pp. 251-68 (texts and bibliography). Ph. Gignoux, Glossaire des inscriptions pehlevies et parthes, Corpus Inscr. Iran., Suppl. Ser. I, London, 1972. A. L. Gryunberg, Yazyk severoazerbaĭdzhanskikh Tatov, Leningrad, 1963. W. B. Henning, “The Ancient Language of Azerbaijan,” TPS, 1954, pp. 157-77 (repr. in idem, Selected Papers II, Acta Iranica 15, Tehran and Liege, 1977, pp. 457-77). M. I. Isaev, Vaso Abaev. K 80-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya, Ordzhonikidze, 1980, pp. 134-43 (bibliography of Abaev’s works). Istoriya Severo-osetinskoĭ ASSR I, Moscow, 1959. K. Jettmar, “Mittelasien und Sibirien in vortürkischer Zeit,” in HO I/V, V: Geschichte Mittelasiens, Leiden and Cologne, 1966. B. A. Kaloev, Osetiny. Istoriko-ètnograficheskoe issledovanie, Moscow, 1967. K. H. Menges, The Turkic Languages and Peoples. An Introduction to Turkic Studies, Ural-altaische Bibliothek 15, Wiesbaden, 1968. B. V. Miller, Talyshskiĭ yazyk, Moscow, 1953. A. Sh. Mnacakanyan, O literature kavkazkoĭ Albanii, Yerevan, 1969. J. Németh, Eine Wörterliste der Jassen, der ungarländischen Alanen, Abh. der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Kl. für Sprachen, Literatur und Kunst, 1958, no. 4, Berlin, 1959. P. Oberling, “Georgians and Circassians in Iran,” Studia Caucasica (The Hague) 1, 1963, pp. 127-43. Ocherki istorii Yugo-osetinskoĭ avtonommoĭ oblasti I, Tbilisi, 1985. I. M. Oranskiĭ, Die neuiranischen Sprachen der Sowjetunion, The Hague and Paris, 1975, I, pp. 129-72, II, bibliography. Z. Šarašenije, Pereidneli “Gurjebi” (The Georgians of Farīdan), Tbilisi, 1979 (with texts). R. Schmitt, ed., Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Wiesbaden, 1989. W. Schulze, Die Sprache der Uden in Nord-Azerbajdžan. Studien zur Synchronie und Diachronie einer süd-ostkaukasischen Sprache, Wiesbaden, 1982. V. S. Sokolova, Ocherki po fonetike iranskikh yazykov I, Moscow and Leningrad, 1953. O. Tedevi, Nark’vevebi kartul-osuri enobrivi urtiertobidan (Studies in Georgian-Ossetic linguistic contacts), Tbilisi, 1983. O. G. von Wesendonk, “Über georgisches Heidentum,” Caucasica 1, Leipzig, 1924, pp. 1-102. E. Yarshater, A Grammar of Southern Tati Dialects, The Hague and Paris, 1969. Idem, in EIr. III/3, pp. 238-45. Yazyki narodov SSSR I, II, IV, Moscow, 1966-67. L. Zgusta, The Old Ossetic Inscription from the River Zeleṇčuk, Sb. der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 468, Veröffentlichungen der Iranischen Kommission 21, Vienna, 1987.
(Fridrik Thordarson)
This article is available in print.
Vol. V, Fasc. 1, pp. 92-95
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Mrs Dalloway
Mrs Dalloway
by Virginia Woolf
Analysis: Genre
Mrs Dalloway is the ultimate example of modern literature (meaning it is part of the genre of modernism). After World War I, people felt like their world was shattered, and art and culture went through dramatic change. Writers and artists of all kinds began to question the traditions of the nineteenth century. Thinkers embraced new ideas like cubism (think Picasso’s messed up faces) and surrealism (think of a melting watch). It was a very creative time, and an era in which new media such as photography and cinema arrived and changed the way people saw the world.
Take a moment to compare Mrs Dalloway to, say, any Charles Dickens novel – perhaps Great Expectations. Rather than having a straightforward narrative with a beginning and end and a narrator who knows it all, with Mrs Dalloway we have several narrators, flashbacks, stream-of-consciousness style, and a totally fragmented story. As a modernist, Virginia Woolf rejects the idea of a linear storyline that many writers had used in the past, and she rejects the idea that one being who "knows all" tells the whole story. Part of her point is to demonstrate through the book how life has changed after the war: life is not so neat and tidy anymore.
To oversimplify (and maybe make things more complicated all at once): remember how Clarissa feels about Sir William Bradshaw? That he's oppressive and authoritarian, and only wants things done in the English and traditional way? That’s sort of how Virginia Woolf felt about traditional storytelling.
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Definición de deciduous en inglés:
Compartir esta entrada
Pronunciación: /diˈsijo͞oəs/
1(Of a tree or shrub) shedding its leaves annually. Often contrasted with evergreen.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• For a short while, as the leaves turn on deciduous trees and shrubs, autumn colours command the stage.
• Evergreen trees, including many conifers, support more leaf area than deciduous trees in the same environment.
• Most of the deciduous trees have shed their leaves by mid-December.
1.1 informal (Of a tree or shrub) broadleaved.
1.2Denoting the milk teeth of a mammal, which are shed after a time.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• The first teeth (also known as milk teeth or deciduous teeth) normally start to break through the gum from at around six to nine months old.
• However, the rate of wear in the deciduous teeth seems more or less linear, suggesting a systematic error in the age estimates of the juveniles.
• They did not explain why adult feeding behavior could not be achieved with a smaller deciduous dentition.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• Best grown in bright conditions and it will tolerate a slight frost when it will behave deciduously.
• As we pass Glenhead, we can think of writers such as McCormick and Cockett and savour the solitude offered by this deciduously wooded glade.
• In the end, the climate defeated them and all, or most, of the trees behaved, and still behave, deciduously.
Oraciones de ejemplo
• Winters were long and dark in those days and trees needed to have mechanisms to survive… so deciduousness in those conditions was a real benefit.
• Overall light absorption by the whole canopy remains high despite deciduousness in the overstorey.
• The flooded area had greater deciduousness because it has a proportionally greater number of totally or partially deciduous species.
Late 17th century: from Latin deciduus (from decidere 'fall down or off') + -ous.
Palabras que riman con deciduous
For editors and proofreaders
División en sílabas: de·cid·u·ous
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¿Qué te llama la atención de esta palabra o frase?
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Characteristics of Plants
In this characteristics of plants activity, learners conduct an experiment on how a vascular plant moves nutrients to all its parts. They describe the difference between the celery leaf from sugar water and plain water. Students also explain the advantages plants have with adaptation.
7th - 9th Science 17 Views 77 Downloads
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Middle Ages voc
Domesday Book • was made in AD 1066• helped King William keep track of people and property in England• helped the ruler set up a tax system• was the first record of how many people lived in England
Middle Ages • began in about AD 500• ended about AD 1500• was also called the Dark Ages• was also called the Age of Faith
Charlemagne • was educated and raised a Christian• was crowned emperor by the pope in AD 800• forced those he conquered to become Christian• restored much of old Roman Empire• promoted culture and learning in his empire• kingdom fell apart after his death
Scandinavia • includes modern nations of Denmark, Norway, Sweden• is where Vikings came from
William the Conqueror • conquered England in 1066 • also invaded Southern Italy• began the Domesday Book
King John • 1199, governed with more force than earlier kings• demanded more military service & more $, & sold royal positions to highestBidder *whose lords forced him to agree to the Magna Carta in 1215, which limited royal power
Magna Carta • Latin for “Great Charter” *a set of promises that limited royal power in 1215 *King John agreed to rather than face defeat in a civil war *helped lords and other landholders*eventually helped all people *king had to obey the law
monks men who *devoted their lives to religion *studied, prayed, and lived in communities called monasteries *cultivated crops and helped the poor *some became missionaries
nuns women who *devoted their lives to religion *studied,prayed, and lived in communities called convents *cultivated crops and helped the poor
monasteries communities *in which monks lived, studied and prayed *which were centers of religion and education
convents communities *in which nus lived,studied and prayed *which were centers of religion and education
missionaries people *who teach a religion to people with different beliefs *which some monks became
feudalism political,social,and economic system * began in the 800s * formed to meet the people’s need for protection and justice* resembled a social structure * declined by the 1400s* lords became independent of the monarch who originally granted land to them
monarch king or queen• was the supreme ruler in the feudal system• was at the top of the feudal social system• was bound to be loyal to his lords and knights
serfs people • lived on the land and farmed it •were protected by the lord (owner) •were sometimes called peasants• formed the base of society in the Middle Ages •had no loyalty • could not leave land without lord’s permission
knights warriors • were trained and prepared to fight on horseback •had a code of behavior called chivalry • received some land from their lords between 1100 — 1300 •were bound to be loyal to their kings and lords
chivalry code of behavior •which included deep faith•which included being ready to die for the church •included giving generously to all•included using ones strength to stand against injustice
manor system management system •which was common from 700s-1200s •allowed the lord, knights, serfs to be self-sufficient •a way to manage feudal lands •included manor house and village, farmland, gardens, orchards, church and mill •crop surpluses could be sold
three field rotation System of farming •servants assigned 3 fields •each field had different crops grown at different times (crop rotation) •some fields lie idle to stay fertile
guild group of people *group of people had a common interest *craftspeople or merchants *work together to control their field
lady woman of noble birth *was not allowed to make many decisions about her life •whose actions were directed by her husband or father
Christine de Pisan an uncommon woman •who was different than most medieval women •earned a living by writing •wrote poetry and books protesting the way women were represented by male authors
Palestine Roman province •which is on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea •was conquered by a group of Muslim Turks •which was considered the Holy Land by Christians
Alexius Comnenus Byzantine emperor *who wanted help from the pope to fight the Turks
Pope Urban II pope •who issued a plea to free the Holy Land Palestine from the Turks •who launched the Crusades
Crusades Holy Wars •of which there were 8 •which were meant to win back control of Palestine from the Muslims •which were led by Christians•which led to additional trade and commerce
Silk Road system of roads •which ran from China across Central Asia as far west as Venice, Italy•which we know about because of Marco Polo•where ideas and goods traveled •which was dangerous to travel until the Mongols protected travelers from bandits
Marco Polo Italian merchant *who was from Venice *was a world traveler and writer *who stayed in China as a guest for 17 years
The Plague an epidemic *occured in Europe from 1347-1352 *killed 30% of Europe's population *an attack of bubonic plague *no one knew how it spread
bubonic plague epidemic *spread by humans and fleas (which were infected by rats) *known as The Plague in mid 1300s
epidemic a disease which spreads quickly
Genoa a city in Italy where the first European cases of bubonic plague occured *is a seaport town
Chang'an a capital city in Central Asia on the Silk Road
Dunhuang a Chinese city on the edge of the Taklimakan Desert
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The Animals in Shadowbrook Forest
Algebra Level 3
Shadowbrook forest is populated with 25 animals. Out of these animals, there are seven different species. The seven species are mouse, rabbit, squirrel, duck, deer, fox, and bear. There are more mice than there are rabbits, and there are more squirrels than rabbits, and also more squirrels than mice. The duck, mice, and fox populations are equal, and there are three more deer than bears. There are also two more deer than foxes. There is one bear in Shadowbrook forest.
The next day, two fox cubs are born. The male fox goes hunting to provide for his mate and their cubs, and catches two squirrels. The bear, meanwhile, catches a duck.
What is \(\frac { { \text{squirrel} }_{ \text{pop}. }-{ \text{duck} }_{\text{pop}. } }{ { \text{mouse} }_{ \text{pop}. } } \) now?
Details and Assumptions:
• Animal populations are whole numbers
• There cannot be 0 or negative numbers of animals
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Agencies | Governor
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Protecting You and Your Environment Virginia Department of Health
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Blister Agents
EPR English Version | Español Versión
Source: Virginia Department of Heath
Blister Agents (Vesicants)
What are blister agents?
Blister agents are chemicals that can damage skin, eyes and lungs. Some examples of blister agents include lewisite, nitrogen mustard, and sulfur mustard. Sulfur mustard (mustard agent) gets its name from the yellow-brown color of the oily liquid and its mustard-like (or garlic) odor. Experts are concerned that terrorist groups may be able to make blister agents. Blister agents have no industrial uses and are not easily obtainable, but a skilled chemist may be able to make them.
How can people be exposed to blister agents?
Blister agents are liquids that can form vapor that floats into the air. People can be exposed by touching a liquid blister agent or breathing the vapor. Terrorists could release blister agents into a crowded area. Blister agents are more harmful if released in enclosed areas compared to outdoors.
How can people recognize that they are sick from blister agents?
It only takes small amounts to cause serious effects. In general, the longer people breathe blister agent vapor or leave the liquid on their skin, the sicker they get. Blister agents can burn the skin, eyes and lungs. Symptoms include burning eyes; swollen eyelids; red, burning and blistering skin; cough; difficulty breathing; and hoarse voice. Later, a flu-like illness or bronchitis can develop. Days later, the body may be unable to fight infection, and pneumonia or other serious infections develop. Those exposed to large amounts of blister agents can die.
How soon after exposure do the symptoms appear?
Sulfur mustard harms the body within minutes of being exposed but symptoms may not start until 1-24 hours after coming into contact with it. Lewisite irritates the skin, eyes, nose and lungs immediately but the more serious symptoms appear 1-24 hours later.
How can people avoid exposure?
If blister agents are released in an area, people should calmly and quickly move to fresh air. It is dangerous to return to an area with blister agent contamination until it has been cleaned up and checked by experts.
What should people do if they have been exposed to blister agents?
It is important to act quickly if exposed.
• If vapor is breathed, immediately move to fresh air. People exposed to vapor should take off their outer clothing (such as jackets, coats or shirts) right away.
• If liquid chemical soaks clothing or skin, then take the clothes off right away, scrape any oily drops from skin and wash with large amounts of water to flush away the chemical. Soap and water wash is best, but if you cannot find soap, just use water.
• If eyes are splashed with liquid or large amounts of gas, then flush the eyes with water.
• Some blister agents do not cause immediate illness but exposed people, whether sick or not, should seek medical attention immediately. Often the local emergency department is the best place for a medical evaluation after blister agent exposures.
Can blister agents spread from one person to another?
People who only breathe a small amount of the vapor and move quickly out of the area are not likely to have blister agent on their clothes or skin. Blister agents are most likely to spread to another person if the clothing or skin of the person initially exposed is covered in large amounts of vapor or any amount of liquid chemical. Since blister agents are so toxic, the safest step is to remove the outer layer of clothing from anyone that may have been exposed.
How is blister agent poisoning diagnosed and treated?
Doctors may see the effects of poisoning in the eyes, nose, lungs, skin and nervous system and may recognize the effects as a specific poisoning without any blood tests. Blood tests to find blister agents in the body may not be available, but doctors may conduct other tests to help them with patient treatment.
For blister agents, the main treatment is to relieve symptoms. Most people who are exposed get well. An antidote (medicine) exists for lewisite and may be given in the hospital to some patients. Those people with mild sickness may not need treatment with the antidote. People experiencing serious illness from blister agents (e.g., large areas of burns, severe lung problems or eye burns) may need to be hospitalized.
Can exposure to blister agents cause long-term problems?
Most people with mild symptoms will get better and not have serious long-term problems; however, blister agents can permanently scar the eyes and skin and permanently damage the voice and lungs. Those with large exposures may be at increased risk for cancer later in their lives.
Where can more information about blister agents be found?
If you need immediate medical attention, call 911 or go to a local emergency department. For a suspected poisoning, contact the regional poison center (1-800-222-1222). More information about the health effects of chemical poisonings can be found through the Virginia Department of Health at or through the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at or
Last Updated: 01-19-2012
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Fyle chapter 6
Fyle chapter 6 - who were agents of the Portuguese. 7....
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Fyle, Ch. 6 1. What are village-level governments sometimes called? -Acephalous or stateless societies 2. How was the Luba kingdom “born”? -Independent village societies, linked together by kinship, age-set ritual ties would come together to form smaller kingdoms 3. Who is Illunga Kalala? - Illunga Kalala became a founder of the llunga dynasty and was a powerful hunter 4. What did Rund expansion on the Luapula River create? -Semi- independent kingdoms 5. Why did the Portuguese start a war with Ndongo? -To subdue Ndongo so as to gain materials believed to be in the kingdom and to continue their slave trading 6. Who were known as Pombieros? -Decendants from the Portuguese in Angola and African women. Also Africans
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Unformatted text preview: who were agents of the Portuguese. 7. Distinguish between San and Khoikhoi.-The San were original inhabitants and were hunter-gatherer nomadic people of short stature. Europeans derogatorily called them bushman. The Khoikhoi were tall and slender and had a cattle and sheep economy. They also used tools and weapons. 8. To whom did the kings fall prey in 1568?-Marauding invaders 9. By what three main groups are incoming Bantu identified?-Shona, Sotho and Tswana 10. What, if anything, did you find confusing in the reading?- I did not find anything confusing....
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145Oviparous Animals Reading • Provide oviparous animal books for children to explore. Nonfic- tion books will depict the oviparous animals’ natural attributes. Fiction books that include oviparous animals will be enjoyable as well. Some books you can feature include Chickens Aren’t the Only Ones by Ruth Heller and Rechenka’s Eggs by Patricia Polacco. • Include the language arts activity’s A —— Is an Oviparous Animal. predictable book in the reading center for children to revisit when they wish. Writing • Include sentence strips about oviparous animals. Be sure to make the strips predictable. Repetition helps children develop their early reading skills. Each sentence strip should name a dif- ferent oviparous animal. For instance, one strip might read, “A fish hatches from an egg.” Be sure to include a picture of a fish next to the word fish. Also insert a picture of an egg at the end of the sentence. Including pictures for children with emergent reading skills allows them to feel successful as readers. The next sentence strip may read, “A bird hatches from an egg.” Again, include a bird’s picture after the word bird. Create many of these strips so the children can view and copy these sentences. Highlight the word egg in a different color for easy recogni- tion. Highlight the oviparous animal’s name in another color to increase children’s awareness and vocabulary. Here are some more example strips: A fish hatches from an egg. A bird hatches from an egg. A snake hatches from an egg. A lizard hatches from an egg. Allow the children to independently write and create at this literacy station. A child dictates from the sentence strips in the writing center and shows it when she is done. Celebrate Nature_4th pages.indd 145 2/18/11 6:24:52 PM
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Back or home Return to Biology 404 Teaching Evolution Home Page
Introduction to Phylogeny:
Hard or Soft Polytomies?
Skip Intro
Polytomy is a term for an internal node of a cladogram that has more than two immediate descendents (i.e, sister taxa). In contrast, any node that has only two immediate descendents is said to be resolved. Overall, we refer to a cladogram in which all internal nodes are resolved as fully resolved (below left), whereas a cladogram that has a mixture of resolved nodes and polytomies as partially resolved (below center). A cladogram that is completely unresolved is termed a star tree (below right).
Polytomies can represent two different cases. First, they can represent the literal hypothesis that a common ancestral population
split through cladogenesis (i.e., speciation) into multiple lineages. Under this interpretation, such an internal node
is referred to as a hard polytomy (below left). Alternatively, someone who depicts a polytomy in a cladogram is not
really expecting that the same ancestor gave rise to all daughter taxa, but is uncertain which resolved pattern is the best hypothesis.
Under these circumstances, such a node is referred to as a soft polytomy (below right). This is actually the more common
intended meaning of a polytomy.
The two cladograms below illustrate a common situation in phylogenetic analysis, when two or more competing fully resolved cladogram hypotheses may be equally well supported by parsimony. The following example is used to explain how such uncertainty is sometimes represented by a strict consensus tree.
Consider cladograms A and B above. These cladograms differ in the hypothesized relationship of the turtle to other reptiles (*). Cladogram A is the hypothesis that the turtle is sister taxon to a clade, bird + crocodile (Archosauria). Cladogram A is the more conventional alternative hypothesis that turtle is, instead, sister taxon to all other reptiles (cladistically redefined to include birds in this course!). This latter reptilian subclade is referred to as either Sauria or Diapsida, depending on which name is preferred.
Cladograms A and B can be "combined" as a strict consensus cladogram. This is one of several types of consensus trees. Specifically, a strict consensus preserves only those internal nodes in common to two or more cladogram hypotheses on which it is based. Note, for example, that birds + crocodiles was supported in both cladograms A and B (above). So birds + crocodiles is also found in the strict consensus (left). Likewise, snake + lizard is found in the strict consensus. However, cladograms A and B differ in their placement of turtle. This leads to a collapse of internal nodes supported in either cladogram A or B so that there is now a polytomy in the strict consensus. This is thus a soft polytomy because we are using the strict consensus to summarize alternative fully resolved cladogram hypotheses. This is often convenient, especially in cases where there are many more than two (often thousands) of equally parsimonious trees, so that a strict consensus serves as a summary figure. However, a strict consensus is not without drawbacks. In particular, note that there are actually more than the two (cladograms A and B) resolutions of the polytomy that could be summarized by this strict consensus, so that there is no way of knowing which (of many) fully or partially resolved cladograms are summarized by the strict consensus. To illustrate this limitation, consider that in the strict consensus of cladograms A and C (below) is identical to that of cladograms A and B.
Yet these identical strict consensus trees are based on very different premises. In the first case (cladograms A and B in previous example), turtle was equally well supported as sister taxon to other reptiles (cladogram B), and turtle was not supported as sister taxon of snake + lizard (cladogram C), whereas in the second case (favoring cladograms A and C), the opposite statements are true. The point is that a polytomy in a cladogram introduces ambiguity concerning what tree(s) are best supported as most parsimonious by the data at hand.
*Cladogram B is the conventionally preferred hypothesis although recent molecular evidence has been accumulating in favor of cladogram A, placing turtles as either sister taxon of Archosauria (including crocodiles and birds) or else within archosaurs, usually as sister taxon of crocodiles. Click here for links to these different views or return to example.
This page was first written on September 11, 2000 and last modified on March 23, 2004.
Return to Biology 404 Evolution Home Page
CSU Fullerton, Biological Science Home Page
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Did you know? Vision - Doug EngelbartPrinter-Friendly Format
Doug Engelbart
Thomas Fogarty
Ashok Gadgil
Stephanie Kwolek
Doug Engelbart Biography The first mouse, built by Doug Engelbart in the mid-1960s. Two wheels kept track of the device's movements. Patents In 1968, Engelbart donned a headset microphone and demonstrated his oNLine System (NLS) to a crowd of computer scientists. The NLS also included a new kind of keyboard—users typed letters by striking a combination of its five keys. Videos The first mouse was a simple hollow-out wooden block, with a single push button on top.
This image captures what was probably the first computer-supported meeting. Each participant used a mouse to point on the display, while Engelbart could call up any of his lab's electronic documents.
When Douglas Engelbart took the stage at the San Francisco Civic Auditorium in December 1968 to demonstrate the NLS (oN Line System), a computer he and some colleagues at the Stanford Research Institute had built, only a handful of the 2,000 people gathered for the Fall Joint Computer Conference could have imagined how prescient the demo would prove. Engelbart sat at a computer console and spoke into an ear-mounted headset while his face was video-projected onto a screen behind him. Overlaid on the image of his talking head was a computer display, the kind of text-only display that a generation of personal computer enthusiasts would come to know, but until then had never been seen. He typed a few words on the blank screen. And then Engelbart began to manipulate the words he had typed. A strange object appeared on the screen, a small, moving black dot.
The First Mouse
The little dot is what we now call a cursor. Engelbart was moving it with a peculiar device under his right hand, a chunky, square box with a few buttons, tethered to the machine with a cord. In the lab, he and his colleagues had called it a "mouse," after its tail-like cable, and the name stuck. With this mouse, Engelbart was able to select text, move it around, and otherwise manipulate it. The mouse was not simply a pointing device, though. It was a key element of the NLS, which in turn was a key element of Engelbart's larger ideas about "Human Augmentation"—making systems and tools that would help people work smarter and better. He has been pursuing those ideas since he had an epiphany about what to do with his life in 1950, while driving to his job as an engineer at the NACA (later NASA) Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California.
Born in Oregon in 1925, Engelbart was the grandson of Western pioneers and the son of a radio store owner and a mother who, he remembers, was "quite sensitive, and artistic." His father passed away when he was only nine, and the family's finances were tight. After high school, he studied electrical engineering at Oregon State University for two years, then signed up with the Navy. This was in 1944, the thick of World War II, though on the day he shipped out of San Francisco, Japan surrendered.
Two important things happened to Engelbart in the Navy. He served as a radar technician, which gave him direct experience with how information could be conveyed directly, electronically, on a screen. And while he was stationed in the Philippines, he came across a copy of Life magazine that included Vannevar Bush's essay, "As We May Think," which described something like the personal computer (as well as something like the World Wide Web).
Engelbart's Epiphany
After the war, Engelbart finished his degree and moved down to the San Francisco Bay Area, to work at Ames. Within a few years, his work there had become less than exciting, and he began to wonder what else he could, or rather, should be doing. The epiphany came to him the day after he asked his future wife, Ballard, to marry him. He was driving to work, thinking, and "I had this realization that I didn't have any more goals, and that getting married and living happily ever after was the last of my goals," he told a Stanford University interviewer in 1986. So Engelbart began looking at the various avenues he could take to do something beneficial, and still make a living. He thought about going into economics, or education. But then he saw, suddenly and whole, the problem that he could help solve. Engelbart realized that everything had changed. The world was moving away from old modes of work, industry, and thought. Civilization had reached a point where the problems it was facing were growing increasingly complex, and at the same time they were growing more urgent. This complexity and urgency "had transcended what humans can cope with," he explained. "It suddenly flashed that if you could do something to improve human capability to deal with that, then you'd really contribute something basic."
What was needed was a new way to work with information and for people to work with each other. Engelbart, who had read about digital computers and had experience with the display screens used in radar systems, quickly envisioned a technological solution. "I think it was just within an hour that I had the image of sitting at a big screen with all kinds of symbols, new and different symbols," he remembers. "I also really got a clear picture that one's colleagues could be sitting in other rooms with similar workstations, tied to the same computer complex, and could be sharing and working and collaborating very closely."
It took 18 years to get from that vision to the demonstration in San Francisco. Engelbart left NACA to enter the electrical engineering Ph.D. program at U.C. Berkeley, which offered the chance to study computers, though it did not have a computer itself. After earning his Ph.D. he joined the Stanford Research Institute (SRI), an independent think-tank in Menlo Park, and soon began to outline the system he had envisioned a decade earlier. In 1963 he published a paper entitled "A Conceptual Framework for the Augmentation of Man's Intellect." The paper caught the eye of the U.S. Advance Research Projects Agency, and Engelbart was able to found the Augmentation Research Center at SRI.
The First Word Processor
His research center set out to create new tools for working with ideas and words. There were two main ideas Engelbart followed in developing such a tool, which would become the NLS. First was the creation of a new "writing machine" that would let someone revise and reorganize text and ideas on the fly. In essence, this "writing machine" was a word processor. But his hypothesized tool was more than a better way of getting words down on paper. In his new system, Engelbart saw a path to more advanced thinking: "If the tangle of thoughts represented by the draft becomes too complex," he wrote, "you can compile a reordered draft quickly." The second idea that guided him was that for people to work better, they had to be able to work together, to share their "trails of thought" and develop them collaboratively, in real time. The NLS allowed two or more users to work on the same document from different workstations, even from different locations.
The early 1960s was an unlikely time to be building a computer intended for tasks such as writing and manipulating ideas. Since the digital computer's birth in the 1940s, its main work had revolved around crunching numbers. Power was more important than speed, and "ease of use" was unheard of. Computers required operators to enter programs and data slowly, by hand, on paper cards or paper tape. They'd put the cards into a "reader," then wait 20 minutes or so for a result. No one imagined that computers could work instantaneously. And no one, it seemed, could see the benefits of devoting a computer's power to tasks such as writing and outlining.
Much Still to be Done
Today, the spiritual descendants of Engelbart's NLS, with its mouse and graphic display and "writing machine," sit on almost every desk in the world. And with the arrival of the Internet and local-area networks and "groupware" like Lotus Notes, it seems that much of Engelbart's vision has been realized. Yet the core ideas of his work on "augmentation" remain unrealized. The personal computer has allowed us to work better, but we still work, for the most part, alone. Today's computers and the Internet and the Web are small advances, but the challenge is still huge. "Relative to what our potential is, we can go as high as Mt. Everest, and we're only at 2,000 feet," he says. "If we humans don't learn how to be collectively smarter as fast as we can, there's going to be a better and better chance that the human race is just going to crash. That's what keeps us going."
Text adapted from Inventing Modern America
Doug Engelbart Thomas Fogarty Ashok Gadgil Stephanie Kwolek Paul MacCready
©2001 MIT. Photo Credits
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Spanish Class
"House" for instance, is feminine: "la casa."
"Pencil," however, is masculine: "el lapiz.."
A student asked, "What gender is 'computer'?"
Instead of giving the answer, the teacher split the class into two groups, male and female, and asked them to decide for themselves whether "computer" should be a masculine or a feminine noun. Each group was asked to give four reasons for its recommendation.
The men's group decided that "computer" should definitely be of the feminine gender (" la computadora"), because:
1. No one but their creator understands their internal logic;
2. The native language they use to communicate with other computers is incomprehensible no everyone else;
The women's group, however, concluded that computers should be Masculine ("el computador"), because:
The women won
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Reference > Brewer’s Dictionary > Spear.
Speaking Heads and Sounding Stones.Spear-half.
Achilles’ spear. Te’lephus, King of Mys’ia, in attempting to hinder the Greeks from marching through his country against Troy, was wounded by Achilles’ spear, and was told by an oracle that the wound could be cured only by the weapon that gave it; at the same time the Greeks were told that they would never reach Troy except by the aid of Te’lephus. So, when the Mys’ian king repaired to Achilles’ tent, some of the rust of the spear was applied to the wound, and, in return for the cure which followed, Telephus directed the Greeks on their way to Troy. 2
“Telephus æterna consumptus tabë perisset
Si non quæ noc’uit dextra tulisset opem.”
The spear of Te’lephus could both kill and cure. (Plutarch.) (See Achilles’ spear.) 3
The heavy spear of Valence was of great repute in the days of chivalry. 4
Arthur’s spear. Rone or Ron. 5
To break a spear. To fight in a tournament. 6
Speaking Heads and Sounding Stones.Spear-half.
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Frisia: see Friesland.
Frisia (West Frisian: Fryslân; North Frisian: Fraschlönj, Freesklöön, Freeskluin, Fresklun, and Friislön’; Saterfrisian (East Frisian): Fräislound; East Frisian Low Saxon: Freesland; Gronings: Fraislaand; German and Dutch: Friesland; Danish: Frisland) is a coastal region along the southeastern corner of the North Sea, i.e. the German Bight. Frisia is the traditional homeland of the Frisians, a Germanic people who speak Frisian, a language group closely related to the English language. Frisia extends from the northwestern Netherlands across northwestern Germany to the border of Denmark (Vidå).
Frisia is commonly divided into three sections:
1. Province Friesland in the Netherlands (West Frisia)
2. East Frisia in Lower Saxony
3. North Frisia in Schleswig-Holstein
West Frisia corresponds roughly to the Dutch province of Friesland, the northern part of North Holland province (the historical region of West Friesland, the westernmost portion of the traditional region of West Frisia), and also modern Groningen province, though the Western Frisian language is only spoken in Friesland proper. Dialects with strong Frisian substrates, including Low German and Low Franconian, are also spoken in West Frisia. In the northern province of Groningen, people speak Gronings, a Low Saxon dialect with a strong Frisian substrate.
East Frisia includes areas located in the northwest of the German state of Lower Saxony, including the districts of Aurich, Leer, Wittmund and Friesland, as well as the urban districts of Emden and Wilhelmshaven, the Saterland, the Land Wursten a former Rüstringen (Butjadingen). East Frisia is also the name of a historical county in that area. The German name "Ostfriesland" distinguishes the former county from "Ost-Friesland", which means the whole eastern Frisian area.
The portions of North Frisia within the German state of Schleswig-Holstein are part of the district of Nordfriesland and stretch along the coast, including the coastal islands from the Eider River to the border of Denmark in the north. The North Sea island of Heligoland, while not part of Nordfriesland district, is also part of traditional North Frisia.
A half-million Frisians in the province of Friesland in the Netherlands speak West Frisian. Several thousand people in Nordfriesland and Heligoland in Germany speak a collection of North Frisian dialects that are often unintelligible to each other. A small number Saterland Frisian language speakers live in four villages in Lower Saxony, in the Saterland region of Cloppenburg county, just beyond the boundaries of traditional East Frisia. Many Frisians speak Low Saxon dialects, especially in East Frisia, but also in West and North Frisia.
Frisia has changed dramatically over time, both through floods and through a change in identity. It is part of the Nordwestblock which is a hypothetical historic region linked by language and culture.
Roman times
The Frisians began settling in Frisia around 500 BC. According to Pliny the Younger, in Roman times, the Frisians (or, as it may be, their close neighbours, the Chauci) lived on terps, man-made hills. According to other sources, the Frisians lived along a broader expanse of the North Sea (or "Frisian Sea") coast.
Frisia at this time comprised the present provinces of Friesland and North Holland.
Kingdom of Frisia
East Anglian sources called the inhabitants of 'Frisia' Warnii instead of Frisians. In the 7th and 8th centuries, the Frankish chronologies mention this area as the kingdom of the Frisians. However, these were probably not the Frisians of Roman times. This kingdom comprised the coastal provinces of the Netherlands and the German North Sea coast. During this time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast and, today, this region is sometimes referred to as Greater Frisia or Frisia Magna. The 7th-century Frisian realm (650-734) under the kings Aldegisel and Redbad, had its centre of power in the city Utrecht. Its end came in 734 at the Battle of the Boarn, when the Frisians were defeated by the Franks, who then conquered the western part up to the Lauwers. They conquered the area east of the Lauwers in 785, when Charlemagne defeated Widukind. This Frisia Magna was partly occupied by Vikings in the 840s, until they were expelled between 885 and 920. It has also been suggested that the Vikings did not conquer Frisia, but settled in certain parts (such as the island of Wieringen), where they built simple forts and cooperated and traded with the native Frisians. One of their leaders was Rorik of Dorestad.
Loss of territory
Frisians made polders in West Friesland, which became more and more separated from Friesland due to floods. The western part of Frisia became the county of Holland in 1101, after a few centuries of a diverging history than the other parts. Frisia began to identify itself as a country with free folk in the Middle Ages. The bishopric of Utrecht no longer belonged to Frisia. There were many floods in the 11th and 12th centuries, which led to the deaths of many and eventually formed the Zuider Zee. The largest flood occurred in 1322.
Opstalboom League
The free Frisians (actually petty noblemen) and the city of Groningen founded the Opstalboom League to counter feudalism. The league consisted of modern Friesland, Groningen, East Frisia and the German North Sea coast, and parts of the Danish North Sea coast (Schleswig). But the Opstalboom league did not consist only of Frisians, as the area of Zevenwouden and the city of Groningen were Saxon. Some Frisians lived under the rule of the counts of Holland in West Friesland. The Opstalboom League was short-lived; it collapsed after a few years because of continual internal strife.
15th century
The 15th century saw the end of the free Frisians. The city of Groningen started to dominate Groningen. A petty nobleman in East Frisia managed to defeat the other petty noblemen and became count of East Frisia. The Archbishop of Bremen-Hamburg and the king of Denmark conquered large areas of Frisia. Only Friesland remained for the Frisian Freedom. Friesland was conquered in the 1490s by Duke Albert of Saxony-Meissen. Later, the giant Pier Gerlofs Donia (Grutte Pier) would fight for his country's freedom, wielding a 2,15 meter (7-foot) sword. He had many successes, but ultimately failed to secure Frisia's independence. He nonetheless bestowed himself the title King of the Frisians. He died a poor farmer in 1520.
Frisian territories
• West Friesland remained a part of Holland and became a part of North Holland around 1800. The current region of West Friesland is smaller than historical West Friesland and there is also an official constitutional region (samenwerkingsregio) of West Friesland for coast protection, the police, and agriculture.
• Friesland got its independence back (with constitutionalized farmer representation) in 1581 and gave it up for good in 1795. It is now a Dutch province.
• East Frisia became a part of the Kingdom of Prussia and was formerly a district of the federal state of Lower Saxony in the Federal Republic of Germany.
• Groningen has been a province of the Netherlands since the 16th century.
• North Frisia was a part of the Danish duchy of Schleswig (also: South Jutland) and belongs now to the German state of Schleswig-Holstein.
• The Frisian islands off the coast of the Netherlands and Germany are the leftover dunes of flooded lands.
Although the Frisian regions have their own separate flags, Frisia did not have a flag of its own until September 2006. The flag for united Frisia was made by the Groep fan Auwerk, which supports a united Frisia as an official country.
The flag, similar to the Norse and Icelandic flags, is inspired by the Nordic Cross Flag. The four pompeblêden (water lily leaves) refer to the seven pompeblêden on the (West) Friesland flag, but the number represents the three separate Frisian regions plus Groningen (Eastlauwersk Fryslân). The flag was not accepted by the Interfrisian Council and is just in use by the Groep.
See also
• Onno Klopp -, Geschichte Ostfrieslands, 3 Bde., Hannover 1854–1858
• Hajo van Lengen - Ostfriesland, Kultur und Landschaft, ruhrspiegel-Verlag, Essen 1978
• Hajo van Lengen (Hrsg.) - Die Friesische Freiheit des Mittelalters – Leben und Legende, Verlag Ostfriesische Landschaft 2003, ISBN 3-932206-30-4
• Franz Kurowski - Das Volk am Meer – Die dramatische Geschichte der Friesen, Türmer-Verlag 1984, ISBN 3-87829-082-9
• Hermann Homann - Ostfriesland – Inseln, Watt und Küstenland, F. Coppenrath Verlag, Münster
• Tielke, Martin (Hrsg.) - Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Ostfries. Landschaftliche Verl.- u. Vertriebsges. Aurich, Bd. 1 ISBN 3-925365-75-3 (1993), Bd. 2 ISBN 3-932206-00-2 (1997), Bd. 3 ISBN 3-932206-22-3 (2001)
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What is incomplete dominance in humans?
Quick Answer
Incomplete dominance, also known as partial dominance, happens when two alleles produce protein, but one does not function the way that it should. While in some cases this situation doesn't affect a person, other times it is the leading cause of birth defects or infant death.
Continue Reading
Full Answer
This kind of gene expression can be harder to see in humans than in other organisms. A common example that is used to show incomplete dominance is the color in snapdragon leaves. When a red and a white flower's genes are put together, there is one gene for red flowers and one for white. The expression of incomplete dominance is seen when the flowers that bloom turn out pink.
Learn more about Biology
Related Questions
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Duluth, MN SAGE Direction Center
Duluth SAGE
Located next to Duluth’s International Airport is a building that used to contain one of the Air Force’s primary systems for detecting intruding aircraft during the Cold War. The computer that the building contained was a part of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) System, which was used in part to detect incoming aircraft as soon as possible and eliminate any threats.
What is SAGE?
The Semi-Automatic Ground Environment System was a military project implemented during the Cold War that was designed to watch the skies for any hostile aircraft, as well as calculate interception patterns for incoming targets. The system centered around 23 installations around the United States that contained IBM AN/FSQ-7 computers that were referred to as direction centers (Jacobs). Each of the installations housed two of these computers. One would run continuously, processing data from radar stations, Texas towers, early-warning aircraft, and other military installations, as well as keeping up-to-date information about all civilian flights around the country. The second computer would also be running, always double-checking the first computer’s calculations and always ready to immediately take over if the first computer failed for some reason (IBM Corporation).
Each SAGE installation had its own set of radar stations and inputs with which it would communicate. However, each individual station could also communicate with all other stations through a very early version of the internet using telephone lines as a means to send signals to each other (Valley). Through this communication, the computers would create a map of the air space in and around the United States. This was constantly monitored for any approaching aircraft. When an aircraft was spotted, it would be tagged as hostile or friendly. If hostile, the computers would be able to track it using one of the largest computer programs written at that time. This allowed the computer to plot an intercept course for whatever was dispatched to deal with the intruders. Surface-to-air missiles (sometimes nuclear) and fighter planes were always on standby to engage the incoming aircraft. Once the interception occurred, the computer would be able to confirm that the threat was successfully eliminated or plot a new course for the next line of defense.
An operator interacting with a SAGE display (from
The SAGE installations themselves were large concrete buildings with no windows and walls that were two to three feet thick. The two computers that each building housed took up an entire floor and weighed around 250 tons individually (Colon). These computers used one of the largest programs ever written at that time, which consisted of around 500,000 lines of code. This program, as well as operational data, was stored on tapes, magnetic drums, and 60,000 vacuum tubes (IBM Corporation). The computers occupied an entire floor of the direction centers, and the operators worked two floors above the actual computers where the displays were located. The displays were large, round CRT screens that would show real-time information about that section’s air traffic. The computers would also back up information about the airspace to memory as well, which meant that an operator could essentially rewind what had been shown and look at previous radar detections. This was a lot of technology to fit into one computer back then, and it was only possible because the IBM FSQ-7s were the largest computers that have ever been built.
Because the SAGE computers were so large, they ended up consuming about 3 Megawatts of power. This meant they also produced a lot of heat. In order to cool the computers effectively, the direction centers had to be built above ground with large air cooling installations. While this could effectively cool the computers, it also meant that the buildings themselves were very exposed and were considered first-strike targets for the Soviet Union (Slater). When the USSR launched the Sputnik rocket in 1957, the military became even more concerned about this and eventually began to switch to a different system that used transistors instead of vacuum tubes. The SAGE computers were slowly phased out, though some direction centers remained operational until as late as the mid-1980s.
The Semi-Automatic Ground Environment System never did end up seeing any actual combat, so it’s hard to judge how effective it was. However, it did result in many innovations in the computer-communications and air defense fields (Jacobs).
Why Duluth?
Duluth, Minnesota was selected to house one of the direction centers for the SAGE System for two distinct reasons. First, the city already had a small airport. This meant that it was easier for the Air Force to set up a military air base as they only needed to transform and add to the current airport, rather than having to create one from scratch.
Second, and more importantly, if the Soviets were going to attempt to bomb one of the United States’ main manufacturing hubs or a major city such as Detroit or Chicago, they would fly right over Duluth. The reason for this is that the planes would likely take off from right across the Bering Strait and make a straight shot for one of those cities. The bombers would have to follow that line relatively closely due to fuel constraints, and that would take them right across Minnesota and Duluth (Klosowski).
As a result, the Air Force began to heavily invest in Duluth. The city’s small airport was ramped up to a major air defense base. Construction of the SAGE direction center began in 1954 and finally became operational in 1959. The center used data from radar stations located in Finland, MN, Finley, ND, and Calumet, MI as well as others. There were some located in Canada as well. Having all of the radar data run through one central location meant that the staffing for those stations could be reduced to just enough to make sure the station stayed online, while all of the monitoring could take place in Duluth. As for the data itself, most of it was transmitted to the direction center using microwave towers.
With these changes to the Duluth airport, the city itself began to see a lot more activity as well. There were many more people moving to and working in the city because of the air base and as such, the base soon became the biggest contributor to Duluth’s economy (Klosowski). Many members of the community were also involved with the defense system. There were many people who worked in the city, but also piloted aircraft. There would be air raid drills where they would have to drop everything, assemble, and get airborne in under three hours. These drills would happen four to six times a year.
These changes also meant that Duluth was suddenly a much more significant target for the Soviet Union. It was the first line of defense for any bombers that were coming towards the center of the United States and that made it a very valuable target. The air base and direction center were considered a first-strike target for the Soviet Union. If the Soviets were to launch just 500 of their nuclear missiles, it was predicted that Duluth would be one of the targets for those missiles.
In 1961 a missile site was constructed about 15 miles north of the direction center. This site held long-range interceptor missiles. The missiles were built to intercept incoming bombers before they could get close enough to drop their payloads. Some of the missiles also included nuclear warheads. The direction center was the main controller for these missiles, being able to launch up to 28 at a time if needed. The center would then track the missiles and their targets until the interception point, which could be up to 300 miles away. If the missiles missed or did not disable all of the targets, the operators would then dispatch some of the Air Force’s or Air National Guard’s interceptor jets that were always on standby to engage.
The interceptor jets that were located in Duluth were also equipped with nuclear armaments. There were 132 Air-2A Genie air-to-air missiles that were equipped with a nuclear payload stored in Duluth at one point. If the direction center deemed it necessary for an interceptor to be deployed, it was most likely going to be engaging with one of those missiles (Klosowski).
Duluth’s direction center was also the line of communication to Washington if some sort of attack in their monitoring area did take place. Duluth oversaw a section of airspace that extended north to Hudson Bay and south all the way down to northern Texas. If there was any sort of attack or hostile aircraft spotted in that area the line of communication was through the direction center. There were many civilians in Duluth that were a part of the nuclear alert. This meant that there were shop owners, doctors, etc. that had day jobs, and then would go to the air base for 12, 24, or 48 hour shifts to sit on nuclear alert as a part of the Air National Guard. This was handled very seriously, people who were a part of this had to have psychological and physical exams every six months. If someone was having any sort of personal problems such as a divorce, or they were having trouble paying their bills, they were immediately taken off nuclear alert until those issues were resolved (Klosowski).
Duluth also played a small part during the Cuban Missile Crisis. When the U.S. went to Defcon 2, the military began to move most of their bombers out of their normal locations in the southeastern part of the country. This was to prevent any Soviet missile strikes on high priority targets from eliminating our own armaments. Duluth housed eight B47s during that time that were fully loaded with nuclear weapons and on high alert. While the SAGE center wasn’t directly in charge of these planes, if any of the other SAGE direction centers around the country detected an attack, Duluth’s would be able to inform them as quickly as possible.
Current Day
In 1961 United States intelligence found that the Soviets were beginning to switch from bombers to long range missiles as their main plan of attack. As they developed their ICBMs, the U.S. Air Force cut the funding for air defenses against bombers. After about ten years, Duluth began shutting down the different sites that were related to this type of defense. In 1971, the nuclear missile site, for which the direction center was in charge, shut down and the Air Force fighter squadron was relocated to Michigan. By 1976, the Air Guard converted from air defense to tactical reconnaissance, thus ending 22 years of air defense alert in Duluth.
A few years later, the radar stations that the SAGE center used began to be deactivated. This process took a couple years, but by 1983 the Air Force Base was officially closed and the direction center was no longer being used (Klosowski).
Natural Resources Research Institute
At this time Minnesota’s natural resource industries were struggling. Because much of Northern Minnesota’s economy is based on these industries, it began to endanger the economy of the area, including Duluth. Leaders across many fields began to look for ways to help stimulate the economy, and eventual a proposal was written to establish a natural resource research institute at the University of Minnesota Duluth. This is important because the now-unused SAGE direction center was recommended as a site for the institute (Moran and Storch).
The proposal was approved in 1983 and the Natural Resource Research Institute soon began to remodel the old SAGE building. The computers and displays were removed and replaced with the institute’s own equipment. Windows were added to the building as well. The walls on the inside were also covered by more typical walls, instead of leaving them as plain concrete.
The building is still in use today and now houses labs that are used in land, water, and mineral research, as well as some technology development labs. Occasionally tours are given where you can learn some of the building’s history and its transformation from a Cold War air defense platform to a research center that dedicates itself to helping Minnesota’s businesses and environment.
Primary Sources
1. IBM Corporation. “On Guard! The Story of SAGE” 1956
2. Klosowski, Ray (2014). “SAGE, Duluth and the Cold War” May 13, 2014. Natural Resources Research Institute
3. Valley, George E., Jr. “How the SAGE Development Began” July 1985. Annals of the History of Computing 7.3: 196-226
Secondary Sources
1. Colon, Raul. “Early Development of the United States Defensice Missile System” September 27, 2007.
2. Jacobs, John F. “SAGE Overview” October 1983. Annals of the History of Computing 5.4: 323-329
3. Moran, Ken and Storch, Neil. UMD Comes of Age: The First One Hundred YearsJuly 1996. Walsworth Pub Co.
4. Slater, Brady. “Talk to shed light on Duluth’s history as a Cold War defense hub” May 12, 2014.
Further Reading
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Listening Woman (1978)
Listening Woman (1978)
Runoff occurs when water from snowmelt or rain runs along the surface of the earth without being absorbed into the soil. Over time, runoff contributes to erosion. In large amounts, runoff can cause flooding.
A sharp bend in a road, path, trail, or even railroad that results in a zigzag movement through time and space, usually in order to travel up or down a mountain. Although switchbacks, also referred to as doglegs, add time and distance to a route, they lessen the amount of vertical climb or descent accomplished over a given distance.
Hopi Reservation, Arizona
The Hopi have lived in the U.S. Southwest for thousands of years, and while their ancestral lands span large swaths of the Southwest, the Hopi Reservation currently covers 1.5 million acres of northeastern Arizona. Within this tract of land there are twelve villages and three mesas. The Hopi Reservation is situated within the Navajo Nation Reservation, a relationship that has caused conflict for over 100 years, as a number of land disputes has resulted in the decrease in size of Hopi land and the creation of a shared Joint-Use territory. While a majority of the Hopi live on three mesas, First, Second, and Third Mesas, there is a Hopi farming community near Tuba City, established in the 1870’s.
Hopi lands first came under control of the U.S. government in 1848 at the end of the Mexican-American War. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, where Mexico ceded the southwest, Wyoming, and California to the United States of America. As the Hopi historically avoided interaction with the U.S. government and have always attempted to maintain privacy and sovereignty, the boundary of the Hopi reservation was not determined until 1882. The 1882 U.S. Executive Order-Hopi Indian Reservation originally allotted 2.4 million acres of land to the Hopi. However, this is only a fraction the original 15-million-acre Hopi Tutskwa, or aboriginal Hopi lands. Additionally, when the boundary was drawn, it exclude a large portion of the historic tribal land on which sacred sites, shrines, and villages existed. Later, Hopi reservation land was further reduced in size to 1.5 million acres. The current Hopi tribal lands include the main reservation, the Moenkopi District Reservation, and the Hopi Three Canyon Ranch Lands.
A four-wheeled wooden vehicle that is pulled by draft animals such as oxen and horses. They generally have metal wheels and a suspension system to help navigate. These vehicles have been used for the last 2,000 years; however, with the advent of motorized vehicles they have fallen into disuse.
A Navajo term which means “those who wander around,” in reference to Spaniards who conducted expeditions into the Southwest and Great Plains during the 1500s, beginning with Coronado's search for the Seven Cities of Cibola. The earliest recorded contact between the Spaniards and Navajo occurred in 1583 near Mount Taylor in New Mexico. This term is used colloquially by some Navajo to denote someone who is ethnically Hispanic or Mexican.
Although many indigenous groups in the U.S. Southwest are considered master jewelry makers and silversmiths, with unique designs and methods to their credit, silversmithing did not become a skilled trade in these communities until after European contact in the region occurred. The Navajo, for example, first obtained silver ornaments by trading with the Plains Indians, who had received it from German settlers, and also from the indigenous, Spanish, and later Mexican, further south. It was not until after the 1860s and the war on the Navajo, which culminated in the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo, that Navajo took up silversmithing as their own trade, extracting the silver from U.S. coins. They quickly incorporated turquoise, abundant in the southwest and already used for many purpose, into their work. For Navajo singers and medicine men, medicine bundles and pouches were often decorated with silver, along with fringe and turquoise.
A word that can be substituted for witchcraft, witching, sorcery, or magic, used by Tony Hillerman to refer to the work of people known in some Native American traditions as witches. It is useful to keep in mind that "witch" is a word imposed on some aspects of indigenous cultural traditions by anthropologists, who did not have the knowledge to understand or the language to describe what they witnessed in these traditions. In Hillerman's Navajo detective novels, witches are believed to cause imbalances associated with greed, violence, and other maladies associated with modernity.
Nokaito Bench, AZ
The Nokaito (also known as Nakaito) bench, which is called Naakaiitó or Mexican Spring in Navajo, is an elevated plain running north and south just to the west of the Chinle Wash in Southern Utah. On the north end it starts just below the San Juan River and runs south past the Arizona state line to the juncture of Walker Creek and Chinle Wash.
In some versions of Navajo traditional beliefs, when people die, their ghosts, which are understood as their essence or spirit, can linger in the place of dying and possible cause harm to the living. The Navajo word for a ghost is “chindi," and chindi is associated with ghost sickness, a malaise that can manifest through a variety of physical, mental, or emotional symptoms. There are very specific precautions used to prevent ghost sickness, such as avoiding all contact with the deceased person's belongings, destroying the person's possessions whenever possible, and removing footprints from around the site of the grave. Additionally, if a Navajo were to die inside his/her dwelling place, their ghost is thought to be released into the room, where it can remain for a long time. If this happens, then the hogan would have to be permanently vacated in order to avoid potentially infecting any Navajo who entered it. In such cases, the dead person would either be left in the hogan or brought out of the structure through a hole made in the northern wall. After the deceased has been removed from the hogan, the house is never to be inhabited again in hopes that the ghost will eventually leave through the same hole that was made in the north-facing wall.
In the Navajo belief system, ghosts are generally not perceived as malevolent, but as a natural phenomenon that is part of the transformation entailed in the dying process. Right before death ghosts are often described as dark shadows, and after death they may reappear on earth in the form of an animal, whirlwind, or certain unusual sounds and movements. Ghosts tend to become malignant forces when the corpse is not handled properly in the prescribed manner set by traditional customs.
Sagebrush, often shortened to "sage," is the name of a group of plants that are commonly referred to as sagebrushes or sageworts. These are plants in the genus Artemisia, a large genus in the daisy and ragweed family, and are often used as a culinary herb or tea in different cultures around the world. The sagebrush that is native to the American Southwestern regions is a low-growing bush that is characterized by its grayish-green color and aromatic leaves.
Sagebrush is widely used in various Native American ceremonies, and is thought to have cleansing and healing properties. Traditionally, sage leaves are dried and tied into bundles that in English are called "smudge sticks." when the end of the smudge stick is lit and allowed to smolder, the dried, tightly-bound sage leaves burn slowly like incense, producing thick smoke that is believed to act as an energy cleanser and protector for a person or a dwelling place.
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"url": "https://ehillerman.unm.edu/listeningwoman?page=6"
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Subak, Soobak or Soo Bak-Gi is an ancient Korean martial art. Historically this term may be an older name for the Korean martial art of taekkyeon.
Originally, Korea was divided into three kingdoms: Silla in the southeastern part of the country, Goguryeo (Koguryo) in the northern part, and Baekje located west of Silla. The Subak style was created in the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo.
Due to Goguryeo being in constant conflict with China, the military of Goguryeo developed a martial art that was a mix of Chinese martial arts adapted for their own purposes. It was a style heavy in the use of kicking as opposed to punching, and relied more on upright fighting styles as opposed to grappling and wrestling. The mountainous terrain of Goguryeo may have made its people have legs relatively stronger than their arms.[citation needed]
The word Sonbae is translated to mean “a man of virtue who never retreats from a fight”, and is a member of the warrior corps. Those who were members of the Sonbae lived in groups and learned Subak as well as archery, ssireum and taekkyon, history, literature, and other liberal arts. Although they were constantly training in combat, during peace time they helped construct roads and fortresses, assisted after natural disasters and so on.
In the year 400, in an attempt to dominate the entire southern portion of the country, Baekje invaded Silla. King Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo is said by some accounts to have sent 50,000 Sonbae troops to Silla’s aid. Later he would attempt to dictate Silla’s internal affairs because of this assistance.
It was around this time that the people of Silla formed an elite officers corps called Hwarang. The Hwarang may have utilized techniques from Subak in addition to training in spear, bow, sword, hook and various forms of hand and foot fighting.
Subak took a heavy blow during the Joseon period, which was founded on the ideology of Confucianism, stressing literary art instead of martial art. Subak was only allowed to be practiced in competitions called subakhui. After three subakhui bouts, the winner could become employed as a soldier.
It was also during the beginning of the Joseon dynasty that Subak became increasingly divided into two separate styles, Taekgyeon and Yusul. Where Taekgyeon techniques consisted mainly of kicks and strikes, Yusul techniques were of the locking and grappling kind.
But just as often this divide is already made between subak and galjeok in earlier times by scholars.
After the Korean war Subak, as a name for modern martial arts, techniques added after study of the Muyedobotongji (??????). The empty-handed fighting material found in the Muyedobotongji is called gwonbeop(kempo) (??). In Korea the indigenous arts of self defense (Soo Bahk Ki and Tae Kyun) combined with other fighting principles (Northern and Southern Chinese Kung Fu) and moral guidelines such as the philosophy of Do (Taoism), No Ja (Lao Tzu) and Kong Ja (Confucius). [1]
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The biggest creatures to ever walk the Earth had brains smaller than ours. A recent study has shown that those massive dinosaurs with long necks that grazed on vegetation, known as sauropods, actually had relatively tiny brains. Fabien Knoll, from the National Museum of Natural Sciences in Spain, and Lawrence Witmer from Ohio University, analyzed the fossils from a sauropod known as Ampelosaurus, a type of titanosaur, a particularly large sauropod. The fossils had been lying in Cuenca, Spain for 70 million years before being discovered in 2007 during the construction of a railroad track. Knoll and Witmer were pleasantly surprised to find that the Ampelosaurus skull was relatively intact, a rarity for fragile Sauropod skulls. The researchers used CT scanning to determine how big and what shape the brain cavity was. Their technology estimated Ampelosaurus’ brain to be about 3 inches in diameter; it’s body, however, was a whopping 50 feet long. The human brain measures approximately 6 inches. That means our brains are almost twice as big, and our bodies approximately 1/8 as long (and a much smaller proportion in weight), than this monstrous sauropod.
Scientists are still unsure about why Ampelosaurus had such a miniscule brain compared to its enormous body. Perhaps they just didn’t need that much brain. Sauropods had incredibly long necks in order to reach around and up, to find hard-to-reach leaves and branches to munch on. The lengthy neck had to support the head, so a heavy brain wouldn’t have been very efficient.
The study also found that Ampelosaurus’ inner ear was smaller than expected. This beast’s inner ear, which controls an organism’s balance, wasn’t very developed and was probably not doing that much work. The researchers say Ampelosaurus most likely moved with deliberate, slow motion and couldn’t jerk its head around quickly. Other sauropods, however, have much more developed inner ears and probably could balance with more ease than Ampelosaurus. Scientists hope to further study inner ear and skull morphology and learn more about the evolutionary progression and branching of the sauropod family.
Read on at
The original research was published in the journal PLoS ONE.
Published On: January 30, 2013
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2017-09-10 16:16
Parts Process
• processing
• lines
• each
To build a machine, a lot of parts need to be produced. A question is how to arrange the processing order to minimize the total delay time of the parts.
The input consists of no more than 20 test cases.
The first line of each test case contains an integer n (<= 15). Then n lines follow.
The i-th (start from 1) line contains two positive integers pi and di, where pi is the i-th part's process time (that is, pi minute(s) must be taken to produce the i-th part), and di the deadline of the i-th part.
These lines are in ascending order of di. The total process time is no more than 100.
Fi - the finishing time of the i-th part;
Di - the delay time of the i-th part, that is, Di = max{(Fi - di) , 0};
T - the total delay time, that is, T = sum(Di).
For each test case, two lines should be outputted.
The first line contains the minimal T.
The second line contains n integers, indicating the processing order of the parts.
If there are more than one orders, you should output the lexicographically smaller one.
Sample Input
3 3
2 3
1 20
Sample Output
1 2 3
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Where is This Place Called Appalachia?
The Appalachian region as defined by the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), extends from Northern Mississippi to Southern New York State. It roughly follows the Appalachian Mountain Range. Appalachia is a very large region containing all of the state of West Virginia and portions of 12 other states. There are more than 25 million people living in the Appalachian Region. In addition, the Appalachian region is divided into 5 regions. These are identified as Northern, North Central, Central, South Central, and Southern regions. The Appalachian region has the highest health disparities of any region in the United States. Appalachian Healthcare Training & Consulting is focused on improving health and human service outcomes and thereby decreasing health disparities in the South-Central Appalachian Region.
Health Disparities in Appalachia
A 2017 study by the ARC revealed that Appalachia ranks the highest in health disparities of any region in the nation. All chronic diseases such as, heart disease, diabetes, stroke, cancer, COPD, hypertension, obesity, and substance abuse are found at the highest levels in Appalachia. In addition, mental illness and suicide rates also have the highest occurrences. Furthermore, the cancer mortality rate in Appalachia is the highest of any region in the nation. Many times, a cancer diagnosis is not made until the disease has progressed quite far. Consequently, treatment may be ineffective, resulting in any possibility of a cure thus contributing to the high cancer mortality rate.
Contributing Factors to Health Disparities in Appalachia
There are many reasons for high health disparities in the Appalachian region. Social determinants such as: poverty, educational levels, transportation, and lack of insurance or inability to pay for healthcare are many of the contributing factors. Along with these reasons, is many people’s distrust of the healthcare system. The Appalachian region has a long and complicated history of exploitation by outsiders. Beginning in the late 1800’s, the vast amount of natural resources, especially timber and coal, suffered exploitation by people who were not from the Appalachian region. Many people who had been in the Appalachian region during the Civil War realized there was much money to be made by extracting timber and coal from Appalachia. Unfortunately, most of the wealth did not stay in the Appalachian region. This allowed many people who did not live in Appalachia to become extremely wealthy, but did very little to improve the region. Furthermore, during the War on Poverty in the 1960’s, many well-meaning people came from outside of the Appalachian region to try and improve poverty and other social issues that were occurring. Frequently, local people were not even asked what they thought were problems and what might help bring improvement. Subsequently, this contributed to this extreme distrust of outsiders which continues to greatly have a profound effect in the region.
What Can Be Done to Improve Health Outcomes and Decrease High Health Disparities?
The Appalachian region has long experienced economic, social, and high health disparities compared to the rest of the United States. While many factors underlie these disparities, one often over looked component is the cultural disconnect between health and human service provider and patient. In rural, underserved mountain areas, healthcare providers are often recruited from outside of the region or even outside of the country. Frequently, these providers are negatively influenced by the stereotypes concerning the people who live in the Appalachian region. Providing specific cultural competence training for health and human service providers concerning the history, cultural values, beliefs, and communication issues of native Appalachian people would be very helpful. This would improve communication and interactions between health and human service providers and patients, thereby improving health outcomes which would decrease high health disparities.
Cultural Competence and Healthcare
As a young nurse in the 1950’s, Dr. Madeleine Leininger, PhD, RN, is credited with developing The Culture Care Theory. In the early 1950’s, Dr. Leininger recognized the need for greater understanding of cultural diversity, as she observed the globalization of the world. She remained active in the promotion of this theory until her death in 2012. Leininger challenged nurses to learn as much as possible about not only worldwide cultures they would be providing nursing care for, but local cultures as well. Nurses who receive further training in cultural competency theory understand the relevance that it has for improving health care to their patients. Over the last sixty years, this area of study has grown tremendously and is being emphasized and taught in not only health care, but many different areas as well. Utilizing transcultural nursing concepts and providing culturally relevant care leads to an increase in patient satisfaction and improved health outcomes.
Improving Health Outcomes and Decreasing Disparities in South-Central Appalachia
Applying Madeline Leininger’s Culture Care Theory to health and human services in the Appalachian region, will improve communication between provider and patient. Research has shown that poor provider-patient communication is one of the causes of health disparities. Applying this theory to all health and human service professionals who provide care to Appalachian patients will result in improved health outcomes and a decrease in health disparities.
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Central Lyon CSD
Secondary (7-12)
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Lord of the Flies
Amelia Schneidermann
The English II class started the year reading Lord of the Flies. The overall plot of the novel takes place during wartime and consists of a group of young boys who get stranded on a desert island after their plane crashes. As the boys struggle to come to an agreement on how they will survive on the island until rescue, they become more confrontational. What starts off as a rather civilized atmosphere soon turns into an environment of wild savagery.
Each character in the book depicted significant characteristics that portrayed how they behaved within a group. Some characters were more prone to a civilized society where organized meetings with a leader were important and agreement was essential. Other characters were eventually lost in ideas of savagery, where hunting and killing pigs in a brutal way was the #1 goal, and doing ‘fun’ things on the island was more important than getting rescued.
At the conclusion of the novel, students ‘drew’ a character that they would create a mask for. (In the book, the characters wore masks to camouflage themselves when they went hunting. The masks not only served as a visual camouflage device for hunting, but they also served as a symbol of ‘hiding one’s uncivilized actions’ per-se.)
Through researching the characters further, students found ways to artistically incorporate important symbols, scenes, and settings to their masks that their particular character exemplified. Students also incorporated elements from a Power and Control Wheel and Respect Wheel. These wheels showed ways in which ‘real-life’ and ‘fictional-life’ people/characters can either build their relationships around an abusive premise using power and control or, hopefully, through mutual respect. Unfortunately, for most of the characters in Lord of the Flies, power and control became the norm.
I have added a few pictures of some of the masks that were created.
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
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"url": "https://www.centrallyon.org/vnews/display.v/ART/5f620c6cb6297"
}
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