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SABES Research and Evaluation addresses:
Three Implementation Questions
1. What does “doing SABES” look like in each of 9 schools?
2. How do actions and resources from a school district, a school, or the people working with SABES affect the way the model gets put into place?
3. What do teachers, community members, afterschool staff and others think about SABES?
Five Impact Questions
1. Is there an impact of SABES on test scores, grades during elementary and middle school, and middle school destinations? Does SABES help close achievement gaps associated with race or family income?
2. Does SABES help students improve their skills in working as part of a team to design like engineers or conduct experiments?
3. Does SABES help teachers improve their knowledge of science, technology, engineering, and math?
4. Does SABES affect the way teachers teach, and talk to each other about teaching?
5. Will Johns Hopkins University and Baltimore City Public Schools see changes to how they do their work as a result of the SABES project?
Three “How, Why, and Where” Questions
1. If SABES affects some of its targeted outcomes but not others, why is this?
2. Of the many elements or parts of the SABES model, which are most important in changing the ways schools and communities relate to science, technology, engineering, and math?
3. If SABES seems to be working better in some schools or neighborhoods than others, why is this?
Back to top
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Talmidi Library
Articles on Talmidaism Theology
The treatment of animals
Kindness to animals was one of those principles that were so ingrained in Israelite culture, that it was not considered necessary to have any direct commandments about it. This is in the same vein as for example, how there are no written laws on hospitality, because the rules of being a good host and guest were so ingrained in Israelite culture, that it was not considered necessary to write commandments about them.
Similarly with the kind and humane treatment of animals. There are no direct references or commandments regarding the rights of animals, but you can see it in several places, underneath the surface as part of Israelite culture.
For example, in Gen 24:14 & 19, because Rebecca had concern for his camels, Abraham’s servant knew she was the right wife for Isaac. She offered to water the camels until they had all had their fill, which would have involved considerable labour. And the law forbidding eating an animal while it is still alive (Gen 9:4) presupposes a concern for the suffering of the animal. This principle was considered so important, that it was one of the marks of a righteous Gentile; a righteous Gentile society would be marked out as such, because it had concern for the welfare of its animals.
Also, Moses and David were said to have been chosen as leaders of Israel, because of their experience as shepherds who showed kindness to their animals. The prophet Yeshua often used the image of a good and caring shepherd as an analogy of God’s love.
‘Fill the earth and subdue it’
A big sticking point for people outside of Hebrew culture in understanding humanity’s biblical relationship to the animal kingdom, is the verse in Gen 1:28 – pointed[1] in the Masoretic text to read as ‘mil’u et ha-arets ve-khivshuha’, often translated in English as ‘Fill the earth and subdue it’.
The verb translated as ‘subdue’ is kabash. However, the last letter, a shīn ( שׁ ), can also be read as the letter sīn ( שׂ ) – without modern pointing, the two letters look exactly the same. The Masoretic pointing of the text interprets the reading as kabash – ‘to trample over, to tread underfoot’, (probably because of Ps 8:6, but this refers to the metaphor of a king’s subjects being ‘under his feet’); or even, ‘to subjugate and oppress’, hence the interpretation of ‘to subdue’. However, if the verb is read as kabas, then the verb means ‘to force to beget’ – that is, to force something to be fruitful and plentiful (hence the Hebrew word for lamb, kéves). If the verb is read this way, then the verse implies that we are to be good stewards of creation, to look after the earth and help God to make it fruitful and abundant.
Consider this: Can we really justify continuing to believe that God commanded humanity to subjugate and oppress God’s creation? Can we really justify a belief that God commanded humanity to ill-treat and abuse God’s creation? If we cherish an image of a loving, nurturing, creating God, then we should read the verb as kabas – to force to be fruitful, and NOT kabash – to subjugate and oppress. How can we understand a creating God if we think God has commanded us to destroy God’s creation?
Biblical Commandments that reflect the Hebrew mindset
The one commandment that comes immediately to mind is the one that on the Sabbath, even our animals must rest (Ex 20:10). If a society had no concern for its animals, that society would get Gentiles to work their animals for them on the Sabbath. However, this commandment leaves no room for doubt; the right to rest on the Sabbath and refresh oneself extends even to our animals. This means that it is not permitted to ride an animal on the Sabbath day, or to ride in a vehicle drawn by animals, even when the driver is a non-Jew.
Torah does enjoin kindness to animals. “If you see the donkey of your enemy fallen under its burden, and your instinct is to refrain from raising it, you must nevertheless raise it with him.” (Ex. 23:5).
Prov 12:10 says, “A righteous person regards the life of his beast, but the innermost feelings of the wicked are for cruelty.” It is considered a kindness in Israelite tradition to feed animals even on the Sabbath, or help them if they are in trouble on the Sabbath, or to carry tools and equipment to help save an animal on the Sabbath, or to milk a cow on the Sabbath if she is suffering from an over-production of milk. And before an owner could sit down to eat, it was considered a great virtue to feed one’s animals first.
On the other hand, animals should not be subjected to psychological torture. For example, an ox must not be muzzled while treading grain (Deut. 25:4), but must be free to eat of the grain while working, exactly the same as a human worker is allowed to do (Dt. 23:26 [23:25 in Xtian bibles]). It would be cruel to prevent an animal from eating the very food it is treading in plain sight.
It is forbidden to yoke animals of different species for example when ploughing (Deut. 22:10) because to do so would be a cruelty to the weaker animal.
Mother and young must not be slaughtered on the same day (Lev. 22:28), and it is forbidden to take both a wild bird and young from a nest. When the mother is liberated the eggs or young may be taken (Deut. 22:6). This law assumes a measure of conservation, since the mother can breed again, but taking both would kill off the supply of eggs or young. The compassionate interpretation of this verse is that it does not give us the automatic right to go raiding birds’ nests. It only allows us to take wild eggs if we have gone on a journey, and have run out of food.
The inherent conservation principles in Kashrut
If you eat only kosher animals, your diet becomes restricted to the commonest animals. This means that rarer animals are left alone.
Consider how, in Chinese culture, there are no restrictions on which animals can be eaten. As a result, many animals around the world have become endangered, simply to feed the market in China.
Furthermore, restricting the range of animals you eat also restricts the range of viruses and diseases that human beings come into contact with; this was surely one of God’s concerns in the kosher laws of Torah.
There are no laws specific to the keeping of pets in Torah. However, if kindness to animals is one of the general principles of Torah, then we can derive further principles from this – Dt 13:19 (Xtian bibles Dt 13:18) says that we should do whatever is right and pleasing in the sight of God. Therefore Jewish sages have said that, if you keep an animal as a pet, you must have the right means to look after it and provide for it. It naturally follows that, in the Yahwist mindset of ethics, your pets must not be obtained and disposed of like a material accessory. Your pets are part of your household, and responsibility for them should not be taken lightly.
If we take on board the general Yahwist mindset of concern for animals, it naturally follows that we should not capture wild animals in order to keep them in our homes, because to do so would be to inflict psychological cruelty upon them. You are taking them away from the habitat which God created them for, from the balanced surroundings and inter-species interactions which are natural to them, and putting them in an environment for which they are completely unsuited, and which more often than not, is severely lacking in what is needed for their physical and psychological welfare.
Nevertheless, the principal of the saving of life allows us to look after an injured or sick wild animal until it can be returned to the wild. However, if a wild animal has become imprinted on humans, and that imprinting would be a dangerous hinderance to its survival, then an exception can be made with regard to returning it to the wild.
If a population of animals has been captured in order to keep them in a zoo, in order to breed them and so save them from extinction, thereby increasing their populations so that they can be returned to the wild, then that is also acceptable, as long as they are kept in a habitat that is as close as possible to the one that God created them for.
The general ethical principle is that an animal should not be sought out and taken from its wild, natural habitat in order to be kept as pets, because to do so is a form of cruelty.
In Israelite culture, unlike the cultures of the surrounding peoples, Israelite kings did not engage in hunting for sport; it was not part of Israelite culture, and in time came to be considered distasteful, even though there are no laws as such forbidding it in Torah. Even when hunting for food, it was considered particularly distasteful to hunt with dogs, as they would torment the animal before its death.
Hunting in order to obtain food is permitted (assumed from laws such as Dt 12:15, 12:22), but hunting for sport – that is, for the purpose of enjoying seeing the suffering and death of an animal – is absolutely forbidden. Similarly, fishing for food is permitted, but fishing for sport is frowned upon in the Israelite mindset (fish are caught to be eaten, not to stress them for sport).
Hunters in the Bible get a bad press. Esau is contrasted with Jacob – Esau is the hunter, but Jacob is the shepherd. Also, King Herod the Great engaged in hunting, influenced by Hellenist and Roman patrons, and was therefore another reason why he was held in low esteem by his Jewish subjects.
Hunting is ultimately ecologically destructive. While natural predators generally go for the weakest prey, leaving the fittest to survive, a human hunter will go for the largest and healthiest animal to kill. This means that over time, animals decrease in size (because those animals with genes for a large size have been killed off), and only weaker animals are left to breed.
Hunting is generally regarded as cruel, and therefore un-Jewish. Whether hunting controls a population of a particular animal or not is completely irrelevant; the issue is the enjoyment of the suffering and death of an animal, which is not permitted in the Israelite mindset. For these reasons, no Talmidi should ever engage in hunting for sport.
Slaughtering (Shechitāh)
As for the slaughter of animals, it is an underlying part of Hebrew culture that the slaughter should be as quick as possible, to cause the animal as little pain and distress as possible; the practical laws in this matter, although not specified in Torah, are dictated by concern for the welfare of the animal. In spite of the attempts made in various western countries to forbid the Jewish mode of slaughter on the grounds of cruelty, this institution of Judaism still stands as far more humane than any of the modes employed by non-Jews (eg electric shock).
It is also a principle that animals to be slaughtered should not have to witness their fellow animals being killed – again, out of concern for the stress caused to the animal in its final hours.
Even though there are no direct commandments to show kindness or concern for animals, it is an ingrained part of Israelite culture. A person’s compassion can be measured by how far they will go to show concern even for animals. The relationship between humans and animals, according to the Hebrew mindset, is that of a benevolent king and his subjects, or of a caring and nurturing steward.
[1] pointing refers to the dots placed above Hebrew letters, which mostly indicate vowels, but for certain letters (the sīn and the shīn) can also indicate a change of consonant. The current system of pointing dates back to the Masoretes of the 9th century CE.
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Meaning of inversion compound in English:
inversion compound
• A type of compound in which the conventional or expected order of the elements is reversed, as when an adjective or other modifier is placed after the noun it qualifies; especially a compound place name consisting of a generic topographical element followed by a personal name or title indicating ownership or association (or, less frequently, a postmodifying adjective).
Inversion compounds are typically indicative of syntactic influence from another language. They are originally and most frequently discussed in the study of the place names of northern Britain and Ireland, where they reflect the regular word order of noun phrases in the Celtic languages; in some cases (and probably originally) these show substitution of a Germanic element for an earlier Celtic one, as in the name of Kirkdominie, Ayrshire (probably lit. ‘the Lord's church’), which is recorded in 1404 as Kildomine (with the first element reflecting Scottish Gaelic cill church).
Early 20th century.
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Carving refer to a skilll of craftsmanship that etal tools are needed o be applied on the workpieces. The tools must be solid enough to carve, or to mark on the surface of objests. The materials used for carving are wood, stone, bone, horn, ivory, leather, metal, paper, or even vegetables and fruits.
Wood has been largely used in Thai architecture. Wood carving works usually appear as decorative parts of buildings, such as 'cho fah' (hornlike final on the roof ridge), 'bai raka' (toothlike ridges on the slopping edges of a gable), 'hang hong' (small finials jutting our of corners of the gabble), 'han tuai' (eaves brackets), doors and windows.
The process of wood carving begins with pattern designing. The patterns will be drafted on a piece of wood. An artisan will shape the wood into a workpiece, and elaborately carve the detailed patterns on it. To finish the workpiece, the artisan will apply a particular technique to decorate the artworks the techniques, to decorate the artworks. The techniques that are widely used with wood carving are oil enameling, lacquering and gold leaf gilding, mirrored glass inlay, mother-of-pearl inlay, painting, gilded black lacquering and 'Lai Kam Ma Lo' Zblack rak lacquer surface painting).
Some masterpieces of wood carving made by the royal artisans in the pas are 'som ruan kaeo' (a backpiece in the from of crossbar) of Phra Buddha Chinnarat, dated between Sukhothai Period to Early Ayutthaya Period (15th - 16th Century), and a sermon pulpit and a pulpil for chanting, dated in Late Ayutthaya Period (17th - 18th Century) at Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat, Phitsanulok Province, 'sum kuha 'nice) of the stupa at Wat Pra Sri Samphet, Phra Nakhon Sri Ayutthaya Province, dated in early Ayoutthaya Period (15th - 16th Century), the door and the door facade of 'ho trai', or Tripitalake hall of Wat Rakang Khositaram, dated between Thonburi Period to Rattanakosin Period (early 19th Century), Phra Vihara Khot (L-shaped Vihara) of Wat Phra Chethuphol, and the door of Wat Suthat Thepphawararam, date in Rattanakosin Period (early to middle 19th Century), Bangkok.
The main purpose of modern royal artisans is to repair the artworks made by the royal artisan from the past. Wood carving conducted by modern royal artisan concentrates on repairing the ancient artworks created by the royal artisans in the past. Some significant pieces, which have been repaired, are 'budsabok kren' (liftable throne) of the royal viceroy, the throne seat and 'chat' (the multi-tiered umberllo) of Kin Pin Klao, the royal cariot and the royal jbarge at the National Museum in Bangkok, and the palanquin from Wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahathat, Phitsanulok Province, etc.
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What is sharding?
Sharding is a type of database partitioning that separates large databases into smaller, faster, more easily managed parts. These smaller parts are called data shards. The word shard means "a small part of a whole."
Horizontal and vertical sharding
Sharding involves splitting and distributing one logical data set across multiple databases that share nothing and can be deployed across multiple servers. To achieve sharding, the rows or columns of a larger database table are split into multiple smaller tables.
benefits of horizontal and vertical sharding
Once a logical shard is stored on another node, it is known as a physical shard. One physical shard can hold multiple logical shards. The shards are autonomous and don't share the same data or computing resources. That's why they exemplify a shared-nothing architecture. At the same time, the data in all the shards represents a logical data set.
Sharding can either be horizontal or vertical:
• Horizontal sharding. When each new table has the same schema but unique rows, it is known as horizontal sharding. In this type of sharding, more machines are added to an existing stack to spread out the load, increase processing speed and support more traffic. This method is most effective when queries return a subset of rows that are often grouped together.
• Vertical sharding. When each new table has a schema that is a faithful subset of the original table's schema, it is known as vertical sharding. It is effective when queries usually return only a subset of columns of the data.
The following illustrates how new tables look when both horizontal and vertical sharding are performed on the same original data set.
Original data set
Student ID Name Age Major Hometown
1 Amy 21 Economics Austin
2 Jack 20 History San Francisco
3 Matthew 22 Political Science New York City
4 Priya 19 Biology Gary
5 Ahmed 19 Philosophy Boston
Horizontal shards
Shard 1
Student ID Name Age Major Hometown
1 Amy 21 Economics Austin
2 Jack 20 History San Francisco
Shard 2
Student ID Name Age Major Hometown
3 Matthew 22 Political Science New York City
4 Priya 19 Biology Gary
5 Ahmed 19 Philosophy Boston
Vertical Shards
Shard 1
Student ID Name Age
1 Amy 21
2 Jack 20
Shard 2
Student ID Major
1 Economics
2 History
Shard 3
Student ID Hometown
1 Austin
2 San Francisco
Benefits of sharding
Sharding is common in scalable database architectures. Since shards are smaller, faster and easier to manage, they help boost database scalability, performance and administration. Sharding also reduces the transaction cost of the database.
Horizontal scaling, which is also known as scaling out, helps create a more flexible database design, which is especially useful for parallel processing. It provides near-limitless scalability for intense workloads and big data requirements. With horizontal sharding, users can optimally use all the compute resources across a cluster for every query. This sharding method also speeds up query resolution, since each machine has to scan fewer rows when responding to a query.
Overall benefits of sharding
Vertical sharding increases RAM or storage capacity and improves central processing unit (CPU) capacity. It thus increases the power of a single machine or server.
Sharded databases also offer higher availability and mitigate the impact of outages because, during an outage, only those portions of an application that rely on the missing chunks of data become unusable. A sharded database also replicates backup shards to additional nodes to further minimize damage due to an outage. In contrast, an application running without sharded databases may be completely unavailable following an outage.
Another advantage of sharding is that it increases the read/write throughput when such operations are confined to a single shard.
Difference between sharding and partitioning
Although sharding and partitioning both break up a large database into smaller databases, there is a difference between the two methods.
After a database is sharded, the data in the new tables is spread across multiple systems, but with partitioning, that is not the case. Partitioning groups data subsets within a single database instance.
Types of sharding architectures
The following are the key types of sharding architectures.
Key-based sharding
In key-based sharding, which is also known as hash-based sharding, the data is plugged into a hash function to determine which shard each data value must go to.
A hash function takes a piece of input data and generates a discrete output value known as the hash value. In key-based sharding, the hash value is the shard ID, which determines in which shard the data is stored. The values entered into the hash function all come from the same column, known as the shard key, to ensure that entries are placed consistently and with the appropriate accompanying data in the correct shards.
This key is static -- i.e., its values don't change over time. If they do, it could slow down performance.
To understand key-based sharding, consider this example.
Column 1 in a large database
Column 1
Once the column passes through the hash function, hash values are generated based on the shard ID. The columns with similar hash values are stored in the same shard.
Column 1 Hash Values
MN 2
OP 1
AB 2
CD 1
So, the two shards might look like the following.
Shard 1
Column 1 Column 1
OP Value 1
CD Value 2
Shard 2
Column 1 Column 1
MN Value 3
AB Value 4
Advantages of key-based sharding
• suitable for distributing data evenly to prevent hotspots; and
• no need to maintain a data map, since data is distributed algorithmically.
Disadvantages of key-based sharding
• difficult to dynamically add or remove additional servers to the database;
• during data rebalancing, both new and old hashing functions could become invalid; and
• during migration, servers cannot write any new data, which may lead to application downtime.
comparing sharding types, key-based sharding, range-based sharding, directory-based sharding
Key-based sharding vs. range-based sharding vs. directory-based sharding
What is range-based sharding?
As the name suggests, range-based sharding involves sharding data according to the ranges of a given value. The range is based on a field, which is known as the shard key.
For example, with a database that stores information about students' marks, shards can be used to classify the data based on different ranges of marks.
Student Marks
Adam 89
Ben 95
Catherine 54
David 33
Elizabeth 68
Ali 76
Shard 1. Students with marks between 0 and 60
Student Marks
Catherine 54
David 33
Shard 2. Students with marks between 60 and 85
Student Marks
Elizabeth 68
Ali 76
Shard 3. Students with marks between 85 and 100
Student Marks
Adam 89
Ben 95
Advantages of range-based sharding
• straightforward implementation; and
• simple algorithm since different shards have identical schema to each other, as well as the original database.
Disadvantages of range-based sharding
• may create database hotspots, since data could be unevenly distributed; and
• a poor choice of shard key could create unbalanced shards and adversely impact performance.
What is directory-based sharding?
In directory-based sharding, a lookup table is created and maintained. It uses a shard key to track which shard holds what kind of data.
Consider a database that holds student information.
Section Student First Name Student Last Name
C Alex Hales
B Ben Davies
A Craig Hall
D David Copperfield
The Section column below is defined as a shard key. Data from the shard key is written to the lookup table with the shard that each respective row should be written to.
Section (Shard Key) Shard ID
A S1
B S2
C S3
D S4
Shard S1
A Craig Hall
Shard S2
B Ben Davies
Shard S3
C Alex Hales
Shard S4
D David Copperfield
Advantages of directory-based sharding
• provides greater flexibility in terms of dynamically assigning data to shards;
• superior to key-based sharding because it doesn't require a hash function; and
• superior to range-based sharding since it ties each key to its own specific shard.
Disadvantages of directory-based sharding
• can have a negative impact on application performance because it requires connection to the lookup table before every query or write; and
• corruption or failure of the lookup table could lead to data loss or accessibility issues.
This was last updated in January 2022
Continue Reading About sharding
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A dunam (Ottoman Turkish: دونم; Turkish: dönüm), also known as a donum or dunum and as the old, Turkish, or Ottoman stremma, was the Ottoman unit of area equivalent to the Greek stremma or English acre, representing the amount of land that could be ploughed by a team of oxen in a day. The legal definition was "forty standard paces in length and breadth",[1] but its actual area varied considerably from place to place, from a little more than 900 m2 in Ottoman Palestine to around 2500 m2 in Iraq.[2][3]
The unit is still in use in many areas previously ruled by the Ottomans, although the new or metric dunam has been redefined as exactly one decare (1000 m2), which is 1/10 hectare (1/10 * 10,000 m2), like the modern Greek royal stremma.[3]
The name dönüm, from the Ottoman Turkish dönmek (دونمك, "to turn") appears to be a calque of the Byzantine Greek stremma and had the same size. It was likely adopted by the Ottomans from the Byzantines in Mysia-Bithynia.[4]
The Dictionary of Modern Greek defines the old Ottoman stremma as approximately 1,270 m2,[5] but Costas Lapavitsas used the value of 1,600 m2 for the region of Naoussa in the early 20th century.[6]
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro[edit]
In Bosnia and Herzegovina and also Serbia, the unit is called dulum (дулум) or dunum (дунум). In Bosnia and Herzegovina dunum (or dulum) equals 1,000m2. One dulum is equal to 1,600m2 for the region of Leskovac, south Serbia. In Albania it is called dynym or dylym. It is equal to 1,000 square meters.[7]
In Bulgaria, the decare (декар) is used.
In Cyprus, a donum is 14,400 square feet (1,340 m2).[8] In the Republic of Cyprus older Greek-Cypriots also still refer to the donum, although this is gradually being replaced by another local Greek Cypriot dialect word, σκάλες ['skales], rather than the mainland Greek word stremma (equivalent to a decare). However, officially Cyprus uses the square metre and the hectare.[citation needed]
A donum consists of 4 evleks, each of which consists of 3,600 square feet (330 m2).[citation needed]
In Greece, the old dönüm is called a "Turkish stremma", while today, a stremma or "royal stremma" is exactly one decare, like the metric dönüm.[3]
In Iraq, the dunam is 2,500 square metres (0.25 ha).[9]
Israel, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey[edit]
In Israel, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey the dunam is 1,000 square metres (10,764 sq ft), which is 1 decare. Before the end of the Ottoman Empire and during the early years of the British Mandate for Palestine, the size of a dunam was 919.3 square metres (9,895 sq ft), but in 1928, the metric dunam of 1,000 square metres (0.10 ha) was adopted, and this is still used.[10][11]
United Arab Emirates[edit]
The Dubai Statistics Center and Statistics Centre Abu Dhabi use the metric dunam (spelt as donum) for data relating to agricultural land use.[12] One donum equals 1000m2.
Other countries using a dunam of some size include Libya and Syria.[citation needed]
The metric dunam is particularly useful in hydrological calculations as 1 dönüm times 1 mm (a unit commonly used for measuring precipitation) equals exactly one cubic meter.
A metric dönüm is equal to:[citation needed]
Comparable measures[edit]
The Byzantine Greek stremma was the probable source of the Turkish unit. The zeugarion (Turkish çift) was a similar unit derived from the area plowed by a team of oxen in a day. The English acre was originally similar to both units in principle, although it developed separately.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
1. ^ V.L. Ménage, Review of Speros Vryonis, Jr. The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the process of islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century, Berkeley, 1971; in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London) 36:3 (1973), pp. 659-661. at JSTOR (subscription required)
2. ^ Cowan, J. Milton; Arabic-English Dictionary, The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (4th Edition, Spoken Languages Services, Inc.; 1994; p. 351)
3. ^ a b c Λεξικό της κοινής Νεοελληνικής (Dictionary of Modern Greek), Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών, Θεσσαλονίκη, 1998. ISBN 960-231-085-5
4. ^ Ménage, op.cit.
5. ^ Λεξικό, 1998
6. ^ Costas Lapavitsas, "Social and Economic Underpinning of Industrial Development: Evidence from Ottoman Macedonia", Ηλεκτρονικό Δελτίο Οικονομικής Ιστορίας "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
7. ^ Мерне јединице у КЗ и КН (in Serbian). Republic Geodetic Authority of the Republic of Serbia. Archived from the original on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
8. ^ Department of Lands and Surveys web site http://www.moi.gov.cy/moi/dls (retrieved April 2014)
9. ^ Al-Shawi, Ibrahim (2006). A Glimpse of Iraq. ISBN 9781411695184.
10. ^ El-Eini, Roza I.M. (2006). "Currency and Measures". Mandated landscape: British imperial rule in Palestine, 1929-1948. Routledge. p. xxiii. ISBN 978-0-7146-5426-3. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
11. ^ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. "explanatory notes" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
12. ^ a b c "Chapter 8: Agriculture Statistical Yearbook" (PDF). Dubai Statistics Center. 2009. p. 184. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
External links[edit]
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A left-click involves clicking the left mouse button. Typically, "left-clicking" means the same thing as just "clicking" since the left mouse button is the primary button by default. The term "left-click" is most often used in contrast to "right-click," which involves clicking the secondary button on the right side of the mouse.
Left-clicking is used for many common computer tasks, such as selecting objects, opening hyperlinks, and closing windows. Clicking and holding the left mouse button can be used to select text or perform drag and drop operations. In video games, left-clicking is typically used to perform the primary action, such as moving a character or firing a weapon.
For right-handed users, the left-click is the most natural click, since it is done with the index finger. For people that use a mouse with their left hand, it is a bit less natural since left-clicking is done with the middle finger and the index finger is used for right-clicking. Therefore, Mac OS X and Windows allow you to switch the primary mouse button from left to right.
NOTE: Double-clicking is simply two left-clicks in rapid sequence.
Updated April 13, 2012
Definitions by TechTerms.com
The definition of Left-Click on this page is an original TechTerms.com definition. If you would like to reference this page or cite this definition, you can use the green citation links above.
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What is flexible specialization? Definition and examples
Flexible specialization is a business strategy a company takes to make itself more competitive. The company has employees with multiple skills. It also has multi-use machinery and equipment. In other words, the company has people and equipment that can do many different things.
In today’s rapidly-changing marketplace, having the ability to adapt quickly is crucial. It is the only way to survive in some industries
In this context, the word marketplace‘ means ‘market‘ in the abstract meaning of the word.
BusinessDictionary.com has the following definition of the term:
“Competitive strategy where a firm equips itself with multi-use equipment, multi-skilled employees, and innovative executives, in order to adjust very quickly to a fast changing marketplace and business environment.”
Do not confuse the term with ‘flexible staffing,’ which means not using permanent staff.
Flexible Specialization
Over the last couple of decades, companies’ ability to adapt to a changing market has become crucial. Flexible specialization has become a necessary feature of many businesses.
Flexible specialization – many companies
The term may also refer to an alternative production model. The model is based on the spread of production between many different producing companies, i.e., producers.
The producers, together, can rapidly respond to changing conditions and demands in the market.
This article focuses on the meaning of the term when it refers to one company. In other words, one company with multi-skilled employees and multi-use equipment.
Flexible specialization – Fordism
Flexible specialization contrasts with Fordism.
Fordism was the system that Henry Ford’s car factories formulated at the beginning of the twentieth century.
In a Fordist factory, workers worked on a production line. They performed specialized repetitive tasks. Each worker focuses on thing.
A Fordist factory was a gigantic, mass-producing facility. It could not adapt rapidly to changing demands.
Flexible specialization
Flexible specialization or flexible production is a decentralized and fluid organization. It can adapt to a changing market rapidly.
In the world of industrial production, flexible companies have flexible factories.
A flexible factory is a production facility that can rapidly switch from making one thing to making something else. It can do this with the minimum of downtime.
Flexible specialization – Post-Fordism
Some people use the term ‘Post-Fordism’ when they mean flexible specialization. They use the term because it followed the system that Henry Ford’s vehicle factories formulated.
According to Wikipedia, Post-Fordism has the following features:
• Economies of scope, i.e., efficiencies formed by variety, not volume. With economies of scale, the focus is reducing average costs by producing lots and lots. Economies of scope, on the other hand, involve reducing average cost by producing more kinds of products.
• Producing things in small batches.
• Specialized jobs and products.
• Heavy use of information technologies.
• Rather than an emphasis on social class, there is an emphasis on types of consumers.
• The rise of the white-collar worker.
• Greater employment of women, i.e., the feminization of the workplace.
Flexible workforce
If you want a flexible workforce, flexible specialization is an effective strategy.
In this context, the term ‘flexible workforce’ means one with many multi-skilled employees. In other words, each worker in ‘flexible’ in what they can do.
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Seal (device)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Jump to: navigation, search
Seal on envelope
Seal on envelope
A seal is an impression printed on, embossed upon, or affixed to a document (or any other object) in order to authenticate it, in lieu of or in addition to a signature. The word is also used to describe the device used to make this impression.
Seal as impression
official seal of Ft. Sill Apache
official seal of Ft. Sill Apache
Pine resin seal on vellum tag or tail of an English deed dated 1638.
The use of seals, in wax (sealing wax) or embossed on paper, to authenticate writings is a practice as old as writing itself. Seals of this nature were applied directly to the face of the document or attached to the document by cords in the owner's, or to a narrow strip of the document sliced and folded down as a tail but not detached from the document. This helped maintain authenticity by not allowing the reuse of the seal. If a forger tried to remove the seal in the first case, it would break. In the other cases, although the forger could remove the seal intact by ripping the cords from the paper, he'd still have to separate the cords to attach it to another document, which would destroy the seal as well because the cords had knots tied in them inside the wax seal. Most governments still attach seals to letters patent. While many instruments required seals for validity (i.e. the deed or covenant) it is rather uncommon for private citizens to use seals anymore.
Seals were also applied to letters and parcels to indicate whether or not the item had been opened since the seal was applied. Seals were used both to seal the item to prevent tampering, as well as to provide proof that the item was actually from the sender and is not a forgery. To seal a letter, for example, a letter writer would compose the letter, fold it over, pour wax over the joint formed by the top of the page of paper, and then impress a ring, metal stamp, or other device. Governments would often send letters to citizens under the governmental seal for their eyes only. These were called letters secret. Seals are no longer commonly used in this way, except for ceremonial purposes.
The most common uses of the seal today are:
1. to certify that a person has given an oath or acknowledgement, see notary public
2. to certify the correctness of a copy of a record maintained by a court or other government agency.
Seal as device
Seals were used in the earliest civilisations and are of considerable interest in archaeology. In ancient Mesopotamia seals were engraved on cylinders, which could be rolled to create an impression on clay e.g., as a label on a consignment of trade goods. From Ancient Egypt seals in the form of signet-rings of kings have been found. In the Indus Valley Civilisation, rectangular seals were used to label trade goods and also had other purposes.
Seals in East Asia
See also Chinese seal
Known as yingzhang in China and inkan or hanko in Japan, ink seals have been used in East Asia as a form of written identification since the invention of writing. Even in modern times, seals are still commonly used instead of handwritten signatures to authenticate official documents or financial transactions. Both individuals and organizations have official seals, and they often have multiple seals in different sizes and styles for different situations. East Asian seals usually bear the name of the person or organization represented, but they can also bear a poem or a personal motto. Sometimes both types of seals, or one large seal that bears a name and a motto, are used to authenticate official documents. Seals are so important in East Asia that foreigners who frequently conduct business there also commission the engraving of a personal seal.
East Asian seals are carved from a variety of hard materials, including wood, soapstone, and jade. East Asian seals are traditionally used with a red oil-based paste consisting of finely ground cinnabar, which contrasts with the black ink traditionally used for the ink brush. Red chemical inks are more commonly used in modern times for sealing documents. Seal engraving is considered a form of calligraphy in East Asia. Like ink brush calligraphy, there are several styles of engraving. Some engraving styles emulate calligraphy styles, but many styles are highly stylized, so stylized that the characters represented on the seal are difficult for untrained readers to identify. Seal engravers are considered artists, and in the past, several famous calligraphers also became famous as engravers. Some seals, carved by famous engravers, or owned by famous artists or political leaders, have become valuable as works of art and history.
Because seals are commissioned by individuals and carved by artists, every seal is unique, and engravers often personalize the seals they create. The material of seal and the style of the engraving are typically matched to the personality of the owner. Seals can be traditional or modern, conservative or expressive. Seals are sometimes carved with a figure on the owner's zodiac animal on the top of the seal. Seals are also sometimes carved with images or calligraphy on the sides.
Although a utilitarian instrument of daily business in East Asia, Westerners and other non-Asians seldom see Asian seals, except on Asian paintings and works of calligraphy. All traditional paintings in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and the rest of East Asia are watercolor paintings on silk, paper, or some other surface that the red ink from seals can adhere to. East Asian paintings often bear multiple seals, including one or two seals from the artist, and the seals from the owners of the painting.
East Asian seals are the predecessors to block printing. The Chinese invented both paper and the printing press centuries before they were invented again in Europe.
See also
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Personal tools
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Download Optional: Quick Study Card - Liberty Union High School District
yes no Was this document useful for you?
Thank you for your participation!
Document related concepts
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Name: _________________________________________ Date: ____________________________ Period: _________
Unit 7: Chapters 5, 15, 18 & 19 Quick Study Card Rubric
Your task is to create a quick study card for chapters 5 (pages 120-123), 15 (pages 424-427), 18, and 19.
Create a table to compare ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. Define
and draw a picture for each one.
Draw a picture to compare to species evenness and species richness.
Diagram the layers of the atmosphere from earth exosphere. Identify where “good” and
“bad” ozone are located. Include the chemical equations for the formation of good and bad
Draw a diagram representing the breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere by CFCs.
(Vocabulary/ideas to include CFCs, PSCs, Ozone, catalyst)
Create a table summarizing the benefits of good ozone and the risks if it’s depleted (include
environmental, social and economic impacts for ozone depletion in the table).
Create a table comparing endangered and invasive species. Include the definition, three
characteristics that would classify an organism as one, and 2 examples for each.
Define each of the factors that affect species’ survival rates (HIPPO) and draw a picture for
each one.
Create a table to summarize CITES, the Endangered Species Act, and the Lacey Act.
Draw a picture to compare in situ and ex situ conservation
Draw a diagram of El Nino. Where does it occur? Include the vocabulary: upwelling,
thermocline, tradewinds.
Create a table summarizes the environmental, economic and social impacts of El Nino.
Define ecosystem services and list 5 examples of ecosystem services. How does biodiversity
relate to ecosystem services?
Draw a diagram of the greenhouse effect.
Create a table of the 6 greenhouse gases. Include the sources for each (both natural and
anthropogenic). Which greenhouse gas is the “strongest”? Which is growing at the fastest rate
so it’s contributing to global warming the most?
There are several consequences of global climate change (pages 535-539 in your textbook).
Summarize and draw a picture for each.
Diagram how ocean acidification (as a result of CO2 emissions) works. Include environmental
impacts of a more acidic ocean.
Create a table defining positive and negative feedback loops. Include an example for each that
relates specifically to climate change (page 534-535 in your textbook).
Create a table summarizing the key differences between global climate change and ozone
depletion: Include basic definitions, layer of the atmosphere, type of energy involved, and
legislation for each.
Teacher Grade
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Measure of the head circumference is not as popular as the measurement of weight and height in very many communities. We have got to appreciate the importance of the measurement of our children’s head’s circumference during growth assessment just like we do for weight and height. Head circumference is a measurement of a child’s head around its largest area. It measures the distance from above the eyebrows and ears and around the back of the head.
seca+head+circumference+measuring+tape - Online Discount -
What is the importance of measuring head circumference?
Measuring and monitoring the head circumference is as important as the weight and height measurements routinely done. Measuring head circumference is a quick, non-invasive method of determining if an infant’s head size is too large (macrocephaly) or too small (microcephaly). Early identification of head circumference concerns can be a critical first step in identifying disorders.
I need to point out clearly that there is more to measuring head circumference than we see. Although head circumference measures skull size, it typically also reflects overall brain volume. The growth of the skull is determined by brain growth.
Did you know the greatest brain growth happens between birth and five years of age? What this means is that measuring the head circumference is a quick and simple way as earlier mentioned of determining if the child’s brain is growing and developing normally. Rapid brain growth in children is expected from birth to 2 years and thereafter up to 5 years, a slow growth.
When head circumference measurements are taken, they are compared with normative growth curves. Serial head circumference measurements are extremely important in monitoring infant health as measurements outside of normal values is an important indicator for cognitive and motor delays worth checking out when it is still early.
Where is the risk?
A head size larger than what is typical for the age (according to the normative growth charts) or when it is increasing in size faster than expected, is concerning. It is impossible to see this with your naked eye the reason why measurements are key.
If a big head size is visible to you, chances are it has already done too much damage. This condition (larger head size) is what we call macrocephaly (large head). When the cause of the large head size is the extra fluid surrounding the brain, we call it hydrocephalus. It can also be caused by other conditions like bleeding in the child’s brain, overgrowth of skull bones, brain infection, abnormal head size to mention but a few. It is therefore important to catch whatever is causing it when it is still early.
head circumference
A head size smaller than what is typical for the age or when growth is slower than expected, we refer to it as microcephaly. This places infants and young children at risk for delayed motor and cognitive development. It is key to note that children born with low birth weight or born prematurely will have a smaller than average head size until they catch up. Other conditions that may cause microcephaly include genetic syndromes, environmental teratogens, or structural brain anomalies. Disabilities like cerebral palsy, infections like Zika virus in pregnancy, genetic disorders like Downs Syndrome, and severe malnutrition will cause microcephaly.
Congenital Anomalies of the Nervous System: Microcephaly | NCBDDD | CDC
When a child is not growing as expected, it may be very easy to tell by noticing their weight drop and you can quickly have it checked out. Dealing with brain development (head size growth) because chances are by the time it is noticeable to you, it is probably in a state where major damage has been done yet we can prevent or at least lessen the severity.
Dear parent, the next time you are taking your child for routine assessment, you can ask for your child’s head circumference to be taken. It is better to be sure than sorry.
I wish you the best of luck. Do not forget to share this with someone who needs it.
See you next Wednesday
4 Replies to “What your child’s head circumference is telling you”
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History Lesson #3
Learning Goal: I can use an analogy to understand the experience of migrants to colonial Australia.
APK: Turn and talk with a partner; discussing the game you played for homework.
New Information:
What is an ANALOGY?
Using a comparison of something familiar to help you understand aspects of something unfamiliar (brainstorm some examples like riding a bike).
Look at thinking skills document that is in your books and go through the steps of an analogy.
Step 1: define the migrant experience.
Step 2: pick a topic to use that is familiar to most of us and has many important similarities (eg: moving house, moving school).
Application: Read through these primary and secondary resources and take notes looking especially for ways that the experience was like moving home or school..
Step 3: Identify the different ways that the migrant experience is like moving home/school- make these headings on your table.
Use the table to describe the ways in which the migrant experience was like moving house or school
Goal reflection:
Step 4: For people migrating to Australia it would have been like… use the information from their table to write a paragraph in their books.
Leave a Reply
Your email address will not be published.
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What Does physiognomies?
What Does physiognomies?
1 : the art of discovering temperament and character from outward appearance. 2 : the facial features held to show qualities of mind or character by their configuration or expression. 3 : external aspect also : inner character or quality revealed outwardly.
How do you use physiognomy in a sentence?
Physiognomy in a Sentence 🔉
1. Looking at Jake’s physiognomy, it was impossible to ignore the stress lines that told the story of his hard life.
2. The skeptical scientist did not believe the art of physiognomy was an accurate way to judge a person’s character.
What does the word Somatotype mean?
somatotype, human body shape and physique type. The term somatotype is used in the system of classification of human physical types developed by U.S. psychologist W.H. Sheldon.
How is physiognomy used today?
Physiognomy is the association of certain personality traits to physical traits. A popular practice of physiognomy involved comparing human faces to animal faces in the belief that people who had facial features similar to those of an animal would have personality traits similar to that animal as well.
What is the meaning of Agured?
intransitive verb. 1 : to give reasons for or against something : reason argue for a new policy. 2 : to contend or disagree in words : dispute They’re always arguing about money. transitive verb. 1 : to give evidence of : indicate The facts argue his innocence.
What do you mean by somatotypes in physical education?
Somatotypes means human body shape, and physique types. Somato types helps the physical education and sports teaches to classify the students for particular sports and games on the basis of physical, mental and practical aspects. The procedure of measuring somatotypes is based on the classification by W.H. SHELDON.
What does somatotype or body type mean?
What is the example of rigidity?
Example. Solids: Solids are the best example of rigidity. Solids can very easily be distinguished from liquids by their definite shape, considerable mechanical strength, and rigidity. There are many different types of solids.
What is the example of physiognomy?
One common example of physiognomy is correlating a high brow with intelligence and a greater affinity for the arts. Other remnants of physiognomy include the expression “stuck up,” which comes from the theory that people with upturned noses have a contemptuous attitude the term “thick-headed” to describe stupidity.
Why is physiognomy important?
The purpose of physiognomy was to identify and to describe the common forms that organized the diversity of appearances, and, as such, it functioned in a profoundly normative manner — as the determinant of what was common to all people and all things in the physical world.
What is the medical definition of physiognomy?
Medical Definition of physiognomy. 1 : the art of discovering temperament and character from outward appearance. 2 : the facial features held to show qualities of mind or character by their configuration or expression. Keep scrolling for more.
What is the role of physiognomy in literature?
Physiognomy plays an important role in literature by allowing the audience or reader to identify characters who have hidden intentions or motives.
Is there any evidence that physiognomy really works?
No clear evidence indicates physiognomy works—but the rise of artificial intelligence and machine learning for facial recognition has brought a revival of interest, and some studies that suggest that facial appearances do “contain a kernel of truth” about a person’s personality.
How is physiognomy used in characterization and anticipation?
The truth is, sometimes not all evil characters are identifiable by their flaws; likewise, not all good characters are physically perfect. Physiognomy can be used in characterization activities, character analysis, and anticipation activities to help students better understand and question characters’ true intentions.
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Oriental Rugs Dictionary
Chinese Rank Badges
Mandarin Chinese rank badges were first worn by Ming dynasty Chinese officials beginning in the 14th century with continued use through the end of the Ching dynasty in the 20th century. Like other aspects of Chinese wear these rank badges were highly regulated and organized around a rigid social structure. A Chinese official would wear specific garments in the summer while a different set would be worn in winter. Further, certain garments would serve official functions while others were ceremonial or worn on informal occasions. Color was also a key signifier. For example, only the emperor and his family could wear yellow robes with dragons. Higher rank officials were designated by colors close to yellow such as orange and brown with lower ranks wearing mostly black and blue garments Mandarin officials received their starting rank by passing a long and difficult examination process. Military officials exams included mostly physical challenges such as archery and horseback riding. Civilian exams involved scholarly subjects which required tremendous preparation. Once achieving success, these Civilian officials were rewarded for the most part with government positions and were held in high esteem. Chinese Rank badges were worn on the front and the back of the outer garment. In the Ming dynasty, when the outer garment was fastened on the side, front and back badges were identical. In the Ching dynasty the outer garment was a surcoat with a front opening, so the front badge was divided and was worn on the half to be worn on right and left side of the opening. Civilian Chinese rank badges are represented by birds while military rank Sare represented by real or mystical animals known for courage. The officials wives wore the rank of their husbands but their creatures faced right while their husbands’ faced left. During the Ming dynasty the badges were large and often included more than one animal, their decorating schemes do not have the three elements of the universe but instead feature large flowers, usually peonies. Ching dynasty badges are a representation of the universe and include sky, sea and land. Sun disk is also a Ching dynasty feature. Both Ming and Ching badges feature symbols of status and good luck. A canopy over the animal, bats in the sky and any of the twelve precious symbols either in water or the sky would all signify wishes for good luck while using precious materials such as pearls, corals, peacock feathers. Silver thread would represent wealth. In addition to rank badges, hat decorations and belt plaques also indicated rank. Both civilian and military hierarchy had nine ranks made of up 3 ranks each. The multiplication of three is important in Chinese numerology (nine dragon robes, for example). Each rank had a different animal or bird and how they get identified depends on many details.
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Myth & History
Paxos Mythology & History
Podeidon & Amphitrite
Podeidon & Amphitrite
According to mythology the islands of Paxos were created when the god of the sea, Poseidon, hit the island of Corfu with his trident breaking off its southern tip in order to form Paxos, where he could keep his lover Amphitrite. However,in the process he lost his trident which was found by the islanders who made it into their island emblem.
Homer was the first to refer Paxos, whose inhabitants were Greek–speakers from Epirus. The first colonists were probably the Phoenicians who had a colony on neighbouring Cephalonia.
432 b.c.: In the waters off the coast of Paxos (referred to as ``the islands of Syvota``), the largest naval battle up to that date amongst the Greeks took place, between the inhabitants of Corfu and the Corinthians; 70 Corfiot and 30 Corinthians triremes were sunk..
229 b.c.: The powerful fleets of the Illyrian pirates (inhabitants of the eastern shores of the Adriatic) and those of the inhabitants of Corfu, clashed off the coast of ´´so-called Paxos´´.The Illyrians won and occupied Corfu (and the islands of Paxos).This victory precipitated the first direct Roman intervention into Greek matters. One year later, the Romans gained victory over the Illyrians and forced them to concede lands and pay taxes.
31 b.c.: In the region of Paxos, the fleets of Caesar Octavius and Mark Antony in alliance with Cleopatra, were defeated and ended with the sea battle of Actium. It is thought that at the end of the battle the fugitives Mark Antony and Cleopatra anchored in Paxos due to unfavourable winds..
960: The historian Liutprand, bishop of Cremona went to Paxos to write the third volume of his Histories in a tranquil environment. During the second half of the 13th century Corfu was incorporated into the sovereignty of Anjou, annexing Paxos as well.
1386: The island was conquered by the Venetians and ruled by princes and barons as a feudal holding for many decades.
1423: Baron Adam II San Ippolito asked for Venetian permission to build a fortress to protect the island from pirates. Two were built:one on the island of Agios Nikolaos opposite Gaios and the second at Lakka.
1537: An important sea battle against the Turks by the allied fleets of Spain, Venice and the Papal States took place near Paxos under the leadership of the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria. The Turkish ships were sunk and the sea around Paxos was filled with bodies. Hayrentin Barbarossa wanted to take revenge for the catastrophe caused by Doria. After plundering and taking prisoners, Barbarossa decided to lay siege to Corfu. He soon found himself in a untenable position, disbanded the siege and withdrew his forces, but not before causing immense destruction. In retaliation, the Turkish fleet under the leadership of admiral Barbarossa, went to Paxos and ravaged the island from end to end. Not a stick was left standing. The catastrophe was completed the following year, when Paxos became the base of operations for Turgut. The island became deserted.
1571: Once again the Turkish fleet, this time under admiral Lutsali Pasha, pillaged the island, slaughtering the remaining inhabitants and laying waste to everything they encountered. Any inhabitants lucky enough to escape resettled on the neighbouring islands.
1797 :After 411 years of occupation, the Venetians surrendered the Ionian Islands to the Republican French who remained there until 1799, when the Russians and Turks occupied Corfu.
1800: Under the Constition that was formed, the Ionian Islands were declared a Republic under the dominion of the Sultan and with the protection of Russia.
1807: Under the Treaty of Tilsit the Ionian Islands were granted to Napoleon¶s Imperial French. The English blockade brought starvation to the island and as a result the inhabitants of Paxos revolted in May of 1810, gained power from the French and raised the English flag. The French invaded once again and punished the revolutionaries severely.
1814: The English army, under Major Theodore Kolokotronis, landed in the area of Plani near Lakka and conquered the fort of Agios Nikolaos in Gaios without resistance.
1817 : The English granted a constitution to the Ionian Islands, which become know as the Republic of the Ionian Islands under English protection and with the first English Governor, Metland.
1821: Although its status as a protectorate strictly forbade involvement, the inhabitants of Paxos took part in the Greek Revolution and offered their services to the struggle for freedom. At the top of the list of heroes is the name of Georgios Anemogiannis, captain of a fire ship who gave his life to the cause at the age of 23 at Nafpakto (Lepanto).
1864: The flame of unification with Greece, which had for long been slowly burning, spread to Paxos as well. The parliamentarians from Paxos, Ioannis Vellianitis and Dimitris Makris, voted for unification in the Ionian Parliament on the May 21, 1864.
1912-13 :The inhabitants of Paxos offered their lives once again during the Balkan Wars as well as during the Asia Minor campaign and catastrophe of 1922. They welcomed all refugees driven to their shores with open arms and incorporated them into the local community.
1923: The Italians land in Corfu and Paxos for one month as retaliation by Mussolini for the assassination of the Italian general.
1940-41: The blood tax continues during the Greek-Italian War and the German occupation, finally ending with the tragic civil war. During the difficult years of the occupation the inhabitants of Paxos made their living from the olive oil trade. Most dealers crossed over to the shores of Epirus in their rowing-boats by night to exchang their oil for wheat, maize and barley.
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Ecuadorean hummingbird emits high-pitched song from mountains
A species of Ecuadorean hummingbird native to the Andean high-altitude grasslands is unique for emitting the highest sound recorded in birds.
About 14cm (5.5in) long, the Ecuadorean hillstar (Oreotrochilus chimborazo) emits the sound to mark its territory and during courtship rituals.
Experts say they produce a song with a fundamental frequency of 13.4 kHz. This is far beyond the range at which most birds can hear - 2 to 8 kHz.
Their habitat is at an altitude between 3,500m and 5,200m (11,500ft to 17,000ft).
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Home Page
Summer Term 2
This half term we be looking at the different types of animals, we will explore where and why animals live in certain places and looking in detail about key features of animals.
Our main piece of text is a book called 'Doing the animal bop'
by Jan Ormerod & Lindsey Gardiner.
"A lively, noisy, funny text that encourages very young children to walk and talk like the animals - including waddling like a penguin, stomping like a rhino and jiving and jiggling and jumping and wiggling to the monkey bop! Hugely entertaining with plenty of scope for interaction and play".
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Who Really Tells Your Story?
As the curtain falls on Hamilton, the cast repeats one saying in a mysterious voice: who lives, who dies, who tells your story? Indeed, this is the main question the musical embarks to answer; however, while 1776 does not attack this question with the same veracity, it helps us better understand how the stories we tell about our founding fathers shape our understanding of our history. By examining two differences in the productions, we gain an understanding of how our story telling changes with time (the two films were made almost 50 years apart) and how that shift changes our perception of our leaders.
The first difference between the two films is noticed in the introduction of each film’s first female character(s): Abigail Adams and the Schuyler Sisters. When John Adams converses with his wife via mail in the opening number of 1776, her interests are strictly domestic. Her concerns include her children, her out-of-state husband, and clothing pins. While she does stand up to John and demand the pins, her wishes are still restricted to the domestic sphere. In juxtaposition, the Schuyler Sisters’ opening number in Hamilton reveals Angelica Schuyler, the oldest of the three, to be an empowered woman with a knack for critical thinking. She confidently rejects suitors before proudly declaring women as political equals to men. The shift from 1776’s portrayal of Abigail Adams to Hamilton’s Angelica Schuyler shows how the author of each musical will attempt to tell a story about their female character in the next few hours. In 1776, Abigail Adams’ depiction tells the story that women in Colonial America were focussed solely on their husbands and family, a story furthered by Martha Jefferson’s depiction. Meanwhile, Angelica Schuyler’s intellectual pride tells a story that reminds us of how women were excluded from contributing their ideas in Colonial America. While most of Hamilton will focus on the ideas, conversations, and actions of men, it does not let you forget that women could have played an equally important role had they been permitted to transcend the domestic sphere.
Thomas Jefferson’s depiction in the two films also reveals how two different story tellers from two different decades attempt to understand the founding fathers. In 1776, Jefferson is first introduced as a reluctant member of John Adams’ council to write the Declaration of Independence. Indeed, Jefferson wishes only to spend time with his wife and play violin. This depiction shows the third president in an extremely flattering light. In typical American fashion, Jefferson is glorified in 1776 as a reluctant leader who writes the declaration because he is begged. This version of Jefferson is incredibly likable. The issues of slavery are never touched on while his political leanings are hidden. In contrast, the Thomas Jefferson of Hamilton is introduced with a flamboyant musical number that exudes confidence. As the musical continues, Jefferson is beaten in political theater again and again, eventually avoiding an electoral upset to Aaron Burr by the thinnest of margins. This sharp contrast between the two musicals’ depictions of Thomas Jefferson shows how two story tellers can tell two different versions of the same story. In 1776, Jefferson is depicted as an ideal hero, while Hamilton attempts to make the third president’s flaws obnoxiously noticeable. Again, Hamilton attempts to tell a different story than the myths of national creation that preceded it.
Like Zinn, Hamilton is keenly aware that a historian’s perspective can shape the way a history is told. In the plays final number, characters — like Elizabeth Schuyler and Aaron Burr — live while characters such as Alexander Hamilton die. Indeed, the musical answers the questions “who lives?” and “who dies?”; however, by telling a different story of history, Hamilton makes the viewer think about the final question in more detail. Careful observation will reveal to the viewer that who tells the story is just as important as the story itself — the story itself being represented by the first two questions. Thus, the Hamilton’s finale truly focuses on one thing only: the story.
Published inUncategorized
1. Zariah Chiverton Zariah Chiverton
I think it is also important to note how women were portrayed differently in the movies. In the movie 1776, they don’t hold much purpose whereas, in Hamilton, they do, even the women of color. I think Hamilton is much more realistic because it embraces women and black people, who lived among white people, even if it was in a different capacity. Although they were apart of society at that time, the movie 1776 barely shows them among people at all.
2. Delaney Demaret Delaney Demaret
I’d like to note a small detail in Hamilton that many people only catch on their third or fourth time watching it- when Eliza sings WLWD, she mentions her history of advocating for abolition of slavery. At that moment, Washington steps back into the shadows, a creative way of acknowledging his intense failure in terms of ending (or at least speaking out against) slavery. These musicals are not ideal in the way they glorify leaders, but they do deserve credit for acknowledging the complexities and their downfalls as historical figures.
3. Charley Blount Charley Blount
This is a great point. Your comparison of the two Jeffersons demonstrates the power that the writers of history possess. A very small number of white men have been defining history for much of the United States’ life. While this disparity is changing slowly, there is still a significant bias in how history is told.
4. Sophia Picozzi Sophia Picozzi
I really like your points about Hamilton and the final number “Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story?” because it is important to note that one of the last living characters is Eliza Schuyler, and Hamilton shows that she is telling the story. Throughout the play, Eliza is the only character who solely sings her lines and doesn’t rap like the other characters because she has more time to tell her story than the other characters, especially Hamilton, do. She doesn’t have to rush and ultimately lives to carry on the Hamilton legacy and tell his story to generations to come.
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The Punic Wars: Africa
by: Q. Claudius Locatus Barbatus
Scipio finally sailed to Africa with 30 000 men and 400 ships. He landed near Utica (about 20 miles from Carthago), an old Greek-Phoenician city. But Utica had a strong defence and Scipio had to besiege an enemy city in enemy lands. Soon Masinissa showed up, but only with 200 Numidian Cavalry. He accompanied the message that a Carthaginian army was heading towards Utica, under the rule of Hasdrubal (yes, another Hasdrubal) and Syphax. Scipio built a camp called Castra Cornelia. The coming winter brought with him bad weather and thus protected Scipio from attacks from the Carthaginian fleet. In Italy, Hannibal went to Croton, a port, and started worrying about the Roman invasion in Spain.
When Spring came Scipio sent out his spies. Suddenly at night fire broke out in the Carthaginian camps. When the soldiers tried to flee they ran into the swords of the Romans. Hasdrubal and Syphax only just managed to flee to their homelands. Scipio didn't waste time and pursued them. Syphax and Hasdrubal quickly raised an army and even got help from Spain, 4000 Celtic Iberians came to support the Carthaginian army (how and why is not known). This army was fatally beaten by the Romans, but they needed all their force to kill the Iberians, who rather wanted to die than to surrender. Scipio marched on towards Tunis. But his spies brought him the news that Scipio was afraid of; that the Carthaginian navy was leaving the ports.
Scipio quickly returned to Castra Cornelia. The Roman fleet was not ready for a fight. The Carthaginians stayed outside the port. When they entered the next day, they were countered by a wall of ships manned by soldiers and siege equipment. Nevertheless the battle at Utica ended in a Roman defeat, the Carthaginians took home 60 Roman ships. Scipio became more prudent. The war in the South was more successful, Laelius and Masinissa conquered Cirta, the capital of Syphax his country. Syphax was captured and his wife Sophonisbe died in suspicious circumstances. Masinissa was granted this kingdom by Scipio as reward for his courageous behaviour during the war. Thus Masinissa became the first Roman vassal in the South. Hasdrubal had committed suicide.
The Carthaginian army was almost completely wiped out. Roman armies were taking control of all roads. No more food came into the city of Carthago. The (triple) walls were loaded with defenders and the Carthaginian navy protected the port. The council of Carthago didn't know what to do; some wanted a treaty, others wanted to attack the Romans with a new army (although it was almost impossible to quickly raise a new army) but the most were thinking of calling Hannibal back to his city. The people in the streets were supporting this and spoke loud about Hannibal's return. The council finally gave the supreme command to Hanno (who led the cavalry at the battle of Cannae), replaced the (too prudent) admiral Bomilcar by another admiral called, yes... Hasdrubal; but most important, they called for Mago and Hannibal, and asked them to return to their homelands with most possible speed. Mago sailed to Croton to get Hannibal and the 60 captured Roman ships were a welcome help.
In July 203BC Mago sailed to Italy. In October he's on the shores of Africa. The Roman legions surrounding Hannibal in Italy suddenly notice that he wasn't there anymore. What happened? All Roman sources are silent about this topic, but modern historians suspect the following happened: Hannibal's army wasn't that big anymore (12 000 -15 000 men). He took his strongest men with him, and left (the in the meanwhile necessary part of the army) women and children behind. Small companies were still defending Croton where Hannibal was suspected to be. All horses were killed (there was no place on the ships for them) and the elephants were left behind. The Roman Navy was patrolling between Croton and Carthago, but Hannibal didn't go to Carthago, he went to 90 miles more South, on the eastern shores of nowadays Tunisia, close to the city of Hadrumetum (Sousse). The Romans did intercept some ships and Mago was killed, but they didn't suspect it was Hannibal and his army sailing to Africa. After 34 years, from which 17 in Italy, Hannibal was back in Africa.
© 2001-2022 Societas Via Romana
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(Euglena Facts) – 10 Fascinating Facts About Euglena In Detail
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Euglena genus includes more than 1,000 species of single-celled flagellated microorganisms that are included under the classification of small protozoans (Phylum Protozoa) in the books of Zoology.
Euglena features both plant and animal characteristics, and so they are neither plants nor animals. Better to refer to them as partial plant or partial animal species.
They are found worldwide and are both freshwater and saltwater species depending on the habitat type. They remain fairly active and are often found at various depths below the surface of the water.
You will often find them abundantly above the surface of stagnant water bodies like ponds, showing a green film-like appearance on the water surface.
Find Out More About These Amazing Small Plant-Animal Like Protozoans That Are Solitary And Free-living Freshwater/Saltwater Flagellates.
Here Are The 10 Fascinating Facts About Euglena You Must Know About. Let’s Know
1. Euglena has a red eyespot
The eyespot (eye-like marking) of Euglena is also known as the stigma and is red in color due to the presence of a red-colored pigment named carotenoid.
The eyespot is a cup-shaped red-pigmented spot located near the reservoir at the gullet part at the base of the flagellum. That is the location is on the opposite side of the contractile vacuole.
This eyespot is actually a membrane-bounded organelle that doesn’t have any homology with the green chloroplast or any other organelle.
The advantage of having this eyespot is to perform phototaxis by Euglena. This helps the euglena find bright areas to gather sunlight to make their food as autotrophs.
It is also to be noted that the Euglena avoids strong lights as well as shady areas, but in fact, it stays and reacts positively to a moderately intense light such as that coming from a window or ventilator.
It is also seen that the Euglena orients itself parallel to a beam of light coming towards it and swims towards the source of illumination for performing photosynthesis. That’s possible due to the eyespot.
It is to be noted that the red pigment of the eyespot is not photosensitive at all. But, it has been noticed that when sunlight falls at the base of the flagellum, the red pigment filters out the light allowing only certain wavelengths of light to reach it.
2. They are both autotrophs and heterotrophs
Eating in Euglena is more like consuming (absorbing). In fact, they consume (absorb) the sunlight to produce food autotrophically.
Or, they use their Pellicle to consume (absorb) dead organic matter to produce food saprophytically by pinocytosis.
So, they are considered as both autotrophs and heterotrophs.
They are called autotrophic organisms as they can produce their own food with the help of photosynthesis using their chloroplasts.
And when there is no light, they can also depend upon the other living organisms as saprophytes by feeding on organic dead and decaying matter by absorbing it from the surrounding water using their pellicle.
So, using Chloroplast they produce food from sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals. And, by using their Pellicle they derive their food from dead and decaying matter.
When the Euglena feeds using the cell surface pellicle, it surrounds the food particle and consumes it by phagocytosis, or in other words, by engulfing the food through its pellicle layers and then takes it inside through the cell membrane.
READ MORE: How does Euglena eat? (Nutrition in Euglena)
3. It can survive in both fresh and salt water
Depending upon the species, they can live in freshwater or saltwater. Some species can live either in freshwater or saltwater and some have evolved to live in both.
You will find them in inland waters, stagnant water bodies, coastal water regions, and even in the deep-sea regions. They do abundantly bloom in numbers sufficient to the color of green or red on the surface of ponds.
Then can stay in saltwater and in regions of wet conditions with less amount of water as well.
In low moisture conditions, Euglena forms a protective wall called a cyst around itself and lies dormant as a spore until environmental conditions get better and moisture increases.
It has been seen that the species of Euglena occur in freshwater ponds, pools, ditches, and in slowly-running streams where there is a considerable amount of vegetation.
It can also be found at various depths below the surface of the water. Can also be seen in water bodies like ponds where there is decaying nitrogenous organic matter, such as feces of animals, leaves, twigs, etc.
4. They can also survive in the dark
Yes, they can also survive in the dark by heterotrophically deriving their nutrition from the decaying organic matter in the water body.
Saprophytic or Saprozoic Nutrition is performed by those Euglena species that have lost their chlorophyll due to its living in the regions of prolonged darkness.
Like for example, due to staying inside the rocks, under the shade in any aquatic environment where sunlight couldn’t penetrate.
Due to the absence of chloroplast, the Euglenas’ body becomes pale or white in colour, yet it continues to live and perform all of the life activities. So, they perform Saprophytic or Saprozoic Nutrition which is a type of Heterotrophic nutrition.
Some Euglena species can get nutrition by both autotrophically and heterotrophically. They use chloroplast in the presence of sunlight, and use their pellicle in the absence of sunlight.
They are also able to survive in the dark because they are not so strictly phototaxis (reacting to sunlight).
5. Euglenas are neither plants nor animals despite the fact that they have characteristics of both
Yes, Euglena is studied under both Botany and Zoology as it finds its applications under both botanical and zoological studies.
These microscopic organisms show both the partial characteristics of plants and animals and so can’t be considered either as true plant or animal.
And so, they can be well-classified under the Kingdom Protista. Phylum Protozoa comes under the Kingdom Protista with other Phyla like Protophyta, Protofungus, etc.
The Protozoans (singular: Protozoa) are Animal-like protists that were understood to be animals and so often termed as animalcules and so they are studied in the Departments of Zoology.
However, animalcules like Euglena are those protozoans that are both animal-like and plant-like. So they are studied in both the Departments of Zoology & Botany.
Euglena shows plant-like characteristics due to the presence of chloroplasts and due to performing autotrophic nutrition. Being positively phototactic due to the eyespot is another reason.
Euglena shows animal-like characteristics due to the absence of cellulose cell-wall, presence of centrioles, presence of paramylon (not true starch), due to performing saprophytic nutrition, and also because it can move from place to place like an animal.
ALSO READ: Are Protozoa and Protista the same thing or different? – (ANSWERED)
6. They do respond to the environment by showing reaction to light, by shock reaction, and also by avoidance reaction
It has been seen that like other protozoans, Euglena too moves and responds to various stimuli like light stimuli, mechanical stimuli, thermal stimuli, and chemical stimuli with a wide variety of orientations and movements.
As they don’t have eyes like sense organs, their way of reaction, movement, and responding to the surrounding stimuli is highly dependent based on the use of the various cell organelles. One of such important stimuli is the light stimuli detected using the red eyespot.
Euglena shows a reaction towards sunlight. That’s positive phototaxis and so, it stays and reacts positively to a moderately intense light such as that coming from a window or ventilator.
When the sunlight is available, they can detect the light using their eyespot and eventually moves toward the light by phototaxis (reaction to light). The sunlight is trapped by chloroplasts within the euglena for photosynthesis purposes.
Euglena also shows a shock reaction, when the direction of the sunlight suddenly changes. Meaning that Euglena will be shocked for a while and will not get the proper stimulus of its direction of movement, and so with trial and error, it will soon detect the new direction of light and will flow towards the new direction.
Euglena also responds to mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli showing an avoiding reaction on a trial and error pattern. This is known as phobotaxis.
Avoiding reaction is actually a random behavioural response that causes strong dislike or disinclination towards aversive stimuli thus helping Euglena to avoid obstacles.
READ MORE: How does Euglena respond to the environment? – (Behaviour of Euglena)
7. They move by showing both Flagellar Movement and Euglenoid Movement
Yes, Euglena shows both types of movements, viz. the Flagellar movement and Euglenoid Movement.
Flagellar movement is by the use of flagella to turn and twist in the water, while the Euglenoid movement is by the use of pellicle to produce peristaltic movement.
During the flagellar movement, Euglena uses flagella to create a propulsion mechanism just like a propeller of a boat to move the body forward in the water.
There is only one locomotory flagellum at the anterior end of the Euglena, and it’s almost equal to the length of the Euglena.
The movement of the flagellum involves the continuous contraction of its 9 peripheral fibres using the ATP energy of the cell.
While the Euglenoid Movement is usually possible due to the presence of flexible pellicle in the surface of their body which causes peristaltic movements causing to alter the shape of their body and then come to their real shape just like an elastic rubber band.
READ MORE: How does Euglena move? (Locomotion & Movement in Euglena)
8. Euglena’s chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes
One interesting thing to note is that the chloroplasts in Euglena are surrounded by three membranes, while those of the plants and the green algae have only two membranes.
It is proposed that the third membrane of the chloroplast has been evolved from the progressive reduction of endosymbiotic green algae’s plasma membrane layer.
9. Euglena lacks a cell wall, instead, it has a pellicle
Yes, the cell wall is absent in Euglena. This gives it the animal-like classification.
Instead, the pellicle layer is present on the cell surface of Euglena just beneath the cell membrane. This layer is made up of protein layers of microtubules, arranged in strips spiraling around the cell.
This pellicle actually helps in the peristaltic movement of Euglena done by the sliding of the pellicle strips in the grooves between the strips which is further lubricated by the secretion of underlying muciferous bodies.
Electron microscopy study shows that each pellicular strip has an elaborate cross-sectional shape showcasing various accessory teeth, ribs, and a continuous ridge that articulates in a groove running along the edge of the next strip.
In simple words, the pellicle consists of flat strips of material that pass along the cell in a helical manner.
The edges of adjacent strips overlap and articulate along their entire length in such a way that the ridge of one fits into the groove of the other. This articulating edges appear as striations called myonemes on the cell surface of Euglena.
It is to be noted that the pellicle layer is actually made up of proteins, and not cellulose, and so that is not homologous to the plant cell wall.
10. Euglena reproduces asexually using the processes of longitudinal binary fission and multiple fission
Euglena reproduces asexually using the processes of longitudinal binary fission and multiple fission only.
In longitudinal binary fission, Euglena divides mitotically in the axil or longitudinal way to form identical daughter cells in the open water.
In the multiple fission type of reproduction, Euglena shows the stages of encystment where various daughter cells are reproduced longitudinally within the cyst.
Multiple Fission is usually performed under inactive conditions, that is when the favourable conditions of water, temperature, and food availability are not met. On the other hand, binary fission occurs in normal conditions.
While Binary fission means the formation of two daughter cells, Multiple fission means the formation of more than two daughter cells i.e. the production of multiple daughter cells.
READ MORE: How does Euglena reproduce? (Reproduction in Euglena)
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Some Interesting Things To Know, Le...
Some Interesting Things To Know, Learn, And Share About DNA
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Blue Crabs
Blue crabs are vital to our region's economy and culture and an important part of the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem.
Line graph illustrating the total blue crab population in the Chesapeake Bay from 1990 to 2019.
Blue Crabs
For most of the last two decades, the total number of blue crabs in the Chesapeake Bay has lingered below the long-term average. Because blue crabs are so important to the region's ecosystem and economy, both Maryland and Virginia monitor the blue crab population through an annual Winter Dredge Survey. The crabs that are collected at each of the survey's 1,500 sampling sites are measured, weighed, sexed and aged, and the data is used to estimate the number of young crabs entering the population, the number of female crabs old enough to spawn and the total number of harvestable crabs in the Bay.
282 million
The total number of blue crabs in the Chesapeake Bay
According to data from the Winter Dredge Survey, an estimated 282 million blue crabs lived in the Bay in 2021. This is a 30% decrease from 405 million crabs in 2020.
In the Chesapeake Bay Watershed Agreement, the Chesapeake Bay Program set a population target and an overfishing threshold for adult female blue crabs. In 2021, an estimated 158 million adult female blue crabs lived in the Bay, compared with 141 million in 2020. This number is above the 72.5 million threshold which is considered to be the minimum sustainable level for female blue crabs in the Bay, but lower than the target of 196 million. Blue crab abundance in the Chesapeake Bay is expected to fluctuate annually due to their biology and environmental factors such as temperature, coastal currents, weather patterns, and predation.
Blue crabs are also vulnerable to pollution, habitat loss and harvest pressure. Water quality improvements, underwater grass restoration and proper harvest management will be critical to maintaining this valuable resource.
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from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Copying refers to the production of a copy or a plagiarism .
Originally this meant the reproduction of a copperplate . Copper engravers were employed in large numbers in printing works , publishing houses and painting workshops in the 17th and 18th centuries in order to transfer copperplate engravings , but also other pictorial representations such as paintings and illustrations, in a printable manner. The original was scratched onto a new copper plate, which then led to a reverse image when printing. The stitch was "copied".
Creative skills were not required for copying, but manual and drawing skills were important. These skills allow engravers to work as counterfeiters with the advent of paper money . For this reason, engravers were sometimes viewed with pejorative and suspicious eyes.
Engraving signatures can contain the following names:
• sculps. , sc. , sculptor , sculpsit = "engraver", "engraved by"
• inc. , incisor , incisit = "cut from"
• f. , fe. , fec. , fecit = "made by"
Individual evidence
Web links
Wiktionary: abkupfern - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
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<urn:uuid:8c0a9745-ff3a-4903-aa43-e440b97e6e7a>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.703125,
"fasttext_score": 0.16930842399597168,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9445106387138367,
"url": "https://de.zxc.wiki/wiki/Abkupfern"
}
|
Last update August 5, 2009
Difference (last change) (Author, normal page display)
Deleted: 1,50d0
An expression that represents an object or a function and that can be both examined and altered. Contrast with rvalue. source
Typically an lvalue is a variable, returned reference, pointer being dereferenced, indexed array element, or class instance (Object).
Mutating operations like ++, --, +=, *=, =, member function calls, and such may be applied to lvalues.
The dereference operator *expr turns rvalues into lvalues. The reference or address-of operator &expr turns lvalues into rvalues.
// D2 code.
class C
int a;
this() {}
struct S
int a;
int foo;
int bar() { return foo; }
int* baz() { return &foo; }
ref int qux() { return foo; }
C getC() { return new C(); }
S s;
S getS() { return s; }
void main()
int* ptr = new int;
foo++; // foo is an lvalue because it is a variable.
bar()++; // Error: bar() is not an lvalue. (It is an rvalue.)
bar() = 42; // Error: bar() is not an lvalue. bar() is an rvalue and must appear on the right-hand-side of the assignment.
baz() = ptr; // Error: baz() is not an lvalue. A pointer is returned, but not dereferenced.
*baz() = 42; // Fine. The dereference operator turns baz() into an lvalue.
qux() = 42; // Fine. References are lvalues.
getC().a = 42; // Fine, getC() is a class instance, and therefore also an lvalue.
// Compiles, but does nothing. getS() is not an lvalue, but an rvalue.
// getS() returns a struct whose a member is set to 42, but the struct is a copy that gets discarded.
getS().a = 42;
s.a = 42; // This really will set a to 42. s is an lvalue because it is a variable.
Edit text of this page (date of last change: August 5, 2009 3:56 (diff))
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<urn:uuid:bd181a30-b7ef-45f9-b829-3ab6477be529>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.34924113750457764,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.702720046043396,
"url": "http://www.prowiki.org/wiki4d/wiki.cgi?action=browse&diff=4&id=LValue"
}
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how to pronounce streckung
audio example by a male speaker
audio example by a female speaker
streckung is pronounced in two syllables
press buttons with phonetic symbols to learn how to precisely pronounce each sound of streckung
example pitch curve for pronunciation of streckung
test your pronunciation of streckung
video examples of streckung pronunciation
An example use of streckung in a speech by a native speaker of standard german:
“… mit der streckung der zweikämpfe der …”
meanings of streckung
1. Stretching, straightening; creation of a greater distance between (body) parts in one, several or all dimensions.
2. Extension; distribution over a longer period of time.
3. Growth spurt; growth phase in children, for example one between the ages of 4 and 7.
streckung frequency in german - C2+ level of CEFR
Did this page help you?
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<urn:uuid:c3abbab4-fc54-49ad-85d4-1b1b67801b73>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.35248005390167236,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8086230754852295,
"url": "https://accenthero.com/app/pronunciation-practice/german/standard/streckung"
}
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Inventor Monday: William Coolidge
William Coolidge was an American physicist who invented many things, such as ductile tungsten, which was used as the filament for incandescent light bulbs. This product not only supplanted the more brittle carbon fibers of Edison’s original design, but made it viable to mass produce light bulbs. He also invented a portable x-ray machine that was used in field hospitals in World War I. However, Coolidge is probably best known for inventing what is considered by many to be the modern x-ray tube, now known as Coolidge tubes. By adapting his ductile tungsten to x-rays, he was able to increase the strength and durability of x-ray tubes, which allowed for diagnostic-quality x-rays.
So let’s meet this inventor who also became the director of the General Electric (GE) Research Laboratory and eventually the company’s vice president.
William David Coolidge was born in Massachusetts in 1873. As a young boy, he showed a flair for putting things together. After a childhood spent working on his family’s farm, he applied and was accepted to the prestigious Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and chose to study electrical engineering. He also learned metal works in a part-time job and soon incorporated the two skills when he built a large electrostatic generator which he sold to a doctor’s practice.
Following his graduation from MIT, Coolidge traveled to Germany for his graduate studies with the pioneering physicists, Paul Drude and Gustav Wiedemann and also met with Wilhelm Roentgen, the discoverer of X-rays. After receiving his Ph.D. from the University of Leipzig in 1899, he returned to MIT for his post-doctoral research training.
By 1905, Coolidge decided he had had enough of academia and went to work at General Electric Company’s Research Laboratory. Coolidge negotiated a contract where he could spend half of his time working on his own research while using the company’s equipment. Because of his brilliance, GE had to agree because the scientists at GE were working on an international conundrum and needed some major brainpower. It turns out that an international quest for a long-lasting light bulb filament was taking place and labs all over the world were racing to find a durable filament.
Coolidge was up to the task and though it took four years of research, he created ductile tungsten, a wire so thin it was only one sixth the diameter of a human hair yet durable enough to last many hours glowing hot as a filament; and, it also gave off twice as much light as other filaments. GE began marketing the new light bulbs in 1911, and in fact, the tungsten filament light bulb created by Coolidge is still in use today, more than 100 years from when it was invented.
But bigger things were on the horizon for Coolidge. Ever since meeting Wilhelm Roentgen in Germany years earlier and learning about x-rays, Coolidge was intrigued by the thought of the use of x-rays as a diagnostic tool (as were many other physicists and physicians). But as with the first incandescent light bulbs, the filaments used in those first x-ray tubes couldn’t sustain the level of electricity that had to pass through the filaments and burnt out very quickly.
In his design, Coolidge adapted his ductile tungsten for the x-ray tube and was able to remove the ionized gas that needed to be injected in the older tubes to slow down filament burn-out. The “Coolidge tube” allowed for a steady, stable stream of X-rays to be generated and allowed the beam to be focused and targeted, ushering in diagnostic radiology and changing the practice of medicine forever.
At the time of his death at the ripe age of 101, William Coolidge held a total of 83 patents, had won several prestigious awards, including the Franklin Medal and Edison Medal, and was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. He also won the gratitude of millions of people who were helped by diagnostic x-rays.
Copyright Davison 2013
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<urn:uuid:45f2e681-06b8-4da7-9905-969bb488006d>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.96875,
"fasttext_score": 0.12649381160736084,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9840068221092224,
"url": "https://www.davison.com/blog/inventor-monday-william-coolidge-4/"
}
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Tower house
A tower house is a particular type of stone structure, built for defensive purposes as well as habitation.[1]
Tower houses began to appear in the Middle Ages, especially in mountainous or limited access areas, in order to command and defend strategic points with reduced forces. At the same time, they were also used as an aristocrat's residence, around which a castle town was often constructed.
See also
1. Sidney Toy (1985) Castles: Their Construction and History, Courier Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-24898-4 (reissue of Castles: a short history of fortification from 1600 B.C. to A.D. 1600; London: Heinemann, 1939)
2. A. Mackechnie, "'For friendship and conversation': Martial Scotland's Domestic Castles" Architectural Heritage XXVI (2015), pp. 14, 21.
3. Grube-Mitchell 1978, p. 204: "a distinctive form of defensive tower-dwelling, the kula, developed among both the Christian and the Muslim communities during the insecure period of the decline of the Ottoman authority in the 17th century ..."
4. Greville Pounds 1994, p. 335: "In southeastern Europe, where the extended family was exemplified as nowhere else in the western world, the home itself was often protected, giving rise to the kula or tower- house."
5. Tower house structure at Mesa Verde
Media related to Tower houses at Wikimedia Commons
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<urn:uuid:6bccb765-00d2-4fea-8052-252b73ee7a46>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.609375,
"fasttext_score": 0.12074309587478638,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9231438040733337,
"url": "https://zims-en.kiwix.campusafrica.gos.orange.com/wikipedia_en_all_nopic/A/Tower_house"
}
|
You are here
1585 - Ralph Lane Colony
Ralph Lane established a colony on Hatteras Island on July 27, 1585. The expedition comprised of 108 male settlers, eventually makes its way to Roanoke Island. One year later, the threat of an Indian uprising coincides with the arrival of Sir Francis’s Drakes’ fleet off the Carolina. The members of the Lane Colony quickly decide to take advantage of the opportunity and return home to England.
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<urn:uuid:81f91de5-6eb8-4223-b4e6-9ab4da532d5f>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.04170262813568115,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9310107827186584,
"url": "https://www.cmstory.org/exhibits/history-timeline-early-settlements-1585-1662/1585-ralph-lane-colony"
}
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The clone() method of the Response interface creates a clone of a response object, identical in every way, but stored in a different variable.
Like the underlying ReadableStream.tee api, the body of a cloned Response will signal backpressure at the rate of the faster consumer of the two bodies, and unread data is enqueued internally on the slower consumed body without any limit or backpressure. Backpressure refers to the mechanism by which the streaming consumer of data (in this case, the code that reads the body) slows down the producer of data (such as the TCP server) so as not to load large amounts of data in memory that is waiting to be used by the application. If only one cloned branch is consumed, then the entire body will be buffered in memory. Therefore, clone() is one way to read a response twice in sequence, but you should not use it to read very large bodies in parallel at different speeds.
clone() throws a TypeError if the response body has already been used. In fact, the main reason clone() exists is to allow multiple uses of body objects (when they are one-use only.)
Return value
A Response object.
In our Fetch Response clone example (see Fetch Response clone live) we create a new Request object using the Request() constructor, passing it a JPG path. We then fetch this request using fetch(). When the fetch resolves successfully, we clone it, extract a blob from both responses using two Response.blob calls, create object URLs out of the blobs using URL.createObjectURL, and display them in two separate <img> elements.
var image1 = document.querySelector('.img1');
var image2 = document.querySelector('.img2');
var myRequest = new Request('flowers.jpg');
fetch(myRequest).then(function(response) {
var response2 = response.clone();
response.blob().then(function(myBlob) {
var objectURL = URL.createObjectURL(myBlob);
image1.src = objectURL;
response2.blob().then(function(myBlob) {
var objectURL = URL.createObjectURL(myBlob);
image2.src = objectURL;
Fetch Standard
# ref-for-dom-response-clone①
Browser compatibility
BCD tables only load in the browser
See also
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<urn:uuid:d527a189-4403-44cf-b032-10f3da1dddfc>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.765625,
"fasttext_score": 0.5644928812980652,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7877110242843628,
"url": "https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Response/clone"
}
|
> Weekly Torah Portion > Beginner > Ancient Wisdom & Modern Psychology
Masay (Numbers 33-36 )
Parshat Mattot begins by introducing the laws of vows and oaths. “When a man makes a vow to the Lord or takes an oath to obligate himself by a pledge, he must not break his word but must do everything he said” (Bamidbar 30:3).
Oaths function to up the ante on commitment. By taking an oath, a person raises the stakes if he or she does not follow through. A person can even decide, the Talmud notes, to take an oath to perform or not to violate a commandment (Nedarim 8a). This is so even though the person is already obligated by the Torah commandment. The oath functions as an even more intense motivator than the original Biblical law.
In his classic work Michtav Me-Eliyahu, Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler elucidates the psychology behind taking an oath to comply with a mitzvah (4:237). At times, he writes, we become aware of our own laxness in Torah observance and we want to self-correct. Often, we try to fight this desire or weakness head on, but in the moment the yetzer hara is too powerful and we fail. The fix for this circumstance is to force our hand and avoid the self-control battle in the first place. We need to construct the situation in such a way where we are forced to comply. The classic Biblical way to accomplish this is through an oath. People viewed oaths with such awe and trepidation that adding an oath to a desirous behavior was generally a strong enough intervention to force self-compliance.
Already in times of the Sages, the reverence extended to oaths diminished, so their usage was frowned upon. People would make oaths but still fall short. As a consequence, not only would they violate a regular commandment, but on top of that they would also violate the oath. Yet, even though we generally abstain from taking oaths, figuring out other ways to up the ante and solidify our commitment is essential. We need to think of ways, Rabbi Dessler suggests, to in effect bind ourselves to our commitments without taking an oath. As an example, if someone is struggling to learn Torah, he or she could commit to giving a shiur on a topic that requires further research. The pressure to give a powerful presentation will force the person to study.
In the psychological literature on self-control, this concept is called a pre-commitment device. In a 2002 research article, Israeli-born psychologist Dan Ariely and Klaus Wertenbroch define such a strategy as the “voluntary imposition of constraints (that are costly to overcome) on one’s future choices in a strategic attempt to resist future temptations.” The oft-cited paradigm of this technique in Greek mythology is Ulysses, who tied himself to a mast so that he could not be lured by the song of the Sirens.
Pre-commitment devices can potentially help with many self-control battles including procrastination, eating unhealthily, drinking too much alcohol, and over-spending. If we spend too much time scrolling through social media instead of working on that important project, we can explore various software programs that would block our internet or social media access for a set period of time. If we know that every time we go to a certain restaurant we end up choosing an unhealthy option, we could pre-commit to a better choice by going to a restaurant with a less tempting menu.
Whether the goal is to improve our self-control, increase the amount of mitzvot we accomplish, or decrease the amount of transgressions we violate, we can look to the message behind oaths, and conceive of different ways to bind ourselves to improvement by pre-committing to progress.
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<urn:uuid:ca4c48b7-c331-4310-a7e8-4767c6dd2e1c>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.11392682790756226,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9439478516578674,
"url": "https://aish.com/pre-commit/"
}
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What is birth registration?
As we will discover in this article, it is set in international law that every child – wherever they are born, and whoever they are born to – must have their birth registered. This means that the birth is officially recorded by a branch of a government or state. In South Africa, children who qualify for citizenship, or children of permanent residents and refugees, are recorded in the National Population Register when their birth is registered. (Children born to South African citizens outside of South Africa are also registered in the National Population Register.) This is a national database of such children born within South Africa.
Normally, this is completed upon a child’s birth, and takes the form of a birth certificate that is usually entered into a form of population register. At a minimum, a birth certificate sets out the child’s legal name, their date of birth and their place of birth. A birth certificate can prevent a child from becoming ‘stateless’ – a situation in which an individual has no recognized nationality at all.
Some parents struggle to have their child’s birth registered. In South Africa, this can cause huge problems, creating barriers to accessing services, basic child and human rights, education and health service. Section 28 of the Constitution of South Africa, which requires that the ‘best interests’ of the child to be the priority in all decisions and matters concerning the child. The South African courts have ruled, many times, that it is in the best interest of the child to have a birth certificate and access to a nationality. However, as we shall see, various regulations and practices in South Africa are resulting in hundreds of children existing without birth certificates in South Africa today.
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<urn:uuid:67920a9a-3071-464d-8b7a-a5560a70b718>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.2080664038658142,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9683634042739868,
"url": "https://genderjustice.org.za/card/birth-registration-of-non-national-children-in-south-africa-explained/what-is-birth-registration/"
}
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Along the rails….
With an average lifespan of 30 years, a railway track is always built according to the same principle: two parallel rails, sleepers arranged perpendicular to the rails and a ballast… However, understanding the composition of a railway track is not as simple.
What is a railway?
A railway track consists of several elements, each of which plays a specific role in defining the geometry of the track:
• Rails: rails support the weight of the train and guide it. They are made of steel by rolling. The installation of rails requires specific equipment
• Ties or Sleepers: made of wood, concrete or steel, the ties maintain the distance between the two rails and their inclination in the track. They also transfer the pressure exerted by the train’s weight to the ballast
• Fasteners: the rails are fixed to the sleepers by fasteners
• Ballast: it is the bed of crushed stones on which the sleepers are placed. With a minimum thickness of 30 cm, it dampens the vibrations caused by the train to avoid any risk of track deformation or settling. During temperature variations, the ballast also stabilises the track by resisting the forces generated by the rails and ties
• Switch and Crossings: automatically or manually remotely operated, allows the train to branch from one track to another.
Wear and climatic variations
A railway track is subject to climatic conditions and natural wear and tear related to traffic operation on the lines. For example, a track with many trains (freight and high-speed trains) will have a shorter life span than a secondary line track with only a few trains. Also, to extend the life of a track and ensure passenger safety, rail companies regularly carry out inspection and maintenance work. Thus, it is not uncommon to see motor cars running on the lines that measure, control and monitor track geometry or rail integrity.
Find out more
The right track gauge
Depending on the railway companies, country regulations and the geography of the territory, the distance between the rails may vary. The most common gauge in the world (60% of lines) is 1,435 mm. This is what is called «standard gauge». An upper gauge is called ‘wide gauge’ and a lower gauge is called ‘narrow gauge’.
Règle digitale Bluetooth Garnet-DL pour une mesure précise avec affichage clair
Find out more
Les tendeurs TH70 et TH120 vous offrent l’avantage d’etre constitués d’éléments légers qui peuvent être assemblés et mis en voie ou démontés en quelques minutes par deux personnes seulement
Why are the rails sensitive to high temperatures?
Made of 95% steel, rails are very sensitive to temperature variations. If the temperature reaches 37° in the sun, it is 55° on the rail, which triggers «expansion» and the opposite ‘contraction’ at low temperatures. The track can then undergo significant deformations, potentially dangerous for train movements.
To mitigate against rail expansion and contraction, special equipment is used to ensure the rails are installed under stress free conditions.
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<urn:uuid:239eef6d-a5c8-4563-84e0-03d7bc79f00a>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.703125,
"fasttext_score": 0.4727376699447632,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8839534521102905,
"url": "https://staging.geismar.com/along-the-rails/?lang=ru"
}
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What is called radicle?
The primary root, or radicle, is the first organ to appear when a seed germinates. It grows downward into the soil, anchoring the seedling. In gymnosperms and dicotyledons (angiosperms with two seed leaves), the radicle becomes a taproot.
What is the difference between radical and radicle?
The word radical is derived from the Latin radix, meaning root, and it relates to the desire to change society at the roots. The radicle is the part of a plant embryo that develops into the main root.
What is radicle and its function?
(a) Radicle: The radicle is the embryonic root of the plant,and grows downward in the soil. It is the first thing to emerge from a seed and down into the ground to allow the seed to suck up water and send out its leaves so that it starts photosynthesizing.
What is radicle and Plumule?
Radicle and plumule are two essential parts of an embryo plant but they are both different from each other. The main difference between plumule and radicle is that while plumule is the embryonic shoot of this seedling, the radicle is the embryonic root. The embryonic leaves are called cotyledons.
What is Raducle?
the lower part of the axis of an embryo; the primary root.
How do you pronounce radicle?
0:05 1:00
What does plumule and radicle together make up?
Both monocot and dicot embryos have a plumule that forms the leaves, a hypocotyl that forms the stem, and a radicle that forms the root. The embryonic axis comprises everything between the plumule and the radicle, not including the cotyledon(s).
What is the function of radicle plumule?
Radicle and Plumule – Differences
Radicle Plumule
It is positively hydrotropic. It is negatively hydrotropic.
It absorbs water and minerals from the soil. It produces food by the process of photosynthesis.
How do you identify a radicle and a plumule?
The radicle is the precursor of the root in the plant whereas the plumule is the shoot of the plant.
1. The radicle is the embryonic part of the root.
2. The radicle comes out from a tiny opening called as micropyle.
3. The radicle emerges out from the seed in the form of white structure.
What is radicle and Plumule 10?
Plumule is the embryonic shoot of the plant. Radicle is the first part of the seedling. Plumule grows after the radicle. The radicle makes the root of the plant. Plumule makes the plant shoot.
What are radical leaves?
Radical leaves are the leaves arising from the base of a stem or from a below-ground stem or rhizome arising directly from the root. In some species, the leaves are arranged in a basal rosette.
What is Epigeal germination?
Epigeal germination implies that the cotyledons are pushed above ground. The hypocotyl elongates while the epicotyl remains the same in length. Normally, the cotyledon itself contains very little nutrients in plants that show this kind of germination.
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|
<urn:uuid:6727fb50-07d8-4208-b9d8-e09cfbf24653>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.796875,
"fasttext_score": 0.8691113591194153,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8997191786766052,
"url": "https://bitcoin4fun.com/what-is-called-radicle/"
}
|
Resource Library
The Keeling Curve
The Keeling Curve
The Keeling Curve is a graph that shows the ongoing change in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere.
5 - 8
Climatology, Earth Science, Geography, Physical Geography
Scripps Keeling Curve
Graph depicting the Scripps carbon dioxide (CO2) measurements recorded at the Mauna Loa Observatory.
Image by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography
The Keeling Curve is a graph that represents the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth’s atmosphere since 1958. The Keeling Curve is named after its creator, Dr. Charles David Keeling.
Keeling began studying atmospheric carbon dioxide in 1956 by taking air samples and measuring the amount of CO2 they contained. Over time he noticed a pattern. The air samples taken at night contained a higher concentration of CO2 compared to samples taken during the day. He drew on his understanding of photosynthesis and plant respiration to explain this observation: plants take in CO2 during the day to photosynthesize—or make food for themselves—but at night, they release CO2. By studying his measurements over the course of a few years, Keeling also noticed a larger seasonal pattern. He discovered CO2 levels are highest in the spring, when decomposing plant matter releases CO2 into the air, and are lowest in autumn when plants stop taking in CO2 for photosynthesis.
Keeling was able to establish a permanent residence at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii to continue his research. At Mauna Loa, he discovered global atmospheric CO2 levels were rising nearly every year. By analyzing the CO2 in his samples, Keeling was able to attribute this rise to the use of fossil fuels. Since its creation, the Keeling Curve has served as a visual representation of Keeling’s data, which scientists have continued to collect since his death in 2005.
Media Credits
Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society
National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society
Production Managers
Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society
Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society
Program Specialists
Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society
Margot Willis, National Geographic Society
Last Updated
May 20, 2022
Related Resources
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<urn:uuid:fadbc546-c2a1-4723-bd65-24f7d162f958>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.10098612308502197,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9185335636138916,
"url": "https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/keeling-curve/"
}
|
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Trade between Fur traders and Indians
A response to last week’s blog post, Write in on the Heart:
The sentiment behind this little poem [Fur Traders by Harry Robinson] is that the terms of trade between the fur traders (North West Company or Hudson’s Bay Company) and Indians were manipulated to favour the European traders. There is some evidence for this perspective.
The Indians did pay a high price for guns and other manufactured products and the fur trade companies did make a reasonable profit. However, this argument assumes that trade is a zero sum game, that if one party to the trade makes a profit, it must come at the expense of the other.
Trade is one type of transaction that can benefit both parties. In fact it always does, otherwise one or other of the parties would refuse to trade. One cannot just look at the relative price but also must consider factors such as transportation costs and losses of inventory or capital in the process of trading. The trade in British Columbia was almost always conducted at fur trader posts built near to Indian centres of population, posts that had to be constructed, maintained and rebuilt in the case of fire or the destruction. The costs of transport were all borne by the European company, which meant purchasing and transporting that gun or cast iron pot from London to a North American post and then transporting it by canoe or pack horse for sometimes thousands of miles to bring it to the place of trade. Following that the furs had to be prepared for transport, carried thousand of miles, mostly by canoe, held in a depot until picked up and then transported by ship to London, where they were sold at auction a few months later. In the process, many ships were lost, canoes loaded with furs or merchandise dumped in the river, and lives lost. Furthermore, the time elapsed between financing an “outfit” and selling the furs might be three years. One has to consider interest on that investment.
This poem reflects the sentiment of one side of the transaction decades after the trade took place. On the other side, how does one measure the benefit of a gun, knife, or axe to an Indian family in the interior of Oregon Territory? Ross Cox, a fur trader, described the arrival of the annual packhorse brigade in Spokane in 1814: “The trading goods had been exhausted long before and the Indians had been upwards of two months without ammunition. Our arrival therefore was hailed with great joy. The whole tribe assembled round the fort and viewed with delight the kegs of powder and bales of tobacco as they were unloaded from the horses.”1
Just saying.
1 Ross Cox, The Columbia River, or Scenes and Adventures during a Residence of Six Years on the Western Side of the Rocky Mountains Among the Various Tribes of Indians Hitherto Unknown, ed. Edgar I. Stewart and Jane R. Stewart (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957), 183.
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"url": "https://www.lakecountrymuseum.com/the-trade-between-fur-traders-and-indians/"
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kids encyclopedia robot
Subduction facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Diagram of the geological process of subduction
Subduction is when two tectonic plates meet. One of the plates is pushed under the other into the Earth's mantle. Subduction causes the most powerful earthquakes in the world. Earthquakes caused by subduction can lead to tsunamis.
Areas where subduction occurs are called subduction zones. Subduction zones are all around the world in places like Indonesia, Seattle, Washington and in the Himalaya mountain range in Nepal.
Images for kids
kids search engine
Subduction Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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"language_score": 0.8825989365577698,
"url": "https://kids.kiddle.co/Subduction"
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Word Test 311
Improve Your Vocabulary
For the Week ending 02/08/08
trail; especially : a downhill ski trail
Skiing in unmarked, unpatrolled areas or out of bounds, is considered off- _______.
curvature of the base of a ski along its longitudinal axis. The arch of the ski.
The tip and tail of an unweighted ski contacts the snow but the mid portion is elevated, due to _______.
"to ski directly down a slope at high speed"
The out-of-control novice skier, screaming straight down the hill is called a "_______ boomer."
a bump in a ski run
You need agility, flexibility, and quick turns to ski down a field of _______.
a ski turn in which the outside ski is advanced ahead of the other ski and then angled steadily inward until the turn is completed.
_______ skiing requires bindings that allow the heel of the boot to be elevated off the ski when the knees are bent (free-heel.)
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"language": "en",
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"url": "https://ehappylife.com/word-test/word-test-311"
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Born in Morocco around 1500 to a Muslim family, Estevanico is known for exploring Texas and Southwest America and being the first black man in North America sold into slavery. He was sold by the Portuguese into slavery and was forced to convert to Christianity. Estevanico came into the service of a captain in the Spanish infantry, Andres Dorantes de Carranza. Despite them being master and servant, the two got along quite well because Carranza found Estevanico to be a highly intelligent man.
When Andres de Dorantes went on an expedition to Florida in a company of colonists and soldiers, Estevanico accompanied him. After surviving a hostile encounter with Native Americans, escaping and then sailing to Texas, Estevanico was one of a few men to make it out alive from the Native American confrontation.
He escaped in 1534 into the American interior and became a medicine man, he was treated with great respect and offered food, shelter, and gifts. In fact, as a medicine man, he was held in such high esteem, parties were thrown in his honor. The next eight years were spent traveling New Spain (present day American Southwest), reaching Spanish reinforcements in 1536 Mexico City.
In summary, he participated in the Spanish expedition to Florida, the Gulf Coast, and Northern Mexico. It was not until 1536, where Estevanico was given his freedom. By 1539, he was killed by the natives in Hawikuh, New Mexico.
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"language_score": 0.9845190048217773,
"url": "https://wisconsinmuslimjournal.org/muslim-slaves-in-america-estevanico-stephen-the-moor/"
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Vegetable Flowers
Flowers are an essential component to any plant theme. They are among the most beautiful things to gaze upon.
Using pictures with numbered instructions, rasberries, celery, carrots, and bananas, your little one created their very own flower!
This activity incorporated several areas of development for your little one to enjoy. The numbered instructions fostered pre-reading skills, as each child followed the pictures from left to right.
Manipulating the fruit (to construct the flower) accessed self-help and fine motor skills, which are imperative for autonomy, confidence, and future writing endeavors.
Lastly, following the instructions in order allowed your little one to understand sequencing (the order in which things happen) strengthened their counting skills!
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<urn:uuid:02704ce3-b1a2-4fa0-9321-a78e5a806feb>
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"url": "https://misscarriescorner.com/2016/04/15/vegetable-flowers/"
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Portion of John White's depiction of Algonquian fishing with canoe.
Portion of John White's depiction of Algonquian fishing techniques.
British Museum
Quick Facts
Manteo, a Croatoan member of the Carolina Algonquian, traveled to England with Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe, the two leaders of England’s expeditionary mission to the Outer Banks in 1584. Manteo’s arrival in England was likely treated with great curiosity; the vast majority of Europe had never seen a Native American before.
Upon arrival in England, Manteo was taught english by Thomas Hariot; Hariot in turn learned the fundamentals of Carolina Algonquian from Manteo, enough to begin development of a rudimentary Algonquian alphabet. By the end of 1584 Manteo had learned English well enough to act as an interpreter for the English, going so far as to describe the Algonquian social structure and cultural traditions. In addition, Manteo served an important purpose for the development of an English colony; his presence attracted investors to the New World.
Manteo returned to Roanoke with the second English voyage of 1585, remaining loyal to the colonists throughout. He disappeared from the historical record in 1587, along with the Lost Colony.
Last updated: September 14, 2017
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"url": "https://www.nps.gov/people/manteo.htm"
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About the image
Marquette Building, late 1930s.
In the post-Fire building boom, Chicago’s architecture developed a common style and feel. Today, we use the term “Chicago School” to describe a set of architectural characteristics that developed in Chicago’s commercial architecture of the 1880s and 1890s. This doesn’t mean that there was a building where architects gathered to train in a certain style. Local tastes and the goal of making buildings tall and efficient probably created similarities. Many Chicago School architects—Burnham & Root, Holabird & Roche, and Louis Sullivan—trained under William Le Baron Jenney.
Expression of the steel frame
Buildings now had steel skeletons or frames. This entire frame was clad in terra cotta to make it fireproof. The exterior of the building was enclosed in brick and terra cotta, creating a “skin” of glass and masonry. Windows filled the large spaces between the frame, and masonry piers and spandrels accented the steel elements.
© John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
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"url": "https://marquette.macfound.org/slide/steel-frame.html"
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All the answer options have the origins in martial activity. Of these three involve contests between pairs of combatants. Archery is a little different, because it was useful for mass armies.
The English longbow was a powerful medieval type of tall bow for archery about 1.8 metres (6 ft) long used for hunting and as a weapon in warfare. English use of longbows was effective against the French during the Hundred Years' War, particularly at the start of the war in the battles of Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), and Poitiers (1356), and perhaps most famously at the Battle of Agincourt (1415).
Longbows were very difficult to master because the force required to deliver an arrow through the improving armour of medieval Europe was very high by modern standards. Considerable practice was required to produce the swift and effective combat shooting required. It was the difficulty in using the longbow that led various monarchs of England to issue instructions encouraging their ownership and practice, including Edward III of England's declaration of 1363:
"Whereas the people of our realm, rich and poor alike, were accustomed formerly in their games to practise archery – whence by God's help, it is well known that high honour and profit came to our realm, and no small advantage to ourselves in our warlike enterprises... that every man in the same country, if he be able-bodied, shall, upon holidays, make use, in his games, of bows and arrows... and so learn and practise archery."
More Info:
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"url": "https://quizzclub.com/games/welcome/in-1363-which-of-these-sports-was-made-compulsory-in-england/answer/2515245/"
}
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Legal Education
views updated
There were no law schools in colonial America. Those who sought a legal career had several options. They could embark on a self-directed course of study; they could serve as an assistant in a clerk of court's office; or they could travel to England to study at the Inns of Court. The most common method of obtaining a legal education, however, was through the apprenticeship system.
The apprenticeship system allowed men (it was generally unavailable to women) to acquire education and experience by working under an experienced practitioner. Ideally, an apprentice would spend several years learning both the law and the practical aspects of a law practice. The quality of apprenticeships varied greatly, however, depending on the administering attorney's skill and attention. Some apprenticeships were merely a source of cheap labor. thomas jefferson once commented that the services he was expected to render as an apprentice were worth more than the instruction he received.
In 1779, Jefferson helped found the first chair of law, at William and Mary College, and appointed his mentor, george wythe, to fill it. Yale, Columbia, the University of Maryland, and Harvard followed suit. The positions they established were part of the general university curriculum and were typically filled by practitioners rather than academicians. This early movement to emphasize the scholarship of law gained little momentum because most lawyers believed that apprenticeships provided sufficient legal training. In 1784, however, proprietary (for-profit) law schools began to spring up, which spurred the transformation of legal education.
Proprietary law schools were essentially specialized and elaborate law offices. The first and most famous was Connecticut's litchfield law school. Its 14-month course provided instruction in subjects such as property, contracts, procedure, master-and-servant, and commercial law—similar to the subjects of some of today's first-year law school classes. Litchfield graduated about one thousand students in its 49-year history, including 2 future vice presidents, 101 congressmen, 28 senators, 14 governors, and scores of distinguished state jurists.
The advent of law professorships, proprietary schools, and bar associations brought some standard of form to legal education. These standards deteriorated, however, thanks in part to andrew jackson, who was elected the seventh president of the United States in 1828. Jackson, a lawyer, considered himself to be a champion of the common person. State legislatures quickly followed his lead, eschewing anything elitist and reasserting authority formerly delegated to bar associations. Bar admission standards declined. Nearly anyone who could show "good moral character" was permitted to practice law, regardless of any knowledge of the field. bar examinations, if required at all, were usually perfunctory.
Standards dropped even at Harvard Law School, which was founded in 1817 as the first academic law school. By the end of the 1820s, students who were denied admission to Harvard College could go directly into the law school; the school also quit giving exams. In 1829, however, Justice joseph story of the U.S. Supreme Court became a Harvard Law professor and augured Harvard's emergence as the first modern law school. In 1870, christopher columbus langdell became dean of Harvard Law School, essentially launching the modern era of legal education.
Langdell believed that law could be taught as a science. Rather than listening passively to lectures and reading treatises, Langdell's students dissected reported case decisions. Using a technique known as Socratic dialogue, professors bombarded their students with questions, forcing them to analyze the facts, reasoning, and law in each case. In addition, Langdell grouped related cases together, devoting separate books to different topics. Langdell's method of instruction through dialogue and case-study is standard in today's law schools.
Langdell also instituted tighter admission standards, expanded the program from two to three years, and raised graduation requirements. Other university law schools soon began to adopt some of Harvard's lofty standards.
The american bar association (ABA), founded in 1878, along with the Association of American Law Schools (AALS), formed in 1900, worked to consign apprenticeships to the pages of history. In 1917, 36 out of 49 jurisdictions still required a period of apprenticeship, but future lawyers could substitute law school. In the last half of the nineteenth century, a high school graduate could enter most law schools, but the ABA and the AALS worked to steadily increase admission standards. By 1931, 17 states required two years of college before admission, and 33 had a three-year law curriculum. Just eight years later, 41 states required at least two years of college. Today, law schools require prospective students to have a four-year degree from an accredited college or university.
Professional legal development continues throughout a lawyer's career. In 1975, Minnesota was the first state to mandate continuing legal education for practitioners, requiring 45 hours of approved legal study every three years. Since then, the majority of states have established rules that require some form of mandatory continuing education, although requirements vary by state. Continuing education is also required for attorneys who wish to be board certified as specialists in a certain area of law. Certified legal specialist programs are offered in many states, and are accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA).
The law profession, like many others, was slow to open up to women. The first woman lawyer in the United States was Arabella Mansfield, who became a member of the Illinois bar in 1869. Mansfield studied in her brother's law office, and was admitted to the bar despite the fact that Illinois legislation required any person applying for bar admission to be white, male, and over 21 years of age. Ada Kepley was the first woman in the United States to earn a law degree. She graduated from Union College of Law (now Northwestern University Law School) in 1870. By 1930, most U.S. law schools were admitting women, but not Harvard Law School. The school remained closed to women until 1950. Although women were finally accepted into law schools, the number of women who attended was scant. Until the mid-1960s, less than 3 percent of law students were women. Those numbers surged during the 1970s. Today, women make up almost 50 percent of U.S. law school admissions.
Desegregation of law schools came no more quickly than it did to other educational institutions, despite the pivotal role lawyers played in the desegregation process. Since the 1960s, minority enrollment in law schools has increased, but the numbers still remain low. In 1960, about one percent of law school students were African American. By the late 1990s, that number had grown to only 8 percent. As a result, a number of schools have active recruitment programs to help ensure greater diversity in their student body.
When schools use race as a factor in the admissions process, however, critics charge that they are violating constitutional rights. Such
charges have led to a number of controversial cases, including Grutter v. Bollinger (288 F. 3d 732 [2003]), in which a prospective white student contended that she was denied admission to the University of Michigan Law School because the school uses race as a deciding factor in admissions. In a 5–4 opinion, the Supreme Court ruled that the school's admission policy did not violate the equal protection clause of the fourteenth amendment because there was a "compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body."
further readings
Alexander, Stacy, et a1. 1999. Legal Education for the 21st Century. Edited by Donald B. King. Littleton, Colo.: F.B. Rothman.
Cooper, Byron D. 2002. "The Integration of Theory, Doctrine, and Practice in Legal Education." Erasing Lines: Journal of the Association of Legal Writing Directors 1 (October): 50–64.
Gee, E. Gordon, and Donald W. Jackson. 1977. "Bridging the Gap: Legal Education and Lawyer Competency." Brigham Young University Law Review 1977.
Katz, Barry E. 2002. "A Degree of Specialization." Student Lawyer 31 (December): 22–6.
"Narrow Use of Affirmative Action Preserved in College Admissions." June 25, 2003. Law Center. Available online at <> (accessed September 17, 2003).
Rose, Jonathan. 1994. "The MacCrate Report's Restatement of Legal Education: The Need for Reflection and Horse Sense." Journal of Legal Education 44 (December).
Schwartz, Bernard. 1974. The American Heritage History of the Law in America. New York: American Heritage.
White, James Boyd. 1999. From Expectation to Experience: Essays on Law and Legal Education. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
Affirmative Action; Case Method; Law School Admission Test; Legal Specialization.
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3–5 paragraphs
In 1895, a report called Report from the Departmental Committee on Prisons, also known as the Gladstone Committee Report (GCR), was developed. The purpose of this report was to introduce ideas regarding rehabilitation in the United Kingdom.
An example of the impact in the United States was the creation of the standardized sentencing guidelines and the continual amendments used to assist offenders. In the United Kingdom, the GCR influenced how rehabilitation programs were being developed.
Discuss how the Gladstone Committee Report addressed conflict over the words rehabilitation and treatment. In this discussion, identify which word you would choose and the impact it has on society.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9472535848617554,
"url": "https://academist.org/assignment-help-2502/"
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Understanding autism
Understanding autism
1.2 False belief
The task, developed by Baron-Cohen and his colleagues and used frequently in subsequent studies, is known as the Sally–Anne false belief task. Before watching the animation illustrating the task (Activity 1), consider the following imaginary scenario, an everyday example of the kind of skill that Baron-Cohen was exploring.
You and a friend, Kelly, drive to the shops in your car. You park in a particular street (Mount Street) and as you both have different shops to visit, you arrange to meet back at the car in an hour’s time. Shortly after parting from your friend, you realise that you have left your wallet at home, so you drive home to fetch it. When you get back to where you parked before, the parking spaces are full, so you have to park in a different street (Park Street). You know that when Kelly goes to meet you she will have the false belief that the car is where you originally parked it. Unless you can contact her first, she will go to meet you in Mount Street, not in Park Street.
Of course these days, mobile phones offer a ready solution to problems like this. The point is to illustrate what neurotypical people routinely understand or figure out about what another person is thinking. Without an understanding that Kelly would hold a false belief about your meeting place, you would not even realise that it was necessary to redirect her! So the ability to understand false belief is an important aspect of understanding other people’s thoughts and beliefs – that is, theory of mind.
Take your learning further
Request an Open University prospectus371
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"url": "https://www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=67018§ion=1.2"
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Kōrero: Conifer–broadleaf forests
Deforestation of New Zealand
Around 1000 CE, before humans arrived in New Zealand, forest covered more than 80% of the land. The only areas without tall forests were the upper slopes of high mountains and the driest regions of Central Otago. When Māori arrived, about 1250–1300 CE, they burnt large tracts of forest, mainly on the coasts and eastern sides of the two main islands. By the time European settlement began, around 1840, some 6.7 million hectares of forest had been destroyed and replaced by short grassland, shrubland and fern land. Between 1840 and 2000, another 8 million hectares was cleared, mostly lowland or easily accessible conifer–broadleaf forest.
By 2000 New Zealand had only 6.2 million hectares of native forest, most on mountainous land and dominated by southern beech.
Te whakamahi i tēnei tūemi
Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Ngā whakaahua me ngā rauemi katoa o tēnei kōrero
Te tuhi tohutoro mō tēnei whārangi:
John Dawson, 'Conifer–broadleaf forests - Loss of conifer–broadleaf forests', Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/mi/interactive/11674/deforestation-of-new-zealand (accessed 20 May 2022)
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"url": "https://teara.govt.nz/mi/interactive/11674/deforestation-of-new-zealand"
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The history of Azulejos
Freshman (College 1st year) ・Architecture ・MLA ・5 Sources
The records of tiles (Azulejos) started in the early 12th century. All constructions within Lisbon had conspicuous azulejo art that symbolizes the Portuguese way of life and traditions. The term azulejo referred to either all structures that were built through Portuguese architects or the premises under the control of the Portuguese empire. Portuguese like any different culture, marked their uniqueness by incorporating tiles in the structures to differentiate the functions such as ordinary houses, churches, shops, and monasteries amongst others (Figueiredo and Viega 209). The decoration always portrayed the integral events in the country collectively with unique signs like nameplates, ravishing sights, and residence numbers and served as streetlights. Everyone who entered Portugal would readily recognize from Seafood, Lisbon, and surfing and Port wine drawings on azulejos tiles (De Melo et al. 1255). It is imperative to notice that the culture of tiles has been accepted by the modern architecture to provide more colourful designs and durable structures. Figure 1 below is an illustration of a collection of Portuguese tiles in a museum in Lisbon. Therefore, the paper shall explore the way tiles have contributed to the visual culture of Lisbon and the reinterpretation of the usage of tiles across the international Dialogue forums and Azulejo in Lisbon.
To begin, we discover the contribution of tiles in Portuguese capital city of Lisbon. The evidence of Portuguese victory during the 15th-century war Age of Discovery stands at the monument of Discoveries in the town (De Melo et al. 1259). Historically, the symbol reminds the country of the relevance of the strategic positioning of Portugal from the Mediterranean Sea that has a significant influence on the voyages explorations, trade and navigators such as Henry. The tile decoration in Lisbon shows Portuguese invasions by enemies (Moors) from North Africa in 711 CE that took control of both Spain and Portugal for 300 years (Castel-Brancoet al. 114). The Moors influenced the Portuguese to introduce lateen sail to help in far-reaching Portugal navigation and exploration.
Furthermore, River Tagus in the Belem suburb has become the primary tourist attraction with the drawing of Tower of Belem to symbolize the river passed by ships during the discovery of new trade routes. The pictures on the Age of Discovery monument help to visualize the prominent heroes such as Vasco da Gama, Prince Henry and Magellan in the caravel ship. Alternatively, the Jeronimos Monastery represents the god of wealth during the period of the late Gothic (Figueiredo and Viega 210). The funding of the monument came from the “pepper taxes” levied from the trade of gold, spices and precious stones. Besides, the Monastery west wing accommodates the National Museum of Archaeology where the Portuguese conducts all their archaeological researchers.
Today, the artistic tradition and culture are still visible throughout Portugal and Lisbon through the porcelain tiles and ceramic decoration in the exterior facades and the interior designs of train stations, homes, public buildings, and churches (Figueiredo and Viega 211). However, the beautiful tiles are referred to as azulejos that mean az-zulayi (polished stones) in Arabic and Azul (blue) in the Portuguese language. Portugal promoted the culture of education through the decoration of geometrically designed Moorish tiles (De Melo et al. 1263). All over the period, Portugal produced decorative tiles that contain animal and human designs that were condemned by the Islamic religion. After that, the country developed the painting of canvas that represented the national art of Portugal. The tile art (azulejos) was inspired by the various cultures such as Flemish, Christian, Chinese Ming Dynasty, and the Classical Roman; figure 2 is an illustration an azulejo that is a product of a decorative hand painting. Therefore, the paintings of Lisbon indicate the cultural diversity of Portugal.
The azulejo is considered to be one of the most potent cultural expressions associated with Portugal. It is among the most original contributions involving Portuguese in-universe civilization. It has evolved. It has undergone a variety of phases in its evolution to the current form. Hatched under Egyptian inception, ceramic ornamentation was initiated in the Iberian Peninsula by Arabs. It occurred in the 13th century. Initially, they were mosaic lacerates with pliers. They had their basis on a more prominent piece involving single-colour shellac clay (Evans et al 92). Manufacturing of azulejo in Portugal commenced by making azulejo that had a variety of features that were prime in the culture and history of Portugal. Since that time, its utility has become widespread. It is currently challenging to come across any significant building that existed in that period like palaces, churches and manor houses that do not possess a façade that is covered in such azulejo tiles. In spite of maintenance of the fundamental principles, the azulejo techniques have evolved massively over time. It has permitted its application in the production of several components utilized in the most improved form of technologies.
Over the previous years, azulejo has significantly over pursed its rare utilitarian or its decoration purpose. It has arrived at the superior status associated with Arts by acting like a poet intercession in the making of architecture together with cities. In explicit terms, the word azulejo is considered to be the Portuguese word that means to designate a square kind of ceramic plate and in which a single side of the plate is painted and also glazed. Such form of art is massively utilized in nations like Spain, Italy, Iran, Holland and Morocco. However, someone can reveal that it makes an impression in Portugal where it is perceived as a particular significance in the world context involving artistic creation. It is because it is associated with a longer life Spain when it comes to its utility purposes. Secondly, it is because of its tiling technique (Evans et al 92). It acts as a factor that structures constructions and accomplishes architecture via extensive coating in the interior of the walls of the edifice or even in extrinsic facades. Moreover, it has an appropriate interpretation since time immemorial. The mannerism in which it has been interpreted over the years is impressive. It has been understood not only as an ornamentation form of craft but also as an additional support for style resumption.
In slow but sure mannerisms, the azulejo gained over the years an even bigger and better influence by transforming into a form of an identification element associated with the Portuguese way of life. It was sustained because of the amount of dialogue that took place between the European Arab and also Indian lifestyle. Also, it was because of the utility of a conventionally penurious material like the tile as a way of exquisite accomplishment involving intramural spaces in essential buildings together with urban areas.
The first identified azulejo in Portugal that were utilized as monuments in wall ornamentations were associated with originating from Spanish-Moorish tiles that were imported from Seville. It was around 1503.TThe advancement of ceramics together with the probability of carrying out direct painting onto the slab by making use of the majolica approach in Italy was an essential aspect. It developed its composition and utility with distinct factors representing both historical and decorative times. At that moment, there were a variety of orders that were placed in Northern European specifically Flanders. These orders came directly from Portugal, but it was the advent of Flemish craftsmen to Lisbon who foresaw the introduction of an appropriate and efficient Portuguese construction. It was during the second half involving the 16th century.
Once the stylish preference for great ceramic tiles in places like churches together with palaces emerged as a trend in Portugal, the employment of single large configuration bespoke to every area became very costly (Evans et al 92). It led to higher frequency regarding a selection of repetitive tiles. By the final times involving the 16th century and also at the stat of the 17th century, constitutions involving patterned together with plain colours of tiles were designed by creating patterned ornament meshes on the various walls. In spite of the affordability of azulejos, their tilling was considered as complicated and slow. Its monument progressed to be a costly process that led to its gradual end.
Patterned azulejos manufactured in vast quantities and also accessible in their application were usually utilized, initially in repetitive modules having 232 azulejos and later in massive modules that possesses 12,312 azulejos. This generated significant diagonal patters. In any of the identified utility purposes associated with both patterned and glazed tiles, the utility of bevels together with bars was substantial for proper integration involving architectural contours. The various innovations implemented opened doors to other related artists, introducing a golden period in the Portuguese azulejos’ history. It was known as ‘Master’s Cycle’. In the 18th century, there was a massive increase the production of azulejo tiles. It was because of massive ordered that originated from Brazil. In the 2nd half involving the 19th century, the minimal cost pattern kind of azulejo occupied many facades which were manufactured by industries in Lisbon and Devesas.
Utilizing semi-factorial and factorial techniques, enhancing a faster and also a more vigorous manufacturing, the facades possessing pattern kind of tiles together with frames encompassing doors and windows presently became typical characteristics in both colour and light differences in association with urban identity involving Portugal. Fundamentally advanced in cities in Oporto together with Lisbon, two significant trends were carefully defined; in the north space, the utility of pronounced decorations as a feature involving the volume along with contrast effects of light and also shadow. On the other hand, bright patterns associated with old memory were preserved for an almost gaudy visible practice on the frontages (Evans et al 92). From the identified period, various artists stand out because of their prominent features on the quality of their products and how they saw to the evolution of azulejo. The figures below shows an example of tiles used on wall frontages in Lisbon and other related tile utility functions in Portugal.
The use of tiles has been interpreted in several ways in the current world. Different tiles colour decorations mean different cultural beliefs and activities. For example, the (Museu Nacional do Azulejo) also called the national Tile Museum shows the primarily accepted convent and church setting that spans from the 16th century (Figueiredo and Viega 209). For instance, figure 5 depicts a typical tile used for fabricating the art showing the new-born Jesus. Historians have agreed that tile decoration provided along lasting image of historical facts that would be easily interpreted. For instance, the 76-foot-map of Lisbon shows a graphical representation of how the city looked like in early 1700 before the tragic All Saints day earthquake that occurred in 1755. The incident killed 15,000 individuals in Lisbon alone (De Melo et al. 1257).
In the modern architecture, the architects use the azulejos design while constructing the restaurant with Portugal delicious seafood. The interpretation provides the intercessory and feeling of Lisbon history and culture (Mimoso et al. 15). The live examples consist of the Restaurante Cervejaria Trindade, and Restaurante Casa do Alentejo that are featured in Portugal as the most beautiful places to visit (Castel-Branco et al. 114). In the Lisbon history, Casa does, Alentejo was a recreation palace for the Moorish community that was richly decorated in geometric tiles, whereas the Cervejaria Trindade used to be the monastery-dining hall in the restaurants. The modern society has also adopted the large tiles murals and vaulted ceilings to control the weather in different seasons.
The international Dialogue about Lisbon has the leadership of archaeological sites centrally. Many Arab nations have visited Lisbon and awarded the Portuguese Kings for being the first country in the Europe to use tiles in decorations of walls and statues successfully. It is apparent that many convents and churches nowadays use tiles similar to Azulejo in windows panes and doors. The International Delegation commends the city for embracing the azulejo interests following the award of Keil’s work in the World Exposition in 1998 (De Melo et al. 1264). In fact, the city authorities allowed the new metro line to join that expanded the city with surrounding nations. Consequently, artists from different continents were given the authority to add symbols in Keil’s work. Nuno Siqueira and Cecilia de Sousa drew the olives trees while Costa Pinheiro and Keil added, geometric map, navigator has and ships respectively to resemble the safety of Portugal. In Aveiro and Porto in Bento Station, the application of Nouveau design of buildings marks the history of Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro. In an article by BBC, George Bush admired the artistry used in Almancil and Palacio da Villa (Figueiredo and Viega 210). Such cooperation between nations implied a positive acceptance of the art in Lisbon.
To conclude, the visualization of tiles and ceramic artistic works in Lisbon, Portugal symbolizes the love for nature and history. Over the centuries, Lisbon has marked the historical wars between the Arabs and European because of the contemporary tiles (azulejos) (Figueiredo and Viega 209). The Portuguese like any other culture marked their uniqueness by incorporating tiles in the buildings to differentiate the functions such as ordinary houses, churches, shops, and monasteries among others (De Melo et al. 1258). The decoration always portrayed the critical events in the country together with unique signs like nameplates, ravishing sights, and house numbers and served as streetlights (Castel-Branco et al. 115). It is apparent that the international community recognizes and accepts the architectural designs seen in Lisbon (Mimoso et al. 15). The global religion such as Catholic and Protestants use windowpanes that looks similar to azulejos. Nowadays, architectures prescribe tiles to commercial and residential buildings to imply silent acceptance of the Lisbon challenge.
Work Cited
Castel-Branco Pereira, João, Maria Manuela Malhoa Gomes, and Deolinda Maria de Sousa Tavares. "The treatment of ancient Portuguese tiles." Studies in conservation 37.sup1 (1992): 112-115.
De Melo, Aluísio Braz, Arlindo F. Goncalves, and Isabel M. Martins. "Construction and demolition waste generation and management in Lisbon (Portugal)." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55.12 (2011): 1252-1264.
Evans, David. Portugal. Wimbledon [England: Cadogan Guides, 2004. Print.
Figueiredo, M. O., T. P. Silva, and J. P. Veiga. "A XANES study of the structural role of lead in glazes from decorated tiles, XVI to XVIII century manufacture." Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing 83.2 (2006): 209-211.
Mimoso, João Manuel, Silva, A. S., Abreu, M. M., Costa, D. R., Gonçalves, T. D., & Coentro, S. "Decay of historic azulejos in Portugal: an assessment of research needs." Proceedings of the Int Sem Conservation of Glazed Ceramic Tiles-research and practice, LNEC, Lisbon April (2009): 15-16
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Chocolate May Be Extinct by 2050, According to Scientists
And it's all due to global warming.
Image may contain Fudge Food Dessert Chocolate Confectionery Sweets Cocoa Animal Seafood Sea Life and Lobster
When anything bad happens in the world, we can usually count on one thing to make us feel better: chocolate. After all, there's nothing like a good candy bar or pain au chocolat to comfort us in times of trouble. But what happens when the cruel world decides to target chocolate itself? These are the questions we've been faced with since hearing the latest prediction from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): cacao trees (which grow chocolate-producing cocoa beans) may go extinct as early as 2050 because of climate change.
Cacao trees are the divas of the tropical plant world, requiring very precise conditions to cultivate and prosper. According to NOAA, cacao can only grow within 20 degrees of the equator (either north or south), in areas with consistent humidity and rainfall. More than half the world's cocoa beans currently come from two countries in West Africa: Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. Both countries will experience a 3.8°F temperature increase by 2050, which will most likely push the cacao farms out of the rainforests and up into cooler mountainous areas. This seems like a logical quick fix — until you consider that most of those mountainous areas currently serve as forest and wildlife preserves (one notable example: Ghana’s Atewa Range, an important forest preserve where farming is forbidden). It basically boils down to a depressing "would you rather" scenario: A) grow chocolate to meet the global demand, or B) preserve natural habitats?
But before you start to lose all hope, there may be a long-term, eco-friendly solution on the horizon. Scientists at the University of California Berkeley have teamed up with the Mars company (famed creators of M&M's and Snickers) to save future cacao crops in an appropriately futuristic way: by tweaking the DNA of the species. According to Business Insider, the project will use a gene-editing technology (known as CRISPR) to transform seedlings into a species that can survive drier, warmer climates. (Of course, an ideal solution would be to pull together and stop global warming, but we dare to dream.)
It's unclear right now how long this UC Berkeley initiative will take—or if it will even work at all. So in the meantime, we suggest you thoroughly enjoy the world's chocolate supply while you still can. Another excuse to eat chocolate? We'll take it.
More from Condé Nast Traveler:15 Places Telling Tourists to Stay Home
The 50 Best Places to Visit in the U.S.A.
The 20 Most Beautiful Beaches in the World
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DDR Lesson 2
Lesson Two explores the post-conflict environment in which disarmament, demobilization and reintegration usually takes place, which is often characterized by insecurity and lawlessness, poor or badly functioning economies, and a lack of social services and social cohesion. Integrated DDR programmes (IDDRS) should be designed to deal with the particular characteristics and contexts of the country or region in which they are to be implemented. However, DDR is just one of several post-conflict recovery strategies. As a process that helps to promote both security and development, a DDR programme should work together with other comprehensive peace-building strategies, including socioeconomic recovery programmes, security sector reform, and programmes to re-establish and strengthen the rule of law. DDR contributes to political stability by building confidence so that parties to a conflict can reject violence and transform their political and organizational structures to meet development objectives.
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The Folded Rouble
After the war, in $1947$, in the Soviet Union new banknotes were introduced, which were still in circulation in $1956$.
In that year, Vladimir Igorevich Arnold posed the problem of the folded rouble. Can you build a planar polygon by folding a sheet of paper (a rouble bill) so that the perimeter of this polygon is larger than the perimeter of the original sheet?
In 1961 in Russia the coins and banknotes changed again, so that also the design of the rouble changed, becoming a much smaller piece of paper. At that time, however, the problem was not resolved.
Furthermore, although a positive answer “It is possible” contradicts the intuition, there must be a mathematical reason for a negative answer. If we fold a rectangle along a straight line, then the perimeter can only be reduced: to the already existing edge we have to add the segment of the line along which we have folded, but we have to remove a broken line that has the same endpoints as that segment. If we do something similar, that is if we fold again the obtained polygon along a straight line, the situation is the same: the perimeter increases by the length of a segment, but decreases by the length of a broken line. This type of folding — along a straight line — is called “simple” and can only decrease the perimeter. This however is only one reason, but not yet proof.
So can we or not increase the initial perimeter of the rectangle? In the years $1991$ and $1993$, yet the banknotes were changed, and that of the rouble of $1961$ came out of circulation. But the Arnold problem still remained unsolved.
Since that time a Russian rouble worth, unfortunately, so little that there are no more notes, but only coins, of that value.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, however, the problem was solved. The first mathematically rigorous solution was provided by a student of N. P. Dolbilin, Alexei Tarasov. He invented an algorithm for folding a square so that in total you get a planar polygon with a greater perimeter.
Who only wishes to enjoy the movie, can skip the next part, which has been added for those who want to understand well how the sheet has to be folded.
Take a square sheet of paper, and let us divide it into square cells, for example, $4 \times 4$. Colour the cells with two colours like a chessboard and draw from the centre of each square a defined number of rays. Then add in every red square a green star, so that the size of the stars grow in the direction of one diagonal. Now fold the paper in a strip, and then into a rectangle, and, eventually, into a triangle. The resulting object is done as follows. One half of it contains several blue layers, the other contains red-green layers. The way of drawing the stars was such that after folding they increase in size as one passes from one layer to another. Let us start to fold each triangle so that the parallel blue layers go to one side, and the green and red to the other. We get a surface that eventually is folded again into a planar polygon.
This polygon has one red part (the blue triangles result to be hidden inside) and a green comb. We observe that the number of teeth of this comb is exactly the number of green stars, that is, of red squares that were initially in the square.
But did the perimeter increase, compared to that of the initial square? Is the problem solved? If we compare the figures, we immediately see that the perimeter is decreased. Why then we made such complicated folding?
In the concrete example we have considered, we used a general algorithm. And in this algorithm there are two parameters: the number of cells in the initial square and the number of rays in each square. Let us look at what happens if we change these parameters.
For the same subdivision in $4 \times 4$ cells we will increase the number of rays within each cell. This leads to a narrowing of the teeth of the comb, to a lower intersection of them, and consequently, to a moderate growth of the perimeter.
There is still another parameter, the number of cells that fill the initial square. If we increase this parameter, then the comb of the resulting construction will have a bigger number of teeth.
The simultaneous growth of the two parameters, both the number of cells and the amount of rays, gives an increase in the perimeter. But how much it may increase? It results, up to infinity. But this means that at some moment it will exceed the perimeter of the initial square!
The problem of the folded rouble — to fold a rectangle so that its perimeter increases — is solved. But how many times we need to fold? Rather a lot. From the work of A. Tarasov we can get an estimate: for a square divided in $16 \times 16$ cells and $16^2 \cdot 30$ rays in each cell, the perimeter of the obtained polygon will be greater than the perimeter of the initial square.
This cannot be shown in the film, but can it be achieved in reality? Surely you well remember that folding a sheet of paper, albeit very thin, is possible no more than $7—8$ times. If you do not do this for a long time, try that with a simple experiment. So, what the same problem posed by V. I. Arnold, and its solution with an algorithm “not feasible”, give us? Certainly an instrument of progress in science, which certainly will be useful in future developments.
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Chica Da Silva Research Paper
243 Words1 Page
Chica da Silva, a well-known historical figure of Brazilian historiography, is an excellent example of “race democracy” in Brazil. Born of an African slave and a military nobleman of Portuguese descent, Chica da Silva won her social status and prestige by her licentiousness and sensuality that is a characteristic attributed to the black or “mulata” female in the Brazilian popular culture. In the eighteenth century in the gold mining region of Minas Gerais, Brazil, women, especially white, was scarce. “Concubinage” was a common practice and many slave-owners freed their slave mistresses upgrading their social status. Chica da Silva was the mistress of João Fernandes de Oliveira, who was the king’s representative in the region, he was also
Open Document
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History | November 26, 2021 5:17 pm
Discovery of Dagger Sheds Light on Ancient Roman Battle
An illuminating find from 2,000 years ago
Graubünden, Switzerland.
Angelo Burgener/Unsplash
Over 2,000 years ago, in what is now Switzerland, the forces of the Roman Empire fought a battle against the Rhaetian people. Theirs is a culture about which present-day scientists and historians know relatively little, save the areas where they lived and their eventual absorption into the Roman Empire. But a recent archaeological discovery from an unexpected source could help dramatically expand our knowledge of this ancient culture.
In 2019, Lucas Schmid was using a metal detector to search for artifacts in the canton of Graubünden. An amateur archaeologist who was studying dentistry at the time, Schmid came across something that had been buried since 15 B.C., when the battle between Roman and Rhaetian forces took place.
Schmid unearthed a dagger, which one of the Romans had buried in the ground following the battle for reasons unknown. (An article on the find at Smithsonian Magazine suggests that it may have been intended as a form of religious offering.) Once the discovery of the dagger had occurred, the Archaeological Service of Graubünden (ADG) began a larger excavation — and that, in turn, led to even more artifacts dating back to the battle being unearthed.
The ADG’s operation unearthed weapons left by both sides in the conflict, including Roman coins and Rhaetian swords and arrowheads. And now, the objects are on display at the ADG — offering present-day viewers a glimpse into a conflict that transformed the region.
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Impacts of the plague epidemic on the Kingdom of Bohemia in the second half of the XIVth century and at the beginning of the XVth century
Martin Nodl
Although the medieval plague epidemic had a global impact, its intensity varied from region to region in Europe. Plague rates as well as mortality rates were conditioned by climatic and geographical conditions, population density, migration, and trade activities, as well as nutritional opportunities and mental or cultural habits. If we look at Europe as a whole, then the Czech lands, the Bohemian Kingdom and the Moravian Margraviate were among the areas affected by plague epidemics in the XIVth and XVth centuries much less than medieval France, England, Italy, or the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire. The causes of the lower intensity of the plague epidemic in Bohemia and Moravia can be seen in all of the aspects mentioned above, which does not, however, mean that the impact of the plague epidemic in the Kingdom of Bohemia was not, in some regards, comparable to that in Western Europe. Research on the medieval plague epidemic in Bohemia and Moravia has struggled with a lack of relevant sources from the very beginning. The limited explanatory power of the sources has also influenced the limited interest of Czech historians in this topic. The only debate that was ever conducted about the impact of the plague epidemic in a Czech intellectual milieu concerned its possible influence on the outbreak of the Hussite revolution, or the degree of the intensity of the plague in 1380. This debate quite clearly led to the conclusion that in plague epidemics, or in their impact on pre-Hussite society, it is not possible to see a significant or even decisive cause of the outbreak of the Hussite revolution.
Słowa kluczowe: Królestwo Czech, zaraza, medycyna, historia społeczna, Praga
Redakcja deklaruje, że wersja papierowa czasopisma naukowego "Studia
Historica Gedanensia" jest wersją pierwotną.
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A swagman (also called a swaggie, sundowner or tussocker) was a transient labourer who travelled by foot from farm to farm carrying his belongings in a swag (bedroll). The term originated in Australia in the 19th century and was later used in New Zealand.
Swagmen were particularly common in Australia during times of economic uncertainty, such as the 1890s and the Great Depression of the 1930s. Many unemployed men travelled the rural areas of Australia on foot, their few meagre possessions rolled up and carried in their swag. Their swag was frequently referred to as “Matilda”, hence Waltzing Matilda refers to walking with their swag. Typically, they would seek work in farms and towns they travelled through, and in many cases the farmers, if no permanent work was available, would provide food and shelter in return for some menial task.
The figure of the “jolly swagman”, represented most famously in Banjo Paterson’s bush poem “Waltzing Matilda”, became a folk hero in 19th-century Australia, and is still seen today as a symbol of anti-authoritarian values that Australians considered to be part of the national character.
John walked around Australia, image from Northern Star
Before motor transport became common, the Australian wool industry was heavily dependent on itinerant shearers who carried their swags from farm to farm (called properties or “stations” in Australia), but would not in general have taken kindly to being called “swagmen”. Outside of the shearing season their existence was frugal, and this possibly explains the tradition (of past years) of sheep stations in particular providing enough food to last until the next station even when no work was available. Some were especially noted for their hospitality, such as Canowie Station in South Australia which around 1903 provided over 2,000 sundowners each year with their customary two meals and a bed.
A romanticised figure, the swagman is famously referred to in the song “Waltzing Matilda”, by Banjo Paterson, which tells of a swagman who turns to stealing a sheep from the local squatter.
The economic depressions of the 1860s and 1890s saw an increase in these itinerant workers. During these periods it was seen as ‘mobilising the workforce’. At one point it was rumoured that a “Matilda Waltzers’ Union” had been formed to give representation to swagmen at the Federation of Australia in 1901.
During the early years of the 1900s, the introduction of the pension and the dole reduced the numbers of swagmen to those who preferred the free lifestyle. During World War One many were called up for duty and fought at Gallipoli as ANZACs. The song “And The Band Played Waltzing Matilda” tells the story of a swagman who fought at Gallipoli.
The numbers of swagmen have declined over the 20th century, but still rising in times of economic depression. Swagmen remain a romantic icon of Australian history and folklore.
Swags are still heavily used, particularly in Australia, by overlanders and campers. There are still a large number of manufacturers actively making both standard and custom-design swags.
I have scheduled these posts while I enjoy my sacred space
Pat a local retired history teacher shares these on Eboard
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Trans-Saharan trade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Trans-Saharan trade requires travel across the Sahara between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa. While existing from prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century. The Sahara once had a very different environment. In Libya and Algeria, from at least 7000 BC, there was pastoralism, the herding of sheep, goats, large settlements, and pottery. Cattle were introduced to the Central Sahara (Ahaggar) from 4000 to 3500 BC. Remarkable rock paintings (dated 3500 to 2500 BC), in places which are currently very dry, portray vegetation, and animal presence rather different from modern expectations.[1]
As a desert, Sahara is now a hostile expanse that separates the Mediterranean economy from the economy of the Niger basin. As Fernand Braudel points out that crossing such a zone (especially without mechanized transport) is worthwhile only when exceptional circumstances cause the expected gain to outweigh the cost and danger.[2]
Trade, beginning around 300 CE, [3] was conducted by caravans of camels. According to Ibn Battuta, the explorer who accompanied one of the caravans, the average size per caravan was 1,000 camels; some caravans were as large as 12,000.[4][5] The caravans would be guided by highly paid Berbers who knew the desert and could ensure safe passage from their fellow desert nomads. The survival of a caravan was precarious and would rely on careful coordination. Runners would be sent ahead to oases so that water could be shipped out to the caravan when it was still several days away, as the caravans could not easily carry enough with them to make the full journey. In the middle of the 14th century Ibn Battuta crossed the desert from Sijilmasa via the salt mines at Taghaza to the oasis of Oualata. A guide was sent ahead and water was brought on a journey of four days from Oualata to meet the caravan.[6]
Culture and religion were also exchanged on the Trans-Saharan Trade Route. These colonies eventually adopted the language and religion of the country and became absorbed into the Muslim world.[7]
Late trans-Saharan Trade[edit]
A building in Oualata, southeast Mauritania
The Bilma oasis in northeast Niger, with the Kaouar escarpment in the background
Ancient trade spanned the northeastern corner of the Sahara in the Naqadan era. Predynastic Egyptians in the Naqada I period traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the Western Desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean to the east. Many trading routes went from oasis to oasis to resupply on both food and water. These oases were very important.[8] They also imported obsidian from Ethiopia to shape blades and other objects.[9]
The overland route through the Wadi Hammamat from the Nile to the Red Sea was known as early as predynastic times;[10] drawings depicting Egyptian reed boats have been found along the path dating to 4000 BC.[11] Ancient cities dating to the First Dynasty of Egypt arose along both its Nile and Red Sea junctions,[citation needed] testifying to the route's ancient popularity. It became a major route from Thebes to the Red Sea port of Elim, where travelers then moved on to either Asia, Arabia or the Horn of Africa.[citation needed] Records exist documenting knowledge of the route among Senusret I, Seti, Ramesses IV and also, later, the Roman Empire, especially for mining.[citation needed]
The Darb el-Arbain trade route, passing through Kharga in the south and Asyut in the north, was used from as early as the Old Kingdom for the transport and trade of gold, ivory, spices, wheat, animals and plants.[12] Later, Ancient Romans would protect the route by lining it with varied forts and small outposts, some guarding large settlements complete with cultivation.[citation needed] Described by Herodotus as a road "traversed ... in forty days", it became by his time an important land route facilitating trade between Nubia and Egypt,[13] and subsequently became known as the Forty Days Road. From Kobbei, 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of al-Fashir, the route passed through the desert to Bir Natrum, another oasis and salt mine, to Wadi Howar before proceeding to Egypt.[14] The Darb el-Arbain trade route was the easternmost of the central routes.
The westernmost of the three central routes was the Ghadames Road, which ran from the Niger River at Gao north to Ghat and Ghadames before terminating at Tripoli. Next was the easiest of the three routes: the Garamantean Road, named after the former rulers of the land it passed through and also called the Bilma Trail. The Garamantean Road passed south of the desert near Murzuk before turning north to pass between the Alhaggar and Tibesti Mountains before reaching the oasis at Kawar. From Kawar, caravans would pass over the great sand dunes of Bilma, where rock salt was mined in great quantities for trade, before reaching the savanna north of Lake Chad. This was the shortest of the routes, and the primary exchanges were slaves and ivory from the south for salt.
The western routes were the Walata Road, from the Sénégal River, and the Taghaza Trail, from the Niger River, which had their northern termini at the great trading center of Sijilmasa, situated in Morocco just north of the desert.[14] The growth of the city of Aoudaghost, founded in the 5th century BCE, was stimulated by its position at the southern end of a trans Saharan trade route.[15]
To the east, three ancient routes connected the south to the Mediterranean. The herdsmen of the Fezzan of Libya, known as the Garamantes, controlled these routes as early as 1500 BC. From their capital of Germa in the Wadi Ajal, the Garamantean Empire raided north to the sea and south into the Sahel. By the 4th century BC, the independent city-states of Phoenecia had expanded their control to the territory and routes once held by the Garamantes.[14] Shillington states that existing contact with the Mediterranean received added incentive with the growth of the port city of Carthage. Founded c. 800 BCE, Carthage became one terminus for West African gold, ivory, and slaves. West Africa received salt, cloth, beads, and metal goods. Shillington proceeds to identify this trade route as the source for West African iron smelting.[16] Trade continued into Roman times. Although there are Classical references to direct travel from the Mediterranean to West Africa (Daniels, p. 22f), most of this trade was conducted through middlemen, inhabiting the area and aware of passages through the drying lands.[17] The Legio III Augusta subsequently secured these routes on behalf of Rome by the 1st century AD, safeguarding the southern border of the empire for two and half centuries.[14]
The Garamentes also engaged in the trans-Saharan slave trade. The Garamentes used slaves in their own communities to construct and maintain underground irrigation systems known as the foggara.[18] Early records of trans-Saharan slave trade come from ancient Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC, who records the Garementes enslaving cave-dwelling Ethiopians.[19][20] Two records of Romans accompanying the Garamentes on slave raiding expeditions are recorded - the first in 86 CE and the second a few years later to Lake Chad.[19][20] Initial sources of slaves were the Toubou people, but by the 1st century CE, the Garmentes were obtaining slaves from modern day Niger and Chad.[20]
In the early Roman Empire, the city of Lepcis established a slave market to buy and sell slaves from the African interior.[19] The empire imposed customs tax on the trade of slaves.[19] In 5th century AD, Roman Carthage was trading in black slaves brought across the Sahara.[20] Black slaves seem to have been valued in the Mediterranean as household slaves for their exotic appearance.[20] Some historians argue that the scale of slave trade in this period may have been higher than medieval times due to high demand of slaves in the Roman Empire.[20]
Introduction of the camel[edit]
Modern-day camel caravan near the Ahaggar Mountains in the central Sahara, 2006
Herodotus had spoken of the Garamantes hunting the Ethiopian Troglodytes with their chariots; this account was associated with depictions of horses drawing chariots in contemporary cave art in southern Morocco and the Fezzan, giving origin to a theory that the Garamantes, or some other Saran people, had created chariot routes to provide Rome and Carthage with gold and ivory. However, it has been argued that no horse skeletons have been found dating from this early period in the region, and chariots would have been unlikely vehicles for trading purposes due to their small capacity.[21]
The earliest evidence for domesticated camels in the region dates from the 3rd century. Used by the Berber people, they enabled more regular contact across the entire width of the Sahara, but regular trade routes did not develop until the beginnings of the Islamic conversion of West Africa in the 7th and 8th centuries.[21] Two main trade routes developed. The first ran through the western desert from modern Morocco to the Niger Bend, the second from modern Tunisia to the Lake Chad area. These stretches were relatively short and had the essential network of occasional oases that established the routing as inexorably as pins in a map. Further east of the Fezzan with its trade route through the valley of Kaouar to Lake Chad, Libya was impassable due to its lack of oases and fierce sandstorms.[22] A route from the Niger Bend to Egypt was abandoned in the 10th century due to its dangers.[citation needed]
Spread of Islam[edit]
Several trade routes became established , perhaps the most important terminating in Sijilmasa (Morocco) and Ifriqiya to the north. There, and in other North African cities, Berber traders had increased contact with Islam, encouraging conversions, and by the 8th century, Muslims were traveling to Ghana. Many in Ghana converted to Islam, and it is likely that the Empire's trade was privileged as a result. Around 1050, Ghana lost Aoudaghost to the Almoravids, but new goldmines around Bure reduced trade through the city, instead benefiting the Malinke of the south, who later founded the Mali Empire.
Saharan trade routes circa 1400, with the modern territory of Niger highlighted
Unlike Ghana, Mali was a Muslim kingdom since its foundation, and under it, the gold–salt trade continued. Other, less important trade goods were slaves, kola nuts from the south and slave beads and cowry shells from the north (for use as currency). It was under Mali that the great cities of the Niger bend—including Gao and Djenné—prospered, with Timbuktu in particular becoming known across Europe for its great wealth. Important trading centers in southern West Africa developed at the transitional zone between the forest and the savanna; examples include Begho and Bono Manso (in present-day Ghana) and Bondoukou (in present-day Côte d'Ivoire). Western trade routes continued to be important, with Ouadane, Oualata and Chinguetti being the major trade centres in what is now Mauritania, while the Tuareg towns of Assodé and later Agadez grew around a more easterly route in what is now Niger.
The eastern trans-Saharan route led to the development of the long-lived Kanem–Bornu Empire as well as the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires, centred on the Lake Chad area. This trade route was somewhat less efficient and only rose to great prominence when there was turmoil in the west such as during the Almohad conquests.
The trans-Saharan slave trade, established in Antiquity,[20] continued during the medieval period. The slaves brought from across the Sahara were mainly used by wealthy families as domestic servants,[23] and concubines.[24] Some served in the military forces of Egypt and Morocco.[24] For example, the 17th century sultan Mawlay Ismail, himself was the son of slave, and relied on an army of black slaves for support. The West African states imported highly trained slave soldiers.[24] It has been estimated that from the 10th to the 19th century some 6,000 to 7,000 enslaved people were transported north each year.[25][failed verification] Perhaps as many as nine million enslaved people were exported along the trans-Saharan caravan route.[26]
Saharan triangle trade[edit]
The rise of the Ghana Empire, in what is now Mali, Senegal, and southern Mauritania, was concomitant with the increase in trans-Saharan trade. Mediterranean economies were short of gold but could supply salt, taken from places like the African salt mine of Taghaza, whereas West African countries like Wangara had plenty of gold but needed salt. Taghaza, a city where Ibn Battuta recorded the buildings were made of salt, rose to preeminence in the salt trade under the hegemony of the Almoravid Empire.[27] Salt was purchased with manufactured goods from Sijilmasa.[27] Miners cut thin rectangular slabs of salt directly out of the desert floor, and caravan merchants transported them south, charging a transportation fee of almost 80% of the salt's value.[27] The salt was traded at the market of Timbuktu almost weight for weight with gold.[27] The gold, in the form of bricks, bars, blank coins, and gold dust went to Sijilmasa, from which it went out to Mediterranean ports and in which it was struck into Almoravid dinars.[27]
Spread of Islam[edit]
The spread of Islam to sub-Saharan African was linked to trans-Saharan trade: Islam spread via trade routes, and Africans converting to Islam increased trade and commerce.[28]
Historians give many reasons as to why the spread of Islam facilitated trade. Islam established common values and rules upon which trade was conducted.[28] It created a network of believers who trust each other, and therefore trade with each other, even though they don't personally know the other.[29] Such trade networks existed before Islam, but on a much smaller scale; the spread of Islam increased the number of nodes in the network, and decreased its vulnerability.[30] The use of Arabic as a common language of trade, and the increase of literacy through Qur'anic schools, also facilitated commerce.[31]
Muslim merchants conducting commerce also gradually spread Islam along their trade network. Social interactions with Muslim merchants led many Africans to convert to Islam, additionally many merchants married local women and raised their children as Muslim.[31] Islam spread into Western Sudan by the end of the 10th century, into Chad by the 11th century, and into Hausa lands in 12th and 13 centuries. By 1200, many ruling elites in Western Africa had converted to Islam, and the 1200-1500 period saw a significant conversion to Islam in Africa.[32]
Decline of trans-Saharan trade[edit]
The Portuguese journeys around the West African coast opened up new avenues for trade between Europe and West Africa. By the early 16th century, European trading bases, the factories established on the coast since 1445, and trade with the wealthier Europeans became of prime importance to West Africa. North Africa had declined in both political and economic importance, while the Saharan crossing remained long and treacherous. However, the major blow to trans-Saharan trade was the Battle of Tondibi of 1591–92. Morocco sent troops across the Sahara and attacked Timbuktu, Gao and some other important trading centres, destroying buildings and property and exiling prominent citizens. This disruption to trade led to a dramatic decline in the importance of these cities and the resulting animosity reduced trade considerably.
Although much reduced, trans-Saharan trade continued. But trade routes to the West African coast became increasingly easy, particularly after the French invasion of the Sahel in the 1890s and subsequent construction of railways to the interior. A railway line from Dakar to Algiers via the Niger bend was planned but never constructed. With the independence of nations in the region in the 1960s, the north–south routes were severed by national boundaries. National governments were hostile to Tuareg nationalism and so made few efforts to maintain or support trans-Saharan trade, and the Tuareg Rebellion of the 1990s and Algerian Civil War further disrupted routes, with many roads closed.
Azalai salt caravan from Agadez to Bilma, 1985
Traditional caravan routes are largely void of camels, but the shorter Azalai routes from Agadez to Bilma and Timbuktu to Taoudenni are still regularly—if lightly—used. Some members of the Tuareg still use the traditional trade routes, often traveling 2,400 km (1,500 mi) and six months out of every year by camel across the Sahara trading in salt carried from the desert interior to communities on the desert edges.[33]
The future of trans-Saharan trade[edit]
The African Union and African Development Bank support the Trans-Sahara Highway from Algiers to Lagos via Tamanrasset which aims to stimulate trans-Saharan trade. The route is paved except for a 200 km section in northern Niger, but border restrictions still hamper traffic. Only a few trucks carry trans-Saharan trade, particularly fuel and salt. Three other highways across the Sahara are proposed: for further details see Trans-African Highways. Building the highways is difficult because of sandstorms.
See also[edit]
1. ^ Shillington, Kevin (1995) [1989]. History of Africa (Second ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-333-59957-8.
2. ^ Braudel, Fernand (1984). The Perspective of the World. Civilization and Capitalism. Vol III. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-015317-2. (Published in French in 1979).
3. ^ "The Ghana Empire (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
4. ^ Rouge, David (21 February 2007). "Saharan salt caravans ply ancient route". Reuters.
5. ^ "An African Pilgrim-King and a World-Traveler: Mansa Musa and Ibn Battuta".
6. ^ Gibb, H.A.R.; Beckingham, C.F. trans. and eds. (1994). The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, A.D. 1325–1354 (Volume 4). London: Hakluyt Society. pp. 948–49. ISBN 978-0-904180-37-4.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
7. ^ Bovill, E.W. (1968). Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press.
8. ^ Shaw, Ian (2002). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-500-05074-0.
9. ^ Aston, Barbara G.; Harrell, James A.; Shaw, Ian (2000). "Stone". In Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge. pp. 5–77 [pp. 46–47]. ISBN 0-521-45257-0. Also note: Aston, Barbara G. (1994). Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels. Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens. 5. Heidelberg. pp. 23–26. ISBN 3-927552-12-7. (See on-line posts: [1] and [2].)
10. ^ "Trade in Ancient Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
11. ^ "Ship - History of ships". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
12. ^ Jobbins, Jenny (13–19 November 2003). "The 40 days' nightmare". Al-Ahram. Cairo, Egypt. Issue No. 664.
13. ^ Smith, Stuart Tyson. "Nubia: History". University of California Santa Barbara, Department of Anthropology. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
14. ^ a b c d Burr, J. Millard; Collins, Robert O. (2006). Darfur: The Long Road to Disaster. Princeton: Markus Wiener. pp. 6–7. ISBN 1-55876-405-4.
15. ^ Lydon, Ghislaine (2009), "On Trans-Saharan Trails", Cambridge University Press, pp. 387–400, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511575457.010, ISBN 978-0-511-57545-7 Missing or empty |title= (help)
16. ^ Shillington (1995). p. 46.
17. ^ Daniels, Charles (1970). The Garamantes of Southern Libya. North Harrow, Middlesex: Oleander. p. 22. ISBN 0-902675-04-4.
18. ^ David Mattingly. "The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade". Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. p. 27–28.
19. ^ a b c d Keith R. Bradley. "Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade". Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays. p. 177.
20. ^ a b c d e f g Andrew Wilson. "Saharan Exports to the Roman World". Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. p. 192–3.
21. ^ a b Masonen, Pekka (1997). "Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World". In Sabour, M'hammad; Vikør, Knut S. (eds.). Ethnic Encounter and Culture Change. Bergen. pp. 116–142. ISBN 1-85065-311-9. Archived from the original on 1998-12-06.
22. ^ Lewicki, T. (1994). "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in Relationships between North and South". UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume 3. University of California Press. ISBN 92-3-601709-6.
23. ^ "Ibn Battuta's Trip: Part Twelve – Journey to West Africa (1351–1353)". Archived from the original on June 9, 2010.
24. ^ a b c Ralph A. Austen. Trans-Saharan Africa in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 31.
25. ^ Fage, J. D. (2001). A History of Africa (4th ed.). Routledge. p. 256. ISBN 0-415-25247-4.
26. ^ "The impact of the slave trade on Africa".
27. ^ a b c d e Messier, Ronald A., author. The last civilized place : Sijilmasa and its Saharan destiny. ISBN 978-1-4773-1135-6. OCLC 945745222.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
28. ^ a b Toyin Falola, Matthew M. Heaton. A History of Nigeria. p. 32–33.
29. ^ Anne Haour. "What made Islamic Trade Distinctive, as Compared to Pre-Islamic Trade?". Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. p. 82–83.
31. ^ a b Christoph Strobel (11 February 2015). The Global Atlantic: 1400 to 1900. Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 9781317525523.
32. ^ Patricia Pearson. "The World of Atlantic before the "Atlantic World"". In Toyin Falola, Kevin David Roberts (ed.). The Atlantic World, 1450-2000. Indiana University Press. p. 10–11.
33. ^ "Desert Odyssey". Africa. Episode 2. 2001. National Geographic Channel. This episode follows a Tuareg tribe across the Sahara for six months by camel.
Further reading[edit]
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How important was Boudicca in the Romano-British period?
Learning objectives
• To contrast two Roman accounts of Boudicca.
• To consider the draw backs in trusting either Roman account.
• To analyse key events in the context of levels of interest to Roman rule.
• To begin to question Boudicca's significance.
Possible Teaching Objectives
• Display Cassius' description of Boudicca listed in the resources column. Read to the class. Ask which of the images of Boudicca already seen this description most agrees with. Pupils will probably volunteer the answer " Warrior Queen". Have the image from the film ready to pull up on the whiteboard. Lead a discussion on whether the agreement between Cassius description and the DVD cover proves that "Warrior Queen" is accurate in its depiction of Boudicca. Drop in the fact that Cassius was writing at least 100 years after Boudicca's revolt at a time when it was dangerous to challenge the roman authorities (even retrospectively), about a past event.
• Display Tacitus' description of Boudicca listed in the resources column. Read to the class. Lead a class discussion on whether the presence of the author's father-in-law at the battle makes this description likely to be more accurate than that of Cassius. Introduce the idea that the descriptions may have drawn details from an eye witness to the battle (his father-in-law) but ask if Tacitus might have a motive for building up Boudicca's reputation. Ask "Could Tacitus have made Boudicca look better that she really was? Would it make the Romans appear stronger and braver if Boudicca seemed like a hero?" Would it make Tacitus family look good?"
• Display the living graph listed in the resources column on an interactive whiteboard. The horizontal axis consists of a timeline showing the centuries of roman intervention and occupation when southern Britain formed the Roman province of Britannia. The vertical axis is a form of querying the amount of control exercised by the Romans over the time period, ranging from "under control" to "out of control".
• Distribute paper copies of the living graph to groups of pupils. Cut up the timeline listed in the resources column into a set of cards for each group. Ask groups of pupils to arrange the events on the cards in Chronological order along the horizontal axis of the living graph and then plot them against the vertical axis for the degree of Roman control. Retrieve the cards and place a card on the graph where end one was placed.
• When the group work is complete, lead a discussion on the pattern of control identified by each group across their living graph. Ask, "When was Roman control strongest?" When were the Romans weakest?" etc. All groups will have slightly different views but are likely to have other events as being an equal or greater challenge to Roman rule than Boudicca's revolt. Pose the question "Why then do we focus on Boudicca?"
Attached files:
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• 1st Grade
Module 1: Light and Sound
The first graders have been busy learning about light and sound. They participated in center activities to explore how sound travels in waves. The students investigated light using color paddles, mirrors, flashlights, and spectrographs. They learned about shadows, reflection and refraction. Students were exposed to the engineering design process by designing, building and testing a "Help Signal" for a fictional group of lost hikers.
IMG_0629 IMG_0630 IMG_0119
Experiments with Light!
IMG_0316 IMG_0314 IMG_0322
Students working on designing a Help Signal for a fictional group of lost hikers.
Module 2: Light: Observing Earth, Sun, Moon and Stars
Students will learn how the sun and stars generate their own light and how the moon reflects that light. Students will document patterns they notice for the Sun and Moon. A Health Connection will provide them with information about the dangers of unprotected sun exposure. For the culminating project the students will design a structure that provides shade for a playground. They will evaluate their structure using UV beads and a UV flashlight.
IMG_0725 . IMG_1026
Exploring the phases of the moon and the UV rays of the sun.
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From Lake Flevo to Zuiderzee
North Holland and Friesland are nowadays connected by a long dike, the Afsluitdijk. The Zuiderzee was closed off from the Wadden Sea by the construction of the Afsluitdijk. The Zuiderzee did not yet exist in prehistoric times. What was there then? About the history of Flevo Lake to Zuiderzee.
Without dikes, the Netherlands would be much wetter! / Source: Jan Arkesteijn, Wikimedia Commons (Public domain)
Netherlands water country
The Netherlands is located in the delta area of a number of larger and smaller rivers (including the Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt) that flow into the sea from the European interior. Sediment, sand, gravel, is picked up upstream in the water that flows out. In the low delta area, rivers easily flood, and so the sediments could be deposited on the flooded land. The Netherlands originated in part from these deposits. If there were no dunes and dikes along the sea, if there were no dikes along the rivers, a large part of the Netherlands would soon get wet feet. We are used to it, this has of course typified the Dutch landscape for years. We have taken our measures.
When the Romans were in our country around the turn of the year, what is now the Netherlands looked different than it is today. There were no dikes, the sea was blocked by dunes. Also in this time there were floods, against which the population protected themselves by building houses on higher parts as much as possible. Where higher stretches were missing, people raised, raised or raised elevations. The houses were built on this. Lower areas were wet and swampy.
The Netherlands, around 500 years before Christ - so well before Roman times / Source: RACM & TNO, Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA-3.0)
No IJsselmeer, Wadden Sea but a Flevo lake
What is now the IJsselmeer and what is now the Wadden Sea was largely a more or less dry area, with a number of larger lakes. Roman authors called the larger lake Lacus Flevo, Lake Flevo. This large lake was later called the Aelmere. You see, our current names Flevoland and Almere have a historic ground!
Around the beginning of the era you could walk from North Holland to Friesland, apart from a number of rivers that you had to cross.
The Netherlands, about 50 years after Christ. You already see more water. / Source: RACM & TNO, Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA-3.0)
Sea level rise
Temperatures were higher between the years 800-1200, causing sea levels to rise. That of course had immediate consequences for the low countries on the North Sea and parts of the country were flooded. Because of the wild sea currents, more tracts of land disappeared in the few hundred years that would follow. Around 1287 the Zuiderzee existed between the Wadden Islands and the province of Utrecht. In other words, the area that is now roughly the Wadden Sea, IJsselmeer and Flevoland.
The residents around the newly created Zuiderzee turned the emergency into a virtue, and focused on trade and fishing. Trading cities such as Amsterdam and Kampen were given opportunities to become stronger.
The Zuiderzee was a dangerous sea. The wild water currents did not always make the Zuiderzee easy to navigate for shipping. Because the Zuiderzee formed a sort of cove, the water could not go in the face of high tide and northwest wind. Outflow to the Wadden Sea was not possible due to wind and current, as a result of which there were regular floods.
Dykes along the Zuiderzee
Naturally, dikes were built along the coast of the Zuiderzee. This was a very long coastline. Construction, but also maintenance of these dikes was therefore a costly and labor-intensive affair. And a dyke is only as strong as its weakest point. Somewhere a weak spot, the dike can break through in high water or a north-western storm and flood large areas.
Already in the 17th century came Hendrick Stevin (Son of the famous mathematician Simon Stevin) with the idea that the Zuiderzee could be closed. He thought that a dike could come from the head of North Holland to all the Wadden Islands. Then the entire Zuiderzee, including the current Wadden Sea, would come inside the dikes and be reclaimed. Due to the high costs and the limited support for this idea, it has remained stuck at the 'dream' stage.
Polders: profit!
The idea of tackling large water surfaces was not new. Successful land reclamation projects, such as the Beemster in 1607-1612, then an inland sea of the Zuiderzee, brought the insight that you could do something about too much water. Moreover, this yielded good and usable land, usually fertile clay soil. More space for living, more space for agriculture. That land could be leased to farmers, or furnished as a country estate by wealthy merchants. Anyway, good money could be made from it!
The principle of land reclamation is actually simple. You build a dyke around the lake that you want to tackle. You then ensure that the water is pumped out of the lake. Nowadays we have electric mills for this, in the past windmills were used for this. It is not enough to pump water away, you must also ensure that it stays away. The pumping stations of today and the mills of the past will therefore have to remain active, although it can of course be a bit calmer than when pumping empty.
Plans that didn't make it
More plans were developed. In the nineteenth century, various planners considered the closure of the Zuiderzee. Some plans were far too cumbersome and far too expensive, others did not take nature into account. For example, you can put down a Afsluitdijk, but if you then forget that the river IJssel ended in the Zuiderzee, then you still create a major problem ...
In the following plans, the IJssel was taken into account, but extremely long dikes were devised, or the current from the North Sea was insufficiently taken into account. Politics was not enthusiastic about all these plans. People mainly saw high costs, but few benefits. You can see here some cards with plans that have not been made.
1848. Plan-Kloppenburg and Faddegon. This plan did not take into account the water drainage of the IJssel ... / Source: Danielm, Wikimedia Commons (Public Domain)
1849. Plan-Van Diggelen. According to the engineers T.J. Stieltjes and J.A. Beijerinck technically and financially unattainable. / Source: Danielm, Wikimedia Commons (Public domain)
1866. Plan-Beijerinck. According to the Council of Waterways, this yielded too little financially. / Source: Danielm, Wikimedia Commons (Public domain)
1870. Plan Stieltjes. An improvement to the Beijerinck plan, but it failed. / Source: Danielm, Wikimedia Commons (Public domain)
Will he make it, or will he not make it?
In 1877 a bill was submitted to implement a plan by engineer W. F. Leemans. This plan was less extensive than that of Stieltjes, and would result in a smaller IJsselmeer that could be reclaimed. Although this was the first plan that brought it to the bill, the next government plan would also withdraw.
Time is ripe
Now that the plans to tame the Zuiderzee succeeded each other more quickly, it turned out that the time was ripe to take constructive actions. In 1891, engineer Cornelius Lely came up with the first plan for definitively closing the Zuiderzee. The Lower House finally adopted a law for this, the Zuiderzee Act, in 1918.
Video: Zuiderzee Rally 2018 MISTAKES & FAST ACTIONBy 206GT (April 2020).
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<urn:uuid:9adfff04-cbb0-4a23-a677-021303819182>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.10183084011077881,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.967932939529419,
"url": "https://gh.wunschmomente.com/35042-from-lake-flevo-to-zuiderzee.html"
}
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alopec- +
(Greek > Latin: fox; baldness; derived from "mange in foxes"; bald patches on the head)
Fox mange, a disease in which the hair falls out; absence of the hair from skin areas where it normally is present; especially, of the head.
Alopecia is one characteristic of mange. It affects both men and women of all ages.
Mange is defined as a contagious scabies-like dermatitis occurring in various animals, including cattle, sheep, horses, dogs, cats, foxes, rabbits, rats, and gallinaceous birds (domestic fowls); caused by any of several of the mange mites.
alopecia areata
Loss of hair in sharply defined patches usually involving the scalp or beard.
A patch baldness that typically begins with rapid hair loss on certain areas of the scalp and sometimes it progresses to complete baldness and even loss of body hair.
Alopecia areata affects both males and females and, most often, children and young adults. It seems to be caused by the body's own immune system which attacks the hair follicles and disrupts normal hair formation.
The hair can sometimes regrow within a year without treatment; however, the longer the period of hair loss, the less chance that it will regrow.
alopecia capitis totalis (Latin term)
Translation: "Complete absence of hair from the scalp or the loss of all scalp hair; with normal hair elsewhere on the body remaining."
alopecia congenitalis
Baldness due to absence of hair bulbs at birth.
alopecia follicularis
Baldness due to inflammation of th hair follicles of the scalp.
alopecia liminaris
Loss of hair along the hairline, both front and back, of the scalp.
alopecia medicamentosa
Loss of hair due to the administration of certain medicines; especially, those containing cytotoxic agents.
alopecia pityroides
Loss of both scalp and body hair accompanied by desquamation of branlike scales.
alopecia prematura
Premature baldness.
alopecia symptomatica
Loss of hair after prolonged fevers or during the course of a disease and may result from systemic or psychogenic factors.
alopecia toxica
Loss of hair thought to be due to toxins of infectious disease.
alopecia universalis
Loss of hair from the entire body.
alopeciaphobia (s) (noun), alopeciaphobias (pl)
An angst or dread of going bald: Robert was getting on in age and terribly distressed about losing the hair on his scalp and so, as a result of his alopeciaphobia, he was looking for a wig that would conceal his phalacrosis!
A reference to the loss of hair or wool or feathers.
1. A person who claims to prevent baldness.
2. A practitioner who tries to prevent or cure baldness.
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<urn:uuid:d573619c-a951-477b-a21a-4bec0a92a2ad>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.03004699945449829,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9383239150047302,
"url": "https://wordinfo.info/unit/86/s:latin"
}
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Origami Goldfish
In this article, we will learn how to fold goldfish from the paper.
1. Fold the basic form “triangle”.
2. Fold “valley” sides of the workpiece.
3. Make two more folds “valley”, unbent upward only one layer of paper.
4. Fold the triangle in half again.
5. Turn off corners up.
6. Fold “valley” only one layer of paper.
7. Turn off a strip “mountain”.
8. Fold the triangle “valley” again.
9. Fold “mountain” a small corner.
10. Since the two sides incise lower layer of paper.
11. Turn off the lower layer of paper “mountain”.
12. Open inside.
13. Mark the fold “valley”, and then open the right side of the workpiece. Bend inside a small corner – a nose of a small fish.
14. On the lower part make a fold “mountain”. Repeat on the other side.The tummy has turned out.
15. Cut a semicircle on the tail.
16. Goldfish is ready. Draw eyes and paint the fins.
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<urn:uuid:c7712737-ee0d-4855-8e35-84c1e56360c2>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.6421513557434082,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7659149765968323,
"url": "http://en.zonar.info/origami-goldfish/"
}
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The Rise And Fall of Brody
If you travel about 90 kilometers northeast of Lemberg, You will find the city of Brody in Ukraine. Archaeological digs have revealed that this area has long been inhabited by humans, but the first written mention of Brody can be found in Kievan Rus documents dating back to 1084. Shortly after coming under the jurisdiction of the Polish commonwealth, Brody was considered to be an 'ideal' city by the Polish aristocracy. The city came to be governed by Magdeburger municipal law in 1584 and before long, a large number of Armenians, Scots, Greeks and Jews had migrated here. By the late 18th century a significant portion of the population of Brody was Jewish. The Jewish population served to boost trade in the form of the shipment of raw materials from Poland, Lituania and Russia. This ultimately led to Brody becoming one of the richest and most important cities in Poland. Brody also played an important role as the center of Orthodox Judaism.
After the first division of Poland in 1772, Brody went through a period of difficulty. This was later rectified when some 264 square kilometers of land was set-aside as a foreign trade zone by Maria Theresia in 1779. The move resulted in massive increases in trade, allowing Brody to becoming one of the most important commercial centers in both Central and Eastern Europe. About ten years later, the government saw fit to finally provide tax rebates to the citizens of Brody. This enabled them to rebuild their homes and start new businesses. At this time the city mainly traded in hemp, linen, wax, honey and tobacco. These goods were exchanged for items such as cotton linen, French silk, spices, beads, jewels, sugar, wool, feathers, springs, horses and fur – depending on which country Brody was trading with at the time. During the Napoleonic wars, Brody was considered to be the most important importer of colonial goods. Many of these goods were smuggled over the border due to the fact that a ban had been placed on the import of such items at the time. In the late 1900s, Brody started to suffer a decline. This started with the Viennese congress putting certain restrictions in place and ended with the eradication of the free trade patent in 1879. The city was ill prepared to cope with this since it had virtually no industry. Another massive blow was dealt to the city during WW II when almost all the Jewish inhabitants of the city were put into Ghettos only to be murdered or deported. Of the 10,000 Jews living in Brody prior to WW II, only 88 people survived long enough to see the liberation of their people.
Prior to WWII, Brody had come to play a pivotal role as a center of German-Jewish education. A number of famous Jewish Ukrainian people were educated here, excelling at professions such as mathematics, writing, chess and piano. Today, Brody is situated in the Lviv Oblast of Ukraine. It is not quite the center of trade that it once was, but it has become a popular tourist attraction. One may feel a cold shiver run down your spine as you tour the town and the cemetery and hear tales of how the Jews once suffered so cruelly in a town that once prospered so much mainly due to their ingenuity and business savvy. So visit Brody and learn more about this fascinating city.
back to Lviv Oblast
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<urn:uuid:b31483b9-9a0f-4ea0-835b-00acdd5c49b5>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.025607585906982422,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9791118502616882,
"url": "https://www.ukraine.com/regions/lviv-oblast/brody/"
}
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Troponin refers to a group of proteins that help regulate the contractions of the heart and skeletal muscles. High troponin levels can indicate a problem with the heart.
The heart releases troponin into the blood following an injury, such as a heart attack. Very high troponin levels usually mean that a person has recently had a heart attack. The medical term for this attack is myocardial infarction.
In this article, we discuss what troponin is, why doctors test troponin levels, and what the normal range is. We also cover the causes and treatment of high troponin levels and what to expect during the test.
Blood test for troponin levelsShare on Pinterest
A doctor may test troponin levels if a person is experiencing possible symptoms of a heart attack.
Troponin refers to three different proteins. Troponin C binds calcium and transports troponin I so that muscles can contract. Troponin T binds troponin proteins to muscle fibers.
The heart is essentially a muscle, and damage to the heart causes it to release troponin into the bloodstream. Troponin levels in the blood are normally very low, but injuries to the heart can cause the levels to increase significantly.
Troponin tests typically measure levels of troponin I or troponin T in the blood as a way to check for heart damage.
A troponin test can help detect an injury to the heart. A doctor may order the test if a person is experiencing possible symptoms of a heart attack, such as:
• chest pain
• shortness of breath
• a rapid heart rate
• lightheadedness
• fatigue
A doctor will not use elevated troponin levels alone to diagnose a heart condition. They will also take into account the person’s other symptoms and may use other diagnostic tools, such as a physical examination or an electrocardiogram (ECG).
Troponin testing, however, allows a doctor to assess the extent of any heart damage, which can guide treatment decisions and help determine if current treatments are effective.
Troponin levels are usually so low that standard blood tests are unable to detect them. Even small increases in troponin can indicate some damage to the heart.
Significantly raised levels of troponin, particularly if they rise and fall over a series of hours, are a strong indication of a heart injury.
The range for normal troponin levels can vary between laboratories, so it is best to discuss the results with the doctor who ordered the test. Laboratories measure troponin in nanograms per milliliter of blood (ng/ml).
The University of Washington’s Department of Laboratory Medicine provides the following ranges for troponin I levels:
• Normal range: below 0.04 ng/ml
• Probable heart attack: above 0.40 ng/ml
Having a result between 0.04 and 0.39 ng/ml often indicates a problem with the heart. However, a very small number of healthy people have higher than average levels of troponin. So, if the result is in this range, a doctor may check for other symptoms and order further tests before making a diagnosis.
According to Lab Tests Online, many labs in the United States are now using a high-sensitivity version of the troponin test, which the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved in 2017. This newer test can detect elevated troponin levels earlier than previous versions.
Doctors usually order a series of troponin tests to monitor how a person’s levels are changing over time.
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Elevated troponin levels may result from sepsis, kidney failure, heart failure, or a traumatic injury to the heart.
Very high levels of troponin typically indicate that a person has had a heart attack, which can occur if the blood supply to some of the heart muscle suddenly becomes blocked.
Lower but elevated troponin levels may point to another diagnosis.
Some causes of elevated troponin levels can include:
• sepsis, which is a severe and potentially life-threatening reaction to an infection entering the bloodstream
• kidney failure or chronic kidney disease
• heart failure
• chemotherapy-related damage to the heart
• pulmonary embolism
• heart infection
• myocarditis, which is inflammation of the heart
• heart damage from using recreational drugs, such as cocaine
• a traumatic injury to the heart, such as from a sudden, hard blow to the chest
High troponin levels are a symptom, not a diagnosis, so treatment will focus on finding and addressing the underlying cause.
Very high levels of troponin usually indicate that a person has recently had a heart attack. Treatment for a heart attack depends on whether the blockage preventing blood flow to the heart is partial or complete.
Some common treatments of a heart attack include:
• clot-dissolving medications
• coronary angioplasty, which is a procedure that involves threading a small balloon into the coronary artery to open up the blockage
• the insertion of a stent — a wire mesh tube — to prop open a blocked blood vessel during an angioplasty
• bypass surgery, which involves a surgeon creating new pathways for blood to travel to the heart muscle
• ablation, which is a treatment that destroys certain heart cells using radio waves
To prevent the risk of further heart attacks, a doctor will usually recommend lifestyle changes, such as quitting smoking, losing weight, getting more exercise, and eating a more healthful diet.
Treatments of other causes of high troponin levels may be different from treatments of a heart attack.
A troponin test is a simple blood test, and a healthcare professional will usually take the blood sample from the arm. Blood tests are generally very safe and quick.
To take the blood sample, the healthcare professional usually begins by wrapping a band around the person’s upper arm. Tightening this band causes the blood vessels to swell, making it easier to draw the blood.
The healthcare professional will then insert a needle into a blood vessel and withdraw some blood. The needle may cause a short, sharp sensation, but many people feel little or no pain.
It is important for a person to inform the healthcare professional if they feel dizzy or nauseous after giving the sample. Sitting for 5–10 minutes and drinking a glass of water or sugary juice can help relieve dizziness and nausea.
A doctor may request additional blood samples over the course of a few hours.
Doctors use troponin tests to assess whether there is damage to a person’s heart. Very high levels of troponin can indicate a recent heart attack.
Doctors usually order troponin testing if they suspect that a person has had a recent heart attack. Higher than normal levels of troponin can also indicate other injuries and conditions that affect the heart.
However, doctors do not use elevated troponin levels alone to diagnose a heart condition. They will also take into account the person’s other symptoms and may order further tests, such as an ECG.
Treatment for high troponin levels depends on the underlying cause. For people having a heart attack, treatment may involve emergency procedures to open the blocked artery.
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<urn:uuid:a803e3d4-4db9-4bde-a55f-5ea93fd171c9>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.1235775351524353,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8991024494171143,
"url": "https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/325415"
}
|
Study reveals the secret life of the Dodo
Even though they lived alongside humans for more than a century, scientists know precious little about the flightless birds known as the dodo, but a new analysis of the species’ bones could shed new light on the creature’s life cycle, including how quickly it grew to adulthood.
“Before our study the only things we knew about the ecology of these birds was that they were a big pigeon [with a body mass of] about 10 kilos,” lead author Delphine Angst, a paleontologist at the University of Cape Town in South Africa, said in an interview with The Guardian.
Now, however, she and her colleagues were able to analyze leg and wing bones belonging to 22 unique dodo specimens kept in museums around the world. Among other things, they discovered that dodo chicks tended to hatch in August and grew very quickly, according to BBC News.
“Using the bone histology for the first time,” Dr. Angst explained, “we managed to describe that this bird was actually breeding at a certain time of the year and was molting just after that.” Once they hatched, the dodos rapidly grew to adult size, she explained, and by March, they molted and revealed the fluffy grey plumage attributed to them in historical eyewitness accounts.
Technique allowed age, gender of specimens to be identified
Furthermore, the research, which was detailed in the latest issue of the journal Scientific Reports, made it possible to differentiate between adult and juvenile dodos, and male and female ones, for the first time, according to CNN. This was accomplished by studying the number of layers found each specimen’s bones, as well as finding a tissue produced only by ovulating females.
That special tissue, Dr. Angst told The Guardian, provides a supply of calcium which is used in the production of eggs. The presence of this bone tissue, she said, allowed them to tell for certain that a specimen “is a female during ovulation, which is quite cool.” However, without that tissue, she said it would be impossible to identify the sex of any given dodo specimen.
Based on their analysis, the study authors determined that the chicks hatched in August and grew rather quickly. This would enable them to be prepared when cyclones and other severe storms hit their home island between November and March, limiting the availability of food. In late March, the birds would begin to molt, starting with the wing and tail feathers, and by the end of July, all of their juvenile feathers would be completely replaced – just in time for mating season.
“For the first time, we have some evidence of the reproduction and the molting,” Dr. Angst told CNN, “but on top of that, we can say when these events happen[ed] during the year. Our results show that there is still a lot of things which have to be discovered about the dodo.”
“The authors of this study have done a wonderful job filling important gaps in our understanding of how the dodo lived over 300 years after the last dodo died,” avian paleobiologist Daniel Field, a researcher from the University of Bath who was not involved in the newly-published analysis, told The Guardian.
Image credit: Julian Hume
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<urn:uuid:444e8e9a-beec-40fa-8795-c943f786d5ed>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.027938365936279297,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9750895500183105,
"url": "https://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113418636/study-reveals-the-secret-life-of-the-dodo/"
}
|
Tuesday, May 5, 2020
We just learned about the Meibomian Gland that helps keep your eyes wet.
Another part of the eye is the Canthus, or canthi for both of them.
This is the inner and outer corners of your eyes, where your upper and lower eyelids meet.
Remember the eyelids are called the palpebra, and another name for the canthus is the palpebral commissure.
The inner canthus is the "medial" palpebral commisure, and the outer canthus is the "lateral".
(from: wikipedia - canthus)
Kid Facts - Blast from the past: Palatal Rugae
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<urn:uuid:78fc9553-f329-4042-ac85-be0e687f82e9>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.12218880653381348,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9004728198051453,
"url": "https://www.kid-facts.com/2020/05/canthus.html"
}
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Affordances 101: What You Can Learn About User Interactions
Users require physical clues on what they should do on your site and where they should do it. This is where visual clues or affordances come in; they show users what they should do. This article will show you how you can design the best affordances to guide your site users.
What is an affordance?
The term affordance refers to the properties of an object that imply how the object can be used. Affordances give clues on how an object can be used to carry out an action. For instance, the slots on a vending machine are affordances, they show you that you can insert something, perhaps a coin in order to make a purchase. The possibility of inserting something into a slot, is its affordance.
In the context of UI and UX, affordances are used to help users know what they should do without having to use pictures, labels or instructions. A great example of affordances are buttons, users know that buttons can be pushed because they resemble the buttons that they encounter and push in real life. The likelihood of a user pushing a button is the button’s affordance.
Affordances provide useful visual cues and psychological shortcuts that help users understand the tasks that they can carry out on a website or within an app. When used well, affordances make your designs intuitive and easy to use, which increases conversions.
Affordance vs Signifier: Key Differences
What’s the difference between an affordance and a signifier? A signifier indicates that an affordance exists, it can be a mark, a sound or a label. Microcopy on a button that states ‘click to create an account’ is a signifier that indicates the presence of the affordance of pushing a button.
Types of affordances
For you to understand how you can use affordances to improve user interactions, you need to first understand the different types of affordances available. They are: explicit, hidden, pattern, metaphorical, false and negative.
Explicit affordances
These affordances give cues using the physical appearance of an object or language. Buttons that have a high contrast and resemble real life buttons afford pushing. Similarly, an input field with the words ‘enter email address’ affords an email address being entered. Facebook uses explicit affordances on its buttons that are clearly labelled as ‘Log In’ and ‘Create Account’ and on its input fields that are also labeled.
Explicit affordances (Source)
These affordances are said to be explicit because almost anyone can understand how they need to interact with the element, even if they have never interacted with digital interfaces before. Explicit affordances are easily discoverable by users and are thus well suited for users who are not tech-savvy and do not understand common design conventions or patterns. These affordances are also useful when you are introducing new or innovative digital interfaces that users are not familiar with.
Hidden affordances
Hidden affordances are not revealed to the user until they take a specific action such as hoovering or mousing over an element. The drop down menu is a hidden affordance where the user cannot see the other menu items unless they click on or hover on the parent tab. The Asos Marketplace website uses a drop down menu to display more clothing categories. Users cannot see this drop down menu until they click on the clothing tab.
Hidden affordances (Source)
Hidden affordances are used to reduce clutter and emphasize on the hierarchy/level of importance of the actions that users can take. However, there is a danger that users might not know how to reveal the hidden affordances. This danger shows that hidden affordances should not be used for important actions and should be reserved for actions that users can do without.
Pattern affordances
Pattern affordances are the most common type of affordance because they rely on patterns that users already recognize. The navigation on the homepage of a website is a pattern that many users understand and therefore many websites, such as Apple, have a navigation on their homepages.
Pattern affordances (Source)
Another pattern is the logo on a website which takes users back to the homepage when clicked. Users also understand that in a body of text, text that has a different color, is underlined or italicized is almost always a link.
Patterns provide useful mental shortcuts for users which removes the need for memorization. Patterns are useful when designing for an audience that is tech savvy but might be confusing for audiences that have less experience with digital interfaces. As a designer, you should be wary of breaking existing patterns because users will have to learn the new pattern before they can recognize it.
Metaphorical affordances
These affordances use real-life objects as metaphors for actions that users can take. Metaphorical affordances are used in many interface icons to inform users of the actions that they can take. The magnifying glass icon affords searching, the envelope icon affords sending an email and the plus sign icon affords creating something new like a document or email.
Metaphorical affordances (Source
These affordances can be contextual as in the case of the magnifying glass ison which affords searching when put next an input field and affords zooming when put in a document viewer. Because of their relationship to real world objects, metaphorical affordances are useful for communicating complex tasks quickly as users can easily understand them.
Negative affordances
These affordances tell users that some design elements are inactive and that they cannot be acted upon. Such affordances include greyed out buttons or input fields that can only be activated if another action is complete. In the example below, the password input field can only be activated when the user clicks on the change button.
Negative affordance
Negative affordances are useful in guiding users on the order in which they need to take action. A user cannot submit a form unless they fill out all the fields, so the submit button is greyed out and only becomes active when all the fields are filled out.
False affordances
These are affordances that appear to afford one action but actually afford another action or no action at all. A piece of text that is colored and underlined but not linked is a false affordance. A greyed out button which affords the pattern of being inactive but is actually clickable is a false affordance. This is the case on Medium, the ‘Manage Publications’ and ‘Manage Newsletters‘ buttons are greyed out and thus look inactive but they are actually clickable.
False affordances (Source)
False affordance causes user errors and lower conversions, so designers should avoid them.
How to design the best affordances
When done right, affordances reduce user errors and cognitive load while improving user experience and increasing conversions. Here are some tips to help you design the best affordances.
1. Always put the users first by researching their needs and their context. This information will help you to design helpful affordances for your users.
2. Create logical and clear affordances which will make it easy for your users to intuitively understand your affordances.
3. Use signifiers to provide more information to your users about the affordances you design. You can use text labels, highlights, color and shadows to male affordances obvious.
4. Follow common design conventions to make it easy for users to understand your affordances.
5. Use size to show your users the affordances that they should prioritize.
Design the best affordances
Affordances give users metal shortcuts that help them understand the tasks that they can carry out on a digital interface. Use UXPin to create realistic buttons that get clicks and use the pattern library to create clear and consistent affordances throughout your designs. Sign up for a free trial of UXPin today and start collaborating with your team on your affordance designs.
Still hungry for the design?
Start your free trial
These e-Books might interest you
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<urn:uuid:61d707c9-fdfa-44e7-8aca-28e2265335dc>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.1892484426498413,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9045013189315796,
"url": "https://www.uxpin.com/studio/blog/affordances-user-interaction/"
}
|
• Dutch
• Frisian
• Afrikaans
Show full table of contents
Function of the definite article
The definite article indicates that the domain of discourse is constructed in such a way that its noun phrase (NP) has a unique referent in a local domain of discourse (Van Rooy 2017:264). This implies that its NP is a topic that is either familiar from the preceding discourse, or is common knowledge which is known anyhow to the discourse participants.
For a referent to become familiar, it must first be introduced into the discourse. Indefinites are used to signal the first introduction of a new referent in the discourse. The following discourse illustrates this:
Example 1
Sy het gesien daar was 'n hond in die slagyster op Mini se erf. Daar was ook 'n vars dooie bokkop wat die hond gelok het.
she have.AUX see.PST there be.PRT a dog in the trap on Mini PTCL.GEN yard there be.PRT also a fresh dead goat.head that.REL the dog lure.PST have.AUX
She saw that there was a dog in the trap on Mini's yard. There was also a fresh dead goat's head that lured the dog.
The indefinite article'n a presents a new referent, a dog, in the discourse, whereas the definite article die the is used to make the dog, now familiar in the domain of discourse, the topic. In this example, the discourse has made the NPhond dog a familiar referent.
In other cases, the referent will already or always be known to the discourse participants, as illustrated by the following examples:
Example 2
Die President stel die Adjunkpresident en Ministers aan.
the president appoint the deputy.president and ministers on
The President appoints the Deputy President and Ministers.
Example 3
Die burgermeester het intussen 'n aandklokreël ingestel om plundery te voorkom.
the mayor have.AUX meanwhile a evening.bell.rule in.set.PST for.COMP looting PTCL.INF prevent.INF
The mayor, meanwhile, has set an evening bell rule to prevent looting.
But a definite NP like the president or the mayor bears the definite article, since this referent will already be known to all the discourse participants; this referent directly conjures up a familiar discourse – a county only has one president, a city has only one mayor.
• Van Rooy, B2017Kontemporêre Afrikaanse taalkunde [Contemporary Afrikaans linguistics]Afrikaanse sintaksis, funksioneel benader [Afrikaans syntax, functionally approached]Van Schaik Uitgewers251-297
This is a beta version.
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Equine Anatomy & Physiology
Equine Dentition
How does the course work?
Online Course NO certification
2 h
Online learning
What you will learn
In this course you will learn all about a horse’s teeth, including:
• the different types of teeth and what they are used for;
• how horses’ teeth differ from humans’;
• what teeth are made of;
• how many teeth a horse has; and
• how teeth change during a horse’s life and how this can be used to estimate a horse’s age.
Dr Isabel Imboden
Dr Dagmar Sens-Kirchenbauer
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• Rahul Prabhune
Adapter Design Pattern
An adapter helps two incompatible interfaces to work together. This is the real world definition for an adapter. Interfaces may be incompatible but the inner functionality should suit the need. The Adapter design pattern allows otherwise incompatible classes to work together by converting the interface of one class into an interface expected by the clients.
There are two variations of the Adapter pattern: The class adapter implements the adaptee's interface whereas the object adapter uses composition to contain the adaptee in the adapter object. This example uses the object adapter approach.
Real world example
Consider that you have some pictures in your memory card and you need to transfer them to your computer. In order to transfer them you need some kind of adapter that is compatible with your computer ports so that you can attach memory card to your computer. In this case card reader is an adapter. Another example would be the famous power adapter; a three legged plug can't be connected to a two pronged outlet, it needs to use a power adapter that makes it compatible with the two pronged outlet. Yet another example would be a translator translating words spoken by one person to another
In plain words
Adapter pattern lets you wrap an otherwise incompatible object in an adapter to make it compatible with another class.
Wikipedia says
In software engineering, the adapter pattern is a software design pattern that allows the interface of an existing class to be used as another interface. It is often used to make existing classes work with others without modifying their source code.
Programmatic Example
You can find the working copy on this example on GitHub.
Consider a captain that can only use rowing boats and cannot sail at all. First we have interfaces RowingBoat and FishingBoat
And captain expects an implementation of RowingBoat interface to be able to move
Now let's say the pirates are coming and our captain needs to escape but there is only fishing boat available. We need to create an adapter that allows the captain to operate the fishing boat with his rowing boat skills.
And now the Captain can use the FishingBoat to escape the pirates.
Use the Adapter pattern when
Class and object adapters have different trade-offs. A class adapter
• adapts Adaptee to Target by committing to a concrete Adaptee class. As a consequence, a class adapter won’t work when we want to adapt a class and all its subclasses.
• let’s Adapter override some of Adaptee’s behavior, since Adapter is a subclass of Adaptee.
• introduces only one object, and no additional pointer indirection is needed to get to the adaptee.
An object adapter
• let’s a single Adapter work with many Adaptees—that is, the Adaptee itself and all of its subclasses (if any). The Adapter can also add functionality to all Adaptees at once.
• makes it harder to override Adaptee behavior. It will require subclassing Adaptee and making Adapter refer to the subclass rather than the Adaptee itself.
Real world examples
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Section 3: 'Broad front' or 'knifelike thrust'?
Main purpose:
This section looks at whether it was really logistically possible to end the war in Europe earlier with a "knifelike thrust" deep into the heart of Germany, which could have crippled their war industry.
Questions you may need to answer before reading:
1. Question goes here...
2. Words you may need defined:
• word
Van Creveld begins by laying out three popular views on the question of whether WW2 could have been ended earlier with a "knifelike thrust" deep into Germany. All three views are in agreement that there was an opportunity, but they have different views on why the opportunity was missed. First, there's the view that the opportunity was missed due to American inaction. Second, there's the view that the opportunity was too risky to take advantage of. Third, there's the view that there was no way to take advantage of the opportunity anyway, due to supply and transportation shortfalls, meaning that it really wasn't an opportunity to begin with.
Van Creveld reviews the Allied logistical and strategic situation in Europe in 1944. Huge operational gains had been made, always against the advice of the logisticians. The logisticians were finally called on the carpet to explain themselves, and had to go back to the drawing board to re-evaluate their estimates. They created another set of overly-cautious estimates and conditions that had to be met for operations to be conducted. These were quickly proved just as wrong as the first set of estimates, mostly by Patton and Hodges, who outran the logistics plan by 200 miles and several months despite meeting few of the logisticians' conditions for successful operations.
At this point, ineffective logistics plans were constantly being abandoned and overcome at the tactical (and even the operational) level, but the strategic level just couldn't improvise fast enough to keep up. Every plan for a new supply depot was outrun by the tempo of operations, and COMZ eventually stopped trying to set one up. Instead, they tried to keep things simple and flexible for once, and limited themselves to pushing the most critical supplies (ammo, fuel, and food) on transportation they yanked from every unit that wasn't a major priority. Other transportation solutions included attempts to use air drops (though they delivered relatively average of 1,000 tons per day) and the innovative Red Ball Express (a loop of one-way highways reserved exclusively for endless resupply convoys of trucks).
Although these measures were a step in the right direction, it was too little too late, and the situation finally began to resemble the logisticians' gloomy predictions. The flow of supplies slowly dropped from 19,000 to less than 7,000 tons per day, causing the Allied armies to grind to a halt. At this point, the common sense, "company gunny"-type solutions became more sinister, as they frequently do in the absence of proper support. Soldiers impersonated members of other units, convoys were diverted or hijacked, transportation companies were robbed of the fuel they needed for return trips, and spotter planes were diverted to the rear just to search for friendly fuel convoys to intercept. The logistics push system became a problem as well, with transport being wasted pushing supplies that armies didn't need. Van Creveld also briefly notes that these problems were more severe with the Americans than the British, due in some cases to their different situation (the British had more and better roads, shorter supply lines, etc.), but also due to at least a few good logistics decisions made by the British (e.g., flexing by reducing the offload rate at the ports, which freed up more trucks to move supplies to the front).
Van Creveld moves on to the German situation. Operations from D-Day onward had destroyed huge and irreplaceable quantities of vehicles, weapons, and other materiel. Even in cases where the losses were less severe (like artillery, where the Germans were only outnumbered 3 to 1), shortfalls in critical supplies (like, say, artillery ammunition) created problems. In some cases this created complete strategic imbalances, like in the case of combat aircraft, where the Germans were totally outmatched. And this is without even getting into manpower shortfalls due to casualties, which had reduced entire divisions to regimental strength or less. The situation for both sides having been reviewed, van Creveld is ready to address his central attack on the Ruhr.
In light of the huge German shortfalls, there seemed to be an opportunity to thrust deep into the industrial heart of Germany on the Ruhr River. The route was wide open, and success could have crippled the Germans even further, maybe even forcing them to surrender. To understand this opportunity and any decision over whether or not to take advantage of it, van Creveld says we need to step back to the planning of the Allies' campaigns in Europe during the spring of 1944.
The plan was simple. The main effort would be the Ruhr River, not Berlin (Berlin was just too far away to be the objective of the first campaigns). While there was an easy and direct route to the Ruhr, it was paired with a second advance from another direction to keep the Germans guessing where the blow would actually come from (and hopefully force them spread out their already-thin resources). Was this a good idea? Was this a bad idea? Van Creveld doesn't know, but his point is this: the breakout from Normandy was very different from what the Allies had in mind when they planned this broad advance on the Ruhr.
After watching the lightning advances after Normandy, Field Marshall Montgomery started having second thoughts about this two-advance deception plan. His new idea was to freeze all supporting efforts in Europe, yank all possible resources from those supporting efforts (especially logistics resources), and dump them all on a main effort that would drive directly to the Ruhr (and possibly directly onward to Berlin in a second campaign), decisively ending the war. He attempted to sell this plan to Eisenhower, but Eisenhower wasn't convinced.
From Eisenhower's perspective, this wasn't such a great idea for three reasons. First, it meant halting Patton, Eisenhower's lead sled dog. Second, Eisenhower thought any advance on the Ruhr had to wait on the port of Antwerp to be opened up, or logistical problems would jack up the operation. And third, Montgomery briefed his plan very badly, mostly by talking about Berlin as its ultimate objective, which confused everybody. Montgomery was just being dramatic, but everyone thought he literally meant a huge overextension aimed at Berlin, which Eisenhower could safely reject as unreasonable.
For better or worse, Montgomery was distracted from pitching his plan when the Germans started rocketing London. The politicians back home told him screw the Ruhr, and that his new top priority was capturing those rocket launch sites as soon as humanly possible. This forced him to advance in an entirely different direction, and Eisenhower happily supported him. But this brings van Creveld back to the question of "what if?".
What if Eisenhower had agreed with Montgomery's plan, and the Allies dropped everything in favor of pushing to the Ruhr along a single axis of advance instead of two, even though the port of Antwerp wasn't open? Could it have been done? Van Creveld, true to his promise at the beginning of the Supplying War, decides to answer this question with hard numbers.
First, he determines the forces that would have been involved...about 18 divisions between the Americans and the British. Second, he determines how far they would have been going...about 130 miles. Third, he makes some reasonable assumptions about what resources would have been available...probably no railways once they made it into Germany due to sabotage, and probably no air support in Germany due to a lack of airfields. With all that established, he moves on to what the forces' requirements were, and how those requirements could be moved and distributed.
On average, a division required about 650 tons of supplies per day, though van Creveld admits this might be a slight overestimation. Using these estimates, the whole "knifelike thrust" operation would need 11,700 tons of supplies a day (18 divisions x 650 tons per day). Out of this total, the British would need about 5,850 tons per day for their 9 divisions. Van Creveld concludes that between 2,800 tons per day delivered to supply depots in Belgium by rail, 1,000 tons a day delivered to Brussels by planes diverted from frozen operations in Arnhem, and 500 tons per day delivered by surplus American trucks taken from frozen operations in Normandy, the British could come very close, with 4,300 tons per day. And if Montgomery used his own organic trucks to bring up supplies from near Caen and Bayeux, he could have covered the last 1,550 tons per day that he needed. Once the supplies made it to the depots, getting them to the frontline troops would require 58 truck companies. Since the British had 140 of these companies, they could have probably dedicated enough to make the knifelike thrust work, plus had enough left over to support the Canadians, who would be free to advance toward Antwerp, addressing Eisenhower's concerns about opening the port. So the nine British divisions could have done it, but it would have been a close thing (and it probably would have required getting some American trucks).
The nine American divisions would have had a harder time. During this period, Hodges' divisions were only getting 3,500 tons per day out of the 5,850 they needed, and even getting them that much was difficult. Van Creveld estimates that Hodges was short about 35 truck companies to bring up additional supplies to him from the rear depots. Once the "knifelike thrust" actually began, he'd need another 58 truck companies to supply him at the front lines. So, the knifelike thrust question really comes down to how many trucks could have been taken from Patton if he had been halted.
Unfortunately, we don't know exactly how much transport was really supporting Patton at this time, but van Creveld thinks we can make an educated guess. Patton was receiving about 3,500 tons of supplies per day, maybe even a bit more, and he was receiving it over about 180 miles, which implies that the equivalent of 52 truck companies was at work in one way or another. Between those and an additional 15 truck companies that could safely be yanked from frozen operations against Brest by VIII Corps, Hodges could have had as many as 65 truck companies in support of him, far short of the 93 van Creveld projected. However, van Creveld notes that while there aren't specific figures, pulling the forces' organic trucks for use as provisional truck companies probably could have shaved off 1,500 tons per day, cutting Hodges' truck company requirements down to 71...very close to the 65 or so that we've already estimated could have been freed up. It's close, but van Creveld is willing to give it to him. Montgomery's "knifelike thrust" idea was, at least on the face of it, within the realm of possibility.
Questions you should be able to answer after reading:
1. Question goes here...
Capt Palmer's favorite quote:
"With petrol in their tanks and rations in their pockets, combat units, faced with very little organized opposition, could accelerate their progress almost at will. Not so COMZ, however, which found it impossible to make depots keep pace with the rapidly advancing front. No sooner had a site been selected than it was left behind, and after several attempts (each costly in terms of transport) COMZ gave up in despair and concentrated on bringing up the most essential items from bases that were sometimes 300 miles in the rear."
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Share This Article:
Economic Definition of production stages. Defined.
Offline Version: PDF
Term production stages Definition: The three stages of production are characterized by the slope and shape of the total product curve. The first stage is characterized by an increasingly positive slope, the second stage by a decreasingly positive slope, and the third stage by a negative slope. Because the slope of the total product curve IS marginal product, these three stages are also seen with marginal product. In Stage I, marginal product is positive and increasing. In Stage II, marginal product is positive, but decreasing. And in Stage III, marginal product is negative.
« production possibilities schedule | production time periods »
Alphabetical Reference to Over 2,000 Economic Terms
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Victorian era (1830-1900)
1830 was the beginning of the Victorian era. This literary period was short and volatile, in terms of thought and style; daring use of words and letters, pressing the bounds of literary tradition. It is very distinct (victorian).
Notable examples of the authors of this period would be; Charles Dickens (1812-1870), Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930), Alfred Tennyson(Lord) (1809-1892), and many others whose works are as recognizable.
The only traces of Jacobean era English, at this time, were stylistic holdovers, like those seen in the poetic literature of Tennyson.
Meanwhile, in American literature, writers such as Emily Dickinson (1830-1886), had no such stylistic relics in their poetry, that I have come across. That is not to say that they did not exist.
Scriptural writings were, in their day, of necessity, written in the linguistic style of the translators; which to the reader of that day would appear non-stylistic, being, to them, of modern vernacular.
Why then was the Book of Mormon stylized, to match Jacobean era literature?
1. http://www.victorianweb.org/vn/index.html web. retrieved 1/7/17
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_literature web. retrieved 1/7/17
Joseph Smith did not just translate the Book of Mormon into Jacobean English, but into a very specific type of Jacobean English, as used in the King James Version of the Bible (KJV). W. H Stevenson (King James's Bible: A Selection, 'The Language of AV' - ebook) says King James was a virtual contemporary of William Shakespeare, but that the language is not the same as that of Shakespeare's plays. For example, he says "The formality of 'Forasmuch as ...' (e.g. 2 Sam 19:30), was never 'ordinary' English." Presumably, Smith was at least influenced by his knowledge of the KJV to translate the Book of Mormon into the register of Jacobean English that had been used in the KJV, for example:
2 Nephi 18:6: Forasmuch as this people refuseth the waters ...
2 Nephi 27:25: Forasmuch as this people draw unto me ...
Smith copied not only the Jacobean English of the KJV, but some other usages characteristic of the Bible. The phrase 'And it came to pass' occurs more than 200 times in the Old Testament and more than 50 times in the New Testament. Although these passages are sometimes translated in other ways in different English Bibles, what we see in the KJV is a valid translation of the Masoretic and Greek texts. I have not counted them, but there are said to be more than 1400 occurrences of 'and it came to pass' in the Book of Mormon. Another example is that Mark's Gospel is noted, more than any other book of the Bible, for beginning many sentences with 'And', which is as ungrammatical in Greek as in English. I point this out because Smith found many sentences in the Book of Mormon that he also translated in the same way.
The KJV twice referred, incorrectly, to seraphims, where the Hebrew seraphim is already plural. The 1830 version of the Book of Mormon faithfully adopted this Jacobean spelling, although later versions of the Book of Mormon adopted the Hebrew 'seraphim'.
Stevenson (ibid) says that the language of the KJV has "become familiar as the prototype of a kind of religious dialect whose very archaism is one of its distinguishing features." I propose that Smith adopted this biblical English in his translations because his contemporaries would not have accepted a Victorian English Book of Mormon as authentic scripture.
| improve this answer | |
• 2
(+1) I appreciate the lengths you are willing to travel, for the sake of exactness. The uniqueness of the KJV as a sample of Jacobean era literature was a superfluity I declined in my draft. However, seeing it in this answer has made me rethink the importance of that decision. Well done sir. – Abstraction is everything. Jan 8 '17 at 6:16
• 7
And it came to pass that an upvote was made, yea, even unto the answer of acceptance, and all the people were exceedingly glad. – Robert Columbia Jan 9 '17 at 1:56
From an exmormon standpoint, an alternative explanation is that there were no plates to "translate," and the whole thing was something he created, using contemporary sources. The current thinking is that he (obviously) drew heavily from the King James Bible, but also several other books that were popular at the time and widely available in his area of the country. The books that appear to be likely sources are:
1) View of the Hebrews, a work by Ethan Smith which has a very similar "plot" as the Book of Mormon- that Native Americans are descendants of Jews that traveled from Israel.
2) The Late War, a book written about the War of 1812 for school children in New York. It was written in "biblical" prose, and many of the passages have striking similarities to passages in the BoM.
3) The First Book of Napoleon, another work that was contemporary to Joseph Smith, which also contains many passages that read almost verbatim to passages in the BoM.
A lot of fascinating research has been done about word patterns in the BoM and similarities between the BoM and the works listed above. (I have links to multiple other sources but I can't post more than 2 due to being new to the site, apparently.)
Edit: Ok, now I have enough street cred to add more links:
View of the Hebrews (just wikipedia)
Side by side quotations from The Late War and the BoM
Article about word analysis and The First book of Napoleon. Youtube link to a presentation within the article.
| improve this answer | |
LDS Perspective
If this is a truth question, one can only speculate because as far as I can tell, it does not appear that Joseph Smith ever addressed the question of why the Book of Mormon uses the English style it does.
Ultimately, the LDS perspective is that God commanded and helped Joseph to translate the plates so that translation was not decided by Joseph Smith himself, but by God. See Book of Mormon Translation - lds.org
The assumption that the Book of Mormon is written with the English of the Jacobean era stands to be proven. Comparing it to the KJV of the Bible may not necessarily be considered Jacobean English because scholars have said that 90% of it was based on the Tyndale translation which was done prior to the Jacobean period. Coggan 1968, pp. 18-19.
English in the Book of Mormon
Many of the stylistic examples in the Book of Mormon that may be incorrectly attributed to the style of English may actually be attributed to the original language of the text. For example,
Another example:
Many more examples are given in this Study done on Book of Mormon Language
A quick text analysis of the Book of Mormon shows that the phrase "and it came to pass" occurs in the Book of Mormon 1123 times. One LDS member makes the case that the phrase "and it came to pass" is precisely what certain words in the original language means (therefore not necessarily an english phrase from an earlier era). See "And it came to pass..."
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• Sure, one place is from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndale_Bible. I just referenced the actual text (Coggan) that was referenced in the wikipedia article. – JBaczuk Jan 8 '17 at 19:46
• Yes, as I have read, the several disparate testimonies, the seer stone, was the agent, per word, and in some cases regarding difficult pronunciations, per letter of the actual translation. So, you think the question should be. Why did God decide to stylize the BoM after a bygone inflection? – Abstraction is everything. Jan 8 '17 at 19:57
• That is an interesting wording of the question as well. But, honestly I think your original question is good. For example, the words shall, hither, twain, etc. are all old English that is not used as much today. I think there is an argument there. I also think that there are some premises of the question that could be challenged such as that the BOM matches the english of KJV Bible. – JBaczuk Jan 8 '17 at 20:04
• " The uniqueness of the KJV as a sample of Jacobean era literature was a superfluity I declined in my draft." See that I pulled this from a comment to the acc. post above. I chose to leave this arg. alone. for this spec. reason. The disparity between the Victorian era and the BoM OE grammar alone was my original contest. I have no interest in the minutiae. – Abstraction is everything. Jan 8 '17 at 20:16
• Maybe you should be taking this up with @DickHarfield: as this was his point, not mine. – Abstraction is everything. Jan 8 '17 at 20:21
I think the answer is probably a lot simpler than some might think. Joseph Smith was basically illiterate, as his wife testifies to, when he set out to translate the Book of Mormon. It is possible he learned English from the Holy Bible itself, and used the examples therein as a basic format to go by. Considering many families at the time were poor and often the Holy Bible was the only book they owned as books were not easily come by.
| improve this answer | |
• Welcome to Christianity.SE. For a quick overview, please take the Site Tour. For more on what this site is all about, see: How we are different than other sites. For some tips on writing good answers here, see: What makes a good supported answer? If you could provide one or two links or references to support your answer, it would be greatly improved. Meanwhile, thanks for offering an answer here. – Lee Woofenden Feb 12 '17 at 17:15
• @CharlesFox: I see what you are getting@. However, it has already been well established, in this thread, that the translation was effected by supernatural means, beyond Smith's control, word for word, and in those cases where his elocution failed him (enter the deficit you have ascribed to his faculty, being an ignoramus) it is unlikely that Joseph Smith was instrumental in the translation much further than directing the medium @ the golden plates and stammering; that is, until his frustration drove him to the iteration of individual letters. You get points for thinking (+1) outside of the box – Abstraction is everything. Feb 12 '17 at 17:34
I think Joseph put the Book of Mormon into the religious language he was familiar with - that of the King James Bible. Any translator has the choice of vernacular to put a work into and he thought this sounded appropriate for a sacred text. Would like to point out that while the King James Bible has some inaccuracies, it is still probably the best English translation out there for preserving the poetic feel of the Bible. Second best would be the New Jerusalem Bible. The Bible, New and Old Testament, is not a prose document. It is poetry, 100%. If you really want to hear it, go to a conservative Jewish Synagogue some Saturday and listen to the chanting. In the original, there are sound-poetic elements that we are all familiar with in English - rhyme, meter, alliteration, assonance etc. In addition, the Bible uses many kinds of structure poetry couplets, acrostics and chiasm. (side note - Book of Mormon also has similar poetic elements, especially chiastic poetry) To translate one work of poetry into a different language is a new artistic work. Due to cultural factors at the time of King James Bible, poetry was considered as the only appropriate vernacular for sacred subjects.
Mormons today share that view of a certain vernacular being appropriate for sacred subjects and are taught to pray in King James English.
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Your Answer
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Lade Inhalt...
English in the Republic of Ireland
A fieldwork-based case study
Examensarbeit 2009 61 Seiten
Anglistik - Kultur und Landeskunde
List of Maps
List of Tables
1 Introduction
1.1 Terminology
1.2 The area under investigation
2 The historical background
2.1 The history of Ireland
2.1.1 Early Irish history
2.1.2 The beginning of Anglo-Irish relations
2.1.3. The establishment of Irish independence
2.2. The story of the Irish and English language in Ireland
2.2.1 The heyday of the Irish language
2.2.2 The emergence of the English language
2.2.3 The rise of English
2.2.4 The Gaelic Revival
3 The study of Irish English features
3.1 Research Design
3.2. Features of Irish English
3.2.1 The ‘after’-perfect
3.2.2 The ‘medial object’ -perfect
3.2.3 The ‘indefinite anterior’ -perfect
3.2.4 The ‘be’-perfect
3.2.5 The ‘extended now’-perfect
3.2.6 Embedded inversion
3.2.7 Subordinating ‘and’
3.2.8 The ‘dative of disadvantage’
3.2.9 The ‘negative imperative’
3.3 Discussion of the overall results
4 Conclusion
5 Bibliography
Appendix 1 Questionnaire
Appendix 2 Internet Sources
List of Maps
Map 1: County Mayo
Map 2: The Penal Laws
Map 3: Irish speaking areas
List of Tables
Table 1: Percentage of Irish speakers since 1861
Table 2: People speaking Irish on a daily basis
Table 3: Gender
Table 4: Age
Table 5: Residence
Table 6: Education
Table 7: Irish
Table 8: Acceptance of Q a)
Table 8.1: Acceptance of Q a) matched with proficiency in Irish
Table 8.2: Acceptance of Q a) matched with main residence
Table 8.3: Acceptance of Q a) matched with gender
Table 9: Acceptance of Q b)
Table 9.1: Acceptance of Q b) matched with proficiency in Irish
Table 9.2: Acceptance of Q b) in age group 2
Table 10: Acceptance of Q c)
Table 10.1: Acceptance of Q c) matched with proficiency in Irish
Table 10.2. Acceptance of Q c) matched with main residence
Table 10.3: Acceptance of Q c) matched with age groups
Table 11: Acceptance of Q d)
Table 11.1: Acceptance of Q d) matched with gender
Table 11.2: Acceptance of Q d) matched with proficiency in Irish
Table 12: Acceptance of Q e)
Table 12.1: Acceptance of e) with proficiency in Irish
Table 13: Acceptance of Q f)
Table 13.2: Acceptance of Q f) in age group 2
Table 14: Acceptance of Q g)
Table 14.1: Acceptance of Q g) matched with proficiency in Irish
Table 14.2: Acceptance of Q g) matched with main residence
Table 14.3: Acceptance of Q g) matched with age groups
Table 14.4: Acceptance of Q g) matched with gender
Table 15: Acceptance of Q h)
Table 16: Acceptance of Q i)
Table 16.1: Acceptance of Q i) matched with main residence
Table 16.2: Acceptance of Q i) matched with proficiency in Irish
Table 16.3: Acceptance for Q i) matched with age groups
Table 17: Implicational scale of all sample sentences.
Table 18: Cronbach’s alpha
Table 19: Comparison with Hickey’s Survey of Irish English Usage (2004)
“While we may deplore the misfortunes that almost cost us our own ancestral tongue, it is some light consolation that we have contributed to the enrichment of our neighbours’, and that we have succeeded in moulding and shaping a distinctive Irish speech […]”
Diarmaid Ó Muirithe
1 Introduction
When I worked as an assistant teacher in Castlebar in the West of Ireland, there were many things that crossed my paths which I considered to be peculiar compared to Germany. Apart from the hospitality, the landscape, the Irish way of planning and organizing things, it was the sense of history and ‘Irishness’, which people appeared to have, that struck me as something special. The fact that a nation that has had such a long history of negative encounters with England and Great Britain would turn to adopt the tongue of their neighbours also felt to be extraordinary. Moreover, I noticed that the English spoken in Ireland differed from Standard English not only with respect to phonological features but also in morphosyntactic matters. Given the special language situation in Ireland, with an official language that is hardly used at all in everyday life and the struggle to keep it alive on the one hand, and the use of the English language in all domains of life on the other , studying Irish English (henceforth: IrE) and how it came into being seemed interesting. Many of the studies that had been carried out on IrE claimed that a great deal of the characteristics had their origins in the Irish language (Lunny 1981; Ó hÚrdail 1997; Henry 1977; Odlin 1997b). Apart from that, archaic forms of English have survived in IrE and phenomena caused by imperfect defective second language acquisition during the times of the language shift are still found (Filppula 1999: 12-4). With the decline of the Irish language and the language shift more than a century ago, the question was whether these features that distinguished IrE from other varieties of English are still accepted among the speakers of IrE or have vanished.
Thus, the aim of this study is to establish the acceptance of certain features of IrE and to find possible variables which might influence the acceptance of IrE among its speakers. The study is not designed to give explanations for the origins of the features examined; nevertheless, the different accounts advocated in other studies will be presented.[1] The structure of the present paper is as follows. Chapter 2 outlines the history of Ireland and its relationship with England and also gives a description of the development of both the Irish and English language, which led to the emergence of Irish English. Chapter 3 includes the description of the methods used to analyse IrE features as well as the presentation and explanation of the results obtained. Chapter 4 seeks to bring together the individual results and draw a conclusion with regard to the questions raised during this study.
1.1 Terminology
The scholars that have studied IrE so far have introduced a number of different terms to describe IrE. There is the term ‘Anglo-Irish’, which has been used by
P.L. Henry to describe the mixture of Irish and English in the rural setting of the 19th century (Henry 1977: 20). The term ‘Hiberno-English’ can have the connotation of being the more urban, more standard variety, but is used by many linguists as a general term for the Irish dialects of English (Filppula 1999; Ó hÚrdail 1997; Odlin 1997a). In order to avoid evoking any connotation with both of these terms, ‘Irish English’ will be used to refer to the variety of English spoken in Ireland.
1.2 The area under investigation
As already mentioned above, many accounts are given for where the input of IrE came from. Among other factors, the transfer from the Irish language was given as a possibility for input into IrE; therefore it seemed reasonable to choose an area for this study where the Irish language has survived. In Connaught (Counties Mayo, Galway, Roscommon, Leitrim and Sligo) in the West of Ireland, many people still speak Irish and some even live in the Irish-speaking areas of the so- called Gaeltachtí. The English language spoken in this region is what Odlin (1991: 597) calls “classic Hiberno-English”. In the West of Ireland, the language shift from Irish to English only took place in the second half of the 18th century, which, according to Odlin (1997b: 29), may have contributed to the preservation of structures influenced by Irish. In contrast, Irish had ceased to be spoken in the East of Ireland nearly two centuries ago. Thus, apart from my personal connections, these facts seemed to be good reasons to choose approximately the region of County Mayo as the geographical area for the present study.
Map 1: County Mayo
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Source: Hickey 2004, DVD.
2 The historical background
2.1 The history of Ireland
In order to understand how Irish English came into being, it is substantial to first have a look at the history of the relationship between England and Ireland, which not only brought the English language to Ireland but also helped to shape the attitudes towards both the English and the Irish language.
2.1.1 Early Irish history
Irish history has not always been influenced by England. Ireland had developed its own culture before contact with England began to shape Irish history. The Celts were arriving in Ireland since the eighth century BC and called themselves Gaels and their land ‘eerie’. Ireland had never been influenced by either Romans or Germans and was very early partitioned into the five regions of Ulster, Leinster, Munster, Connaught and Meath. Within these regions nearly two hundred small kingdoms emerged, fighting each other. At around four hundred AD, the Christianisation of Ireland began with the missionary work of
Palladius and St. Patrick (who came from Roman Britain) and soon Ireland established itself as the ‘island of saints and scholars’ and started to missions all over the European mainland. Although Ireland was christianized, the political system still was that of the small-sized kingdoms (called tuatha) reigned by a King (), which dated back to the Gaels. These kings were subordinate to a great king (ruirí), himself subordinate to the High King (árdrí). Vikings arrived from 900 AD on and through their influence a transition from tribal to dynastic kingship took place, creating dynasties such as the Uí Néill in Ulster, the Ó Conchobhair in Connaught, the Ua Briain in Munster. These kings fought each other for the overlordship over Ireland and over the Vikings. Although the country was politically fragmented with regard to culture and language, it formed a unit (Witz 1993: 181-7). In conclusion, Celtic Ireland had its own political and administrative system, was known for its educated scholars and, above all, its Irish language.
2.1.2 The beginning of Anglo-Irish relations
In 1171, Henry II, king of England, went to Ireland, a few kings submitted to him and the synod of Cashel acknowledged him as sovereign in Ireland but there were still kings left who did not acknowledge his reign. Since he had to leave Ireland, Henry appointed his son, John, lord of Ireland. Thus the English influence on Ireland increased, and by 1250, the Irish had lost control of two thirds of the island. The English were especially present in the east, but since the English feudal lords did only rarely visit their territory and a Gaelicization of the Anglo-Irish settlers took place, the Irish kings were able to regain their strength and weaken the English in Ireland (Martin 1994: 123-137).
Until 1541, a patchwork of competing feudal lordship existed in Ireland, which had no interest in a long-term unification of the island but rather in their short-term survival. In 1541 then, the Tudors established themselves as kings of Ireland, starting revolutionary changes: English common law was introduced, as well as a centralized royal administration, new English colonists - now Protestant, after the Reformation had taken place in England - arrived in Ireland, convinced of the superiority of English civilization. In 1594, a rebellion movement under the leadership of Hugh O'Neill was formed, and the Nine Years War against England started. The Irish rebels could win a number of fights but with the defeat at the battle of Kinsale in 1601 the fate of the Irish-Gaelic feudal leadership was sealed, and a period of an English sovereignty started (Lennon/Gillespie 22000: 50-60).
During the first decades of the 17th century, exports went up but resulted in the loss of Ireland's natural resources. England, i.e. the place where most of Ireland's exported goods went during that time, profited by it. During the reign of Charles I, in 1641, Ireland dared an insurrection which ended in another English invasion. After the death of King Charles I in 1649, Oliver Cromwell arrived in Ireland with his army and the massacring of a large amount of people in Drogheda and Wexford, led to the submission of the revolting Irish. In 1689, James II tried to regain the English crown and started the Williamite War with the siege of Derry. James's Catholic army fought William's army including German, Danish and French Huguenot troops and lost the final battle of the Boyne on July 12th, 1690. The following Treaty of Limerick granted the Irish relatively convenient conditions; however, when the English parliament ratified the treaty years later, in 1697, it was immensely changed, now including the so- called ‘Penal Laws’ (Simms 1994: 204-16; Wall 1994:217-21).
The 18th century in Ireland can be described as the century of these laws. They were supposed to control and repress the Catholic population in Ireland. It was impossible to get a Catholic education for one's children, Catholics were not allowed to buy land and if a Catholic died, his land fell to his sons in equal parts. Consequently, the land of Catholics diminished and became scattered.
Map 2: The Penal Laws
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Source: Duffy 22000: 77.
The upper Protestant class became wealthier and more powerful, whereas the Catholic majority's material and educational standard decreased. Another fact enforced this process: the absenteeism of the landlords. They stayed in England, while agents administered their land. Capital flowed out of the country, not being reinvested in Ireland. If the Irish tenant made an effort, invested in order to yield a large crop, the rents were increased, leaving the tenant with bare subsistence.
Apart from this, the rapid growth of the population led to a long-lasting economic underdevelopment and poverty in Ireland.
After another failed rebellion in 1798, Ireland was united with Great Britain by the Act of Union which came into effect in 1801 and provided that the Irish parliament in Dublin was dissolved and Irish interests were represented by representatives in Westminster, the Church of England and the Church of Ireland were united and the laws in both countries were brought into line. In 1823, Catholic emancipation started with the founding of the Catholic Association by Daniel O'Connell. The Association's main aim was the repeal of the Union and its Penal Laws. O'Donnell won a seat in the elections with a two-third-majority and the Penal Laws were relieved, at first sight. More than 100,000 people attended O'Donnell's speeches regularly. The situation was alarming for the English but nature took their fears away (Breuer 2003:65-6; Cronin 2001: 125- 35).
Between 1845 and 1848, the Great Famine struck Ireland and in the following years decimated its population from 8.5 million to 4.5 million , leaving the West of Ireland depopulated either by starvation or emigration. Agriculture was a monoculture. The Irish exported high-quality grain to England, and the Irish themselves depended on potatoes solely. The majority of the land was owned by Protestants and the Catholics were left with land too small to utilize economically. During that time, the philosophy of laissez-faire and Social Darwinism[2] were popular, also with the English government, which thought that such a famine was merely a sign for the fact that the agriculture of the island could not feed so many people. About one million people died and during the years of the famine unbelievable agony and desperation dominated Irish life (Breuer 2003: 84-87).
2.1.3. The establishment of Irish independence
A period of rising nationalism and political movements followed. The formation of the Irish Tenant League, the Land League, the Home Rule League and the Irish Republican Brotherhood made clear the two issues which dominated the time between 1850 and 1890: the distribution of land and Home Rule, i.e. the termination of the Union and a republican Ireland with its own state (Breuer 2003: 106-9).
The land question was solved by 1909 with 270,000 land acquisitions of the Irish but the Home Rule question did not go much further. In the Protestant north of the Island, Home Rule was strongly refused, whereas in the south, more and more militant groups, such as the Irish Volunteers or the Irish Citizen Army, emerged, demanding Ireland's independence. These movements were very determined and helped to form an Irish identity by formulating their vision of a future Ireland as being independent, Catholic and Gaelic. This vision was formed not only by the different political movements at that time but also by an Irish literary revival and the founding of the Gaelic Athletic Association, each movement contributing different things to a vision of an Irish Ireland (Doherty 22000: 106-7).
In the end, the English contributed to the formation of the Irish nation. After the failed Easter Rising in 1916, which had been poorly planned, the English military shot the rebels and made them martyrs for the Irish cause. This led to such great support for the party supporting a whole independent Ireland, Sinn Féin, that they won the 1918 elections. Instead of taking their seats in Westminster, the Sinn Féin MPs formed their own parliament, the Dáil Éireann, in Dublin in 1919, and confirmed the declaration of independence proclaimed in the rising in 1916 (Cronin 2001: 195-8).
Thereafter, the Anglo-Irish war followed between 1919 and 1921. It was rather a series of individual guerrilla-like attacks since the British forces, namely the Royal Irish Constabulary, and the Black-and-Tans, outnumbered the Irish Republican Army and the Irish Republican Brotherhood by far - the ‘Bloody Sunday’ on November 21st, 1920, claimed twelve lives[3] Since the British Prime Minister could no longer take responsibility for such violence, a compromise was offered in 1921, which suggested the partition of Ireland in Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, to achieve truce. The British government felt they had to protect those supporting the union with Britain, the protestant Unionists in the
Northern part of the island, since they were well organised and equipped, i.e. ready to start fighting if the whole of Ireland was to gain independence from Britain. A treaty based on this compromise was signed in 1922, which led to the creation of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann); thus Ireland was independent for the first time since 1171 (Ó Mahoney/Delanty 1998: 60-92).
Unfortunately, the treaty was fought against by those who had fought for a whole independent Ireland and did not accept Ireland’s dominant status within the Commonwealth, the most popular one being the republic’s president, Éamon de Valera. Although the pro-treaty position was confirmed in the following elections in June of 1922, a civil war, which lasted until May 1923, broke out and ended in the defeat of those opposing the treaty.[4]
In 1926, de Valera founded a new party, Fianna Fáil, which won the elections in 1932 and made de Valera become the new head of the Irish government. In the following years, the government disposed of objectionable elements in the 1921 Treaty, such as the Oath of Allegiance or the Office of Governor-General. Finally, in 1937, a new constitution (Bunreacht na hÉireann) was introduced, which included no ties to the British Crown at all, thus turning the Irish Free State into the independent ‘Ireland’ or ‘Éire’. The new system of government included the typical offices of a republic: a president with mainly representative functions, a prime minister (Taoiseach) as head of government, a, comparably powerless, senate, and of course the parliament (Dáil). During the Emergency, as World War Two was called in Ireland, the new republic remained neutral, in spite of the pressures from both sides. Already in 1930, its independence was also acknowledged by the election to the council of the League of Nations. After 16 years in power, an inter-party government consisting of its opponents followed the Fianna Fáil government. Since until then the 1921 Treaty did not play any role in Irish politics, the new Dáil passed the Republic of Ireland Bill, which was regarded as Ireland’s retreat from the Commonwealth by Britain. Thus since 1949, the denomination of the state is ‘Republic of Ireland’ and Ireland fully independent (Lynch 1994: 324-331; Breuer 2003: 154-6).
The historical events leading up to Irish independence may give the reader an idea why the persistent animosity between the Irish and the English exists. It is still nowadays widely exploited for comical reasons, e.g. by the Irish comedian Tommy Tiernan. His opinion about what it means to be Irish is reflected in the following statement:
“I’m Irish….wohooo!….what does it mean?...aaargh….. at least, I’m not fuckin’ English, that’s what it means!”
(Tommy Tiernan live, DVD, 2002)
2.2. The story of the Irish and English language in Ireland
2.2.1 The heyday of the Irish language
The official language of the Republic of Ireland is Irish or Gaeilge. In the 2002 census (CSO, Ireland), still only 41.4% of the Irish population stated to speak Irish. The language used most commonly in Ireland nowadays has been English for a considerable amount of time. The question is how this language situation came into being and how English and Irish developed in Ireland over time.
Around 300 BC, the Celtic Language that is now known as Irish was brought to Ireland. However, it was not until the fifth century that there emerged something one could describe as Irish literacy. The monasteries introduced written education in Ireland and many scholars from different European countries went to Ireland because of its reputation as the island of saints and scholars. The earliest manuscript written completely in Irish is Lebor na hUidre; it was composed in Clonmacnoise in about 1100[5].
The following period can be described as the booming years of the Irish language. Irish even expanded to Scotland, introducing itself to the Picts, northern Britain and the Isle of Man. Nowadays Scottish Gaelic is still spoken, whose roots lie in the expansion of Irish. From the 9th century onwards, Viking raids and settlements took place in Ireland which had an influence on the Irish language, namely, introducing new words dealing with commerce and navigation, but did not have a major impact on Irish culture and language (BBC Homepage, 14 March 2009). The Vikings founded ports such as Dublin, Galway and Cork, but assimilated to the Irish culture after some time, probably because of a lack of female settlers.
2.2.2 The emergence of the English language
In 1171, the Anglo-Norman conquest began and English was introduced to Ireland for the first time, albeit without much impact. In the following centuries, English gained some ground in the areas of law and administration, but Irish was maintained as the spoken language because the new landowners intermarried with natives and became Irish speakers themselves (Kallen 1994: 151). This degeneracy of the English settlers posed such a threat to the English that in 1366 the Statutes of Kilkenny, which prohibited the use of the Irish language, marrying Irish partners or dressing in traditional Irish clothing, were issued (Bottigheimer 1982: 67). They were felt to be necessary because Irish still asserted itself despite these laws. Only the area called the English Pale(Co. Dublin with parts of Meath, Louth, Kildare and Wicklow) had a mainly English- speaking population. At that time, the region influenced least by English was Ulster because it had a strong link to the Scottish Gaels, which was a great advantage for the survival of the Gaelic language in that area (Hindley 1990: 4). The ineffectiveness of the prohibition of the Irish language becomes more vivid if one takes into account that since 1366, the Irish language had spread so widely among the Anglo-Irish that already in 1394, the Earl of Ormond was able to interpret for Richard II in his dealings with the Irish (Cosgrove 1994: 167-170). To use Cronin’s words (2003: 10), there was a time in Ireland when nearly “everyone spoke Gaelic in splendid isolation.”.
When Henry VIII ruled over Ireland, he tried to conquer Ireland for good and enforce reformation in order to not only be king of Ireland but also fulfil the position as head of the Church of Ireland. However, the reformation did not succeed; in contrast, it had the effect that the native Irish and the ‘Old English’ were united in their Catholic faith and the Irish language became the symbol of the Catholic religion. Protestantism and the English language became a symbol for the English rule and suppression, and the Protestant faith only became the religion of the ruling class, thus creating a religious gap between the English and the Irish on top of the already existing military and political rivalries (Hayes- McCoy 1994: 178-181). Considering the incidents mentioned above, the question arises: how did Irish lose its status as the common language?
2.2.3 The rise of English
One of the most important reasons for the decline of the Irish language in Ireland is the settlement of English Protestants in Ireland in the 16th and 17th century, which led to an establishment of a new ruling class in Ireland that spoke English. Especially the plantations and transportations under Oliver Cromwell, who took more than two thirds of the lands from the Irish and reserved it for English settlers, are widely remembered in Irish folk memory and resulted in the final breakdown of the Gaelic society. In all provinces, except for Connaught, the landowners were suddenly English-speaking Protestants (Cronin 2001: 74-5). As a result, English-speaking as well as Irish- speaking areas emerged in the whole of Ireland. Looking at the towns as places of linguistic diffusion, a typical pattern with inner areas being predominantly English-speaking and surrounding areas being mainly Irish-speaking can be found in the 17th century (Kallen 1994: 157- 8).
From 1695 onwards, a series of Penal Laws was passed that excluded Catholics from public life. Aimed primarily at the Irish Catholic population, these laws also accelerated the decline of the Irish language since Irish was the language of the natives. English became the language of law and political institutions; for this reason, access to power was restricted to English-speakers, or, to put it differently, English occupied the H-level domains whereas Irish was rather associated with the L domains (Kallen 2000: 34). This was one of the main reasons for the decline of the Irish language since English had to be spoken in order to take part in public life. Of course this condition mainly applied to more urban areas, but still the rural regions had to catch up, changing slowly from a monolingual society of either English or Irish speakers to a rather bilingual society.
In the late 18th century, even the new emerging Catholic middle class spoke mainly English since it provided access to progress and civility. Irish was at that point considered "the language of the poor and the past" (Ó Tuathaigh 2005: 42) and was only used to talk to lower class members. Even Daniel O'Connell, the leader of the Catholic Emancipation in the late 18th century did not address the people in Irish but in English - despite being a native Irish speaker himself (Ó Tuathaigh 2005: 44). Thus, the years between 1600 and 1800 were characterized by the development of bilingualism and language shift towards English (Kallen 1994: 159).
Apart from that, one has to bear in mind that the Great Famine (an Gorta Mór) in the 1840s reduced the number of Irish speakers immensely with about 1.5 million deaths and about one million emigrants. The low census figures of only 24.5% Irish speakers in 1861 are the logical consequence (CSO, Census 2006). At the same time, bilingualism was spreading, i.e. more and more people were learning and using the English language – first as a second language, later as their preferred language (Filppula 1999: 8).
However, if one takes into account the following decades, the numbers of Irish-speakers increased again:
Table 1: Percentage of Irish speakers since 1861
illustration not visible in this excerpt
Irish speakers
Source: Central Statistics Office, Ireland
How did such a change take place? What happened in Ireland?
2.2.4 The Gaelic Revival
During the last two decades of the nineteenth century different political movements, which fought for Irish independency (here called ‘Home Rule’), emerged, and with them a renewal of the Celtic legacy of Ireland, including its language. The most important of these movements with regard to language was the Gaelic League (Conradh na Gaeilge), founded by Douglas Hyde and Eoin MacNéill in 1893. Although there had been other Celtic revival initiatives mainly initiated by Protestants who had an interest in Irish culture, Hyde probably started the promotion of language restoration in Ireland with his address.
[1] For an extensive discussion of the origins of IrE features see Filppula (1999).
[2] The theory of Socail Darwinism, “[…] was popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Social Darwinists held that the life of humans in society was a struggle for existence ruled by “survival of the fittest,” a phrase proposed by the British philosopher and scientist Herbert Spencer. […]The poor were the “unfit” and should not be aided; in the struggle for existence, wealth was a sign of success.” (Encyclopedia Britannica online, 23 March 2009).
[3] After the IRA had killed eleven members of British intelligence stationed in Dublin, a truckload of Black-and-Tans went to Croke Park, where more than 10,000 were watching a Gaelic football game, shooting randomly into the crowd and at the players, killing twelve people.
[4] What is not so well-known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ is the fact that in this civil war the Free State government had executed 77 members of the anti-treaty forces, interned more than 10,000 opponents without trail and caused more destruction to Ireland than the violence between 1916 and 1921 all together (Cronin 2001: 204-205).
[5] Ireland has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe with inscriptions and interlinear glosses in Latin texts long before 1100 (Duffy 22000: 20).
ISBN (eBook)
5.6 MB
Institution / Hochschule
Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg
Irish English Grammar Linguistics study
Titel: English in the Republic of Ireland
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The eastern hemlock is not one of those ubiquitous, celebrity trees such as the white oak or the white pine. Throughout much of its range - from northern Alabama up to New Brunswick, Canada, and Minnesota - the hemlock has lurked mainly in dark mountain valleys, where the cool, moist climate favored it over competitors. In northern states and Canada, it mixed with sugar maple, beech and other cold-hardy forest dwellers. Still, the tree has inspired naturalists and writers from Henry David Thoreau to Robert Frost, who took solace from snow falling from a hemlock.
Then, starting in the 1970s, a tiny aphid-like insect known as hemlock woolly adelgid, originally from Japan, unleashed the tree version of a pandemic in American hemlock forests. The adelgid, recognizable by cotton-like fuzz it produces while feeding on hemlock needles, has killed millions of trees and upended ecosystems throughout the eastern United States. Having turned much of Appalachia and New England into tree graveyards, the insect reached the Eastern Shore of Lake Michigan by 2016 and threatens to continue its death march through the upper Midwest.
Many scientists and foresters wrote off the hemlock as a lost cause. But a few wondered whether rare combinations of adelgid-resistance genes might lurk in the trees. Those scientists sought, propagated and planted cuttings from trees that remained green when their neighbors had become gray ghosts.
Researchers have reported that these trees survive better and grow faster than nonresistant ones. The result could mark a steppingstone toward a potential hemlock comeback.
When hemlocks started dying in large numbers in the late 1970s and early 1980s, forest experts knew they had a problem. The tree hosts dozens of insects and birds such as the blue-headed vireo and hermit thrush, and its year-round shade keeps mountain streams cool enough for trout. Scientists started looking for ways to keep hemlocks around.
One strategy involved looking for rare hemlocks that appeared to tolerate the adelgid. In the mid-2000s, a New Jersey state entomologist surveying near Delaware Water Gap found a stand of lush, green hemlocks amid gray skeletons. University scientists cloned some cuttings from what they called "bulletproof" trees and, in 2015, planted them in test plots near other hemlocks that were infested with adelgids. Four years later, the researchers returned to each plot and assessed the trees.
Ninety-six percent of the clones from the cuttings had survived, compared with 48 percent for other hemlocks. Bulletproof clones were taller and had more foliage and insect-resisting chemicals called terpenes, the researchers reported in a paper published in May in the journal Forests. That's even more impressive, says Evan Preisser, a University of Rhode Island ecologist who led the research, because the scientists did nothing to help the trees during those four years.
Because of the study's small sample size - just eight resistant and four nonresistant trees at each site - Preisser calls it a "proof of concept" that adelgid-resistant trees can be found and propagated.
But some scientists are skeptical that genetics can rescue the hemlock.
Rusty Rhea, an entomologist with the U.S. Forest Service in Asheville, N.C., believes the bulletproof trees may have fared better because of environmental factors where they were growing, and that Preisser's study period was too short to prove the trees could survive in the forest.
"I'm a little hesitant to give people hope that there is resistance based on . . . propagules that are only 4 or 5 years old," Rhea says.
Rhea's agency, the main source of funding for forest-related research in the United States, has taken a different approach.
The service has backed a long-term effort to identify predatory insects that could limit adelgid numbers on a permanent basis, similar to, for example, how wolves control elk populations in Yellowstone National Park. This "biological control" strategy has gone awry before, but when done carefully, it can reduce populations of damaging pests - for example, introduced insects have aided California's citrus industry. But biocontrol has rarely succeeded in natural forests.
Starting in the 1980s, scientists searched Japan, where the adelgid came from, and the West Coast of North America, where adelgids also live, for insects that munch on them. Researchers have spent more than 20 years testing a beetle called Laricobius nigrinus, native to British Columbia. In April, scientists reported that in sites in the eastern United States where they released Laricobius, the beetles damaged around a third of the adelgid egg sacs laid in the winter. As a result of the feeding, fewer adelgids emerged in the spring at these sites.
But that's hardly cause for celebration, because the adelgid has two life cycles per year. A follow-up paper published in June by the same authors reported that adelgid numbers at the study sites rebounded in the summer, thanks to the insect's high reproductive rate; one adult female can produce up to 500 offspring.
Biocontrol researchers are now pinning hope on two tiny silverflies, both native to the western United States, to control the summer adelgid generation. The flies have been shown to reduce adelgid numbers in bags tied onto tree branches. But when released in the open, the flies have tended to disappear rather than attain large enough numbers to control adelgids. Still, Rhea says, the flies are "the best bet we know of right now."
Forest Service researchers have also found that hemlocks in full sun grow faster than in shade, even with adelgids feeding on them. Rhea hopes that growing hemlocks in forest clearings and deploying beetles and flies will eventually allow trees to reach maturity and reproduce before the adelgid kills them.
To Preisser, however, the ongoing struggle to establish sustainable adelgid predators population in the forest suggests biocontrol may be a dead end. He advocates seeking stands of adelgid-resistant trees adapted to different locations, growing them in large-scale demonstration plots to determine which genes provide the most adelgid resistance and breeding the best performing trees together, an effort that Preisser concedes will be expensive and time-consuming.
Even with modern practices, a hemlock may need to grow for seven to 10 years before its seeds can be collected, says Ben Smith, a forestry researcher at North Carolina State University's Mountain Research Station in Waynesville who is developing a hemlock breeding program there. "To crop breeders, that's an eternity," Smith says. "For tree breeders, it's not terrible."
Preisser is not sticking around to find out. Frustrated by difficulties in persuading funders to support his research, he is moving on to other things. "It's become clear to me over the past 10 years that science doesn't make a difference," he says.
The idea that beleaguered trees' genomes could hold the keys to their own salvation has indeed encountered resistance from scientists, says Jennifer Koch, a biologist at the Forest Service's research station in Delaware, Ohio.
It was "a huge hurdle to get people to believe resistance existed," she says. "Particularly with hemlock, that's one that people really struggled to believe."
Research by Preisser and others has laid the groundwork for breeders to cross partially resistant trees to produce ones that can survive to reproductive age in the forest, Koch says. She is working to launch a hemlock breeding program with the nonprofit conservation organization American Forests; it will be hosted at Holden Arboretum in Kirtland, Ohio, and will also include ash and beech trees. New Jersey is setting up its own hemlock breeding program.
Success won't require finding or producing a completely resistant tree, Koch says. Beetles and flies can also play a role by helping to keep adelgid numbers down and lengthen trees' lives.
"We're not looking for immunity. We're looking for that balance. [The tree] can still be a host to this insect, but . . . the insect population won't reach a level that's going to kill the tree," she says. "You mimic what happens in nature."
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History of aspirin
History of aspirin
The history of aspirin and the medical use of it and related substances stretches back to antiquity, though pure aspirin ("acetylsalicylic acid" or "ASA") has only been manufactured and marketed since 1899. Medicines made from willow and other salicylate-rich plants date back at least to 3000 BC, and were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in Classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. Willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever, pain and inflammation in the mid-eighteenth century. By the nineteenth century pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of chemicals related to salicylic acid, the active component of willow extract.
In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt reacted acetyl chloride with sodium salicylate to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time; in the second half of the nineteenth century, other academic chemists established the compound's chemical structure and devised more efficient methods of synthesis. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines. By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug "Aspirin" and was selling it around the world. Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the twentieth century, spurred by its effectiveness in the wake of Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, and aspirin's profitability led to fierce competition and the proliferation of aspirin brands and products.
Early history of salicylates
Willow bark preparations became a standard part of the "materia medica" of Western medicine beginning at least with the Greek physician Hippocrates in the fifth century BC; he recommended it to ease the pain of child-bearing and to reduce fever. The Roman encyclopedist Celsus, in his "De Medicina" of ca. 30 AD, suggested willow leaf extract to treat the four signs of inflammation: redness, heat, swelling and pain. Willow treatments also appeared in Dioscorides's "De Materia Medica", and Pliny the Elder's "Natural History". By the time of Galen, willow was commonly used throughout the Roman and Arab worlds, [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 14-15] as a small part of a large, growing botanical pharmacopoeia.
18th and 19th centuries
The major turning point for salicylate medicines came in 1763, when a letter from English chaplain Edward Stone was read at a meeting of the Royal Society, describing the dramatic power of willow bark extract to cure ague—an ill-defined constellation of symptoms, including intermittent fever, pain, and fatigue, that primarily referred to malaria. Inspired by the doctrine of signatures to search for a treatment for agues near the brackish waters that were known to cause it, Stone had tasted the bark of a willow tree in 1758 and noticed an astringency reminiscent of the standard—and expensive—ague cure of Peruvian bark. He collected, dried, and powdered a substantial amount of willow bark, and over the next five years tested it on a number of people sick with fever and agues. In his letter, Stone reported consistent success, describing willow extract's effects as identical to Peruvian bark, though a little less potent. (In fact, the active ingredient of Peruvian bark was quinine, which attacked the infectious cause of malaria, while the active ingredient of willow extract, salicin, relieved the symptoms of malaria but could not cure it.) Stone's letter (mistakenly attributed to "Edmund" rather than "Edward" Stone) was printed in "Philosophical Transactions", and by the end of the 18th century willow was gaining popularity as an inexpensive substitute for Peruvian bark. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 17-34]
In the 19th century, as the young discipline of organic chemistry began to grow in Europe, scientists attempted to isolate and purify the active components of many medicines, including willow bark. After unsuccessful attempts by Italian chemists Brugnatelli and Fontana in 1826, Joseph Buchner obtained relatively pure salicin crystals in 1828; the following year, Henri Leroux developed a better procedure for extracting modest yields of salicin. In 1830, Swiss pharmacist Johann Pagenstecher discovered what he thought was a new pain-reducing substance, isolated from the common remedy of meadowsweet ("Spiraea ulmaria"). By 1838, Italian chemist Raffaele Piria found a method of obtaining a more potent acid form of willow extract, which he named salicylic acid. The German chemist who had been working to identify the "Spiraea" extract, Karl Jacob Lowig, soon realized that it was in fact the same salicylic acid that Piria had found. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 38-40]
Through the middle decades of the 19th century, the use of salicylate medicines—including salicin, salicylic acid, and sodium salicylate—grew considerably, and physicians increasingly knew what to expect from these medicines: reduction of pain, fever, and inflammation. However, the unpleasant side effects, particularly gastric irritation, limited their usefulness. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 46-55] By the 1880s, the German chemical industry, jump-started by the lucrative development of dyes from coal tar, was branching out to investigate the potential of new tar-derived medicines. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 40-46] The turning point was the advent of Kalle & Company's Antifebrine, the branded version of the well-known dye derivative acetanilide—the anti-pyretic properties of which were discovered by accident in 1886. Antefebrine's success inspired Carl Duisberg, the head of research at the small dye firm Friedrich Bayer & Company, to start a systematic search for other chemical fever-reducers. Bayer chemists soon developed Phenacetin, followed by the sedatives Sulfonal and Trional. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 62-65]
ynthesis of ASA
Upon taking control of Bayer's overall management in 1890, Duisberg began to expand the company's drug research program. He created a pharmaceutical group for creating new drugs, headed by former university chemist Arthur Eichengrün, and a pharmacology group for testing the drugs, headed by Heinrich Dreser (beginning in 1897, after periods under Wilhelm Siebel and Hermann Hildebrandt). In 1894, the young chemist Felix Hoffman joined the pharmaceutical group. Dreser, Eichengrün and Hoffman would be the key figures in the development of acetylsalicylic acid as the drug Aspirin (though their respective roles have been the subject of some contention). [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 65-68] [Walter Sneader. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/321/7276/1591 The discovery of aspirin: a reappraisal] . "British Medical Journal", Volume 321, pp. 1591-1594 (23 December, 2000).]
In 1897, Eichengrün assigned Hoffman to find a less irritating substitute for salicylic acid. Other chemists had attempted this before as well, by acetylating salicylic acid to make acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). Charles Frederic Gerhardt was the first to prepare acetylsalicylic acid (named aspirin in 1899) in 1853. In the course of his work on the synthesis and properties of various acid anhydrides, he mixed acetyl chloride with a sodium salt of salicylic acid (sodium salicylate). A vigorous reaction ensued, and the resulting melt soon solidified.de icon cite journal |author=Gerhardt C |title=Untersuchungen über die wasserfreien organischen Säuren |journal=Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie|volume=87 |issue= |pages=149–179 |year=1853 |doi=10.1002/jlac.18530870107] Since no structural theory existed at that time Gerhardt called the compound he obtained "salicylic-acetic anhydride" ("wasserfreie Salicylsäure-Essigsäure"). When Gerhardt tried to dissolve the solid in a diluted solution of sodium carbonate it immediately decomposed to sodium salts of salicylic and acetic acids. In 1859, von Gilm produced ASA (which he called "acetylirte Salicylsäure", "acetylated salicylic acid") by a different method, the reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride.de icon cite journal |author=von Gilm H |title=Acetylderivate der Phloretin- und Salicylsäure |journal=Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie|volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=180–185 |year=1859 |doi=10.1002/jlac.18591120207] In 1869 Schröder, Prinzhorn and Kraut repeated both Gerhardt's (from sodium salicylate) and von Gilm's (from salicylic acid) syntheses and concluded that both reactions gave the same compound—acetylsalicylic acid. (Prinzhorn is credited in the paper with conducting the experiments.) They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen. [de icon cite journal |author= Schröder, Prinzhorn, Kraut K |title=Uber Salicylverbindungen |journal=Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie|volume=150 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |year=1869 |doi=10.1002/jlac.18691500102] Kraut's procedure was even being used by the drug company Heyden to make unbranded ASA. However, the published methods did not produce pure ASA—although Kraut's method was efficient enough to be useful. It is likely that Hoffman started by recreating the published methods. On October 10, 1897 (according to his laboratory notebooks), Hoffman found a better method for making ASA, from salicylic acid refluxed with acetic anhydride. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 69-71] [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", p. 25]
Eichengrün sent ASA to Dreser's pharmacology group for testing, and the initial results were very positive. The next step would normally have been clinical trials, but Dreser opposed further investigation of ASA because of salicylic acid's reputation for weakening the heart—possibly a side effect of the high doses often used to treat rheumatism. Dreser's group was soon busy testing Felix Hoffman's next chemical success: diacetylmorphine (which the Bayer team soon branded as "heroin" because of the heroic feeling it gave them). Eichengrün, frustrated by Dreser's rejection of ASA, went directly to Bayer's Berlin representative Felix Goldmann to arrange low-profile trials with doctors. Though the results of those trials were also very positive, with no reports of the typical salicylic acid complications, Dreser still demurred. However, Carl Duisberg intervened and scheduled full testing. Soon, Dreser admitted ASA's potential and Bayer decided to proceed with production. Dreser wrote a report of the findings to publicize the new drug; in it, he omitted any mention of Hoffman or Eichengrün. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 71-74] Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", pp. 25-26] [Anne A.J. Andermann, " [http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/mjm/v02n02/aspirin.html Physicians, Fads, and Pharmaceuticals: A History of Aspirin] ", "McGill Journal of Medicine] , vol. 2, no. 2 (1996). Accessed April 4, 2008.] He would also be the only one of the three to receive royalties for the drug (for testing it), since it was ineligible for any patent the chemists might have taken out for creating it. For many years, however, he attributed Aspirin's discovery solely to Hoffman, who supposedly turned to the idea because his father was suffering the side effects of taking sodium salicylate for rheumatism. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 71-74]
title=Aspirin FAQ's
publisher=Bayer Healthcare
] Historians and others have also challenged Bayer's early accounts of Bayer's synthesis, in which Hoffman was primarily responsible for the Bayer breakthrough. In 1949, shortly before his death, Eichengrün wrote an article, "Fifty Years of Asprin", claiming that he had not told Hoffman the purpose of his research, meaning that Hoffman merely carried out Eichengrün's research plan, and that the drug would never have gone to the market without his direction. This claim was later supported by research conducted by historian Walter Sneader.cite journal |author=Sneader W |title=The discovery of aspirin: a reappraisal |journal=BMJ |volume=321 |issue=7276 |pages=1591–4 |year=2000 |pmid=11124191 |doi=10.1136/bmj.321.7276.1591 |id=PMC|1119266] Axel Helmstaedter, General Secretary of the International Society for the History of Pharmacy, subsequently questioned the novelty of Sneader’s research, noting that several earlier articles discussed the Hoffmann-Eichengrün controversy in detail. [cite web
title=Aspirin history: Is there a need for a reappraisal ?
author=Helmstaedter A
work=Rapid Responses to: "The discovery of aspirin: a reappraisal"
title=Bayer AG: Zum Vortrag von Dr. Walter Sneader über die Entwicklung der Acetylsalicylsäure
Naming the drug
The name Aspirin was derived from the name of the chemical ASA—"Acetylspirsäure" in German. "Spirsäure" (salicylic acid) was named for the meadowsweet plant, "Spirea ulmaria", from which it could be derived. "Aspirin" took a- for the acetylation, -spir- from Spirsäure, and added -in as a typical drug name ending to make it easy to say. In the final round of naming proposals that circulated through Bayer, it came down to "Aspirin" and "Euspirin"; "Aspirin", they feared, might remind customers of aspiration, but Arthur Eichengrün argued that "Eu"- (meaning "good") was inappropriate because it usually indicated an improvement over an earlier version of a similar drug. Since the substance itself was already known, Bayer intended to use the new name to establish their drug as something new; in January of 1899 they settled on "Aspirin". [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", p. 73] [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", p. 27]
Rights and sale
Under Carl Duisberg's leadership, Bayer was firmly committed to the standards of ethical drugs, as opposed to patent medicines. "Ethical drugs" were drugs that could be obtained only through a pharmacist, usually with a doctor's prescription. Advertising directly to consumers was considered unethical and strongly opposed by many medical organizations; that was the domain of patent medicines. Therefore, Bayer was limited to marketing Aspirin directly to doctors. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 80-83]
When production of Aspirin began in 1899, Bayer sent out small packets of the drug to doctors, pharmacists and hospitals, advising them of Aspirin's uses and encouraging them to publish about the drug's effects and effectiveness. As positive results came in and enthusiasm grew, Bayer sought to secure patent and trademark wherever possible. It was ineligible for patent in Germany (despite being accepted briefly before the decision was overturned), but Aspirin was patented in Britain (filed December 22, 1898) and the United States (filed February 27, 1900). The British patent was overturned in 1905, the American patent was also besieged but was ultimately upheld. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 77-80]
Faced with growing legal and illegal competition for the globally marketed ASA, Bayer worked to cement the connection between Bayer and Aspirin. One strategy it developed was to switch from distributing Aspirin powder for pharmacists to press into pill form to distributing standardized tablets—complete with the distinctive "Bayer cross" logo. In 1903 the company set up an American subsidiary, with a converted factory in Rensselaer, New York, to produce Aspirin for the American market without paying import duties. Bayer also sued the most egregious patent violators and smugglers. The company's attempts to hold onto its Aspirin sales incited criticism from muckraking journalists and the American Medical Association, especially after the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act that prevented trademarked drugs from being listed in the United States Pharmacopeia; Bayer listed ASA with an intentionally convoluted generic name (monoacetic acid ester of salicylic acid) to discourage doctors referring to anything but Aspirin. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 88-96] [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", p. 28-31]
World War I and Bayer
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Bayer was facing competition in all its major markets from local ASA producers as well as other German drug firms (particularly Heyden and Hoechst). The British market was immediately closed to the German companies, but British manufacturing could not meet the demand—especially with phenol supplies, necessary for ASA synthesis, largely being used for explosives manufacture. On February 5, 1915, Bayer's UK trademarks were voided, so that any company could use the term "aspirin". The Australian market was taken over by "Aspro", after the makers of Nicholas-Aspirin lost a short-lived exclusive right to the "aspirin" name there. In the United States, Bayer was still under German control—though the war disrupted the links between the American Bayer plant and the German Bayer headquarters—but phenol shortage threatened to reduce aspirin production to a trickle, and imports across the Atlantic Ocean were blocked by the Royal Navy. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 97-110]
Great Phenol Plot
To secure phenol for aspirin production, and at the same time indirectly aid the German war effort, German agents in the United States orchestrated what became known as the Great Phenol Plot. By 1915, the price of phenol rose to the point that Bayer's aspirin plant was forced to drastically cut production. This was especially problematic because Bayer was instituting a new branding strategy in preparation of the expiry of the aspirin patent in the United States. Thomas Edison, who needed phenol to manufacture phonograph records, was also facing supply problems; in response, he created a phenol factory capable of pumping out twelve tons per day. Edison's excess phenol seemed destined for trinitrophenol production. [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", pp. 39-40] [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 109-113]
Although the United States remained officially neutral until April 1917, it was increasingly throwing its support to the Allies through trade. To counter this, German ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff and Interior Ministry official Heinrich Albert were tasked with undermining American industry and maintaining public support for Germany. One of their agents was a former Bayer employee, Hugo Schweitzer. [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", pp. 38-39] Schweitzer set up a contract for a front company called the Chemical Exchange Association to buy all of Edison's excess phenol. Much of the phenol would go to the German-owned Chemische Fabrik von Heyden's American subsidiary; Heyden was the supplier of Bayer's salicylic acid for aspirin manufacture. By July 1915, Edison's plants were selling about three tons of phenol per day to Schweitzer; Heyden's salicylic acid production was soon back on line, and in turn Bayer's aspirin plant was running as well. [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", pp. 40-41]
The plot only lasted a few months. On July 24, 1915, Heinrich Albert's briefcase, containing details about the phenol plot, was recovered by a Secret Service agent. Although the activities were not illegal—since the United States was still officially neutral and still trading with Germany—the documents were soon leaked to the "New York World", an anti-German newspaper. The "World" published an exposé on August 15, 1915. [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", pp. 41-42] The public pressure soon forced Schweitzer and Edison to end the phenol deal—with the embarrassed Edison subsequently sending his excess phenol to the U.S. military—but by that time the deal had netted the plotters over two million dollars and there was already enough phenol to keep Bayer's Aspirin plant running. Bayer's reputation took a large hit, however, just as the company was preparing to launch an advertising campaign to secure the connection between aspirin and the Bayer brand. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 113-114]
Bayer loses foreign holdings
Interwar years
With the coming of the deadly Spanish flu pandemic in 1918, aspirin—by whatever name—secured a reputation as one of the most powerful and effective drugs in the pharmacopeia of the time. Its fever-reducing properties gave many sick patients enough strength to fight through the infection, and aspirin companies large and small earned the loyalty of doctors and the public—when they could manufacture or purchase enough aspirin to meet demand. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 136-142]
The U.S. aspirin patent expired in 1917, but Sterling owned the "aspirin" trademark, which was the only commonly used term for the drug. In 1920, United Drug Company challenged the "aspirin" trademark, which became officially generic for public sale in the U.S. (although it remained trademarked when sold to wholesalers and pharmacists). With demand growing rapidly in the wake of the Spanish flu, there were soon hundreds of aspirin brands on sale in the United States. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 151-152]
Sterling also took over Bayer's Canadian assets as well as ownership of the Aspirin trademark which is still valid in Canada. Bayer bought Sterling Winthrop in 1994 restoring ownership of the Bayer name and Bayer cross trademark in the US and Canada as well as ownership of the Aspirin trademark in Canada.
Diversification of market
Between World War I and World War II, many new aspirin brands and aspirin-based products entered the market. The Australian company Nicholas Proprietary Limited, through the aggressive marketing strategies of George Davies, built "Aspro" into a global brand, with particular strength in Australia, New Zealand, and the U.K.. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 153-161] American brands such as "Burton's Aspirin", "Molloy's Aspirin", "Cal-Aspirin" and "St. Joseph Aspirin" tried to compete with the American Bayer, while new products such "Cafaspirin" (aspirin with caffeine) and "Alka-Seltzer" (a soluble mix of aspirin and bicarbonate of soda) put aspirin to new uses. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 161-162] In 1925, the German Bayer became part of IG Farben, a conglomerate of former dye companies; IG Farben's brands of "Aspirin" and, in Latin America, the caffeinated "Cafiaspirina" (co-managed with Sterling Products) competed with less expensive aspirins such as "Geniol". [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", pp. 78, 90]
Competition from new drugs
After World War II, with the IG Farben conglomerate dismantled because of its central role in the Nazi regime, Sterling Products bought half of Bayer Ltd, the British Bayer subsidiary—the other half of which it already owned. However, "Bayer Aspirin" made up only a small fraction of the British aspirin market because of competition from "Aspro", "Disprin" (a soluble aspirin drug) and other brands. Bayer Ltd began searching for new pain relievers to compete more effectively. After several moderately successful compound drugs that mainly utilized aspirin ("Anadin" and "Excedrin"), Bayer Ltd's manager Laurie Spalton ordered an investigation of a substance that scientists at Yale had, in 1946, found to be the metabolically active derivative of acetanilide: acetaminophen. After clinical trials, Bayer Ltd brought acetaminophen to market as "Panadol" in 1956. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 205-207]
However, Sterling Products did not market "Panadol" in the United States or other countries where "Bayer Aspirin" still dominated the aspirin market. Other firms began selling acetaminophen drugs, most significantly, McNeil Laboratories with liquid "Tylenol" in 1955, and "Tylenol" pills in 1958. By 1967, "Tylenol" was available without a prescription. Because it did not cause gastric irritation, acetaminophen rapidly displaced much of aspirin's sales. Another analgesic, anti-inflammatory drug was introduced in 1962: ibuprofen (sold as "Brufen" in the U.K. and "Motrin" in the U.S.). By the 1970s, aspirin had a relatively small portion of the pain reliever market, and in the 1980s sales decreased even more when ibuprofen became available without prescription. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 212-217]
Also in the early 1980s, several studies suggested a link between children's consumption of aspirin and Reye's syndrome, a potentially fatal disease. By 1986, the U.S. FDA required warning labels on all aspirin, further suppressing sales. The makers of "Tylenol" also filed a lawsuit against "Anacin" aspirin maker American Home Products, claiming that the failure to add warning labels before 1986 had unfairly held back "Tylenol" sales, though this suit was eventually dismissed. [Mann and Plummer, "The Aspirin Wars", pp. 228-229]
Investigating how aspirin works
The mechanism of aspirin's analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug's heyday in the early- to mid-twentieth century; Heinrich Dreser's explanation, widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market, was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the central nervous system. In 1958 Harry Collier, a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company Parke Davis, began investigating the relationship between kinins and the effects of aspirin. In tests on guinea pigs, Collier found that aspirin, if given beforehand, inhibited the bronchoconstriction effects of bradykinin. He found that cutting the guinea pigs' vagus nerve did not affect the action of bradykinin "or" the inhibitory effect of aspirin—evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation, rather than on the central nervous system. In 1963, Collier began working with University of London pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin's effects. However, it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings-on in live research animals, and "in vitro" tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like "in vivo" tests. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 223-226]
After five years of collaboration, Collier arranged for Piper to work with pharmacologist John Vane at the Royal College of Surgeons, in order to learn Vane's new bioassay methods, which seemed like a possible solution to the "in vitro" testing failures. Vane and Piper tested the biochemical cascade associated with anaphylactic shock (in extracts from guinea pig lungs, applied to tissue from rabbit aortas). They found that aspirin inhibited the release of an unidentified chemical generated by guinea pig lungs, a chemical that caused rabbit tissue to contract. By 1971, Vane identified the chemical (which they called "rabbit-aorta contracting substance," or RCS) as a prostaglandin. In a June 23, 1971 paper in the journal "Nature", Vane and Piper suggested that aspirin and similar drugs (the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs) worked by blocking the production of prostaglandins. Later research showed that NSAIDs such as aspirin worked by inhibiting cyclooxygenase, the enzyme responsible for converting arachidonic acid into a prostaglandin. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 226-231]
Revival as heart drug
Aspirin's effects on blood clotting (as an antiplatelet agent) were first noticed in 1950 by Lawrence Craven. Craven, a family doctor in California, had been directing tonsillectomy patients to chew Aspergum, an aspirin-laced chewing gum. He found that an unusual number of patients had to be hospitalized for severe bleeding, and that those patients had been using very high amounts of Aspergum. Craven began recommending daily aspirin to all his patients, and claimed that the patients who followed the aspirin regimen (about 8,000 people) had no signs of thrombosis. However, Craven's studies were not taken seriously by the medical community, because he had not done a placebo-controlled study and had published only in obscure journals. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 237-239] [cite journal |author=Miner J, Hoffhines A |title=The discovery of aspirin's antithrombotic effects |journal=Tex Heart Inst J |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=179–86 |year=2007 |pmid=17622365 PMC|1894700]
Several subsequent studies put aspirin's effectiveness as a heart drug on firmer ground, but the evidence was not incontrovertible. However, in the mid-1980s, with the relatively new technique of meta-analysis, statistician Richard Peto convinced the U.S. FDA and much of the medical community that the aspirin studies, in aggregate, showed aspirin's effectiveness with relative certainty. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 247-257] By the end of the 1980s, aspirin was widely used as a preventive drug for heart attacks and had regained its former position as the top-selling analgesic in the U.S. [Jeffreys, "Aspirin", pp. 267-269]
*Diarmuid Jeffreys. "Aspirin: The Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug". New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-58234-600-3
*Charles C. Mann and Mark L. Plummer. "The Aspirin Wars: Money, Medicine, and 100 Years of Rampant Competition". New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991. ISBN 0-394-57894-5
External links
* [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/histmed/PDFS/Publications/Witness/wit23.pdf The Recent History of Platelets in Thrombosis and other Disorders] - transcript of a "witness seminar" with historians and key figures in the development of aspirin therapy for thrombosis
* [http://www.aspirin-foundation.com/what/100.html Aspirin Foundation] - Bayer-funded website with historical content
* [http://www.bayeraspirin.com/pain/asp_history.htm The History of aspirin] - Bayer timeline of aspirin history
* [http://www.aspirin.com/world_of_aspirin_en.html# The Aspirin® Story] - Multimedia presentation on the history of Bayer Aspirin
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
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<< Back to glossary index
The exchange of genetic material between two different chromosomes.
Use in clinical context
Reciprocal translocations occur when part of one chromosome is exchanged with another. Translocations can disrupt functional parts of the genome and have implications for protein production with phenotypic consequences.
Reciprocal translocations are usually balanced and so may not have apparent functional implications. However, they can become unbalanced in the parents’ offspring if the pair of chromosomes where genetic material has been exchanged is not inherited together. Unbalanced translocations can result in missing genes or extra copies of genes which can have clinical impact.
It is possible to see large translocations using a karyotyping. Smaller translocations can be detected using microarrays and sequencing.
Last updated on 31st May, 2019
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History of the ballpoint pen
Not many people realize it, but June 10 is National Ballpoint Pen Day in the US. Not only that, but 2018 celebrates the 75th birth date of the ballpoint pen! Most people today can’t remember when ballpoints weren’t available.
Although a quarter of a century old, the ballpoint is a youngster in the history of permanent writing tools. Our earliest ancestors quite literally carved important documents into stone with chisels and hammers. At some, unknown point writers turned to quill pens, made from feathers of large birds. They dipped the nib into a separate well of ink. Some of the earliest of these kinds of documents date from the second century BC, with continued use for thousands of years until the 19th century. Finally, in 1827, Petrache Poenarre, a Romanian, invented a pen with its own internal ink supply and the fountain pen was born.
Although a vast improvement over quill and ink, fountain pens had their own problems. They scratched, broke, leaked, splotched, smeared and ran dry and the most inconvenient times. Desperate writers looked for something better.
In the 1930s, a Hungarian newspaper editor named Lazlo Biro looked for a way to improve on the fountain pen. He decided to substitute a ball bearing for the breakable nib and use newspaper ink that dried fast and resisted fading. Newsprint ink, however, proved to be too thick and heavy to flow properly. He turned to his brother, Henry, who was a chemist. Together, they developed a pen that rolled smoothly and ink that dried instantly. By 1938, their company was producing pens for moderate sales.
As Jews, the Biro brothers could see their time and opportunities in Europe were limited. While searching for an outlet for their future, they went to England. While there they met a wealthy Argentinian who encouraged them to relocate to that country and build a factory for their pen production there. It turned out the man was Augustine Justo, the President of Argentina! The brothers promptly sold their business in Hungary for just enough money to escape Europe with their families and move to South America. In his new home country of Argentina, on June 10, 1943, Lazlo Biro filed a patent for his pen and consequently became recognized as the inventor of the ballpoint. He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2007
The Biros got the recognition, but never the full benefit from their invention. A large mechanical pencil company called Eversharp bought the patent rights in 1945 for about a half a million dollars, thinking they would have exclusive rights for North and Central America. Another American, Martin Reynolds, copied the pen design and got it into production ahead of Eversharp. On October 19, 1945, thousands of eager buyers lined up at Gimbel Brothers in Manhattan to buy the first modern, ballpoint pen. They paid a whopping $12.50 for each pen–about $150 in today’s value! Gimbel’s sold more than 30,000 pens that week, and Reynolds made over 5 ½ million in six months.
Eversharpe immediately sued Reynolds over legal rights–a fight joined by other companies and went on for years. The legalities proved sticky, however. In reality, over 300 previous had been filed for ballpoint pen inventions. All had failed. The first of these patents was filed by John Loud of Weymouth, MA. on October 30, 1888. Loud was a Harvard graduate, man-of-all-trades. In addition to an inventor, he worked as a banker, musician, lawyer and historian. He wanted a pen that would work on rough surfaces, such as leather, so he designed a ball bearing at the pen tip and an internal ink reservoir. This rolling ball could move in different directions and would not bend or break on leather. The ball worked, but the ink proved too thick, and the whole design was too coarse for paper. The invention proved unmarketable, and Loud let the patent lapse. His problems proved similar to the rest of the failed patents. Many of the failures involved getting the ink right, but there was also a lack of understanding about pistons, springs, capillary action and gravity, which affected ink flow.
The Biro’s initial design also contained some of the problems identified above and needed several improvements, especially in the gravitation of the ink to the ball. With falling sales, they were almost at the point of business failure. Their revisions proved successful though, and they created a pen that didn’t leak in flight. This advance attracted the attention of Britain military, still in the throes of WWII, who needed such a tool for their mapmakers. They ordered the first bulk supply of the pens and put the Biro Brothers back in business.
In the following years, ballpoint pen manufacturers continue to refine the pen design. Patrick Frawley for instance, added a retractable point in the 1950s and still sells the pen known as the “Papermate”. One of the newest pens is the Fisher AG7 Space Pen that works in freezing as well as desert-hot temperatures, underwater, and upside-down. NASA uses this pen.
Today ballpoint pen prices vary from less than a dollar for a disposable to over $400 for a refillable. So who would pay hundreds of dollars just for a pen? For some, it’s a matter of image. For others it’s dependability. The old saying, “You get what you pay for.” is true to some extent. More expensive pens are make of higher quality material, such as titanium or gold and often vary in weight and balance. Many are hand-made or machine made in small quantities and may be molded to fit the owner’s hand. The designs are more elegant and may include precious gems. Artists may want the smoother writing and the ability to vary ink strokes. Altogether it’s a matter of budget, taste, and purpose.
All pens write, from a Bic to a Montblanc. All cars provide transportation from a Ford to a Ferrari. The question is, what best fits your needs and desires? As far as writing goes, be assured there is a ballpoint pen just right for you.
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pass. The cell-walls of all living plant cells are lined with a thin, delicate membrane of protoplasm, known as the ectoplasm, which allows foods to enter the cell, but will not permit them to pass out and be wasted. In what way this living plasma membrane acts can not be fully explained, but it evidently performs a most useful service. As soon as it dies it loses the power of selection, and! nectar or cell sap can then readily escape from the cell. It acts only so long as it is living. How, then, does nectar pass through this living membrane and come to the surface of the nectary?
In order that a nectary may secrete nectar, its cells must be distended with water, or a solution of water and sugar. The nectar must exert a strong pressure outward, distending the elastic walls of the cells. If, owing to dry weather, there is not sufficient moisture in the soil, the leaves and young stems of plants will wilt or droop. They are rigid only when the cells, of which they are composed, are distended or swollen with water, or turgid, as it is termed by botanists. As has been pointed out by Sachs, the nectaries of plants secrete nectar only when the parts concerned are turgid. If the cells are flaccid no nectar is secreted. Since growth takes place only when the plant cells are turgid, flaccid cells are largely inactive. The advent of dry weather has often cut short the honey-flow. Plants with leaves and flowers drooping for want of water will not yield nectar. The tugor pressure in nectar cells may amount to as much as five atmospheres. Secretion in all probability begins by the forcing of nectar through the ectoplasm and epiderims, which are perhaps modified by the pressure. There would, of course, be less resistance on the free or outer side of the nectary than on the inner side, which is in contact with other plant tissues. As soon as the nectar comes to the external surface the water evaporates and a solution is formed more dense than that within the cells of the nectary; more nectar might then be drawn outward by osmosis. If nectar formed more rapidly than it escaped by osmosis, tugor pressure might manifest itself repeatedly. Secretion by floral nectaries ceases with pollination or soon after.
The quantity of nectar secreted differs greatly with different species of plants, wholly independent of external conditions. Nectaries are not all equally efficient. In some species small drops appear which are scarcely visible to the naked eye; in others the nectar forms a thin layer, appearing like a coat of varnish; in still others the drops flow together and collect in cups or tubes, which may be filled to overflowing. There is in the flower of the tropical orchid Coryanthes a collecting cup, into which nectar gradually trickles until it amounts to nearly an ounce. External conditions do not explain why two species yield very unequally under exactly the same conditions. Why is alfalfa a good honey plant only in the West, while white sweet clover yields well everywhere? Why is alsike clover a more reliable honey plant than white clover, or the bushy goldenrod than the early goldenrod, when both grow side by side and bloom at the same time? These differences depend upon the plant itself, or upon the chemical processes taking place within it.
It should not be forgotten that there are many kinds of glands besides nectaries. Water glands excrete large quantities of water, and many intermediate stages occur between them and nectaries. There are also resin glands, chalk glands, salt glands, slime glands, and the digestive glands of insectivorous plants. Internal glands occur in the leaves of the orange, Eucalyptus, and many other plants, which may not discharge their contents to the surface. Very little is known about the way in which each kind of gland forms the substance peculiar to it. Their origin is not clear, and their functions are often useless.
The principal external factors influencing nectar secretion are the soil, moisture and dryness, heat and cold, light, and altitude. The effects produced by these
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Public Release:
University of Alberta
University of Alberta researchers Phil Bell and Eric Snively have suggested that while some dinosaurs may have migrated during the winter season, their range was significantly less than previously thought, which means their treks were shorter. Bell and Snively's findings were recently published in Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Paleontology.
The idea that these animals may have travelled distances nine times further than mule deer or four times those of wildebeest would have made them the greatest migrators in history. "There are strong opinions regarding dinosaur migration, but we decided to take a different approach, looking at variables such as energy requirements," said Bell. Their research led them to suggest that migrating dinosaurs could have travelled up to 3,000 kilometres in a round trip--lasting perhaps up to six months--half of the distance suggested previously.
According to Bell, the notion of migrating polar dinosaurs is not new; however, previously-held beliefs were that the animals followed the centrally shifting sunlight, or latitudinal "sun line," as part of their migration and would travel as far as 30 degrees of latitude, or 3,200 kilometres, in order to survive. Given their size and physiology, Bell and Snively have concluded that dinosaurs would have been incapable of sustaining the effort needed to make the trip. "When we looked at the energy requirements needed to support a three-tonne Edmontosaurus over this distance, we found it would have to be as energy efficient as a bird. No land animal travels that far today," said Bell.
Bell does not dispute the evidence of migration and points to discoveries of large bone beds as evidence that many dinosaurs also traveled. In order to sustain the herd, "it seemed to make sense that they would be moving to and from the poles," he said.
While this view of migration is feasible for some species of polar dinosaurs, it does not hold for all, Bell noted. "Many types of dinosaurs were surviving in polar latitudes at the time, and getting along quite fine," said Bell. "They were not physically able to remove themselves from the environment for a variety of reasons and had to adapt to the cold, dark winters just as the rest of us mammals do today."
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William Bennett Munro
It was the royal desire that New France should some day become a powerful and prosperous agricultural colony, providing the motherland with an acceptable addition to its food supply. To this end large tracts of land were granted upon most liberal terms to incoming settlers, and every effort was made to get these acres cultivated. Encouragement and coercion were alike given a trial. Settlers who did well were given official recognition, sometimes even to the extent of rank in the noblesse.
In New France there were no privileged orders. This, indeed, was the most marked difference between the social organization of the home land and that of the colony. There were social distinctions in Canada, to be sure, but the boundaries between different elements of the population were not rigid; there were no privileges based upon the laws of the land, and no impenetrable barrier separated one class from another.
Syndicate content
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The Tokugawa And Meiji State Ruling Class And Officials
1277 Words6 Pages
The Tokugawa and Meiji state ruling class and officials wished to impose their ideology onto their subjects. The ruling class and officials hoped that this would assist them in their endeavors. Their goals differed between time periods; however, one constant is the mechanism they used to perpetuate their ideology, mythistory. In Tokugawa Japan, they used mythistory to create an ideology based on many religions to justify the social hierarchy the officials created (1 - professor). The Meiji state used mythistory to obtain national support for industrialization and modernization. These ideologies had many adverse effects on the lives of many peasants. In the Tokugawa period, numerous peasants were harshly taxed, even when they did not have…show more content…
They then would exchange this rice to merchants for currency (1). However, their means of generating wealth were not stable; harsh weather conditions could severely hamper the output of rice that their peasants could produce. This then decreases the number of tax that the Shogun could levy upon their subjects because there is a limit on how much the Shogun can tax his subordinates before they die from starvation. This caused a dilemma: The Shoguns needed to have an immense amount of disposable wealth to be in a position to afford their lifestyle (1). Thanks to the expense of their lifestyle, they forged loans with merchants, without an understanding of how interest rates worked (1). As a result of their loans, many Shoguns increased the tax they imposed onto their subordinates even though many of them barely had enough food for themselves. Therefore, the luxurious lifestyle of the Shoguns coupled with their unstable income resulted in countless hardships inflicted on their peasants. Many subjects of Shoguns participated in counter-mythistory because of the tribulations forced upon them by the Shoguns due to the social hierarchy and their unsustainable lifestyles. The subjects of many Shoguns did not sit quietly when their “benevolent” and “merciful” lord required their subjects to pay a ludicrous and unreasonable amount of tax during famines. Countless of these subordinates lacked sufficient rice to even feed their
Open Document
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Technique by which a composer employs a preexisting composition to create a new one, using its melodic ideas, imitative patterns, harmonic structures, etc. to whatever extent he sees fit. The concept of borrowing music to begin a new piece is as old asWestern music and exists in most other traditions in some form, but "parody" usually refers to the practice of reconfiguring a polyphonic composition, prevalent in the 16th–18th centuries. Two repertories of parody most frequently heard today are the parody masses of the 16th century and the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, who parodied his secular cantatas to create church cantatas with new texts and parodied both kinds to build such large works as the Christmas Oratorio and the Mass in B Minor.
Historians and critics who came of age with Romantic prejudices about artistic originality were once embarrassed when they realized the great extent to which Bach, George Frideric Handel, and other Baroque masters parodied their own works and those of others. More recently, studies have shown that parody usually demanded more effort from the composer than the creation of a new work from scratch. The large repertory of parody masses in particular shows intense reworking and filling out of models.
Historical dictionary of sacred music. . 2006.
Look at other dictionaries:
• parody — parodiable, adj. /par euh dee/, n., pl. parodies, v., parodied, parodying. n. 1. a humorous or satirical imitation of a serious piece of literature or writing: his hilarious parody of Hamlet s soliloquy. 2. the genre of literary composition… … Universalium
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Invasive Cane Toads' Predatory Impact on Dung Beetles is Mediated by Reservoir Type at Artificial Water Points Academic Article uri icon
• Disruption to ecosystem functioning associated with biological invasions can have dramatic effects on the production and biodiversity values of ecosystems. In semi-arid rangelands of Australia, invasive cane toads (Rhinella marina) prey on dung beetles that were themselves introduced to promote nutrient cycling and reduce parasite burdens of livestock. Cane toads’ colonization of rangelands has been facilitated by artificial water points (AWP) which provide cattle with drinking water. Most AWP in northern Australia comprise bores that pump water into earthen reservoirs (dams). Dams typically support large toad populations because they allow toads’ access to water without which they could not survive. Here, we ask if restricting toads’ access to water at AWP can reduce toad populations, toads’ predatory impact on dung beetles, and the rate of dung decomposition by dung beetles. We contrasted toad and dung beetle populations, toad diets, and dung removal rates at AWP fitted with dams or tanks as reservoirs. In comparison to dams, tanks provide toads with little access to water. Population densities of toads were five times higher at dams than tanks. Conversely, population densities of dung beetles were 12 times lower at dams than tanks. Mass loss of experimental dung pats after 2 days was 13% greater at tanks than dams. Our study provides evidence that consumption of detritivores by an introduced predator can retard dung decomposition in a rangeland ecosystem. Restricting toads’ access to water at AWP should benefit livestock production by reducing both toad populations and toads’ predatory impact on dung beetles.
publication date
• 2015
has subject area
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Transport Arithmagon
Here are four new arithmagons for you to print on a Transport themed worksheet. Use the buttons below the puzzles the shuffle the arithmagons to create four new puzzles, to view the solution, or to print as a worksheet.
Transport Arithmagons
Transport is the movement of people, animals or goods from one place to another. There are lots of different modes of transport from the simple bike to the hot air balloon and space rocket.
See if you can solve these four arithmagons.
The aim of an arithmagon is to work out which numbers go in the empty circles. The numbers in the square boxes are made by adding together the numbers in the circles either side. For example, if the number in the square box was 10 you could try 6 and 4, but the numbers must also add up on the other edges, making this more difficult than it first appears.
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Category Archives: 6. Krishnamacharya and the Hatha Yoga Movement
Krishnamacharya and the Hatha Yoga Movement
Yoga has been practiced for centuries, with alternative meanings and health benefits as it has moved into modern day. The Vedas are the primary source of ancient Indian traditions and practices of worship that allow people to live life in a dharmic manner. These texts refer to the attainment of moksha (liberation) and yoga is one of the modes to attain this goal. Traditional Vedic yoga is connected with ideas that revolve around ritual sacrifices for the purpose of connecting the material world with the spiritual world (Feuerstein 5). The successful yoga practices create focus for a long period of time as a way of transcending the limitations of the mind in order to reach spiritual reality (Feuerstein 5). The preclassical period of yoga was approximately 2,000 years until the second century C.E when it closely followed the sacrificial culture discussed in The Brahmanas and Aranyakas, which re genres of Sanskrit texts. It is the Upanishads, which teach the unity of all things, that ultimately expanded the practice of yoga (Feuerstein 6). Post classical yoga first demonstrates the shift of focus from contemplation with the result of developing a spiritual conscious, to practices that rejuvenate the body and influence a prolonged life. (Feuerstein 6). Hatha yoga or “yoga of force” is a practice that utilizes posture (asana) and breath control (pranayama) as a way of transforming the body’s energy to influence spiritual transformation (Starbacker 105). The physical nature of hatha yoga is what influenced its appeal in the 19th century as calisthenics became popular in India and around the world.
Tirumalai Krishnamacharya is widely considered the father of modern yoga as he developed movement-orientated postural systems that have been presented internationally by his disciples (Starbacker 103). Krishnamacharya documents the purpose of yogabhyasa (the practice of yoga or abstract devotion) and why it is an important practice that influences the welling being of the mind and body in his book Yoga Makaranda, which is one of many of his publications. He explains that it is the philosophy of yoga to draw the minds focus inwards to reach deep concentration to develop a form of mental strength. The benefit of this process is comparable to how sleep rejuvenates the mind, in which sleep is of a tamasic nature. The mental strength that is developed through yogabhyasa is called yoga nidra, and it by far exceeds the amount of strength and concentration that sleep or meditation may offer (Krishnamacharya 7). The benefits of yogabhyasa are separated into eight parts: yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and Samadhi (Krishnamacharya 8). There are benefits at every stage of practice; it is not that there is a final stage that reveals all the benefits at the same time. Yama develops compassion towards other living beings, while niyama is a state of peace and tranquility with the environment and internally. Asana practice causes correct blood circulation and internal functions; pranayama develops strength in the bones and bone marrow, heart, brain, muscles and tendons. Pratyahara is to bring ones own indriyas (five senses) under control in order to have a focused mind. Dharana is to stop the mind and hold it in one place, while dhyana is to focus the mind in one direction and to attain whatever form is though about. Samadhi is to have stopped all external movements of the mind and have reached a state of happiness about the physical and spiritual world (Krishnamacharya 8-16).
Krishnamacharya was most influential during his residency at Jaganmohan Palace in Mysore from 1930-1950, when he developed a very physical and acrobatic system of asanas that are most similar to yoga today (Heerman 20). It remains unclear if Krishnamacharya stayed true to his teaching from his guru Rama Mohan Bramachari with the transition of his yoga teachings in India, and the conflicting western views that have greatly influenced the way yoga is received from his students (Heerman 20). Once Krishnamacharya completed his teachings, he set out to teach this spiritual system of yoga throughout India. The traditional system of yoga practices was becoming outdated and was not received well by most people. Because of his unsuccessful pursuit to make a living as a yoga teacher, Krishnamacharya traveled around India giving lectures and demonstrating siddhis (supernormal abilities of the yogic body) (Heerman 21). In order to gain attention and interest in yoga, he demonstrated suspending his pulse, lifting heavy objects with his teeth and performed difficult asanas (Heerman 21). Krishnamacharya was then recruited by the Maharaja of Mysore, Krishnarajendra Wodeyar to teach at the Jaganmohan Palace for young male royals (Heerman 21). The Maharaja was very committed to promoting cultural, political and technological innovations for Mysore, as well as encouraging physical education, which was known as the “Indian physical culture movement”, that was designed to created the strength necessary to reclaim India after so many years of colonial rule (Heerman 22). Krishnamacharya’s yoga teachings were greatly influenced to be aerobic and physical due to the Maharaja and the popularity of exercise. As a result, hatha yoga gained wide popularity compared to the traditional yoga practices, which ultimately led to the vast arrangement of yoga forms that are present in India and North America today.
Hatha yoga is mainly the methods of doing asanas (yoga postures). The circulation and strength of the body is only one of eight parts that contribute to the whole of yogabhyasa, while the mindfulness and focus of yoga has not maintained its aesthetic appeal. Krishnamacharya explains his distaste for the way practitioners of yogabhyasa ignore vinyasa krama and worries that the Vedas from which yoga practice has originated will be ruined (Krishnamacharya 26). The form, metre, syllables, and verses that form the entirety of the Vedas are comparable to the way in which yoga should be practiced. The combination of the eight elements of yogabhyasa is what provides the beneficial integrity of yoga practices. From the perspective of Krishnamacharya in Yoga Makaranda, yoga has a deep spiritual meaning and benefit that has deteriorated with the Westernization of hatha yoga. To Krishnamacharya, yoga is a form of Vedic ritual that develops more than toned muscles and flexibility. Although the Yoga Makaranda provides much information on the traditional Hindu practice of yoga with regards to the Vedas, Krishnamacharya is recognized as a figure who influenced the separation of religiosity of yoga from the growth of modern yoga. Other organizations, such as Christian yoga, argue that spiritual expression can still be reached without the Hindu dimensions of yogabhyasa. The interest in yoga in North America encouraged the streamlined approach of simplifying yogic concepts in a way that was acceptable to Western and Christian spiritual views (Heerman 13).
Bas-relief on a temple pillar depicting a yogic posture, utilized in ascetic practice (Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam, Tamil Nadu, India).
Christian opponents of yoga hold that Hindu traditions are in conflict with Christian doctrine (Jain 4). The contemporary Western view of modern yoga is as a mode physical fitness, separated from its historical origins. Similarly, Hindu opponents of this disconnect of yoga from its historical spiritual origins, believe that yoga has been corrupted by the profit driven popularization of contemporary yogis (Jain 4). Prior to Krishnamacharya, there where other yoga masters involved with the popularization of Hatha Yoga. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) is widely known to have used a combination of existing yoga with modern ideas and practices (Jain 5). As postural yoga remains without a Hindu signature in modern western society, alternative spiritual connotations have been attached to it. For example, Christian Yoga emphasizes postures and breath control as a way of focusing on Christ (Jain 6). The differing opinions and techniques associated with yoga is what allows it to be appealing to many different groups, but also contribute to the opposition that both Christians and Hindus have towards modern postural yoga.
Krishnamacharya demonstrated exceptional strength and flexibility that encourages the appeal of yoga for its physical benefits, but his teachings in Yoga Makaranda, suggest that he taught with the intention of encouraging anyone to practice yoga. He has extensive teachings on the spiritual origins and the responsibility of the guru to teach a student in such a way that all aspects that contribute to yoga are recognized in order to receive the benefits of yoga. Yet, it can also be seen that Krishnamacharya did not maintain a traditional yoga system that is true to the teachings of his own guru as his career was greatly influenced by Maharaja of Mysore and popularity of physical exercise. The tendency that Krishnamacharya had for tailoring his instructions so that each of his students could maximize the physical benefits, also demonstrates the stray away from the traditional yoga system (Heerman 30).
Besides the conflicting viewpoint of modern yoga and Hindu traditions, Krishnamacharya designed a form of exercise that is unique and modifiable to anyone who wishes to participate. Hatha yoga can build strength, and cause an overall benefit to health as well as encouraging concentration and focus that can be interpreted as spiritual, self reflective, or religious depending on how the participant want to approach a yoga practice. Krishnamacharya may have influenced the separation of Hindu tradition from modern forms of yoga but made yoga accessible to everyone who wishes to participate.
Burley, Mikel (2014) ‘A Purification of Ones Own Humanity’ Nonattachment and Ethics in Yoga Traditions. The Journal of Religion. Vol. 94, No. 2, P. 204-228. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Feuerstein, Georg (2006) “A Short History of Yoga”. The Yoga Tradition. P. 1-10. Hohm Press.
Heerman, Grace (2014) “Yoga in the Modern World: The Search for the ‘Authentic’ Practice.” Sociology and Anthropology Theses. Paper 5, P. 1-45, Tacoma Washington: University of Puget Sound.
Jain, Antrea R. (2012) “The Malleability of Yoga: A Response to Christian and Hindu Opponents of the Popularization of Yoga”. Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies: Vol. 25, Article 4. P. 1-8, Indianapolis, Indiana: Butler University.
Krishnamacharya, Sir T. (1934) Yoga Makaranda: The Essence of Yoga (Part One). Kannada Edition, Madurai C.M.V. Press. P. 1-159.
Starbacker, Stuart R. (2014) “Reclaiming the Spirit through the Body: The Nascent Spirituality of Modern Postural Yoga”. Entangled Religions; Oregon: Oregon State University, Article 3, P. 95-114.
Singleton, Mark (2007) “Yoga, Eugenics, and Spiritual Darwinism in the Early Twentieth Century”. International Journal of Hindu Studies; Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 125-146. Springer.
Sattva guna
Swami Vivekananda
Vinyasa krama
Krishnarajendra Wodeyar
Article written by: Monica Johnson (March 2015) who is solely responsible for its content.
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"fasttext_score": 0.03532165288925171,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9462125897407532,
"url": "http://www.mahavidya.ca/category/hinduism-and-the-west/hinduism-for-the-west/krishnamacharya-and-the-hatha-yoga-movement/"
}
|
Patnuli, Patnūli: 1 definition
India history and geogprahy
Patnuli (patnuli) or Khatri refers to one of the vernacular languages and dialects of Southern India.—Patnuli is a dialect of Gujarati, spoken by the Patnulkarans who have settled for the most part in the town of Madura. They are immigrants from Saurashtra in Gujarat, who are said to have come south at the invitation of the Nayak kings of Madura.
India history book cover
context information
Discover the meaning of patnuli in the context of India history from relevant books on Exotic India
See also (Relevant definitions)
Relevant text
Like what you read? Consider supporting this website:
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<urn:uuid:85520586-0aa4-4297-b109-32facf19685d>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.05905824899673462,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8936420679092407,
"url": "https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/patnuli"
}
|
Wednesday, October 25, 2017
Cut up sentences.
Here is an envelope.
Cut-up sentences is a strategy that we use in class for new entrants to learn about how to form and write a sentence. Sivi is putting words together to form his own sentence.
Look at Kaya!
Kaya is sleeping.
Baby is sleeping.
Look at Merakyl!
Merakyl is crawling.
Baby is crawling.
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<urn:uuid:1f1a0035-a883-4252-8100-081241455a41>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.1815313696861267,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9657360911369324,
"url": "http://gbswordhunters.blogspot.com/2017/10/"
}
|
Collecting data
Sampling foldable
Displaying data
Scatter graph TorF cards A set of scatter graphs on a worksheet with some true or false cards to go with it and a set of extension questions.
Quartiles and box plots foldable – A way to help students remember how to find quartiles and what each part of a box plot means.
Formula 1 averages from a table 14
Probability from a table dominoes
Probability – Unlock the box
As always feel free to use and adapt these resources in your teaching, share them with other teachers. I make resources in my own time and share them for free. I always like to hear about how you get on and will probably have made at least a few daft mistakes so please do get in touch on twitter @MsSteelMaths or email
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<urn:uuid:0b688521-236b-401f-b7d6-2cd1965051f4>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.030696749687194824,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9087478518486023,
"url": "https://mssteelmaths.com/gcse/statistics/"
}
|
The job of a firefighter is to deal with situations involving fire outbreaks, bringing the fire to a controlled halt, and helping evacuate the residents of the building(s) involved, if any. Firefighters are normally deployed in teams, trained to cooperate between themselves, to maximize their efficiency and their ability to control the situation. Even in cases of small-scale fires, at least two firefighters would normally be deployed to ensure that they’re always covered between each other.
Becoming a firefighter doesn’t hold any specific educational requirements – the job can be obtained by simply signing up at one’s local department. However, academies for firefighters do exist around the world, and their graduates are able to begin their jobs as firefighters starting at a higher rank than other recruits. Various personal skills and traits are required to perform the job, including excellent physical fitness, critical thinking, and the ability to work under severe pressure. Additionally, good teamwork is also required between firefighters, and is part of their on-the-job education.
A firefighter can earn between $30,000 – $58,000 per year, and the median for 2009 was $51,000. The job is a moderately well-paying one for the amount of work involved, and it also comes with some very well-designed healthcare benefits, which are one of the main reasons candidates see it as an attractive prospect. On the other hand, many consider the risk attached to the job to not be worth the payment they’re offered for it, leading to a decline in the market for firefighters in recent years.
|
<urn:uuid:6b818a92-1574-45a7-879b-93b682227d4f>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.12370789051055908,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9785977005958557,
"url": "https://superscholar.org/careers/government/firefighter/"
}
|
What can a fight between two little birds teach a mighty king and a warrior who planned to conquer the world and who wished to live eternally. An unforgettable character, Alexander the Great, whose story spans through a Persian epic is more known through the smaller stories rife in those eastern regions. One such story is of the two birds and Sikandar, as he is known in those regions. I first heard it from an old man in my village, many years later I read it in the English translation of Sikandarnama (The Book Of Sikandar) written in twelfth century by Shaikh Nizami, the great Persian poet.
This is how the old man began the story “When Sikandar Baadshah (king) was preparing for his great war to conquer the Persian empire, he knew that victory is not going to be easy, as the battle was against a mighty foe, Dara (known as Darius in the west), the baadshah of half the world”.
Nizami describes Dara’s response when he heard of Sikander’s intentions:
He laughed, and in that anger- laughter said:
“Ah, woe to the action of the lofty sky!
“Behold the sky, what tyranny it displays
“Since Sikandar entertains a design (of war) against Dara!”
There was no way to forecast the result of the battle but Alexander foresaw his victory. “One day when he was passing from a baazar,” continued the old man, “He saw a crowd watching the combat between two birds . Sikandar turned his steed closer to the crowd and watched the contest.”
Following are the excerpts of Nizami’s commentary of the bird battle and what Alexander learnt from it.
“From the fierceness with which the partridges grappled together,
They fled not at the sight of the king.” He was amazed at the resolve and could not help saying:—“How is this malice in the brain of birds!”
He named one bird Sikandar and another Dara
“The two bold birds in that contest
Made battle for awhile” and finally Sikandar defeated Dara.
Alexander considered this the proof of his victory in the forthcoming battle and he watched the victorious bird fly. I will let Nizami continue and end the story.
(The triumphant bird) Flew towards the knoll of a mountain;
An eagle came and split his head.
When the mountain-partridge was overcome by that eagle,
The king grieved, but became not angry.
The fact of not being enraged is wisdom; for the end of all is to die
He knew that fortune would give assistance
Would give him success over Dárá.
But in that victorious time
His life would not be long lasting.
The famous battle of Arbela between Alexander and Darius 111 was fought in 331 BCE. Alexander died in 323 BCE soon after conquering the easternmost satrapy of Darius. Alexander’s story has reached posterity through various Greek chronicles and Persian accounts. Many books have been written on him and several movies made on his life. Here is a link to the first biopic produced in Bombay by Sohrab Modi, a Parsi film maker whose ancestors had migrated from Persia (Iran) to settle in India.
Fear thee? I fear not man, but God alone,
I only bow to His Almighty throne.
Inspired by Him my ready numbers flow;
Guarded by Him I dread no earthly foe.
Thus in the pride of song I pass my days,
Offering to Heaven my gratitude and praise.
From every trace of sense and feeling free,
When thou art dead, what will become of thee ?
If thou shouldst tear me limb from limb, and cast
My dust and ashes to the angry blast,
Firdausi still would live, since on thy name,
Mahmud, I did not rest my hopes of fame
In the bright page of my heroic song,
But on the God of Heaven, to whom belong
Boundless thanksgivings, and on Him whose love
Supports the Faithful in the realms above,
The mighty Prophet! none who e’er reposed
On Him existence without hope has closed.
And thou would’st hurl me underneath the tread
Of the wild elephant, till I were dead !
Dead! by that insult roused, I should become
An elephant in power, and seal thy doom –
Mahmud ! if fear of man hath never awed
Thy heart, at least fear thy Creator, God.
Full many a warrior of illustrious worth,
Full many of humble, of imperial birth,
Tur, Salim, Jamshid, Minuchihr the brave,
Have died; for nothing had the power to save
These mighty monarchs from the common doom;
They died, but blest in memory still they bloom.
Thus kings too perish – none on earth remain,
Since all things human seek the dust again.
O, had thy father graced a kingly throne,
Thy mother been for royal virtues known,
A different fate the poet then had shared,
Honours and wealth had been his just reward
But how remote from thee a glorious line!
No high, ennobling ancestry is thine;
From a vile stock thy bold career began,
A Blacksmith was thy sire of Isfahan.
Alas! from vice can goodness ever spring ?
Is mercy hoped for in a tyrant king ?
Can water wash the Ethiopian white?
Can we remove the darkness from the night?
The tree to which a bitter fruit is given,
Would still be bitter in the bowers of Heaven;
And a bad heart keeps on its vicious course;
Or if it changes, changes for the worse;
Whilst streams of milk, where Eden’s flowrets blow,
Acquire more honeyed sweetness as they flow.
The reckless king who grinds the poor like thee,
Must ever be consigned to infamy!
OWOS Talpur Cover
Ode to a Desert Woman
I remember, within the loose circle of a veil
A face-strong, striking, ancient and pale
Sphinx-like riddle its features bore
An expression so stoic, hard to explore
Chiseled sharply by piercing winds
Tanned copper by the blazing sun
It called for a scribe to write its story
To seek its history encrypted around
In the massive murky past, in the dunes that abound
In such enormity she stood; in distance she was lost
An eternal imprint on my memory she left
Aspiring life in the desert dead
A rare ore amidst the grains of sand
Unread, unnoticed, unnamed
How do I bring you toOzymandias’ fame?
Taj Mahal is the symbol of the great love story of Prince Shah Jehan (1592-1666) and Arjumand Bano. He was the grandson of Akbar the Great Moghul King; she the fourteen year old daughter of Asaf Khan, a highly influential official in the Moghul court. Arjumand was also the niece of Queen Noor Jehan, the most renowned wife of emperor Jehangir, the father of Shah Jehan.
Shah Jehan fell in love with Arjumand on the first sight. He saw her at a Meena Bazaar ( a marketplace run by ladies) when she was only fourteen years old. In five years time they got married and Arjumand Bano came to be known as Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jehan had other wives also but she became his favorite. She was beautiful, intelligent and a good chess player who dared to accompany her husband even on his military campaigns and eventually died in one of those in Burhanpur in Central India.
Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 while giving birth to Shah Jehan’s fourteenth child, a girl. It is said that on her deathbed she asked Shah Jehan for two things, first that he will not marry again and second that he will build a grand mausoleum in her memory. Her death devastated Shah Jehan it is said the grief had grayed his hair soon after. He ordered to exhume the body of his beloved wife from Burhanpur and bring it in a gold coffin to Agra. Shah Jehan may have eventually found some consolation in devoting about two decades and 20, 000 workers for the construction of the promised mausoleum on the banks of River Jamuna. In the last years of his life fate deprived him of all the splendor. His son, the austere emperor Aurangzeb, imprisoned him in the Fort of Agra, allowing him a window to watch the Taj and finally getting him buried under its dome next to his beloved wife.
Much has been written on Taj Mahal, poems and plays even movies have been made in India and Pakistan. Here is a documentary , here is a song from an old movie and here are a few glimpses from the last movie (2005) made on Taj Mahal.
There was a preacher who, whenever he mounted a pulpit, forthwith would offer up a prayer for highwaymen.
“Lord,” he would cry, lifting up his hands, “visit with compassion the wicked, those who do corruption, the insolent sinners, all who make mock of the righteous, all who are infidels at heart, all who dwell in convents.”
Not one prayer he would say for the pure; his prayers were only for the depraved. Such conduct is certainly unusual, people protested. “It is hardly generous to pray for erring men.”
“Such are the sorts of men from whom I have derived most good,” he answered. “That is why I have singled them out for my prayers. They have wrought such depravity, oppression, injustice that they have violently flung me out of evil into good. Every time I turned my face towards this lower world, they would receive me with cuffs and blows; so I would take refuge from their buffering in the other side. It was wolves who brought me back always to the right road. Since they contrived the means of my salvation, it is incumbent on me, my clever friends, to pray for them.”
Every enemy you have is in reality your cure, your sovereign alchemy, your benefactor, your well-wisher.
(Jalal-ud-Din Rumi . A thirteenth century mystic poet and a great storyteller)
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<urn:uuid:fa926d9a-6e1a-447b-8025-cc967ecdf0f2>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
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"fasttext_score": 0.03446459770202637,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9693793654441833,
"url": "https://parveentalpur.com/page/3/"
}
|
|15 February 2017|
The unique spinning technique of a venomous spider could inspire the development of materials strong enough to protect astronauts from drifting space debris, according to new research.
From observing the deadly Brown recluse spider (pictured) a team of UK and US researchers discovered the arachnid’s novel spinning technique strengthened the silk it makes.
The scientists from Oxford University’s Department of Zoology, along with a team from the Applied Science Department at Virginia’s College of William & Mary, found that unlike other spiders, who produce round ribbons of thread, recluse silk is thin and flat.
Professor Hannes Schniepp from William & Mary explains: “The theory of knots adding strength is well proven. But adding loops to synthetic filaments always seems to lead to premature fibre failure. Observation of the recluse spider provided the breakthrough solution; unlike all spiders its silk is not round, but a thin, nano-scale flat ribbon. The ribbon shape adds the flexibility needed to prevent premature failure, so that all the microloops can provide additional strength to the strand.”
By using computer simulations to apply this technique to synthetic fibres, the team were able to test and prove that adding even a single loop significantly enhances the strength of the material.
William & Mary PhD student Sean Koebley added: “We were able to prove that adding even a single loop significantly enhances the toughness of a simple synthetic sticky tape. Our observations open the door to new fibre technology inspired by the brown recluse.”
Speaking on how the recluse’s technique could be applied more broadly in the future, Professor Fritz Vollrath, of the Department of Zoology at Oxford University, said: “Computer simulations demonstrate that fibres with many loops would be much, much tougher than those without loops. This right away suggests possible applications. For example carbon filaments could be looped to make them less brittle, and thus allow their use in novel impact absorbing structures. One example would be spider-like webs of carbon-filaments floating in outer space, to capture the drifting space debris that endangers astronaut lives’ and satellite integrity.”
The team’s study was published their studt in the journal Material Horizons.
|
<urn:uuid:46ec08be-a9f5-4ede-a744-fb6bb316194f>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.02123713493347168,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9100527763366699,
"url": "https://www.innovatorsmag.com/deadly-spiders-and-space-travel/"
}
|
The search for knowledge is central to British life. Watch the video to learn about Oxford University, the Science Museum and the Wellcome Collection and how they are all involved in Britain’s quest for knowledge.
Think about the following question:
• What’s the best way for you to find knowledge?
• Perhaps you go to college or university, visit museums, read books or search the internet.
Now watch the video and complete the activities.
Task 1 - gap fill
Watch the video from the start until 03:08 minutes.
Use a word or number to complete the sentences from the video.
Task 2 - categorising
Watch the video from 03:08 minutes to the end.
Task 3 - comprehension
The search for knowledge is central to British life. In fact, four of the world’s top ten universities can be found here. Every year, huge amounts are invested in science and research in this country… so why is knowledge so important to Great Britain?
Oxford has been a place of learning for hundreds of years and more world leaders have been educated here than any other university. This is the Old Schools Quad, which is part of the famous Bodleian Library, at the heart of this historic establishment.
A quad or quadrangle is a courtyard with buildings on all sides. Oxford University is made up of thirty-eight different colleges. There are twenty thousand students studying here, from nearly a hundred and fifty countries.
Dr Sally Mapstone is Pro-Vice-Chancellor of Education.
Richard: Sally. Tell me about Oxford University.
Sally: Oxford University is one of the world's leading universities. It's highly international, it's very modern and it has a great sense of history.
Richard: And how old is it?
Sally: The university has been here for nine hundred years. Many of the colleges are almost as old as that too, though some of them were established in the twentieth century.
Richard: You've had a lot of famous names here over the years.
Sally: Yes, we've had a lot of famous people at Oxford, from prime ministers, such as Margaret Thatcher, Harold Wilson, David Cameron, US presidents, such as Bill Clinton, writers, such as Oscar Wilde, and even film stars, such as Hugh Grant.
Richard: So why is it, do you think, that the search for knowledge and education is so important to Great Britain?
Sally: Great Britain and universities like Oxford have always had a rich interest in critical enquiry. By that I mean the search for knowledge, the investigation of truth, the asking of questions. Whether it's to do with drama, to do with development, or even to do with disease, we're always asking the big questions to try and change things for the better.
There are universities all across the UK but they're not the only places where you can gain knowledge.
This is the Science Museum in London. It has millions of visitors every year and that's because there are some pretty special things here. Let’s go and explore.
The Science Museum is home to over 230,000 objects, although only a fraction can be on display at any one time.
Now that’s what I call an engine.
The museum is dedicated to learning and knowledge. For over a hundred years, it's been engaging people with science. The exhibitions here range from technology to space… The only issue is where to start; this place is huge…
Roger Highfield is a spokesperson for the Science Museum.
Richard: Roger, tell me about the Science Museum.
Roger: Well, this is the science museum. In fact, if you're going anywhere in the UK and you want to find out about science or technology, this is the place to come. Overall, we've got the biggest selection of iconic scientific and technological objects on the planet. We get something like 3 million visitors every year, just enjoying the kind of amazing insights we give them into, you know, the objects and the ideas that are still changing our world.
Richard: And this exhibition is incredible. Tell me more.
Roger: This is Making the Modern World and, if you like, this is the greatest hits of science and technology. We've got a V2 rocket over there, we've got Watson and Crick's model of DNA, we've got the engine that powered the spitfire, Model T Fords, Stephenson's Rocket, you know these are – if you want to go to one place on the planet and figure out what made the modern world, this is where you've got to come.
Richard: What makes Britain so great in the search for knowledge?
Roger: Well, we've got some of the great scientific pioneers, an amazing history. Sir Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Paul Dirac, who gave the world antimatter, and we've also got amazing scientists still at work today. We've got the world's best-known scientist, Stephen Hawking, and just a few hundred yards away from where we are, we've got Sir John Pendry, who gave the world invisibility cloaks. Now, how cool is that?
Richard: And he's stood here right now, listening to us. Shall we keep looking?
Well, that was fun! What a great way to learn about science!
This is the Wellcome Collection in London. All the items here are to do with medicine, health and the search to discover more. It’s the place to go for those who are hungry for knowledge.
This is the medicine man gallery. Some of it is really horrible.
Many of these medical objects were collected by Sir Henry Wellcome, a Victorian collector and businessman.
That’s Napoleon’s toothbrush.
Sir Mark Walport is the chief executive of the Wellcome Trust.
Richard: Sir Mark… Tell us about the Collection.
Mark: Henry Wellcome was an avid collector of objects that linked together human health and well-being and history and then the Wellcome Trust brought his collection up to date in the Medicine Now gallery, which looks at medicine, art and science in a contemporary setting.
Richard: And there's plenty of art here as well.
Mark: Absolutely. Well, here's an example. This is quite an amusing piece of art. This is a take on a skeleton where the pelvis has been swapped with the skull, and it looks slightly like a character from Star Wars.
Richard: He wants to see a doctor about that, doesn't he?
Mark: Absolutely.
Richard: So why do you think the search for knowledge is so important in Great Britain?
Mark: Knowledge is the foundation for human development, for economic development. If you look around the world, if you look around, you see the impact of science everywhere you look and the Wellcome Trust is about funding medical research and of course that advances human health throughout the world, so there's nothing really more important than knowledge.
• Do you enjoy visiting museums to improve your knowledge?
• Write in and tell us. We’d love to hear from you!
In the video, Richard visits Oxford University, the Science Museum and the Wellcome Collection. For more information about these attractions, or to plan a visit, the following links may be useful:
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<urn:uuid:af4627b7-397a-4c95-bfb0-0f1daff938a3>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.018829286098480225,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9512067437171936,
"url": "http://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/learners/uk-life/video-uk/britain%E2%80%99s-search-knowledge"
}
|
Encouraging creativity and culture
Between Shade and Darkness: The fate of the Jews in Luxembourg from 1940 to1945
201305 affiche.indd
The museum retraces the history of Luxembourg from the Nazi invasion (1940) to the liberation of the country (1945). A second section deals with the system of the concentration camps and the fate of the Jews in Luxembourg. To raise awareness of the dangers of extremism, discrimination and racism, temporary exhibitions present subjects in relation with memory, commemoration, civic education, human rights, and social justice.
The exhibition focuses on a neglected chapter of Luxembourgish history: the fate of the Jewish community in Luxembourg during the Nazi occupation (1940 -1945). It emphasizes two periods: The first retraces the evacuation and expulsion of Jews in Luxembourg, the second treats their deportation and extermination. As a chronological guideline the exhibition follows the lives of two figures that have played a central role during this tragic period: The chief rabbi, Robert Serebrenik tries to evacuate a maximum of Jews, before fleeing himself in 1941. Alfred Oppenheimer, named as the “Judenältester” by the Nazis is forced, to communicate the orders of the oppressor and to organize the every-day-life of the remaining Jews. He is on the last transport from Luxembourg to the ghettos and the extermination camps. The goal of the exhibition is to raise awareness of the tragic fate of the Jewish community in Luxembourg. In this context, the education of the youth plays a central role: It is essential to pass this knowledge on to a new generation in order to support the fight against intolerance, discrimination and anti-Semitism.
Read more
|
<urn:uuid:655e7735-a12b-4c7d-80fc-c50de7e0d5e2>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.019870996475219727,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9080995917320251,
"url": "http://www.matanel.org/project/between-shade-and-darkness-the-fate-of-the-jews-in-luxembourg-from-1940-to1945/"
}
|
Arithmetic and Weaving in Antiquity
A pebble proof of the incommensurability in the square
This image from a Greek vase shows Achilles and Ajax playing a board game. They use small stones called psephoi. It is supposed that the Greeks developed the first mathematical proofs with such pebbles by using number features like even, odd, prime or the like.
To weave the pattern that is seen on the warrior's coats a weaver also needs to know about these number features and their divisibility.
|
<urn:uuid:48f74283-e1ae-46e0-b8f5-7696ceb93697>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06909722089767456,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9634457230567932,
"url": "http://www.praetexta.de/psephoi/e_psephoi_01.html"
}
|
How do coconuts swim?
The coconut palm, or coconut tree, grows in many tropical areas of the world, including the coastal regions of Indonesia, the Philippines, India, Brazil, and Sri Lanka. When the tree is four or five years old, it begins to produce male and female flowers, followed by nuts. The coconuts reach full size in about six months and, as they mature, drop from trees. The fallen coconuts, which are light and able to float, get scooped up by waves. The ocean currents carry the “sea-beans” across oceans, until they land on another shore, ready to sprout new trees. Scientists believe this why coconut trees appear in so many faraway regions of the world.
|
<urn:uuid:c8fda2b0-10ed-43c0-936c-c8445e66e3b6>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.5576705932617188,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9470670223236084,
"url": "https://www.papertrell.com/apps/preview/Handy-Answer-Book/Handy%20Answer%20book/How-do-coconuts-swim/001137006/content/SC/51360d14172536090c7a576d_PlantLifeHTML.html"
}
|
State machine transition
A transition represents a change in the state of the machine, it is defined by an event id, an eventual condition, an eventual set of actions to perform, and usually a next state.
Each state can have any number of transitions.
Normal transition
A normal transition is when the next exists and it is not the current state.
Let's have a look at the traffic light state machine:
Suppose the current state is Yellow and the event EvTimerYellow is triggered. A transition begins from the state Yellow to Red:
1. Set the current state from Yellow to null
2. Execute the onExit content of the state Yellow, it turns the yellow light off and stop the yellow timer.
3. Execute the eventual action content of the transition, in this case, nothing.
4. Execute the onEntry content of the state Red, it turns the red light on and start the red timer.
5. Set the current state to the Red.
Self transition
An self transition is when the next state is itself, in this case, onExit and onEntry are executed.
Internal transition
An internal transition is when the next state is not present, in this case, onExit and onEntry are not executed.
When present, actions in a transition are executed upon receiving an event. To be precise, actions are executed after the onExit but before the onEntry
Actions can be defined in the action attribute:
Actions can be also defined with an action element:
Furthermore, actions can be defined as a sequence of action elements:
A condition can be added so that the transition is triggered only when the event is received and the condition is true.
The condition can also be as an element, this is useful when the condition contains character such as the double quote, which cannot be present in an attribute:
In some cases where some symbols such as &, < and > are used, the condition must be placed inside CDATA element:
Transition order
Multiple transitions can have the same event, but beware that the transition order depends of the condition strength. The transition without guard, if any, must be the last one.
|
<urn:uuid:13512fca-3cf3-4c88-9335-59e7f995be6e>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.19584614038467407,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9278238415718079,
"url": "http://stateforge.com/Help/state-machine-transition.aspx"
}
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Past Simple by Mind Map: Past Simple
1. It is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that happened or existed before now.
2. Negative structure:subject+did not+base verb+complement.Example:I did not play football.
3. Question structure:Did+personal pronoun+base verb+complement.Answers:Yes,personal pronoun+did.No,personal pronoun+didn´tExample:Did you play football?Yes,I did
4. Affirmative structure:personal pronoun+verb in past+complement.Example:I played football.
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<urn:uuid:2cb98d1a-d5fd-4fcc-9e23-373197b409d2>
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"edu_score": 3.796875,
"fasttext_score": 0.4396175146102905,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.873085081577301,
"url": "https://www.mindmeister.com/1117966359/past-simple"
}
|
History of Tamales
The History of Tamales
The tamale is recorded as early as 5000 BC, possibly 7000 BC in Pre-Columbian history. Initially, women were taken along in battle as army cooks to make the masa for the tortillas and the meats, stews, drinks, etc. As the warring tribes of the Aztec, Mayan, and Incan cultures grew, the demand of readying the nixtamal (corn) itself became so overwhelming a process, a need arose to have a more portable sustaining foodstuff. This requirement demanded the creativity of the women…..hence the tamale was born.
The tamales could be made ahead and packed, to be warmed as needed. They were steamed, grilled on the comal (grill) over the fire, or put directly on top of the coals to warm, or they were eaten cold. We have no record of which culture actually created the tamale but believe that one started and the others soon followed.
The tamale caught on very fast and eventually grew in variety and diversity unknown in today’s culture. There were plain tamales, tamales with red, green, yellow and black chile, tamales with chocolate, fish tamales, frog, tadpole, mushroom, rabbit, gopher, turkey, bee, egg, squash blossom, honey, ox, seed and nut tamales. There were white and red fruit tamales, white tamales, yellow tamales, dried meat tamales, roasted meat, stewed meat, bean and rice tamales. There were sweet sugar, pineapple, raisin, cinnamon, berry, banana and pumpkin tamales. There were hard and soft cheese tamales, roasted quail tamales, ant, potato, goat, wild boar, lamb and tomato tamales. Well, you get the idea.
The sizes, colors and shapes varied almost as much as the fillings. They were steamed, oven-roasted, fire-roasted, toasted, grilled, barbecued, fried and boiled. The wrappings were cornhusks, banana leaves, fabric, avocado leaves, soft tree bark, and other edible, non-toxic leaves. The most commonly used were corn husks, banana and avocado leaves.
Over the millennia, the varieties were minimized to the most common now being red and green chili, chicken, pork, beef, sweet, chile, cheese, and of late, vegetables. Also changed was the every day occurrence of making the tamales. With the preparation being so labor and time intensive, tamales became holiday fare, made for special occasions. This tradition remained for thousands of years, with the women of the family working together to make the sauces and meats, preparing the masa, and finally assembling and wrapping the tamales before steaming them in large pots on the stove. The process takes all day, the preparation often starting one of two days in advance. It is virtually unheard of to make a few tamales. In most cases, when they are made, hundreds are made at a time. Everyone, young, old, family and friends, is invited to tamale feasts where they are enjoyed, savored and loved by all.
Tamales have always been loved by the Hispanic people and in the 1900s they have become known and loved by all cultures as much as sushi and dim-sum, which were, in the past, also holiday and celebration foods.
The different regional names for tamales are:
Paches and Chuchitos
Bolivia and Ecuador
Cuba, Mexico, South and Central America
Michoacan, Mexico
Veracruz, Mexico
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<urn:uuid:8c0b7aab-e17e-44c8-aef1-aa7852830c26>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.09390640258789062,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9668136835098267,
"url": "http://www.tamarastamales.com/his.tamale.html"
}
|
Hakai Magazine
Coastal science and societies
A baby shark is caught by a fisherman in the shallow surf of Florida's east coast
Sharks and rays born prematurely have a low chance of making it in the ocean. Photo by Michael Wiggins/Alamy Stock Photo
Getting Caught Can Induce Labor in Sharks and Rays
The lost offspring could be affecting the health of vulnerable populations.
Authored by
by Ben Goldfarb
Article body copy
Picture this: you’re on board a fishing boat, extracting a hook from a female Atlantic stingray when a tiny, writhing tail suddenly emerges from her cloacal vent. You press her white belly, and new life squirms beneath your fingertips. A bit more pressure and—pop!—out slips a baby ray, no larger than a saucer, followed moments later by a sibling. You flip the babies into the sea and off they swim. Congratulations: you’re a ray midwife.
Unfortunately, this miraculous moment came at the rays’ expense. Those adorable babies were born too early, and they’re probably doomed. Their mother won’t bear another litter for a year. You’ve just provoked capture-induced parturition: spontaneous birth, usually premature, triggered when the ray was caught and handled. Now, a new review suggests that such fishing-induced births are more common among elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) than scientists realized—and the phenomenon could affect the conservation of some rare species.
Scientists have long known that some sharks and rays that give birth to live offspring (as opposed to those that lay eggs) are prone to going into labor when caught. “A female [angel shark], of a considerable size, taken from our net, gave 15 to 20 pups,” wrote the French zoologist Antoine Risso in 1810, before adding, “due to lack of water, it was asphyxiated.”
In the two centuries since Risso’s observation, though, biologists have learned little about the phenomenon. Why does it occur? Which species are susceptible? Could it be impairing populations?
The review, spearheaded by Kye Adams, a doctoral candidate at Australia’s University of Wollongong, attempts to address those questions. Adams and his colleagues perused hundreds of scientific papers for accounts of capture-induced births among sharks and rays. They also scoured YouTube, Instagram, and Facebook for references to shark and ray births. Their searches turned up a grisly trove of videos: newborn sixgill sharks flopping on a boat in Florida; baby bluntnose stingrays wriggling loose in North Carolina; a dying eagle ray delivering in the parking lot of a California diner.
“It was a little bit morbid watching them all,” Adams says.
Between scientific and anecdotal records, Adams found that at least 88 live-bearing elasmobranch species will occasionally experience capture-induced parturition—12 percent of all such sharks and rays. The scientists found that species experience induced labor at different rates. While just two percent of pregnant spinner sharks delivered upon capture, 85 percent of blue stingrays spilled their offspring. Across all live-bearing species, around a quarter of pregnant females lost their pups.
Adams still isn’t sure why spontaneous birth happens, but he has theories. Perhaps it helps babies escape their dying mother to swim another day, he says, or maybe females eject pups to distract predators and facilitate their own getaways. Others, however, suspect that the behavior is simply the result of a stress hormone overload that causes the animals to lose control of their bodily functions. “It costs a lot of energy to develop young,” says Austin Gallagher, chief scientist of Beneath the Waves, a nonprofit focused on shark and ocean conservation. “I don’t know if aborting them would make evolutionary sense.”
Given that the overwhelming majority of premature pups die, are fishing-related births affecting shark populations? It’s conceivable. In Australia, for instance, researchers found that more than 80 percent of sharks caught by recreational anglers are tossed back, meaning that over a half-million female sharks per year are put at risk of losing their offspring in the name of sport. Letting sharks go might assuage anglers’ guilt, but evidence suggests that far more sharks die from catch and release than fishermen realize. Capture-induced parturition could be another non-obvious source of loss.
In the grand scheme, it’s unlikely that capture-induced parturition is a major crisis. Humans famously kill as many as 73 million sharks per year for their fins; compared to that carnage, catch-and-release preemies probably amount to a rounding error. “Juveniles still have a high probability of dying before they will give a return in the form of offspring,” points out Nicholas Dulvy, a marine ecologist at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia. In other words, most lost babies wouldn’t have likely contributed to populations anyway.
Yet Adams worries that capture-induced parturition could still pose a subtle threat, especially for critically endangered elasmobranchs like sawfish and angel sharks. For those groups, Adams says “even the loss of a few pups could be pretty concerning.”
Adams has taken the risk of capture-induced parturition to heart, and is erring on the side of caution in his own work. His latest project entails studying the reproduction of the confusingly named banjo shark—a sleek bottom-dwelling ray adorned with rippling white markings. Since catching pregnant females by hook and line could induce premature births, Adams wrangles them by hand and tows them to shore for an ultrasound.
“Like fishermen, scientists who are catching sharks for research need to know that [capture-induced parturition] happens,” Adams says, “and implement strategies to reduce their impact.”
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<urn:uuid:88220b1f-aaa2-4c48-85df-019a617a8f82>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
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"fasttext_score": 0.23869305849075317,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9468556046485901,
"url": "https://www.hakaimagazine.com/news/getting-caught-can-induce-labor-in-sharks-and-rays/"
}
|
The basic unit of measurement of accentual-syllabic metre, usually thought to contain one stressed syllable and at least one unstressed syllable. The standard types of feet in English are iambic, trochaic, dactylic, anapestic, spondaic, and pyrrhic. Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "Metrical Feet" exemplifies the metre the first five, and of two classical measures, the amphibrach and the amphimacer (stressed feet are in boldface):
Trochee trips from long to short;
From long to long in solemn sort
Slow spondee stalks; strong foot! yet ill able
Ever to come up with Dactyl trisyllable.
Iambics march from short to long; --
With a leap and a bound the swift anapests throng;
One syllable long, with one short at each side,
Amphibrachys hastes with a stately stride; --
First and last being long, middle short, Amphimacer
Strikes his thundering hoofs like a proud high-bred Racer.
There is currently no content classified with this term.
Subscribe to RSS - Foot
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<urn:uuid:6b66cbb7-239f-40a2-9119-07224e1a12fa>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.03180974721908569,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8867044448852539,
"url": "https://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/glossary/foot"
}
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The Eaton Model of Collective Communication
The Eaton Model uses collective communication to build consensus in a non-confrontational way. Each of these three terms needs a short explanation.
Collective communication is a novel technique of communication between groups. Instead of communicating through a spokesperson, members of a group write messages and then vote to select the one message that best represents the group. A benefit of this method is that it is democratic and involving.
Group dialogs using the Eaton Model will build consensus because there will be a third group to take part, that of the two groups combined into one. The messages selected by the combined group will represent the common humanity of the separate groups, giving the advantage to those who are looking for a positive outcome.
Group dialogs using the Eaton Model will be non-confrontational in that they will be structured so the common voice of the two groups mediates the interaction and the two groups never directly engage each other. This is best seen in the accompanying diagram. In words, the group dialog will proceed in alternating "unity" and "diversity" rounds. First there will be a "unity" round producing one message to represent the common humanity of the two groups. Then there will be a "diversity" round producing two messages, one from each of the groups separately. Then a unity round and so forth. The two groups never respond directly to each other. This structure reinforces the consensus building aspect and should altogether prevent a negative outcome even between hostile groups.
Given this structure, the Eaton Model of Collective Communication will attract people looking for positive, win-win outcomes and will put off those whose real purpose is inimical. Participants may therefore join in an Eaton Model group dialog with an initial feeling of trust for their fellow participants.
The Listening EarThe Eaton Model of Collective Communication is designed to build consensus even between hostile groups.
website last changed July 10, 2010
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<urn:uuid:8454dbb6-dbe5-4c42-9c7d-ee90b1792ca0>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.07850933074951172,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9194119572639465,
"url": "http://www.raoulwallenberginstitute.org/groupdialog/model.htm"
}
|
The Cirripeda constitute the second class of the Articulata, which comprise the "Acorn shells" and "Barnacles" (fig. 14); these little creatures were formerly described as Molluscs, but are now considered to be articulate animals, and by some as Crustaceans. Dr. Baird gives the following description of them:—"The Cirripeds are articulated animals contained within a hard covering composed of several pieces and consisting of calcified chitine. The body of the animal is enclosed in a sac lined with the most delicate membrane of chitine, which in one group is prolonged into a peduncle and contains the ova; the body is distinctly articulated and placed with the back downwards."
FIG. 14.—A, SEA-ACORNS; B, BARNACLES (Cirripedes).
Dr. Carpenter describes the young of the Cirripedes as not fixed like the adult creatures, but moving about freely, and only becoming fixed in the form of the usual acorn shell after undergoing several strange metamorphoses, during which stages they more resemble the ordinary Crustaceans than they do in their fixed state.
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<urn:uuid:016a4754-1ddc-466a-a000-f9e83a17cdc5>
|
{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.19774776697158813,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9575700163841248,
"url": "http://bennetdictionary.com/cirripeda/"
}
|
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