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Poetry Tips
Readers ask: John donne compass poem?
What is the metaphor of the compass in a valediction forbidding mourning?
A mathematical compass (like this one) is used to draw perfect circles. For Donne, it was the perfect metaphor for the long-distance relationship he imagined with his wife. Line 26: The compass is introduced emphasizing two crucial features. First, compasses are firm or “stiff.” They do their job and don’t flinch.
What is a twin compass?
John Donne’s compass conceit
In his poem, ‘A Valediction Forbidding Mourning’, John Donne (1572–1631) uses the simile of ‘stiff twin compasses‘ to describe two lovers who are physically parted, but united in their souls.
What is the theme of the poem a valediction forbidding mourning?
Major Themes in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning”: Love, separation, and acceptance are the significant themes given in the poem. The poem is primarily concerned with the love of the speaker with his significant other. Though they are going to part due to circumstances, yet their love will remain pure and true.
What’s the main conceit in valediction forbidding mourning?
“A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” ends with one of Donne’s most famous metaphysical conceits, in which he argues for the lovers’ closeness by comparing their two souls to the feet of a drawing compass—a simile that would not typically occur to a poet writing about his love!
What does metaphysical conceit mean?
Metaphysical Conceit = is an extended metaphor with a complex logic that governs a poetic passage or entire poem. It usually sets up an analogy between one entity’s spiritual qualities and an object in the physical world and sometimes controls the whole structure of the poem. ”
You might be interested: 7 characteristics of an epic poem?
Why does the speaker urge his wife to part from him quietly?
Why does the speaker urge his wife to part from him quietly? It would spoil the sacredness of their love to display their feelings publicly. a special, intense quality of love.
Why death should not proud?
Death, be not Proud” a representative Poem of Logic: Donne has presented death as a powerless figure. He denies the authority of death with logical reasoning, saying the death does not kill people. Instead, it liberates their souls and directs them to eternal life. He does not consider it man’s invincible conqueror.
What’s a conceit?
Conceit, figure of speech, usually a simile or metaphor, that forms an extremely ingenious or fanciful parallel between apparently dissimilar or incongruous objects or situations.
What kind of mourning is the speaker forbidding?
“A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” is a poem by John Donne in which the speaker directly addresses his lover to say farewell and to encourage her not to mourn his absence. In the first stanza, the speaker describes how virtuous men die: fearlessly. He tells his love that she must be this fearless when he leaves her.
What is a conceit in a poem?
From the Latin term for “concept,” a poetic conceit is an often unconventional, logically complex, or surprising metaphor whose delights are more intellectual than sensual.
What does the speaker say his reason is for leaving?
What does the speaker do in the first stanza? reassure his beloved in the first stanza that his reason for leaving is not that he is tired of her. What does he mean his departure is liked? He means his departure is like an imagined death.
You might be interested: Readers ask: Poem to honor veterans?
What does the speaker tell death in the first two lines of the poem?
the speaker tells death it has no power to kill him. Death “slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men” because death in itself has no power; it results from other causes.
How does Donne describe love?
In the “Valediction,” Donne describes a spiritual love, “Inter-assured of the mind,” which does not miss “eyes, lips, and hands” because it is based on higher and more refined feelings than sensation.
Why is it the speaker concerned in meditation 17 when a child is baptized?
Why is it the speaker’s concern in “Meditation 17” when a child is baptized? Both people are parts of the same body, the church.
What is a sigh tempest?
The metaphors in line 6, though, keep us in nature, but move us to natural disasters: “tear-floods” and “sightempests.” These are hyperboles, or exaggerations, like “cry me a river.” This hyphenated description is also commonly referred to as an epithet or a kenning.
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School Logo
Spring 2
Tuesday 23rd February
Watch this video about how animals adapt to their environment.
Look at this PowerPoint about the ways some animals have adapted to their environments and then answer these questions for each animal:
1) What habitat do they live in? (desert, polar, rainforest etc)
2) What is the environment like in this habitat? (hot, cold wet, dry, etc)
3) How has each animal adapted to their environment?
Adapting to an environment
Tuesday 2nd March
Open up the link about 'food-chains' below. Make sure you don't play the game until you have read about food chains a bit further down the page!
Now do some research and make your own food chain to show the class on zoom! Here's one :
water ► plant ► beetle ► frog ► snake ► hawk
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History Kannur
The Kannur district was earlier part of the Chera dynasty. Then it came into the hands of the Kolathiri Rajas. They conducted trade with the Arabs and many explorers came here to establish trade relations. It was said that timber required to construct the Temple of the Lord was collected from Kannur by the Solomon’s ships. In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama visited Kannur and later it became a settlement for the Portuguese. It was a Portuguese viceroy named Don Fransisco de Almeda who constructed the St.Angelo’s fort in Kannur. This fort passed many hands where it was captured by the Dutch in 1663 and then sold to the Arakkal rulers in 1772. The British gained control of it in 1790 but at present it is under the supervision of the Archaeological Survey of India.
The rulers of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sulthan conquered a major part of Kannur during the end of 18th century. But with the Third Anglo Mysore war between the British and the Mysore rulers, Kannur and the neighboring areas came under the direct control of the British. After which it became the Malabar district of Madras Presidency. A famous ruler of Kannur named Pazhassi Raja who was popularly called as the Lion of Kerala belong to the Kottayam dynasty in Kannur. He led many struggles against the Mysore rulers.
Kannur has a main role for the struggle for Indian Independence. The Indian National Congress had a Malabar district committee; there was a branch of the All India Home Rule League at Thalasseri and a branch of Communist Party at Pinarayi. As per the decision of the Nagpur congress, the boycotting of foreign articles, courts of law and educational institutions were practiced in Kannur. The great freedom fighters Mahatma Gandhi and Maulan Shaukat Ali travelled through Kannur to spread the message of Non co-operation and Khilafat Movement.
It was in 1928 that Kannur gained importance in the Kerala Politics when the fourth All Kerala political Conference was held at Payyanur. This meeting was headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and this conference passed a resolution to use Swaraj instead of Complete Independence as the main aim of the conference that was scheduled to be held at Calcutta.
The salt satyagraha in Malabar was conducted from Payyanur beach. The campers were beaten up. With the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience movement, there was a rise of radical wing on the Kerala Provincial congress. The radical elements of Kerala Provincial Congress became a separate unit called the Congress Socialist Party and there was also the group of the Muslims called the Nationalists Muslims. Another main development was the formation of the Muslim League as a political party by the Muslim leaders of Kannur region. Later a branch of Communist Party was also formed in Malabar.
The KPCC decided to observe September 15, 1940 as an Anti Imperialist Day. Even though this was disapproved by the Congress High Command, meetings were held at certain places. In Kannur there were clashes between the police and the people which lead to firing and lathi charges. At Morazha two police officials were killed and a communist leader K P R Gopalan was arrested on charge of this. Some workers from Congress also provided leadership for the Quit India Movement in 1942.
The war period from 1943 to 1945 was a period that took the lives of thousands of poor people due to famine and epidemic diseases. A campaign called as ‘Grow more food’ was organized under the initiative of certain people of Kisan Sabha in which around 50 acres of land were bought under cultivation. But the government destroyed them all. Even after the end of war in 1945, the life of the people was miserable. The people of Karivelloor which is a northernmost village of Kannur made a movement by blocking the transporting of paddy to Chirakkal kovilakam and distributed it among the villagers. Police opened firing against this and the leaders became martyrs. A main event that changed the route of the anti imperialist movement was the emergence of the working class. The peasants before independence fought against the landlords.
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14 Facts About The Arch Of Septimius Severus
It’s one of the most amazing arches in the world, and one of the most fascinating landmarks in Rome.
In this post, you’ll discover the ultimate list of facts about the Arch of Septimius Severus, a triumphal arch dating back to the 3rd century!
1. It’s located in the historical center of Rome
The Arch of Septimius Severus is located in the northwest end of the Roman Forum, the marketplace and most important square of Ancient Rome.
It stands near the foot of Capitoline Hill, one of the 7 hills that Rome was built on. It also stands right next to the ruins of the oldest and more important large temple of Ancient Rome called the “Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus,” of which the first version was dedicated in 509 B.C.
Another important Ancient Roman monument is the Column of Phocas which stands just east of the arch but was built nearly 400 years later in 608 A.D.
facts about the arch of septimius severus
The arch with the Column of Phocas next to it. / Wiki Commons
2. It’s one of the tallest arches of the empire
Apart from being one of the best-preserved arches of Ancient Rome (there are many), it’s also one of the tallest. The arch stands 23 meters tall (75 feet) and is about 25 meters (82 feet) in width.
To give a comparison, other tall arches in the vicinity of the Arch of Septimius Severus are the Arch of Constantine, which is located right next to the Colosseum and stands 21 meters (68 feet) tall, and the Arch of Titus stands just 15 meters (49 feet) tall.
This is still much less tall than some of the modern triumphal arches, such as the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, which is about double the height of this one.
arch of septimius severus height
The arch / Rita1234 / https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
3. It was built in honor of a Roman Emperor
As you might have expected, the arch was constructed in honor of Roman Emperor Septimius Severus. he ruled over the empire from 193 until he died in 211 A.D.
Septimius Severus is well-known for his invasion of “Caledonia” in 209 A.D., which is modern-day Scotland, with a massive army of 50,000 Roman soldiers. He fell ill the year after so the campaign was halted.
If he hadn’t fallen ill, Scotland might have become another province of the Roman Empire!
Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus / Wiki Commons
4. Septimius Severus ruled Rome with his two sons
He was the sole ruler of the Roman Empire for just 5 years because was joined by his son Caracalla in the year 198 A.D. This was repeated when his other son Geta became co-ruler as well in the year 209 A.D.
This means that he founded the last Dynasty of the Roman Empire called the “Severan Dynasty,” which would rule the Empire from 193 until the year 235 A.D.
5. One of the sons ended up being carved out of the arch
One of the most interesting facts about the Arch of Septimius Severus is that Geta, who was included in all of the decorations on the arch, was carved out of it by his brother Caracalla.
The reason is that Caracalla had his brother Geta assassinated in the year 212 A.D. to become the sole ruler of the empire and ordered a “damnatio memoriae” upon Geta. This basically means that he was erased from history and removed from all public buildings, including this arch!
Reliefs on the face of the arch
Reliefs on the face of the arch / Wiki Commons
6. It commemorates two great victories of the Roman Army
So what do the reliefs on the arch depict?
The arch was completed in the year 203 A.D. and depicts two of the great victories of Septimius Severus against the Parthian Empire, which can be considered modern-day Iran.
These victories happened in the years 194 to 195 A.D., and 197 to 199 A.D.
caracalla and parthian prisoner of war
Depiction of Caracalla with Parthian POW / Source
7. The arch is decorated with 2 sets of reliefs
The arch is full of self-glorifying reliefs related to the victories of the Romans over the Parthians, which is what the arch was all about. Another distinct feature is the 4 columns which rest on piers.
These include two sets of reliefs. One of the sets is located on the 4 faces of the attic of the arch, while the second set is located on the 8 inner faces of the archways.
fun facts about the arch of septimius severus
Reliefs and columns of the arch / Source
8. Statues used to decorate the top of the arch as well
The reliefs weren’t the only decorations on the arch as they used to be topped with multiple statues of the Emperor and his sons, either on foot or riding horses.
The centerpiece of the top section of the arch was a massive quadriga, a chariot driven by the emperor pulled by 4 horses.
reconstruction of the arch of septimius severus
Reconstruction of the arch / Helen and Janos Scholz, 1958 / Wiki Commons
9. There used to be steps going up to the arch in Roman times
One of the most fascinating facts about the Arch of Septimius Severus is that in Roman times, it used to be elevated and accessible through a flight of steps.
Over the centuries, however, the ground level of the Roman Forum was raised because of erosion so the steps were eventually removed.
10. Traffic going through the arch caused some damage
What’s even more remarkable is that a road was constructed which ran through the arch as early as the 4th century A.D., which isn’t too long after the arch was completed.
This road was used until well into medieval times, so you can expect some accidents happening over the centuries. Some of the damage caused by vehicles bumping into the arch can still be seen at the base of its columns.
Damage caused by the traffic can be seen at the base of the columns.
11. Why is the Arch of Septimius Severus so well-preserved
Very few of the buildings in the Roman Forum still stand. All that remains of most of the temples and other ancient buildings, apart from some exceptions, are some columns and the rest lay in ruins.
The reason that the arch has been preserved so well is two-fold:
1. It used to be part of a medieval church called the “Santi Sergio e Bacco al Foro Romano.” This is also the reason that the Pantheon in Rome has been preserved so well.
2. Half of the arch used to be the property of a rich Roman family called the “Cimini Family.” They helped to preserve the ancient monument as well.
Ruins of the roman forum
12. The Cimini family built a tower on top of it
In the Middle Ages, the statues of the Roman Emperors that covered the top section of the arch had long been removed as the arch was transformed into a section of a church.
To make good use of the part of the arch they owned, the Cimini family built a stronghold next to it called “Claustrum Cimini,” and actually put a tower on top of the arch which served the purpose as a watchtower.
Tower on top of the arch
The tower on top of the arch / Wiki Commons
13. By the 18th century, only half the arch was still visible
Did you notice in the drawing above that the arch isn’t fully visible?
This isn’t a mistake because in medieval times, the rubble accumulated and only about half of the arch remained visible. This is clearly visible in a painting by Canaletto, painted in the year 1742.
Painting of the arch of septimius severus in 1742
Painting of the arch of Septimius Severus in 1742 / Wiki Commons
14. This is what the inscription on the arch reads
The arch was dedicated to Emperor Septimius Severus. As with many other monuments of Ancient Rome, this was clearly marked with an inscription on top of the arch which reads:
Latin inscription on the Arch of Septimius Severus.
This literally translates to:
To the emperor Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus Pius Pertinax Augustus Parthicus Arabicus Parthicus Adiabenicus, son of Marcus, father of his country, Pontifex Maximus, in the eleventh year of his tribunician power, in the eleventh year of his rule, consul thrice, and proconsul, and to the emperor Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Pius Felix, son of Lucius, in the sixth year of his tribunician power, consul, and proconsul (fathers of their country, the best and bravest emperors), on account of the restored republic and the rule of the Roman people spread by their outstanding virtues at home and abroad, the Senate and the People of Rome
Engish translation of the inscription on the Arch of Septimius Severus.
Inscription on the arch / José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro / CC BY-SA 4.0
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Many animals find themselves host to ticks. Pets, rodents, deer and other wildlife are perfect candidates for a tick to take a snack. Unfortunately, ticks are also very prone to carrying diseases that they can spread through their bite. Many people wonder where ticks go in winter? Ticks can survive winter in a variety of ways. Some go dormant, while some are actually most active in winter months. And others may latch on to a host and hold out until warmer days are back.
Take, for instance, the deer tick. The adult form of this tick doesn’t become active until after the first frost. For them, winter is their most active time. While other ticks stop feeding during the winter months, the deer tick will feed any day that there is not snow on the ground. This also happens to be the tick that carries the dreaded lyme disease. But, in most cases, if you remove the tick within the first 24 hours, your chances of infection are slim. This is because the germs need an re activation period to get into the ticks saliva glands once it feeds.
The black legged tick has a two year life span in most cases. in spring time, eggs hatch releasing blood sucking larvae. When it gets cold, the larvae dig into soil and molt, emerging the following year as adults. They mate, lay eggs and die in the second year. The lone star tick, on the other hand only lives one year. They overwinter in nymph and adult stages to lay eggs the following spring.
But with the onset of warmer weather, a two year tick can fast track its life cycle into one year. A warm day comes, and the tick emerges, gets a blood meal, and moves through the next phase earlier than most. This means that a cold winter won’t kill off ticks, even if the temperature rises and dips again. A particularly harsh winter may slow them, but cold doesn’t kill them off.
If warm weather doesn’t effect ticks, what does? For a tick, their reproduction strategy is fairly simple. When one of these pests needs to move from one stage of life to another, they need a large amount of energy. This is common in all insects, but especially in blood feeding pests. In order to do this, ticks feed on blood. This gives them a large dose of energy with which they can move to the next stage of life. Whether it is molting old skin, laying eggs, or becoming an adult, they will need a blood meal to do this.
That means that the predominate factor in the speed of their life cycle is their ability to get their next blood meal. Many larger animals that would be a host for these ticks are dormant during the winter. This means that finding a host may be difficult this time of year. Some ticks specialize in animals that are active during this time, such as the deer tick. Others find a host before they hibernate. Hibernating animals aren’t going to be bothered by a small tick biting them. Some ticks, such as the winter tick, only feed off of one host. They find a host in the fall as a larvae, then continue their life cycle the entire winter, feeding off of one host.
Understanding ticks and their habits tell us where ticks go in winter. If you are looking for an exterminator in the Tulsa, Oklahoma area, Contact Us at TermMax Pest Control. We are here to help!
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Extracting fossil fuels, like coal, tar sands, and fracked gas releases greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide that are quickly warming the planet.
For decades, climate change has been a global crisis that will impact every single person and living being on this planet. Now, according to the latest UN climate report, we have less than 10 years to cut global emissions in half.
Burning fossil fuels isn’t just bad for the climate, these industries also violate countless fundamental human rights. From frontline communities facing a fossil fuel pipeline on their land to Indigenous people facing fires in the Amazon to worker rights violations on palm oil plantations, the industries fueling climate change are also fueling injustice.
Coal, tar sands, and fracked gas show everything that’s wrong within the fossil fuel industry. These extraction practices are harming people and planet every day, and big banks are fueling this destruction of the planet and negligence of life.
So what’s so bad about coal, tar sands, and fracked gas? Basically everything, from start to the finish these fossil fuels are disastrous.
Pollution from coal-fired power plants kills communities and cooks our climate.
The biggest coal companies in the U.S. have gone bankrupt in the past few years because coal is so clearly a bad investment for people and the planet.
Communities across the nation are already seeing and feeling the impacts of climate change, driven by carbon pollution, from increased health risks like asthma attacks and lung disease to devastating extreme weather events like Superstorm Sandy and wildfires across the American West, and the world.
Coal companies, and the banks that finance them, have felt the immense pressure from communities that are impacted by coal plants, and public health threats, and our own campaigns and partners. The science is clear: inaction will only increase these deadly and costly threats.
In the United States, coal mining also involves a process called mountaintop removal (MTR). MTR destroys some of the most biodiverse ecosystems in the U.S. The first step in blowing the top off a mountain is clear-cutting the forest off the top of it—some of the most diverse forests in the United States.
MTR debris is very toxic. The rubble that’s left after the coal gets picked out of it is full of mercury and heavy metals—and all of it gets pushed into the valleys and streams next to the blown-up mountain. And there is no coincidence to what communities feel the most impact of coal mines and the pollution they bring. People who endure the detrimental health impacts are primarily Black and Brown folks and poor, working class communities.
Coal mines are also an extremely dangerous place for workers. Countless, senseless, tragedies have occurred at coal mines, due to coal outbursts and fires, resulting in many lives lost. These disasters expose the horrific cost of “cheap” and dirty energy. Miners’ deaths such as these are preventable. And then there are the long-term impacts. Every year, more than one million people die of air pollution that comes from burning coal. 150,000 more die from extreme weather events aggravated by climate change–and coal is the single biggest driver of climate change.
We must not continue to make these sacrifices in order to produce energy from such a dirty and unsustainable source. Coal is a dangerous and outdated fuel, and in the 21st century, we should not be using it to power our homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses. It is past time for us to shift our energy production to clean, safe renewable power. While coal is being phased out in the US, around the world it is still a huge piece of the fossil fuel industry that needs to end.
Tar sands oil is the worst type of oil for the climate.
Tar sands consist of heavy crude oil mixed with sand, clay, and bitumen. The extraction of tar sands includes burning natural gas to generate enough heat and steam to melt the oil out of the sand. As many as five barrels of water are needed to produce a single barrel of oil.
Tar sands oil is the worst type of oil for the climate, producing three times the greenhouse gas emissions of conventionally produced oil because of the energy needed to extract and process tar sands oil.
Across the United States, oil refineries are trying to get permits to expand their business to process heavy crude oil from the tar sands. Processing tar sands oil will mean more asthma and respiratory diseases, more cancer, and more cardiovascular problems. Many local communities are fighting these expansions every day.
Indigenous people, and First Nation coalitions, are leading the fight against tar sands projects on their land that banks and companies are trying to steal for profit. We must break our addiction to oil and fossil fuels. Big banks need to stop investing in dirty fossil fuels and start funding the future.
Fracked gas isn’t a safe choice.
“Natural Gas” (aka gas) has had an upswing in the last few years in the United States with fracking wells popping up across the country.
Despite the name “natural” gas is one of the most destructive types of fossil fuel. While it has a half life, methane is 84 times more potent than carbon dioxide in the first 20 years. This means, if we want to fight climate change fast, we absolutely must keep gas in the ground.
What makes matters worse? The main way gas is extracted, fracking, poisons water, releases radioactive isotopes, and harms communities that live near the wells.
Also, the handful of ways you can transport gas are equally as destructive as burning the fuel. In order to pass gas through pipelines it must be liquified. Liquified natural gas (LNG) has an enormous impact on local communities, ecosystems and the climate.
LNG is piped to the coast, supercooled, and compressed into a liquid. Due to over-extraction from fracking, the U.S. faces an oversupply of natural gas. In search of new ways to use and profit off of this oversupply, fossil fuel corporations are now looking overseas. Enter the LNG export terminal, otherwise known as the “fracked-gas terminal.”
Companies are racing to build dozens of LNG export facilities across North America. Each of these facilities connects to a maze of pipelines that are fed from the fracking sites. LNG terminals span hundreds of acres and have ships, three football fields long, to carry the greenhouse-gas-intensive fuel to be burned in other countries.
There are 30 of these LNG facilities proposed or existing in the United States, with 77% along the Gulf Coast.
Exporting LNG is disastrous for the climate. In fact, three terminals, proposed in the Rio Grande Valley in Texas, would do the same annual damage to the climate as approximately 61 coal plants. And any inevitable leaking along the way releases methane, a super-potent greenhouse gas.
Just like coal and tar sands, banks that provide loans to construct these projects, or other financial support for companies building fracked-gas terminals, share responsibility for the impacts.
We demand banks defund climate change, and that means ditching coal, tar sands, and fracked gas for a just transition to renewable energy, for people and the planet.
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Jaundice is a condition in which the skin and whites of the eyes appear yellow because of the buildup of a yellow-brown pigment called bilirubin in the blood and skin.
Bilirubin is produced by the breakdown of red blood cells. The liver normally gets rid of bilirubin in bile (a fluid that helps the body digest fats).
Excess amounts of bilirubin can build up because of rapid destruction of red blood cells, liver diseases (such as hepatitis), blockage of the bile ducts leading from the gallbladder to the small intestine, or other problems. Bilirubin can be measured in the blood, where it is one indicator of a person's liver function.
Other symptoms that may occur as a result of excess bilirubin include dark urine, light-colored or whitish stools, and itching of the skin (pruritis).
If successful, treatment for the underlying cause of jaundice may cause the skin, eyes, urine, and stools to return to their normal color.
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Isolation describes the state of separation or alone-ness of any object, material, energy, space or organism as related to surrounding materials, energy or organisms, including people and other living things. It can also refer to the act of causing something or someone to become separated or isolated.
Normally, isolation requires barriers, or distance between that which is isolated and that which it is isolated from.
Barrier is anything that blocks or separates materials, energy and/or organisms in one space from materials, energy and/or organisms in another.
Containment is the process of isolating a space by placing barriers around that space, thus putting the space and anything in it into isolation.
Enclosure is a device or structure that includes barriers to provide some amount of isolation for the space within it.
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What makes our homes such inviting places for cockroaches? How do they survive? What makes them so adaptable? How can we prevent a cockroach invasion, and if we have been invaded, how can we get rid of them?
How do they get into our houses and how can we get them out?
David goes to new depths to explore the life of a cockroach.
Segment length: 7:36
Cockroaches. We humans consider them the "rats of the insect world," yet cockroaches could be considered one of the most successful creatures on earth. Entomologists have found fossilized cockroaches that are more than 300 million years old. Amazingly enough, these fossilized cockroaches look very similar to the ones scurrying around in our yards and homes today.
There are over 4,000 species of cockroaches. As one of nature's recyclers, they are often found eating natural forest debris. A few find their way into our kitchens, basements, and bathrooms, coming up through the drains, sneaking in through cracks, or carried in on grocery bags. These cockroaches are usually looking for warm, moist, dark places to call home.
Cockroaches, by design, are survivors. They are nocturnal, making them hard to spot. If they are discovered, their flat bodies make it easy for them to escape into small crevices. Their antennae and cerci help them detect changes in vibrations and air pressure, making it difficult to even step on them. Cockroaches are omnivorous. They eat anything from dog food to plaster. Internal bacteria help cockroaches digest these unusual meals. If necessary, cockroaches can live for three months without food and one month without water.
Although cockroaches preen regularly, they are still suspected of transmitting diseases such as salmonella, dysentery, and typhus. They are also suspected of causing allergic reactions in half of the 17 million people afflicted with asthma.
Have cockroaches appeared in your home? Implement an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program. First, start by making the site less attractive to cockroaches by storing food in tight containers and maintaining high sanitary standards. Then, if you must use pesticides, read the warning labels carefully. Traps and boric acid can be used instead of highly-toxic sprays. Although an IPM is a safer approach for the environment, following it probably won't enable you to get rid of cockroaches completely. Remember, cockroaches have been around for 300 million years. They are sure to be around for a long time to come.
1. Most cockroaches originated in Africa. Now they are found in all parts of the world. How might this spread of cockroaches have occurred?
2. You have just found cockroaches in your home. What will you do?
antennae a pair of sensory feelers on the head of an insect
bacteria microscopic organisms that, in this case, aid in a cockroach's digestion
boric acid a medical antiseptic; a powder that acts as an insecticide for cockroaches
cerci small nerve endings on the back of a cockroach that can detect changes in air pressure and movement
entomologists scientists who study insects
nocturnal active at night
omnivorous eating both animals and plants; in the case of cockroaches, eating almost anything
palpi sensitive appendages attached to the oral part of a cockroach enabling it to pre-taste food
Insects. (1986) Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. Videotape.
Souza, D.M. (1991) Insects around the house. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda Books.
Wenner, A.M., and H.D. Klein. (1991) Tiny-game hunting: Environmentally healthy ways to trap and kill the pests in your house and garden. New York: Bantam.
Additional sources of information:
Carolina Biological Supply Co.
2700 York Road
Burlington, NC 27215
(800) 334-5551
Connecticut Valley Biological
82 Valley Road
P.O. Box 326
South Hampton, MA 01073
(800) 628-7748
Community resources:
Pest exterminators
University entomology extension services
Main Activity
Caught One!
Design a cockroach trap. See if you can catch one.
Are cockroaches your invisible neighbors? Make a guess as to where you might find them. Design your own cockroach trap, or team up with your classmates. Then set out on an expedition to trap a cockroach.
1. Coat the outside of your container with masking tape, black paint, or construction paper to make the inside of your container dark and inviting to a cockroach.
2. Smear a wide band of petroleum jelly around the inside of the container just below the neck.
3. Add bits of food to the container for cockroach bait.
4. Where in your school, home, or community might cockroaches be hiding? Select a site, get permission, then go and set up your trap. Place the trap on its side. Create a miniature ramp using the cardboard strip or tongue depressor, extending the ramp from the floor to the container.
5. If you catch a few cockroaches, quickly screw the lid on tightly. You don't want any cockroaches to escape. Notify the building authorities of your discovery.
1. What plan would you suggest to help get rid of the cockroaches at your specific site? What experiments can you devise to see how well your plan works?
2. Compare your cockroaches with those caught by your classmates. Are they the same types of cockroaches or are they different? Try to identify them.
What repels a cockroach? Experiment by putting a piece of bread in one end of a box and adding a cockroach. How long does it take for the cockroach to start eating the bread? Then, place a piece of peeled garlic into the box. Observe. Is the cockroach attracted to the garlic or repelled by it? Try bay leaves or cucumbers. Does your cockroach say "No thanks!" to these? Experiment with other foods.
Get out the calculators. A female German cockroach reproduces four to eight times in its life cycle, laying seven to eight egg cases, each case containing 35 to 40 eggs. About how many offspring might one female German cockroach have? Divide students into groups to solve the problem. Give each group a package of kidney beans to predict how many cockroaches their female would produce. Put all the beans together to see the effects of cockroach reproduction.
Find out how smart a cockroach can be. Design a cockroach maze. Start with a baking pan half-filled with water. Build a maze using several 6-oz. cans and strips of cardboard. Arrange the cans in the pan and place the cardboard strips on top of the cans to create two pathways. One pathway leads to the cockroach's home, the other leads to a dead-end. Put your cockroach at the start of the maze and observe.
Please call 1-800-228-4630.
For information on other Newton's Apple resources for home and school,
please call 1-800-588-NEWTON!
We encourage duplication for educational
non-commercial use!
Newton's Apple is a production of KTCA Twin Cities Public Television.
Made possible by a grant from 3M.
Educational materials developed with the National Science Teachers Association.
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What happens when AC power is applied to the capacitor? Capacitors behave differently from resistors-in resistors, the flow of electrons is proportional to the voltage drop; in capacitors, when it is charged or discharged to a new voltage level, it resists changes in voltage by absorbing or releasing current . When providing direct current (DC) to the capacitor, as long as the power supply voltage exists, it will be charged to the value of the applied voltage like a temporary energy storage, and then hold or maintain this charge indefinitely. If there is any change in the voltage, a charging current will flow in the capacitor to resist this change at a rate equal to the rate of change of the charge on the capacitor plate.
As shown in Figure 1, let’s study a circuit with only capacitors and AC power. Facts have proved that there is a 90° phase difference between the current and the voltage, and the peak value of the current is 90° (1/4 cycle) ahead of the peak value of the voltage. AC power will generate oscillating voltage. The greater the capacitance value, the more charge must flow in order to establish a specific voltage on the plate, and therefore the greater the current. The higher the voltage frequency, the shorter the time available to change the voltage, so the current must be larger. Therefore, the current will increase as the capacitance and frequency increase.
Figure 1: Circuit with only capacitors and AC power supply and its working principle.
Capacitive AC circuit
A purely capacitive AC circuit is a circuit that only contains AC power and capacitors, as shown in Figure 2. The capacitor is directly connected across both ends of the AC power supply voltage. As the power supply voltage increases and decreases, the capacitor will charge and discharge. Current will first flow through the circuit in one direction and then flow in the other direction. However, no current actually flows through the capacitor. Electrons accumulate on one plate, and then are discharged from the other plate in rapid succession, giving the impression that current flows through the insulator that separates the plates.
Figure 2: Pure capacitive AC circuit.
Capacitive reactance
The current flowing in the capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor. The capacitive reactance in a purely capacitive circuit hinders the current in the AC circuit. As with resistance, the unit of measurement of reactance is also ohms. Therefore, in order to distinguish it from the pure resistance value, reactance is represented by the symbol X. Since capacitive reactance depends on the value of the capacitor (in farads) and the frequency of the AC waveform, it can be expressed by the following formula.
This formula shows that if the frequency or capacitance value is increased, the total capacitive reactance will decrease. Similar to an ideal conductor, when the frequency approaches infinity, the capacitive reactance of the capacitor will decrease to zero.
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Recover Your Password
Return to Legislative Action Center > Grassroots Toolkit > The Legislative Branch
The Legislative Branch: Building Relationships Today for Results Tomorrow
For the purposes of being an effective Legislative Action Team (LAT) leader or participating in FMA's legislative advocacy efforts, here are some basic facts, helpful sources of information, and a brief discussion on the importance of congressional staffers.
• Under the Constitution of the United States of America, the Congress has the power to make the laws, the Executive Branch is given the power to enforce the laws, and the Judiciary is given the power to interpret the laws.
• Each Congress lasts for two years. At the end of each Congress all pending bills that have not been enacted die ("sine die"). The 115th Congress convened on January 3, 2017.
• The legislative process is often long and difficult. It is easier to kill a bill than it is to enact one.
• Bills pending before Congress are designated as H.R. 123 (House of Representatives, 123rd bill introduced in the House in the current Congress) and S. 123 (Senate, 123rd bill introduced in the Senate in the current Congress).
• Resolutions are designated as H.Res. 123 (House of Representatives Resolution, 123rd resolution introduced in the House in the current Congress), S.Res. 123 (Senate Resolution, 123rd resolution introduced in the Senate in the current Congress) or H./S.Con.Res. 123 (House/Senate Concurrent Resolution, 123rd concurrent resolution introduced in the House or Senate in the current Congress).
• Amendments are designated H./S.Amdt. 123(House/Senate, 123rd Amendment offered in the current Congress)
• There are 435 voting Members of the U.S. House of Representatives who are elected to two-year terms (the District of Columbia and the five territories of Guam, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, North Mariana Islands and American Samoa have non-voting representation). The entire House of Representatives is up for reelection every even-numbered year.
• There are 100 Members of the U.S. Senate who are elected to six-year terms. Senators are divided equally into three classes so that every two years, one-third of the Senate is up for reelection. Under the Constitution, the Vice President serves as the Senate President Pro Tempore and casts any tie breaking vote.
- www.congress.gov : legislative information provided by the Library of Congress.
- www.house.gov : organizational information on House Members and Committees.
- www.senate.gov : organizational information on Senators and Committees.
- The Legislative Process : available on congress.gov website as well.
When you meet or write your elected official, you will most likely be talking with a congressional staffer. These men and women understand the nuances of the federal workforce and are better informed on what the federal workforce faces on a daily basis. There are about 31,000 congressional staffers within the Legislative Branch. Approximately 12,500 legislative branch employees work directly for the Members of Congress in their personal offices and 6,000 more work on committee staffs, with the remainder working at the Library of Congress and the Government Accountability Office (GAO). Congressional staffs are particularly important because they serve as information gatherers, gatekeepers and policy advisers.
While congressional staffers are federal employees, as a group they are quite different from their Executive Branch counterparts. According to the Office of Personnel Management, the average federal employee is 47 years old. The average congressional staffer is 35 years old; however, over 60 percent of the House staff are under the age of 35. House and Senate staff are well-educated, with roughly 85 percent having a minimum of a bachelor's degree and 20 percent holding advanced degrees. Congressional staffers also tend to be paid less and work longer hours than Executive Branch employees. While Congress is in session, it is not unusual for staff to regularly work 12-14 hour days and long into the night.
According to Syracuse University professor Bob McClure, "The most important currency between a staffer and a person in public life is trust." It is by proving themselves and gaining the Member's trust that staffers move into positions of greater responsibility. Congressional staffers typically start their careers by working on a political campaign or interning in a Member's office. Staffers work their way up from junior positions such as Staff Assistant, Caseworker, and Legislative Correspondent (LC) to senior positions such as Legislative Assistant (LA), Press Secretary, Legislative Director (LD), Communications Director, Administrative Assistant (AA) and Chief of Staff. Senior staffers also gravitate toward committee assignments where they can gain in-depth policy experience on specific issues. Some congressional staff members even become Members of Congress; examples include Senators Susan Collins (R-ME) and Representative Rosa DeLauro (D-CT).
FMA Logo
Advocating Excellence in Public Service
Why Join FMA?
Contact FMA
FMA National Office
• 1641 Prince Street
• Alexandria, VA 22314-2818
• Phone: (703) 683-8700
• Fax: (703) 683-8707
• Email: info@fedmanagers.org
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Fashion and power have moved hand-in-hand for thousands of years in what is now Mexico. In Oaxaca, textiles are the lifeblood of a multi-ethnic, cosmopolitan community, run mostly through local customs. Indigenous designers have used Oaxacan fashion to work toward collective liberation and colonial resistance for generations.
Slide, 1961.
Location: Santiago Llano Grande
Photographer: Frances Bristol
Zapotec women like Doña Isabel Saguilán have woven cloth on horizontal looms like this one for thousands of years. European colonizers brought vertical looms to Oaxaca, but horizontal looms are more portable because weavers can tie them to trees and belts. Weavers also have more control over the spacing of the threads on horizontal looms.
Doña Isabel wears a short-sleeved white blouse and a tiered skirt while working under the shade of a tree. Women often wear outfits like this when traveling between urban and rural areas because huipiles (unisex tunic) may be restricted or attract too many prying eyes.
This photo (right) of textile seller Fidel Diaz Valenciana and his family shows the clothes urban Indigenous people had to wear to appear respectable. Their clothing, emulating Western dress, changes the context of the photo.
Even though Diaz Valenciana sells textiles to tourists every day, his family cannot show who they are through traditional clothes in a photo as important as this. The threat of losing respectability or being equated with the intellectually disabled because of the way they dress is an ever-present danger to Indigenous people.
Slide, 1961
Location: Oaxaca City
Photographer: Frances Bristol
Indigenous people who assimilated were called gente de razón — "people of reason." The Mexican government used this language in documents until the late 1960s to dehumanize Indigenous people and culture.
That does not mean all is lost. The craft stays alive, even if Diaz Valenciana could not wear the clothing he makes for such a special occasion.
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Description: Craft and Structure Distinguish their own point of view from that of the narrator or those of the characters.
Maps to Reading Plus skills: 3B
3B: Analyzing Plot/Character
3B: Analyzing Plot/Character
Description: Analyzing setting, plot, and character
✓ standard met
Selection: C-59
Grade level: 3
Word count: 1357 words
Author: R. Bender
Synopsis: Why is the mouse such a small animal? This legend from long ago offers an interesting explanation.
Excerpt: The girl was an average size, but the boy was very small. He was no more than two feet high.
One day she said, "Look, little brother! I have made you a bow and some arrows. It is time you learned to take care of yourself. While I am gone, practice shooting.
Each day he practiced, shooting at a tree when there was nothing better to aim at. At last he killed a bird.
But he had made up his mind to see the world for himself, and off he went. His legs were short and he was not used to walking far.
Question: Which two statements about the boy are correct?
1. He was not able to walk great distances because he was small.
2. He learned to hunt by practicing every day.
3. He was as large as a Mastodon and as smart as a coyote.
4. He took care of his older sister, and kept her safe from harm.
5. He was a skilled hunter who never missed a shot.
✓ standard met
Writing prompt: Explain why you agree or disagree with the behavior of a character.
Organization: Certica Solutions
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Weddell Sea Facts
Weddell Sea Facts
The Weddell Sea is located in the Southern Ocean, covered mostly by a permanent and massive ice shelf. The sea is within three territorial claims, by Britain, Chile, and by Argentina. The Weddell Sea is believed to have the cleanest water of any sea, and in 1986 it was deemed to have the clarity of distilled water.
Interesting Weddell Sea Facts:
The ice shelf covering most of Weddell Sea is called the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf.
Weddell Sea covers an area of approximately 2.8 million square kilometers.
The Weddell Sea is 1,200 miles across at its widest point.
Weddell Sea was named after King George IV by James Weddell - a Scottish sailor, in 1823. In 1900 the name was changed to Weddell Sea in honor of James.
There are abundant populations of seals and whales in the Waddell Sea. These include crabeater seals, leopard seals, minke whales, humpback whales, killer whales and the Weddell Seal.
The most dominant penguin species in the Weddell Sea is the Adelie penguin. There are at least 100,000 pairs (male and female partners) living on Paulet Island.
A colony of emperor penguins was discovered south of Snowhill Island in the Weddell Sea in recent years.
There are two gyres (large systems of circulating oceanic currents) in the Southern Ocean. One is the Weddell Gyre, located in the Weddell Sea.
The waters of Weddell Sea are considered to be treacherous and myths exist that suggest there are mermen with green hair living in its waters. Many ships have been destroyed by ice and flash freezes in Weddell Sea over the years.
Related Links:
Seas Facts
Animals Facts
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Free In school
eBook: Campaigning and Protest - How People Protest
St Fagans National Museum of History
People in Wales have a long history of campaigning and protesting against injustice, unfairness, and inequality. There are many different ways in which people can campaign or protest.
In this eBook we will take a look at some of the different ways that people protest. How do you think the ways in which people protest have changed over time?
Campaigning and Protest: How do people protest? (Can be viewed as a link on any device)
Curriculum for Wales: Humanities
Events and human experiences are complex, and are perceived, interpreted and represented in different ways.
Information and activities suitable for KS2 and above
Cost: For use in school - free of charge.
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Tests and support for dyslexia: a teacher's guide
Paul Main
Tests and help for dyslexic learners: a teacher's guide to the theory and actionable classroom support.
What is a test for Dyslexia?
Dyslexia is a kind of Language-Based Learning Disability that affects a person's reading skills. It is amongst the most common learning disabilities, that mostly co-occurs with other disorders like attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hypersensitivity disorder. If an adult is diagnosed with both these conditions, especially if they remain undiagnosed, they may face problems ranging from low self-esteem and poor language abilities to lifelong reading difficulties and low academic performance. After the diagnosis, children and adults with this condition can take advantage of accommodations in school, at home, and at the workplace. This could help them reframe classroom challenges and provide them with life-long learning strategies. In this article, we begin by focusing on tests for dyslexia and getting a formal diagnosis. Rob Potts then provides us with some practical advice and wisdom that he has accumulated over the years in his time teaching.
Why do we need to test for Dyslexia?
There are many adults, who remain undiagnosed but we find them asking themselves 'Am I dyslexic?', especially after spending many years of otherwise unexplained reading challenges — and subsequent educational, personal and/ or professional problems.
Although dyslexia is commonly considered a childhood disorder, it can be diagnosed at any age by a qualified psychologist, learning disability specialist or diagnostic specialist. The first step is to take a simple dyslexia test, and then explore the test results with a specialist who would see if the symptoms match with those of dyslexia.
The physician may give a referral for more dyslexia testing carried out by the specialists using a range of reading instruments and assessments including the Grey Oral Reading Test, the Woodcock-Johnson Achievement Battery and the Lindamood Test (for phonetics and sound) among other tests to detect dyslexia.
an assessment timeline for learning difficulties such as dyslexia in a primary school
What does a test for Dyslexia may assess?
Some tests can assess a child's ability to read rapidly and quickly. The same tests are used to detect dyslexia. A test for Dyslexia may assess the following skills in a person.
1. Phonological awareness: Skills of phonological processing are considered the basis for reading skills. Therefore, they make a good predictor of the reading skills in young children. Some examples of the tests to assess phonological awareness of children include NEPSY-II Phonological Processing and Sound Blending subtest of the Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ III). These tests assess how a child can work with sounds in isolation. This is a kind of assessment for dyslexia in which the learning specialist asks the child to segment words and blend sounds. For instance, a child may be asked to indicate what’s left of the word 'sit' if the first sound is taken out. Or the evaluator may say po”…“man” and ask the child to say the middle sound. It is most difficult to guess the middle sounds. Younger children get much easier words on the assessment. The difficulty and number of syllables in the words increase as children get older.
2. Decoding: Younger children may appear to be reading even when they’re not. In most cases, they memorize words rather than apply the principles of phonics. Two examples of formal dyslexia assessments, that evaluate decoding skills include Word Identification and Word Attack subtests of WJ III and Test of Word Reading Efficiency-2 (TOWRE-2). These tests assess a child’s ability to decode words accurately and rapidly. It also assesses the ability to distinguish familiar words.
3. Comprehension and Reading Fluency Test: This is a kind of diagnostic assessment that evaluates a child's language abilities by asking him to read words in context. This test evaluates their reading skills in the “real world.” Some children may read at a young age. These tests may sometimes have picture clues to help kids recognize the words and their meaning. In everyday life, children may not have books with clues. It is not easy to capture a child's difficulty or slow speed at school. For some children, it takes so long to decode words that they seem to forget what they just read. Some examples of Comprehension and Reading Fluency Test include Reading Fluency subtest of WJ III and TOWRE-2 (to assess accuracy) or Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-5). In these tests, the child is asked by the disability specialist to read aloud a passage and then answer open-ended or multiple-choice questions about it. In some tests, children may not refer back to the passage and in some tests, they can. These tests assess how fluently and accurately a kid can comprehend what was read and how well he/ she can read aloud a paragraph.
4. Rapid Naming: This is a kind of diagnostic assessment that evaluate a child's learning difficulties, related to naming an object quickly after seeing it. This indicates a child's ability to retrieve phonological knowledge rapidly and automatically. A lack of rapid naming ability is a dyslexia symptom that affects their speaking, reading and writing skills. Some examples of the tests to assess rapid naming include Speeded Naming subtest of NEPSY-II and the Rapid Automatized Naming Test. The knowledgeable psychologist would use some helpful resources such as flashcards and give some to the child. Some of the cards have letters, some have pictures of common objects and others have some numbers or colours. The child tells the names of these items as quickly as possible, beginning with the top left and getting on row by row. The educational professional records how much extra time the child took to read and how accurately the child named the objects on the cards. Younger children at grade level are normally shown only colours and objects. How easily and quickly a child can name objects, common letters, colours and numbers, on the cards, shows the reading fluency in children.
Dyslexia screening materials
dyslexia screening materials
What is the next step after dyslexia testing?
After performing a battery of tests, the assessor will check the outcomes of these tests. The practitioner considers the results of all the above tests to identify a child’s explicit difficulty with reading. These tests are mostly performed alongside other types of assessments, such as intelligence tests. One may have to wait for a few weeks to receive the results. The educational psychologist will prepare a detailed report on basis of all the information gathered. If tests indicate that a child has dyslexia, there are further steps to follow to seek help from educational psychology professionals. The family of dyslexic children might be given some tips to talk to the child and teachers about dyslexic difficulties. Many families report a sense of relief once they know the root cause of the problem. Learning difficulties can go undiagnosed which can have severe problems for a childs educational outcomes. Receiving a formal dyslexia assessment can be a big relief. There are several educational interventions and programmes available for children with dyslexia. These may range from 1-to-1 lessons with a specialist teacher to regular education in small groups with a learning support assistant who delivers task set by teaching staff. The teachers may also prepare an individual education plan for the child with dyslexia and there might be a special learning environment and a variety of helpful school accommodations a child could be eligible for.
Dyslexia testing for early diagnosis
Dyslexia testing for early diagnosis
How to support learners with dyslexia
Rob Potts, the author of 'The Caring Teacher', provides us with some of his first-hand words of wisdom. You can find his new book on Amazon and follow him at @RJP_LEARNS.
How can I best support my dyslexic students? It’s a complex question, that doesn’t yield a single solution but, as with so many things in our profession, it has a simple and universal starting point: care.
I feel fortunate to have worked in schools with a high proportion of dyslexic students. Helping any student to attain heights that they may not previously have felt were within their grasp is the payback most of us crave. But when those same students include those who have previously felt like square pegs in an education system designed primarily for round holes, the rewards are even more profound. Below are some of the strategies that have served me well over the years:
1) Start by getting to know the individual child and, where necessary, focus on building their confidence/self belief. Often dyslexic children will have spent many years not having their needs adequately met and will assume (wrongly) that the difficulties they’ve experienced are their fault.
2) Don’t make assumptions. Some of your most creative, perceptive and articulate students will happen to be dyslexic. Your job is to give them the tools, support and confidence needed to work around their dyslexic difficulties and achieve their full potential.
3) Make sure your lessons are planned & differentiated to suit the needs of all learners but don’t assume that all your dyslexic students will fall into the ‘less able’ group (I hate this term anyway). Sometimes all they’ll need is the security of knowing that mistakes are ok.
4) Make sure that all the necessary resources are consistently in place (eg. if a child needs coloured overlays, they need them every lesson) but, *where appropriate*, encourage autonomy from the child in making sure they have the correct resources.
5) Identify access arrangements as early as possible. If a child is entitled to a laptop, Voice-Activated Software etc make sure this need is established as early as possible and becomes part of their day to day routine. This shouldn’t wait until KS4. The earlier this becomes ‘normal’ the better.
6) Avoid putting students in situations that are likely to exacerbate their insecurities or crush their confidence. For example, use a traffic light system for reading aloud in class. Some dyslexic kids will actually go ‘green’ every time and love it but for some it’s torture.
7) Make sure oracy is an integral part of the learning experience in your classroom. Invite the students to articulate their ideas, encourage them to expand and develop initial points, praise success and then ensure that the resources are in place to allow them to reflect this understanding in their written work. If they can say it confidently, with the right support and access arrangements they will eventually be able to write it too.
Classroom oracy sessions
Classroom oracy sessions
8) Establish a classroom culture where barriers to learning are de-stigmatised and there’s a shared growth mindset. Being dyslexic is just one facet of who the child is and should not present a glass ceiling.
9) Important one this: don’t assume that the only dyslexic kids are the ones listed on your SEN register or that it’s someone else’s job to flag up concerns. It shouldn’t happen but some kids go years without being diagnosed or having their needs met. Always look for early signs. The sooner a need can be identified, the sooner the necessary support and intervention can be put in place.
10) This one is MASSIVE too: lose the fixation with spelling (at least as far as your dyslexic students are concerned). If a child has incredible vocabulary and you can understand what they’ve, praise the positives. If it’s not legible, revisit your access arrangements
11) Be sensitive to the needs of the individual when marking books. A flood of red ink may not be legible anyway and has the potential to crush fragile confidence. Always try to prioritise verbal praise/feedback and share this with parents and other key staff where possible.
12) Establish a partnership with parents ASAP. Share your high expectations with them, notify them if a particular piece of homework may be challenging and provide them with an alternative if the wheels fall off.
13) Encourage reading as much as you can. Many dyslexic kids will have been put off reading very quickly but work with parents to encourage them to persevere, taking their needs and interests into account. Audio books are not a poor relation and can be a game-changer for some kids
14) Offer meaningful praise at every opportunity and use your encouragement to empower the child to overcome not only their difficulties but also any emotional trauma caused by past experiences.
15) If any of this feels as though it could apply to all students, rather than just those who happen to be dyslexic, that’s because it should. It’s just good teaching; the only difference for dyslexic children is that any deficiencies will have a greater negative impact.
Rob Potts - The Caring Teacher
Rob Potts - The Caring Teacher
Final thoughts on dyslexia, testing and support
We often use dyslexic ‘success stories’ to inspire children but do we ever stop for a second to consider why it’s often easier for dyslexic people to mitigate their difficulties in the workplace than it is in the classroom? More to the point? When was the last time you were forced to handwrite an important letter or report?
There are countless dyslexic people making a huge impact in the world - you might even have one or two future role models in your class. Let’s ensure that their time in education is a formative part of that journey rather than an unnecessarily difficult one.
Rob Potts is an experienced teacher and senior leader. His book ‘The Caring Teacher - How to make a positive difference in the classroom’ (John Catt Educational Ltd) is available for pre-order on Amazon now.
Twitter: @RJP_LEARNS
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A pulsar is a rapidly rotating neutron star that emits a radio-frequency beam that sweeps through space like a lighthouse beacon. In the graphic, 80 consecutive pulses—recorded at a frequency of 318 megahertz—are stacked. One pulse (shown from left to right) lasts about 0.04 second, with peak intensity near the center. Pulses occur every 1.337 seconds.
In 1979 the chart took a big step into public consciousness. Designer Peter Saville featured a white-on-black version as cover art for the English rock band Joy Division's Unknown Pleasures album, with no band name, album title or other identifiers—a bold move. On Scientific American's 175th anniversary we honor Craft's work and a data visualization that made the leap from student research to pop culture icon.
Stacked line chart displays incoming radio waves from pulsar CP1919
Credit: Harold D. Craft, Jr.; Source: “The Nature of Pulsars,” by Jeremiah P. Ostriker, in Scientific American, Vol. 224; No. 1; January 1971, modified from “Radio Observations of the Pulse Profiles and Dispersion Measures of Twelve Pulsars,” by Harold D. Craft, Jr.; September 1970
Cover of January, 1971 issue of Scientific American magazine
Scientific American
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Fishing Boats Evolve
People have harvested the bounty of the Chesapeake Bay since before recorded history. Early Indian people used their traditional dugout canoes to harvestr fish, crabs, oysters, and clams. When English colonists arrived in the 1600s they also began using dugouts and later adapted their boatbuilding skills to creat log canoes to travel through the shoals and wetland areas and countless streams and major rivers which make up the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Early canoes were first paddled or poled and were eventually fitted with a sail. As time went on the need for larger log boats produced the Brogan and the Bugeye. Then, as wood planks became more available, these fishing boats further evolved into the Skipjack and the Deadrise. And, as an offshoot of the fishing boat family line, the Buy Boat appeared on the scene to increase the productivity of the fishing fleets. A key feature of this entire family of boats is intentional design features that enable these boats to operate in the shallows of the bay while remaining capable of fishing during among the sometimes heavy waves of the Chesapeake Bay.
Burning out a Dugout Canoe
Burning out a Dugout Canoe
Dugout Canoes
The Powatan dugout canoes were made of local hardwoods, hollowed out by a combination burning and scraping with shells and rocks. Most canoes were fairly small in size. But, some are known to have been as large as four feet deep, fifty feet long, and capable of transporting up to 50 men. The canoes were used for a variety of transportation tasks, using poles to manuever in the shallows and paddles to propel the craft across open waters. The Indians fished from these boats and at locations the boats to them to by angling, netting, spearing, or use of weir traps. The canoes were then used to transport the catch back to the village.
Five Log Canoe (courtesy Getty Images)
Five Log Canoe (courtesy Getty Images)
Log Canoes
The history of the log canoe is closely tied to the development of the oystering industry on the bay. Before the age of boat motors, the log canoe was an inexpensive craft which could be assembled without the need for a shipyard. Log canoes varied in size from boats made with three logs up to nine-log canoes. The typical log canoe was built by joining together lengthwise using trunnels (tree nails — long wooden dowels) driven through the adjacent logs. Then, the joined logs would be carved to form the lower portion of the hull. Additional height is obtained with smaller pieces fitted together and joined to the outermost (or “wing”) logs. The resulting hull is sharp-sterned and shallow. To provide stability if a sail was added, a centerboard was added through the center (keel) log.
Brogans are considered to be the boat design that is the ‘missing link’ between the log canoes and the highly effective Bugeyes. Brogans were double-ended, broad and beamy log boats, of moderate displacement, and shoal-bodied with centerboards. They carried free-standing masts, with the mizzen mast raked markedly more than the main. This rig was adopted by the later bugeyes and skipjacks, with less deviation of rake between the masts.
Because Brogans were too small to haul dredges, Bugeye boats evolved. The typical Bugeye (named because it could rapidly turn “on a bug’s eye”) was a two-masted, log or planked hull with a ketch rig. Like the preceding brogans and the log canoes, the masts were sharply raked, although they were set up with stays and shrouds. Unlike the brogan, however, the mainmast was raked only slightly more sharply than the foremast, and a bowsprit with trailboards was inevitably used. The hull was beamy and shallow, with no chine. Initially it was chunked from logs, in the manner of the log canoe; eventually conventional framed construction was introduced as the supply of suitable trees was depleted. The usual form was double-ended, with a sharp stern, and most such boats had a heavy beam called the “duck tail” projecting a short distance from the stern in order to protect the rudder.
Skipjack BoatSkipjacks
The Skipjack is sloop-rigged, with a sharply raked mast and extremely long boom (typically the same length as the deck of the boat). The mainsail is ordinarily triangular, though gaff rigged examples were built. The jib is self-tending and mounted on a bowsprit. This sail plan affords the power needed to pull the dredge, particularly in light winds, while at the same time minimizing the crew required to handle the boat. The hull is wooden and V-shaped, with a hard chine and a square stern. In order to provide a stable platform when dredging, skipjacks have very low freeboard and a wide beam (averaging one third the length on deck). A centerboard is mounted in lieu of a keel. The mast is hewn from a single log, with two stays on either side, without spreaders; it is stepped towards the bow of the boat, with a small cabin. As typical in regional practice, the bow features a curving longhead placard board under the bowsprit, with carved and painted trailboards. A typical skipjack is 40 to 50 feet in length.
The Deadrise Workboat ‘Only Son’ in the Severn River, Achilles VA
The Chesapeake Bay Deadrise, official boat of the Commonwealth of Virginia, is the modern fishing boat used in the Chesapeake Bay. Watermen use these boats year round for everything from crabbing and oystering to catching fish or eels. Traditionally wooden hulled, the deadrise is characterized by a sharp V bow that quickly becomes a flat V shape moving aft along the bottom of the hull. A small cabin structure lies forward and a large open cockpit and work area aft. “Deadrise” refers to the line rising upward horizontally from the keel rabbet (the point where the top of the keel connects to the hull) to the chine (or sideboards). It rises on each side of the keel in a straight line, or “dead rise,” creating the flat V shape of the bottom of the hull. The bottom of the hull is planked in a herring bone pattern with planks running diagonally from keel to chine. The sides are planked longitudinally. As a result it is both useful in shallows and very forgiving when the Bay turns rough. Typically, the hull is 35-45 feet long. Originally equipped with extremely small marine motors, their propulsion systems were replaced with more powerful automobile engines and finally with large, high-torque producing diesel engines. Nowadays, you’d have a difficult time finding a deadrise commercially built the old way. Most of the boats are fiberglass, a few are cold-molded wood and fewer still are aluminum.
Buy-Boats (Cousins to the fishing boats)
The fully loaded Buy Boat ‘Nellie Crockett’
Buy-boats, also known as deck boats, didn’t evolve from the family line of fishing boats. But, they quickly became integral to the 20th Century fishing industry. Approximately 40–90 foot long wooden boats, with large open decks, these boats made the rounds to purchase oysters from tongers (fishermen who used long tongs to pull oysters from the water) and dredgers. Once the oysters were transferred to the buy-boat, they were taken to a wholesaler or oyster processing house where they could be prepared for sale. This service allowed fishermen to be more efficient by sparing them the need to return to shore as often. The buy-boats might also buy seed oysters, or spat, to be planted in oyster beds. Buy-boats saw their heyday in the first half of the 20th century when most oysters from the Chesapeake Bay were harvested by tongers in small flat bottomed row boats, or dredged by sail powered skipjacks. Interstate highways, bridges and tunnels such as the Chesapeake Bay Bridge, Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel, the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel, and smaller bridges that span the many tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay were non-existent prior to the 1950s. Therefore it was much faster to haul seafood to market by boat than by truck. Many buy-boat captains also used their vessels to transport freight such as fresh produce, grain, livestock, and lumber to market during the off-season from May to August when they were not buying oysters.
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Species of the Week: Balsas screech owl | One Earth
Species of the Week: Balsas screech owl
Species of the Week: Balsas screech owl
Each Wednesday, One Earth’s “Species of the Week” series highlights a relatively unknown and fascinating species to showcase the beauty, diversity, and remarkable characteristics of our shared planet Earth.
Nighttime in the tropical woodlands of southwestern Mexico is full of curious sounds. One of the most distinctive sounds is described as the “bouncing ball song.” The Balsas screech owl’s hoots are the same rhythm as a ping pong ball being dropped on the floor, slow at first and getting faster and progressively louder. Balsas screech owls are endemic to this region; They fill the forest with their songs and act as vital predators in this ecosystem.
Balsas screech owls are the flagship species of the Balsas Dry Forests ecoregion, located in the Mexican Dry & Coniferous Forests bioregion (NT28).
Females are slightly larger than males, 24 to 27 centimeters (9.4 to 10.6 in) in length and weighing between 150 and 174 grams (5.3 and 6.1 oz). White tufts underneath highlight the brown and gray markings on their plumage. Narrow dark streaks outline the Balsas screech owl’s characteristic brown eyes.
Like other screech owls, Balsas screech owls are named for their piercing songs. Their normal territorial call is not a hoot as with some owls, but multiple calls given in rapid succession. All screech owls have a good sense of hearing, which helps them locate their prey. Curved bills and raptor-like claws have also evolved to aid in capturing insects, arthropods, and small vertebrates, acting as natural pest control in their ecosystem.
Although little is known about the species, Balsas screech owls hunt during the night from perches located in semi-open landscapes. Hidden in the hollows of trees or camouflaged between branches, these owls look and listen over a wide area to hunt. Due to habitat loss and degradation, this landscape is shrinking and putting the Balsas screech owls at risk.
The best way to protect Balsas screech owls is through conservation and habitat protection and restoration. The Mexican NGO Autonomous Group for Environmental Research (GAIA), helps Mexican farmers and foresters in the southwest seek both biodiversity conservation and the strengthening of rural livelihoods. Combing traditional practices with scientific knowledge, the project funds sustainable farming training. These programs work with nature and safeguard the environment for species like the Balsas screech owl.
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Problem Description
Imagine a document where you want to align paragraphs below each other, for example when listing items:
Using spaces
A possible approach would be to use spaces, to set the distance between the name of the series and the family member. However, you would have to estimate the number of spaces needed depending on the length of the word.
Additionally, a character can take up a different amount of space depending on the used font. Check out the example below:
Netflix written in Times New Roman
Netflix written in Courier New
The letter "i" is taking up more space when using Courier New. The distance between the letters is also differing between the fonts (for more information please see this link). Besides, this approach is high maintenance, because when you edit the list you have to adjust the number of spaces.
Alternative Solution
A better approach would be to use tab stops instead of spaces:
Using tab stops
Tab stops originate from tables, in which you have different columns. The TAB key on your keyboard aligns the text to a specific tab stop. A tab stop is a horizontal position, that can be seen on the ruler bar. You can add and remove tab stops via the ruler bar or using the tabs dialog.
The tabs dialog can be reached via the ribbon Home tab:
Reaching tabs dialog
There are five different types of tab stops:
1. Left tab
2. Right tab
3. Centered tab
4. Decimal tab
5. Right tab at the right most position
The left tab stop is the one that you are probably most familiar with. Using this tab stop, the text flows from the left to the right, similar to the direction indicated by the symbol on the tab type button.
The tab type button is located here:
Location of tab type button
Using this button, you can choose between different tab stop types.
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Can calcium cross the cell membrane?
Can calcium cross the cell membrane?
� Calcium exists as a gradient across the plasma membrane, with extracellular concentrations being about 10,000 times higher than intracellular ones. � In order for a cell to use calcium as a signalling molecule, the cell must create calcium gradients across membranes.
What molecules Cannot easily cross the membrane?
Small uncharged polar molecules, such as H2O, also can diffuse through membranes, but larger uncharged polar molecules, such as glucose, cannot. Charged molecules, such as ions, are unable to diffuse through a phospholipid bilayer regardless of size; even H+ ions cannot cross a lipid bilayer by free diffusion.
Will ca2+ be able to pass freely through a cell membrane?
Ions such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), and chloride (Cl-), are important for many cell functions. Because they are charged (polar), these ions do not diffuse through the membrane.
Why can’t ions pass through the membrane?
Charged atoms or molecules of any size cannot cross the cell membrane via simple diffusion as the charges are repelled by the hydrophobic tails in the interior of the phospholipid bilayer.
Why is it difficult for charged ions to pass through the lipid bilayer?
So the ions being polar in nature can easily cross the polar and hydrophilic head. The fatty acid tails being non-polar in nature repel any polar or charged particle and hence don’t allow them to enter the cell or escape out of it. The other factor that contributes is the larger size of ions.
Does water pass through the cell membrane?
Can water move through the cell membrane?
Water moves across cell membranes by diffusion, in a process known as osmosis. Osmosis refers specifically to the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane, with the solvent (water, for example) moving from an area of low solute (dissolved material) concentration to an area of high solute concentration.
Why does water move through a membrane quizlet?
Water moves through a membrane in osmosis because there is a concentration gradient across the membrane of solute and solvent. The solute cannot effectively move to balance the concentration on both sides of the membrane, so water moves to achieve this balance.
What is it called when energy is required to move materials through a cell membrane?
Active Transport. When energy is required to move materials through a cell membrane. Equilibrium. When the molecules of one substance are spread evenly throughout another substance to became balanced. Exocytosis.
What is transported across a membrane during osmosis quizlet?
Water molecules move through a cell membrane during osmosis when diffusion of water through selectively permeable membrane process happens into a cell.
What is transported across a membrane during osmosis?
Osmosis is a type of simple diffusion in which water molecules diffuse through a selectively permeable membrane from areas of high water concentration to areas of lower water concentration.
What is it called when vesicles are used to move substances?
Explanation: Exo- means outside, -cyte means cell, and -osis means a process of or condition. So exocytosis is the process of moving materials outside the cell.
What are two things through which water moves?
Water in different phases moves through the atmosphere (transportation). Liquid water flows across land (runoff), into the ground (infiltration and percolation), and through the ground (groundwater).
How do plants get water to their leaves?
Water is absorbed by roots from the soil and transported as a liquid to the leaves via xylem. In the leaves, small pores allow water to escape as a vapor. Of all the water absorbed by plants, less than 5% remains in the plant for growth.
Is osmosis active transport?
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules, down the concentration gradient, through a partially permeable membrane. Active transport is the movement of solutes from an area of low concentration to high concentratio so against the concentration gradient. It may help to consider this as the opposite to osmosis.
What happens as water cools?
When water is heated, it expands, or increases in volume. When water increases in volume, it becomes less dense. As water cools, it contracts and decreases in volume. When water decreases in volume, it becomes more dense.
Is heat released during condensation?
The condensation is the opposite process of evaporation. Latent heat of condensation is energy released when water vapor condenses to form liquid droplets. The temperature does not change during this process, so heat released goes directly into changing the state of the substance. …
What will happen if a liquid is exposed to a very low temperature?
The following figure illustrates the molecular behavior of a liquid at a low temperature near its freezing point and at a higher temperature near its boiling point. If a liquid is cooled sufficiently, it forms a solid. If a liquid is heated sufficiently, it forms a gas.
What happens before condensation?
What three things are needed for condensation to occur?
Visible and Concealed Condensation Two things must be present for condensation to occur: warm moist air, and cool surface temperatures below the dew point. The proper control of these two factors can minimize condensation.
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Bipolar II disorder (A complete guide)
This article is a detailed overview of Bipolar II disorder (BPD-II) and discusses some pertinent aspects related to this disorder.
Also, this article reveals possible symptoms, diagnostic aspects and possible treatments that offer insight into this problem.
Bipolar II disorder (A complete guide)
Bipolar II disorder is a psychological ailment that is characterized by alternating hypomanic and depressive periods.
In this disease, an individual’s mood might suddenly go up or down over certain intervals of time.
It resembles bipolar I disorder, but is different from it in terms of treatment and certain symptoms.
It is to be noted that in this condition, the ‘up’ mood never really reaches an extreme.
The intensity of the elevated moods is less and they are called hypomanic intervals or hypomania.
An individual suffering from this condition will have at least once hypomanic interval in his life.
But the depressive moods are more frequent in most patients. ‘Manic depression’ is a term used to refer to this type of depression.
The low or down episodes are often long-lasting and cause traumatic mental effects.
These depressive episodes can also pose a threat to one’s physical health.
During the up and down episodes, an individual is under the influence of the disorder.
But between these intervals, the individuals are normal and stable. This means that the manic episodes are not long-lasting.
Furthermore, extreme episodes or intense mood swings can be more damaging than short intervals.
And long episodes also cause more mental and physical stress.
An individual suffering from this condition may be happy about something at one moment, and then the next, they may start getting depressive feelings all of a sudden.
These ‘ups’ and ‘downs’ result in bad decisions and ultimately cause negative consequences as experienced by many individuals diagnosed with bipolar II disorder.
Poor decision making is one of the major symptoms of bipolar II disorder.
According to reports, this condition prevails among approximately 5.7 million individuals in the U.S., which is about 2.6% of total U.S. population aged between 18 and older.
Bipolar II disorder starts showing symptoms in individuals when they are in their early childhood or when they are in their 40s or 50s.
Anyone can develop bipolar II disorder. Both females and males have equal chances of having it.
Bipolar II disorder does not depend on an individual’s race, ethnicity or culture. It is common to all.
A female diagnosed with Bipolar II disorder is more likely to suffer from frequent mood changes than males with the same condition.
According to research, females with this disorder show more intense depressive episodes, which are also more mixed than males with the same condition.
Bipolar II disorder (A complete guide)
At-risk Populations
Nearly 2.5% of the people of U.S are suffering from bipolar disorders, this makes about 6 million individuals.
Technically a normal individual can develop bipolar II disorder.
Symptoms start appearing when the individuals are youngsters, in their teenage years or in early adulthood.
Before the age of 50 years, all individuals diagnosed with bipolar II start showing symptoms.
If one’s close relative has bipolar disorder, then there is a higher chance of him having the disorder as well.
Causes or Contributing Factors
The cause of Bipolar II disorder has not been discovered yet.
It can be because of physical abnormalities in the brain structure or due to variation in certain specific brain chemicals.
Genes which cause this disorder are being searched for. Bipolar II also runs in families like many other similar mental illnesses.
For example, if a close relative of an individual happens to be suffering from bipolar disorder, the individual will have a higher chance of developing it himself.
Other causes according to research, include stress, drug and alcohol abuse, traumatic incidents like the loss of a loved one or childhood abuse.
Risk factors
There are some factors that may contribute to early onset of bipolar II disorder in individuals or increase the chance of developing the condition.
These include:
• Drug and alcohol abuse.
• Tragedies, for example, the death of a loved one.
• Complications.
• Having a family member who has previously been diagnosed with bipolar II disorder.
Leaving bipolar II disorder untreated can possibly cause potential damage as it influences all aspects of one’s life.
The damage caused may be in the form of the following few consequences.
• Suicidal feelings or thoughts.
• Financial burden.
• Legal complications.
• Drug or alcohol addiction.
• Domestic instability.
• Low performance at work.
Bipolar II disorder (A complete guide)
Symptoms of Bipolar II Disorder
An individual going through depressive moods or a less intense form of mania called hypomania can be diagnosed for Bipolar II.
Individuals with this disorder may suffer from symptoms of manic, but are also able to functional normally during daily life activities.
They might even experience a positive increase in performance at work and at home, or towards achieving a certain goal.
Additionally, the ‘up’ moods are not as severe. An individual will not necessarily have to visit the hospital in case of a manic mood attack.
An individual should exhibit at least 5 or more of the following characteristics to confirm that he is suffering from bipolar disorder.
• Changes in sleep routine.
• Changes in diet habits.
• Weakness or lack of stamina.
• Loss of interest in activities that were previously liked by the individual.
• Negative thoughts or depressed feelings.
• Feelings of restlessness or being tired.
• Inability to make even small decisions or difficulty in making decisions in general.
• Guilty feelings or feeling unworthy.
• Suicidal feelings or attempts.
Treatment Options for Bipolar II Disorder
First of all, treatment for bipolar I is different from bipolar II.
Treatment for bipolar II usually involves medications and psychotherapy.
Individuals diagnosed with bipolar II are prone to longer intervals of depressive episodes than bipolar I individuals.
For bipolar II, following medications are usually prescribed:
• Mood Stabilizers: These will help in reducing the intensity of manic episodes or hypomania.
• Antipsychotics: These are usually prescribed along with mood stabilizers.
• Antidepressants: These are used to help manage depression. As these may trigger a manic episode, hence they are prescribed along with mood stabilizers or antipsychotics.
• Antidepressant-antipsychotic: Several antidepressants contain a combination of an antidepressant with an antipsychotic. It helps as a mood stabilizer and treats depression.
Cognitive behavioral therapy CBT is used to indicate negative aspects of the individual’s behavior and beliefs.
And then the therapy involves turning these negative aspects into positive ones by introducing healthy and optimistic beliefs.
Social rhythm therapy helps by promoting healthy routine changes in daily personal and social life.
This helps the individual in managing his mood.
Joining support groups or treatment programs can help the individual learn helpful ways to cope or manage his bipolar disorder from people having the same condition.
In case of extreme condition of an individual, the doctor may encourage him to get hospitalization in order to prevent harmful consequences.
Self-management strategies include altering your routine to make healthy changes in your eating, sleeping and other daily habits or activities.
This will create awareness and confidence in the individual about his condition.
And he will be more likely to easily manage his mood swings.
Some Helpful Resources
1. If you want to gain a holistic understanding about the psychopathology of bipolar II disorder, then, the book titled: Bipolar II Disorder: Recognition, Understanding, and Treatment, is a great read.
2. Another interesting book on bipolar-II disorder is, The Bipolar II Disorder Workbook: Managing Recurring Depression, Hypomania, and Anxiety (A New Harbinger Self-Help Workbook)
3. The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide: What You and Your Family Need to Know is quite helpful when it comes to navigating through the uncertain pathway of recovery and management of this disorder.
4. My Bucket Has Holes: Living with Bipolar II is another great read.
5. Bipolar II Disorder: Modelling, Measuring and Managing offers factual account on the disorder.
Bipolar II disorder (A complete guide)
Bipolar II disorder is one of many mental illnesses present in the world.
The best way to cope with this condition is by reaching out for treatment to avoid any possible mishaps.
Early diagnosis and treatment will help manage the problem more efficiently and easily.
It is to be noted that in case an individual feels like he may have the problem and possibly shows similar symptoms, then he should talk to his family and reach out to a doctor.
If you know someone that might be going through this condition, you can show concern by recognizing the pattern changes in his behavior.
Then let him know and proceed to recommend a visit to the doctor to get a medical evaluation.
This will help avoid the situation from getting worse.
Frequently Asked Questions
Some of the most commonly asked questions about bipolar II disorder are given below.
Are there any specific tests present to diagnose bipolar disorder?
There is no test available right now that can confirm whether you have the disorder or not.
It is also highly unlikely that a single gene will be the cause of this disorder in each and every bipolar individual.
Is there a similar condition like bipolar II disorder where the symptoms are the same, but the illness is a different one?
Yes, there are some disorders which exhibit the same symptoms as bipolar II, but these are not related to it in any way.
Some examples of these disorders include thyroid complications, neurological problems like epilepsy, stroke or brain tumors, brain infections, etc.
What to do in case someone you know happens to be diagnosed with bipolar disorder?
As a family member, you can begin by trying to indicate changes in the activities and behaviors of the individual.
Talk to him and let him know, making sure you do not come off as being judgmental.
At work, if you know a colleague or someone suffering from this condition and they happen to exhibit any sort of foul behavior, then it should be reported to the authorities to prevent future mishaps.
As an individual suffering from this condition, will I have to take to receive medication for it throughout my life?
It is not necessary.
But if the individual has been through a tragic incident due to his condition before, then the doctors will encourage him to continue taking medication.
The tragic condition can be of any type, it may cause traumatic consequences for both the individual and his family.
How can you cope with your bipolar disorder?
First it is important to know each and every detail about your mental illness.
You should visit doctors, read books and listen to related lectures to know yourself what you are going through.
This will help you cope with your condition more easily.
Similarly, you can talk to other individuals diagnosed with the same disorder.
In addition to this, you can join support groups where you can relate with individuals with same condition.
You can learn how they go about their lives, while managing their mood swings alongside.
How is lifestyle affected by bipolar II disorder?
Changes in sleeping and eating habits can cause unhealthy consequences, both for the individual and his family.
One should opt for comfortable work choice and pleasure activities to improve both mental and physical health.
Family members waking up and sleeping at the same time can improve mental relations between members, and promote a positive atmosphere at home.
What we recommend for Bipolar disorder
Professional counselling
If you have Bipolar disorder, then ongoing professional counselling may be your ideal first point of call. Counselling will utilize theories such as Cognitive behavioural therapy which will help you live a more fulfilling life.
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Busy As a Bee
Learners define the term 'simile,' write their own similes using the words as or like, and work cooperatively to write similes. In addition, students write stories that include similes and illustrate picture books that contain similes.
5 Views 17 Downloads
Classroom Considerations
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Nystagmus, Spontaneous Nystagmus, Horizontal Nystagmus, Vertical Nystagmus, Lateral Nystagmus, Direction Changing Nystagmus
• Definitions
1. Nystagmus
1. Repetitive, oscillating movement of the eyes
2. Direction of Nystagmus
1. Named for quick component of Nystagmus
2. Right Nystagmus suggests a left-sided lesion, and left Nystagmus a right-sided lesion
3. Speed
1. Slow Nystagmus: <40 jerks per minute
2. Fast Nystagmus: >100 jerks per minute
4. Amplitude
1. Fine Nystagmus: <1 mm
2. Coarse Nystagmus: >3 mm
5. Involvement
1. Associated Involvement: Bilateral eyes
2. Dissociated Involvement: Unilateral eye
• Background
1. Nystagmus is a slow involuntary eye movement in one direction, and then rapidly in the opposite direction
2. Nystagmus is typically in the horizontal plane (right or left)
1. Occurs normally on looking laterally
2. Atypical findings include vertical or rotary Nystagmus
3. Nystagmus is seen in Vertigo
1. Most cases are peripheral (e.g. BPPV, Vestibular Neuronitis)
2. Central cause (e.g. stroke) may be indicated by vertical or Direction Changing Nystagmus
4. Nystagmus can be provoked
1. Head turning
2. Cold Calorics
1. Infusing cold water into an ear
2. Allows for testing the Cerebral Hemispheres and Brainstem in coma
1. Absent Nystagmus in severe Acute Vestibular Syndrome (AVS) or Vertigo is unusual
1. Casts doubt on the symptom (consider other causes of Dizziness)
• Exam
1. Midline gaze
1. Observe for Spontaneous Nystagmus with the patient looking straight ahead
2. Smooth Pursuit
1. Patient follows examiners finger in all directions as the examiner moves the finger slowly up, down, left and right
2. Observe for Nystagmus
3. Lateral gaze
1. Patient looks at the examiner's finger placed >60 degrees from midline
2. Observe for Nystagmus (common, even in the absence of pathology)
• Interpretation
• Normal Findings - Lateral gaze Nystagmus
1. Associated with stretch receptor
2. All patients have a few beats of end point Nystagmus
• Interpretation
• Abnormal Findings
1. Spontaneous on Forward gaze, on moderate lateral gaze
2. Direction
1. Horizontal Nystagmus
1. May indicate either peripheral disease or Central DIsease
2. Unilateral vestibular pathology
2. Vertical Nystagmus (or torsional Nystagmus)
1. Indicates Central DIsease
2. Brain Stem lesion
3. Direction Changing Nystagmus
1. Rightward Nystagmus with rightward gaze and leftward Nystagmus with leftward gaze
2. Suggestive of central Vertigo (e.g. posterior CVA)
3. Other abnormal findings
1. Peduncular Nystagmus
1. Eyes move at equal speeds in both directions
2. Seen in congenital disorders or with prolonged blindness
• Causes
• Nystagmus in Infants and Children
1. Albinism (iris and Retinal Hypopigmentation)
2. Bilateral Optic Nerve hypoplasia
1. Seen in de Morsier's Syndrome
3. Bilateral media opacities
4. Achromatopsia
5. Usher's Syndrome (Retinitis Pigmentosa)
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by Ankur Podder and Rhea Grover
figures by Jovana Andrejevic
Electric Vehicles (EVs) were once regarded as hopeless, tasteless, and incapable of replacing the fossil fuel-powered vehicles. In 2006, the award-winning documentaryWho Killed the Electric Car? illustrated the impending obsolescence of EVs after a series of failed experiments by the automotive industry. The predicted doom didn’t stop environmentalists from pressing for the industry to make better EVs, however. Over the course of the next decade, the industry responded to these requests by rolling out EVs like Tesla Model 3 and Nissan Leaf as frontline products. These EVs fueled a new wave of strategies to combat the effects of climate change, and today, these vehicles strongly foreshadow the imminent end of fossil fuel-powered vehicles. The worldwide projection of EVs as mechanical messiahs begs us to ask the question: are EVs really as environmentally friendly as they seem?
Embodied energy emissions of EVs
Although EVs are purported to be energy efficient, the energy required to produce these vehicles is actually relatively high. EVs seem eco-friendly if we only consider their operating energy emissions, or the emissions produced while driving the car. For example, the fact that EVs have zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions during operation suggests that these vehicles are very eco-friendly. However, achieving zero CO2 emissions while driving EVs does not necessarily make them environmentally friendly because this metric does not account for embodied energy emissions.
Embodied energy is the sum of all the energy required to produce a product (including raw materials extraction, assembly, and transportation of the product), treating that energy as though it was incorporated or ’embodied’ in the product itself (Figure 1). The production of batteries and other EV components contributes to the majority of embodied energy emissions for these cars, as noted in this 2011 study. In fact, CO2 emissions related specifically to materials and EV assembly are higher than that of a traditional car. In the end, EVs do have lower total energy (embodied + operating) emissions as compared to traditional cars, making them more environmentally friendly overall. Being better, though, is not the same as being the best. These vehicles could be significantly more eco-friendly if we innovate to lower their unexpectedly high embodied energy emissions.
Figure 1. Embodied energy emissions during EV production. (i) Burning coal and natural gas to provide energy for mining, drilling, processing and transportation of materials for battery and other vehicle components leads to CO2 emissions embodied in a typical EV. (ii) Multiple factors contribute to the embodied energy emissions of a typical EV; as depicted, materials contribute significantly to this emission profile.
Innovative lightweighting of EVs
One of the reasons that the embodied energy emissions of EVs is higher than expected is because the materials required to make them are quite heavy, and thus their acquisition, processing, and transport leads to relatively high CO2 emissions. To render EVs as environmentally friendly as they are purported to be, we must devise novel methods to lower the amount of heavy materials required to produce EV components. One method is lightweighting: a process that makes products lighter by reducing the amount of materials used to make them. Using fewer materials reduces embodied energy emissions in the stages of material extraction, transportation, and assembly. As part of their EV Everywhere Grand Challenge, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) proposed to lightweight EVs by 2022, specifically reducing 35% of the weight of a car’s body structure, 25% of its base frame supporting the rest of the car, and 5% of its interior.
Various approaches to lightweighting EVs include transitioning to lighter materials (e.g. substituting strong but lightweight organic materials for heavier, more traditional materials like iron) and redesigning battery components with less heavy metals. Additionally, a breakthrough method of lightweighting is being devised by Volvo with the goal of integrating battery components into the vehicle body. According to Volvo, the future EV body (made of reinforced carbon fibers) would sandwich the battery components. These battery components would be molded and formed to fit around the car’s frame, such as its door panels, trunk door and wheel bowl (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Lightweighting EVs reduces the amount of materials and lowers total embodied energy emissions. (i) Heavy battery packs and electric drive components compose tradition EVs and contribute to high embodied energy emissions. (ii) One approach to reducing these emissions is to lightweight batteries and vehicle components. (iii) Another, innovative approach is to integrate batteries into the vehicle body.
All of these lightweighting techniques will require the use of novel, sturdy, lightweight materials. A recent material science study presents a proof of concept of using cellulose and carbon-fiber composites as materials that are strong enough but also light enough to achieve these lightweighting goals. However, these novel materials still need to be demonstrated at a commercial scale. According to the same study, organizations such as the Centre for Biocomposites and Biomaterials Processing (a materials science research center at University of Toronto) are actively working to achieve success on this front. They have demonstrated that using cellulose and carbon-fiber composites instead of traditional materials like steel could reduce the weight of a vehicle by 15 to 30%. Such innovation at a commercial scale would make lightweighting a logical game-changer in the reduction of embodied energy emissions of EVs.
EVs without lightweighting: More raw material extraction
In addition to lowering the embodied energy emissions of EVs, lightweighting will also have an impact on the sustainability of EV production. Specifically, many of the materials used to achieve lightweighting are polymers that can be synthesized in laboratories. Some examples are polypropylene, polyurethane and polyvinyl chloride (these three can be used for approximately 66% of EV parts). This is in stark contrast to the traditional, heavier materials used to make EVs, such as lithium, cobalt, manganese, and nickel. These raw materials must be mined and extracted from the earth prior to use, making them a less sustainable option than lightweighting materials. Until our goals of lightweighting are achieved at a commercial scale, EVs will continue to depend on these heavy materials, thereby maintaining the need for continual raw material extraction.
According to a study by U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. already imports many of these rare earth minerals from other countries each year, adding to the increasing mining dependency for EVs. As EV demand increases in the future, existing mining locations may become overexploited. Mining areas in Argentina (with 9 million tons of lithium resources), India (for manganese), Japan (for nickel), China (for carbon), and conflict zones of Democratic Republic of Congo (for cobalt) could face more pressure of resource extraction to meet these demands. Notably, these lands are natural habitats rich in flora and fauna, and mining these areas could harm their habitats. If mining practices in these lands are left unregulated, there could be a high environmental price to pay.
The Gigafactory approach: Source globally, produce locally
Besides lightweighting, embodied energy emissions can also be lowered by transitioning from shipping batteries and other EV components over long distances to producing them locally, closer to where the EV is assembled. The United States International Trade Commission reported that the U.S. was the second highest importer of lithium-ion batteries (the batteries used in EVs) from 2013 to 2017, with $2.5 billion worth of lithium-ion batteries imported in 2017 itself. There is a hidden environmental cost here, associated mainly with emissions from commercial container ships. Thus, producing batteries and EV components locally at EV factories could help reduce these emissions. The good news for the U.S. is that Tesla’s Gigafactory, a massive EV assembly factory, will also produce lithium-ion batteries. The novel factory aims to account for 60% of global lithium-ion battery production by 2020. The Nevada Gigafactory produced over 20 gigawatt hours (GWh) worth of batteries in 2018 (in collaboration with Panasonic) while hoping to generate 35 GWh once fully operational. Once this is achieved, the U.S. would no longer need to import batteries but only source raw materials from existing global trade ties, thus decreasing energy expenditure on heavy battery transport (Figure 3).
Figure 3: World map of production and U.S. trade connections for battery and vehicle components (i) The Tesla Gigafactory is located in Nevada (ii) Major materials like cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), lithium (Li), nickel (N), and carbon (C) required for EVs must be imported from around the world to produce batteries and other vehicle components at the Gigafactory.
Future opportunities for making EVs truly ‘green’
Reducing embodied energy emissions requires government support in establishing a framework of rules and regulations to ensure cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally-friendly practices of raw material extraction and global transportation for EV components. Research investment in lightweighting EVs and environmentally-friendly manufacturing of EVs can be promoted through appropriate policy measures. Reducing embodied energy emissions from EVs, coupled with expanding our use of public transit systems and eco-friendly living decisions (like choosing to walk rather than drive), can accelerate humanity towards the bigger goal of a fully low-carbon civilization.
Ankur Podder is a second-year student of Master of Science in Architecture Studies (SMArchS) Urbanism program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) researching embodied energy and design.
Rhea Grover is a first-year Master’s student in English Language and Literatures program at University of Delhi (India) researching ecocriticism and policy.
Cover image: “Electric Hybrid car parking only”by JeepersMedia is licensed under CC BY 2.0
For more information:
• For a review of embodied energy emissions, check out this description from Smarter by Nature
• To learn more about how composite materials may contribute to lightweighting, check out this paper from Scientific Research
• To find out how eco-friendly your EV is, use this online tool
• For more information on the EV battery supply chain, check out this paper from the US International Trade Commission
• To learn more about battery components and sources, see this piece from The Conversation
• To read about how cargo ships and oil tankers may be able to evade attempts to regulate carbon emissions, check out this article from Clean Technica
• For information about challenges faced by Tesla’s Gigafactory, see this blog post
• To learn about how the U.S. relies on other countries for mineral resources, see this description from the United States Geological Survey
• For information about how trade policy is impacting EV distribution, see this piece from The International Centre for Trade and International Development
• For more on Tesla’s Gigafactory, see this Verge article
This article is part of our SITN20 series, written to celebrate the 20th anniversary of SITN by commemorating the most notable scientific advances of the last two decades. Check out our other SITN20 pieces!
4 thoughts on “How Electric Cars Can Become Truly ‘Green’, Once and For All
1. this focuses on investing energy efficiently in making a functionality which serves a human. The desires for various functionalities are growing exponentially from the human. How can these two be in balance
2. The article says ‘In the end, EVs do have lower total energy (embodied + operating) emissions as compared to traditional cars, making them more environmentally friendly overall.’
If you purchase a brand new EV and then have to scrap it a year later due to an accident surely that does not equate to ‘lower total energy’.
How mamy years do you have to run the EV before it actually becomes ‘more environmentally friendly overall’?
3. It reflects on effectively spending in resources having a product that fits an individual being. The preferences for different functionalities emerge continuously from the humming
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BAY DELTA SCIENCE CONFERENCE: Insights into the life history and habitat use of historical salmon in the Bay-Delta Watershed
Chinook salmon have long thrived in California’s variable climate, including prolonged drought periods, by utilizing the historical Delta’s vast habitat mosaic and their adaptable life history. However, changes to the estuary from reclamation and development as well as climate change threaten the long-term survival of Central Valley chinook salmon.
While surveys and geochemical tools have provided crucial insights for salmon populations in California, these data were collected after significant population declines and the construction of dams that blocked access to a significant portion of their historic habitat. As a result, these data and tools may miss key aspects of potential salmon life history.
At the 2021 Bay-Delta Science Conference, Dr. Malte Willmes, a postdoc at UC Santa Cruz and NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center, presented the findings of a study where researchers applied a suite of morphological and geochemical tools to chinook salmon otoliths collected from an archaeological site predating the Delta’s development. The study showcases the potential for archaeological fish remains to provide unique insights into past salmon populations to guide future conservation, management, and recovery.
Despite the state’s conservation and management efforts, many salmonids in California are struggling and are facing an uncertain future. Historically, Central Valley chinook thrived in the variable climate using a diverse habitat mosaic and a highly adaptable life history. However, habitat loss and simplification, water diversions, and climate change threaten their long-term survival.
The slide shows all of the habitats that are not accessible to salmon due to the construction of dams. However, many other potential rearing habitats in the Delta and Bay have been lost, as shown on the slide on the upper right; the Delta of the early 1800s had lots of available habitat in green, while the modern Delta has very little.
We’ve disrupted the ability of Chinook to respond to environmental changes by drastically simplifying and reducing their available habitat,” said Dr. Willmes.
This graph shows the abundance of the Central Valley chinook returning to streams over the last 50 years, illustrating the long-term decline.
When looking at the proportions that each run contributes to the population, we can see that some runs’ populations are drastically declining,” he said. “Both winter and spring run now exist at much lower levels and a much smaller geographic range, while for fall runs, this is mainly due to our hatchery releases.”
Not only is the abundance of Chinook salmon declining, but also we are losing life history diversity.
That loss is reducing the ability to adapt to future environmental changes, and we’re making our salmon stocks less resilient,” he said.
Chinook salmon have been part of the Central Valley watersheds for the last 10,000 years or longer, but our detailed monitoring only covers the past 50 years. Papers have been published that look into historical records, such as fishery reports, that show a long history of native fishing for salmon. And after the colonization of California, there was commercial fishing in the Delta and, later on, in the ocean.
While fish cards are not the same as abundance, we can learn a lot from these records,” Dr. Willmes said. “We can learn that there have been significant population declines before our modern monitoring that occurred in the late 1800s during the Gold Rush period and in the 1940s. Trying to estimate life history diversity this far back in time is extremely tricky. But I think it’s crucial if you want to improve our current management and conservation efforts because life history diversity can really drive resilience in all our salmon stocks.”
Examining historical life diversity
Researchers wanted to know the life history diversity of historic chinook at key time points in history, and they wanted to evaluate a shifting baseline. What do we expect chinook salmon to be able to do? How did they respond to environmental stressors? So the study combined fish ecology, geochemistry, and archaeology.
The study looked at four key life history metrics: age, size, natal origin, and habitat use.
The archaeological site, a Maidu village dated to the mid-1800s, is located on the Lower Feather River near the town of Gridley and upstream of the confluence with the Yuba River. The mid-1800s was a time of intense change in California, with the Gold Rush bringing 300,000 people into the state. Mining practices at the time caused rapid changes to the watersheds, such as hydraulic mining drastically increasing sediment loads in rivers. The climate was also much wetter, with several large flooding events.
This is a very different Central Valley than what we are experiencing and what the salmon are experiencing today,” Dr. Willmes noted.
At the site, over 14,000 fish bones were recovered; over half of those were associated with salmonids. In addition, over 50 salmon otoliths were recovered; otoliths are calcium carbonate structures located in the ears of fish; they grow continuously throughout the life of the fish, putting down incremental layers, which makes it possible to use them to estimate age, reconstruct growth, and reconstruct the time-resolved life history movements of individual fish.
In freshwater systems, geochemical tracers make it possible to pinpoint movements among rivers and steams. In the estuary, because of the mixing of the Sacramento River, the San Joaquin River, and the Pacific Ocean, they become a tracer of salinity. So while they don’t relate to geography, he said they can represent different salinity habitats with the estuary.
This salinity tracer is pretty accurate below three PSU and works really well still below 10 PSU or so,” said Dr. Willmes. “However, once we are reaching 10 PSU, we lose resolution. That means we cannot distinguish fish moving from 10 to 15 PSU or from 10 to the ocean, so that provides an upper limit of what we can do with this isotope tracer.”
The objective of the study was to apply the otolith tools to historical samples from the mid-1800s focusing on age, size, natal origins, and habitat use. However, they first needed to assess the integrity of the samples.
The picture on the slide on the bottom left, from Miller et al. in 2011, shows pristine otolith from modern times (A), and then three otoliths from 500-year-old Chinook salmon, showing various degrees of alteration and changes (B, C, D). Dr. Willmes noted that this can happen with samples buried in an archaeological site; it affects the use of otolith tools to reconstruct life history metrics.
Another example is a set from the Willandra Lakes, a dry lake bed in Australia, shown on the upper right. Otoliths over 20,000 years old were recovered here in pristine conditions and were very well preserved. This illustrates that time alone doesn’t always predict how well preserved the sample is; it also means each otolith must be assessed on a sample-by-sample basis.
The researchers selected 49 samples they identified as suitable based on visual analysis. Then, further analysis was performed to look for alterations. In the end, they were left with 43 samples that were deemed suitable.
What they found
Before discussing the results, Dr. Willmes noted that all samples come from one single archaeological site on one single river in the Central Valley. “That presents a very narrow snapshot of past Chinook salmon life history, and human fishing behavior is mixed into the whole story of this as well.”
They first did age reconstructions and found many three, four, and five-year-old fish. To compare the results to modern fish in the local watershed, they used a 2018 paper that studied the modern population on the Feather River. They used the Regional Mark Information System for the broader Central Valley, containing the ages and sizes of chinook returning to the Central Valley.
In this comparison, both in contrast with local watersheds as well as wider Central Valley, the historic samples had a much wider age distribution with a lot more four or five-year-old fish.
Next, the researchers wanted to reconstruct fish sizes based on the otoliths. Dr. Willmes said there is a species-specific allometric relationship between the growth of an otolith and the somatic growth of fish, but it can vary between species and even within species. So using the Feather River study, they constructed a linear model that they applied to their historic otoliths.
We can compare this again to the local feather River watershed and our modern samples from the wider Central Valley,” said Dr. Willmes. “We find that independent of age, the historical samples were generally 10 to 15 centimeters smaller. That was a surprising finding.”
Natal origins and habitat use
They next looked at natal origins and habitat use. The time the fish spent in freshwater before moving out can be evaluated using geochemical tools by looking at the time and life history profile indicated by the red circles.
By far, most of the fish in our historical data sets come from the Feather River,” said Dr. Willmes. “But there’s a contribution of some Yuba River fish and some unknown strays that could either come from other Sacramento River tributaries or smaller tributaries from the Upper Feather River watershed that are not present on our modern landscape.”
He noted that, of course, there’s no hatchery fish in the historical example, so it’s interesting to see that even though the site was upstream of the confluence of the Yuba River, both in a historic and modern sample, there’s some connectivity between the Yuba River and the Feather River.
Finally, the researchers looked at lifetime habitat use, focusing on what happened to the fish as they moved out of the freshwater system. Each bar or column on these graphs represents an individual fish with the y axis representing their entire life; the numbers express the proportional distance from the core of the otolith to the edge. The colors represent different habitats. He noted the high salinity habitat is capped at 10 PSU, which is the resolution limit of the tracer.
For the modern chinook [shown on the bottom graph], they spend varying amounts of time in freshwater; they move quickly through the low and medium salinity habitats of the Delta and estuary and then spend most of their life at high salinity in the Pacific Ocean,” said Dr. Willmes. “In contrast, our historic samples offer a completely different picture. It appears that these fish moved out into the low and medium salinities of the Delta estuary and not into the Pacific Ocean. They remained below 10 PSU for most of their life with the one exception here at 1417.”
This difference in the migratory strategy and habitat use between the modern and historical fish is clear in comparison. He noted that it is a surprising result, but it makes sense if one thinks about how different the Central Valley used to be and how the fish would have experienced it.
The historic Delta and Bay used to provide lots of rearing opportunities for salmonids, especially in wet years, such as the early and mid-1800s, and high freshwater outflows and widespread flooding may have increased available habitat even further,” he said. “We also know that chinook trapped above dams, for example, in Washington and Oregon can use adfluvial life history strategies. They are highly adaptable. And we also know that chinook in Puget Sound can remain in brackish water habitats for extended periods of time before migrating out to the ocean.”
In conclusion …
So in conclusion, the study found that historic Chinook salmon exhibited wide age distribution and were smaller sizes at age. They mainly originated from the local watershed of the Feather River with some connectivity from the Yuba river as well, and they mainly migrated through the estuary and not out to the ocean.
Dr. Willmes said it is worth noting that these results are all from one archaeological site, so it’s a very narrow snapshot of past chinook salmon life history diversity. “I think it’s fair to assume that most historic salmon went to the ocean just like their modern counterparts. But what I want to highlight here is that we think we’ve discovered a life history strategy that we do not see in modern chinook and the Central Valley.”
Next steps
As for next steps, this is only the beginning of the project. There are 18 more possible sites containing chinook salmon otoliths that could be studied, ranging in time from the 1850s back to thousands of years before present day.
What that means is, we’re staying constant in space, but we can go back through time,” said Dr. Willmes. “Normally, when working with archaeological sites, you’re changing both of these variables. So this is a really unique case.”
It also means we can start looking at long-term climatic changes, such as investigating the megadrought periods or other climate extremes that are unparalleled with anything we see today. That means we can also look at what kind of salmon life history strategies were successful during this climate extremes, and what can we learn from this for modern management and conservation efforts.”
QUESTION: Could you talk more about the size results you had? And if you think without the dams, there was some reason why they didn’t need to be as big or if they were more fecund in the past? What is your hypothesis there?
That was one of the really surprising results in our study,” said Dr. Willmes. “Ancient salmon, historic salmon, they always bigger, right? They’re doing better. So seeing that our model say they turned out to be smaller, I think it might have something to do with their estuarine life history. Just not going to the ocean and not having to make that mass migration. And that could be a trade-off. It will be tricky to learn something about the fecundity of the historical samples, sadly.”
QUESTION: You mentioned some other examples like Puget Sound. I know that cutthroat have this kind of estuarine residency, but is there evidence that chinook did that in Puget Sound or anywhere else?
There is, actually,” said Dr. Willmes. “Chinook salmon trapped above dams actually can do pretty well. There are landlocked populations in California, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. And then in Puget Sound, chinook can move into the Lower Sound or the Inner Sound and spend multiple years there. They’re being caught in the estuary. I think the salinity in Puget Sound can vary quite a bit; it can go nearly to like 20 PSU or 25 PSU. So it’s not quite as low and not really that comparable, maybe to the estuary. But it’s still pretty interesting; there seems not to have this large offshore migration to the continental shelf, but staying close to shore.”
QUESTION: Is it possible that these fish were actually harvested in the estuary, so what we’re seeing is more of an effect of fishing techniques? And that’s why we see a lot more fish that have this low salinity life history? It’s just surprising to me that almost all your fish have that.”
That was a really surprising result,” said Dr. Willmes. “We think they were harvested on the Feather River. Based on the other remains at the [archaeological site] and fishing techniques used on the Feather River, they were constructing low weirs and trapping salmon moving upstream. But you’re right … We are looking at human fishing behavior overlain onto the ecology of the fish. We also find salmon in some sites in the estuary. So people were fishing for salmon at that time. I would be interested in working on some of these as well. But the fishery studies, some of them are three or four years old. So even if they were caught in the estuary, they spent three or four years at these low salinities.
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Chapter 9. Economic Transformation and Continuity, 1818–1860s
9.7 The Canal Era
The first Canadian canal was built at Lachine, toward the western end of the island of Montreal. It opened in 1825, bypassing the Lachine rapids, long a barrier to navigation and the site of a now-ancient portage. The Lachine Canal had an important impact on the economy of Montreal: it changed the city from being the westernmost head of navigation in Lower Canada to being the port of exit for goods coming out of Upper Canada, a way station at the mid-point between southern Upper Canada and the Atlantic. Because the canal joined the higher levels above Lachine to the lower levels to the east of Montreal, the water flow was fast enough to generate power through water wheels. Industries relocated from the old town centre of Montreal and even Quebec to take advantage of the power supply that could be used to run sawmills and flour mills.
Many boats are propped up on the shore. In the background are factories with tall smoke stacks
Figure 9.9 The Canada Marine Works at Lachine, c. 1875, by Peter Winkworth.
The Lachine Canal served the towns and ports of Lake Ontario. The expanding frontier of farms along Lake Erie, however, had to deal with the Niagara River and the famous cataract there. American investors first found a way to evade Niagara Falls by building the Erie Canal, completed in 1825 — the same year as the Lachine Canal. They followed up with the Oswego Canal four years later, and the American system then connected Lake Ontario and Lake Erie to the ice-free port of New York.
Meanwhile, Canadian investors did not stand still. The Welland Canal opened in 1829, linking Lakes Erie and Ontario, although it was plagued by problems with both route and financing. But as the 1830s opened the Canadians could claim to have kept pace with the Americans during what might be called the “canal race.”
The more defence-oriented Rideau Canal, completed in 1826, was built by the British government as a public venture and was an early indicator of the close link between infrastructure and public funding in British North America. Other Canadian canals soon shifted from private hands to government control.[1]
A canal connecting Lake Ontario to Lake Erie.
Figure 9.10 The first Welland Canal (in blue) was criticized as being slow and inefficient and more likely to benefit American farmers on Lake Erie than Upper Canadian farmers. The current canal route is marked in grey.
The canals were technological and engineering marvels in their time but they had real limitations. Although shipping bulk goods by water was much cheaper and faster than by road, that was only true when the water was not frozen. Only so much grain could be moved at the end of one autumn harvest before the ice set in; after that, this harvest had to wait until the following spring before making it to market. Consequently, storage and credit became increasingly important considerations.[2] As well, the three Canadian canals were built by different companies and, not surprisingly, their specifics varied greatly. The Rideau Canal, for example was only half as deep as the Welland, which limited the ships that could use it and their ability to survive commercially — or even just to stay afloat in Lake Ontario. Canal-related debt was considerable and, given the involvement of the colonial administration, it left the government of Upper Canada unable to fund ancillary projects like road construction. Pro-canal merchants proposed more taxes on property to address the situation; anti-canal farmers responded that these big projects benefited merchants principally, so trade should be taxed instead to cover the debt.
However much debt the Canadian canals might have acquired, none was as disastrous as Nova Scotia’s Shubenacadie Canal. Construction began in 1826 and ceased abruptly in 1831 when the Shubenacadie Canal Company collapsed in bankruptcy. Twenty-three years passed before the project could be renewed, and it took seven more years to complete the route between Halifax and the Bay of Fundy. The canal was used for a decade and then shut for good in 1871. By then, railways and even roadways had overtaken canals as the most viable infrastructure in eastern and central British North America.
As a final note on the golden age of canal-building, it is no surprise that they had unintended environmental consequences. The four western Great Lakes flow into one another but they are blocked from Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence, and the sea by Niagara Falls. The opening of the Welland Canal joined the two ecosystems and the Lachine Canal similarly circumvented the rapids at Lachine. This allowed different species of fish and parasites to mingle for the first time. Developments in shipping — especially in bilge systems — and the rise of industrial pollution would worsen this situation in the 20th century, but the process began in the early 19th century.
Key Points
• The era of canal-building in British North America ran from 1825 to the 1830s.
• Canals facilitated the movement of bulk goods on shipping. Opponents of canals argued that this served shippers’ interests but not necessarily those of farmers.
• All of the canals built in British North America acquired significant debt and thus put a hold on other infrastructural experiments.
Figure 9.9
Canada Marine Works by Soul scanner is in the public domain.
Figure 9.10
Welland Canal – First Canal Stage One by Qviri is in the public domain.
1. Gerald Craig, Upper Canada: The Formative Years 1784-1841 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1963), 153–60.
2. James T. Angus, A Respectable Ditch: A History of the Trent-Severn Waterway 1833-1920 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill–Queen’s University Press, 1988), 3-71.
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Fall into Hibernation With Fun Science!
Beautiful leaves, fruitful harvests, and cooler weather are all things we think of when we picture fall. It is a transitional time from the sweltering summer months to the frigid winter months. For many creatures, fall is also a transitional time when they prep for hibernation.
What exactly is hibernation?
Bears snoozing in a den is what many of us probably imagine when we think hibernation, but a lot of different types of animals hibernate and experience similar processes. Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic slowdown in endotherms i.e. warm-blooded organisms. It is characterized by low body temperature, slow breathing and heart rate, and low metabolic rate.
Many ectotherms (i.e. cold-blooded organisms) seem to hibernate via a similar process called brumation. Remember that the main thing that differentiates warm-blooded and cold-blooded creatures is that warm-blooded organisms can self-regulate their temperature and metabolic responses. Whereas cold-blooded organisms’ metabolism reacts in response to their environment. So cold environment = slower metabolisms for all ectotherms versus cold-environment = hibernation for some endotherms but not all. Fish seem to hibernate but are an example of an ectotherm slowing down in response to the cold.
Hibernation is a considered a period of energy-saving torpor. Torpor is a state of decreased physiological activity in an animal and includes a lower body temperature and metabolic rate. Some animals experience what is called daily torpor, which refers to a period of low body temperature and metabolism lasting less than 24 hours. For instance, hummingbirds experience a state of torpor just at night and have been known to hang upside down from their perch while in this state.
Hibernation in general occurs in winter and the opposite of hibernation is called aestivation, which occurs in the summer months. Many invertebrates and amphibians have an aestivation cycle that helps them survive hot, arid seasons.
Why hibernate?
Whether it is hibernation or aestivation it is all about surviving extremes. It is a way for animals to survive difficult conditions. For instance, winter for a bear or squirrel means cold temperatures, not a lot of food, very little camouflage cover. Despite being in a vulnerable torpor state, being out in those conditions seem way riskier. The risk of vulnerability must have been outweighed by the benefits of hibernation for bears and other creatures to evolve this unique mechanism.
Prep for hibernation
Bears, for instance, have a period prior to hibernation where they eat and drink in excess to build up their fat stores for hibernation. Gorging themselves on nuts, berries and other food sources while they are around help them survive once they go into torpor and hibernate for several months. They also have a transition period where they aren’t hibernating but their metabolism is beginning to slow so they start to eat less and sleep more. The creation of a cozy den or nest is also essential for hibernation. This keeps body heat contained, protects from the elements, and conceals the hibernating animals.
Can humans hibernate?
You might feel sleepier in the winter months, but humans never evolved to hibernate. Part of that reasoning is that since we evolved in equatorial, tropical Africa where there is a consistent food supply we would not have needed to hibernate to escape harsh conditions. We also would have been a top predator, so less likely to need hibernation to avoid predators. We are also bigger and most hibernators are small with the obvious exceptions here and there (bears).
Our hearts are also different from other mammals that hibernate. Our hearts contract in response to calcium. So, if our heart gets too cold, there is a buildup of calcium and we go into cardiac arrest. Mammals that hibernate have a special pump that gets rid of excess calcium, which means their hearts continue to beat at much lower temperatures.
Scientists are interested in engineering ways for humans to hibernate because it would aid in long-term space travel. Astronauts must exercise 6 hours a day in space to prevent muscle and bone atrophy, which might be avoided if they could hibernate. Hibernation obviously would reduce the amount of supplies they would need, and could protect from radiation. A year in space right now is the max an astronaut can do without significantly increasing the odds that they’ll get cancer and other side effects due to radiation.
August E-News: Mother Nature’s Olympians Crowned!
The 2012 Summer Olympic Games have officially begun and five days in, the athletes are well on their way to captivating the world with their super-human abilities. Watching these athletes in action, vying for gold can be mesmerizing to those of us sitting at home. The Olympics are a time to celebrate the world’s fastest and strongest humans in the world – the best of the best. But we wondered, how would record-breaking runners, such as the fastest man in the world Usain Bolt, fare against the wilder side of the animal kingdom?
These Olympians of the natural world could easily make humans look somewhat unimpressive when compared to their strength, speed, agility and endurance used daily as a matter of survival. In honor of the Summer Games, we thought we would shake things up a bit and highlight some spectacular “Animal Olympians” with gold medal-worthy abilities.
Track & Field
High-Jump Stars
The High-Jump champion of the animal world may just be the spittle bug. This insect is only as long as a pencil eraser but it can jump 115 times higher than its body length, while the record for humans is just a little over 8 feet. That’s about 1.25 times the height of the record-holder,Cuba’s Javier Sotomayor. In comparison, the spittle bugs jump would be the equivalent of a person leaping over a 70-story skyscraper!!
Long Jump
Tiny crustaceans called copepods were recently named the world’s best animal jumpers. They leap with greater muscle power than kangaroos, frogs and all other impressive animal jumpers. copepods can accelerate to 500 body lengths per second when they perform an escape jump away from countless underwater predators. VIDEO: See a copepod perform its medaling jumps!
Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt is credited as the fastest human, with a top running speed of 27.79 mph. In the animal kingdom, the cheetah can bolt at speeds over 70 miles per hour or more for short bursts, making them the world’s fastest land animals. But even that doesn’t always ensure this big cat gets a meal. The gazelles and other small antelope that are the cheetah’s main prey are not as fast as the cat, but they have greater endurance and agility in a high-speed chase and often escape the spotted speedster.
Also on the podium would be the pronghorn antelope and the world’s fastest bird, the Ostrich. Both of these animals are strong medal contenders for any running events with the pronghorn pulling out at 55mph followed by the ostrich clocking in at an amazing 40mph.
In The Pool – Amazing Aquatics
400 Meter Freestyle
In the pool, both Ryan Lochte and Michael Phelps may have some competition when it comes to the incredible sailfish. This fish shoots through the water reaching a swimming speed of 67mph! Their high speed would allow them to zip through any Olympics swimming event with ease!
VIDEO: Watch Sailfish in Action in this LIFE clip.
Fish, sharks and marine mammals are such talented swimmers that Olympic athletes study their movements and wear swim suits modeled after their body structures. Dall porpoises can swim up to 35 miles per hour, making them the fastest water-dwelling mammals, according to the Smithsonian’s National Zoo. Russell Mark, USA Swimming’s director of biomechanics, stated that the dolphin/porpoise-style kick can make or break most human swimming races. “This is when swimmers push off walls and swim underwater without moving their arms,” he explained.
Relay Swimming
The killer whale or orca can swim up to 30 mph, however, it usually cruises at much slower speeds, between 2 to 6mph. The best contender for relay swimming would be the gentoo penguin. This bird may not be able to fly in the air like other birds, but it makes up for its flaws by flying through the water. With wings that work as paddles, this penguin is shaped for swimming reaching speeds up to 15mph – three times faster than humans!
The beaked whale, actually more closely related to dolphins than whales, can dive deeper in the ocean than any other animal. Heading down to depths of 6,230 feet, that’s over a mile deep, it can then hold its breath for 85 minutes before resurfacing for air. Their breathing and blood-circulation systems are made for this, since they have much more oxygen in their muscles than we do and they can send more oxygen through their blood to their brains and hearts.
Weight Lifting
Even Olympic weightlifters would have to contend with some fierce competition from the wild side. The heaviest individual weight lifted by a human in an Olympic competition was 580.9 pounds, a record set by Iran’s Hossein Rezazadeh. Weighing in at 340 pounds, Rezazadeh falls short of lifting an object with a mass twice his own weight. It’s hard to believe that his efforts would fall short of a medal when up against a beetle. That’s right, an insect, could, pound for pound, blow away all other human and animal contenders. The Rhinoceros Beetle can lift up to 850 times their own weight! Battling it out for the Silver & Bronze would be the African Elephant and the African Gorilla.
VIDEO: Watch a Rhino Beetle Put to the Test
Animal Olympians are much like human Olympians – there is something about them that makes them stand out from the rest. Some of them run, swim or fly faster than other animals. Others can jump higher, dive deeper, or lift more. A few are Olympians because they live the longest, grow the tallest, weigh the most, or are simply the strongest. What animal would you nominate for an Olympic medal?
If you want to learn more and are ready for some Olympic sized fun, check out the full list of Animal Olympians here.
Discover more FUN about Animal Olympians with a few fun facts & try your hand at some Olympic Sized trivia!
Are Pit Bulls Inherently Dangerous? Science Says No…
Image Source: Pixabay.com
The Maryland Court of Appeals recently deemed pit bulls and pit bull mixes “inherently dangerous,” but many animal experts and dog advocates believe the court’s ruling may have been too extreme.”Inherently dangerous” implies that all pit bulls are, through genetics or their environment, born with a vicious streak. But studies are showing that the science does not seem to support this.
Pit bulls didn’t always have such a bad rap. In the early part of the 20th century, this breed was in fashion and became quite popular as a family pet. “The Little Rascals,” a series highlighting child actors, even featured a spunky pit bull. Have the dogs then changed over the years? Some have with the help of their owners & genetic science.
“It is possible to breed in or out certain traits, with some dogs purposefully bred for fighting,” Jennifer Scarlett, a veterinarian who is also co-president of the San Francisco SPCA, told Discovery News.
She said that studies on foxes suggest that a trait possibly affecting personality can appear in just two to three generations. Pit bulls & any other breed of dogs that are bred using this genetic science seem to be more aggressive against other dogs, but not necessarily humans. Scarlett, said that countless pit bulls nationwide are highly socialized and well trained, never hurting anyone. Much then comes down to the owners, and therein lies the real problem.
Scarlett indicated that at least one study is underway to see if certain factors predict if a segment of the population is at greater risk for being attacked by a dog. Anecdotally, socioeconomic factors, whether or not a dog has been spayed or neutered, and whether or not a dog has been socialized and trained, appear to predict attacks.
Read the full story on Discovery.com
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Founding of the US
Thomas Paine painting by George Romney, 1792. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division:
Why did Thomas Paine argue for independence?
Download Lesson: Founding of the US
This lesson is designed to support student comprehension of an excerpt from Common Sense written by Thomas Paine. This passage is included in Appendix B of the Common Core State Standards. To build context for their reading, students will read a short biography about the author and the events that inspired him to write.Through a close read of Common Sense, students will identify Paine’s arguments for American independence from Britain. Students will analyze the effectiveness and purpose of Paine’s rich and impassioned use of language to describe current events and to persuade his fellow Patriots to revolt against “eternal tyranny.” They will also read, discuss, and determine the significance of the historical figures referenced by Paine. Why did Thomas Paine argue for independence? Students will explore this question and Paine’s urgency in motivating people to act now. As an extension, students may explore the evolution of American democracy by determining the parallels between the messages of “the abuse of power” by the British government versus the need for American “self-‐government” found in Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence.
5 8
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In nuclear physics, activity is defined as the number of atoms of a radioactive substance that disintegrate per unit time. The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq), named after Henri Becquerel. 1 Bq = 1 event of radiation emission per second. This is such a small unit that multiples of the Bq unit – kBq (kilobecquerel = 1000 Bq), MBq (megabecquerel = 1000 kBq), and GBq (gigabecquerel = 1000 MBq) – are commonly used.
An old and still popular unit of measuring radioactivity is the curie (Ci). 1 Ci = 37 GBq = 37000 MBq. One curie is a large amount of radioactivity. Commonly used subunits are mCi (millicurie = 10-3 Ci), μCi (microcurie = 10-6 Ci), nCi (nanocurie = 10-9 Ci), and pCi (picocurie = 10-12 Ci). Another useful conversion formula is: 1 Bq = 27 pCi.
The specific activity (Asp) is the quotient of the activity (A) of a material and the mass (m) of this material, i.e. Asp = A/m. The unit of specific activity is Bq/kg.
The activity concentration (Aconc) is the quotient of the activity of a material and the volume (V) of this material; Aconc = A/V. The unit of activity concentration is Bq/m3.
Note: "Activity" is a quantitative term whereas "radioactivity" is a qualitative term used to describe atoms that decay.
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What is Inclusive Reckoning?
The common mode of counting employed in the Bible is shown to have been inclusive reckoning, that is, counting both the first and the last unit of time in calculating an interval. This method was also used generally by other ancient nations, as is shown unmistakably by source documents. An Egyptian inscription recording the death of a priestess on the 4th day of the 12th month relates that her successor arrived on the 15th, “when 12 days had elapsed.” Today, we would say that when 12 days had elapsed after the 4th, the date would be the 16th. The Greeks followed the same inclusive method. They called the Olympiad, or the four-year period between the Olympic Games, a pentaeteris (five-year period), and used other similar numerical terms. The Romans also, in common usage, reckoned inclusively; they had nundinae (from nonus, ninth), or market days, every ninth day, inclusive, actually every eight days, as indicated on ancient calendars by the letters, A through H.
Of course mathematicians and astronomers were aware that the reckoning was mathematically inexact, but it persisted in common parlance, as it has even down to the present day in the Orient. Modern vestiges in the West are the phrase “eight days,” meaning a week in some European languages; the Catholic term “octave” of a festival, meaning the day coming one week after the holy day; the musical intervals, such as octave, third, fifth, etc.; and even the medical term “tertian fever,” meaning a fever recurring every other day.
The clearest Biblical demonstration of inclusive counting is in the New Testament (see Acts 10:30 where a period of 72 hours is reckoned as “four days ago,” not “three”), but an Old Testament example is in 2 Kings 18:9-10. The siege of Samaria lasted from the fourth to the sixth year of Hezekiah, which is equated with the seventh to the ninth year of Hoshea, and yet the city is said to have been taken “at the end of three years.” In modern usage we would say two years, by straight subtraction. Obviously the Bible writer reckoned inclusively (years four, five, and six totaling three years).
A Hebrew boy was circumcised when “eight days old” (Genesis 17:12), that is, “in the eighth day” (Levites 12:3). Similarly Luke speaks of circumcision “on the eighth day” or “when eight days were accomplished” (Luke 1:59; 2:21). Evidently “when eight days were accomplished” (or “at the end of eight days,” RSV) does not mean eight full days from the date of birth, but eight inclusive.
All this serves to explain the supposed difficulty in the three days between the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. The texts are as follows:
Book In three days After three days The third day
Matthew 26:61; 27:40 27:63 (12:40 & 3 nights) 16:21; 17:23; 20:19; 27:64
Mark 14:58 (within) 8:31 9:31; 10:34
John 2:19-21
It is obvious from these texts that “in three days,” “after three days,” and even “three days and three nights” are all equivalent to “on the third day.” One writer (Matthew) uses all three phrases for the same period. The interval from Friday afternoon to Sunday morning is three days, by inclusive reckoning. Since it is clear that this mode of counting was the common practice in Bible times, and widespread in many countries, it is useless to try to understand this period as three full 24-hour days, according to the modern Western habit of counting. To do so violates both historical usage and Biblical statement, and creates a difficulty that would not exist if the ordinary usage of common speech and of examples in the Bible be taken into account.
The only way to harmonize Matthew 12:40 with other scripture as seen in the above table is to understand it in the light of inclusive reckoning of time. Inclusive reckoning was taken for granted by all the writers of the Scriptures and they wrote in harmony with the common literacy used those days, and that usage recognized inclusive reckoning of time. This means that any part of a day was counted as a whole day. The Jewish Encyclopaedia states. “A short time in the morning of the seventh day is counted as the seventh day; circumcision takes place on the eighth day, even though, of the first day only a few minutes after the birth of the child, these being counted as one day.” Vol. 4, p. 475. Scores of contradictions would appear in both Old and New Testament if this principle were ignored. We must compare Scripture with Scripture and use the idiom of the language in which the Bible was written and not our own thoughts and ideas.
Three Days and Three Nights - Page 5.
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A2L Item 244
Goal: Hone skill at using Lenz’s Law
Source: 283-CTQsas36
Consider the four situations below in which a wire loop lies in the
plane of a long wire. In which case(s) is the induced current in the
loop in the counterclockwise direction? [Note: if no velocity is
indicated, the loop is stationary.]
1. A only
2. B only
3. C only
4. D only
5. A and B
6. C and D
7. All cases.
8. None of the above.
1. Discussing each of the cases is valuable. Students have difficulty
recognizing that the induced current is in a direction that causes the
field of the induced current to compensate for the change in flux. Even
when they nominally understand that, they have trouble reliably applying
the right hand rule.
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What happens when you type https://www.holbertonschool.com in your browser and press 'Enter'
The experience we get when browsing the web is a rather simplistic one, stream lined. We write the domain name of the website we want to visit, hit enter, and that’s it. What is going on under the hood is way more convoluted than that. In order to see what is happening, I will try to explain what goes on from the moment you hit enter, to the moment your browser displays the desired website on screen. Before I can do that though, I will need to explain certain concepts first.
The infrastructure of the web is such that most interactions on it imply a client and a server. Clients request data, and servers store and serve that data. You could consider your browser (Chrome, Firefox, Safari) a client. Server is a term that may refer to the physical hardware hosting that data, as well as the software that emulates said hardware, or the software that actually does the serving. Things get more complicated if we talk about bigger websites, since they can be hosted in several servers, and their interactions can be rather complex. With that in mind, let’s look at what happens when you type https://www.holbertonschool.com in your browser and press enter.
The first thing your browser does is convert the domain name into its IP address. Websites aren’t actually identified with names but with numbers, but since numbers are harder for us to remember, we created a kind of directory in which we can look by name and get a number. This is done via a DNS (Domain Name System) request. So, our browser actually asks the DNS for the IP address corresponding to the particular domain name we type in.
The next step when or browser tries to request from the server is the firewall. Most servers have some sort of protection against hackers or attacks, and in most cases, this kind of protection is a firewall. It is basically a software that sets certain rules of connection, figuring out who can access the server. It basically decides if it’s safe for the server or not to allow certain connections.
There’s also another protocol for safety, and that is the HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure.) It is a transfer protocol whose information is being encrypted. If you take a look at your browser, right where you write the domain name of the site you want to access, you may have noticed that certain sites display, next to their domain, a small padlock. This means that the information being transferred is using a secure protocol. This information could nonetheless be intercepted by a hacker, but since it’s encrypted it would be hard for the person intercepting the information to understand it.
The next thing servers generally have, especially servers for big websites, is a load balancer. Imagine that your website has a lot of clients requesting information at the same time, so much so that they saturate the capacity of the server and the website simply goes down. What a load balancer allows you to do is avoid putting all your eggs on the same basket and serve your site from various servers. It functions with algorithms that determine how much of a burden to put in each of the servers depending on their capacity and how they are being used. If someone wanted to put your site out of commission and you have only one server, they would just have to attack that one server, this couldn’t be possible with a load balancer. If you needed to update your site, you could make the changes you need in one of the servers, while the site is still active from the other servers. These cases are known as SPOFs (single point of failure) and should be avoided.
We now got into Holberton’s web server, which is a program that serves static content, like html pages or basic, noninteractive pages. Apache is one of the most used. Its responsibility is to figure out where the information corresponding to the address requested is, and serve it as an HTTP or HTTPS response. This only works for basic websites, though. For more complex, interactive sites, like Holberton’s site, our server will also need an application server. It is a software that can interact with databases and manage information in specific ways. Think for example of YouTube, you access YouTube with an account. You can also create, delete and modify your account. This is all taken care of by an application server.
If the app server interacts with a database, then we can infer that there must also be a database in Holberton’s server. A database is just a collection of data, and a database management system (DBMS) is what’s in charge of manipulating said data. MySQL is an example of a popular database system.
Finally, there’s a set of rules for how the information should be transmitted. This is taken care of by the TCP (transmission control protocol) which determines how the server and client are to interact, how the data should be transferred, packaged and received.
All of those are the steps involved from hitting enter on our browser and having the website displayed to us. So, to recap, our browser contacts the DNS to get the IP address of the site we are trying to access and uses that address to connect with it, generally through a secure protocol, surpassing the firewall and being redirected by the load balancer. Once the request arrives the server, it uses both the web and application server to respond with the information requested, which our browser interprets and prints on screen.
This is an overhead view and each of these topics is immensely complex, but I hope you have now a clear idea of what’s going on under the hood.
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Why are conservation dogs so efficient?
Dogs are amazing creatures. No man-made instrument has ever been able to replicate their scenting power and efficiency. We see their natural ability in action every day. And we're passionate about working with them to collect data that matters. Working together, we are an efficient, practical method for obtaining research-quality data with minimal ecological impact.
What do dogs have that humans don't? For one thing, their noses have up to 300 million olfactory receptors, compared to about six million in humans. The part of a dog's brain that is devoted to analyzing smells is, proportionally speaking, 40 times greater than ours.
A dog's nose is an amazing design. It has slit nostrils, which allow it to smell continuously on both the inhale and exhale. Using its superb olfactory system, it can determine which nostril an odor arrived in first. This helps it locate a scent in space and trace it back to the source.
A dog's eagerness to work paired with its odor-finding expertise makes these animals a natural fit for professional detection work. It's no wonder their scenting abilities can help us collect more and better data.
The Conservation Dogs Collective Finders can:
• Detect plants and animals on land and in water that people cannot.
• Give results instantly with professional accuracy.
• Search for multiple target scents simultaneously.
Learn more about what our canines are sniffing out in our project portfolio, and if you're interested in reading more about the incredible canine olfactory system, check out some of our favorite books:
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Last edited 29 Jul 2021
Retractable bridge
Retractable bridges, such as this one located in Demerara Harbour, are popular in Guyana.
[edit] Introduction
Bridges are a common feature of the built environment and one of the key elements of civil engineering. The basic principles of bridge design are dependent on the load-bearing structure. These are generally beam, arch or suspension structures.
Some bridges are also defined by other characteristics, for example a movable bridge is defined by its functionality. These bridges are designed in a way that allows them to accommodate different situations and different types of traffic.
One kind of movable bridge is a retractable bridge or thrust bridge. Modern versions of rolling bridges may be referred to as retractable bridges.
[edit] Retractable bridges
This type of movable bridge can slide to an open position to provide clearance for waterway traffic. There are several methods that can be used to perform this retraction function.
[edit] Retractile
A classic retractile bridge is one in which the span is pulled away on rails. It is believed that this type of retractile bridge was invented by Thomas Willis Pratt in the 1860s.
The Summer Street Bridge in Boston, Massachusetts, is a retractile bridge that was built in 1899. The bridge was the site of a major traffic accident in 1916. It is still standing over the Reserved Channel, but the retractile function was decommissioned in 1970.
Summer Street Bridge in Boston, Massachusetts.
[edit] Floating
Some retractable bridges in the Netherlands are floating bridges known vlotbrugs. These floating bridges are positioned across canals, and when necessary, the road is retracted into structures that have been built into the canal banks.
An alternative example of a floating retractable bridge is the Hood Canal pontoon bridge in Puget Sound, Washington. When the bridge needs to be opened for waterway traffic, a section of the floating roadway is hydraulically raised up so the retracting portion can slide underneath it.
The Hood Canal Bridge in Puget Sound, Washington.
[edit] History
Because the movement of retractable bridges can require a large dedicated area to accommodate its footprint, they are no longer commonly used. However, their origins date back to medieval times.
This copper-plate engraving from ‘Le diverse et artificiose machine’ (The various and ingenious machines) illustrates the concept proposed by Agostino Ramelli (1531-c 1600).
One early example was created in 1588 by Agostino Ramelli. The Italian engineer gained favour with King Henry III of France after providing a strategic method of military engineering that resulted in the breach of enemy defences. In his book of engineering designs, Ramelli proposed a retractable bridge for crossing a moat.
[edit] Noteworthy retractable bridges
Built in 1889, the Carroll Street Bridge in Brooklyn, New York is one of the oldest retractable bridges in the United States. It is one of New York City’s last bridges built with wooden planks to allow automobiles to cross (although there are strict height and weight restrictions). It was designated as a New York landmark in 1987.
The Carroll Street Bridge in Brooklyn, New York.
The Littlehampton ferry footbridge was built in the 1980s. Known by locals as The Red Bridge, this retractable pedestrian bridge over the River Arun in Sussex is made from concrete, brick and steel. Powered by electricity, the structure retracts to accommodate ships that require access to adjacent industrial areas.
The Littlehampton retractable bridge underwent a refurbishment in April 2021. The project included repainting the bridge - in its trademark red colour - with a product designed to reduce maintenance costs.
The Red Bridge in Littlehampton, Sussex.
The Bridge of Scottish Invention is a retractable footbridge situated over the River Irvine. It was built to provide access to The Big Idea science centre in North Ayrshire, Scotland. The museum closed in 2003 after just three years in operation. However, the bridge still retracts to allow tall ships to pass through.
The Bridge of Scottish Invention is one of the closest bridges to the open sea of any movable bridge across a river in Great Britain.
The Bridge of Scottish Invention in North Ayrshire, Scotland.
[edit] Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
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The Stealing of the Daughters of the Lamanites
A minor story in the Book of Mormon provides an example of how complex the task of reading the book can be. It also illustrates how much richer our understanding can be when we remember that the Book of Mormon is an ancient record with connections to other ancient records, particularly the Old Testament. In the book of Mosiah, a band of wicked priests hid in the wilderness and kidnapped some young women to be their wives (see 20:1-5). This story can be read as an adventure tale. If looked at carefully, however, it shows the kind of connections between the Book of Mormon and the Old Testament that demonstrate that the Book of Mormon is an ancient book.
The story of kidnapping by the wicked priests is a minor part of the record of the people of Zeniff. When King Noah, ruler over the Zeniffites, rejected the prophet Abinadi’s message and had him killed, the priest Alma and his followers separated from the rest of the people. Soon thereafter, the Lamanites attacked the people of Zeniff. As they fled from the Lamanites, King Noah commanded them to abandon their families. Instead, they executed Noah and attempted to kill his priests (see Mosiah 17-19). These priests escaped into the wilderness, led by Amulon, one of their number, and later kidnapped some daughters of the Lamanites to be their wives. Angered by the kidnapping and assuming the Zeniffites were guilty, the Lamanites attacked them. Peace was restored when the Lamanites learned who the real kidnappers were (see Mosiah 20).
A Biblical Parallel
This story of the abduction of young Lamanite women is similar to a story in the Bible in which men from the tribe of Benjamin kidnap daughters of Israel at Shiloh. The end of the book of Judges contains three stories about the tribe of Benjamin. In the first, Benjaminites abused and murdered a Levite concubine (see Judges 20). In the second, the other eleven tribes gathered to punish the offenders, and a civil war resulted (see Judges 19). The third story tells of the kidnapping (see Judges 21).
After destroying most of the tribe of Benjamin, the Israelites realized that this tribe was in danger of extinction. To preserve the tribe, the Benjaminites needed wives. But the Israelites had vowed not to allow their daughters to marry the Benjaminites. To get around their vow, they instructed the Benjaminites to kidnap the daughters of the Israelites who lived at Shiloh while the young women danced in the vineyards. As the daughters of Shiloh gathered, the Benjaminites lay hidden. The girls danced, and the Benjaminites stole them to be their wives.
The Stealing of the Daughters of the Lamanites
The similarities between the stories in Mosiah and Judges are complex and carefully stated:
[Judges:] Then they said, Behold, there is a feast of the Lord in Shiloh yearly in a place which is on the north side of Bethel, on the east side of the highway that goeth up from Bethel to Shechem, and on the south of Lebonah. Therefore they commanded the children of Benjamin, saying, Go and lie in wait in the vineyards; and see, and behold, if the daughters of Shiloh come out to dance in dances, then come ye out of the vineyards, and catch you every man his wife of the daughters of Shiloh, and go to the land of Benjamin (Judges 21:19-21).
[Mosiah:] Now there was a place in Shemlon where the daughters of the Lamanites did gather themselves together to sing, and to dance, and to make themselves merry. And it came to pass that there was one day a small number of them gathered together to sing and to dance (Mosiah 20:1-2).
The Bible clearly mentions the incident as a yearly ritual. The Book of Mormon mentions it as a regular occurrence, not telling us how often (“one day”). In both stories the kidnapped virgins became the wives of the abductors. The record says that the priests of Noah, “being ashamed to return to the city of Nephi, yea, and also fearing that the people would slay them, therefore they durst not return to their wives and their children” (Mosiah 20:3), so they watched the dancers and kidnapped substitute wives. When the narrative returned to the story of Amulon and his fellow priests, the daughters of the Lamanites were then called “their wives” (Mosiah 23:33).
In both stories, the abductors, like peeping toms, waited and watched the spectacle. The Benjaminites lay in wait in the vineyards watching the dancing. The wicked priests also found the place where the girls danced, then “they laid and watched them” (Mosiah 20:4). We know that the priests hid because in the next verse they “came forth out of their secret places” and abducted twenty-four of the dancing maidens. Not only is the watching stressed in both stories, but also the lying in wait. These were not crimes of passion, but ones of premeditation.
The Meaning of Parallels
Some Book of Mormon critics have seen the parallels between the two stories and concluded that Joseph Smith merely copied the story from Judges. They conclude that any similarities in stories indicate plagiarism. Biblical scholars take a more sophisticated approach than do these critics to texts that may appear to borrow from other texts. Scholars often see similarities between stories as evidence of the writer’s sophistication and of the richness of the text.
For example, the first of the stories about the Benjaminites, telling of the rape and death of a concubine, is similar to an earlier Bible story of Lot and his two visitors at Sodom. The story in Judges tells of a Levite and his concubine who were returning home from a visit to her father’s house in Bethlehem. At a late hour they arrived at Gibeah, a Benjaminite city. Only one old man was willing to take the travelers in. As the host entertained, the men of the city gathered outside and demanded that the host bring the Levite outside so they could rape him. The host protested this violation of the law of hospitality and offered his own virgin daughter and the Levite’s concubine as substitutes. The Levite instead pushed his concubine out to the mob, who “abused her all the night until the morning” (Judges 19:25). In the morning she was dead.
This story is obviously similar to the story of Lot’s visitors in Genesis 19. In both stories the guests were taken in, the inhabitants of the cities threatened a homosexual rape, and the host offered two women as substitutes to spare the men. Obviously readers are meant to see a relationship between the two stories. Biblical scholars see this as an example of conscious borrowing intended both to enhance the meaning of the second story and to emphasize how wicked Gibeah had become. The story in Genesis 19 can easily be read and understood with no awareness of the story in Judges 19, but to understand Judges 19 in any complete way the reader must see the connection to Sodom. The Levite was portrayed unfavorably compared to Lot’s divine visitors. The visitors to Sodom effected a divine rescue, while the Levite threw out his own concubine to save himself.1.
I believe that, in a similar way, the story of the abduction in Mosiah means more when we see it light of the story in Judges. I feel that the author of the story in Mosiah borrowed consciously from the story in Judges, which he knew from the plates of brass, to help make his point.
The story of the abduction of the daughters of Shiloh is the final story in Judges. One of the main purposes of Judges was to justify the establishment of a king. Judges described the evil the Israelites did in the Lord’s sight (see Judges 3:7; 4:1), explaining that they did evil because there was no king over the people (see Judges 17:6; 18:1). Judges ends with three stories about the tribe of Benjamin that illustrate this evil. The stories are preceded by a statement about the lack of a king over the land: “And it came to pass in those days, when there was no king in Israel . . . ” (Judges 19:1). The third story ends with a similar statement: “In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes” (Judges 21:25). The topsy-turvy world described in Judges 17-21 demonstrates that doing what is right in one’s own eyes is often the same thing as doing what is evil in the Lord’s eyes.2
By emphasizing parallels to the kidnapping story in Judges, the author of the story in Mosiah seems to me to have strengthened the moral point. The wicked priests led by Amulon were also evil, doing what was right in their own eyes rather than following the Lord.
Other Parallels
Understandably, the text shows disapproval of all that Amulon and his fellow priests did. The parallel case from Judges of doing what is right in man’s eyes is only one way the text shows this disapproval. There are other parallels that further discredit Amulon and his companions.
After the Lamanites captured Amulon and his people, the record states that “Amulon did gain favor in the eyes of the king of the Lamanites” (Mosiah 24:1). In gaining the favor of the Lamanites, these priests clearly lost favor with God. There is a note of disapproval in the narrator’s words when he says that the people of Amulon not only found favor in the eyes of the Lamanite king, but also that the king appointed these men to be teachers over all his people (see Mosiah 24:1). As teachers, these priests taught the Lamanites the language of the Nephites (see Mosiah 24:4), “nevertheless they knew not God; neither did the brethren of Amulon teach them anything concerning the Lord their God, neither the law of Moses; nor did they teach them the words of Abinadi” (Mosiah 24:5).
On the other hand, Alma taught his people how God delivered both the followers of Limhi and Alma out of bondage (see Mosiah 25:10, 16). He also taught them “repentance and faith on the Lord” (Mosiah 25:15) as he organized them into congregations. The author emphasizes how different from Alma the priests of Noah were. He says directly that the priests of Noah didn’t teach the Lamanites Abinadi’s words. He also specifically mentions that Alma “went about privately among the people, and began to teach the words of Abinadi” (Mosiah 18:1). Both Alma and Amulon entered the narrative as priests of Noah. Upon hearing the words of Abinadi, Alma repented, but Amulon refused to repent. Alma taught the prophet’s words in secret, while Amulon and his priests utterly refused to teach them to the Lamanites.
The reader is led to see the contrasting lives, not just of Alma and Amulon, but of the people of Limhi and Alma and the people of Amulon. Both Alma and Amulon led colonies into the wilderness: Alma and his people, when Noah’s soldiers discovered their “movement,” “took their tents and their families and departed into the wilderness” (Mosiah 18:32, 34). Amulon and his followers also fled into the wilderness, but at Noah’s command they left their families behind (see Mosiah 19:11-23).
The wicked priests abandoned their wives when King Noah “commanded them that all the men should leave their wives and their children, and flee before the Lamanites” (Mosiah 19:11), then they went about trying to find substitute wives. The other Zeniffites would rather have perished than leave their wives and children behind (see Mosiah 19:12). Thus those who remained behind “caused that their fair daughters should stand forth and plead with the Lamanites that they would not slay them” (Mosiah 19:13). The daughters inspired “compassion” among the Lamanites, for they “were charmed with the beauty of their women” (Mosiah 19:14). Later, Amulon would do the same thing, sending out the Lamanite daughters he and the other priests had kidnapped to plead for mercy (see Mosiah 23:33-34).
The text has set up parallel examples for the reader to compare. The Zeniffites sent men out to find those who had fled their children and wives, “all save the king and his priests” (Mosiah 19:18), and had vowed that they would return to their wives and children or die seeking revenge if the Lamanites had killed them (Mosiah 19:19). The parallel stories of sending the two sets of daughters to beg for mercy from the Lamanites teach the reader that what appear to be the same actions actually differ when performed by the good-hearted on the one hand or the evil-hearted on the other.
When we compare the people as the text invites us to do, we contrast the care the men of Limhi showed for their wives and children with the abandonment by the priests of Noah. All of these events define the lack of moral character of the priests. The fact that the Lamanite king was willing to permit the stealing of the Lamanite daughters by welcoming Amulon and the priests into his kingdom speaks badly of this king, just as the Israelites’ encouragement of the Benjaminites to kidnap their own daughters speaks badly of all Israel. The people of Limhi, on the other hand, “fought for their lives, and for their wives, and for their children” (Mosiah 20:11). These differences reveal not only the character of the priests of Noah, who abandoned their families rather than fall into Lamanite hands, but also of the Nephites, who decided to face death with their families rather than abandon them.
The text is clearly unsympathetic to the people of Amulon. The connection between the two stories of abduction is a hint from the author that their actions were reminiscent of a time, reported in Judges, when the Israelites didn’t follow God’s law but did what was right in their own eyes. The priests are portrayed as indifferent to God, in spite of their position, which should have made them more anxious to follow God.
The Book of Mormon story of the stealing of the Lamanite daughters cannot be accounted for by the simplistic claim that it was just copied from the Bible. The Book of Mormon makes sophisticated use of the story to make its own point. Critics of the Book of Mormon believe that the author of the text used the earlier story from Judges, and I agree. But unlike them, I believe that the parallel enhances the book and reveals it to be an ancient document rather than a modern imitation.
1. Stuart Lasine, “Guest and Host in Judges 19: Lot’s Hospitality in an Inverted World,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 29 (June 1984): 40.
2. Lasine, 55.
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Trenchless Construction
Definition - What does Trenchless Construction mean?
Trenchless construction is a type of subsurface construction work that requires few trenches or no continuous trenches. It can be defined as "a family of methods, materials, and equipment capable of being used for the installation of new or replacement or rehabilitation of existing underground infrastructure with minimal disruption to surface traffic, business, and other activities." The purpose of these techniques is to minimize disruption to businesses, roads and communities while construction work is in progress and to eliminate the costs associated with excavating and backfilling. Trenchless construction is a rapidly evolving set of techniques, which are continuously improving in efficiency and effectiveness.
Trenchlesspedia explains Trenchless Construction
The most common technique of trenchless construction involves the use of a directional drilling machine which cuts a horizontal path through the earth in which a pipe is laid. Other techniques used include: horizontal auger boring, microtunneling, pipe ramming, pipe jacking and utility tunneling. Benefits of trenchless construction also include improved safety due to the absence of steep excavations and improved environmental impacts due to the minimal disruption of soil and organisms compared to digging trenches.
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A Shivaratri 5000 years ago
Since Indian festivals are timed astronomically one can move the clock back and study festival dates even in a pre-historic century. Indus Valley clay tablets show that Shiva worship was prevalent during those times. Understanding the season, the time of the year and the night sky configuration when Shivaratri was celebrated during those times is an informative exercise.
Shivaratri is celebrated in a month whose full moon is seen in Magha Nakshatra. Nakshtras are divisions through which the planets appear to move in the sky and are 27 in number. Shivaratri day coincides with the 13th phase of the waning moon in the month of Magha. Shivaratri is on Feb 27th in 2014 which is two months after the winter solstice. How far was Shivaratri from winter solstice* five thousand years ago? Anyone can use planetarium software and find this answer today.
K.D Abhayankar, an Indian astronomer analyzed the Shivaratri which occurred just two days before the winter solstice in the year 3104 BCE. As is usual for this day. the crescent moon was visible in the Eastern sky right before the sunrise. But the eastern sky also presented a rare sight! Four planets, namely Mars, Saturn, Jupiter and Venus were in close proximity. The planet mercury too was in close proximity but was invisible as it rose after the sunrise that day.
Winter solstice was an important event during Vedic times. It marked the start of the year long Savana* fire ritual. Vedic civilization was amazed at the sight of Shivratri moon and Sun being accompanied by planets in the eastern horizon welcoming their new Savana year. Kali Yuga started two years later, on Feb 17th, with the Sun and the Moon jointly rising at the 1st point of Aries. The Yuga indeed started with a planetary alignment of cultural significance which could not be comprehended by colonial translators of Indian astronomical text! Read in "Ancient Skies and Astronomy Now" more ideas which most popular translations of Vedic texts ignore.
* Winter Solstice shifts back a month in ~2000 years.
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Dorado (Dor, goldfish) is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named in the late 16th century and is now one of the 88 modern constellations. Its name refers to the dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus), which is known as dorado in Portuguese, although it has also been depicted as a swordfish. Dorado is notable for containing most of the Large Magellanic Cloud, the remainder being in the constellation Mensa. The South ecliptic pole also lies within this constellation.
Even though the name Dorado is not Latin but Portuguese, astronomers give it the Latin genitive form Doradus when naming its stars; they are treating it (like the adjacent constellation Argo Navis) as if it were a feminine proper name of Greek origin ending in -ō (like Io or Callisto or Argo), names that have a genitive ending in -ūs.
Alpha Doradus (Alpha Dor, α Doradus, α Dor) is a blue-white star of magnitude 3.3, 176 light-years from Earth. It is the brightest star in Dorado. Beta Doradus (Beta Dor, β Doradus, β Dor) is a notably bright Cepheid variable star. It is a yellow-tinged supergiant star that has a minimum magnitude of 4.1 and a maximum magnitude of 3.5. 1040 light-years from Earth, Beta Doradus has a period of 9 days and 20 hours.
R Doradus (HD 29712) is one of the many variable stars in Dorado. S Dor, 9.721 hypergiant in the Large Magellanic Cloud, is the prototype of S Doradus variable stars. The variable star R Doradus 5.73 has the largest known apparent size of any star. Gamma Doradus (Gamma Dor, γ Doradus, γ Dor) is the prototype of the Gamma Doradus variable stars.
Dorado was one of twelve constellations named by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, and it first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. Its first depiction in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603 where it was also named Dorado. Dorado has been represented historically as a dolphinfish and a swordfish; the latter depiction is inaccurate. It has also been represented as a goldfish. The constellation was also known in the 17th and 18th century as Xiphias, the swordfish, first attested in Johannes Kepler's edition of Tycho Brahe's star list in the Rudolphine Tables of 1627. The name Dorado ultimately become dominant and was adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).
Bordering constellations
Caelum | Horologium | Reticulum | Hydrus | Mensa | Volans | Pictor
Lists of stars by constellation
WallHapp Catalogue (WH)
WallHapp Catalogue (WH)
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ShakeAlert Earthquake Early Warning
Activity Source:
U.S. Geological Survey, Adapted with permission.
When an earthquake happens, seismic waves travel outward in all directions. Primary (P) waves travel faster than secondary (S) waves, which do most damage. But electronic information can be sent faster than P and S waves. The ShakeAlert Earthquake Early Warning Systemcan detect an earthquake quickly and send an alert before strong shaking arrives. A few seconds of warning does not sound long, but it is enough time to do something to protect yourself, such as Drop! Cover! and Hold On!
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) along with universities and state agencies in Washington, Oregon, Nevada, and California are developing the ShakeAlert Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) System for the West Coast.Several countries including Japan, Mexico, Taiwan, and China already use EEW systems.
A ShakeAlert can also be sent to a hospital, a light rail system, a fire station, a water provider utility, or a school to trigger automated actions such as starting emergency generators, slowing down trains, opening fire house doors, closing water system valves, or playing a pre-recorded message on a loud speaker.
(Per group)
• Rare earth magnets, preferably elongated design
• PVC pipe, about 1” in diameter, cut into 1.5” long pieces
• Spool of thin copper wire, with thin, insulating coating
• Fine sandpaper
• 2 gator clips
• Ammeter
• Thick cardboard
• Rubber bands
• Tape
1. Tightly coil copper wire around PCV pipe, leaving about ¼-inch at both ends and about 10 inches of wire extending out from each end. Tape the wire in place and use sandpaper to remove coating from the wire.
2. Connect a gator clip to each end of the wire, and connect each to the positive and negative connections on the ammeter.
3. Move magnets back and forth inside the solenoid. By doing this, the changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field, producing an electric current. What happens to the needle in the ammeter?This is called “induction,” a small, simple version of how many power plants work.
4. Use other materials to set up a system—a seismometer—that will allow the magnets to move back and forth through PVC pipe. Tape, rubber bands, and thick cardboard are a few examples of materials.
5. Develop, test, and modify your designs to see what works best. Share designs with the class.
ShakeAlert STEM Classroom Discussion
How would various situations be made more safe if people and automatic systems were alerted that they were about to experience earthquake shaking? A surgeon performing an operation? A chemistry teacher and students in a lab? An amusement park with lots of fast rides? What can you do to keep yourself safe during an earthquake?
Explore Further
Full Classroom Activity and More - STEM Connections to the US Earthquake Early Warning System:
NGSS 3-D Learning
• Science and Engineering Practices–Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information
• Disciplinary Core Ideas– Earth and Human Activity
• Crosscutting Concepts–Cause and Effect
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Maths 2018/2019
Science Strand: Energy Strand Unit :Forces Investigating Ramps
Maths Strand: Measures, Number Strand Unit: Data, Length
Using Maths in fair testing
Using maths in investigation of whether shoe size and height are linked. 3rd class pupils designed own test.
3rd class using charts to record findings#
Using measure during an investigation
Using graphs to record and interpret results
Understanding the importance of checking measurements
Second Class – Ms. Glynn
Maths Strand: Measures Maths Strand Unit: Length
Second Class have been exploring outer space and travelling in space for some time. We had a great interest in rockets and watching the rockets and watching the rockets take off. The class decided to build rockets. For some inspiration we watched videos of homemade rockets taking to the sky on Youtube. We all designed our own individual rockets. Then we decided to make rockets together in groups. We used foam, insulation, cardboard and duct tape. We cut the foam making sure each piece was the same size for a fair test. After we designed and made the rockets, we decided to predict how far our rockets would go. We tested our rockets and found that the wind had a big impact on how far they would travel. We waited a while for the wind to calm. Then we had lift off. Each member of the group had a chance to test the rocket to ensure a fair test. We measured the distance using metre sticks. We found that the result depended a lot on force. As predicted all rockets went further than one meter.
Second Class Ms.Higgins
Maths Strand: Measures Maths Unit: Length
2nd Class completed a two-part science investigation. First, we measured and recorded the length of everyone’s feet. Then we investigated if your arm span is the same as your height. We discovered that height and arm span are usually around the same length!
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Allen's Hummingbird
The Allen's Hummingbird is common only in California. It is similar to a Rufous Hummingbird, but it has a green back.
Anna's Hummingbird
The Anna's Hummingbird is common in California. More than any other North American hummingbird, it sings.
Berylline Hummingbird
The Berylline hummingbird is a rare, but regular visitor to the "Mexican Mountains" of southeastern Arizona. There are a few nesting records.
Black-chinned Hummingbird
The Black-chinned Hummingbird is the most common hummingbird in the western half of the United States.
Blue-throated Hummingbird
The Blue-throated Hummingbird is found in mountain valleys near the Mexican border. It is much larger than most other North American hummingbirds
Broad-billed Hummingbird
The Broad-billed Hummingbird is found in the mountains south of Tucson.
Broad-Tailed Hummingbird
The Broad-Tailed Hummingbird nests in the Rocky Mountains. The adult male makes a loud whirring sound.
Costa's Hummingbird
Male Female
This is a bird of the desert in California and Arizona.
Calliope Hummingbird
This is the smallest hummingbird in the United States. It nests in the Rocky Mountains and Sierras.
Lucifer Hummingbird
The Lucifer Hummingbird is found on agave-covered foothills in the mountains near the Mexican Border. It has a decurved bill and a forked tail.
Magnificent Hummingbird
This large, dark hummingbird is found in southwestern mountains that are not far from Mexico.
Rufous Hummingbird
The Rufous Hummingbird nests in the northwest all the way up to Alaska. It is often abundant in migration throughout the west. It occasionally shows up in the southeast during the winter months
Sicklebill Hummingbird
The sicklebill is a tropical hummingbird specially adapted to feed on one common flower most hummers just can't get their beaks into, the Heliconia, which protects its nectar at the bottom of a long, curved tube. So the sicklebill is more of a specialist.
Swordbill Hummingbird
The Swordbill Hummingbird pollinates the Datura, which has a 13-centimeter long blossom that hangs downward. Only the Swordbill hummingbird can come underneath the flower and put his seven to eight-centimeter-long bill up inside, and with his tongue go even farther and pollinate that flower. No other insect or bird is known to pollinate that flower, so it would simply die if that bird becomes extinct.
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The Ponca (Páⁿka iyé: Páⁿka or Ppáⁿkka pronounced [pãŋꜜka]) are a Midwestern Native American tribe of the Dhegihan branch of the Siouan language group. There are two federally recognized Ponca tribes: the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska and the Ponca Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma. Their traditions and historical accounts suggest they originated as a tribe east of the Mississippi River in the Ohio River valley area and migrated west for game and as a result of Iroquois wars.
Flag of the Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma.png
Flag of the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska.PNG
Total population
Regions with significant populations
United States United States
(Nebraska Nebraska, Oklahoma Oklahoma)
English, Omaha-Ponca
Native American Church, Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Omaha and other Dhegihan/Siouan peoples
The term Ponca was the name of a clan among the Kansa, Osage, and Quapaws. The meaning of the name is "Cut Throat".
Early historyEdit
Thomas Cry (Moni Chaki), Ponca, Nebraska, 1898
Route of the Ponca Indians and other Dhegiha Siouan peoples (Quapaw, Osage, Kansa (Kaw) and Omaha) from the South to Nebraska according to oral traditions
At first European contact, the Ponca lived around the mouth of the Niobrara River in northern Nebraska.[3] According to tradition, they moved there from an area east of the Mississippi just before Columbus' arrival in the Americas. Siouan-speaking tribes such as the Omaha, Osage, Quapaw and Kaw also have traditions of having migrated to the West from east of the Mississippi River. The invasions of the Iroquois from their traditional base in the north pushed those tribes out of the Ohio River area.[4] Scholars are not able to determine precisely when the Dhegiha Siouan tribes migrated west, but know the Iroquois also pushed tribes out from the Ohio and West Virginia areas in the Beaver Wars. The Iroquois maintained the lands as hunting grounds.[5]
The Ponca appear on a 1701 map by Pierre-Charles Le Sueur, who placed them along the upper Missouri. In 1789, fur trader Juan Baptiste Munier was given an exclusive license to trade with the Ponca at the mouth of the Niobrara River. He founded a trading post at its confluence with the Missouri, where he found about 800 Ponca residing. Shortly after that, the tribe was hit by a devastating smallpox epidemic. In 1804, when they were visited by the Lewis and Clark Expedition, only about 200 Ponca remained. Later in the 19th century, their number rose to about 700.[2]
Most of the leadership of the Ponca people was destroyed in 1824. Hostile Lakotas attacked a delegation of 30 leaders of various rank returning from a visit in a friendly Oglala Lakota camp. Only twelve survived. "Numbered among the dead were all the Ponca chiefs, including the famous Smoke-maker ...".[6]:27
Unlike most other Plains Indians, the Ponca grew maize and kept vegetable gardens. Their last successful buffalo hunt was in 1855.[3]
Treaties with the United StatesEdit
In 1817 the tribe signed a peace treaty with the United States.[7] By a second treaty in 1825, they regulated trade and tried to minimize intertribal clashes on the Northern Plains.[8] In 1858 the Ponca signed a treaty by which they gave up parts of their land to the United States in return for protection from hostile tribes and a permanent reservation home on the Niobrara.[9] The Ponca signed their last treaty with the USA in 1865.[10] In the 1868 US-Sioux Treaty of Fort Laramie[11] the US mistakenly included all Ponca lands in the Great Sioux Reservation. Conflict between the Ponca and the Sioux/Lakota, who now claimed the land as their own by US law, forced the US to remove the Ponca from their own ancestral lands.
When Congress decided to remove several northern tribes to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) in 1876, the Ponca were on the list. After inspecting the lands the US government offered for their new reservation and finding it unsuitable for agriculture, the Ponca chiefs decided against a move to the Indian Territory. Hence, when governmental officials came in early 1877 to move the Ponca to their new land, the chiefs refused, citing their earlier treaty. Most of the tribe refused and had to be moved by force. In their new location, the Ponca struggled with malaria, a shortage of food and the hot climate. One in four members died within the first year.[citation needed]
Standing BearEdit
Chief Standing Bear was among those who had most vehemently protested the tribe's removal. When his eldest son, Bear Shield, lay on his deathbed, Standing Bear promised to have him buried on the tribe's ancestral lands. In order to carry out his promise, Standing Bear left the reservation in Oklahoma and traveled back toward the Ponca homelands. He was arrested for doing so without US government permission and ordered confined at Fort Omaha. Many people took up his cause, and two prominent attorneys offered their services pro bono. Standing Bear filed a habeas corpus suit challenging his arrest. In Standing Bear v. Crook (1879), held in Omaha, Nebraska, the US District Court established for the first time that Native Americans are "persons within the meaning of the law" of the United States, and that they have certain rights as a result. This was an important civil rights case.[2]
In 1881, the US returned 26,236 acres (106 km²) of Knox County, Nebraska to the Ponca, and about half the tribe moved back north from Indian Territory. The tribe continued to decline.
In the 1930s, the University of Nebraska and the Smithsonian Institution conducted an archeological project[12] to identify and save prehistoric artifacts before they were destroyed during agricultural development. The team excavated a prehistoric Ponca village, which included large circular homes up to sixty feet in diameter, located almost two miles (3 km) along the south bank of the Niobrara River. [13][12]
After World War II, the US government began a policy of terminating its relationship with tribes. In 1966, the US federal government terminated the tribe (then called the Northern Ponca). It distributed its land by allotment to members, and sold off what it called surplus.[2] Many individuals sold off their separate allotments over the decades, sometimes being tricked by speculators.
In the 1970s, the tribe started efforts to reorganize politically. Members wanted to revive the cultural identity of its people and improve their welfare. First they sought state recognition, and then allied with their Congressional representatives to seek legislation for federal recognition. On October 31, 1990, the Ponca Restoration Bill was signed into law, and they were recognized as the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska. They are now trying to rebuild a land base on their ancestral lands. They are the only federally recognized tribe in Nebraska without a reservation.[2]
Today the Ponca Tribe of Nebraska has over 2,783 enrolled members and is headquartered in Niobrara, Nebraska.[2]
After the 1877 forced relocation onto the Quapaw Reservation in Indian Territory, the tribe moved west to their own lands along the Arkansas and Salt Fork Rivers. The full-bloods formed a tipi village, while the mixed-bloods settled about Chikaskia River. During opposition by Ponca leadership, the US government began dismantling tribal government under the Curtis Act. In an attempt to encourage assimilation (and to allow Oklahoma to become a state), they allotted reservation lands to individual members under the Dawes Act in 1891 and 1892. Any land remaining after allotment was made available for sale to non-natives.[3]
After Oklahoma achieved statehood, some remaining Ponca land was leased or sold to the 101 Ranch, where many Ponca people found employment. The 1911 discovery of oil on Ponca lands provided revenues but had mixed results. There were environmental disasters as oil refineries dumped waste directly into the Arkansas River.[3]
In 1918, two Ponca men, Frank Eagle and Louis McDonald, helped co-found the Native American Church.[14]
In 1950 the tribe organized a new government under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. They adopted their tribal constitution on 20 September 1950.[15]
Today the tribe is headquartered in White Eagle, Oklahoma. It conducts business from Ponca City. The Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma has over 4200 members.[16]
Notable PoncaEdit
See alsoEdit
1. ^ Oklahoma Indian Affairs. Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory. Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine 2008: page 28. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
2. ^ a b c d e f About the Ponca Tribe. Ponca Tribe of Nebraska.. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
3. ^ a b c d Karr, Steven. A Brief History of the Ponca Tribe. The Official Website of the Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma.. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
4. ^ Louis F. Burns, "Osage" Archived 2011-01-02 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
5. ^ Rollins 96-100
6. ^ Howard, James H. (1965): The Ponca Tribe. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 195. Washington.
7. ^ "US-Ponca Treaty of 1817". retrieved 4nov2011
8. ^ "US-Ponca Treaty of 1825". retrieved 4nov2011
9. ^ "US-Ponca Treaty of 1858". retrieved 4nov2011
10. ^ "US-Ponca Treaty of 1865". retrieved 4nov2011
11. ^ "US-Sioux Treaty of 1868". retrieved 4nov2011
12. ^ a b Dr. Lance Martin, "Dig Deep", 1997, ABCD unlimited. Retrieved 06/19/17.
13. ^ Dr. Lance Martin, "Rabbit Hunt", 1997, ABCD unlimited. Retrieved 12/5/08.
14. ^ Mark Van de Logt, "Ponca", Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture. 2009 (14 December 2016)
15. ^ "Constitution and By-laws of the Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma", National Tribal Justice Resource Center. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
16. ^ "Pocket Pictorial." Archived 2010-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission. 2010: 29. (retrieved 10 June 2010)
• Clark, C. Blue. Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8061-4060-5.
• Dorsey, James Owen. Omaha and Ponka Letters. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1891.
• Rollins, Willard H. The Osage: An Ethnohistorical Study of Hegemony on the Prairie-Plains. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1995.
External linksEdit
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Shells – Introduction to Chemistry
by Adam Le Gresley, PhD
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00:02 So these energy levels as postulated by Niels Bohr are called shells. And electrons, rather than existing just as a random cloud at a specific distance, exist at a number of different distances from the central nucleus. The highest energies are actually further away. The principle quantum number is given as the actual lowest possible quantum value for that shell and is regarded as the principal quantum number. So, if we look at the shell which is nearest to the nucleus, we see it has the quantum number 1. If we move one shell away, it has the quantum number 2 then 3 and then 4. As the shells become larger – i.e. as they move further and further away from the nucleus – we can see that they hold more and more electrons. And we’ll be going through the makeup of these shells in the next lecture when we start looking at orbitals. But, from a quantum perspective, each shell can carry a specific number of electrons. Shell 1, which is that which is nearest the nucleus, can carry only 2 electrons. Shell 2 can carry 8, shell 3 can carry 18 and shell 4 can carry 32. And as we’ll see, this is because as we increase the shell number – the principal quantum number – we have at our availability a large number of orbitals. And, as we’ll see, each orbital can contain two electrons. The relative energy of these shells increases as we move further and further away. But as I indicated in the previous slide, this means that the relative energy required to remove an electron from a shell actually decreases.
02:00 In order to move an electron to a high-energy shell, which is analogous to the idea of a person moving from one step to the other, a specific amount of energy is required. And that energy is called the quantum energy. This is the energy – a small amount of energy – which is required to move a particle from a specific distance away from a proton to the next distance away from the proton – i.e. to move it from shell 1, for example, to shell 2. And as you’ll see when we start talking about molecular orbitals interactions, these movements of electrons from higher shells to lower shells are the origins of things like fluorescence and phosphorescence. Indeed, if you look at the atomic absorption or atomic emission spectroscopy for individual atoms, you’ll see that their colours are to do with the transitions of electrons from one shell to the other and then back again.
02:57 So, in the case of our idealised atom which is shown on the board here, you’ll see that we have the movement of an electron from a shell nearest the nucleus to a shell further from the nucleus when a quantum of energy is absorbed. Now this energy can be light energy, for example, or it could theoretically be heat energy.
03:22 When an electron moves back from its outer shell, as shown here shown with the green line, back to that electron which is nearest the nucleus, we see a quantum of energy emitted, usually as a photon of light. So the findings of Bohr have given rise to a very complex science which we will touch upon briefly of quantum mechanics. And these were based on a lot of the work done by Schrödinger and also by Heisenberg. And the ideas of quantum mechanics are thus: that energy only comes in fixed quanta. In other words, you can’t have an infinitesimal amount of energy. You can only have energy which exists as certain fixed packets – fixed packets of energy. The other part of it – and this relates specifically to electrons – is that everything can be thought of as either a particle or a wave. And the wave-like properties of a large object, for example people and items in the world around us, are very, very small. However, the wave-like property of things which are really, really small, like electrons, is actually quite pronounced. And this was where the original planetary model of electrons orbiting around a nucleus was flawed because it implied only that an electron had a particle-like property rather than a wave-like property.
04:51 So this relates, as I said before, to the uncertainty principle and wave equations for electrons and other particles. And what these mean is that, when you’re looking at an electron, you can’t talk about an electron as being in a discrete part of a shell. All you can do is determine where is the greatest probability of being able to find it. And this may seem irrelevant in the context of, let’s say, covalent and ionic bonding going forward but it’s very important because it relates to the existence, shape and energy of orbitals as we will see a little later on.
05:27 And so, when we’re looking at the application of these principles and the application of quantum mechanics and their associated equations to an atom structure, we tend to consider electrons as waves and therefore we’re looking at the probability or probability density of finding an electron at a specific distance from a nucleus in a specific shape.
About the Lecture
The lecture Shells – Introduction to Chemistry by Adam Le Gresley, PhD is from the course Chemistry: Introduction.
Included Quiz Questions
1. The value of the principle quantum number varies from -1/2 to +1/2
2. The principle quantum number (n) is a discrete variable having value n = 1, 2, 3, and so on
3. The higher the principle quantum number, the further the electron is from the nucleus
4. Higher the value of principle quantum number, less tightly the electron bound to the nucleus of that atom
5. An increase in the value of principle number represents an increase in the energies of the related shell
1. It also increases
2. It remains unaffected
3. It decreases
4. It first decreases then suddenly increases
5. It does not increase
1. Shell 3 is comprised of one s-, three p-, and five d-orbitals, each capable of holding two electrons at a time
2. Shell 3 contains one large orbital capable of holding nine pairs of electons
3. Shell 3 contains three s- and six p-orbitals each holding one pair of electrons
4. Shell 3 contains four s- and five d-orbitals each containing one pair of electrons
5. Shell 3 contains seven d-orbitals each having one pair of electrons in it
1. Emission energy in the form of light, when an electron jumps from higher energy level to the lower energy level
2. Emission energy in the form of heat, when an electron jumps from higher energy level to the lower energy level
3. Emission energy in the form of light, when an electron jumps from lower energy level to the higher energy level
4. Emission nuclear energy, when electron jumps from lower energy level to the higher energy level
5. Emission energy in the form of heat, when electron jumps from lower energy level to the higher energy level
1. The uncertainty is readily apparent on a car moving in a straight line on a plane road
2. The energy value associated with a photon is given by E = hν
3. The wave-like character is always very pronounced in a moving electron
4. The energy is transmitted in the form of discrete packets called quanta, when an electromagnetic wave travels through space
5. The uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to determine both the position, the direction and the velocity of an electron moving around the nucleus with certainty at the same time
Author of lecture Shells – Introduction to Chemistry
Adam Le Gresley, PhD
Adam Le Gresley, PhD
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Diseases of the Early Modern Period in Japan
The diseases of early modern Japan (the Tokugawa period) are of particular interest to the history and geography of disease. The Japanese Islands, situated as they are at the far eastern periphery of East Asia, had relatively little contact with the people of other world regions until the late nineteenth century. Historically Japan's isolation afforded the people some measure of protection from exposure to certain of the world's diseases, and in the early seventeenth century, the Tokugawa shoguns reinforced this natural protection when they imposed severe restrictions on foreign contacts. They limited official foreign trade to the port of Nagasaki, restricted the number and the nationality of ships that could enter that port, denied mobility beyond the port to the crews of foreign ships, and prohibited the Japanese from going abroad and returning to Japan. These policies were a response, in part, to the unwelcome activities of Westerners who had begun to reach the islands in the second half of the sixteenth century. They remained in effect until a
U.S. fleet forced Japan to open its ports to international commerce in the 1850s.
Elsewhere explorers, adventurers, traders, and settlers were circumnavigating the globe, carrying new diseases to previously unexposed peoples, and causing waves of high mortality among the populations of many world regions. By 1850 the increasing volume of international contacts had produced a worldwide system of disease dissemination, but Japan, remaining aloof from world affairs, had also remained largely unaffected by the epidemiological events of the early modern world. The diseases of Tokugawa Japan were, for the most part, diseases that had reached the islands centuries earlier.
Japan was part of an East Asian disease dissemination system that differed in certain respects from that of western Eurasia. Human populations in East Asia were larger and more dense than those in the West, and many human disease organisms were able to establish permanent reservoirs of infection with little difficulty. In earlier times, epidemic diseases were disseminated outward from the large population centers of China to the less densely settled regions of the periphery. Occasionally these epidemics would reach Japan, and Japan's population, which was heavily concentrated along the coastal plains, provided an environment highly conducive to disease propagation and dissemination. By 1600, Japan's population was large enough to support many disease organisms in endemic fashion that in earlier times had been imported as epidemics from China.
The most important changes in the disease environment of early modern Japan, relative to earlier periods, were brought about by domestic rather than international developments. Japan's population grew from about 18 million to approximately 30 million people during the seventeenth century, and Edo (present-day Tokyo) became one of the world's largest cities with a population of around 1 million inhabitants. Economic development, which included the commercialization of agriculture, regional specialization, and interregional trade, accompanied population growth. All these developments served to intensify disease transmission within Japan, and by 1850 few communities were remote enough to avoid either the indigenous diseases of Japan or the imported diseases that sometimes managed to penetrate the cordon sanitaire that served to protect the country from the international traffic in pathogens.
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A mass is a musical setting of the five movements of the Mass Ordinary: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. The tradition of setting all five movements as a single composition emerged in the fourteenth century and quickly gathered steam, becoming the most significant large-scale musical genre of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Though its prominence declined somewhat in subsequent centuries, Mass composition has continued uninterrupted to the present day, its style changing along with changes in compositional style more broadly. In the nineteenth century it became primarily a ceremonial and concert genre, rather than a liturgical one, but it retains strong liturgical associations.
Biblical Texts in the Mass Ordinary.
The text of the Mass Ordinary makes limited use of the Bible. The Kyrie, drawn from a Greek litany, and the Credo (Nicene Creed) include no biblical text at all. The Gloria opens with the words of the angels upon the Annunciation to the Shepherds in Luke 2:14: “Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in terra pax hominibus bonae voluntatis” (Glory to God in the highest heaven, and on earth peace among those whom he favors). The Sanctus opens with a quotation of the angels from Isaiah 6:3, transformed into second-person praise of God: “Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Dominus Deus Sabaoth. Pleni sunt caeli et terra Gloria tua” (Holy, holy, holy Lord God of hosts. Heaven and earth are full of your glory). It continues with a quotation from Matthew 21:9: “Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini. Hosanna in excelsis” (Blessed is he that comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest). The Agnus Dei, with its plea “Agnus Dei qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis / dona nobis pacem” (Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world, have mercy on us / grant us peace), alludes to John the Baptist’s description of Christ in John 1:29.
Medieval Origins.
Mass composition traces its origins to the chants of the medieval Catholic liturgy. The medieval Mass ceremony included sung items that were grouped into the Mass Proper (movements with texts that changed daily) and the Mass Ordinary (movements with unchanging texts). The late seventh-century Ordo Romanus I describes the order of the Roman Mass as it was then celebrated. It contained both the Gloria and a Litany that included the Greek words later extracted to form the Kyrie. The Credo traces its origins back even earlier, to the Council of Nicaea (425), though it was not incorporated into the Mass until much later. The chants of the Mass Proper were largely standardized at the time of Charlemagne (Holy Roman Emperor, 800–814), who implemented a campaign of literacy in his Frankish kingdom, musical and otherwise, that produced the first written sources of liturgical music. The five movements of the Mass Ordinary became standardized during the compilation of Frankish liturgical books that took place from the ninth through the eleventh century. Melodies for the Kyrie, Gloria, and Credo, by then all ancient texts, were first written down at that time, many apparently newly composed. It was in the same period that the Sanctus and Agnus Dei became standardized both textually and musically. Specific melodies for the Sanctus and Agnus Dei, intended for particular liturgical occasions, were often paired together, as were Kyries and Glorias. It was not until the thirteenth century, in the reformed Gradual (book containing music for the Mass) of the newly formed Franciscan order, that cycles of all five Mass Ordinary movements were grouped together for particular liturgical occasions.
The Late Middle Ages and Renaissance.
The Mass became a clearly defined compositional genre in the late Middle Ages (ca. 1350–1425) and Renaissance (ca. 1425–1600). Significant repertoires of polyphonic music for the Mass Proper had been composed in the twelfth century, the largest of which was the Magnus liber organi (Great Book of Organum) of Notre Dame of Paris, a collection of two- to four-voice settings for the high feasts of the church year by the composers Leonin (fl. 1150s–ca. 1201) and Perotin (fl. ca. 1200). Polyphonic Mass Ordinary compositions emerged in the fourteenth century, but they were usually single movements or movement pairs. The first setting of the entire Mass Ordinary by a single composer is the Messe de Nostre Dame (Mass of Our Lady, ca. 1360) by Guillaume de Machaut (ca. 1300–1377), the leading poet and composer of fourteenth-century France (see Robertson, 1992). A handful of other anonymous settings of the complete Mass Ordinary exist from the late fourteenth century.
It was in the second quarter of the fifteenth century that the Mass took firm shape as a genre. Though some settings of the Mass Proper continued to be composed, full settings of the Mass Ordinary, characterized by large-scale structural planning, became the norm. The major stylistic innovation of this period was the cyclic Mass, in which all movements are musically unified. In the fifteenth century compositional unity was provided primarily by a cantus firmus (borrowed melody) that is quoted in the tenor voice of each movement. Compositions took their name from their cantus firmus; thus the Mass (Lat Missa) by the English composer Leonel Power (d. 1445) built on the Marian antiphon Alma redemptoris mater was called the Missa Alma redemptoris mater. All major composers of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance produced numerous cantus firmus Masses—including Guillaume Du Fay (1397–1474), Gilles Binchois (ca. 1400–1460), Johannes Ockeghem (ca. 1410–1497), Jacob Obrecht (1457/8–1505), and Josquin des Prez (ca. 1450/55–1521). Nineteenth- and twentieth-century music historians saw in the development of the cyclic Mass in these generations the emergence of the composer as a true artist, freed from the confines of liturgical function, an idea that continues to influence music historiography to the present day (Kirkman, 2010).
In the sixteenth century, cyclic Masses continued to be composed in large numbers. Rather than cantus firmus Masses, however, they more often were paraphrase or parody Masses. In a paraphrase Mass the chant model is not simply quoted in the tenor voice but rather taken up in all voice parts through imitative counterpoint. In a parody Mass the model is not a monophonic chant but a polyphonic composition, usually a chanson or a motet, quoted in modified form in each movement. Numerous Masses of both types were composed by the leading sixteenth-century Catholic composers, including Adrian Willaert (ca. 1490–1562), Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525/6–1594), Orlando di Lasso (1532–1594), and Tomás Luis de Victoria (1548–1611). The Englishman William Byrd (1543–1623) composed three Masses—for three, four, and five voice parts—that are not cylic; instead, Byrd composed each movement freely, carefully setting the words of the Mass Ordinary. In the later sixteenth century and beyond, a distinction is often made between the Missa Solemnis or High Mass, a long and elaborate composition, and the Missa Brevis, a short and simple Mass composition.
In late medieval and Renaissance cyclic Masses, the musical model could superimpose additional biblical texts onto those quoted in the Mass Ordinary itself. For example, Ockeghem’s Missa Ecce ancilla Domini, a cantus-firmus Mass, is built on a chant that quotes Luke 1:38, in which the Virgin Mary, having received the Annunciation from the Archangel Gabriel, responds: “Here am I, the servant of the Lord; let it be with me according to your word.” Similarly, Palestrina’s Missa Dum complerentur, a parody Mass, is built on Palestrina’s own motet Dum complerentur, which draws its text from the description in Acts 2:1–2 of the Holy Spirit’s descent upon the Apostles on the day of the Pentecost. Interactions between the Mass Ordinary text, the text of the compositional model, and other visual and ceremonial elements of the Mass service could create a sort of biblical exegesis (see Bloxam, 2011, for an especially detailed example). After the Renaissance this sort of biblical allusion slowly disappeared from Mass composition, the emphasis shifting exclusively to the text of the Mass Ordinary itself.
Baroque Era (ca. 1600–1750).
The Baroque era was characterized by the emergence of a new compositional style radically different from that of the Renaissance. Whereas the predominant Renaissance musical texture was a choir of equal voice parts, that of the Baroque was stratified, dominated by a high solo voice or melodic instrument accompanied by basso continuo (figured bass). The Mass in the early Baroque era, however, remained conservative, often employing the Renaissance style, which became known as the stile antico (old style). One prominent example is the Missa da cappella by Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), a parody mass based on the motet In illo tempore by Nicolas Gombert (ca. 1495–1560) that was published in the same 1610 collection that included Monteverdi’s Vespro della beata Virgine, a musical Vespers service almost entirely in the modern Baroque style.
Gradually, elements of the Baroque style were incorporated into Mass composition. These included instrumental ensembles that either doubled the voice parts or played their own parts, solo movements that resembled opera arias, and mixed ensembles of voices and instruments. Scholars sometimes refer to a “Neapolitan” or “canata” Mass, which denotes a composition in Baroque style for orchestra, chorus, and soloists. This is something of a misnomer, since very few such compositions from Naples survive, but Neapolitan opera of the late seventeenth century was highly influential, serving as the model of opera seria composition from Italy to England in the early eighteenth century. Ironically, the most influential Neapolitan opera composer, Alesssandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), composed all of his Masses in the stile antico. Still, Neapolitan operatic style influenced virtually all musical composition in the early eighteenth century, including the best-known Mass that could be said to be in the Neapolitan style—Johann Sebastian Bach’s (1685–1750) Mass in B Minor. Bach composed this work over the last three decades of his life, finishing it in 1749, but it was never performed in full during his lifetime. He appears to have composed individual movements for Lutheran worship, where complete Mass settings were uncommon, gradually filling out the complete Mass Ordinary.
Classical Era (ca. 1750–1800).
Whereas the Neapolitan Mass tended to subdivide its movements into shorter sections, especially the longer ones like the Gloria and the Credo, the Classical era saw the emergence of a new type of Mass with longer movements. Sometimes referred to as the “Viennese” style—Vienna was the epicenter of the Classical style—this type of Mass featured fewer formal subdivisions and movements conceived in forms derived from the symphony, the predominant large-scale instrumental genre of the Classical era. Soloists are often treated as an ensemble, providing contrast with the choir and the orchestra, rather than as operatic soloists, as they had been in the Neapolitan Mass.
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732–1809), Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827), in the early part of his career, are the best-known composers of the Classical era, and all composed Masses in the Viennese style. Mozart and Haydn, however, also composed masses in older styles earlier in their careers. The stile antico continued to be cultivated through the eighteenth century in Vienna, partially as the legacy of the Viennese composer and music theorist Johann Joseph Fux (1660–1741), whose Gradus ad Parnassum (1725), an extremely influential treatise on stile antico composition, was studied extensively by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and others. Haydn in fact wrote one stile antico Mass, the Missa Sunt bona mixta malis, but most of his Mass compositions are in the emerging Viennese style, as were, ironically, most Masses by Fux himself. Many of Mozart’s Masses are in the Missa Brevis tradition, largely because that is what was called for by the court of Salzburg, where Mozart was employed until 1780, when he broke with the Salzburg court and moved to Vienna. Haydn’s Masses for the Esterhazy court and Mozart’s for the Salzburg court are among the last by major composers intended for regular liturgical use.
Nineteenth Century.
In the hands of nineteenth-century Romantic composers, the Mass became largely a ceremonial and then a concert genre. Beethoven’s Missa Solemnis (1819–1823), probably the most celebrated Mass of the entire century, was originally intended for the installation of Archduke Rudolph of Austria as Archbishop of Olmütz in Moravia in 1820, but was not completed in time. It was performed in Beethoven’s lifetime largely as individual movements in concert settings, though it was considered appropriate for liturgical use on important ceremonial occasions. Although largely in the modern symphonic style, Beethoven’s Mass is full of allusions to the stile antico, demonstrating the composer’s awareness of the liturgical origins of the genre. Later Masses by Franz Schubert (1797–1828), Franz Liszt (1811–1886), and Anton Bruckner (1824–1896) in the Germanic tradition continued to combine contemporary symphonic forms and styles with references to historical styles—this was especially true of Bruckner, who was himself a church organist fluent in the stile antico.
Concert Masses by Italian composers displayed operatic influence, the best example being Gioachino Rossini’s (1792–1868) Petite messe solonelle (1864), which includes instrumental accompaniment by piano and harmonium, rather than a full orchestra. Though composed and performed in Paris, where Rossini was living in retirement at the time of composition, the work features Italianate elements that had characterized Rossini’s operas. The great opera composers Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848) and Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) also composed Mass movements that employ elements of Italian operatic style. In France, the study of stile antico counterpoint at the Conservatoire kept a tradition of orchestral Mass composition with conservative elements alive in the compositions of Charles-François Gounod (1818–1893) and Hector Berlioz (1803–1869).
Twentieth Century and Beyond.
Mass composition from the twentieth century to the present is characterized by wide stylistic diversity that mirrors the stylistic fracturing of art music composition more broadly. One connecting thread is that composers almost always show a keen awareness of the long history and liturgical origins of the genre. Some settings, like those by the French organist-composers Olivier Messiaen (1908–1992) and Maurice Duruflé (1902–1986), though thoroughly modern in style, are of a scale that is appropriate for liturgical performance. Others, such as Ralph Vaughan Williams’s (1872–1958) Mass in G Minor (1920–1921) for double choir, invoke the sound and modal harmonies of the stile antico. Still others, such as the concert Masses by Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) and Paul Hindemith (1895–1963), provide innovative takes on the nineteenth-century concert Mass tradition. Stravinsky’s Latin Mass (1944–1948) retains the vocal soloists and choir of earlier Mass compositions but replaces the orchestra with 10 wind and brass instruments, while Hindemith’s Latin Mass (1963) self-consciously refers back to Bach’s counterpoint. Leonard Bernstein’s (1918–1990) Mass (1971), commissioned by Jacqueline Kennedy for the opening of the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., is perhaps the most ambitious twentieth-century Mass composition, paying tribute to the liturgical history of the genre while placing it in radically new contexts. A grand musical theater piece for soloists, choir, instrumentalists, and dancers, it combines the Latin texts the Mass Ordinary with English-texted interpolations, featuring a theatrical enactment of liturgical Mass celebration and a dizzying array of musical styles from simple melodies reminiscent of liturgical music to experimental modernist composition and contemporary vernacular styles such as rock, jazz, marching band music, and Broadway song.
• Bloxam, M. Jennifer. “Text and Context: Obrecht’s Missa De Sancto Donatiano in Its Social and Ritual Landscape.” Journal of the Alamire Foundation 3 (2011): 11–36.
• Butt, John. Bach: Mass in B Minor. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
• Demaree, Robert W., and Don V. Moses. The Masses of Joseph Haydn: History, Style, Performance. Rochester Hills, Mich.: Classical Heritage, 2008.
• DeVenney, David P. American Masses and Requiems: A Descriptive Guide. Berkeley, Calif.: Fallen Leaf, 1990.
• Drabkin, William. Beethoven: Missa Solemnis. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
• Harper, John. The Forms and Orders of Western Liturgy from the Tenth to the Eighteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991.
• Hiley, David. Western Plainchant: A Handbook. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
• Kirkman, Andrew. The Cultural Life of the Early Polyphonic Mass: Medieval Context to Modern Revival. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
• MacIntyre, Bruce C. The Viennese Concerted Mass of the Early Classic Period. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1986.
• Robertson, Anne Walters. “The Mass of Guillaume de Machaut in the Cathedral of Reims.” In Plainsong in the Age of Polyphony, edited by Thomas Forrest Kelly, pp. 100–139. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
David J. Rothenberg
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More than a website, we are a family and a support network. Our goal is to answer your doubts and voice those people who have silenced
LGBT Wikipedia definition
LGBT, or GLBT, is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s, the term is an adaptation of the initial LGB, which was used to replace the term gay in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s. Activists believed that the term gay community did not represent all those to whom it referred.
Women who feel romantic, physical and sexual attraction only for other women are known as lesbians. Also, as we mentioned in Sexual Orientation that lasting attraction and the concept that you have of yourself.
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Transsexuality is a complex issue, even for those who live it. Being a trans person does not define your sexual orientation. Being a trans person is not feeling in agreement with your biological sex or your assigned gender at birth.
It is known as asexual to those people who do not experience sexual desire by other people and are not interested in this activity either. An asexual person can have a “normal” sex life, but this does not mean that they have sexual interest or desire.
LGBT festival
LGBT festivals are those where gay pride is celebrated. In addition, these events promote LGBT equality and rights. The LGBT festival was created with the aim of making the LGBT community visible and promoting tolerance of sexual diversity.
LGBT students
LGBT student centers are administrative offices of a college or university that provide resources and support for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender students.
LGBT education
In the recent history of the expansion of LGBT rights, the issue of teaching various aspects of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender life and existence to younger children has become a heated point
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MRSA (methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus) is a bacterium that can infect various parts of the body. The reason MRSA is so dangerous is because of its resistance to multiple common antibiotics.
Many strains of the bacteria cause serious skin and joint infections, inflammation of the heart, sepsis and death.
What Causes MRSA?
Normal staphylococcus bacteria are found on the skin or inside the noses of about one-third of the population. Most of the time, staph bacteria never infect the host, and people who carry staph remain healthy.
However, sometimes the infection can enter an individual’s body through a cut, abrasion or open sore. Once the bacteria enters the body, an infection can result. This infection can be characterized by a noticeable sore, fever, or pus at the affected site. If left untreated (or if treated with drugs to which the bacteria are resistant), the infection can spread deeper into the body, causing long-term damage.
Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus infections are categorized two separate ways:
• Healthcare-Acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA): Affects individuals who contract MRSA while staying in healthcare facilities like nursing homes and hospitals
• Community-Acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA): Affects individuals who contract MRSA outside of a healthcare facilities
Patients with HA-MRSA are 67 years of age on average; patients with CA-MRSA are 23 years of age on average.
Who Is At Risk for MRSA?
HA-MRSA most often affects healthcare facility employees. Individuals with diabetes, those who are on dialysis and those who have been hospitalized for extended periods of time are also at risk.
CA-MRSA most commonly affects young children, athletes and intravenous drug abusers.
How is MRSA Spread?
MRSA is spread through skin-to-skin contact with an infected person. You can also contract the bacteria from contact with surfaces or objects that an infected person has touched.
How is MRSA Treated?
It’s important to visit your doctor immediately if you suspect you’ve been infected with a MRSA bacteria. The only way to confirm a diagnosis is to get a laboratory culture of the affected area.
Ocala Infectious Disease & Wound Care is one of central Florida’s leading providers of treatment for infections. We are proud to be a trusted resource for the treatment of MRSA and other bacterial infections.
Contact us today to learn more.
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The Burke and Wills expedition to cross Australia to the Gulf of Carpentaria ended in tragedy when the explorers ran out of food. There are suggestions that their death was hastened by eating nardoo, a form of native cereal made from the spores of a fern. Aboriginal people knew how to prepare nardoo, but in its raw form the Thiaminase it contains can destroy vitamin B1, causing beri-beri.
Departure of Burke and Wills expedition
Nicholas Chevalier – 1860 Memorandum of the Start of the Exploring Expedition – Art Gallery of South Australia
Robert O’Hara Burke and William John Wills led an expedition that left from Melbourne in August 1860 with the aim of crossing the continent from south to north. Although the initial group consisted of 19 men, 23 horses and 26 specially imported camels, just four men made the dash for the Gulf: Burke, Wills, John King and Charles Gray.
The “dash” took much longer than expected and food supplies ran low. The men ate native three of their six camels and eked out their supplies by eating native vegetation and even a snake. Gray died on the return trip. On arriving back at the Cooper Creek base, Burke, Wills and King found it abandoned.
Although they found some supplies buried at the camp site, these were soon exhausted. The local aboriginal people gave them food including some fish and a type of damper made from the nardoo plant. The explorers eventually discovered how to harvest nardoo and used it to supplement their dwindling supplies.
During the last days of their lives, Burke and Wills were subsisting entirely on nardoo. There is still debate about whether or how much this contributed to their deaths. One theory is that the toxic enzyme needs to be destroyed by cooking, while the explorers simply ate it as a form of porridge or ate the seeds whole. However, Wills’ diary seems to contradict this. It’s likely that a combination of malnutrition, scurvy, beri-beri and exposure caused their deaths.
Both Burke and Wills died in June 1861. King survived by locating the local Yandruwandha people who sustained him until a relief mission arrived in September 1861.
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When the balloon is brought closer to the sphere, there will be a redistribution of charges. If the balloon is moved away after grounding, what will be the net charge on the sphere?
1. positive
2. negative
3. zero
4. It can be positive or negative depending on the material.
Question Image
Figure 18.60 A charged balloon and a metal sphere.
Question by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
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OpenStax College Physics Solution, Chapter 18, Problem 17 (Test Prep for AP® Courses) (3:04)
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This is College Physic Answers with Shaun Dychko. In this question we have an initially neutral metal sphere and a positively charged balloon is brought close to it. So the sphere will become polarized with negative charges being attracted to the side of the sphere closest to the positively charged balloon and the other side will end up being positively charged because it has lost some electrons that have gone over to this side. So far, this sphere has a net charge of zero. But we're told that the sphere is then grounded and let's suppose that we attach a wire to ground on the positive side. That'll be similar to this figure from the textbook. That will cause electrons to go from the ground up through this wire and neutralize the positive charges on this side of the metal sphere. So this metal sphere on this side will become neutral. Now the sphere will still be polarized because this balloon is here. So this side will still be negative and so we'll still have negative charges there, but this side will be neutral. Now if this ground wire is then broken -- and so we have a break in the wire, it's gone let's say -- then the balloon is taken away, we will be left with a picture like this with the sphere will have all of the charges evenly distributed throughout the sphere, all these negative electrons. So this sphere will end up being negatively charged and so the answer is B. But compare what would happen after the balloon is taken away with this grounding wire business and without the grounding wire. So if the grounding wire had not been used, there would have been a positive charge on the far side of this sphere, enough of them to correspond to each electron that's on the near side of the sphere. Then after the balloon was taken these negative charges would move over and neutralize each of the positive charges so that the net charge would have been zero. But now because of this grounding wire that was put here, some electrons came up to neutralize each of these positive charges and so after the balloon is taken away, you know, but the ground wire is destroyed first by the way, and so then the positives were neutralized by electrons from the ground. Then when the balloon is taken away, there are no positive charges on the other side to neutralize each of these negative charges anymore. So there is an net negative charge. Okay.
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Web Results
The inner core is believed to be composed of an iron–nickel alloy with some other elements. The temperature at the inner core's surface is estimated to be approximately 5,700 K (5,430 °C) or 9806 °F, which is about the temperature at the surface of the Sun.
Earth's inner core is made mostly of iron and nickel, but 5 percent of it has been a mystery for a long time. This new study concludes that it's most likel
Beneath the mantle, you'll find the core. Earth's core is the deepest, hottest layer, and it's made up of two layers itself: the outer core which borders the mantle and the inner core, which is a ball-shaped layer made almost entirely of metal.
What Is Earth Made Of? ... The solid, inner core of iron has a radius of about 760 miles (about 1,220 km), according to NASA. It is surrounded by a liquid, outer core composed of a nickel-iron ...
Earth's innermost section is called its inner core, and is believed to be just as hot as the sun's surface. It was once believed that the earth's inner core was liquid, but Inge Lehmann - a seismologist - proved in theory in 1936 that the inner core was solid, and the outer core was liquid. The inner core is believed to be made up of an iron-nickel (metal) alloy.
The Earth's inner core is made of solid iron and nickel, like the outer core, though the outer core has MOLTEN iron and nickel for its contents.
Because the densest materials will be forced by gravity and their lack of buoyancy towards the center of the Earth, the inner core would is made up of iron, nickel, uranium, gold, platinum, tungsten, iridium, osmium, rhenium, etc….plenty of the densest and heaviest elements that naturally occur.
Recently, researchers have discovered that the inner core also contains an inner inner core. It is believed to be between 250 to 400 kilometers in diameter. The outer core of the Earth is a liquid layer of iron and nickel 2,890 kilometers (1,400 miles) beneath the surface of the Earth. It stretches to about 2,300 kilometers (1,400 miles).
The inner core is made up of both iron and nickel. The most current science suggests the inner core is nearly pure iron, hot enough to be molten, but because of high pressure it is forced into a ...
This is a model of earth s core at china nanjing geological museum it probably pretty extension illinois edu 7What Is The Inner Core Made Of QuoraEarth S Rotating Inner Core Shifts Its SdEarth Lessons What Is S Core Made OfEarth S Internal Layers Crust Mantle Core LessonEarth Science By Hunter HayslipNew Model Suggests Earth […]
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Painted Bunting
Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center scientists track painted bunting migration routes using light-level geolocator tags.
Painted buntings (Passerina ciris) are an iconic but threatened species of the southeastern United States. However, despite their conspicuous habits, the basic ecology of and primary threats to southeastern painted buntings remain poorly understood, particularly the geographic linkages between specific breeding and winter populations. For example, basic information about key sites along the winter distribution of eastern painted buntings is incomplete. Outside of peninsular Florida, few field studies have investigated sites where wintering painted buntings spend a significant portion of the year, and historical accounts about the range, abundance and status are conflicting.
The research SMBC conducts will advance the conservation of this species by identifying key areas along migratory routes used by painted buntings and by engaging new partners across their annual cycle.
For example, Cuba is often considered the primary wintering location of this species, and several historical accounts indicate that it is relatively common in that country from November to March (Sykes et al. 2007). However, other accounts claim that painted buntings in Cuba are "rare," "not rare," "transient," "irregular" and "uncommon" (Sykes et al. 2007). Similar ambiguity exists in the Bahamas, where painted bunting have been described as "common," "an uncommon winter visitor," "readily found in winter" and "uncommon and transient" (Sykes et al. 2007).
Several sources also indicate that the species is common in Cuba and the Bahamas in spring and fall but rare during the winter, leading some researchers to speculate that some portion of individuals migrate through these countries on their way to an unknown winter site. However, no banded birds from the eastern population have ever been recaptured in Mexico, Central America or the Lesser Antilles. The poor state of understanding of the non-breeding distribution of eastern painted buntings has impeded the ability of conservation practitioners to link conservation will in the U.S. with conservation efforts in the Caribbean.
Without information about breeding and non-breeding distributions and migratory patterns, it is unlikely that effective conservation strategies can be designed to reverse painted bunting declines. For example, monitoring data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey indicate that more southern breeding populations have declined much faster than northern populations.
This variation suggests different exposure to threats among populations and indicates that management strategies should prioritize regions where southern breeding populations winter.
The tracking data from this project will fill several critical knowledge gaps needed to more effectively define conservation strategies for this species, including:
• Mapping key areas of the non-breeding distribution of southeastern painted buntings;
• Determining the relative importance of distinct wintering locations (e.g. Florida, Cuba and the Bahamas) for different breeding populations; and
• Quantifying the habitats used by painted buntings during the non-breeding period.
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Fatty acid synthesis
Fatty acid synthesis is the creation of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and NADPH through the action of enzymes called fatty acid synthases. This process takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. Most of the acetyl-CoA which is converted into fatty acids is derived from carbohydrates via the glycolytic pathway. The glycolytic pathway also provides the glycerol with which three fatty acids can combine (by means of ester bonds) to form triglycerides (also known as "triacylglycerols", to distinguish them from fatty "acids" - or simply as "fat"), the final product of the lipogenic process. When only two fatty acids combine with glycerol and the third alcohol group is phosphorylated with a group such as phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid is formed. Phospholipids form the bulk of the lipid bilayers that make up cell membranes and surround the organelles within the cells (e.g. the cell nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus etc.)
Straight-chain fatty acids
Straight-chain fatty acids occur in two types: saturated and unsaturated.
Saturated straight-chain fatty acids
Synthesis of saturated fatty acids via Fatty Acid Synthase II in E. coli
Much like β-oxidation, straight-chain fatty acid synthesis occurs via the six recurring reactions shown below, until the 16-carbon palmitic acid is produced.[1][2]
The diagrams presented show how fatty acids are synthesized in microorganisms and list the enzymes found in Escherichia coli.[1] These reactions are performed by fatty acid synthase II (FASII), which in general contain multiple enzymes that act as one complex. FASII is present in prokaryotes, plants, fungi, and parasites, as well as in mitochondria.[3]
Step Enzyme Reaction Description
(a) Acetyl CoA:ACP transacylase
Activates acetyl CoA for reaction with malonyl-ACP
(b) Malonyl CoA:ACP transacylase
Activates malonyl CoA for reaction with acetyl-ACP
(c) 3-ketoacyl-ACP synthase
Reacts priming acetyl-ACP with chain-extending malonyl-ACP.
(d) 3-ketoacyl-ACP reductase
Reduces the carbon 3 ketone to a hydroxyl group
(e) 3-Hydroxyacyl ACP dehydrase
Removes water
(f) Enoyl-ACP reductase
Reduces the C2-C3 double bond.
Abbreviations: ACP – Acyl carrier protein, CoA – Coenzyme A, NADP – Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate.
Note that during fatty synthesis the reducing agent is NADPH, whereas NAD is the oxidizing agent in beta-oxidation (the breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl-CoA). This difference exemplifies a general principle that NADPH is consumed during biosynthetic reactions, whereas NADH is generated in energy-yielding reactions.[6] (Thus NADPH is also required for the synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl-CoA; while NADH is generated during glycolysis.) The source of the NADPH is two-fold. When malate is oxidatively decarboxylated by “NADP+-linked malic enzyme" pyruvate, CO2 and NADPH are formed. NADPH is also formed by the pentose phosphate pathway which converts glucose into ribose, which can be used in synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids, or it can be catabolized to pyruvate.[6]
Glycolytic end products are used in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids
In humans, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver and adipose tissue, as well as in the mammary glands during lactation.
The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol.[6] This occurs via the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion. However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol occurs. This cannot occur directly. To obtain cytosolic acetyl-CoA, citrate (produced by the condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate) is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol.[6] There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate. The oxaloacetate can be used for gluconeogenesis (in the liver), or it can be returned into mitochondrion as malate.[7] The cytosolic acetyl-CoA is carboxylated by acetyl CoA carboxylase into malonyl CoA, the first committed step in the synthesis of fatty acids.[7][8]
Animals cannot resynthesize carbohydrates from fatty acids
The main fuel stored in the bodies of animals is fat. The young adult human’s fat stores average between about 10-20 kg, but varies greatly depending on age, gender, and individual disposition.[9] By contrast the human body stores only about 400 g of glycogen, of which 300 g is locked inside the skeletal muscles and is unavailable to the body as a whole. The 100 g or so of glycogen stored in the liver is depleted within one day of starvation.[10] Thereafter the glucose that is released into the blood by the liver for general use by the body tissues, has to be synthesized from the glucogenic amino acids and a few other gluconeogenic substrates, which do not include fatty acids.[11]
Fatty acids are broken down to acetyl-CoA by means of beta oxidation inside the mitochondria, whereas fatty acids are synthesized from acetyl-CoA outside the mitochondrion, in the cytosol. The two pathways are distinct, not only in where they occur, but also in the reactions that occur, and the substrates that are used. The two pathways are mutually inhibitory, preventing the acetyl-CoA produced by beta-oxidation from entering the synthetic pathway via the acetyl-CoA carboxylase reaction.[11] It can also not be converted to pyruvate as the pyruvate decarboxylation reaction is irreversible.[10] Instead it condenses with oxaloacetate, to enter the citric acid cycle. During each turn of the cycle, two carbon atoms leave the cycle as CO2 in the decarboxylation reactions catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. Thus each turn of the citric acid cycle oxidizes an acetyl-CoA unit while regenerating the oxaloacetate molecule with which the acetyl-CoA had originally combined to form citric acid. The decarboxylation reactions occur before malate is formed in the cycle. This is the only substance that can be removed from the mitochondrion to enter the gluconeogenic pathway to form glucose or glycogen in the liver or any other tissue.[11] There can therefore be no net conversion of fatty acids into glucose.
Only plants possess the enzymes to convert acetyl-CoA into oxaloacetate from which malate can be formed to ultimately be converted to glucose.[11]
Acetyl-CoA is formed into malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase, at which point malonyl-CoA is destined to feed into the fatty acid synthesis pathway. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase is the point of regulation in saturated straight-chain fatty acid synthesis, and is subject to both phosphorylation and allosteric regulation. Regulation by phosphorylation occurs mostly in mammals, while allosteric regulation occurs in most organisms. Allosteric control occurs as feedback inhibition by palmitoyl-CoA and activation by citrate. When there are high levels of palmitoyl-CoA, the final product of saturated fatty acid synthesis, it allosterically inactivates acetyl-CoA carboxylase to prevent a build-up of fatty acids in cells. Citrate acts to activate acetyl-CoA carboxylase under high levels, because high levels indicate that there is enough acetyl-CoA to feed into the Krebs cycle and produce energy.[12]
High plasma levels of insulin in the blood plasma (e.g. after meals) cause the dephosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, thus promoting the formation of malonyl-CoA from acetyl-CoA, and consequently the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids, while epinephrine and glucagon (released into the blood during starvation and exercise) cause the phosphorylation of this enzyme, inhibiting lipogenesis in favor of fatty acid oxidation via beta-oxidation.[6][8]
Anaerobic desaturation
Many bacteria use the anaerobic pathway for synthesizing unsaturated fatty acids. This pathway does not utilize oxygen and is dependent on enzymes to insert the double bond before elongation utilizing the normal fatty acid synthesis machinery. In Escherichia coli, this pathway is well understood.
Synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids via anaerobic desaturation
Most bacteria that undergo anaerobic desaturation contain homologues of FabA and FabB.[15] Clostridia are the main exception; they have a novel enzyme, yet to be identified, that catalyzes the formation of the cis double bond.[14]
This pathway undergoes transcriptional regulation by FadR and FabR. FadR is the more extensively studied protein and has been attributed bifunctional characteristics. It acts as an activator of fabA and fabB transcription and as a repressor for the β-oxidation regulon. In contrast, FabR acts as a repressor for the transcription of fabA and fabB.[13]
Aerobic desaturation
Synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids via aerobic desaturation
Aerobic desaturation is the most widespread pathway for the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. It is utilized in all eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. This pathway utilizes desaturases to synthesize unsaturated fatty acids from full-length saturated fatty acid substrates.[16] All desaturases require oxygen and ultimately consume NADH even though desaturation is an oxidative process. Desaturases are specific for the double bond they induce in the substrate. In Bacillus subtilis, the desaturase, Δ5-Des, is specific for inducing a cis-double bond at the Δ5 position.[7][16] Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains one desaturase, Ole1p, which induces the cis-double bond at Δ9.[7]
In mammals the aerobic desaturation is catalyzed by a complex of three membrane-bound enzymes (NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase, cytochrome b5, and a desaturase). These enzymes allow molecular oxygen, O2, to interact with the saturated fatty acyl-CoA chain, forming a double bond and two molecules of water, H2O. Two electrons come from NADH + H+ and two from the single bond in the fatty acid chain.[6] These mammalian enzymes are, however, incapable of introducing double bonds at carbon atoms beyond C-9 in the fatty acid chain.(For the numbering of the carbon atoms in a fatty acid see Foot Note [nb 1].) Hence mammals cannot synthesize linoleate or linolenate (which have double bonds at the C-12 (= Δ12), or the C-12 and C-15 (= Δ12 and Δ15) positions, respectively, as well as at the Δ9 position), nor the polyunsaturated, 20-carbon arachidonic acid that is derived from linoleate. These are all termed essential fatty acids, meaning that they are required by the organism, but can only be supplied via the diet. (Arachidonic acid is the precursor the prostaglandins which fulfill a wide variety of functions as local hormones.)[6]
In B. subtilis, this pathway is regulated by a two-component system: DesK and DesR. DesK is a membrane-associated kinase and DesR is a transcriptional regulator of the des gene.[7][16] The regulation responds to temperature; when there is a drop in temperature, this gene is upregulated. Unsaturated fatty acids increase the fluidity of the membrane and stabilize it under lower temperatures. DesK is the sensor protein that, when there is a decrease in temperature, will autophosphorylate. DesK-P will transfer its phosphoryl group to DesR. Two DesR-P proteins will dimerize and bind to the DNA promoters of the des gene and recruit RNA polymerase to begin transcription.[7][16]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
In general, both anaerobic and aerobic unsaturated fatty acid synthesis will not occur within the same system, however Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Vibrio ABE-1 are exceptions.[17][18][19] While P. aeruginosa undergoes primarily anaerobic desaturation, it also undergoes two aerobic pathways. One pathway utilizes a Δ9-desaturase (DesA) that catalyzes a double bond formation in membrane lipids. Another pathway uses two proteins, DesC and DesB, together to act as a Δ9-desaturase, which inserts a double bond into a saturated fatty acid-CoA molecule. This second pathway is regulated by repressor protein DesT. DesT is also a repressor of fabAB expression for anaerobic desaturation when in presence of exogenous unsaturated fatty acids. This functions to coordinate the expression of the two pathways within the organism.[18][20]
Branched-chain fatty acids
Branched-chain fatty acids are usually saturated and are found in two distinct families: the iso-series and anteiso-series. It has been found that Actinomycetales contain unique branch-chain fatty acid synthesis mechanisms, including that which forms tuberculosteric acid.
Branch-chain fatty acid synthesizing system
Valine primer
Leucine primer
Isoleucine primer
Synthetic pathways of the branched-chain fatty acid synthesizing system given differing primers
The branched-chain fatty acid synthesizing system uses α-keto acids as primers. This system is distinct from the branched-chain fatty acid synthetase that utilizes short-chain acyl-CoA esters as primers.[21] α-Keto acid primers are derived from the transamination and decarboxylation of valine, leucine, and isoleucine to form 2-methylpropanyl-CoA, 3-methylbutyryl-CoA, and 2-Methylbutyryl-CoA, respectively.[22] 2-Methylpropanyl-CoA primers derived from valine are elongated to produce even-numbered iso-series fatty acids such as 14-methyl-pentadecanoic (isopalmitic) acid, and 3-methylbutyryl-CoA primers from leucine may be used to form odd-numbered iso-series fatty acids such as 13-methyl-tetradecanoic acid. 2-Methylbutyryl-CoA primers from isoleucine are elongated to form anteiso-series fatty acids containing an odd number of carbon atoms such as 12-Methyl tetradecanoic acid.[23] Decarboxylation of the primer precursors occurs through the branched-chain α-keto acid decarboxylase (BCKA) enzyme. Elongation of the fatty acid follows the same biosynthetic pathway in Escherichia coli used to produce straight-chain fatty acids where malonyl-CoA is used as a chain extender.[24] The major end products are 12–17 carbon branched-chain fatty acids and their composition tends to be uniform and characteristic for many bacterial species.[23]
BCKA decarboxylase and relative activities of α-keto acid substrates
The BCKA decarboxylase enzyme is composed of two subunits in a tetrameric structure (A2B2) and is essential for the synthesis of branched-chain fatty acids. It is responsible for the decarboxylation of α-keto acids formed by the transamination of valine, leucine, and isoleucine and produces the primers used for branched-chain fatty acid synthesis. The activity of this enzyme is much higher with branched-chain α-keto acid substrates than with straight-chain substrates, and in Bacillus species its specificity is highest for the isoleucine-derived α-keto-β-methylvaleric acid, followed by α-ketoisocaproate and α-ketoisovalerate.[23][24] The enzyme’s high affinity toward branched-chain α-keto acids allows it to function as the primer donating system for branched-chain fatty acid synthetase.[24]
Substrate BCKA activity CO2 Produced (nmol/min mg) Km (μM) Vmax (nmol/min mg)
L-α-keto-β-methyl-valerate 100% 19.7 <1 17.8
α-Ketoisovalerate 63% 12.4 <1 13.3
α-Ketoisocaproate 38% 7.4 <1 5.6
Pyruvate 25% 4.9 51.1 15.2
Factors affecting chain length and pattern distribution
α-Keto acid primers are used to produce branched-chain fatty acids that, in general, are between 12 and 17 carbons in length. The proportions of these branched-chain fatty acids tend to be uniform and consistent among a particular bacterial species but may be altered due to changes in malonyl-CoA concentration, temperature, or heat-stable factors (HSF) present.[23] All of these factors may affect chain length, and HSFs have been demonstrated to alter the specificity of BCKA decarboxylase for a particular α-keto acid substrate, thus shifting the ratio of branched-chain fatty acids produced.[23] An increase in malonyl-CoA concentration has been shown to result in a larger proportion of C17 fatty acids produced, up until the optimal concentration (≈20μM) of malonyl-CoA is reached. Decreased temperatures also tend to shift the fatty-acid distribution slightly toward C17 fatty-acids in Bacillus species.[21][23]
Branch-chain fatty acid synthase
This system functions similarly to the branch-chain fatty acid synthesizing system, however it uses short-chain carboxylic acids as primers instead of alpha-keto acids. In general, this method is used by bacteria that do not have the ability to perform the branch-chain fatty acid system using alpha-keto primers. Typical short-chain primers include isovalerate, isobutyrate, and 2-methyl butyrate. In general, the acids needed for these primers are taken up from the environment; this is often seen in ruminal bacteria.[25]
The overall reaction is:
Isobutyryl-CoA + 6 malonyl-CoA +12 NADPH + 12H+ → Isopalmitic acid + 6 CO2 12 NADP + 5 H2O + 7 CoA[21]
The difference between (straight-chain) fatty acid synthase and branch-chain fatty acid synthase is substrate specificity of the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of acyl-CoA to acyl-ACP.[21]
Omega-alicyclic fatty acids
Omega-alicyclic fatty acids typically contain an omega-terminal propyl or butyryl cyclic group and are some of the major membrane fatty acids found in several species of bacteria. The fatty acid synthetase used to produce omega-alicyclic fatty acids is also used to produce membrane branched-chain fatty acids. In bacteria with membranes composed mainly of omega-alicyclic fatty acids, the supply of cyclic carboxylic acid-CoA esters is much greater than that of branched-chain primers.[21] The synthesis of cyclic primers is not well understood but it has been suggested that mechanism involves the conversion of sugars to shikimic acid which is then converted to cyclohexylcarboxylic acid-CoA esters that serve as primers for omega-alicyclic fatty acid synthesis [25]
Tuberculostearic acid synthesis
Mechanism of the synthesis of Tuberculostearic acid
Tuberculostearic acid (D-10-Methylstearic acid) is a saturated fatty acid that is known to be produced by Mycobacterium spp. and two species of Streptomyces. It is formed from the precursor oleic acid (a monosaturated fatty acid).[26] After oleic acid is esterified to a phospholipid, S-adenosyl-methionine donates a methyl group to the double bond of oleic acid.[27] This methylation reaction forms the intermediate 10-methylene-octadecanoyal. Successive reduction of the residue, with NADPH as a cofactor, results in 10-methylstearic acid [22]
See also
Foot note
1. Numbering of carbon atoms
The position of the carbon atoms in a fatty acid can be indicated from the COOH- (or carboxy) end, or from the -CH3 (or methyl) end. If indicated from the -COOH end, then the C-1, C-2, C-3, ….(etc.) notation is used (blue numerals in the diagram on the right, where C-1 is the –COOH carbon). If the position is counted from the other, -CH3, end then the position is indicated by the ω-n notation (numerals in red, where ω-1 refers to the methyl carbon). The positions of the double bonds in a fatty acid chain can, therefore, be indicated in two ways, using the C-n or the ω-n notation. Thus, in an 18 carbon fatty acid, a double bond between C-12 (or ω-7) and C-13 (or ω-6) is reported either as Δ12 if counted from the –COOH end (indicating only the “beginning” of the double bond), or as ω-6 (or omega-6) if counting from the -CH3 end. The “Δ” is the Greek letter “delta”, which translates into “D” ( for Double bond) in the Roman alphabet. Omega (ω) is the last letter in the Greek alphabet, and is therefore used to indicate the “last” carbon atom in the fatty acid chain. Since the ω-n notation is used almost exclusively to indicate the positions of the double bonds close to the -CH3 end in essential fatty acids, there is no necessity for an equivalent “Δ”-like notation - the use of the ”ω-n” notation always refers to the position of a double bond.
1. 1 2 Dijkstra, Albert J., R. J. Hamilton, and Wolf Hamm. "Fatty Acid Biosynthesis." Trans Fatty Acids. Oxford: Blackwell Pub., 2008. 12. Print.
2. "MetaCyc pathway: superpathway of fatty acids biosynthesis (E. coli)".
3. 1 2 "Fatty Acids: Straight-chain Saturated, Structure, Occurrence and Biosynthesis." Lipid Library – Lipid Chemistry, Biology, Technology and Analysis. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/lipids/fa_sat/index.htm>.
4. "MetaCyc pathway: stearate biosynthesis I (animals)".
5. "MetaCyc pathway: very long chain fatty acid biosynthesis II".
6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 559–565, 614–623. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ferre, P.; F. Foufelle (2007). "SREBP-1c Transcription Factor and Lipid Homeostasis: Clinical Perspective". Hormone Research. 68 (2): 72–82. doi:10.1159/000100426. PMID 17344645. Retrieved 2010-08-30. this process is outlined graphically in page 73
8. 1 2 Voet, Donald; Judith G. Voet; Charlotte W. Pratt (2006). Fundamentals of Biochemistry, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 547, 556. ISBN 0-471-21495-7.
9. Sloan, A.W; Koeslag, J.H.; Bredell, G.A.G. (1973). "Body composition work capacity and work efficiency of active and inactive young men". European Journal of Applied Physiology. 32: 17–24. doi:10.1007/bf00422426.
10. 1 2 Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 581–602, 613, 775–778. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
11. 1 2 3 4 Stryer, Lubert (1995). "Fatty acid metabolism.". In: Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 603–628. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
12. Diwan, Joyce J. "Fatty Acid Synthesis." Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) :: Architecture, Business, Engineering, IT, Humanities, Science. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb2/part1/fasynthesis.htm>.
13. 1 2 Feng, Youjun, and John ECronan. "Complex binding of the FabR repressor of bacterial unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis to its cognate promoters." Molecular microbiology 80.1 (2011):195–218.
14. 1 2 Zhu, Lei, et al. "Functions of the Clostridium acetobutylicium FabF and FabZ proteins in unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis." BMC microbiology 9(2009):119.
15. Wang, Haihong, and John ECronan. "Functional replacement of the FabA and FabB proteins of Escherichia coli fatty acid synthesis by Enterococcus faecalis FabZ and FabF homologues." Journal of biological chemistry 279.33 (2004):34489-95.
16. 1 2 3 4 Mansilla, Mara C, and Diegode Mendoza. "The Bacillus subtilis desaturase: a model to understand phospholipid modification and temperature sensing." Archives of microbiology 183.4 (2005):229-35.
17. Wada, M, N. Fukunaga, and S. Sasaki. "Mechanism of biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in Pseudomonas sp. strain E-3, a psychrotrophic bacterium." Journal of bacteriology 171.8 (1989):4267-71.
18. 1 2 Subramanian, Chitra, Charles ORock, and Yong-MeiZhang. "DesT coordinates the expression of anaerobic and aerobic pathways for unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa." Journal of bacteriology 192.1 (2010):280-5.
19. Morita, N, et al. "Both the anaerobic pathway and aerobic desaturation are involved in the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids in Vibrio sp. strain ABE-1." FEBS letters 297.1–2 (1992):9–12.
20. Zhu, Kun, et al. "Two aerobic pathways for the formation of unsaturated fatty acids in Pseudomonas aeruginosa." Molecular microbiology 60.2 (2006):260-73.
21. 1 2 3 4 5 Kaneda, Toshi. "Iso- and Anteiso-Fatty Acids in Bacteria: Biosynthesis, Function, and Taxonomic Significance." Microbiological Reviews 55.2 (1991): 288–302
22. 1 2 "Branched-chain Fatty Acids, Phytanic Acid, Tuberculostearic Acid Iso/anteiso- Fatty Acids." Lipid Library – Lipid Chemistry, Biology, Technology and Analysis. Web. 1 May 2011. http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/lipids/fa_branc/index.htm.
23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Naik, Devaray N., and Toshi Kaneda. "Biosynthesis of Branched Long-chain Fatty Acids by Species of Bacillus: Relative Activity of Three α-keto Acid Substrates and Factors Affecting Chain Length." Can. J. Microbiol. 20 (1974): 1701–708.
24. 1 2 3 Oku, Hirosuke, and Toshi Kaneda. "Biosynthesis of Branched-chain Fatty Acids in Bacillis Subtilis." The Journal of Biological Chemistry 263.34 (1988): 18386-8396.
25. 1 2 Christie, William W. "Fatty Acids: Natural Alicyclic Structures, Occurrence, and Biochemistry." The AOCS Lipid Library. 5 Apr. 2011. Web. 24 Apr. 2011. <http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/lipids/fa_cycl/file.pdf>.
26. Ratledge, Colin, and John Stanford. The Biology of the Mycobacteria. London: Academic, 1982. Print.
27. Kubica, George P., and Lawrence G. Wayne. The Mycobacteria: a Sourcebook. New York: Dekker, 1984. Print.
External links
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I have decided to try CLIL with my oldest students who are 14-16 years old. As a topic I chose something I am familiar with - comedies. such words like "slapstick", "sitcom" or "canned laughter" are quite unknown to them and to be honest, I got lots of satisfaction from teaching them something I learnt being much younger during my studies.
Task 1
HOTS and LOTS questions were about films they watch, their favourite comedies, the reasons why they find a film funny. I also asked if they have ever come across these notions I mentioned before. They tried to quess their meanings and I have to admit they were pretty close giving the right answers!
Task 2
Students were given a short original descriptions of the types od comedies: a slapstick, a stand-up and a sitcom. Their task was to match the descriptions with the names.
(a slapstick)
Comedy characterized by broad humour, absurd situations, and vigorous, often violent action. It took its name from a paddlelike device, probably introduced by 16th-century commedia dell'arte troupes, that produced a resounding whack when one comic actor used it to strike another. This comedy became popular in 19th-century music halls and vaudeville theatres and was carried into the 20th century by silent-movie comedians such as Charlie Chaplin, Harold Lloyd, and Mack Sennett's Keystone Kops and later by Laurel and Hardy, the Marx Brothers, and the Three Stooges.
(a sitcom)
Radio or television comedy series that involves a continuing cast of characters in a succession of episodes. Often the characters are markedly different types thrown together by circumstance and occupying a shared environment such as an apartment building or workplace. Typically half an hour in length and either taped in front of a studio audience or employing canned applause, they are marked by verbal sparring and rapidly resolved conflicts.
(a stand-up)
This kind of a comedy can be defined as a comedy that is performed by an individual who stands in front of a live audience and tells jokes while speaking indirectly to them. The comedian performs with the aid of a microphone, which is either hand-held or mounted. There performances are later released on DVDs, internet or TV.
Task 3
We checked their answers together wondering what the characteristics of all types are. After each piece we watched a short film to see if all the elements were in:
We watched old movies and Mr Bean to compare if the genre is still the same.
Here the task was different as students were shown the film without a canned laughter. Their job was to tell me what was wrong, akward in the film.
In this case I put a pressure on the fact that a stand-up sometimes can be offensive, politically incorrect but that is one of its features.
Task 4
CLIL wants students to be creative and using the content in their culture (do you remember 4Cs?). Students got the homework:
- prepare a stand-up
- perform a slapstick
More details in the file: CLICK
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Amy’s Weekly highlight – William Gladstone
William Gladstone
William Gladstone, 1809-1898, was the first and only person to be Prime Minister four times. He was also Britain’s oldest, resigning at the age of 84. During his periods of power, he campaigned to bring about change in Ireland and many foreign countries, clashed with opposing Conservative MP Disraeli and even the Queen herself (who learned to resent him) and, overall, became popular with the majority of British civilians.
Gladstone first became PM in 1868, shortly after the Irish famine. His goal during his time of power was “to pacify Ireland”, which consisted of a series of Acts where Gladstone tried to abolish the violence and debts born from the starvation and resentment towards Irish landlords. Many of these acts barely prevented the disorder due to the lack of money amongst Irish civilians but one in particular named the “Three F’s – fixity of tenure, fair rents and free sale” which was brought in during his second term, was seen as a way forward in preventing the people’s ferocity.
Unfortunately, Gladstone’s faith in the regime crumbled when the Phoenix Park murders took place. These acts were passed throughout his first and second term. As well as the Three F’s, Gladstone also developed a foreign-policy during his second term. He pushed the scramble for Africa and saw the end of the First Anglo Boer war and the war against the Mahdi in Sudan. Gladstone also ordered the bombardment of Alexandria, beginning the Anglo-Egyptian war leading to the occupation of Egypt. The reason for this is still debated and historians are still not sure if the battles were in the interest of the opposing countries or Britain.
But despite his policies probably introduced in the interest of Britain, Gladstone was strongly against his rival Disraeli’s decision to make alliance with Turkey. The Sultan of Turkey was treating some people (Christians from Bulgaria) terribly and Gladstone was strongly against supporting the country just to secure his Queen’s position of empress of India. Unfortunately, the alliance was forged anyway as Disraeli was Prime Minister.
Gladstone’s third term lasted less than a year. During this time he brought out the Home Bill policy for Ireland. The bill was thrown out on the second reading and split the Liberal party in two. This ended Gladstone’s short term time in power. He did support the London dockers’ strike during his opposition rein and agreed with the decision to bring in the Poor Law. Gladstone was voted in again 6 years later.
His fourth term lasted 2 years, in which the Elementary Education Act was passed. Yet another Home Bill was proposed and rejected and Gladstone resigned at the age of 84, having rejected an earldom, remaining in Parliament for an extra year before finally leaving. He died at the age 89 in 1898.
It is hard to decide whether Gladstone was a good Prime Minister or not. He did do a lot for the country and was popular for good reason, especially what he did for Ireland after the famine. Foreign countries were damaged by his foreign policies and interventions. Britain flourished. So it depends from which point of view you wish to look at his career. All that’s certain is that he certainly made a positive impact on the countries he led.
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The eastern small-footed bat is among the smallest bats in eastern North America, and is known for its small feet which are 7 to 8 millimeters long and black face-mask.
About the Eastern Small-Footed Bat
easternsmallfootedbatThe bat is between sixty five to ninety five millimeters in length, and has a wingspan of 210 to 250 millimeters, and weighs between 4 to 8 grams. The fur on the dorsal part of their body is dark at the roots, and fades to a light brown at the tips. This gives the bats a yellow-brown appearance. The bat's fur is a dull gray color on the dorsal side of the body which helps to camouflage it.
The eastern small-footed bat has a black face-mask which is a unique characteristic of the bat. The bats also have black ears, wings and the membrane between the legs and tail which is supported by a protruding cartridge. They have a very short and flat head, erect ears, very broad at the base and a short flat nose. Their tail has a length of between 25 to 45 millimeters long and protrudes past the inter-femoral membrane.
During spring and summer months, they prefer to stay in buildings, rock bluffs, rocky cliffs, turnpike tunnels and shale fields. Here they roost in crevices and under rocks during the daytime. The largest populations of the bats are found in Pennsylvania, New York, Western Virginia and West Virginia.
The bats feed primarily on flying insects such as flies, mosquitoes, beetles and moths. However, moths compose nearly half of their diet, because they forage primarily on soft-bodied prey. They avoid hard prey due to their small, delicate skulls. Their stomachs fill within an hour of eating. They typically forage in and along wooded areas below canopy height, along cliffs and over streams and ponds. These bats emerge to forage shortly after sunset.
The bats are nocturnal as a result they roost during the day and are active at night. During the summer, they leave their roosting site at dusk and fly around caves and open fields. They have a slower fluttering motion when flying compared to the other small bats. They do not migrate, but instead change their roosting locations every day. The males and females have different roosting preferences. They prefer to live in coniferous or deciduous forests and are active in mountain ranges with a height of 240–1125 meters. They fly repeated patterns within less than one meter of the floor of a cave or crevice, then hang up on the wall, and fly again. The bats normally fly slowly and erratically at a distance of one to three meters above the ground.
The bats are one of the last species to go into hibernation in the fall and the first to leave during spring. The hibernation period lasts from late November to early April. They prefer to hibernate in mines and caves that have a short length of 150 miles. They also hibernate near the entrance of their hibernacula because of the temperatures which sometimes dip below zero, and the humidity is very low. They can tolerate lower temperatures and have been found in very cold caves and mines. They have very strong homing instincts, and will always return to the same cave to hibernate even if moved to a different location. They spend most of their lives upside down, but during hibernation, they lie horizontally and sometimes on cave floors.
The Eastern small-footed bat has a slow reproduction where they can only have one offspring a year. Mating often occurs in autumn with the female storing the male’s sperm throughout the period of hibernation. Fertilization occurs in spring when the females are active again, and gestation occurs between 50 to 60 days with the young being born in late May and early June. When they are born, the bats weigh 20 to 35 percent of their mother's weight. This size is the reason that the mother can have only one at a time as it would be hard to get enough food for more than one baby. Males and females are usually the same size when born.
The bats are under a great threat of pollution, and disturbance from human beings during hibernation. The hibernating bats are affected by very low levels of light, heat, and noise which keep them awake and make them spend energy depleting critical fat reserves. Repeated incidences of these disturbances make them very susceptible to death. The bats are also at a high risk from gas and oil drilling, mining and quarrying because of their high dependency on rare ecological features.
Eastern small-footed bats are also endangered due to white nose syndrome, which is caused by a fungus. This fungus grows in cold, humid environments like caves and mines where many bats hibernate. It affects the wing membrane, which maintains water balance in the bats. Thirst will then wake bats from hibernation, and the result is that the infected animals will be seen flying outside mines and caves during the winter.
The Eastern small-footed bats live between 6 to 12 years in the wild. This depends on habitat availability, predators, and fungi or parasites. However, the survival rates of the males is higher than the females. This may be due to the reason that the females use more energy during the reproduction process.
The bats can pose a risk because they carry rabies, which is deadly to humans. They may also carry histoplasmosis, which is a disease that is caused by a fungus. The bats are also considered a nuisance because they roost in human structures.
Alliance Pest Services
For all of your bat removal needs, Alliance Pest Services is your local bat expert in New Jersey for bat removal and droppings cleanup.
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Johannesburg History Facts and Timeline
(Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa)
South Africa's biggest city, Johannesburg, is also the most populated city on earth that is not located on the banks of a major body of water.
This city ranks among the world's 50 most densely populated metropolitan areas and boasts Sub-Saharan Africa's biggest economy, along with the continent's busiest airport. It is hard to believe that the history of Johannesburg did not formally begin until 1886, when gold was discovered beneath its surrounding Witwatersrand hill range.
Earliest Residents
San tribes were the earliest known settlers in the history of present-day Johannesburg, although Bantu speakers migrating from Central Africa outnumbered the San by the 13th century. Sotho-Tswana became the area's dominant language and culture by the 18th century, when Sotho-Tswana lands extended as far west as Botswana and as far south as Lesotho.
Stone walled ruins are the few surviving remnants of this Iron Age society, which nonetheless established iron-smelting furnaces and mines to exploit the area's rich natural resources, long before the first Europeans arrived. During the Zululand wars at the turn of the 19th century, most Sotho-Tswana settlements were destroyed and abandoned, allowing the Ndebele Zulu kingdom to reign over the area by the time Europeans first arrived here in the early 19th century.
Witwatersrand Gold Rush
The first European settlers to arrive in the Johannesburg area were the Dutch Voortrekkers, who helped the Sotho-Tswana people oust the Ndebele from the territory now called the Transvaal Republic. The modern history of Johannesburg officially began with the 1886 discovery of gold beneath the hills of the Witwatersrand area, which attracted fortune seekers from throughout the world. Of interest, the city's name is said to come from the two Zuid-Afrikaansche Republijk surveyors, both named Johannes, who helped to establish the new community.
Mining Town and Second Boer War
By the late 19th century, Johannesburg had already grown into a diverse mining boomtown with a population of poor Afrikaners, black African tribesmen, fortune-seeking miners and ambitious gangsters. The British soldiers who occupied the city during a period of the Second Boer War burned much of the surrounding farmland, sending literally thousands of children and women to concentration camps.
The war left the majority of Johannesburg residents both poor and homeless, and many blacks fled the city. Chinese workers were brought in to labour in the mines and many of their relatives remain here to this day.
Mining Strikes
Johannesburg's new British colonial government forcibly relocated the native population to the city's outskirts. In 1920, about 70,000 black miners went on strike to protest their substandard working and living conditions. Two years later, more than 200 people died in a general strike called the Rand Revolt. Johannesburg's black population, many of whom were crowded into squatters' camps, doubled during WWII.
Modern Jo'burg History
All the same, under the stern leadership of the white-controlled government, the city grew rapidly, perhaps faster than any other during the 20th century. It soon became Africa's richest and largest commercial centre, complete with a Central Business District of skyscrapers and leafy northerly suburbs for the white South Africans, as well as dusty townships based within the south for the locals.
After apartheid was officially implemented in the 1950s, thousands of Johannesburg's black population were ousted to townships such as Soweto, site of the 1976 student protest which marked a low point in South Africa's anti-apartheid movement. Several uprisings and violent incidents later, apartheid was finally abolished during the early 1990s. Segregated townships like Soweto and Lenasia have now been fully integrated with the rest of Johannesburg.
Surprisingly, Johannesburg plays no part in the administration of the country, with this role being shared between Pretoria, Cape Town and Bloemfontein. However, many politicians and major businesses do choose to be based in the city. Naturally, rural youths tend to gravitate here for opportunities, often causing social problems.
Although Johannesburg continues to struggle with crime and violent incidents, such as the 2008 Alexandra riots, the city continues to grow, attracting hordes of tourists and hosting important global events, such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup final.
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The coming of the Friars
As Western Europe passed on into the thirteenth century, new forms of monasti-cism emerged. Many of the old ones continued. The Benedictine rule was still standard. However, the impulse which produced monasticism gave evidence of its amazing creativity in bringing into being a new type of movement which, while clearly in the monastic stream and deeply indebted to the past, had in it much that was novel. This displayed itself in what are called the friars or the mendicant orders. They are usually thought of as four in number, the Franciscans, the Dominicans, the Carmelites, and the Augustinians. These were known respectively as the Brothers Minor or Grey Friars, the Preachers or Black Friars, the White Friars, and the Austin Friars. To these four were added a few similar but much smaller bodies. They all combined the monastic life and its ideals of poverty, chastity, obedience, and community living with preaching to those outside their fellowship. They were missionaries both to the nominal Christians of Western Europe and to non-Christians in various parts of the globe. This was especially true of the two largest, the Franciscans and Dominicans. To this day these two orders have had a leading part in the world-wide extension of the Roman Catholic form of the faith. The Franciscans have vied with a much younger order, the Society of Jesus, in providing the Roman Catholic Church with a larger number of missionaries than has any other of the orders and societies.
The emergence of the mendicant orders was associated with the growth of cities in Western Europe. By the thirteenth century that part of the world was beginning to move out of the almost exclusively agricultural economy which had followed the decline of the Roman Empire and the disappearance of the urban civilization which had characterized that realm. Cities were once more appearing. It was to deepening the religious life of the populace of the cities and towns that the friars devoted much of their energy. Most of the earlier monasteries had chosen solitude and centres remote from the contaminating influences of the world. In contrast, the mendicant orders sought the places where men congregated and endeavoured to bring the Gospel to them there. The older monasteries were associated with a prevailing rural and feudal milieu. The mendicant orders flourished in the rapidly growing urban populations.
Here was a striking enlargement of the monastic movement. It had been foreshadowed by the participation of outstanding monks, among them Lanfranc, Anselm, and Bernard of Clairvaux, in the affairs of the Church and of the secular world. Some Benedictine monasteries had conducted schools for youths who did not take their vows and through their guest rooms had given hospitality to many from the world. The Templars and Hospitallers were examples of orders which did not remain within their cloisters but instead gave themselves to the physical care of others. Bernard of Menthon had inaugurated a community which served travellers across the Alpine pass which bears his name. The Trinitarians were ransoming captives. The Augustinian Canons and especially the Premonstratensians had been moving in the direction of service to the world outside monastic walls. The friars were a further and substantial stage. The trend was to be continued. In subsequent centuries, as we are to see, monastic orders and congregations arose, either of men or of women, who gave themselves primarily to teaching and nursing. Yet several orders whose houses cut themselves off from the world persisted and from time to time new ones like them came into being. Much more than in the Eastern Churches, in the West monasticism developed many and varied forms. Here was evidence of the amazing vitality and of the ability of Christianity to adapt itself to fresh environments.
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Definitions Of frame
a rigid structure that surrounds or encloses something such as a door or window.
His mother stood in the frame of the kitchen door, hands on her hips and a grim expression on her face.
a single complete picture in a series forming a movie, television, or video film.
a structural environment within which a class of words or other linguistic units can be correctly used. For example I —— him is a frame for a large class of transitive verbs.
Correct capitalization could help German readers extract the structural frame of a sentence.
create or formulate (a concept, plan, or system).
the staff have proved invaluable in framing the proposals
erect the framework of a building.
Wednesday the workmen arrive to frame up the room, drywall it, paint it, and put up shelves.
place (a picture or photograph) in a frame.
he had the photo framed
produce false evidence against (an innocent person) so that they appear guilty.
he claims he was framed
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Free for educational use
Mawson's Expedition to the Antarctic
Year of production - 1912
Duration - 2min 10sec
Tags - Australian History, environment, global citizenship, sustainability, see all tags
Mawson's Expedition to the Antarctic
How to Download the Video Clip
download clip icon Premium MP4 mawson_pr.mp4 (16.0MB).
Additional help.
buy iconYou can buy this clip on a compilation DVD.
buy iconYou can buy the program this clip comes from.
About the Video Clip
Curriculum Focus
At Level 5, students demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the characteristics of the regions of Australia and those surrounding it: Asia, the Pacific and Antarctica. They explain, using examples, how the interaction of physical processes and human activities create variations within the regions. They use evidence and appropriate geographical language to explain contrasts within smaller regions surrounding Australia. Students describe differences in culture, living conditions and outlook, including attitudes to environmental issues, in these regions. They demonstrate understanding of environmental issues based on inquiry and propose ways of ensuring the sustainability of resources.
Background Information
Classroom Activities
2. Consider why you have that impression or image—is it because of the narration? Or the visual images? Or the sound effects in the video clip? Or some other reason?
1. Attitudes and values are things that the society agrees with, or thinks are important. See if you can identify any attitudes and values in this video clip. For example, you might decide that an attitude or value in this video clip is that we need to conquer the environment. See if you can identify any others.
2. One of the values of many people today is a belief in ecological sustainability. That means having as little impact as possible on an environment. Do you think the pioneer scientists of this video clip shared that value? Look at such aspects as the use of animals, attitudes to wildlife, use of technology to help you work out an answer.
1. The video clip was originally made as a film in 1962 from 1912 footage. Do you think a contemporary video about the environment would focus on the same images, or might it reflect different attitudes and values? Explain your reasons.
2. The filmmakers have created their video clip to pass on certain messages. What do you think these are? For example, is there a message in the film about human endeavour? Or about nature? Or about our relationship to the environment?
1. The pioneer scientists in this video clip lived in a small and isolated community in Antarctica. What sort of qualities would these people have needed? What rights and responsibilities might have been the most important ones for them?
2. A key value underpinning Australian actions in Antarctica today is sustainability. Look at the way the pioneers in the video clip behave. Can you identify any actions or behaviour that would be considered unacceptable today? Discuss why such changes might have occurred over time.
1. Identify an environmental issue facing Antarctica today. For example, it might be the impact of tourism. Prepare a briefing paper for a meeting to discuss the issue. The briefing paper will need to include background information, a summary of the issues, statements on possible solutions.
2. There are many international treaties in force in Antarctica. Examine one of these and Australia’s role in implementing it.
3. Research an Australian scientific base in Antarctica. Prepare a set of management criteria for the base that will promote ecological sustainability of the area.
Further Resources
Go to
Australian Government Antarctic Division
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History of Seychelles
The history of the Seychelles before European colonization is almost entirely unknown. Settlers from Borneo, who eventually populated Madagascar may have visited the islands during the third and fourth centuries BCE. Arab navigators traveling the Indian Ocean most likely knew of the islands, though they did not stay there. Arabs traded the enormous coco de mer nuts, found only in the Seychelles, many years before Europeans arrived. Though the Arabs claimed to have found the nuts washed up in the Maldives, it is known that the coco de mer sinks in water, so their account may not be credible.
The Seychelles were uninhabited when the British East India Company arrived on the archipelago in 1609. Thereafter, they became a favorite pirate haven. The French claimed the islands in 1756 and administered them as part of the colony of Mauritius. The British gained control of the islands through the Treaty of Paris (1814) and changed the islands’ name from the French Séchelles to the Anglicized Seychelles.
During this period Seychelles came to know the enlightened policies of administrators such as Pierre Poivre, the brilliant politicking of Governor Queau de Quinssy and, of course, the terrible repercussions of the French Revolution.
Under the British, Seychelles achieved a population of some 7,000 by the year 1825. Important estates were established during this time producing coconut, food crops, cotton and sugar cane. During this period Seychelles also saw the establishment of Victoria as her capital, the exile of numerous and colourful troublemakers from the Empire, the devastation caused by the famous Avalanche of 1862 and the economic repercussions of the abolition of slavery.
Seychelles achieved independence from Britain in 1976 and became a republic within the commonwealth. Following a period of single party rule by the government of Mr. France Albert René, on December 4, 1991, President René announced a return to the multiparty system of government, 1993 saw the first multiparty presidential and legislative elections held under a new constitution in which President René was victorious. President René also won the 1998 and 2003 elections before transferring the Presidency to James Alix Michel in June 2004. In July 2006, Michel won reelection with 53.7% of the vote.
In presidential elections held May 19–21, 2011 incumbent James Michel (People’s Party) won his third term with 55% of the vote against Wavel Ramkalawan’s (Seychelles National Party) 41%. Voter turnout was 84% over a three-day period, which allowed for voters on outlying islands to participate.
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World War I Art Has Gone Largely Unseen for Decades
In the words of one historian, “Art and war are old companions.” The United States government proved that nearly a century ago when it commissioned eight artists to go to war. Armed with sketchpads, charcoals, pastels and little to no military training, the artists embedded with the American Expeditionary Forces and sketched everything from rolling tanks to portraits of German prisoners. The War Department coordinated the program in the hopes that the artists could provide a historical record and galvanize support for the war.
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Beijing City Fortifications
Beijing City Fortifications
The Beijing city wall was a series of fortifications built between 1436 and 1553. The Inner city wall was 24 km long 20 metres thick at ground level and 12 metres thick at the top. The wall was 15 metres high, and it had nine gates. This wall stood for nearly 530 years, but in 1965 it was removed to allow construction of the 2nd Ring Road and the Line 2, Beijing Subway. Only one part of the wall is extant, in the southeast, just south of Beijing Railway Station. The Outer city walls had a perimeter of approximately 28 kilometres. The entire enclosure of the Inner and Outer cities formed a "凸" shape with a perimeter of nearly 60 kilometres.
Beijing was the capital city of the last three Chinese imperial dynasties (the Yuan, Ming, and Qing). It was also secondary capital to two northern dynasties (the Liao and Jin), and is therefore often referred to as an ancient capital of five dynasties (五朝古都). It had an extensive fortification system, consisting of the Forbidden City, the Imperial city, the Inner city, and the Outer city. Fortifications included gate towers, gates, archways, watchtowers, barbicans, barbican towers, barbican gates, barbican archways, sluice gates, sluice gate towers, enemy sighting towers, corner guard towers, and a moat system. It had the most extensive defense system in Imperial China.
After the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Beijing's fortifications were gradually dismantled. The Forbidden city has remained largely intact, becoming the Palace Museum. Some fortifications of the Imperial city remain intact, including Tiananmen, the gate tower and watchtower at Zhengyangmen, the watchtower at Deshengmen, the southeastern corner guard tower, and a section of the Inner city wall near Chongwenmen. Nothing of the Outer city remains intact. Yongdingmen was completely reconstructed in 2004.
Read more about Beijing City FortificationsHistory, Dismantlement, Defence, Inner City, Outer City, Imperial City, Forbidden City, Moats, Canals, and Other Watershed Systems, Influences, Preservation
Other articles related to "beijing city fortifications, beijing, city":
Beijing City Fortifications - Preservation
... grew stronger in the period leading up to the 29th Olympiad, hosted in Beijing ... a complete or partial reconstruction of the original "凸"-shaped city defence system were made ... A restored Inner and Outer city moat system will become part of the public waterway network reconstruction of the three gates on the south of the city's central axis (and possibly all nine gates and three ...
Famous quotes containing the word city:
Notice how he has numbered the blue veins
in my breast. Moreover there are ten freckles.
Now he goes left. Now he goes right.
He is building a city, a city of flesh.
He’s an industrialist.
Anne Sexton (1928–1974)
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Ashvamedha Yagna – A Display of Power in Vedic Times
The Ashvamedha or Horse Sacrifice was an important ritual of Vedic religion. The king who organized the sacrifice was considered as very powerful. In this sacrifice a horse was left loose to go freely anywhere. It was followed by soldiers of the king performing the sacrifice. It was considered that if the horse entered in another king’s kingdom then either that king must stop the horse or to let it move forward. If the king allowed the horse to continue walking then automatically it was assumed that the king of that province has surrendered before prime powerful king and that he thinks that the king performing the ritual is stronger than him.
On the other hand, if the other king stops the horse then he has to clash with the prime king’s army. If the king who stops the horse loses then ritual continues and that province also comes under the king performing ashvamedha.
When the horse came back then it was given a bath before being sacrificed. Finally, the horse was slaughtered.
Ashvamedha Yagna
“A very interesting story is associated with this ritual. Rama, the Lord of Hindus performed this ritual. At that time, Sita was living in jungle with her two sons Luv and Kush. When the horse reached Chitrakoot, a place in Uttar Pradesh, Luv and Kush stopped the horse. On hearing such news Rama’s brothers Lakshman, Shatrugan and Bharat came one by one and fought with them. But unfortunately, they all lost from these two little kids. When in the end Rama came to battle out the issue suddenly Sita came in front and told him that they are his sons. After hearing this Rama asked for forgiveness from Sita and asked her to come back with him. But Sita refused and disappeared into the earth.”
Luv and Kush went with their father to Ayodhya.
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"Poisonous" does not mean deadly. Some manifestations of toxicity are subtle. The dose, as always, determines if a plant is safe source of nutrients or a toxic hazard.
Cyanide eating Bamboo Lemurs live to tell the tale...
Madagascar, an island off the southeast coast of Africa, is home to the group of primates known as the lemurs. Unique to Madagascar, these animals are thought to resemble the primitive ancestor of today's monkeys and apes. There are over 35 species of lemur living in Madagascar, inhabitaing a variety of natural habitats, from rainforest to desert like plains. Among these are the genus Hapalemur or the Bamboo lemurs. There are three species of Bamboo lemurs: the Greater Bamboo Lemur (H. simus), three subspecies of the Lesser or Gentle Bamboo Lemur, (H. griseus), and the Golden Bamboo Lemur, (H. aureus), who has the dubious honor of being the world's most recently discovered primate, having been found by Dr. Patricia Wright of SUNY Stonybrook in 1984.
These three sympatric species inhabit the same habitat and feed on the same bamboo species, Cephalostachyum cf viguieri and C. perrieri. How then is major competition avoided? It turns out that each species eats a different part of the bamboo. H. simus prefers the woody pulp and culms of C. cf. viguieri, while H. griseus eats the leaf bases of both species and selects the shoots of C. perrieri. H. aureus meanwhile eats only the shoots of C. cf. viguieri. The question then arises, what prevents the H. griseus from encroaching on the territory of their cousins by eating the shoots of both bamboo species?
The answer is simple: cyanide. The shoots of C. cf. viguieri contain 15 mg of cyanide per 100 g of fresh weight. The H. griseus stay away from the shoots of this plant because they are highly toxic. On the other hand, the Golden Bamboo Lemur eats an average of 500 g of this cyanide laden bamboo every day, thus intaking an estimated 12 times the toxic dose for a primate of its body mass. Unfortunately, the mechanism H. aureus uses to detoxify this poison is as yet unknown. However, large amounts of cyanide have been measured in the feces which are the food source specifically selected by a species of dung beetle who seems to have co-evolved with the Golden bamboo Lemur.
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Kapitel 2 › Einheit 2: Chapter 2 Journal Activity Aufgabe einblenden Aufgabe ausblenden
Chapter 2 Journal Activity
We Simply Don't Know
0 Kommentare
The easiest question to answer is when Stonehenge was constructed. We discovered this with relative ease and concluded it started about 5,000 years ago. The Neolithic people who lived in the area commenced the construction and further developments took place over the years. When questioning how it was built, we have no concrete evidence surrounding the subject. Pits dug at the base of the stones with a leverage system is believed to be the most accepted theory, yet we simply don't know. Another issue is how the stones were transported from other areas. Some from Wales and some from just slightly north - they still posed great difficulty to transport. When determining why they were built, we think that it was for religious reasons and possible links to certain times within the year.
However, none of the so called "evidence" we have, actually provides us with conclusive answers to any of these questions.
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Evolution—and skill—help hefty hummingbirds stay spry
Magnificent hummingbird (Eugenes fulgens). Photo: Paolo Segre.
Evolved differences in muscle power and wing size—along with a touch of skill—govern hummingbirds’ inflight agility, according to new research in Science.
“Studies of bats, birds and other animals show that increases in body mass can have a detrimental effect on many aspects of flight,” says Roslyn Dakin, co-lead author on the study.
Dakin, study co-lead Paolo Segre and senior author Douglas Altshuler used sophisticated video capture and a novel geometrical framework to determine how maneuverability relates to differences in physiology—notoriously difficult relationships to quantify.
They found that acceleration is primarily driven by a bird’s muscle capacity, whereas maneuvers involving rotations are driven primarily by wing size. But skill also plays a role.
“The hummingbirds tend to play to their strengths, especially with complex moves,” says Altshuler. “For example, species that have the ability to power through turns tend to use more arcing trajectories, and they shy away from performing turns in which they decelerate to turn on a dime.”
“We recorded over 330,000 maneuvers, including many repeated maneuvers for each bird,” says Segre, now a postdoctoral researcher at Stanford University. “Capturing that much data was a challenge. Our first field site was at a biological reserve deep in the Peruvian Amazon, an area with many species of hummingbirds, but only accessible by boat. We ran our computers and cameras using solar panels and generators in a thatched hut with strategically placed rain buckets!”
Hummingbirds vary greatly in body mass and wing shape—and many species have evolved to perform at high elevation where the air density is low. That variety offers researchers a great opportunity to study how traits relate to agility in flight, says Dakin.
“We recorded over 330,000 maneuvers, including many repeated maneuvers for each bird.”
Chris Balma
c 604-202-5047
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Learning Outcomes
• Distinguish between spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes
• Describe the dispersal of matter and energy that accompanies certain spontaneous processes
In this section, consider the differences between two types of changes in a system: Those that occur spontaneously and those that occur by force. In doing so, we’ll gain an understanding as to why some systems are naturally inclined to change in one direction under certain conditions and how relatively quickly or slowly that natural change proceeds. We’ll also gain insight into how the spontaneity of a process affects the distribution of energy and matter within the system.
Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes
Processes have a natural tendency to occur in one direction under a given set of conditions. Water will naturally flow downhill, but uphill flow requires outside intervention such as the use of a pump. Iron exposed to the earth’s atmosphere will corrode, but rust is not converted to iron without intentional chemical treatment. A spontaneous process is one that occurs naturally under certain conditions. A nonspontaneous process, on the other hand, will not take place unless it is “driven” by the continual input of energy from an external source. A process that is spontaneous in one direction under a particular set of conditions is nonspontaneous in the reverse direction. At room temperature and typical atmospheric pressure, for example, ice will spontaneously melt, but water will not spontaneously freeze.
The spontaneity of a process is not correlated to the speed of the process. A spontaneous change may be so rapid that it is essentially instantaneous or so slow that it cannot be observed over any practical period of time. To illustrate this concept, consider the decay of radioactive isotopes, a topic more thoroughly treated in the chapter on nuclear chemistry. Radioactive decay is by definition a spontaneous process in which the nuclei of unstable isotopes emit radiation as they are converted to more stable nuclei. All the decay processes occur spontaneously, but the rates at which different isotopes decay vary widely. Technetium-99m is a popular radioisotope for medical imaging studies that undergoes relatively rapid decay and exhibits a half-life of about six hours. Uranium-238 is the most abundant isotope of uranium, and its decay occurs much more slowly, exhibiting a half-life of more than four billion years (Figure 1).
A graph of two lines is shown where the y-axis is labeled, “amount of isotope remaining ( percent sign ),” and has values zero through one hundred, in increments of ten, written along the axis. The x-axis is labeled, “time ( days )” and has values zero through seven, in increments of one, written along the axis. The first graph, drawn with a blue line, begins at the top left value of one hundred on the y-axis and zero on the x-axis and falls steeply over the first three minutes, then the graphed line becomes almost horizontal until it reaches seven minutes on the x-axis. The second graph, drawn in red, begins at the same point as the first, but remains perfectly horizontal with no change along the y-axis. A legend labels the red line as, “U dash 238,” and the blue line as,
Figure 1. Both U-238 and Tc-99m undergo spontaneous radioactive decay, but at drastically different rates. Over the course of one week, essentially all of a Tc-99m sample and none of a U-238 sample will have decayed.
As another example, consider the conversion of diamond into graphite (Figure 2).
[latex]\text{C}\left(s,\text{diamond}\right)\longrightarrow \text{C}\left(s,\text{graphite}\right)[/latex]
The phase diagram for carbon indicates that graphite is the stable form of this element under ambient atmospheric pressure, while diamond is the stable allotrope at very high pressures, such as those present during its geologic formation. Thermodynamic calculations of the sort described in the last section of this chapter indicate that the conversion of diamond to graphite at ambient pressure occurs spontaneously, yet diamonds are observed to exist, and persist, under these conditions. Though the process is spontaneous under typical ambient conditions, its rate is extremely slow, and so for all practical purposes diamonds are indeed “forever.” Situations such as these emphasize the important distinction between the thermodynamic and the kinetic aspects of a process. In this particular case, diamonds are said to be thermodynamically unstable but kinetically stable under ambient conditions.
Two pairs of images are shown. The left pair, labeled, “C, ( diamond ),” has a picture of a diamond held by a pair of plyers and a diagram of the molecular arrangement. The second pair, labeled, “C ( graphite ),” has a picture of a large, black, slightly shiny rock and a diagram of four sheets composed of many atoms arranged in large squares in a stacked arrangement with space between each.
Figure 2. The conversion of carbon from the diamond allotrope to the graphite allotrope is spontaneous at ambient pressure, but its rate is immeasurably slow at low to moderate temperatures. This process is known as graphitization, and its rate can be increased to easily measurable values at temperatures in the 1000–2000 K range. (credit “diamond” photo: modification of work by “Fancy Diamonds”/Flikr; credit “graphite” photo: modificaton of work by images-of-elements.com/carbon.php)
Dispersal of Matter and Energy
As we extend our discussion of thermodynamic concepts toward the objective of predicting spontaneity, consider now an isolated system consisting of two flasks connected with a closed valve. Initially there is an ideal gas on the left and a vacuum on the right (Figure 3). When the valve is opened, the gas spontaneously expands to fill both flasks. Recalling the definition of pressure-volume work from the chapter on thermochemistry, note that no work has been done because the pressure in a vacuum is zero.
[latex]w=-P\Delta V=0\qquad\left(P=0\text{ in a vaccum}\right)[/latex]
Note as well that since the system is isolated, no heat has been exchanged with the surroundings (q = 0). The first law of thermodynamics confirms that there has been no change in the system’s internal energy as a result of this process.
[latex]\Delta U=q+w=0+0=0[/latex]
The spontaneity of this process is therefore not a consequence of any change in energy that accompanies the process. Instead, the driving force appears to be related to the greater, more uniform dispersal of matter that results when the gas is allowed to expand. Initially, the system was comprised of one flask containing matter and another flask containing nothing. After the spontaneous process took place, the matter was distributed both more widely (occupying twice its original volume) and more uniformly (present in equal amounts in each flask).
A diagram shows two two-sided flasks connected by a right-facing arrow labeled “Spontaneous” and a left-facing arrow labeled “Nonspontaneous.” Each pair of flasks are connected to one another by a tube with a stopcock. In the left pair of flasks, the left flask contains thirty particles evenly dispersed while the right flask contains nothing and the stopcock is closed. The right pair of flasks has an open stopcock and equal numbers of particles in both flasks.
Figure 3. An isolated system consists of an ideal gas in one flask that is connected by a closed valve to a second flask containing a vacuum. Once the valve is opened, the gas spontaneously becomes evenly distributed between the flasks.
Now consider two objects at different temperatures: object X at temperature TX and object Y at temperature TY, with TX > TY (Figure 4). When these objects come into contact, heat spontaneously flows from the hotter object (X) to the colder one (Y). This corresponds to a loss of thermal energy by X and a gain of thermal energy by Y.
[latex]{q}_{\text{X}}<0\qquad\text{ and }\qquad{q}_{\text{Y}}=-{q}_{\text{X}}>0[/latex]
From the perspective of this two-object system, there was no net gain or loss of thermal energy, rather the available thermal energy was redistributed among the two objects. This spontaneous process resulted in a more uniform dispersal of energy.
Two diagrams are shown. The left diagram is comprised of two separated squares; the left is red and labeled “X” and the right is blue and labeled “Y.” Below this diagram is the label “T subscript X, a greater than sign, T subscript Y.” The right diagram shows the boxes next to one another, shaded red on the left, blue on the right, and blended red and blue together in the middle. The left box is red and labeled “X,” the right is blue and labeled “Y” and a right-facing arrow labeled “Heat” is written above them. Below this diagram is the label “X and Y in contact.
Figure 4. When two objects at different temperatures come in contact, heat spontaneously flows from the hotter to the colder object.
As illustrated by the two processes described, an important factor in determining the spontaneity of a process is the extent to which it changes the dispersal or distribution of matter and/or energy. In each case, a spontaneous process took place that resulted in a more uniform distribution of matter or energy.
Example 1: Redistribution of Matter during a Spontaneous Process
Describe how matter is redistributed when the following spontaneous processes take place:
1. A solid sublimes.
2. A gas condenses.
3. A drop of food coloring added to a glass of water forms a solution with uniform color.
This figure has three photos labeled, “a,” “b,” and “c.” Photo a shows a glass with a solid in water. There is steam or smoke coming from the top of the glass. Photo b shows the bottom half of a glass with water sticking to its outside surface. Photo c shows three images of the same container. The first shows a clear liquid in the container. The second shows a red liquid mixing with the clear liquid in the container. The third shows a red liquid.
Figure 5. (credit a: modification of work by Jenny Downing; credit b: modification of work by “Fuzzy Gerdes”/Flickr; credit c: modification of work by Paul A. Flowers)
Check Your Learning
Describe how energy is redistributed when a spoon at room temperature is placed in a cup of hot coffee.
Key Concepts and Summary
Chemical and physical processes have a natural tendency to occur in one direction under certain conditions. A spontaneous process occurs without the need for a continual input of energy from some external source, while a nonspontaneous process requires such. Systems undergoing a spontaneous process may or may not experience a gain or loss of energy, but they will experience a change in the way matter and/or energy is distributed within the system.
Try It
1. What is a spontaneous reaction?
2. What is a nonspontaneous reaction?
3. Indicate whether the following processes are spontaneous or nonspontaneous.
1. Liquid water freezing at a temperature below its freezing point
2. Liquid water freezing at a temperature above its freezing point
3. The combustion of gasoline
4. A ball thrown into the air
5. A raindrop falling to the ground
6. Iron rusting in a moist atmosphere
4. A helium-filled balloon spontaneously deflates overnight as He atoms diffuse through the wall of the balloon. Describe the redistribution of matter and/or energy that accompanies this process.
5. Many plastic materials are organic polymers that contain carbon and hydrogen. The oxidation of these plastics in air to form carbon dioxide and water is a spontaneous process; however, plastic materials tend to persist in the environment. Explain.
nonspontaneous process: process that requires continual input of energy from an external source
spontaneous change: process that takes place without a continuous input of energy from an external source
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Any gift wrapping enthusiast knows that grabbing a pair of scissors to curl a few colorful strands of ribbon is a quick and easy way to put the final touch on a hand-wrapped present. But now, the BBC reports that scientists have finished the first complete physical study on ribbon curling, published in the journal PNAS, and discovered the principles at play when we use scissors to curl a ribbon.
To study the physics of ribbon curling, researchers draped a thin ribbon across a blade, wrapping one end around a cylinder and attaching the other to a weight. Researchers experimented with different weights, blades, and wrapping speeds, observing the ways the ribbon curled when they wound the cylinder faster or slower, used a sharper or duller blade, or used heavier or lighter weights.
They found that sharper blades and slower movements produced tighter curls. As the ribbon was pulled across the blade, its outermost side would begin to stretch and deform, while the side touching the blade would remain the same. This uneven stretching, scientists explain, is what caused the ribbon to curl. Sharper blades, the scientists found, increased the stretch in the ribbon, causing curls to form.
"The first part that's going to start to yield is the outermost part of the ribbon, because that's the point where the stress is going to be highest,” researcher Anne Juel told the BBC. “And then as you apply larger loads, the yield is going to infiltrate deeper and deeper inside the ribbon."
One of the most fascinating discoveries, however, was that increased tension on the ribbon only increased curling to a point. Once the stretching in the ribbon passed the halfway point within the ribbon and began to affect the side of the ribbon closest to the blade, curling effects were reduced. As Juel explained to the BBC: “The tightest curl will be obtained when you manage to apply a load that will bring yield to exactly half the thickness of the ribbon.”
While these findings may not have much of an impact on how you curl ribbons—if you’re a gift-wrapping expert, you probably already knew sharper scissors were better than dull ones for getting the perfect curls—it’s fascinating to learn the physics at play when we perform a task as simple as curling some ribbons for a present.
[h/t BBC]
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Question: What Is The ASTM Number?
What is ASTM stands for?
the American Society for Testing and MaterialsThe letters “ASTM” used to stand for the American Society for Testing and Materials..
What are the 5 types of standards recognized by ASTM?
ASTM stands for the American Society for Testing and Materials and has created six types of standards that relate to manufacturing processes such as testing, materials classification and operation. The six types are test method, specification, classification, practice, guide and terminology standards.
What is ASTM grade?
What are ASTM Grades? ASTM standards define the specific manufacturing process of the material and determine the exact chemical composition of pipes, fittings and flanges, through percentages of the permitted quantities of carbon, magnesium, nickel, etc., and are indicated by “Grade”.
Why is ASTM important?
ASTM helps to ensure that only quality, raw materials are used to produce bearings and other industrial goods. The standards are highly-regarded throughout the plastic supply chain.
What is ASTM test method?
ASTM test methods are petroleum industry standards, accepted worldwide for quality and reliability. ASTM test methods for petroleum and refined products include: Petroleum and Petrochemical Test Directory. ASTM Tests for Petroleum, Fuels and Petrochemicals.
What is Grade C pipe?
The ASTM A106 Grade C Pipe is carbon steel pipes used for the high pressure and high temperature applications.
How do you read ASTM numbers?
Every ASTM standard is identified by a unique designation. It includes a capital letter (A – H), followed by a serial number ranging from one to four digits, a dash, and finally the year of issue.
What does ASTM a36 mean?
A36 Steel is the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) designation for carbon steel. ASTM A36 steel is the most common type of steel used in construction. Its properties allow the steel to be used in many applications, unlike higher-performance alloys.
Why are engineering standards important?
The purpose of developing and adhering to standards is to ensure minimum performance, meet safety requirements, make sure that the product/system/process is consistent and repeatable, and provide for interfacing with other standard-compliant equipment (ensure compatibility). …
What does ASTM d4236 mean?
All art supplies sold in the US must bear the phrase, “conforms to ASTM D 4236,” confirming that they have been properly labeled for chronic health hazards, in accordance with the federal Labeling Hazardous Art Materials Act (LHAMA). … Any art material evaluated by ACMI will bear one of the organization’s seals.
What is ASME and ASTM?
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) issues standards on material properties and testing. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), meanwhile, specifies standards for materials to be used in construction and infrastructure.
Where are ASTM standards used?
ASTM standards are used and accepted worldwide and cover areas such as metals, paints, plastics, textiles, petroleum, construction, energy, the environment, consumer products, medical services, devices and electronics, advanced materials and much more.
What is an ASTM number?
What is the difference between ASTM and ISO?
ASTM is a national organization that is a part of ISO organizations. ISO is an international organization that has representations from all countries including ASTM. ISO establishes documents and updates the standards of testing materials with global consensus from the experts of the associated national organizations.
What does it mean when an ASTM standard is withdrawn?
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(Gaspar) Yanga
A statute of (Gaspar) Yanga, erected in the modern day town of Yanga, Veracruz, México [public domain].
Although today known as El Primer Libertador de America (the first liberator of the Americas), (Gaspar) Yanga is an often-overlooked freedom fighter in the histories of enslavement* in the Americas. Captured and sold into enslavement in what at the time was referred to as New Spain, today known as México, Yanga became known to the Spanish settlers as Gaspar Yanga.
According to the folkloric history of Yanga’s life, he was born in West Africa to a royal family. He was captured, enslaved, forced to endure the Middle Passage journey across the Atlantic Ocean, and eventually made to work as an enslaved worker in the sugarcane labour camps* of Veracruz, New Spain (modern day Veracruz, México). In the year 1570, Yanga led a revolt with other enslaved African peoples, leading to his escape and the settling of a maroon mountain colony.
Yanga and his community lived free of European enslavement for near forty years, disrupting the trade routes established along el Camino Real between Veracruz and la Ciudad de México throughout this time. Eventually, the threat that a community of free Africans posed to not only the individual communities of Spanish settlers but the entire system of chattel slavery in the area became too strong, in the eyes of the Spanish-controlled government of New Spain. The Spanish, as an attempt to maintain “order” in the area, established the town of Córdoba near Yanga’s self-governing maroon colony.
In 1609, a Spanish militia was sent to destroy Yanga’s community. Instead, they were defeated. Following the defeat of the Spanish militia, yet another group of Spaniards was sent to defeat Yanga – who instead offered to make peace so long as the Spanish meet his eleven demands. The most important of these demands were that recognition of free status be granted to all of the residents in Yanga’s community prior to 1608; that Yanga’s community was a legal, self-governing settlement; and that no Spaniards were welcome in the community. Following years of negotiations, San Lorenzo de Los Negros was established as a town in 1618 that would pay tribute to the Spanish Crown. Eventually, San Lorenzo de Los Negros was renamed Yanga, after the African freedom fighter (Gaspar) Yanga. The town of Yanga still stands today, with a statute erected in his honour.
Yanga’s fate, along with the fates of his community members, following 1618 is unknown. But his importance as an African who was enslaved in New Spain (México) and fought for (and won!) his freedom is critical to the intertwined colonial histories of the Americas, Africa, and Europe. Yanga demonstrates the importance of the African diaspora in the shaping of modern day México. He shatters the mythology that it is only Indigenous and European influences that inform México’s rich cultural and revolutionary political traditions.
~ Monique
* Monique does not use the terms “slavery,” “slave,” or “plantation.” Instead, she uses the terms “enslavement,” “enslaved,” and “labour camp” in order to serve as a reminder of the continuous acts that constituted the centuries-long enslavement of African peoples in the Americas. By eschewing more passive words such as “slavery” for “enslavement,” the active, continual choice to enslave people is forcibly brought to the surface of historical discourse surrounding these attempts at dehumanization and injustice. For further reading on the importance of linguistic choices when writing history, see Michael Todd Landis’s freely accessible article “These Are Words Scholars Should No Longer Use to Describe Slavery and the Civil War,” found here: http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/160266.
Black Past. “Yanga, Gaspar (c. 1545- ?).” http://www.blackpast.org/gah/yanga-gaspar-c-1545.
Landers, Jane G. “Cimarrón and Citizen: African Ethnicity, Corporate Identity, and the Evolution of Free Black Towns in the Spanish Circum-Caribbean,” in Jane Lander and Barry Robinson, eds., Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.
Rowell, Charles Henry. “‘El Primer Libertador de las Americas’/The First Liberator of the Americas: The Editor’s Notes.” Callaloo 31.1 (Winter 2008): 1-11, 181- 192.
(Gaspar) Yanga
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The Battle of Monte Cassino and the Breaking of the Gustav Line
The main fixture of these nearly insurmountable defenses that General Sir Harold Alexander, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies in Italy threw the bulk of his troops towards was at Monte Cassino. Atop a disparagingly steep mountain, hundreds of meters above the town of Cassino and dominating the entrances to the Liri and Rapido valleys, sits the abbey of Monte Cassino, founded in 526 AD.
This position, and the numerous other dug in, hilltop German positions around it, had to be taken. To the Northeast, though the British had broken through the Gustav line at the coastal city of Ortona, bad winter weather, rugged terrain, and more German defenses caused the advance to Rome from that direction to be abandoned. Though Highway 7 ran up the West coast straight to Rome, it went through the Pontine Marshes, which the Germans flooded.
The only road left to reach Rome was Highway 6, which ran straight through the Liri Valley and was one of the most strongly and strategically defended points in Europe.
Alexander’s mission was to draw as much of Germany’s forces to this area of the Gustav line as he could, in preparation for the huge assault being prepared for Normandy on D-Day. Though it cost the lives of over 55,000 troops, the strategy worked. The attrition of German troops through the months of fighting had Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the German Commander-in-Chief in Italy, continuously sending in more troops to reinforce the positions, losing 20,000 by the end of the long battle.
The battle of Monte Cassino happened in four major phases, the Allies finally overrunning the Liri valley, the mountains and hills around it, and ancient abbey. It lasted from January 17th, until May 18. Rome was captured less than a month later, just two days before D-Day.
German defensive lines in Southern Italy which were all taken by Allied Forces between Sept. 1943 and May 1944. Cassino can be seen on the southern end of the Gustav line (drawn in red). By Stephen Kirrage – CC BY-SA 3.0
Interestingly enough, though the battle was named after the abbey and the abbey was both well positioned to see almost any Allied advance and built strong enough to fend off the same, Kesselring had not positioned any troops there. He did this for the same reason he put defensive lines North and South of Rome but didn’t wish to battle in the city. He was very attached to the idea of preserving antiquity and didn’t think the ancient monastery should be part of the fighting.
For almost all of 1944 prior to the D-Day landings on June 6th, the Allied force moving up the Western side of the Italian peninsula fought to break the German position held on the Gustav line. This line was an exceedingly well-prepared series of defensive points running from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Adriatic Sea at the Southern reach of Italy’s central mountains.
Two German officers, Captain Maximilian Becker and Lieutenant Colonel Julius Schlegel, had, by November 1943, proposed and seen to the removal of precious manuscripts, artifacts, and art from the monastery. It took three weeks and over 100 truck loads, but, working with the Vatican, they managed to remove all the old treasures from harms way, moving most of them to the Vatican and Castel Sant’Angelo, also run by the Roman Catholic Church.
An incapacitated Sherman tank outside Cassino with the daunting mountain terrain held by the German Army in the background.
Despite no German position in the abbey (they were entrenched in the hillside directly around it), many Allied officers were convinced they must have been in there, due to the German’s highly accurate artillery strikes. The Abbey did, after all, offer the perfect view of and stronghold in the whole area.
After the disastrous first battle, trying to take ground from the German’s in the rough terrain and the town below, the 34th Division of the U.S. II Corps alone losing 2,200 men (80% of their comrades), the decision was made to destroy the abbey. On February 15th, 1944, 142 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers and 47 North American B-25 Mitchell and 40 Martin B-26 Marauder medium bombers dropped 1,150 tons of explosives and reduced the abbey to rubble.
The only people in the monastery at the time of the bombings were monks and Italian citizen seeking refuge. Two hundred and thirty people were killed and the Vatican was outraged.
A B-17 bombing Monte Cassino Abbey, Feb. 15, 1944
Furthermore, with preserving the antiquity of the place already out of the question, the German troops occupied the ruins and made an, even more, formidable position.
Much of this very long struggle can be summed up by a series of Allied pushes being halted, turned, back or cut-off by the massive obstacle that was the German positions on such rugged, easily defended terrain and in winter and rainy spring conditions. Indeed, it was really only through hammering the German divisions, again and again, sacrificing tens of thousands of troops; the Allies were able to break through. This, finally, happened when they had built up their attacking forces for several weeks, undetected, surprising the Germans with a far more massive force than they expected.
The entirely of the months-long battle was a monumental effort. The Allied force was comprised of troops from the U.S., Canada, Britain, New Zealand, Australia, Morocco, South Africa, Poland, Italy, India, Nepal, and others. All suffered great losses. Many of these nations, as well as Germany, have cemeteries and memorials to the fallen around Monte Cassino.
A Polish Soldier playing the bugle in victory after taking Monte Cassino.
The Polish troops were the first to take the abbey on Monte Cassino on May 18th. The Germans, their supply lines threatened as the Liri valley was overrun, had retreated under cover of darkness the previous night.
The valley had been taken in large part do to the effort of Moroccan troops in the French Expeditionary Corps. They were called Goumiers and specialized in mountain warfare. On May 14th, they traveled through areas on the West side of the Liri valley the Germans had left undefended because they thought it impossible to move through. They assisted the British XIII Corps fighting up the Liri valley below and flanked the German position.
German troops captured by the New Zealanders at Cassino being held beside a Sherman tank.
German troops captured by the New Zealanders at Cassino being held beside a Sherman tank. By Bundesarchiv – CC BY-SA 3.0 de
Tragically, these same troops, after they broke though the German line that day in May, moved through the Italian countryside killing and raping citizen. Reports of these horrific events claim that 800 men were killed defending their families and neighbors and more than 7,000 women, and children were raped.
In truth, the only indicator for a victory in this battle was that the Gustav line fell. In the battle of Monte Cassino and the subsequent fight for Rome in the following weeks, the Allies lost over 100,000 men. Kesselring knew from the beginning of the Allied invasion of Italy that his fight would, at best, be a slow, agonizing withdrawal. By the end of the Italian campaign, the Germans had lost almost 250,000 troops killed, missing or captured and the Allies had well over 330,000 casualties.
By Colin Fraser for War History Online
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原创翻译：龙腾网 http://www.ltaaa.com 翻译：yzy86 转载请注明出处
The Australian government recently released a list of documented thylacine—also known as the Tasmanian tiger or Tasmanian wolf—sightings.
The thylacine was thought to be extinct for the past eight decades and has yet to be officially spotted since the last one in captivity died in the early 1930s.
If the sightings are indeed accurate, then thylacines can add another skill to their résumés: masters of mystery and concealment considering that the last known living Tasmanian tiger died in captivity in the fall of 1936.
Native to the island state of Tasmania, thylacines have earned near mythical status as they remain to be officially documented but are constantly being seen by Tasmanian locals and visitors alike.
Thylacines look like a mix between a large cat and medium sized dog with fur that varies between a yellowish tan and plain brown. The creatures are carnivores with strong jaws and both males and females have a pouch in which they hold their babies, like other marsupials like the kangaroo.
Although there is no official reason for the extinction of the thylacine, it''s likely that their numbers dwindled after being extensively hunted by humans and dealing with increased competition from a growing dingo population.
If it turns out that thylacines actually have gone extinct, there''s still hope for those who wish to see one; the Australian Museum replicated thylacine DNA back in 2002, making it potentially possible to bring the mysterious creature back to life.
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Using Our Senses
Herbs are stimulating natural elements used for children’s hands-on learning. Using herbs children have the opportunity to apply their senses to explore not only the properties of the plants, but to understand the richness of the natural and physical world around them. Herbs encompass a multitude of possibilities to the approaches to learning as it relates to science, mathematics, language, and sensory development.
Classroom Setting
Sensory Activity
Focus of Activity:
Activity focused on stimulating senses and cognitive development.
Curricular Areas:
• Creative Expression
• Problem-Solving
• Cognitive Development
• Sensory Stimulation
1. Using ice cube trays encourage children to fill each section with different herbs. Have children fill them with water until the herbs are completely submerged. Encourage children to count out how many herbs they put in each section of the ice trays and/or encourage them to create patterns to enhance their mathematics skills and development.
2. Place tray(s) in freezer or outdoors if temperature permits, allowing tray(s) to freeze completely.
3. Once frozen take ice cubes out of the freezer and place them in plastic bowls filled with water. Invite children to mix different herbs in one bowl or sort herbs together by their plant species.
4. Encourage children to melt iced herbs by rubbing them between their hands.
5. Within a group setting engage in open discussion. Focus questions that encourage math, science, cognitive and language skills.
a. “How cold are the ice cubes?”
b. “Do they have different smells”?
c. “What do you smell?”
• Ice cube trays
• Variety of fragrant herbs
• Bowls
• Water
• Cup or pitcher.
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What is meant by a nucellus in gymnosperms?please Explain.
Nucellus (megasporangium) is the central part of ovule, enclosed within integuments in the seed producing plants ( gymnosperms and angiosperms). Its one of the cell ( diploid cell) act as megaspore mother cell to form megaspores through meiosis. Functional megapore form female gametophyte ( embryo sac) inside nucellus.
• 1
What are you looking for?
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"url": "https://www.meritnation.com/ask-answer/question/what-is-meant-by-a-nucellus-in-gymnosperms-please-explain/plant-kingdom/7866173"
}
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Effigy figure on a ceramic pipe
Photography by MarkZelinski.com
Effigy figure on ceramic pipe shard reveals emergence of Indigenous artistic expression in the Niagara Region. In addition to this rendering of a human face, other figures often represented powerful animal symbols, such as turtles or salamanders, which could move between the realms of water and land, or various birds, which could move between the realms of land and air.
Cultural History
Some 12,600 years after Indigenous peoples had set foot in Niagara, the first Europeans arrived in the 17th Century. They encountered a group called the Neutral Nation, a group of Indigenous people who populated this region living in bark-covered longhouses, planting corn and tobacco, and having developed a social order in which women played an important role. The largest group called themselves the Chonnonton (Keepers of the Deer). Another, the Onguiaahra (Near the Big Waters, The Strait, or The Neck), populated the southern Niagara Peninsula, and from which the region derives its name.
For both the Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse) and Anishinaabek (The People), whose later presence displaced the Neutral Nation, and for whom the region became important for hunting, trapping, and trading, Niagara Falls holds special significance as a natural world feature possessing great meaning and power. Both the beauty of Niagara Falls and its frightful connotations attracted visitors to this location, thereby transforming the Indigenous relationship to this place.
Among the Haudenosaunee, the people of the Seneca Nation (Onondowa-gah, Great Hill People) began visiting Niagara over 1,000 years ago, and fashioned stories about the falls as a place of power. They imagined a world of constant struggle between the forces of darkness represented by giant, horned, serpents that lived under the waters, and the benevolent Thunder Beings who lived behind the falls, who only ventured out whenever the serpents tried to rise to the surface to attack humans.
As the story is told, one such serpent, swimming up-stream, was fatally struck by a lightning bolt hurled by the Thunder Beings. Wounded, its huge body was carried by the current to the brink of the falls where it's horns and tail got caught on the rocks. As it died, the body grew rigid and solidified in the shape of an arch, thereby making the crescent-shaped falls.
When the French arrived in the 17th century, Niagara Falls was located about 100 metres to the north. Constant erosion has made the brink of the falls recede over the centuries. However, 13,000 years ago, when the first Indigenous peoples viewed the falls, it was located near where the present-day Lewiston-Queenston bridge spans the international border between Canada and the United States, a distance of approximately 9 kilometres from its current location!
Haudenosaunee oral tradition explains that as more and more travellers began to arrive, the Thunder Beings decided to leave their home behind the falls and head to the western mountains. However, they still return to this region, flying behind the dark thunderclouds and still cast their lightning arrows to the waters to keep the remaining serpents in check.
For the Anishinaabe (Ojibway) people, whose metanarrative recalls their odyssey from their original lands along the east coast west to Wisconsin, their sojourn in Niagara Falls is notable for three occurrences, the first two being conflict and peace with the Haudenosaunee. As recounted by Mississauga of the Credit First Nation historian Darin Wybenga, it was also during their stay at Niagara Falls that the Anishinaabe formed three distinct groups, each with particular responsibilities to the whole nation. "One group took the responsibility for the care of the sacred fire and is now known as the Potawatomi," states Wybenga. "A second group took responsibility for hunting and trade and became known as the Ottawa people. The third group, retained the name Anishinaabe (Ojibway), were the faith keepers of the people. Collectively, the three emergent nations are known as the Three Fires Confederacy."
Niagara Falls, as seen through French Jesuit eyes, was also an awe-inspiring sight. Perhaps this is why the newcomers created a fanciful story of the sacrifice of a beautiful maiden to the spirit of the falls. There is no evidence that the original peoples ever did such a thing. However, what became the "tourist" legend of the Maid of the Mist lived on for quite some time and can still be seen reflected in the souvenirs that were created around the myth.
There does exist an authentic Indigenous version, however, that emerges from Haudenosaunee oral tradition wherein Niagara Falls is seen as a symbol of power and home to the thunder beings, known for its healing energy. The traditional Seneca story of the Maid of the Mist reveals Niagara Falls as a special place capable of restoring mental and physical balance to a distraught young woman. Inherent in this authentic tale is the expression of a range of human and community dynamics, including everything from jealousy and maliciousness to empathy, compassion, honour, wisdom, and health and healing. The story is every bit as rich and evocative as the majestic geography of Niagara Falls and its environs might suggest.
Projectile point on a black canvas with a dime for reference
Photography by MarkZelinski.com
Nettling type projectile points are one of the earliest types of projectile points found in Ontario, ranging in age from 8,000 to 10,000 years old. This point was manufactured from Onondaga Formation chert, which is found along the northern shore of Lake Erie.
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Light distribution curve is a visual representation of the light diffused by a luminaire.
Types of light distribution:
• Symmetrical light distribution
In the figure below, you can see two lines radiate from the centre, a solid line and a dotted line. These lines indicate the light distribution and intensity from various angles. The solid line indicate the frontal view and the dotted line the side view. In the example below the two curves overlap. The light distribution is the same in the frontal view and in the side view. The two curves overlap on the right side of the chart, which is why dotted line is invisible.
• Asymmetrical light distribution
If you look straight at the luminaire, meaning if you position yourself along the 0-180 degree axis, you can find that the upward beam is spherical and the downward beam is split into two spherical planes, because of the inbuilt reflector. If you look at the luminaire from the side, you can find a spherical plane upwards and downwards. This means that the luminaire distributes the light evenly. The light distribution is measured from the centre of the luminaire.
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"url": "http://sodfos.com/how-to-interpret-a-light-distribution-curve/"
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DMPQ- What are the components of Components of Remote Sensing System?
Although, the remote sensing includes a wide array of technologies and types, but they all are based on certain common concepts with the same basic components. The basic components of remote sensing system are given below:
• Target
• Energy source
• Transmission path, and
• Sensor.
The target is the object or material being studied. All the components in the system work together, to measure and record the information about the target without making physical contact. The energy source illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target.
The energy interaction with the target depends on the target properties and the radiation. It also acts as a medium for transmitting the information from target to the sensor. The sensor is a remote device to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
Sensors are also used to measure the given-off energy or emitted energy by the target; reflected-off energy of the target; or transmitted energy from the target. After recording of energy, the resulting set of data is transmitted to the receiving station.
At receiving station, the data is processed to a usable format, i.e., in the form of image. The image is then interpreted to extract the informations about target. The interpretation of image can be done visually or electronically with the help of computers and image processing softwares.
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"url": "https://andhrapradesh.pscnotes.com/science-dmpq/dmpq-what-are-the-components-of-components-of-remote-sensing-system/"
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TT 13: Firehouse
In October 1871, a massive fire broke out in the city of Chicago, setting the city ablaze. The glow of the flames could be seen even from Naperville, 28 miles away. A week after the fire, a member of the Chicago Board of Public Works wrote to his brother: “Our beautiful city is in ruins. The greatest calamity that ever befell a city is upon us. Boastful Chicago lies prostrate and with outstretched arms in begging of her sister cities for relief.” Naperville residents eagerly responded to the call for aid. People went door to door soliciting food for the relief effort. The fire also sent a jarring message to Naperville: the town was fast outgrowing its bucket brigade. Even so, it took three years—and a large fire—before a modern fire pumper, named the “Little Joe Naper,” was purchased for $1,752.00. A Hook and Ladder Company, composed of a fire marshal and volunteers, was formed to operate the pumper. When the fire bell rang, the volunteers rushed to the firehouse, which was often just a shed or garage large enough to store the pumper. There, they harnessed the ropes on the side of the pumper to their shoulders and hauled it to the fire. The intake hose was hooked up to any nearby water source, perhaps a cistern, stream, or well. The outtake hose, pressurized from the hand pumping of the firemen, blasted out 250 gallons of water a minute—smothering flames with a force that no human chain of buckets passed hand-to-hand could match.
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• Sizes: 18″x24″ and 12″x16″
• Open Edition Art Print
• Epson Enhanced Matte Paper
• Archival Quality Ink Jet print – Because this artwork is printed when ordered please allow 3-5 for product to ship.
Say “Saturn” and the next word someone will probably say is “rings.” But all the outer planets of our solar system have rings, too, so why does Saturn get the glory? Saturn’s rings are the only ones visible from Earth without a powerful telescope. Even though you can see Jupiter without a telescope at all, no one spotted Jupiter’s rings until a space mission in 1979. Saturn’s rings have a more impressive radius than Jupiter’s, stretching about 165,000 miles further into space. Also, water ice and rock form Saturn’s rings—and some of those rocks are as big as mountains—while Jupiter’s rings are only dust.
Saturn’s rings are easy to see, but not easy to understand. Even though Pioneer 1 flew by Saturn in 1979, astronomers still don’t know how Saturn’s rings formed or how long the planet has had its famous rings.
Categories: , , , , , , Tags: ,
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"url": "https://2046printshop.com/shop/prints/art-print/saturn/"
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Community Web Version Now Available
What is the difference between yīngyǔ and yīngwén?? What is the difference between yīngyǔ and yīngwén?? thankyou
2016년 10월 12일 오후 9:02
Answers · 5
英语 是指语言 英文 是指文章
2016년 11월 1일
英語 spoken English 英文 literary English
2016년 10월 13일
語 simply means language. However, 文 is a term that means "civilization" or "to be civilized". Thus in Chinese philosophy, a civilized person is one with culture and education. This in turn defines the person who can speak, read and write his thoughts in a transmittable way from generation to generation. A 文人 is a cultured gentleman.
2016년 10월 12일
"Yingyu" is more like the language itself, is about the listening and speaking. "Yingwen" is more about the reading and writing language. It also includes the culture. But nowadays we don't have the strict line between the two words. "Yingyu" is more like oral language and we use it more often. There is no right or wrong about using these two words. Just depends on which one do you like.
2016년 10월 12일
Wait for a Chinese speaker or someone who speaks Chinese well, but from I understand, 语 (yǔ) is more about the spoken language (see the mouth "speaking" in the character) and the way people speak, whereas 文 (wén) typically refers to the writing system and the culture from a more academic point of view. However, it's not always that simple! Subtitles predictably use 文, but dictionaries use 语 to refer to the way people communicate in general. Both symbols are often interchangeable, but not in all cases.
2016년 10월 12일
Language Skills
Chinese (Mandarin), English, French, German, Italian
Learning Language
German, Italian
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"We don't see the microbe themselves but we large scale structures that the microbes constructed before they died," Wacey said.
Other life forms have been studied in the region before including microfossils of bacteria indicating the Pilbara region holds many clues to the early evolution of life.
The discovery "helps with our understanding of when life first evolved and what sort of environment it evolved in and putting firm dates on when some pretty important things happened," Wacey explained. "Ultimately, we are looking for when that soup of chemicals became something that could be called life."
The findings are published in the journal Astrobiology.
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"url": "https://www.elkratos.gr/search/label/LIFE"
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Photo History
Compose a written paper that includes the following:
A brief biography of the photographer, including birth and death dates, nationality, occupation, and places where the photographer's work was published
A discussion on the work, photographic styles, and approaches of the photographer
At least one visual example from photography, painting, or other media that was an influence on this photographer, as well as your interpretation of how the photographer was influenced by this artist or artwork
A discussion identifying the social, political, economic, or cultural influences of the work, as related to the time period
A description of how the photographer's work is different from that of his or her peers in style or approach and how he or she exemplifies fine art photography
Locate three examples of images by your photographer. Embed copies of the images in your paper and cite the source. Critique all the three images using the “describe, interpret, and evaluate” method.
Look in the later chapters of your textbook or conduct an Internet search. Find at least one contemporary artist who cites your historical photographer as an innovator or influence. Make connections between the contemporary photographer and the historical one by discussing the similarities and differences in the work. Embed at least one image by the contemporary photographer and cite the source.
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"url": "http://www.academicwritingmasters.com/2015/08/26/photo-historycompose-a-written-paper-that-includes-the-followinga-brief-biography-of-the-photographer-including-birth-and-death-dates-nationality-occupation-and-places-where-the-photographer/"
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• An RFID system is made up of two parts: a tag or label and a reader. RFID tags or labels are embedded with a transmitter and a receiver. The RFID component on the tags have two parts: a microchip that stores and processes information, and an antenna to receive and transmit a signal. The tag contains the specific serial number for one specific object.
• To read the information encoded on a tag, a two-way radio transmitter-receiver called an interrogator or reader emits a signal to the tag using an antenna. The tag responds with the information written in its memory bank. The interrogator will then transmit the read results to an RFID computer program.. LPR, Port Automation, Gate Automation, Terminal planning, SMART ports, Port machinery, Container management systems, TOS (Terminal Operating System), OCR
images (4)
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Causes of the black death
There are distinct deduces as to why the Romans chose London as a residuum these apprehend plant, the Romans were laudpowerful constructors consequently they needed a enlightened quantity of plant to build their Empire. Another deduce was that they noticed a large stream (now unreserved as the Large stream Thames). The Romans realised that this large stream could be exceedingly accelerationful in sundry ways such as insinuate for enlargement and exercise, ecstasy to get from one residuum to another and for exchange, after a while the large stream ships from all aggravate the cosmos-tribe would be powerful to appropinquation this object to exchange a abnormity of things for case silver to effect jewellery and coins, wool to effect vestments, they besides qualitative silk from China to propriety dress and sundry past. By importing commodities from other countries the Romans were powerful to establish their standards of food and enjoy sundry luxuries. In closely 50AD the Romans designated London 'Londinium'. Londinium was crowned principal of Engplant there were two main deduces for this gone the Large stream Thames was in London for exchanges stationary hereafter in, and owing they had a hale guiltlessness in Londinium as they fixed in the north bank of the Large stream Thames where two hills protected them which gave them ameliorate possibilities in war. It was vital for the Romans to enjoy a radiant guiltlessness owing there were stationary Celtics roving environing who were frequently intricate to win tail plant after a while unfeeling validity such as the assault of Queen Boudicca in 61 AD who burnt Londinium to the reason she was pictorial as: "Very towering, the glance of her eye most fierce; her expression gruff. A noble magnitude of the reddest hair prostrate down to her hips. Her manifestatlon was terrible." By the 1300s London's population had aged to 80,000 sundry things had progressive London was a progressing city. In the 1300s there were a abnormity deduces tribe firm to adregular in London. London was an endly city after a while sundry agreeable buildings, there were lots of pursuit availpowerful for all such as farming, tannery instituted, fishing and past, for nourishment there were hundreds of theatres to scrutinize, there were unnumbered calculate of Cathedrals to scrutinize and London had unconstrained ecstasy owing of the Large stream Thames along after a while the London Bridge. Medieval London was made up of straightened and crooked streets, and the superiority of buildings were made from very flammpowerful materials such as cope and straw, which made person a firm intimidation. Hygiene in London was awfully bald tribe weren't cognizant environing their soundness they got rid of refuse anyhow they threw out their attenuate after a whileout caring where it prostrate. The issues would enjoy had none of the things we confirm as recognized today - no floating insinuate, no toilets, no baths and washing basins. Soap was unheard of and as was shampoo. People would enjoy been dressed after a while uncleanness, fleas and lice. Beds were merely straw stuffed mattresses and these would enjoy attracted lice, fleas and all characters of bugs. Bathing would be honorable plain for the affluent, affluent tribe authority enjoy had a bath a few times a year! Your toilet would enjoy been a copeen bucket which would enjoy been emptied into the direct large stream at the set-on-foot of the day your insinuate furnish would besides end from the similar large stream. Families would enjoy adept and slept in the similar extent. Children would enjoy slept in a loft if the cruck issue was big plenty. At death, any carnal you owned would be brought internally for ease. There were a calculate of deduces for this. First, undomesticated carnals roamed the countryside. Engplant stationary had wolves and bears in the forests and these could easily enjoy enslaved a pig, cow or chickens. The mislaying of any carnal could be a difficulty but the mislaying of valupowerful carnals such as an ox would be a reverse. If left delayout at death they could besides enjoy been stolen or merely enjoy wandered off. If they were internally your issue, none of these would occur and they were secured. However, they must enjoy made the issue plain past uncleannessy than it usually would enjoy been as none of these carnals would enjoy been issue-trained. They would enjoy besides brought in fleas and flies etc. increasing the unhygienic constitution of the issue. Some of the residuum circumstanceors tribe would behold for in the fourteenth seniority were high-quality pursuit offered for all such as such as bakery, leatherworking, blacksmithing, carpenters, armourers, bowyers/fletchers and swordsmithing. Tribe chose settles which beholded eye-catching and there was an enjoypowerful settle to scrutinize and Tribe would neglect ameliorate and improved ecstasy as courteous as radiant ease and untarnished laws. The Black Death set-on-footed in Europe when the Genoese firm to flee the torture by evasion from Caffa (where the Black Death originated from). The Genoese boarded their ships and set sail for Italy carrying rats, flees and the Black Death after a while them. The Black Death epidemic when a flea drank a rat's order that carried the yersina pestis (torture germs). The yersina pestis would increase until the flea's gut was compulsory after a while it. The flea would then bite a civilized ejecting the rat's order into the unconcealed pain the civilized would then be decayed. This cycle carried on until the lives of 50 darling tribe were enslaved from them in Europe wiping out half of London's population. It is said that the that the It was artless for the Black Death to expand in London gone Hygiene in London was awfully bald as shown in the fourth provision there was a lot of plethora owing London was dreadfully aggravatepopulated and issues were stationary substance exposed tribe would cook, eat, drowse and go to the toilet in the similar extent which meant a lot of germs. In disposal I reflect that the residuum of London did acceleration the torture to expand in the 1300s owing of manifold deduces including sundry of the deduces shown aloft chiefly gone the character of tribe that who fixed there, and the circumstance that they had no sewage for their attenuate to go to. But I reflect that if the tribe not regular in London but all environing the cosmos-tribe were past wakeful and cognizant of germs and hygiene then the Black Death would never enjoy set-on-footed.
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A psychiatrist once told me to avoid eating bone marrow because it could contain prions that could cause dementia. However, I haven't been able to find any studies that confirm this. Could this happen?
You might be referring to Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). It is transmitted through exposure to brain tissue and spinal cord fluid from infected individuals.
CJD is characterized by rapidly progressive dementia.
The leading scientific theory at this time maintains that CJD and the other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are caused by a type of protein called a prion.
CJD is indeed caused by prions: proteins that occur in both a normal form, which is a harmless protein found in the body’s cells, and in an infectious form, which causes disease. The harmless and infectious forms of the prion protein have the same sequence of amino acids, but the infectious form of the protein takes a different folded shape than the normal protein. Sporadic CJD may develop because some of a person’s normal prions spontaneously change into the infectious form of the protein and then alter the prions in other cells in a chain reaction.
- NIH Fact Sheet
Prions are sort of protein with such a distorted conformation that convert its benign/ essential form into prion forms. Thus they can multiply which is comparable to reproduction in virus and viroids.
if an animal is infected with prions then it is better to not eat any of the part of that animal. Not necessarily bone marrow but of any part. Prion disease also spreads through funerary cannibalism ritual. . Prion is a great concern about biosafety. Prion-infected cattles are not burried or left into nature but incinerated. There are disputes about whether burning is sufficient. Dementia is too mild term to describe prion infection, they are extreme debilitating, progressive, usually fatal, and usually affect the brain and nervous system. Most prion diseases are fatal within a few months, though some can last a few years.
Some prion diseases are Scrapie, Kuru, Mad cow disease, Fatal insomnia etc.
Prions can also spread through grafting, blood transfusion etc. and standard biosafety procedures to kill bacteria and virus does not work on prions. They require a more harsh sterilisation procedure.
Your Answer
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Quick Answer: What Is A Death Ritual?
What do we call 11th day after death?
Shraddha, Sanskrit śrāddha, also spelled sraddha, in Hinduism, a ceremony performed in honour of a dead ancestor.
The rites are performed between the 11th and 31st day after death, depending on caste traditions, and at regular intervals thereafter..
What happens in the 40 days after death?
The 40th Day after death is a traditional memorial service, family gathering, ceremonies and rituals in memory of the departed on the 40th day after his/her death. … The bread and water are intended for the departed and other deceased ancestors who will visit to remember him.
Why is a body washed after death?
It provides time to slow down and connect as family after someone has died. The act of washing a body means many different things. There are religious and spiritual traditions that involve rituals that need to be followed. For many of us washing the body is the final act of caring after illness.
What are the reasons of performing death rituals?
Is a funeral a ritual?
The funeral usually includes a ritual through which the corpse receives a final disposition. Depending on culture and religion, these can involve either the destruction of the body (for example, by cremation or sky burial) or its preservation (for example, by mummification or interment).
Why are there 13 days after death?
It is believed that after death, the soul of the dead person hangs around for 13 days unable sever the relationships this BODY, which it was associated with. … It is believed that after death, the soul of the dead person hangs around for 13 days unable sever the relationships this BODY, which it was associated with.
Why are funerals called wakes?
The term wake was originally used to denote a prayer vigil, often an annual event held on the feast day of the saint to whom a parish church was dedicated. … It used to be the custom in most Celtic countries in Europe for mourners to keep watch or vigil over their dead until they were buried — this was called a “wake”.
What is death death?
1a : a permanent cessation of all vital (see vital sense 2a) functions : the end of life The cause of death has not been determined. managed to escape death prisoners were put to death death threats — compare brain death.
What makes a good funeral?
A good funeral reflects the person who has died, how they have died and serves the needs of those left behind without glossing over any difficult emotions. If you would like a religious ceremony you should discuss this with your religious leader or the person who will be leading the ceremony.
What is the meaning of death rituals?
A ceremony or group of ceremonies held in connection with the burial or cremation of a dead person. b. Archaic The eulogy delivered or the sermon preached at such a ceremony. 2.
What are some death rituals?
Throwing A Handful of Dirt on the Casket. It is common in many cultures for mourners to toss a handful of dirt on the casket before leaving the cemetery. … Mourning. Mourning is a common ritual when someone dies. … The Wake. … Dressing In Black. … Funeral Procession. … Bagpipes Playing. … Tearing a Piece of Clothing. … Tolling of the Bell.More items…
What is 10th day after death is called?
The cremation ceremony takes place at the place of cremation after the body has been moved from the home. There may also be a third Hindu funeral ceremony (shraddha) that takes place about 10 days after the death.
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Curriculum and Syllabus
Curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a language course. The knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which includes the learning standards (CEFR) or learning objectives (Syllabus) they are expected to meet.
A language learning syllabus consists of a list of the learning objectives for your language learning program and the sequence in which you intend for them to be learned.
Curriculum is often used to describe the goals, objectives, or plans, methods, materials, and assessment. It usually refers to the means and materials with which students will interact for the purpose of achieving identified educational outcomes.
An Integrated Foreign Languages Curriculum is an effort to document its reference level descriptors (common for all languages and aligned to the illustrative descriptors provided by the CEFR), on the basis of precise linguistic elements making the levels explicit for individual languages.
Syllabus relates to the specification of content and the sequencing of what is to be taught.
A notional-functional syllabus is an approach where the materials are determined with Notions or ideas that learners expect to be able to express through the target language and the Functions acts learners expect to be able to accomplish. These types of syllabuses are different from conventional ones within the scope of organization. They include same teaching materials but organizes them around uses and functions. The functional-notional syllabus answers the question ‘what do users of the language need to express?’. The advantages of the notional syllabus include that it could consider the communicative facts of language from the beginning with concerning of grammatical and situational factors.
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Topics about "Scraping" No.1
What is "Scraping"?
Scraping is work in which the surface of a casting is cut away with a chisel-shaped tool known as a scraper. Scraping is preformed on sliding surfaces (the parts of tables or columns that move), surfaces where two objects contact each other, and tables or pallets. The amount that is trimmed off by each movement of the scraper is around 1-3µm and therefore it is possible to create any desired shape or form. Skilled workers can realize degrees of flatness, squareness and straightness not possible with machines.
Why is "Scraping" Required?
The simple answer is "You cannot make a better child than the parent".
For example, if Machine A is able to achieve a flat surface for Machine B with a flatness of 10µm, objects processed by Machine B will not be more precise than 10µm.. However, scraping can enable Machine B to be more precise than Machine A through corrective measures done by solely by hand. Mitsui Seiki s corporate an ideal lies in this concept called "monozukuri" manufacturing.
The Basis of Scraping is "Rubbing"
When scraping, the flat plate known as the "rubbing jig" is set as a standard and is made using the "Three-surface Rubbing" technique The surface produced by scraping will have minute irregularities with high parts and low parts. By painting vermillion onto the surface and rubbing the Rubbing Jig over the surface, the vermillion on the areas that stick up will be rubbed off. Where the vermillion has rubbed off, the he scraper is used once again to trim the excess sections. Flat surfaces are created by continuously repeating the process of painting vermillion and rubbing the jib.
How Can We Make a Flat Surface? - "Three-surface Rubbing"
Making a flat surface is fundamental to scraping. Here we explain how scraping is used to make a flat surface using the "Three-surface Rubbing" technique.
As the name makes apparent, three surfaces are involved in this process. But, why three surfaces?
For example, take the case where scraping has been used to make three flat surfaces in the forms shown in Diagram 1.
As shown in Diagram 2, plates "1" and "2" and plates "2" and "3" each match surfaces are a perfect fit. On one hand, if plates "1" and "3" do not match, this entails that one or more of the surfaces are not flat. On the other hand, if plates "1" and "3" do match, then all three surfaces are flat. As seen with this example, all three combinations must be successful to prove whether the surfaces are flat or not.
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Check out our updated Community
Karl Marx
How do I use 'both'?
I know what 'both' stands for, but how do I use it? What's the structure that I have to follow to use it correctly?
Thank you in advance
9 jul 2016 20:15
Comments · 1
Both is most commonly used with the conjunction "and". Both is used when 2 people or objects have the same characteristics or doing the same action. Both can come first in a sentence followed by the two subjects separated by and. Also both can be used in the middle sentence with indication that they are two subjects without "and". Finally, the two subjects can come first in the sentence separated by "and" followed by "both".
Example: Both Jim and Sally have blue eyes.
Example: The two birds both flew away.
Example: Tom and Harry both have books.
9 juli 2016
Karl Marx
Language Skills
English, Spanish
Learning Language
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History of Mediaeval Jews - Maurice Harris
Jewish Life In German States.
The Church now dominated society, giving character to its popular life and entering so largely into all its concerns as to make the position of the Jew who was not of the Church still more anomalous. We saw that economically he had no place in the feudal system. In language, food and occupation, in belief and outlook so different was his life, that Christian and Jew might have said one to the other: "Our ways are not your ways, nor our thoughts your thoughts."
A Jewish Troubadour.
Yet he did not stand willingly aloof, when religion did not bid withdrawal. For example, we find a Jew among the troubadours. Those poet minne-singers {minne—love) would wander with harp and lyre from castle to castle where the baron and his lady, together with their retainers, would listen to their song of chivalry and adventure and throw them money {largesse, as it was called), on which they lived. A Jewish poet of this order was Susskind of Trimberg-on-the-Saale, who flourished about the year 1200. A few of his lyrics are preserved, wherein the knight and his lady of the days of romance were among his favorite themes. But his own life revealed the conflict of Israel among the nations that he portrays in the fable of the wolf. Either he can be minne-singer to the Gentile and suppress the Jew, or, he may throw in his lot with his people and then he must abandon his art. How often has that alternative faced the son of Israel even in brighter days!
The feudal baron occasionally lowered the portcullis of his castle to admit the Jew bringing wares from a distant land. At times he received articles of value in exchange for money, when money was the need — say of the impoverished knight who wished to vary the monotony of an idle career by wandering forth to the wars, and needed suitable ecpupment. He would expect to redeem the pledge by hiring out his sword to any lord who had a skirmish on hand, for it was the day of mercenaries.
The "Ritual Murder" Slander.
In times of peaceful lull the Jew was let alone, though "severely alone." But he was always at the mercy of the caprice of the multitude. At best he was mistrusted and readily made the object of suspicion. If a dead body was found it was quite usual to charge the murder to the Jews on the grotesque theory that they had used the blood for their Passover ritual. Little did the Christian know that in formulating this monstrous charge against the Jew it was but borrowing from the pagan an earlier charge brought against the Christian; in the latter case it was a follower of the Church who had been charged with using blood for his sacrament service, in the former that he used in the Passover bread. Both charges were equally fabulous, that against the Jew, based on the biblical precept to place the blood of the lamb upon the door-post; that against the Christian, based on the belief that the wine at the sacrament miraculously became the blood of the Savior.
With Christianity's rise to power, the slander against the Church soon disappeared; but against the Jew it grew in virulence; and on this false charge Jews were slain every century and in every land. Nor is this lie yet dead. In 1247 the Jews appealed to Pope Innocent IV for protection against this calumny. He issued a bull declaring the charge false and unfounded. But it was brought up again every few years —in Mayence in 1283, in Munich in 1285, in Oberwesel and Boppard in 1286. Other instances will be detailed later. The charge always meant plunder and massacre.
Another Synod.
A synod had been convened by R. Gershom in the year 1000; a second, in the year 1146 after the Second Crusade. Now, to strengthen the bonds between Jew and Jew in those perilous days, another synod was summoned at Mayence in the year 1223:
First, it arranged to divide the distribution of the burden of royal taxation in fair proportion. (For when a king decided to extort money from "his Jews," he might favor one Jew by exemption at the expense of others.) This decision and those that follow throw a lurid light on the times:
• No bad treatment by Gentiles should justify dishonorable treatment of them.
• It severely condemned the counterfeiting of coin.
• The "informer"—whose mischievous disclosures often brought so much injury—was to make good any loss incurred by his betrayal.
• He who sought an office in the synagogue by bringing outside, Gentile, influence to bear, was to be excommunicated. (In Maccabaean days Jason sought the high priesthood through Greek influence, History was repeating itself.)
The "Empire."
Yet, in the German Empire, "so called," the emperor gave the Jews a quasi protection, as did Conrad III in the second crusade. But there was none to protect them from the emperor, who was, as it were, the court of last resort. He usually had his hands full to suhvert the intrigues of his rival, the Pope. Then, too, his local office as German king conflicted with his international past as Roman emperor. Sometimes the emperor was a Saxon, sometimes a Franconian, then a Bavarian or a Swabian or again an Austrian. For Germany then included pretty well all of Central Europe— a group of States — not a nation.
The conflict between the pope and the emperor grew in bitterness; that between Pope Hadrian and Barbarossa, the most picturesque monarch of the Middle Ages, has already been told. The latter would have liked to have been a Charlemagne, but he spent his best years in fighting for that elusive prize, "Roman kingship," crossing the Alps six times that he might have more profitably devoted to strengthening Germany.
Then, too, the Italian himself protested against this subordinate position and fought against the German kings for independence. That conflict continued for three centuries. The opponents acquired ^party names from their respective war cries. The Guelphs (Welfe) supported the Pope, the Ghibelines (Waiblingen) rallied round the German emperor. The pope supported the Italian side, not to further Italian independence, but only to curb the emperor's power.
The Emperor's Right in the Jews.
In these struggles the Jew could take no official part, yet he was often made the sufferer. Much depended on the whim of the emperor. Though Barbarossa was firm in exacting his vested rights in the Jews, yet he was not ill-disposed towards them. What were those vested rights? The German emperors claimed to he the hereditary successors of the ancient Roman emperors. Since a Roman emperor, Vespasian, had conquered the Judaean State, the Jews were regarded as the emperor's servants. This old claim was now revived under the title of "servants of the chamber." It really meant that the revenue derived from the Jews was the emperor's perquisite for his private treasury. Yet, for that matter without any such supposed right, English and French kings sold and leased their Jews as their personal chattels. Under gracious emperors Jews could carry arms and hold lands and slaves. But these were never assured rights, only temporary grants.
An example of capricious treatment of the Jews is well seen in the case of Frederick II (who became emperor in 1212). He was a grandson of Barbrossa, last of the Hohenstaufen line. A cultured man speaking six languages, and a patron of letters, he was not unnaturally interested in Jewish scholarship. He invited some savants to settle in Italy and befriended them. One of these was Jacob Anatoli, a pupil of Michael Scotus. He translated for the emperor the Arabic of Averroes' Aristotle into Hebrew, whence it was translated into Latin. This task had also been undertaken, by Ibn Tibbon.
Yet this same Frederick II shut the Jews up in ghettos, restricted their occupations, heavily taxed them and forced them to wear the badge. He even rebuked Duke Frederick of Austria for issuing the following laws for Jewish protection. The murderer of a Jew should be put to death; the kidnaper of a Jewish child was to be punished for theft; Jews were to have local jurisdiction and to be protected from extortion. What a pity the Austrian Frederick was not emperor.
Small comfort was it to the Jew, never eager for revenge, to see Frederick II, in spite of his seven crowns, worsted in conflict with the popes and dying under the ban. After all, hard though he was, Frederick II might have been regarded as a protecting providence of Israel compared with their persecutors after his death. For anarchy now followed, and it went hard with them in the Guelf and Ghibeline struggle. War always brings out the savage in man, and the Jew was a convenient outlet for brutal lusts. They were burnt in the Sinzig synagogue by self-styled "Judenbrenner" (burners of Jews). In spite of Duke Frederick's humane provisions, Austria reaffirmed all the anti-Jewish edicts of the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215.
Meir of Rothenberg.
When in 1273, Rudolph of Hapsburg was chosen emperor some condition of order and security was restored. Aided financially by the Jews, he gave them some protection and issued a denial of the "blood accusation." Under him flourished Meir of Rothenberg, one of the last of the Tosafists (p. 129). Much as we admire his Talmudic erudition — for, like R. Gershom, he was called "a light" — still more do we esteem his piety. The German Jews, with Meir at their head, had determined to leave this land of persecution and emigrate to the East. But the flight of Meir and his party was discovered and he was arrested. Rudolph did not wish the withdrawal of a people whom he could mulct from time to time. Meir was imprisoned. The Jews offered a large sum for the release of their revered teacher. But the noble man refused freedom on that condition, fearing that the precedent might suggest to future rapacious kings a new means of squeezing the Jews.
Like Akiba, he answered questions on the Law from his prison; and in the prison he died in 1293. Even his body was held for ransom.
Poets and legalists usually move in dififerent planes. But Meir, the Tosafist, was a poet, too, with the Law naturally as his theme. Here are some verses from a dirge bewailing the burning of the Pentateuch in 1285 in Paris. It is incorporated in Fast of Ab ritual — a Kinah or lamentation:
The Burning of the Law
Ask, is it well, O thou consumed of fire,
With those that mourn for thee.
That yearn to tread thy courts, that sore desire
Thy sanctuary;
That, panting for thy land's sweet dust, are grieved,
And sorrow in their souls,
And by the flames of wasting fire bereaved,
Mourn for thy scrolls;
And thou revealed amid a heavenly fire,
By earthly fire consumed.
Say how the foe unscorched escaped the pyre
Thy flames illumed
Thou sittest high exalted, lofty foe
To judge the sons of God;
And with thy judgments stern dost bring them low
Beneath thy rod.
O Sinai! was it then for this God chose
Thy mount of modest height.
Rejecting statelier, while on thee arose
His glorious light?
Moses; and Aaron in the mountain Hor;
I will of them inquire:
Is there another to replace this Law
Devoured of fire?
In sackcloth I will clothe and sable band,
For well-beloved by me
Were they whose lives were many as the sand —
The slain of thee.
I am astonied that the day fair light
Yet shineth brilliantly
On all things: — it is ever dark as night
To me and thee.
E'en as thy Rock has sore afflicted thee
He will assuage thy woe;
Will turn again the tribes' captivity,
And raise thee low.
My heart shall be uplifted on the day
Thy Rock shall be thy light,
When He shall make thy gloom to pass away,
Thy darkness bright.
Translated by Nina Davis.
The Popes and the "Blood Accusation" {Ritual Murder): Reference has been made to the Bull of Innocent IV, issued in 1247. We give a translation in full:
To the Archbishops and Bishops of Germany.
We have received a pitiable complaint from the Jews of Germany. They say that some nobles, lay and ecclesiastical, and other powerful and notable men within your cities and dioceses, designing to seize and usurp their goods unjustly, devise against them impious counsels and invent diverse pretexts. Without considering that testimonies to the Christian Faith have proceeded from their records and that the sacred scripture among other precepts of the Law says: "Thou shalt not kill." and forbids them at their Passover ceremonies to touch any dead flesh, they falsely accuse the Jews of using in these same ceremonies the body of a murdered child, thinking that the said practice is required by their Law, whereas it is clearly contrary to their Law. And they cast upon the Jews, with malicious intent, any corpse that by chance is discovered at any place.
Attacking them with these and other inventions, and without formal accusation, confession or conviction, and in despite of the privileges conceded to the Jews by the clemency of the Holy See, they despoil them of their goods (contrary to the law of God and of justice), and they visit them with hunger, imprisonment and so many calamities and afflictions, punishing them with diverse punishments (even condemning many of them to shameful death) that the Jews, living under the rule of the said princes, notables, and powerful men in worse plight than were their fathers under Pharoah in Egypt, are compelled to leave places where they and their ancestors have dwelt from time immemorial.
Hence, in fear of extermination, they have thought it necessary to have recourse to the protection fo the Holy See. Now, therefore, being unwilling that the Jews should be unjustly harassed (for God in his mercy awaits their conversion, seeing that, on the testimony of the Prophet, it is believed that the remnant of them is destined to be saved), we order that you show yourselves favourable and well disposed to them, and whenever you find any violent attempt made against them, with respect to the matters mentioned above, by the prelates, nobles, and powerful men aforesaid, you shall see that the matter is treated according to law, and shall not in future permit the Jews to be improperly molested on these or similar charges by any persons whatsoever. Those who molest them you shall summarily restrain by your ecclesiastical censure.
We append the Bull of Gregory X, issued in 1272:
Since Jews cannot bear testimony against Christians, we decree that the testimony of Christians against Jews shall be of no avail unless there is a Jew bearing testimony among them. For it sometimes happens that Christians lose their children, and Jews are charged by their enemies with taking them away and killing them and using their hearts and blood for religious purposes; the fathers of the children, or other Christians, in hatred of the Jews, hide the children away so that they may cause trouble to the Jews and gain money from them for relieving them from their trouble, and in order that they may most falsely assert that the Jews have secretly stolen and murdered their children and that they use the blood for religious purposes, whereas their law strictly forbids them to use blood for ceremonial purposes, or to taste it, or to eat the flesh of animals with cloven hoofs, as has been many times demonstrated at our court by Jews converted to the Christian faith. On charges of this kind Jews have often been seized and imprisoned unjustly. We decree that in such cases the testimony of Christians against Jews shall not be admitted; that Jews imprisoned on this empty charge shall be liberated; that they be not imprisoned in future on this empty charge unless (which we cannot believe) they are found in the act.
Similar Bulls, protesting against the calumny were issued by Martin V, 1422; Nicholas V, 1447, and Paul III, 1540.
Jewish Troubadours.Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, by Israel Abrahams, pp. 361-2, J. P. S. of A. Only a Word, a story of mediaeval life in which the hired mercenary plays so large a part. The author wonderfully reproduces the atmosphere of the Middle Ages. Original German by George Ebers
Servants of the Chamber: Latin: Servi camerae; German, Kammerknechtschaft. Camera means chamber.
Theme for Discussion:—The troubadour Susskind suggests the question in how far could mediaeval Jews enter into the social life of the Gentile.
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Quick Answer: How Does The Treaty Of Waitangi Affect Business?
How was the Treaty of Waitangi broken?
It has been estimated that by 1909 at least 18 million acres of it was in individual ownership, almost none of it had been settled by Māori.
In the 20th Century there was further loss of Māori land to the Crown through private and Government purchases and under the Public Works Act, that sometimes breached the Treaty..
Why is the Treaty of Waitangi still important today?
What if there was no Treaty of Waitangi?
So: what if there had been no Treaty of Waitangi? … Another easy answer is that with no treaty there would be no argument about whether, in signing the treaty, iwi ceded sovereignty, as the English version says. In the te reo version they didn’t.
Why is it called the Treaty of Waitangi?
The Treaty of Waitangi is the founding document of New Zealand. It is an agreement entered into by representatives of the Crown and of Māori iwi (tribes) and hapū (sub-tribes). It is named after the place in the Bay of Islands where the Treaty was first signed, on 6 February 1840.
When were the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi developed?
Who refused the Treaty of Waitangi?
Tāraia NgākutiTāraia Ngākuti, a chief of Ngāti Tamaterā in the Coromandel, was one of many notable chiefs who refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi. Tāraia was a famous warrior and may have felt that signing would be beneath him.
How do you honor the Treaty of Waitangi?
What does the Treaty of Waitangi mean to me?
Signed in 1840, Te Tiriti o Waitangi (Treaty of Waitangi) is an agreement between some Māori leaders and the Crown. The three articles of the treaty: give protection, rights and benefits to Māori as British subjects. give Māori full ownership of their lands, forestries, fisheries, taonga (treasures) and possessions.
What are the main principles of the Treaty of Waitangi?
Why are the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi so important?
Why is the Treaty of Waitangi important in education?
The Treaty of Waitangi principle calls for schools to understand and honour Treaty principles in all actions and decision making. It is about making our country’s bicultural foundations evident in school policies, organisation, physical spaces, whānau and community engagement, and classroom planning and assessment.
What is Waitangi Day and why do we celebrate it?
Waitangi Day – 6 February – is Aotearoa New Zealand’s national holiday held to commemorate the signing of New Zealand’s founding document – the Treaty of Waitangi – in 1840. Waitangi Treaty Grounds is among New Zealand’s most historic places.
What did the treaties promise?
Based on the model of the 1850 Robinson Treaties (see Indigenous Peoples: Treaties), the Crown signed 11 treaties with various First Nations between 1871 and 1921 that would allow the Crown access to, and jurisdiction over, traditional territories in exchange for certain promises and goods, such as reserve lands, …
What impact did the Treaty of Waitangi have?
What did the Treaty of Waitangi agree to?
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Page 1 of 50 - About 500 essays
• The Proteins Of Carbohydrates And Carbohydrates
1091 Words | 5 Pages
Introduction Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are organic molecules found in every living organism. These macromolecules are large carbon based structures. The macromolecules are assembled by joining several smaller units, called monomers, together through a chemical reaction called dehydration synthesis. The resulting polymer can be disassembled through the complementary process called hydrolysis.Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio. This
• The Functions Of Carbohydrates
822 Words | 4 Pages
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are biological molecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Like proteins and fats, they are macronutrients that are part of our daily diet. Functions of Carbohydrates in the body Carbohydrates provide energy for the body, enabling metabolism, thus preventing the breakdown of protein as an energy source. Carbohydrates are the preferred source of fuel for the brain, muscle and other organs. Foods and Drinks that Have Carbohydrates Carbohydrates
• The Importance Of Carbohydrates
745 Words | 3 Pages
first thing that should come to mind is carbohydrates. They are one of the main nutrients where we get our energy from, and are defined as “a compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, that is derived from plants and provide energy” (Thompson & Manore, 2017, p. 100). Carbohydrates are divided up into two groups: simple and complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are “commonly called sugar” (Thompson & Manore, 2017, p. 101). Simple carbohydrates are found in a variety of foods such as
• The Properties Of Carbohydrates
1206 Words | 5 Pages
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are hydrated due to the 2;1 ratio of hydrogen and water. Carbohydrates have 3 groups; monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides (see figure 7) Monosaccharides are simple sugars that made up of 1 sugar unit and include glucose, fructose, galactose which are substrates for respiration. When 2 monosaccharides gain a glycosidic bond to attach to another they become disaccharides. On the reverse, when they are broken down from
• Macromolecules Of Carbohydrates
771 Words | 4 Pages
Background and Carbohydrates How are macromolecule polymers assembled from monomers? How are they broken down? To assemble a macromolecule polymer from monomers, the monomers must bond. This is a process known as a dehydration reaction, in which a water molecule is lost to form the bond. When this process occurs, each of the two bonded monomers provides part of the water molecule that was lost in the dehydration reaction: one contributes a hydroxyl group and the other a hydrogen. Dehydration reaction
• Essay on Lipids and Carbohydrates
466 Words | 2 Pages
Lipids and Carbohydrates Lipids are a group of substances, which include fats, oils and waxes. Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, glycogen and cellulose. They are stored in plants as starches and in animals as glycogen. There are many differences between carbohydrates and lipids. For example lipids are insoluble in water whereas carbohydrates are soluble in water. This is because lipids contain non - polar hydrocarbon units whereas water contains polar hydrocarbon
• Investigating The Bonding Of A Carbohydrate
1077 Words | 5 Pages
Carbohydrate Analysis Introduction and Purpose Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. There are four different ways that carbohydrates can be classified: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars. They are aliphatic aldehydes or ketones and most have five or six carbon atoms. Oligosaccharides are two monosaccharides linked together by the elimination of a water molecule which allows the glycosidic bond
• Nutrition And Macronutrients : Carbohydrates
1182 Words | 5 Pages
Nutrition and Macronutrients: Carbohydrates: Carbohydrate, in the form of glucose, is the preferred fuel for working muscles. It is particularly important during high intensity activity but whatever exercise is performed some carbohydrate will be used. Glucose is stored in the muscles and liver as a substance known as glycogen and is rapidly converted back to glucose when is it required. The capacity for glycogen storage is limited - a 70kg individual has glycogen reserves of approximately 400g
• Reaction Paper On Carbohydrates
1933 Words | 8 Pages
Introduction Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are usually known as sugars and they have the general formula Cx(H2O)y (Elmhurst College, 2003). Depending on the number of monomers, carbohydrates can be monosacharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Monomers are the single monosaccharide units alone. Oligosaccharides can contain from 2 to 10 monosaccharides and polysaccharides are made of many monosaccharides. They may also contain either a ketone or aldehyde functional group (King, 2014). Some examples
• Carbohydrate and Points Essay
612 Words | 3 Pages
the observance of a particular enzyme in a test performance. (3 points) 14.While working a part-time at a lab, the student is asked to grab a jar that contains carbohydrates. Two jars are on the counter, each labeled with their chemical formula. One is labeled C5H10O5, and the other is C3H9O3. (6 points) a.Which one is the carbohydrate? (1 point) b.What was the student's decision based upon? (4 points) c.What type of sugar is it? (1 points) 15.Many commercial food products are sweetened with
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Adjacent Meanings
Adjacent, from the Latin adiăcens, is an adjective that is used to name what is located in the vicinity of something. It can therefore be said that what is adjacent is what is next to it. For example: “You were wrong, madam, Dr. López lives in the adjacent house”, “The adjacent field belongs to an Italian millionaire”, “The adjacent premises are empty”.
Sometimes the adjacent acts as something complementary to the main or most important thing. In a mansion or palace, there may be adjacent houses for guests. The adjacent can also serve to mark a delimitation: “The area adjacent to the nuclear plant was evacuated by the authorities at the risk of a toxic leak. ”
In the same way, at a political and geographical level, the term in question is used to refer to a specific type of territory. Specifically, they speak of what are known as adjacent islands according to Digopaul.
These are islands that are separated from a continent in question but, despite this physical distance, are part of a specific country and are included within its territory. A clear example of this type of places are the two archipelagos that exist in Spain: the Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands. Thus, both of them, although they are separated from the nation, are part, in all senses, of the Spanish State.
Angles that have one side and the vertex in common, and whose other sides are opposite rays, are known as adjacent angles. Given their characteristics, the adjacent angles are supplementary and consecutive simultaneously since they are equivalent, as a whole, to an angle of the so-called plains (which measure one hundred and eighty degrees).
Some theorists include between the angles adjacent to those that share the vertex and one side, even though they are not supplementary. For others, instead, these are consecutive angles.
Within the denomination of internal adjacent angles, supplementary angles (add 180º), complementary angles (add 90º) and conjugate angles (add 360º) can be mentioned.
In the area of grammar, adjacent is the syntactic constituent belonging to the noun phrase that complements a noun. It is usual that it is a qualifying adjective that can be placed before or after the noun.
However, although we have exposed that fundamentally adjacent ones tend to be qualifying adjectives, we also find others that are adverbs, prepositional constructions, nouns or adjective propositions.
In the same way, we cannot overlook the existence of another use of the adjacent term. Specifically, we are referring to what is known as an adjacent selector. This is a concept that is used in the field of computing and especially the Internet to refer to a mechanism that is used to carry out the selection of two elements that are followed by the HTML code and which are also considered “brothers”.
And all this without forgetting that the field of Medicine also makes use of the concept we are analyzing. Specifically, within this health sector, what is known as “adjacent segment disease” is discussed, which severely affects the spine.
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kids encyclopedia robot
Nymphaea gigantea facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Nymphaea gigantea
Blaue Seerosen (Nymphaea gigantea).jpg
Scientific classification
Nymphaea gigantea is a species of aquatic perennial herbaceous plant native to Australia and New Guinea. N. gigantea is a tropical and sub-tropical species that establishes tubers in the muddy bottoms of still waters.
Petals can be seen to be a light purple-blue when they first blossom. As they become mature plants they become a light blue, or can even be white.Due to its blue-white color, it is also known as “Blue Cloud", and typically flowers between the months June and July.
The leaves of the N. gigantea are round and can grow out to 75 cm across and are sinuate and dentate. In botany, this means that their edges are toothed with pointed teeth, about 0.5 cm long. The apex of the lobes are rounded, however, the N. gigantea develop points in the space between the lobes from the rest of the leaf. The flowers are eminent, growing to about 25 cm across and stands 50 cm above the water. The leaves of N. gigantea lie on the water and are generally thick giving them a leathery feeling but are also brittle. The stigma is very dense with papillae, covering the dorsal surface of the carpels.
Distribution and Habitat
The seeds of N. gigantea are eaten by the Australians. In Australia, the tubers are collected and roasted by Aboriginal women. The buds and flower stalks are collected and eaten as well. N. gigantea was first introduced in England in1852. Three years later in 1855, Van Houtte fruited the species. Since 1865, N. gigantea has been observed to flower during the summer months in water because that is the optimum condition for the tubers to germinate.
kids search engine
Nymphaea gigantea Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Skip to main content
Year 10: Term 3: Australia and the Pacific War
Oliver Library Catalogue
Oliver Library Catalogue
General Resources
Prisoners of War
How to Write Introductory Paragraphs
Essay Template for Writing the Essay
Map of the Japanese Expansion in the Pacific War
Pacific War Conflicts / Campaigns
Raymond Callahan, associate dean of the College of Arts and Science and the author of “The Worst Disaster: The Fall of Singapore,” has stated: “The fall of Singapore was a pivotal event with enormous consequences. Not only was it a military defeat, it was a shattering blow to Great Britain’s prestige and marked the decline of the Western era in Southeast Asia, which ended when the last helicopter left Saigon".
Skwirk: The Fall of Singapore
HistoryLearning site: The Fall of Singapore
National Museum of Australia: The Fall of Singapore
Australia Great War: The Fall of Singapore
ABC News: Fall of Singapore Anniversary: How a Military Defeat Changed Australia
National Geographic: On This Day - The Fall of Singapore
Australian War Memorial: Battle of the Coral Sea
Royal Australian Navy: Battle of the Coral Sea
ANZAC Portal: Battle of the Coral Sea
Pacific Battle of the Coral Sea
Ohio University: Battle of the Coral Sea
University of San Diego: Battle of the Coral Sea
On February 19, 1945, nearly 70,000 American marines invaded a tiny volcanic island in the Pacific. Over the next thirty-five days, approximately 28,000 combatants died, including nearly 22,000 Japanese and 6,821 Americans, making Iwo Jima one of the costliest battles of World War II. Iwo Jima
History.Net: Worth the Cost? Justification of the Iwo Jima Invasion
Quora: What Was the Significance of Iwo Jima?
Military Battle of Iwo Jima
Britannica: Battle of Iwo Jima
Pacific War Leaders
Kamikaze Pilots
How to Use Signal or Linking Words to Construct an Essay
Possible Hypotheses
How to Write In-Text References for Humanities
The ENTIRE collection of resources provided by the BBC Library can be searched on ONE single, powerful search platform, which retrieves print books, eBooks, database articles and websites. Click HERE for assistance.
Atomic Bomb: Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Primary Sources
National Archives of Australia
Specify World War II and click on 'Browse' to access a range of primary sources including:
Cablegram from Curtin to Churchill about the defence of Singapore – 17 January 1942
Churchill on the return of Australian troops to defend Australia – 27 January 1942
Examples of In-Text and End-Text Referencing
Some Possible Key Questions
1. Why were Australians afraid of invasion by Japan, and were these fears justified?
2. What made the Japanese military so fearsome during the Pacific War?
3. What role did Brisbane play in the Pacific War?
4. Was 'island-hopping' the right strategy to fight the Japanese?
5. How effective was the military leadership of Macarthur?
6. How effective was the military leadership of Nimitz?
7. Compare the way Japanese POWs in Australia and Australian POWs in Asia were treated.
8. How important was Emperor Hirohito's role in the Pacific War?
9. Why is Yamamoto a revered Japanese military leader?
10. What were Kamikaze attacks, and how effective were they as a military tactic?
11. How effective was John Curtin's leadership of Australia during the war?
12. How effective were the policies which the Curtin government implemented after 1942?
13. What were Australian-American relationships like during the war?
14. Why was conscription a divisive issue in Australia during the Pacific War?
15. What impact did the war have on the role of Australian women?
16. What does 'turning the tide' in the Pacific War refer to, and how was it achieved?
17. What was the Manhattan Project, and how effective was it?
18. Was the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki justified?
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Chapter Wise Indian Poilty MCQ’s With Explanation
Today’s Topic: Making Of Constitution-part2
EveryDay Program List
Sunday- Indian and world Geography
Tuesday- General Science
Wednesday- Indian Polity and Governance
Thursday- History of India and Indian National Movement
Friday- Economic and Social Development
Saturday-Current Affairs Concepts
Today’s Topic: Making Of Constitution-part2
Q1. Who among the following had favoured Panchayati Raj System by giving the following statement in the Indian constituent Assembly?
“…in the interest of democracy, the villages may be trained in the art of self-government… We must be able to reform the villages and introduce democratic principles of government there…”
a) Ananthasayanam Ayyangar b) Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
c) B.N. Rao d) Jawaharlal Nehru
Ans A
Explanation: MadabhushiAnanthasayanamAyyangar (4 February 1891-19 March 1978) Was the first Deputy Speaker and then Speaker of LokSabha. He was born in Thiruchanoor, Chittoor district of Madras Presidency. He was teacher in Mathematics and later became a lawyer between 1915-1950. Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi he participated actively in Indian Freedom Struggle and was jailed twice.
He was elected as member of Central Legislative Assembly in 1934. He was elected to the first Lok Sabha from Tirupathi and to the Second Lok Sabha from Chittor Constituencies in 1952 and 1956 respectively.
He was elected in 1948 as Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha with Ganesh Vashdev Mavalankar as the Speaker. Later in 1956 he was elected as Speaker of Lok Sabha. He worked as Governor of Bihar between 1962 and 1967.
Q2. Which congress President during British Raj initiated the idea of a Planning Commission?
a) Jawaharla Nehru b) Mahatma Gandhi
c) Maulana Azad d) Subhas Chandra Bose
Ans D
Explanation: (Congress met at Vitthal Nagar Haripua from 19th 21st February 1938. President of this Congress was Subhash Chandra Bose. As per Haripura resolution, Britain was given 6 months ultimatum to the British, failing to which there will be a revolt. Subhash Chandra Bose organized National Planning Committee. National Planning Committee was the Forerunner of India’s Planning Commission. The idea was to draw a comprehensive plan for economic development of India on the basis of Industrialization.)
Q3. Which one of the following Acts/Reports created the Federal Court in India?
a) Government of India Act, 1909
b) Government of India Act, 1919
c) Montague-Chelmsford Report
d) Government of India Act, 1935.
Ans D
Explanation: (The Federal Court of India was established in India in 1937 under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, with original, appellate and advisory jurisdiction. It functioned until 1950, when the Supreme Court of India was established. The seat of the Federal Court was at Delhi. There was a right of appeal to the Judicial in London from the Federal Court of India.
The Federal Court had exclusive original jurisdiction in any dispute between the Central Government and the Provinces. Initially, it was empowered to hear appeals from the High Courts of the provinces in the cases which involved the interpretation of any Section of the Government of India Act, 1935. From 5 January 1948 it was also empowered to hear appeals in those cases, which did not involve any interpretation of the Government of India Act, 1935.)
Q4. “We are under the constitution but the Constitution but the Constitution is what the judges say it is”. Which of the following countries can this be applicable to?
1. India 2. America
3. Switzerland 4. Australia
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
a) 1 and 3 b) 1 and 2 c) 2 and 3 d) 3 and 4
Ans B
Q5. The Constituent Assembly was setup under the
a) Cripp Mission b) Cabinet Mission Plan
c) Wavell Plan d) Nehru Report
Ans B
Explanation: (The Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and plan for the transfer of power from the British Government to Indian leadership, providing India with independence. Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, the mission consisted of Lord Pethick-Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A.V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty. Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, did not participate.
The Cabinet Mission’s purpose:
2. Set up a constitution body.
For setting up a constitution-making body, each province was to be assigned a total number of seats proportionate to its population, roughly in the ratio of one to a million. Seats allotted to each Province Shall be divided between the various communities in proportion to their population in the province. Only three classes of Electorates were recognized—General (all others than Muslims and Sikhs), Muslims and Sikhs (Only in the Punjab).According to this principle, the Constituent Assembly was to consist of 292 members from the British Indian Provinces and 4 from Chief Commissioners Provinces. The Indian States were to be represented by 93 members in maximum. The representatives of British India were distributed among the various Provinces and communities as under:
ii. The representatives of British Indian Provinces were to be elected by each Provincial Legislative Assembly Community wise, through proportional representation by a single transferable vote. As regards the representatives of the States, the exact method of their selection was to be settled by consultation. At the preliminary stage, the States were to be represented by a Negotiating Committee
Q6. Who said the following? ‘India’s Constitution was born more in fear and trepidation than in hope and inspiration?
a) Paul Brass b) Myron Weiner
c) K.C. Wheare d) Jennings
Ans A
Q7. Who of the following constituted an oligarchy within the Constituent Assembly of India?
a) Nehru, Patel, Prasad, Azad b) Ambedkar, B.N. RAo, K.M.Mushi, Nehru
c) Patel, Azad, Munshi, Ambedkar d) Krishnamachari, Pannikar, Nehru, Patel
Ans A
Explanation: (Nehru, Patel, Prasad and Azad constituted “an oligarchy within the Assembly”. In-fact, these four leaders had rich practical experience, marked personal popularity, massive intellect and unmatchable political power which enabled them to wield overwhelming influence on the Constituent assembly’s deliberations. They enjoyed God like status. They were loved but not feared. Hence the future of the Government as well as the nicety of the constitution rested in those hands that were utterly incapable of doing any wrong to the peoples.
Although the oligarchy of four was irresistible yet the Assembly discussed thoroughly all issues, in well attended debates. None posed to be ‘sir oracle’ and claimed “when he speaks, nobody should open his lips”. The procedure was thoroughly democratic.)
Q8. The Constitution of India, was drafted and enacted in which language—
a) Hindi b) English c) Tamil d) Telugu
Ans B
Q9. In which language script, Constitution of India was signed by the members of the Constitutent Assembly on 21st Jan.1950—
a) English b) Hindi c) a and b d) None of the above
Ans C
Q10. What was the total number of members in the Drafting Committee of Constitution?
a) 5 b) 6 c) 7 d) 8
Ans C
Explanation: On 29 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr.B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman along with six other members assisted by a constitutional advisor. These members were Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (K.M. Munshi, Ex-Home Minister, Bombay), Alladi Krishnasway Iyer (Ex-Advocate General, Madras State), N.Gopalaswami Ayengar (Ex-Prime Minister, J&K and later member of Nehru Cabinet), B.L. Mitter (Ex-Advocate General , India), Md. Saadullah (Ex-Chief Minister of Assam, Muslim League member) and D.P. Khaitan (Scion of Khaitan Business family and a renowned lawyer). The Constitutional advisor was Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (Who became Fist Indian Judge in International Court of Justice, 1950-54). Later B.L. Mitter resigned and was replaced by Madhav Rao (Legal Advisor of Maharaja of Vadodara). Owing to death of D.P.Khaitan, T.T. Krishanmachari was chosen to be included in the drafting committee. A Draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947. Draft constitution was debated and over 2000 amendments were move over a period of two years. Finally on 26 November 1949, the process was completed and Constituent assembly adopted the constitution. 284 members signed the document and the process of constitution making was complete. This day is celebrated as National Law Day or Constitution Day.
Chapter wise mock test series with analysis and explanation.
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70 years of helping people to care for our ocean
Love is in the water – Corals get cosy during Valentines month!
By: Dr Sean Porter
On a hot and humid moonlit February evening, during the month of love, corals were caught in the act – scientists were able to document corals spawning in situ at Sodwana Bay for the very first time! Millions of sex cells, comprising eggs and sperm, were simultaneously released into the water by corals hoping to engender the next generation. This event occurs a few nights a year when conditions are just right, and our scientists were able to catch a rare and unique underwater glimpse of this phenomenon.
As the full moon began to rise and its reflection sparkled over the ocean, the intrepid scientists geared up and rolled overboard into the darkness below. Many years of research soon paid off, as it was not long before the first signs of coral spawn were spotted: egg-and-sperm bundles floating in the water column at first, and then bundles being expelled from the polyps of different coral colonies. On this particular night, as the stars seemed to align in the milky way above, it was ironic that the hard coral Galaxea was recorded spawning, it’s thousands of egg bundles reflecting in the torch light, mirroring the stars above. Other corals such as Acropora, were also broody and in the process of releasing eggs and sperm. Witnessing and recording corals spawning underwater for the first time was an exciting way of celebrating the Coral Biodiversity and Ecology team’s 30th anniversary.
The coral reefs of Sodwana Bay are unique in being the southern-most coral reefs on the African continent. The southward flow of tropical water bathes these reefs in warm clear waters, allowing corals to thrive at this high latitude. These factors have created excellent conditions for luxuriant growth of over 100 different species of corals on the ancient submarine fossilized dunes. When these reefs were discovered in the 1970s, it was thought that they were too far south and marginal to allow for sexual reproduction of corals and it was postulated that the coral communities were dependant on larvae floating southward from Mozambique. Thirty years of research on these reefs by ORI has, however, shown that corals at Sodwana Bay do indeed spawn and exist as self-sustaining populations that are supplemented by larvae from further north. In more tropical regions, such as on the Great Barrier Reef, coral spawning events can be so massive that the slicks of eggs and sperm on the ocean surface can be seen from space!
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The Invasion of Russia
French Emperor Napoleon I and his La Grande Armee of over 600,000 French, Polish, Italian, German, Prussian, Austrian, Swiss and Spanish troops, crossed the Nieman River into Russia on 24 June 1812. Napoleon officially wanted to protect Polish lands from Russian invasion but actually wanted to incorporate Russia into his Continental System and prevent Russian trade with Great Britain. Napoleon would eventually capture Moscow, but in accordance with their scorched earth practices, the Russians would burn it to the ground. Without winter quarters and no way to supply himself, Napoleon retreated. Six months after the invasion began, horrific losses in attritional battles with the Czar’s armies, Cossack raiders, lack of supply, and winter weather reduced the La Grande Armee to a shadow of its former self. On 14 December 1812, only 27,000 French troops would recross the Nieman. It was the beginning of the end of the Napoleonic era.
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Comets or Contagions?
Throughout history, philosophers believed that comets were “harbingers of doom, disease, and death, infecting men with a blood lust to war, contaminating crops, and dispersing disease and plague.”
Comet or Contagion?
A Chinese textbook known as the Mawangdui Silk details twenty-nine different types of comets, dating back to 1500 BC, and the disasters that followed each one. “Comets are vile stars,” wrote a Chinese official in 648 AD. “Every time they appear in the south, they wipe out the old and establish the new. Fish grow sick, crops fail. Emperors and common people die, and men go to war. The people hate life and don’t want to speak of it.”
In Medieval Europe and even in colonial America, observers associated the appearance of comets with the onset of disease.
In the summer of 536 AD, a mysterious and dramatic cloud of dust appeared over the Mediterranean and for eighteen months darkened the sky as far east as China. According to the Byzantine historian Procopius, “During this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness. . . and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear.”
Analysis of Greenland ice that was deposited between 533 and 540 AD shows high levels of tin, nickel and iron oxides, suggesting that a comet or fragment of a comet may have hit the Earth at that time. The impact likely triggered volcanic eruptions, which spewed more dust into the atmosphere. With the darkened sky, temperatures dropped, crops failed and famine descended on many parts of the world.
In 541 AD a mysterious illness began to appear on the outskirts of the Byzantine Empire. Victims suffered from delusions, nightmares and fevers; they had lymph node swellings in the groin, armpits and behind their ears. The plague, named after the reigning Emperor Justinian, arrived in Constantinople, the capital of the empire, in 542 AD. Procopius noted that bodies were left stacked in the open due to a lack of space for proper burial. He estimated that in the city at its peak, the plague was killing ten thousand people every day.
The current explanation for the correlation of comets and disease is that of “panspermia.” We now know that outer space is populated by clouds of microorganisms, and the theory holds that comets are watery bodies—dirty snowballs—which rain new microscopic forms on the earth, to which humans and animals have no immunity.
However, recent evidence indicates little if any water on comets. Rather, they are asteroids that have an elliptical orbit and become highly charged electrically as they approach the sun, an exchange that creates the comet’s bright coma and tail. Their surfaces exhibit the kind of features that happen with intense electrical arcing, like craters and cliffs; bright or shiny spots on otherwise barren rocky surfaces indicate areas that are electrically charged. Comets contain mineral alloys requiring temperatures in the thousands of degrees, and they have sufficient energy to emit extreme ultraviolet light and even powerful x-rays. Moreover, as comets approach the sun, they can provoke high-energy discharges and flare-ups of solar plasma, which reach out to the comet.
Not a dirty snowball! Electrical activity photographed on a comet.
Solar discharge toward a comet
Thus, comets can create electrical disturbances in the atmosphere even more powerful than those created by man-made electrification—and this radiation includes demonstrably dangerous ionizing radiation. No wonder the ancients were afraid of comets!
The conventional view holds that the Plague of Justinian was a case of bubonic plague. Researchers analyzed the remains from graves of the period and detected DNA from the organism Yersinia pestis. Rats and other rodents carry Yersinia pestis, so the thinking goes, and pass it along to fleas. When rats die, the blood-sucking fleas leave them to prey on other rats, dogs or humans. The bacteria then enter human beings via fleabites. Researchers believe that during the time of Justinian, rats on merchant ships carried the microorganism to the other Mediterranean ports.
The classic sign of bubonic plague are buboes, badly swollen lymph nodes. These often appear in the groin region because most fleabites occur on the legs. Those infected will first experience fevers, chills and muscle pains before developing septicemia or pneumonia.
The plague reappeared at periodic intervals over the next three hundred years with the last recorded occurrence in 750 AD—possibly explained by still-orbiting cometary debris. It eventually claimed 25 percent of inhabitants in the Mediterranean region. Then the plague disappeared from Europe until the Black Death of the Fourteenth Century–also presaged by a comet.
“In France. . . was seen the terrible Comet called Negra. In December appeared over Avignon a Pillar of Fire. There were many great Earthquakes, Tempests, Thunders and Lightnings, and thousands of People were swallowed up; the Courses of Rivers were stopt; some Chasms of the Earth sent forth Blood. Terrible Showers of Hail, each stone weighing 1 Pound to 8; Abortions in all Countries; in Germany it rained Blood; in France Blood gushed out of Graves of the Dead, and stained the Rivers crimson; Comets, meteors, Fire-beams, coruscations in the Air, Mock-suns, the Heavens on Fire.” – A General Chronological History Of The Air, Weather, Seasons, Meteors, & Comets by Thomas Short
According to textbooks, it was the same bubonic plague of Justinian’s time that caused the Black Death in Europe, 1347-1350. However, some investigators have pointed out flaws in this theory. Although researchers found evidence of Yersina pestis in dental pulp from a mass grave of the period in France, other teams of scientists were unable to find evidence of the pathogen in five other gravesites of the period from other parts of Europe.
Sociologist Susan Scott and biologist Christopher J. Duncan claim that a hemorrhagic fever, similar to the Ebola virus, caused the Black Death. Others blame anthrax or some now-extinct disease. They note that Medieval accounts don’t square with modern descriptions of the illness. Witnesses describe a disease that spread at great speed with very high mortality, unlike the plague, which moves slowly and has a death rate of about 60 percent. Accounts describe boboes covering the entire body rather than limited to the groin area as in the case of plague. Symptom descriptions mention awful odors, splotches resembling bruises, and delirium and stupor–none of which happen with modern-day bubonic plague. Some critics have embraced the theory that a virus caused the disease, but this premise hardly provides a better explanation than bacteria to explain the disease’s rapid spread and high mortality.
Then there is the rat problem. No written documents from that time describe vast piles of dead rats required to explain the plague. The Black Death killed over half of Iceland’s population but rats didn’t reach Iceland until the nineteenth century. And the Black Death continued to kill people during the winter months in northern Europe despite the fact that the plague organism requires relatively warm temperatures to survive.
In his book New Light on the Black Death: The Cosmic Connection Professor Mike Baillie argues that a comet caused the pandemic. He points out that witnesses of the period describe a significant earthquake on January 25, 1348, with other earthquakes to follow. “There have been masses of dead fish, animals, and other things along the sea shore and in many places covered in dust,” wrote a contemporary observer. “And all these things seem to have come from the great corruption of the air and earth.” Other documents describe tidal waves, rains of fire, foul odors, strange colors in the sky, mists and even dragons, in addition to earthquakes.
Baillie believes that the atmospheric phenomena were caused by fragments from Comet Negra, which passed by earth in 1347. Some fragments descended and injected huge amounts of dust into the atmosphere. Tree ring analysis indicates that as the material descended from space, it injected large amounts of chemicals based on carbon and nitrogen into the stratosphere. According to Baillie, illness and death resulted from poisoned air and drinking water as the comet flew overhead. But the symptoms—especially bruise-like blotches on the skin and high fatality rate–are highly indicative of radiation poisoning. probably rendered even more deadly by dust and ammonia-like compounds in the atmosphere. Imagine a large comet passing near the earth, crackling with intense electrical arcing, pelting the earth with x-rays and casting off fragments that fall to the earth and spew up toxic clouds of dust, followed immediately by horrible death, sometimes wiping out whole towns. This is not the kind of catastrophe that we can blame on microbes.
Perhaps our solar system is calming down—mankind has not seen such violent celestial phenomena for centuries. But smaller electrical disturbances, ones that can’t be seen, are still likely to promote outbreak, albeit less disastrous. And if radiation poisoning—whether ionizing or non-ionizing—provokes disease, there are obvious co-factors. Poisons in air, water and food, toxins from insect bites, deadly fungi on grains during wet harvests, exposure to filth, malnutrition and starvation, even fear and despair—and add to that the growing electrical pollution of the Earth with the installation of 5G. We don’t need to resort to the notion of contagion to explain outbreaks of disease.
PS The next visible comet to pass the Earth will arrive in late May.
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Author: Sally Fallon Morell
6 thoughts on “Comets or Contagions?”
1. Thanks, interesting article.Truth always dispels falsehood. It sometimes doesn’t come to light until the end.
2. Hello Sally,
What a well-founded piece. I did not know this information.
Are you familiar with the work of Gill Broussard and planet7x?
your dates different somewhat however the information is of the same order.
Wow, now i have more than 2 witnesses
Thank you for the time and effort you put into informing people like me.
God bless you.
3. Not too many people understand the electric comet hypothesis. People can look up the Thunderbolts Project on Youtube and their website. They have long debated the snowy iceball legend. Also, we have had an increase in cosmic rays as the magnetic field of the earth has weakened, along with the Sun, which is allowing more cosmic rays into our atmosphere. This also can increase moisture and cause great flooding. The Earth’s magnetic field is also possibly flipping and has accelerated in the last few years (see Could these electrical changes contribute to plagues?
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