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What is a graphite pencil? – Pencil Drawing Tutorial For Beginners
The graphite is an alloy of graphite and an alloy of steel. The graphite contains a small number of carbon atoms and thus tends to bond to the steel. When a graphite pencil is used for drawing to paper the graphite bonds to the steel surface, causing a strong, but fairly weak effect on the paper; graphite tends to draw away from the paper instead of forming a smooth surface. This is why most people find graphite pencils difficult to use for writing.
What is a black line? The black line is composed of carbon. Some graphite pencils allow the carbon to be removed, which allows the pencil to be used without drawing, but the pencil remains hardened so that it can not be used to draw. Other pencils make use of the carbon by attaching it to the graphite surface with a resin. These pencils tend to be more durable than graphite; but when a person uses a black line and then the graphite pencil has been removed they usually find the black line harder and harder to draw. If the graphite is hardened, it can be easily removed by placing an ordinary pencil in a glass of water and drawing with it.
What is a soft eraser? The soft eraser is made of a soft, non-abrasive plastic. The soft eraser can be used when the white line is used for drawing on top of the white line. If only the thin white line is used then the eraser will be able to move quickly over a hard black one. There are soft erasers that allow the use of two colors; so for example, when the white line is drawn on top of the black line it can be used as a soft eraser over the solid black line. Soft erasers are also sometimes called hard erasers because they are capable of holding on to the paper.
How many lines can I use with a graphite pencil? It is possible to draw very large, solid surfaces with black on white graphite pencils. Because of the flexibility of graphite, one can also draw surfaces that are much smaller or smaller than a pencil drawing. As a rule of thumb when drawing, use your longest line as a baseline for the length of the drawing. For example, you might draw a 20 foot long straight line, then draw a 5 foot long parallel line across the center of the 20 foot line, then draw another 20 foot long parallel line along half of the 20 foot line and so on.
When most people think of
easy pencil sketches of girl, pencil drawing images cartoons, easy pencil drawings of love, pencil drawing techniques pdf, pencil drawing definition
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The river otter is scarce throughout Canada, with the marked exception of the BC coast. This adorable member of the weasel family is amphibious, with a streamlined body and tail, short legs, webbed feet, and dense waterproof fur equipping it to hunt in water. Unlike other fish-eating mammals like seals and whales, otters do not have thick blubber but only a thin layer of fat under its skin. This requires them to get out of frigid waters to rest, find shelter, and travel between different lakes and streams to find food. All of these challenges for an otter are greater during the winter. Otters can only swim for about 100 m from a source of air, and when traveling above ground and across snow-covered land or ice, they must be as efficient as possible to reduce exposure to cold and predators.
How we're helping
Your adoption will help Earth Rangers support Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Canada as they work to investigate the crucial areas of open water and cavities along the Yukon’s lake shore, which provide access beneath the ice. These areas support the majority of the Yukon’s species, but are also where most human development and recreational activities are focused and where there are very few protected areas. By identifying the routes that river otters take between waterways, researchers will be able to produce best management practices for the conservation of otter habitats as well as conserving and connecting wetland ecosystems.
In collaboration with:
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in #health3 years ago
Hygiene is a set of practices performed to preserve health. According to W.H.O., hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases.
Many people equate hygiene with cleanliness, but hygiene is a broad term. It includes such personal habit choices as how frequently to bathe, wash hands, trim fingernails and change clothing. It also includes attention to keeping surfaces in the home and workplace including bathroom facilities, clean and pathogen free.
Some regular hygiene practices may be considered good habits by a society, while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrespectful or threatening. Hygiene is a concept related to cleanliness, health and medicine. It is as well related to personal and professional care practices.
In medicine and everyday life settings, hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence and spreading of disease. Hygiene practices vary, and what is considered acceptable in one culture might not be acceptable in another. In the manufacturing of food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and other products, good hygiene is a critical component of quality assurance.
The terms cleanliness and hygiene are often used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene refers to practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms; cleaning processes (e.g. hand washing) remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil and are thus often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the term appear in phrases including body hygiene, personal hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene and occupational hygiene, used in connection with public health. Hygiene is also the name of branch of science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health.
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Popular Questions of Class Chemistry. Large amounts of chlorine are used in many industrial processes, such as in the production of paper products, plastics, dyes, textiles, medicines, … The atomic mass or relative isotopic mass refers to the mass of a single particle, and therefore is tied to a certain specific isotope of an element. Density is the mass of a substance that would fill 1 cm 3 at room temperature. This is approximately the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Following its 1967 discussion of Ag, Cl, and Br, which were important in the chemical determination Chlorine is commonly used as an antiseptic and is used to make drinking water safe and to treat swimming pools. The atomic mass is the mass of an atom. ››More information on molar mass and molecular weight. In chemistry, the formula weight is a quantity computed by multiplying the atomic weight (in atomic mass units) of each element in a chemical formula by the number of atoms of that element present in the formula, then adding all of these products together. The atomic weight of chlorine given on the periodic table is 35.47 u. Previous Question Next Question. Chlorine (atomic number 17) is a yellowish-green toxic gas. 1 grams Chlorine is equal to 0.028206357713029 mole. The average atomic mass of the given sample of chlorine is 35.46 u. Different isotopes have different relative abundances,chlorine – 35 has a relative abundance of 75.76%,whereas chlorine – 37 has a relative abundance of 24.24%. Naturally occurring isotopes This table shows information about naturally occuring isotopes , their atomic masses , their natural abundances , their nuclear spins , and their magnetic moments . Q:-Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide that could be produced when (i) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in air. The isotope chlorine-35 has a mass of 34.96885 atomic mass units, and the isotope chlorine-37 has a mass of 36.96590 atomic mass units. About three quarters of all chlorine atoms have 18 neutrons, giving those atoms a mass number of 35. (ii) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in 16 g of dioxygen. Atomic mass of Chlorine is 35.453 u. The molecular formula for Chlorine is Cl. The SI base unit for amount of substance is the mole. In other words, in every 100 chlorine atoms, 75 atoms have a mass number of 35, and 25 atoms have a mass number of 37. So, the average atomic mass of chlorine = 35.4527 u . Chlorine -35 is about 3 times more abundant than chlorine – 37, the weighted average is closer to 35 than 37. About one quarter of all chlorine atoms have 20 neutrons, giving those atoms a mass number of 37. Given the information that 75.7771% of … Where more than one isotope exists, the value given is the abundance weighted average. Both Chlorine isotopes, Cl-35 and Cl-37, are used to study the toxicity of environmental pollutant and are usually supplied in the form of NaCl. Note that rounding errors may occur, so always check … Isotopes Relative atomic mass The mass of an atom relative to that of carbon-12. Chlorine In 1961, the Commission recommended Ar(Cl) = 35.453(1), based on the atomic weight of silver and on Ag/AgCl equivalent ratios determined chemically by many well-known authorities.
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In the spirit for more spooky stories? Check out our Halloween series!
The summer of 1999 was captured by The Blair Witch Project, a documentary-style movie that burst into theatres and enthralled audiences.
The Blair Witch is barely seen in the film, just as a towering terror that wipes out the lives of a few curious teens. But that’s not how the story began. Filmmakers drew the inspiration for the Blair Witch from the fable of Moll Dyer. The story did more than scare children, it revealed how women were portrayed in the 17th century.
The story of Moll Dyer
Moll Dyer was an elderly, single woman who lived on the outskirts of a small Maryland settlement in the late 1600s. We’re not sure exactly what she looked like, as there are very conflicting opinions. Some sources cite her as a “hag” while others recount her as a lovely older woman. All sources describe Dyer as exceptionally tall for a woman, with most men in the town barely hitting her frail shoulders. This difference already made her an outsider, and her oddities did nothing to remedy that.
Dyer’s exploits upset the townsfolk. She was not wealthy and so would seek out monetary contributions or request food. But for the other residents of this Maryland town, this behavior was not as concerning as her frequent incantations and habit for foraging for herbs.
Dyer was an outcast, so when the townsfolk experienced a frigid winter, they had an easy target to blame. The only explanation for this terrible season could be a vengeful witch. In 1697 an angry mob swarmed Dyer’s modest home. There was no trial and she didn’t even have a chance to explain herself. The mob set Dyer’s home aflame. But they didn’t stick around to see her burn.
Dyer fled her burning house and hid in the woods. However, due to the cold temperatures, she froze to death before she could make it to safety. Dyer was found with her hand reached up to the sky and knees perched on a rock. Dyer’s body stayed in this position for days, until someone found her petrified body.
From that point on the townsfolk believed Dyer had used her final strength to curse them. And they all lived in fear of what that curse would bring.
Moll Dyer may never have lived. It’s very possible that her story is all that ever existed of her. But the Blair Witch fable reveals cultural perceptions of women during that time, and for the years after when the story was shared around packed campfires.
Witch” was a term thrown at women who existed outside of cultural norms. Women who were unmarried, divorced, widowed, childless, had too many children or were too outspoken. With that characterization, it’s easy to understand how Dyer was thrown into the category.
Throughout the fable, It’s clear that Dyer made a fatal mistake. She remained unmarried. This romantic choice meant she was already a social pariah. Dyer did not conform to traditional family values that ruled colonial society. Because she did not have a husband to support her she had to wander into the town to beg for sustenance. This reminded the townsfolk of her curious antics whenever she was in sight and placed an emphasis on her otherness.
Lasting impact
Women have been blamed for hardships since Adam and Eve, witchcraft claims were just the latest installment of a misogynistic trend. When men were unwilling to take responsibility for their failings or insecurities, they would project them onto women who were outside of their social circle. But these prosecutors wouldn’t have been successful without the willful approval of their female counterparts. Women turned against each other for the approval of their community. These fables are built upon settlers turning against the most vulnerable, and then controlling the narrative after they condemned the innocent.
In 17th-century terms, all of Moll Dyer’s actions may point to “witch,” but that’s not a 1999 thought. This story lived on for hundreds of years, retelling the same narrative. People in the 20th century anticipated vengeance based on irrational fears from 1697. The misplaced anger of a starving town has led to the continued tale of an exiled older woman cursing the innocent. Dyer’s true story has been erased by her persecutors.
Part of woman's face looking into camera while crying
“Blair Witch Project” still from John Squires via
The Blair Witch Project’s guerrilla marketing campaign left viewers confused about the authenticity of the film and led to a lasting impact on marketing and horror movies for decades to come. But the “real” Blair Witch left a lasting impact on the perceptions of women in American colonial society.
Olivia McCormack
By Olivia McCormack
Editorial Fellow
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Developing Self
Approaches to Learning
Play and Exploration
Goal 1: Children engage in play to understand the world around them.
By the end of each age group or grade level, most children will have met prior age group or grade level standards in this domain.
Infants Through Older Toddlers
(By 12 Months)
1. Play independently (solitary play)
2. Respond to play activities (e.g., peek-a-boo)
3. Uses senses to explore objects and toys (e.g., chews on toy)
4. Relate objects to each other (e.g., banging 2 blocks)
5. Engage in simple turn-taking games
Young Toddlers
(By 18 Months)
1. Engage in solitary and parallel play (e.g., children building blocks next to each other, but not interacting)
2. Engage in intended use of toy (e.g., running car along the floor)
3. Engage in simple pretend play with actual objects (e.g., puts phone to ear, or doll to bed)
4. Play outside engaging with the natural environment (e.g., feeling leaves, digging in sand)
Older Toddlers
(By 36 Months)
1. Engage in constructive play (e.g., use blocks to build a tower)
2. Engage in representational play (e.g., use a gourd as a hammer or a block as a phone)
3. Experiment with the outdoor environment (e.g., climb on rocks, roll down hills)
4. Build friendships through play
Younger Preschoolers Through Kindergartners
Younger Preschoolers
(By 48 months)
1. Engage in associative play (e.g., play without planning and negotiation) with other children for short periods of time
2. Primarily engage in basic constructive play activities (e.g., building road with rocks) and dramatic play activities by taking on a role
3. Build knowledge through play (e.g., blocks/math, dramatic play/literacy, water table/problem solving, outdoor play/science)
Older Preschoolers
(By 60 months)
1. Engage solidly in “solitary”, “parallel”, “associative” and “cooperative play” (e.g., play that involves engagement, negotiation and pre-planning)
2. Engage in sustained play episodes (e.g., stays in a dramatic play role like “the baby”)
3. Practice concepts through play (e.g., emergent writing: restaurant menu, geometry: naming the block shapes used in building a garage)
4. Play basic games with rules
1. Play basic games with rules
2. Engage in a variety of play-based contexts, to develop skills in oral language, idea expression, problem-solving, and self-regulation
3. Incorporate the outdoor natural environment into play scenarios
4. Engage in productive play scenarios to develop oral language, express ideas, problem-solve, and develop self-regulation
First Graders Through Third Graders
First Graders
1. Play moderate level games with rules with other children
2. Engage in intricate dramatic play and role play scenarios, some in real-world settings, that help then make sense of the world (e.g. acts out favorite stories with a group of friends)
3. Engage in child-initiated outdoor games and activities
Second Graders
1. Play advanced games with rules
2. Engage in dramatic play and role play scenarios and dramatic interpretations of text, including: flannel board stories, finger plays, and reader's theater
3. Organize outdoor games and projects
Third Graders
1. Engage in, negotiate, develop and organize games with rules
2. Cooperatively play with others in intricate dramatic play scenarios, making own props, engaging in multiple topics, expressing ideas
3. Produce and execute reader's theater scripts
4. Resolve conflicts during organized indoor and outdoor play activities
Vermont Agency of Education
Secretary Daniel M. French
219 North Main Street, Suite 402
Barre, VT 05641
Web and Document Accessibility Policy
Public Records Requests
(802) 479-1030 |
Staff Directory | Division Phone Numbers
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35 mm slide projectors, direct descendants of the larger-format magic lantern, first came into widespread use during the 1950s as a form of occasional home entertainment; family members and friends would gather to view slide shows. Reversal film was much in use, and supplied slides snapped during vacations and at family events. Slide projectors were also widely used in educational and other institutional settings.
Photographic film slides and projectors have mostly been replaced by image files on digital storage media shown on a projection screen by using a video projector or simply displayed on a large-screen video monitor.
Continuous-Slide Lantern, ca. 1881
A continuous-slide lantern was patented in 1881.[1] It included a dissolving views apparatus.[2]
A projector has four main elements:
A flat piece of heat-absorbing glass is often placed in the light path between the condensing lens and the slide, to avoid damaging the latter. This glass transmits visible wavelengths but absorbs infrared. Light passes through the transparent slide and lens, and the resulting image is enlarged and projected onto a perpendicular flat screen so the audience can view its reflection. Alternatively, the image may be projected onto a translucent "rear projection" screen, often used for continuous automatic display for close viewing. This form of projection also avoids the audience interrupting the light stream by casting their shadows on the projection or by bumping into the projector.
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John James Audubon
The work of American artist and ornithologist John James Audubon (1785-1851) was the culmination of the work of natural history artists who tried to portray specimens directly from nature. He is chiefly remembered for his "Birds of America."
When John James Audubon began his work in the first decade of the 19th century, there was no distinct profession of "naturalist" in America. The men who engaged in natural history investigations came from all walks of life and generally financed their work—collecting, writing, and publication—from their own resources. The American continent, still largely unexplored, offered a fertile field, giving the amateur an unrivaled opportunity to make a genuine contribution to science—for an afternoon walk in the woods might reveal a hitherto unknown species of bird, plant, or insect to the practiced eye. Especially fortunate was the man with artistic ability, for there was an intense popular interest in the marvels of nature during this, the romantic, era; and anyone who could capture the natural beauty of wild specimens was certain to take his place among the front ranks of those recognized as "men of science." This is the context in which Audubon worked and in which he became known as America's greatest naturalist—a title which modern scholars using other standards invariably deny him.
Audubon was born in San Domingo (now Haiti) on April 26, 1785, the illegitimate son of a French adventurer and a woman called Mademoiselle Rabin, about whom little is known except that she was a Creole of San Domingo and died soon after her son's birth. Audubon's father had made his fortune in San Domingo as a merchant, planter, and dealer in slaves. In 1789 Audubon went with his father and a half sister to France, where they joined his father's wife. The children were legalized by a regular act of adoption in 1794.
Life in France and Move to America
Audubon's education, arranged by his father, was that of a well-to-do young bourgeois; he went to a nearby school and was also tutored in mathematics, geography, drawing, music, and fencing. According to Audubon's own account, he had no interest in school, preferring instead to fish, hunt, and collect curiosities in the field. Left to the supervision of his indulgent stepmother most of the time, while his father served as a naval officer for the republic, Audubon became a spoiled, willful youth who managed to resist all efforts either to educate or discipline him. When residence at a naval base under his father's direct supervision failed to have any effect, he was sent briefly to Paris to study art, but this disciplined study also repelled him.
With the collapse of a large part of his income following the rebellion in San Domingo, the elder Audubon decided to send his son to America, where he owned a farm near Philadelphia. At first the boy lived with friends of his father and they tried to teach him English and otherwise continue his education, but after a time he demanded to be allowed to live on his father's farm, which was being managed by a tenant. There Audubon continued his undisciplined ways, living the life of a country gentleman— fishing, shooting, and developing his skill at drawing birds, the only occupation to which he was ever willing to give persistent effort. He developed the new technique of inserting wires into the bodies of freshly killed birds in order to manipulate them into natural positions for his sketching. He also made the first banding experiments on the young of an American wild bird, in April 1804.
Business Career
In 1805, after a prolonged battle with his father's business agent in America, Audubon returned briefly to France, where he formed a business partnership with Ferdinand Rozier, the son of one of his father's associates. Together the two returned to America and tried to operate a lead mine on the farm. Then in August 1807 the partners decided to move to the West. There followed a series of business failures, in Louisville, Henderson, and other parts of Kentucky, caused largely by Audubon's preference for roaming the woods rather than keeping the store.
During this period he married Lucy Bakewell. After the failures with Rozier, Audubon, in association with his brother-in-law, Thomas Bakewell, and others, attempted several different enterprises, the last being a steam grist and lumber mill at Henderson. In 1819 this enterprise failed and Audubon was plunged into bankruptcy, left with only the clothes he wore, his gun, and his drawings. This disaster ended his business career.
For a time Audubon did crayon portraits at $5 a head, then he moved to Cincinnati, where he became a taxidermist in the Western Museum recently founded by Dr. Daniel Drake. In 1820 the possibility of publishing his bird drawings occurred to him; and he set out down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, exploring the country for new birds and paying his expenses by painting portraits. For a while he supported himself in New Orleans by tutoring and painting; then his wife obtained a position as a governess and later opened a school for girls. Thereafter she was the family's main support while Audubon tried to have his drawings published.
"Birds of America"
In 1824 Audubon went to Philadelphia to seek a publisher, but he encountered the opposition of friends of Alexander Wilson, the other pioneer American ornithologist, with whom he had had a bitter rivalry dating back to a chance encounter in his store in 1810. He finally decided to raise the money for a trip to Europe, where he was assured he would find a greater interest in his subject. He arrived at Liverpool in 1826, then moved on to Edinburgh and to London, being favorably received and obtaining subscribers for his volumes in each city. Audubon finally reached an agreement with a London engraver, and in 1827 Birds of America began to appear in "elephant folio" size. It took 11 years in all for its serial publication and subsequent reprintings. The success of Audubon's bird drawings brought him immediate fame, and by 1831 he was acclaimed the foremost naturalist of his country. This title was bestowed upon him despite the fact that he possessed no formal scientific training and no aptitude for taxonomy (the Latin nomenclature and the scientific indentification of most of the species in Birds of America is largely the work of a collaborator). He had, however, succeeded in giving the world the first great collection of American birds, drawn in their natural habitats with reasonable fidelity to nature.
With his great work finally finished in 1838, and the Ornithological Biography (a text commentary) in publication, Audubon returned to America to prepare a "miniature" edition. Simultaneously, he began to prepare, in collaboration with John Bachman, Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America (2 vols., 1842-1845). Audubon himself completed only about half the drawings in this last work; his powers failed during his last few years and his son contributed the remainder.
Final Years
With old age—and success—came a more kindly attitude toward his former rivals. In 1841 he bought an estate on the Hudson River and settled down to advise and encourage young scientists. It was during this period that the romantic picture of Audubon as the "American Woodsman," the revered and adored sage and patron saint of the birds, began to emerge. (This image was kept alive by his daughter and granddaughter until 1917, when F. H. Herrick published the first critical biography of the artist-naturalist.) After several years of illness, Audubon suffered a slight stroke in January 1851, followed by partial paralysis and great pain, and died on the 27th.
Further Reading on John James Audubon
Alice E. Ford, John James Audubon (1964), is a good biography by an art historian; Alexander B. Adams, John James Audubon (1966), gives a meticulous year-by-year chronicle of his activities. An earlier work, Francis H. Herrick, Audubon the Naturalist (2 vols., 1917), is still valuable for the scientific side. All of the earlier biographies, based on the account by Audubon's wife, are highly romanticized. Useful for background information on this period in American natural history is William M. and Mabel S. C. Smallwood, Natural History and the American Mind (1941). George H. Daniels, American Science in the Age of Jackson (1968), discusses the general scientific frame of reference.
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Your dashboard and recommendations. Expenditure Approach Formula GDP = C + I + G + (X-M) Final Goods/Services Goods and services sold to final, or end, users. The formula for the expenditure approach for GDP is GDP=C+I+G+NX with a definition of each and an example below. What Does Expenditure Approach Mean? As for the income approach, GDP refers to the aggregate income earned by all households, companies and the government that operates within an economy over a given period of time. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has two different approaches: the income approach and the expenditure (or output) approach. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the monetary value, in local currency, of all final economic goods and services produced in a … (Delivery or UPS charges will apply)(Non local sales can be arranged. There are two main methods to calculate GDP: the expenditure approach, and the income approach (see also Gross Domestic Product).According to the expenditure approach, GDP can … We break down the GDP formula into steps in this guide. GDP describes the monetary value of all final goods and services produced within an economy over a specific period (usually one year). Gear only sold Locally. Yet another method of calculating GDP is the expenditure approach, defined as the sum of the final uses of goods and services (all uses except intermediate consumption) measured in purchasers’ prices, less the value of imports of goods and services, or the sum of primary incomes distributed by resident producer units. Switch to. Get the detailed answer: Using the relevant information, calculate the GDP using the expenditure approach equation. The expenditure approach to calculating gross domestic product for the nation, or GDP, uses these four expenditure categories as a measure of economic growth and activity. As these four expenditures go up, the economy expands and businesses of all sizes do better; as they go down, the economy contracts and businesses do worse. C is private consumption. The expenditure method formula is calculated by adding up the following: (C) consumer spending – this is the amount that all consumers spend on goods and services for personal use. Intermediate Goods/Services: Intermediate goods and services are goods and services bought from one firm by another firm to be used as … Homework Help. Personalized courses, with or without credits. Booster Classes. The Expenditure Method Formula. The equation for GDP using the expenditure approach is A GDP C I G EX IM B GDP from ECO 201 at Pikes Peak Community College This is the most common way to measure and calculate nominal GDP. There's many different ways of calculating GDP, but in the expenditure approach, you can break it down as being made up of consumption by households plus investment by firms plus government spending on goods and services, by the government, and net exports. Home. As per the expenditure approach, the GDP is the sum of total consumption spending on final goods and services, investments in capital equipment and inventories, government spending, plus exports minus imports. The GDP Formula consists of consumption, government spending, investments, and net exports. GDP, which can be calculated using numerous methods, including the expenditure approach, is supposed to measure a country's standard of living and economic health. Pickup or Delivery unless other arrangements made. By Raphael Zeder | Updated Jun 26, 2020 (Published Apr 30, 2019).
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Historical Background for Hope’s Reward
Hope's Reward Carol Ashby cover
Must the secrets we hide destroy our hope for a future?
Roman Marriage, Divorce, and Dowry During the Early Empire
At the time of the kings of Rome and during the early Republic, the most common type of marriage was cum manu, where the wife moved from being under the authority of her paterfamilias, the oldest living male of an extended Roman family (familia) who owned everything, to being under the authority of her husband as if she were one of his children.
Marriages were intended to last until death claimed one of the partners, although divorce was allowed. Since the husband had absolute authority over his wife, only he could initiate a divorce. A reason, generally for some misconduct, was provided, and a council of the male members of the husband’s extended family would decide if divorce was appropriate.
By the end of the late Republic (after 100 BC), most marriages were sine manu, where the woman remained under the authority of her own paterfamilias (father or grandfather) if he was still living. If he was dead, she was under her own authority (sui iuris) but was required to have a male guardian (tutor) to oversee her in financial matters. The guardian was often selected by her paterfamilias before his death. If a woman didn’t think her guardian was doing a good job, she could go to court and request that a different guardian of her choice be assigned.
For a union to be an officially recognized Roman marriage, the paterfamilias of both families had to approve it. In practice, her paterfamilias often arranged it as well. After his death, the guardian frequently helped arrange a marriage and the details of her dowry, but he could not dictate whom a sui iuris woman could marry.
From the time of Cicero onward, divorce among the upper classes became very common. Because of falling birthrates among elite Romans (senatorial and equestrian), in 18 BC Augustus Caesar issued a law that tried to encourage childbearing. One provision of the law did away with the requirement of a guardian for women who had borne at least three children.
The change from a married woman being under her husband’s authority to remaining under her father’s authority or her own had a profound effect on divorce and how a dowry was handled after the divorce. Unlike contemporary marriage in Western societies, Roman marriage was not a legal contract. It was a mutual agreement between the man and woman to live together in a married state.
The legal minimum age of marriage was twelve for a girl; she could be betrothed as young as ten. While a father could not officially force a son to marry, a son could be pressured into it. A daughter was assumed to consent if she didn’t actively object. The only allowable reason for objecting was if the fiancé was “morally undesirable.” Marriages were often arranged to form political alliances in the senatorial order and for business ties among equestrians.
Either person could decide to end the marriage at any time and for any reason. A woman’s paterfamilias could declare the marriage over, and his daughter needed his consent to divorce. A sui iuris woman could end the marriage herself if she wished. The intention to end a marriage was announced in front of witnesses, and a message was sent to the spouse being divorced.
Upon divorce, the dowry would be returned to the woman so she would have the financial means to support herself or to induce another man to marry her, which Augustus and later emperors preferred to sustain birthrates. An unmarried woman was taxed under the Augustan law.
Unlike the marriage, the dowry was a legal contract between the husband and the woman’s paterfamilias or the woman if she was sui iuris. As the one in charge of her finances, her guardian was involved.
When a couple married, the real estate portion of the dowry was transferred right away. The cash balance was customarily paid in annual installments over three years. This generally accepted practice could be changed by a written contract. If a husband died, the dowry was returned to the widow quickly so she could remarry. If her paterfamilias was still alive when a wife died, her dowry was returned to him since he owned the property of the entire familia. If she was already sui iuris, her husband kept the dowry.
Upon divorce, the entire dowry was to be returned except under certain circumstances. The ex-husband could keep a portion of the dowry for their children, who remained under his control and in his care. He could also keep a portion if she had been extravagant while she managed his household affairs or if she had behaved immorally. The profits made using the dowry remained the property of the husband. The paterfamilias received the dowry if he still lived. If he had died, it went to the ex-wife since she became independent at his death.
In Hope’s Reward, Felicia’s father has died, making her sui iuris. Her uncle Gaius Felix was chosen by her father to serve as her guardian. He arranged her marriage with Falco, using her dowry to get Falco to enter into a business partnership with him. Felica approved of the marriage beforehand, but when Falco almost kills her in a drunken rage, she asks her guardian to protect her and help her with the divorce process. Being unwilling to jeopardize his partnership with Falco, he sends her to her sister in another city with the understanding that she will change guardian to her brother-in-law Gnaeus. Gnaeus would then announce the divorce and request the dowry’s return.
But because Felicia is sui iuris, Falco can keep her dowry if he can arrange her death before the divorce is announced, and that seems like a good business decision to him.
Fact and Fiction by Carol Ashby
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kids encyclopedia robot
Galaxias arcanus facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Riffle galaxias
Conservation status
Scientific classification
G. arcanus
Binomial name
Galaxias arcanus
Raadik, 2014
Galaxias arcanus, the riffle galaxias, is a galaxiid of the genus Galaxias, a member of the Mountain Galaxias species complex group of freshwater fish, found in Australia.
Galaxias arcanus has the typical Galaxias body form, with a long tubular body and a maximum recorded standard length (SL) of 98 millimetres (3.9 in), typically 60–75 millimetres (2.4–3.0 in). Fins have slightly fleshy bases, although less so in the paired fins, and are thin, moderately long and are generally paddle shaped. The pelvic fins are inserted about midway along the SL, with the dorsal fin somewhat further back with the anal fin starting about even with or slightly before the rear end of the base of the dorsal fin. The caudal (tail) fin is moderately lobed and somewhat shorter than the caudal peduncle. Colour is overall beige to olive-brown becoming silvery white on the under sides. The main colouration is overlain with large blotchy darker makings usually merging into uneven bands, often overlaid with tiny dark grey spots. The body often has a horizontal band, sometime two, of gold or copper coloured flecks, also sometimes over the head and snout and sometimes extending onto the caudal peduncle.
Galaxias arcanus distribution map
The riffle Galaxias range is confined to a narrow strip to the north of the Great Dividing Range in eastern Victoria, extending in the west to the head waters of the Golbourn river and in the east to the head waters of the Murray River. It has not yet been recorded from the Broken catchment in northern Victoria, but may be present with a restricted range limited to the cooler faster flowing areas. Not recorded in the Murray River downstream of the Albury area. May be limited to steeper streams in more upland areas by the need for variable substrates and faster water flows.
G.arcanus prefers cold to cool clear water in shallow 100–400 millimetres (3.9–15.7 in), fast flowing streams varying from 1–20 metres (3.3–65.6 ft) in width at an elevation of 150–880 metres (490–2,890 ft). The fish is generally found in high energy areas such as riffles and runs. The stream bottoms of the preferred areas mostly consist of pebbles and rocks with small amounts of bedrock, boulders and gravel. The fish are usually found in amongst or under rocks or in deeper water within the gaps in the substrate material. The fish are not usually found amongst instream vegetation, but sometimes occurs with submerged timber debris.
The riffle Galaxias is often found in streams with large number of predatory, introduced trout. The species preference for high velocity areas and its habit of hiding between rocks and pebbles on the stream bed together with its cryptic colouration appear to provide it with protection from predation. Risks identified for the species include inundation (thus providing access to predators) and drying out of the riffle zones, due to river regulation.
The spawning period for G.arcanus is reported to probably be between October to December, possibly into January. Ripe to running-ripe adult fish have been collected in Corryong Creek (upper Murray) in early November and from the Acheron River (Goulburn R. catchment) in mid October to mid November. To complicate matters running ripe females have been recorded in late June in the upper Murray and nearly ripe from the Goulburn River system in May.
Juvenile fish have been observed in large loose shoals of more than fifty individuals moving upstream along the shallow edge of pools between riffle zones. This suggests that the younger fish engage in active upstream dispersal.
Utility to humans
Not an angling target due to small size.
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Galaxias arcanus Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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kids encyclopedia robot
South Passage (Queensland) facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Stradbroke Island
South Passage between North Stradbroke Island and Moreton Island (centre right of image)
South Passage is channel between the South Pacific Ocean and Moreton Bay. The other entrances to the bay are the North Passage and Jumpinpin Channel in the south.
It was once the main entrance for ships entering the bay. South Passage begins in the shallow sand-barred channel between Moreton Island and North Stradbroke Island and continues along North Stradbroke Island past Amity Point to Dunwich.
Crossing the channel by small boat is not recommended, especially during a high swell, due to the network of channels and shifting sand bars. The tidal flow is rapid with a rate of 150 cm per second during the flooding tide and slightly slower during the ebb tide of 100 cm per second.
The passage has a return coefficient of 50%, meaning that half the amount of water that leaves the bay via the passage returns the same way on the flooding tide.
The channel was not noticed by Lieutenant James Cook as he explored the coastline in May 1770. On 14 July 1799, Matthew Flinders was the first European to discern an opening between the islands. In 1824 John Oxley aboard the Amity left Moreton Bay via the South Passage after he had explored the Brisbane River with Allan Cunningham. He was the first European sailor known to do so.
The Lucinda was used as a mail vessel for delivering mail up and down the Queensland coast. The boat was largely captained by Captain James South who notably used South Passage to cut hours off the mail route. Some believed this is how South Passage came to be named, but it appears this is simply a coincidence. There is clear reference to South Passage prior to Captain South surveying/sounding and using this route.
On 11 March 1847, 44 people lost their lives when the SS Sovereign was wrecked as it passed through the passage; only 10 people were saved. This led to the shipping route being moved to the northern entrance to the bay the next year, while the pilot station was moved to Cowan Cowan on Moreton Island.
Another wreck found in the passage is the Rufus King.
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South Passage (Queensland) Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Asymptomatic,or,symptomatic,covid 19.,male,hand,turns,cubes,and,changes
When you think of COVID-19, most people think of a horrific and often fatal virus that causes pneumonia-like symptoms that leave the sufferer gasping for air and often needing mechanical ventilation to live. However, many with COVID-19 have no symptoms.
6. Asymptomatic vs. Presymptomatic
Groundbreaking research has shown that over half of all people with COVID-19 have no symptoms. However, even though they lack a visible infection they can still spread the virus. Many might not even know they are sick.
Currently, about 35 percent of COVID-19 transmission is thought to occur from presymptomatic individuals, which are people who are infected with the virus but have not started to develop symptoms yet. Research has shown that it can take up to 14 days for symptoms to develop in some people but even without active symptoms, they can still spread the virus.
As many as 24 percent of transmission of the coronavirus comes from asymptomatic individuals, which are people with no symptoms and who will never develop symptoms. However, they transmit the virus.
5. The Spread of COVID-19
Covid Infection
Daniel Fagbuyi, an emergency room physician who served as a biodefense expert in the Obama administration, states the following: “Bottom line is that this SARS-CoV-2 virus has combined the best characteristics/traits of the coronavirus family and acquired the best ‘fit’ characteristics of a virus to go undetected and spread like wildfire.”
Clearly, identifying and quarantining only symptomatic people is not enough to control the transmission of the coronavirus. Other strict public measures must be put in place to slow the spread and save lives.
Mask wearing and physical distancing are the best way to stop the spread of the virus. In addition, widespread testing of individuals who may not be showing symptoms can also catch early cases before they have a chance to transmit the virus to other vulnerable individuals.
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Weighing the possibilities
Student choose an object in the room for which other players will estimate the mass. The object should be light such as a pencil, pen, or coin. The other players will write down the number of centimeter cubes they think equals the mass of the object chose
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Telegraph, History of
The term “telegraph” was used from the late eighteenth century to describe line‐of‐sight distance communication systems, most notably Claude Chappé's semaphore network. By 1810, this network linked 29 of France's largest cities to Paris. Experimental telegraphs utilizing electricity passing over wire for signaling purposes were developed in the early 1800s, though it was the inventions of Cooke and Wheatstone in the UK in the late 1830s which led to their practical application, initially on railways, where, in warning of accidents and stoppages, this form of signaling had the obvious advantage of traveling much faster than any train itself. Around the same time Samuel Morse, in the US, developed his system of using a series of short and long pulses of electric current, generated by turning the current on and off with a Morse key, to represent letters of the alphabet (Morse code). This system came to dominate telegraph communication for the next 100 years
Original languageEnglish
Title of host publicationInternational Encyclopedia of Communication
EditorsWolfgang Donsbach
Place of PublicationOxford
ISBN (Print)9781405131995
Publication statusPublished - 2008
Fingerprint Dive into the research topics of 'Telegraph, History of'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
Cite this
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Endangered Sumatran Rhinos: Learn Interesting Facts About the Sumatran Rhino & Why They are Currently on the Endangered Species List
Page content
Description of Sumatran Rhinos
The Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), the smallest species of rhinoceros, is also known as the “hairy rhino” because it is the only rhino species that has a coat of reddish-brown hair and fringed ears. It is also the only species of Asian rhino that has two horns.
Habitat & Diet
The preferred habitat of Sumatran rhinos is dense lowland and highland tropical forests. They are browsers, and their diet consists of various types of vegetation including shrubs, leaves, bark, twigs, vines and fruit. They are particularly fond of bamboo, figs and mangoes.
Sumatran rhinos consume approximately 110 pounds (50 kg) of vegetation daily. They tend to feed in the early morning and in the evening after sunset. During the day, they spend most of their time in wallows, coating themselves with mud, which is thought to cool them and protect them from insects.
By nature, Sumatran rhinos are solitary rather than herd animals. Each rhino has a home territory that is crossed by a network of trails, which lead to wallows, salt licks, and preferred feeding areas. The home ranges of individual rhinos overlap and they may share the same feeding areas. While they mark their territory with excrement and by scraping soil and bending saplings, the male rhinos do not appear to fight over territory.
Male Sumatran rhinos reach sexual maturity at 10 years of age, while females mature at 6 to 7 years. Females give birth to one calf every 3 years, after a 15-16 month gestation period. The calf stays with its mother for about 18 months, until the next calf is born. Breeding Sumatran rhinos in captivity has not been successful. In the wild, the life span for the Sumatran rhino is thought to be 35-40 years. The oldest rhino in captivity lived for over 32 years.
Endangered Status of Sumatran Rhinos
Historically, the range of Sumatran rhinos extended in the north from India, Bangladesh and Myanmar through Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos and Thailand, and continued through Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. Today, there are only an estimated 200-300 remaining Sumatran rhinos left in the wild, located in isolated areas of peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo. Those on Borneo are a subspecies.
The Sumatran rhino is on the IUCN Red List as critically endangered. It is estimated that in the past 15 years, their numbers have declined by half. They have no known predators other than humans, and the two main threats to these rhinos are poaching and habitat loss.
Conservation efforts to save the remaining Sumatran rhinos include stopping illegal trade of rhino horns, and preserving the remaining habitat.
International Rhino Foundation
World Wildlife Fund
Endangered Animals of the World
Photo Credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/walanbaker/511120633/
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Quick Answer: How Did Tyrants Keep Their Power?
How did tyrants lose power?
How did tyrants sometimes lose power.
They were overthrown by the people.
A king inherits power, but a tyrant seizes it..
How did tyrants gain power in the city states?
A form of government meaning “rule by the people.” … Citizens elect others to represent them in government. How did tyrants gain power in the city-states? Leaders who promised land and other benefits to the poor to win political support.
What is an example of tyrant?
The definition of a tyrant is a cruel ruler or authority figure. An example of a tyrant was Joseph Stalin. … A despot; a ruler who governs unjustly, cruelly, or harshly.
Who is a tyrant person?
1 : a ruler who has no legal limits on his or her power. 2 : a ruler who exercises total power harshly and cruelly. 3 : a person who uses authority or power harshly My boss is a real tyrant.
What type of leader came to power in Greece around 600 BC was?
tyrantThe type of leader who came to power in Greece around 600 B.C. due to growing political and economic unrest among city-states was a(n) tyrant. The type of leader who came to power in Greece around 600 B.C. due to growing political and economic unrest among city-states was a(n) tyrant.
What is a person who enforced laws and managed tax collection in Sparta?
Ephor. a person who enforced laws and managed tax collection in Sparta. Helot.
What makes a tyrant?
In the modern English-language’s usage of the word, a tyrant (derived from Ancient Greek τύραννος, tyrannos) is an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped a legitimate ruler’s sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their positions by resorting to repressive means.
What is the difference between a tyrant and a king?
is that tyrant is (historic|ancient greece) a usurper; one who gains power and rules extralegally, distinguished from kings elevated by election or succession while king is a male monarch; a man who heads a monarchy if it’s an absolute monarchy, then he is the supreme ruler of his nation or king can be (chinese musical …
How do I become a tyrant?
7 Steps to Becoming a DictatorExpand your power base through nepotism and corruption. … Instigate a monopoly on the use of force to curb public protest. … Curry favour by providing public goods efficiently and generously. … Get rid of your political enemies… … Create and defeat a common enemy.More items…•
What country has a tyranny government?
In addition to specifically identifying Belarus, Cuba, Iran, Myanmar, North Korea and Zimbabwe as examples of outpost of tyranny, Rice characterized the broader Middle East as a region of tyranny, despair, and anger.
Why did separate governments develop in ancient Greece?
Why did separate governments develop in Ancient Greece? Because they were surrounded by water the Greeks became skilled shipbuilders and sailors. What features of the polis made it a safe,protected place to live and conduct business? This marked the beginning of the Greek classical age.
What tyranny means?
1 : oppressive power every form of tyranny over the mind of man— Thomas Jefferson especially : oppressive power exerted by government the tyranny of a police state. 2a : a government in which absolute power is vested in a single ruler especially : one characteristic of an ancient Greek city-state.
Why were tyrants popular in city-states ? They built new things such as marketplaces,temples,and walls. Why did the spartans stress military training ? They thought maybe the helots would rebel and they wanted to be ready.
What is a female tyrant called?
despot; female bully; female tyrant.
What did Sparta use to control citizens?
Spartan citizens were controlled by the strictures of laws and military traditions that they lived in.
Who was the first tyrant?
Peisistratos (Greek: Πεισίστρατος; died 528/27 BC), latinised Pisistratus, the son of Hippocrates, was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period between 561 and 527 BC….Popular tyrant.Obol of Athens, 545–525 BCObv: An archaic GorgoneionRev: Square incuse2 more rows
Is tyrant a bad word?
In antiquity the word tyrant was not necessarily pejorative and signified the holder of absolute political power. In its modern usage the word tyranny is usually pejorative and connotes the illegitimate possession or use of such power.
How could tyrants in ancient Greece keep power?
That model was emulated across Greece in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, as new tyrants emerged by creating military states. These tyrants maintained control by expanding the spheres of power controlled by their city-states.
Who held the most power in Greek family?
Like all Greek societies, Sparta was dominated by male citizens, and the most powerful of these came from a select group of families. The Spartan political system was unusual in that it had two hereditary kings from two separate families.
What is known about oligarchy in ancient Greece?
Oligarchy. … For the Greeks (or more particularly the Athenians) any system which excluded power from the whole citizen-body and was not a tyranny or monarchy was described as an oligarchy. Oligarchies were perhaps the most common form of city-state government and they often occurred when democracy went wrong.
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Preschool 2
What's in a Name?
March 2020
This month at Owl-St. Brigid, the children of Preschool 2 enhanced their literacy skills while also engaging with some loose parts. Many of the children had been curious about learning how to write their names, so educator Anna decided to incorporate their interests into the weekly Forest Friday trips. As the class was out for a walk, the children went on a scavenger hunt for things like rocks, pebbles and small sticks. Educators Anna, Sandy and Stephanie also brought in other loose parts such as pinecones, shells, glass beads, etc. During a rainy morning the following week, the educators placed pieces of paper with various letters around the room, and set up trays of loose parts with them. Without giving any instruction, the educators watched as the children began using the loose parts to make letters. Olivia looked around the classroom for the letter “O” and said “O is for Olivia! Now I need more letters. Olivia goes O-L-I-V-I-A”. Jaxon also commented “J for Jaxon! What else is for Jaxon?”. Anna wrote Jaxon’s name on a new piece of paper, and watched as he used loose parts to trace his name. The preschoolers continued enhancing their fine-motor skills, along with their cognitive skills. This experience also helped foster a sense of self and belonging in the children. It gave them the opportunity to feel pride when they were able to identify the letters in their name, and they recognized the individuality and uniqueness of their names. We’re excited to see how else we can incorporate literacy into nature!
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The Characteristic Of Nonverbal Communication English Language Essay
1892 words (8 pages) Essay in English Language
5/12/16 English Language Reference this
What is nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is all messages sent by ones except for words in a communication. These messages are for example, tone of voice, facial message, eye contact, spatial message and many more. Nonverbal communication usually conveys more meaning than verbal communication. According to Dr. Albert Mehrabian, nonverbal communication is 93% of overall daily communication. This statistic shows that nonverbal communication is very important in our daily life. When we speak, we usually not just talk with word, nonverbal message convey more messages than talking. Therefore, we can conclude that verbal and nonverbal work simultaneously in communication. In the following paper will be showing the importance of nonverbal communication based on example and the types of nonverbal communication.
Characteristic of nonverbal communication
There are about five characteristic of nonverbal communication:
Nonverbal communication occur constantly
In every daily life, we have to make communication. Eye contact, smile, frown, or totally ignore someone, you are actually communicating something. For instance, when you having conversation with someone, you are not just saying it, it will be include your tone of voice, body language and facial expression. Nonverbal communication can convey a message through both verbal and with correct body signals. The way you listen, look, and react in a conversation, make other person know how you care about the conversation.
Nonverbal communication depends on the context
Your direct eye contact to a stranger can mean entirely different from the direct eye contact with your friend. When you talk to your friend, your relaxed tone of voice, eye contect, and posture reveal how much you value for this relationship. These happen because nonverbal communication is interpret within the context of your friendship and is complemented by casual and personal conversation.
Nonverbal communication is more believable than verbal communication
Consider this conversation between a mother and her daughter regarding her daughter’s husband:
“What’s wrong with you and Chad?” asks Jess’s mother.
(Stare and frown) “Whatever, I’m not upset, why should I be?” respond Jess.
“you seem to be in funk, and you are avoiding talking to me. So what’s wrong? Did you and Chad have a fight?” asks Jess’s mother.
“I said nothing is wrong! Leave me alone! Everything is fine!” (Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011)
Throughout the conversation, we can feel that Jess is upset and sending a message that she has a fight with her husband. Nonverbal message is more difficult to be control compare to verbal message because nonverbal cues represent our emotion which is more difficult to control. Beside this, “nonverbal is often suggest as unintentional and subconsciously generated” (Seiler, W. J. & Beall, M. L. , 2011).
Nonverbal communication is a primary means of expression
We are easily able to detect emotion like anger, frustration, sadness, or anxiety without people telling it because nonverbal cues are so powerful. Almost all our feeling can be expressed through our nonverbal behavior.
Nonverbal communication is related to culture
Different culture contributes different view in nonverbal behavior. For example, the forming of an O with index finger and thumb, which means OK or good work in America, may have insult meaning in other country (Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011). Still some innate behavior such as smiling is a universal nonverbal cue giving people a sign of friendly feeling.
Function of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication adds our exchanges by complementing, repeating, regulating and substituting for our words. Sometimes, we even use it to deceive others (Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011). Table 1 shows the function as well as importance of nonverbal communication.
Table 1
To complete, describe, or accents a verbal message
When you saying “I’m happy to meet you” with a welcoming smile and a warm handshake.
Express a message that are identical meaning to verbal one
A motion of your head and hand to restate your verbal “let’s go.”
Controls flow of communication
Shaking your head left and right to indicate that you have no interest on the thing.
Replace verbal message with nonverbal cues
Signal “OK” with a hand gesture.
Nonverbal cue that purposely mislead to create false impression
When playing cards, one will showing the ‘poker face’ to mask their facial expression, not revealing how good or bad their hand is.
The channels of nonverbal messages
The basic of nonverbal communication consists of facial expression, body language, eye contact, spatial message, touch message, tone of voice, silence and artifacts. Following are detail that explains each nonverbal cue that related to the importance of nonverbal communication in our daily life.
Facial message
Facial movements are able to do at least eight emotions: happy, surprise, anger, fear, sad, disgust, contempt, and interest (Ekman, Friesen, Ellsworth, 1972). These emotion are universal regardless any culture. Of overall body motion, facial expression conveys the most information and is reliable when decode. But from time to time, human had learned to conceal our real feeling from others. There is some technique on facial management. You will mask yourself when your friend receives a scholarship and you don’t, even though you think you deserve it. When you visit a distant relative’s funeral, you will be look completely sorry as you losing someone tonight. But instead you not really feel the sadness because you are not close to him. These kinds of actions are required as to have a polite interaction with other people.
Body language
Body language is often refer as kinesics which means ‘any movement of face or body communicate a message’ (Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011, p.122). Body messages consist of body movement and general appearance of body. Table 2 shows the characteristic of body movement and its example.
Table 2
Body gesture directly translate into words or phrases
The OK sign, the thumb-up for ‘good job’, and V for victory.
Accent, reinforce or emphasize a verbal message
When referring to left, your hand showing to direction of left.
Monitor, control, coordinate or maintain the speaking of other individual
Eye contact, nodding of head, looking at wristwatch.
Affect displays
Body movement that express emotion
Slouching, jumping up and down
Gesture that satisfy some personal need
Scratching, smoking, smoothing hair
Eye contact
Eye message sometime known as oculesics, which means ‘study of eye behavior’ (Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011, p.122). According to some researchers, during interactions, people spent about 45% of time looking to each other eyes (Janik & et al. , 1978). Eye contact is an important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is important in maintaining the flow of conversation and observes for other person’s response.
Spatial message
Proxemics is ‘study of the use of space and of distance between individuals when they are communicating’ (Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011, p.130). According to Edward T. Hall’s four distance zone, relationship between people can be classify into four group namely intimate space, personal space, social space, and public space. Each zone have different distance maintained. Another aspect in proxemics is territoriality, a possessive reaction to an area or particular objects. Basically we are usually in three types of territories: primary territories, secondary territories, and public territories (Altman, 1975).
Tone of voice
The term paralanguage refer to vocal but nonverbal aspect of speech. It is based on how you say something, not what you say. Paralanguage includes the rate (speed), volume (loudness), and rhythm of voice. If u speaking the same word, but differ in speed or volume or rhythm, will convey different meaning to people who perceive it.
Silence is also a part of nonverbal communication. Silence allow speaker to think, organize his or her speech or even to grab attention from people in a seminar. Sometimes, silence is necessary in some situation for example in funeral and in a speech. Silence can be use to prevent some certain topic from surfacing or to prevent someone saying something that he or she might regret.
Artifacts are personal adornments or possessions that communicate information about us. For example, color, clothing, jewelry and decoration of space. Different culture has different interpretation on color. Take black color as example, in Thailand means old ages; in parts of Malaysia means courage; in much of Europe, death (DeVito, J. A. , 2011, p.143). How do you react to people who have body piercings and tattoos? Based on the artifacts on a person, it will sent different message to us. Take this example, a person wears a suit to interview and a person wearing sweater and jeans to interview sent different message.
Touch message
Touching is one of the most primitive and sensitive ways of relating with others. Touching is referred as either tactile communication or haptics. Haptics means tactile or touch, communication; one of the most basic form of communication (Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011, p.128). Touch play significant role in encouraging, expressing care, showing support and is often more powerful than words. Touch divided into five category namely, functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-warmth, love-intimacy, and sexual arousal.Table 3 shows the category of touch and the respective examples.
Table 3
A doctor touches a patient during physical examination.
Two people shake hand or kiss in their culture to greet other people.
Two men or two women meet at airport, hug, and walk off with their arms around each other.
Two people hug, caress, embrace and kiss.
Sexual arousal
Sexual touch behavior includes foreplay and intercourse.
(Seiler, W.J. & Beall, M.L. , 2011, p.129).
Nonverbal communication encompasses everything that we communicate to others without using words. Nonverbal message is more important than verbal message because it convey more meaning than verbal does. Try to imagine a person talking with a monotony voice and saying that he is happy because he found back his lost thing. It is not what we say but how we say it with our tone of voice, body movement, use of space, touch, and appearance, all which competent communicators understand. Nonverbal cues are very useful to our daily life to enhance and deliver our emotion to other people. Still, nonverbal message should be working simultaneously with verbal message as they worked best with each other.
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Central processing unit (CPU)
Central processing unit (CPU)
“CPU” redirects here. For other uses, see CPU (disambiguation).
“Computer processor” redirects here. For other uses, see Processor.
An Intel 80486DX2 CPU, as seen from above
Intel 80486DX2
Intel 80486DX2
Bottom side of an Intel 80486DX2, showing its pins
A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term “central processing unit” at least since the early 1960s.[ Traditionally, the term “CPU” refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.
The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.
Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called “cores”; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as “sockets”.
Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.[4]
Main article: History of general-purpose CPUs
general-purpose CPUs
general-purpose CPUs
EDVAC, one of the first stored-program computers
Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called “fixed-program computers”.[5] Since the term “CPU” is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.
The idea of a stored-program computer had been already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly’s ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner.[6] On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumanndistributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949.[7] EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann’s design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC, however, was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Baby, a small-scale experimental stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949.
Transistor CPUs
Transistor CPUs
IBM PowerPC 604e processor
Main article: Transistor computer
The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.
In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM used the concept of a microprogram (often called “microcode”), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs.[2 The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP-8.
Transistor computer
Fujitsu board with SPARC64 VIIIfx processors
Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.] The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear.[ These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.
Small-scale integration CPUs
CPU, core memory and external bus interface of a DEC PDP-8/I, made of medium-scale integrated circuits
During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or “chip”. At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based on these “building block” ICs are generally referred to as “small-scale integration” (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo Guidance Computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.
IBM’s System/370, follow-on to the System/360, used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules.DEC’s PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.
Large-scale integration CPUs
Lee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 “manifesto”, which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI).[40][41] At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s.[4 At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.
As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits
Main article: Microprocessor
Die of an Intel 80486DX2microprocessor (actual size: 12 × 6.75 mm) in its packaging
Intel Core i5 CPU on a Vaio E serieslaptop motherboard
Intel Core i5 CPU on a Vaio E serieslaptop motherboard (on the right, beneath the heat pipe)
Since the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term CPU is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted cores) can be combined in a single processing chip.
Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore’s law, which had proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity until 2016.
While the complexity, size, construction and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As Moore’s law no longer holds, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant.[56][57] These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.
DecodeThe instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the instruction decoder, the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.
The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU’s instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a “field”) within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.
In some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.
Structure and implementation See also: Processor design
Structure and implementation See also: Processor design
Block diagram of a basic uniprocessor-CPU computer. Black lines indicate data flow, whereas red lines indicate control flow; arrows indicate flow directions.
Hardwired into a CPU’s circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by “decoding” the opcode. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.
The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU’s processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory. Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU’s floating-point unit (FPU).
Control unit
Main article: Control unit
The control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so. The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.
Arithmetic logic unit
Main article: Arithmetic logic unit
Control unit
Symbolic representation of an ALU and its input and output signals
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.
When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU’s outputs. The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.
Memory management unit (MMU)Main article: Memory management unit
Most high-end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don’t include an MMU.
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From OpenStreetMap Wiki
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Public-images-osm logo.svg landform = dune_system
hills or ridges of loose sand piled up by the wind Edit this description in the wiki page. Edit this description in the data item.
Used on these elements
See also
Status: unspecified
The tag landform=dune_system is used to map a dune system, an area of sand dunes : a landform of hills or ridges of loose sand piled up by the wind. Also sometimes called dune field or erg, a dune system is usually found along ocean coasts, in desert regions, near lakes or inland, usually covered with little or no vegetation.
Dune systems occur in different shapes and sizes, formed by interaction with the flow of air or water. Dunes are characterized by blowing sand that abrades vegetation. Dunes can be natural, but also man made (artificial)[1][2][3]. In this case, they are semi-natural, since their shape and position will change with the winds.
Areas of exposed sand in the dune system can be mapped as natural=sand. Some dunes are partially covered by grass (natural=grassland).
See also
• natural=dune - a sand dune: A hill of sand formed by wind. This tag has been used by more users and in more places than landform=dune_system
• natural=sand - an area covered by loose sand with no or very little vegetation (and which is not a beach)
• natural=beach - a landform along a body of water which consists of sand, shingle or other loose material, formed by waves
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Shifting the Narrative of Thanksgiving: The True Story
Many of us associate Thanksgiving with happy Pilgrims and Indians sitting down to a big feast. That peaceful dinner did happen – once. However, the greater story surrounding Thanksgiving has been far overlooked and misconstrued.
Without taking away the essence of the holiday of gratitude, it is important to honor and be informed of the origin story. Knowing the truth, might spark ideas of how to incorporate an offering to our Native American allies during your Thanksgiving celebration or take greater action towards social justice in your daily life.
Image from – The Great Dying: New Englands Coastal Plague
The origin story began in 1614 when a band of Pilgrims sailed home to England with a ship full of Patuxet Native Americans bound for slavery. They left behind smallpox which basically wiped out the rest of the Native Americans who had escaped.
“The woods were almost cleared of those pernicious creatures, to make room for a better growth.” – Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana
When the Pilgrims arrived in Massachusetts Bay they found only one living Patuxet Native man, Squanto. He had survived slavery in England and learned their language. Squanto showed the colonialists how to grow corn and to fish, and he negotiated a peace treaty between the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag Nation. At the end of their first year, the Pilgrims held the well-known feast honoring Squanto and the Wampanoags.
In 1637 over 700 men, women and children of the Pequot Peoples had gathered in Connecticut for their annual Green Corn Festival, original Thanksgiving celebration. On this day, a band of heavily armed colonial volunteers massacred these 700 Pequot Native Americans. The next day the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony declared “A Day Of Thanksgiving” because in honor of the massacre.
19th century wood engraving of the 1637 slaughter of 700 Pequots, Granger collection (NYC)
After this horrendus massacre, the murders became more and more frenzied, with days of thanksgiving feasts being held after each horrendous mass slaughter. Finally, instead of celebrating after each massacre, George Washington proclaimed that only one day of Thanksgiving per year be set for the feast. In 1863, Abraham Lincoln decreed Thanksgiving Day to be a legal national holiday during the Civil War.
This massacre and those to follow set a precedent for normalizing colonization and mass murder, oppression and manipulation all throughout the US. The fictional history we’ve learned in school paints beautiful picture of peace when really, it was the day that established a long, painful history of Native American brutality.
This mythical story liberates American’s from experiencing a negative view of our country. We have been blinded from the truth and this is just one of thousands of ways we have been manipulated to believe that our country was founded on good morals and justice and continues to be spun that way. It is our duty as awakened citizens to know the truth and find ways to become part of re-balancing the oppression and injustices in our daily lives.
Here are some essential ways to be an ally to Native Americans on Thanksgiving (and beyond)
1. Learn about inequalities that still exist within indigenous culture. Indigenous communities around the United States face major injustices every-day. Many Native Americans communities have higher ratesof alcohol abuse, suicide and unintentional injuries than the general population. Educate yourself on these social inequalities that Native American’s still face today to develop empathy, a better national perspective and to find ways to be a better ally on these issues.
2. Decolonize your mind. Find the Sacred. This means to humble ourselves and accept our role in the greater social and natural ecosystem of the earth. It means to learn to embody and understand our interconnection with every plant, animal and human being. We must take responsibility for our every day words and choices because what we do, effects everything else. This is also a basic tenant of most Native American cosmologies.
3. Take the time to learn about the indigenous history of where you live. Long before our lands were colonized, Native American’s were tending the lands we walk upon. Their history and spirit still remains in the land and must be acknowledged and honored. It is important to learn about the people, the history and the culture of the borrowed land we live on. There are maps you can find online to learn the names of the Indigenous Peoples that loved the land you live upon.
4. Support Native American artists. Native American’s face strict penalties if they violate the Indian Arts & Crafts Act of 1990, which essentially says you have to be a member of a federally or state recognized tribe or certified as a Native artist by a tribe in order to sell items marketed as Native-made, or tribally-specific products. This makes it increasingly challenging for them to compete with cheaper, more easily accessible factory made items not made by Native’s. Next time you think about buying any crafts that look Native American, spend the extra time to purchase it hand-made from a Native person.
We often underestimate the power of truth. As we are exposed to authentic history, it doesn’t have to taint our joy or magic in Thanksgiving or other holidays. Instead, we can allow the truth to empower us and change us. We can choose to apply a greater sense of gratitude towards Native Americans, their struggles, the oppression they continue to face and evolve the way we think and act that supports decolonization.
How will you choose to honor the origin story of Thanksgiving Day this holiday season and beyond?
10 Unexpected Ways to Take Back Your Political Power
With our current political climate, it is easy to adopt a mindset of fear and panic. You may feel powerless against the system and feel like the future is bleak for generations to come. Rather than hoping someone will save the day, remember that we have more power than we realize and can take matters into our own hands if we work together.
We can have a hugely positive impact on our planet even from our bedroom, in our pajamas. Why? Because the inner revolution IS the revolution. And what we do, no matter how small it may seem matters.
1. Hack your brain back
In what ways have we been programmed to sit up straight, listen to authority, not critically think or ask questions about the way our system functions? In what ways have we been brain-washed into thinking that the public education we received was sufficient to reach our fullest potential or that the only way to success was to take out a fat student loan?
Ask yourself: What is it that we need to unlearn to regain our autonomy and ask critical questions that challenge the status quo if we see it isn’t effective?
Ask yourself: WHY do you believe what you believe? Is it strictly based on how your parents raised you, or how the media raised you?
Question everything: Set aside time to reflect on your habits, beliefs and stories that you tell yourself. Are they serving you? Are they true for you? Where did they come from?
Awareness is power. When we know who we are and what we believe, we have the “oomph” to go after what we want, live our truth and inspire others from a place of authentic alignment. It’s helpful to revisit your values and stick with friends, work and play that share the same values. It’s up to each individual to snap out of a zombified media-obsessed pack of sheep and learn about what matters on our own accord.
2. Vote with your dollar
The earth has finite resources yet corporations have goals of unlimited growth and manufacturing. So you know what we could put the brakes on just a little? Buying new and cheaply manufactured products. Most products in the US are produced overseas and this contributes massively to negative human and environmental impact and they usually break quickly and end up in landfills. You may not being getting such a good deal as you think you are. Why not try giving something used a home? There are treasures to be found everywhere, especially in the second-hand world. Everything from clothes to electronics, to furniture, to, well, everything.
Our political power extends way beyond the voting booth. As consumers we have a magical secret weapon: our wallets. Companies will follow trends informed by our buying habits, so the more we favor responsible supply chains, the better. Buying local and seasonal means less fossil fuels are burned to get what you need. Buying organic means that less toxic sprays are used on your food and blow into neighboring properties. Buying fair trade or from a trusted source means that an effort was made to make sure those producing the product are not being exploited. Keeping your money in a local and community owned credit union keeps your money away from big banks that are funding big oil pipelines. By supporting companies that are aligned with our values we are creating a seriously positive ripple in the world of business which spills out into our communities and our planet. As the saying goes, money talks and there is power in numbers. Even if you don’t think you can afford this shift, really look at where your money is going and consider giving up any guilty pleasures for higher quality and more sustainable choices.
3. Use gratitude as a revolutionary act
When we don’t feel good about ourselves, (and we are constantly getting messages from the media are our society that we are NOT good enough) we seek to fill that void through external possessions and experiences. This is great for corporations that actually profit off of all of these things that we buy, but not so good for us or the earth. But the good news is, we can fight back with our choice to be satisfied with what we have. When we are grateful and satisfied, we don’t need to fill our voids with being consumers. Instead we can find happiness and joy in the simple things in life.
By consciously choosing to focus on what is good and positive in our lives, we are actually re-wiring our brains. There is a reason many spiritual teachers and even scientists have claimed that gratitude goes hand in hand with happiness. This means that we can be consumers of quality time spent with friends and family as opposed to video games. That we can be consumers and creators of storytelling and music around a campfire instead of a night out at the club. When we are full of simplistic joy, we are satisfied and we don’t need alcohol, fancy toys or a house-full of material possessions. Gratitude acts as a powerful antidote to the pitfalls of constant dissatisfaction and neediness that comes with capitalism and consumerism. In other words, ‘take control and flip the switch on the happiness vacuum’. Thanks to Joanna Macy for bringing “gratitude as a revolutionary act” to our awareness. Leading by example is powerful and those around you notice this energetic shift. It takes just one match to start a wildfire, so by igniting that fire of gratitude, you are reclaiming your power and stoking the fires of others.
4. Start a talking circle in your neighborhood
Earth Journeys: Uniting Changemakers Monthly Meetup
Earth Journeys: Uniting Changemakers Monthly Meetup
You know what really empowers people? Connection. This is why Alcoholics Anonymous is so effective, it brings people together who are isolated and creates community. Love is contagious. And so many of us walk around feeling cut off from ourselves and from each other. We are social creatures and need each other to survive. So much of creating positive change is reliant on the connections that we build. It allows us to feel safe and valued in our community and it allows us to expand our minds and band together.
Getting together with your community not only encourages love and connection but it is also an ancient practice that can facilitate the creation and implementation of solutions to major societal challenges. Host a World Cafe with your neighborhood to harvest collective wisdom and create a plan of action for how to tackle issues in your community.
5. Flex Collective Voting Power
If you want to get into the nitty gritty of how to change policy, it really comes down to two things: money or votes. If you’re not a billionaire who is willing to use “creative” methods to influence decision makers, then it comes down to showing voting power. How do our communities flex our voting power? We organize. Politicians want to stay in office and can be swayed if they know that voters care about a specific issue. If their real mailbox is flooded with handwritten letters, this speaks volumes to what matters to those who actually vote. Using this method, 6,000 letters were written in Ojai, CA to protect the wetlands and natural habitat there. This is just one small example and creativity can be used in full effect- maybe you throw a party where everyone calls their local representatives around an issue that matters. What’s important is to show that real people spent actual time to show they want change.
6. Grow Your Own Food
There are many great reasons why growing your own food is important. One of them being is it creates independence. The key to political empowerment? Self-sufficiency. When we can stand on our own feet and produce our own food, we are taking our power back from large scale food corporations that use harmful chemicals and negatively impact our earth through shipping in produce that is not local. Starting our own garden fuels us to make change on our own instead of relying on outside sources that may not have our best interests at heart. Not only will this be a superhero surge of confidence knowing that we can provide healthy food for ourselves, but it is incredibly rewarding and soul-nourishing. Growing your own food is also a fantastic way to connect with your neighbors in a community garden. Read about 6 steps to starting a community garden here.
7. Feed Your Brain with Truth and Knowledge
Earth Journeys: Sustainable Living Tour 2016
Ignorance may be bliss but knowledge is power and the more we learn the less easily we will be swayed by the influence of others. Since the dawn of the internet, we literally have a universe of information at our fingertips and it is the easiest it has ever been to take our education into our own hands. There are tons of free educational resources out there just waiting for us! Sift through topics that you are interested in and want to know more of and form your own views about the world. YouTube will always surprise you. 😉
One reason why our political system, our food system, our health and consumerism (amongst many other things) are in shambles is because we have been following our leaders blindly and accepting what we are told when the mainstream media is controlled by wealthy groups who put their own spin on stories. Fact check to the best of your ability from primary sources.
8. Connect with other changemakers and inspired individuals
Earth Journeys: Uniting Changemakers Monthly Meetup
There is a saying: what is kept to oneself diminishes and what is shared expands. Join local sustainability/health/wellness/personal development meetups in your area to learn something new and to share perspectives. When we have a support system of like-minded individuals, we feel that much more empowered to move forward. Think of it as your own personal cheerleading squad encouraging you and holding your hand along the way. Through collective efforts, we can come up with solutions to social, business, educational and environmental issues and reinvent what it means to be a citizen of planet earth. In fact, join one of Earth Journeys, Uniting Changemakers meet-ups in Southern California. The next one is August 20th in San Diego area!
9. Take Back Your Health: Food is Medicine
Earth Journeys: Sustainable Living Tour 2016
As we know, what we eat has a tremendous impact on our well-being. Diseases thrive in acidic environments. This is why acidic foods such as sodas, sugary snacks, alcohol and chips wreak havoc on our health and cause us to fall ill. Not to mention toxic chemicals in our food and the use of pesticides. It really is true that we are what we eat and in this day and age our society is plagued with chronic illness and disease.
When we take control and invest in our health and well-being we are taking a political act to prevent giving our money to big pharma and doctors who are trained to treat symptoms as opposed to spend long periods of time looking at the root. It is a sovereign act to choose to learn to harvest and make our own natural medicines, to eat whole-food diets, to forage highly medicinal and nutritional “weeds” for salads and avoid eating as many processed foods as we can. It is also a sovereign act to keep your immune system and body healthy by exercising daily, drinking plenty of water and finding personal wellness practices that resonate with you.
When we feel our best we feel lighter, happier, our minds feel sharper and we have more clarity to empower future generations to do the same. Food is medicine y’all! A truly healthy population is an autonomous independently thinking one.
10. Make Your City Your Canvas with Guerrilla Gardening
Permaculture Action Network
Do you dream of a greener, healthier city? Guerilla gardening to the rescue. Guerilla gardening is gardening without borders, no backyard? No problem. The entire city is yours. Not only is this a way to revive and beautify overlooked abandoned spaces with lush plant-life, but it is a way to make the vision of regenerative living come to life. Not to mention a seriously creative way to provide healthy and organic food to the masses. Creative techniques like this can cause ripples in communities and open people up to a new way of thinking.
Guerrilla gardening is also a way to plant food on the earth without having to own land. It is a way of creating access to food for anyone who walks by. More green in our cities only encourages our communities to appreciate the beauty and value of plants, therefore inspiring further autonomous action.
“Our thoughts shape our spaces and our spaces return the favor” – Alain de Botton
If we consider our attitude, the way we live our lives, our buying choices, our preventive health practices, and our collaboration with our community as political acts, we will not only feel better and more whole as individuals but also contribute to a paradigm shift. It is a win-win way to take back our political power. When we feel whole, healthy and happy, we have more space in ourselves to give back to the world, to educate the poor, to steward the earth and to feel confident enough to start our own grassroots initiatives or, who knows, maybe even run for office.
It starts from within. One healthy, strong and powerful person can change the world. May we all be the change we wish to see and continue spreading these messages of autonomy and empowerment through acts of self-care and community engagement.
If you are ready to step into your power as grassroots leaders, we invite you to join our 12-day Sustainable Living Tour, October 1st.
Get on the bus before it fills up, we’re over half-full!
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The Blandford Frigate, of 1760, illustrates the narrative of the transatlantic slave trade through the border drawings depicting the ship: 'ON THE PASSAGE TO THE WEST INDIES' on the left, and on the right 'ON THE COAST OF AFRICA TRADING'. Little is known of Pocock's experience of the slave trade, but as a traveller in the West Indies he would certainly have been aware of it. In the drawings he shows two distinct groups of African figures, the enslaved and manacled men, but also those trading goods, including guns, in exchange for their fellow Africans. The activity is drawn without emotion or censure, the trading of people treated very much as a matter of fact. The depiction of Africans in positions of power, colluding in the trade, offers a complex perspective on the actualities of the transatlantic slave trade. The deadpan depiction reveals something of the contemporary attitude towards the trade.
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1. Topic-
The Seasons
2. Content-
Seasons result from annual variations in the intensity of sunlight and length of day due to the tilt of the axis of the Earth relative to the plane of its yearly orbit around the sun. Key words: orbit, revolution, rotational axis
3. Goals: Aims/Outcomes-
1. At the end of this lesson, the students will know why we have seasons.
2. Students will know what each season is.
3. Students will know how the earth moves around the sun.
4. Objectives-
1. Identify the names of each of the four seasons.
2. Demonstrate with a partner how the sun moves (rotation and revolution) in the solar system.
3. Tell how the angle of the earth determines the seasons.
5. Materials and Aids-
>Collection of seasonal objects and pictures
>Construction paper in light colors
>Crayons or colored pencils
>Beach ball, or other large round object
>Modeling clay - enough for each pair of students to have a small amount (to make a 1/2 inch ball)
>Oranges - enough for each pair of students to have one
>Toothpicks - box of 100 (several toothpicks needed for each pair of students)
>Whiteboard and markers (or use a chalkboard, smart board, projector, etc.)
>Earth cross-section model (or use a ball with a line drawn around the middle to show the equator, and a globe to show north and south poles)
6. Procedures/Methods-
A. Introduction-
1. Collect a variety of seasonal objects and pictures that show the four different seasons.
2. Divide the objects into even piles - with one pile for each small group (3-4 students) in the class. Each pile can be put in a box, basket, or bag. Each pile should have between 10-20 objects such as magazine pictures (beach scenes, snow scenes), fake fall leaves, winter hat, gloves, flower seeds, etc.
3. Have the class split into groups and give each group a pile of objects to sort. Tell them there are many ways to sort the objects, and they must decide as a group how to sort them.
4. After each group is finished, talk with the class about the different ways the objects were sorted. Did any group choose to sort their items by the four seasons? Explain that they will be learning more about what each season is and why we have seasons.
B. Development-
1. Write the word 'winter' on the board, and have students come up with words to describe it. Do the same for 'summer,' and then for spring and fall.
2. Once there is a list of words describing each season, hand out pieces of construction paper to each student. Each student should choose a season, and draw a picture of what the weather looks like, using crayons or colored pencils.
3. After they have finished their picture, have the students turn the construction paper over and write 2-3 sentences about the season they chose. Remind them to use descriptive words, like those written on the board.
C. Practice-
1. Using the cross-section model of the earth, point out the equator line and the north and south poles. Tell the class that we live closer to the North Pole (you may wish to pass the ball around and let students find North America for themselves).
2. Explain that Earth spins around in a circle (called rotation) while making a path (also called an orbit) around the sun. One complete orbit around the sun is called a revolution. One revolution is a year. One rotation is a day.
3. Display the worksheet on a projector screen so everyone can see it. Explain that the earth actually revolves around the sun at a tilt, or angle. This is called its rotational axis.
4. Hold the foam model; point out the equator again, then tilt the model so that it is at an angle (meaning the North Pole does not point straight up).
5. Ask for a volunteer to come up and hold the beach ball. Explain that the beach ball represents the sun and the foam model is the earth. Still holding the foam model at an angle, slowly walk around the sun, completing one revolution. How does the rotational axis determine the seasons? When the North Pole is tilted away from the sun, it is winter in North America. When the South Pole is tilted away from the sun, it is summer! The in-between seasons (spring and fall) are when the earth gets just about the same amount of sunlight on the south and north poles. When it is summer on one part of the globe, it is winter on the other part. The equator is always the warmest part on earth because it is closest to the sun no matter what the angle of the earth is.
6. After you verbally explain the reason we have seasons, hand out a worksheet for each child to color in (coloring can be done in class or at home, depending on the time that is available).
D. Independent Practice-
1. Remind students how it looked when you held the earth model and walked around making a single revolution. Tell students that the sun always rotates while it is revolving.
2. Take a small piece of clay (about half an inch in diameter) and insert a toothpick in the center, so you can spin it between your fingers. Spinning in a circle like this is what the earth is doing constantly! In order to make one rotation a day, the earth must move at speeds of 1,000 mph, while at the same time travel through space (orbiting the sun) at speeds of 67,000 mph.
3. Have students get into pairs and give each pair a piece of modeling clay, a few toothpicks, and an orange. Let them experience how the clay model of the earth is able to move around the orange (the sun) up close.
4. Walk around making sure that each group understands that the earth moves at an angle, and they hold their toothpicks at an angle instead of straight up and down. If students understand this concept well, you may have them also spin the orange slowly, since our sun does rotate (though not at the same speed of Earth).
E. Accommodations (Differentiated Instruction)-
1. If students struggle with writing, they can have the teacher write their words for them as they dictate.
2. There are a variety of visual and auditory cues meant to build learning in this lesson.
3. If a student cannot see the board or the foam model of the earth, invite them to move closer.
4. If a student has auditory discrimination problems, invite him or her to sit closer to the front, or have this student work with a partner who can repeat something the student may have missed the first time.
F. Checking for understanding-
1. When students are finished creating their clay-and-orange model of the earth's movement around the sun, have each student get out their drawing of a season that they worked on before. On the back, have each student write one or two more sentences about what makes seasons and why the weather feels the way it does during the season they chose.
2. Point out the words 'orbit,' 'revolution,' and 'rotational axis' on the board, to help students write their sentences.
3. Each student should turn in their drawing when finished, so that you can read what they wrote and check for understanding.
G. Closure-
Teacher ask students:
1. What season is it when the North Pole is tilted away from the sun in North America?
2. Why are we in the Fall season now?
7. Evaluation-
1. To extend this lesson, you can have students act out the solar system in a large open area, such as a gym. Pick volunteers to be the sun, moon, and earth. Remind students that the moon revolves around the earth, which rotates as it revolves around the sun, and the sun rotates, but only very slowly.
2. Let students take turns acting the parts of the solar system.
This Lesson Plan is available at (www.teacherjet.com)
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Drill: Kabuki & Daimyos
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World History
4.1 Spanish Conquests in the Americas
Drill: Kabuki & Daimyos
Kabuki - type of drama that originated in China
Daimyos - Japanese warlords
Objectives: Students will be able to describe the Spanish conquest of the Americas beginning with Columbus; to describe the conquest of the Aztec and Inca by the Spanish by researching the effects of Spanish colonization on the Americas.
1. Conquistadores: Spanish soldiers, conquerors
2. Mestizo: person of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry
3. Encomienda: system of forced labor under which Native Americans were forced to work for Spanish landlords
4. 1492 Christopher Columbus sails westward from Spain, hoping to reach Asia.
The voyages began the process of European colonization of the Americas.
5. 1519 Ferdinand Magellan sets sail on a voyage that rounds the southern tip of South America. Magellan himself died in the Philippines but his ship and crew
became the first to sail around the world.
6. 1521 Hernán Cortés conquers the Aztec.
Conquistadors had superior weaponry; aid of some groups of natives;
European diseases that killed many Native Americans, who had no immunity to them
7. 1533 Francisco Pizarro conquers the Inca Empire.
Conquistadors intermarried, imposed their culture, and exploited Native Americans as laborers.
8. 1540 Francisco Vásquez de Coronado explores the Southwest and the lands of New Mexico. Mainly Catholic priests explored and colonized much of the region.
9. 1542 Spain abolishes the encomienda system, replacement of Native American forced labor with African forced labor, enslavement of Africans
Odds & Ends
1. Inca & Aztec are people of Mexico & greatly out numbered the Spanish.
2. Contagious disease was probably the chief weapon the Spanish had.
3. Spanish had superior weaponry and, more importantly, disease.
4. Once the Spanish had glimpsed the wealth available to them, no threat would have stopped them.
5. If Spanish had not completely conquered these civilizations, they would have carried home to Spain tales of American wealth. Later Spanish voyages would have completed the destruction begun earlier.
World History
4.1 Spanish Conquests in the Americas
1. Spanish colonists
2. true
3. priests
4. west across the Atlantic Ocean
5. true
6. conquistadors
7. Aztec people of Mexico
8. true
BCR: We feel that natives could have successfully defended their civilizations could point out that
a. Native Americans greatly out numbered the Spanish. b. disease was probably the chief weapon the Spanish had. Greater suspicion of the first Spanish to arrive would have kept them at a distance and protected Native Americans from contagion. c. if all of the Spanish had been killed, perhaps after tricking them into feeling safe as the Spanish did to the Incas, there might not have been later voyages, at least for quite awhile. Students who feel that natives could not have successfully defended their civilizations could point out that
Explain your answer.
PRIMARY SOURCE The Journal of Christopher Columbus
1. Gold was Columbus’s main interest because the purpose of the voyage is to gain more wealth for Spain.
2. I was impressed by many of the following: the actions and feelings expressed by all parties at the historic meeting; the description of the Taino; Columbus’s observations and thoughts about the Taino; the character of Columbus as revealed in his observations and thoughts.
3. Columbus reveals a superior attitude toward the Taino, although he seems to be fair and at times respectful in his descriptions. He basically considers them servants. He also assumes they cannot talk, possibly because they do not talk to him.
Summary: In today’s lesson we describe the Spanish conquest of the Americas beginning with Columbus and the conquest of the Aztec and Inca by the Spanish.
Homework: Conquistadors & Aztec
Conquistadors: Spanish soldiers, conquerors
Aztec are native people of Mexico
Name _____________________________________________________Period_____________
World History
4.1 Spanish Conquests in the Americas
A. Terms and Names If the statement is true, write “true” on the line. If it is false, change the underlined word or words to make it true.
Example: In 1680, Popé led a successful revolt against the Spanish. True
Example: As a result of Popé’s uprising, the Apache regained control of their lands. Pueblo
1. Today’s Mestizos are descendants of Portuguese colonists and Native Americans.__________
2. Hernándo Cortés marched his force of about 600 men through Mexico to conquer the Aztec
Empire. ____________________________________________________________________
3. The Spanish monarchy assigned mostly conquistadors to explore and colonize the area that would later become the United States. ____________________________________________
4. In 1492, Christopher Columbus set sail east across the Indian Ocean in search of a trade route to Asia and its riches. __________________________________________________________
5. The purpose of Christopher Columbus’s second voyage to the Americas was to establish Spanish colonies on the islands of the Caribbean.____________________________________
6. The encomiendas were Spanish explorers who conquered and colonized areas of what are now Mexico, South America, and the United States. ____________________________________
7. Montezuma II, the leader of the Arawak people of Brazil, fell out of favor with his subjects over his response to the Spanish conquest. ________________________________________
8. Francisco Pizarro and his army defeated the Inca by killing a largely unarmed group and then kidnapping and murdering their king. ____________________________________________
BCR. Critical Thinking Briefly answer the following question on the back of this paper.
Do you think the native peoples of the Americas could have successfully defended their civilizations for any significant period of time if they had been more suspicious of the first Spanish to arrive?
PRIMARY SOURCE from The Journal of Christopher Columbus
Columbus kept a ship’s log, or journal, of his historic voyage from Spain to the Americas. When he returned to Spain in 1493, he presented the journal to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. The version printed here was originally copied by the missionary Bartolomé de Las Casas and refers to Columbus in the third person as “admiral” unless quoting him directly. As you read, think about the reactions of Columbus, his crew, and the Taino when they first encountered one another.
Thursday, October 11th/. . .Two hours after mid-night land appeared, at a distance of about two leagues from them. They took in all sail, remaining with the mainsail, which is the great sail without bonnets, and kept jogging, waiting for day, a Friday, on which they reached a small island of the Lucayos, which is called in the language of the Indians “Guanahaní.” ……Soon many people (Taino )of the island gathered there. Afterwards they came swimming to the ships’ boats, where we were, and brought us parrots and cotton thread in balls, and spears and many other things, and we exchanged for them other things, such as small glass beads and hawks’ bells, which we gave to them. In fact, they took all and gave all, such as they had, with good will, but it seemed to me that they were a people very deficient in everything. They all go naked as their mother bore them, and the women also, although I saw only one very young girl. And all those whom I did see were youths, so that I did not see one who was over thirty years of age; they were very well built, with very handsome bodies and very good faces. They do not bear arms or know them, for I showed to them swords and they took them by the blade and cut themselves through ignorance.
They have no iron. Their spears are certain reeds, without iron, and some of these have a fish tooth at the end, while others are pointed in various ways. They are all generally fairly tall, good looking and well pro-portioned. I saw some who bore marks of wounds on their bodies, and I made signs to them to ask how this came about, and they indicated to me that people came from other islands, which are near, and wished to capture them, and they defended themselves. And I believed and still believe that they come here from the mainland to take them for slaves. They should be good servants and of quick intelligence, since I see that they very soon say all that is said to them, and I believe that they would easily be made Christians, for it appeared to me that they had no creed. Our Lord willing, at the time of my departure I will bring back six of them to Your Highnesses, that they may learn to talk. I saw no beast of any kind in this island, except parrots.” All these are the words of the admiral.
Saturday, October 13th/As soon as day broke, there came to the shore many of these men, all youths, as I have said, and all of a good height, very handsome people. They came to the ship in boats, which are made of a tree trunk like long boat and all of one piece. They are very wonderfully carved, considering the country, and large, so that in some forty or forty-five men came. Others are smaller, so that in some only a solitary man came. They row them with a paddle, like a baker’s peel, and they travel wonderfully fast.
If one capsizes, all at once begin to swim and right it, baling it out with gourds which they carry with them. They brought balls of spun cotton and parrots and spears and other trifles, which it would be tedious to write down, and they gave all for anything that was given to them. And I was attentive and laboured to know if they had gold, and I saw that some of them wore a small piece hanging from a hole which they have in the nose, and from signs I was able to understand that, going to the south or going round the island to the south, there was a king who had large vessels of it and possessed much gold. I endeavoured to make them go there, and afterwards saw that they were not inclined for the journey. I resolved to wait until the afternoon of the following day, and after that to leave for the south-west, for, as many of them indicated to me, they said that there was land to the south and to the south-west and to the north-west, and that those of the north-west often came to attack them. So I resolved to go to the south-west, to seek the gold and precious stones. This island is fairly large and very flat; the trees are very gree and there is much water.
In the centre of it, there is a very large lake; there is no mountain, and all is so green that it is a pleasure to gaze upon it. The people also are very gentle and, since they long to possess something of ours and fear that nothing will be given to them unless they give something, when they have nothing, they take what they can and immediately throw themselves into the water and swim. But all that they do possess, they give for anything which is given to them, so that they exchange things even for pieces of broken dishes and bits of broken glass cups. . . .”
Discussion Questions
1. Recognizing Facts and Details What is Columbus’s main interest on the island? Why is he interested in that?
2. Making Judgments What impressed you most about this excerpt from Columbus’s journal?
3. Recognizing Point of View What do you think is Columbus’s attitude toward the Taino? Point out passages that reveal his thoughts and feelings about them.
In your own words, summarize today’s lesson
Directory: PCIM3 -> Lessons2005-06
Lessons2005-06 -> Missouri Compromise & Indian Removal Act
Lessons2005-06 -> Ush: 1: Launching the Nation drill: Pardon & Apportionment Pardon: Freedom from punishment Apportionment: Distribution of representatives in the House of Representatives Objective
Lessons2005-06 -> American Government 1 The Colonial Period Drill: Laissez-faire & Capitalism Laissez-faire economy- a hands-off economy
Lessons2005-06 -> Ush: 1: Reconstruction, Rebuilding the South drill: Manifest Destiny & Forty-Niners Manifest Destiny
Lessons2005-06 -> World History 3 The Mughals Establish anEmpire in India
Lessons2005-06 -> A. In 1996, there were 185 independent countries B. Each with its own people and government. II. Essential Features of a State
Lessons2005-06 -> Lesson objective
Lessons2005-06 -> Divine Right – the concept that power of a king come from God
Lessons2005-06 -> World History 2 Competing Claims in NorthAmerica
Lessons2005-06 -> American Government 3 Types of Government
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File:Assorted bronze castings.JPG
Assorted ancient Bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling.
Bronze is any of a broad range of copper alloys, usually with tin as the main additive, but sometimes with other elements such as phosphorus, manganese, aluminium, or silicon. (See table below.) It was particularly significant in antiquity, giving its name to the Bronze Age. "Bronze," in turn, is perhaps ultimately taken from the Persian word "berenj," meaning "brass".[1]
History of Bronze
Bronze was significant to any culture that encountered it. It was one of the most innovative alloys of mankind. Tools, weapons, armor, and various building materials like decorative tiles made of bronze were harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors. In early use, the impurity arsenic sometimes created a superior alloy; this is termed arsenical bronze.
The earliest tin-alloy bronzes date to the late 4th millennium BC in Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in Luristan (Iran) and Mesopotamia (Iraq).
The two ores are rarely found together (exceptions include one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade. In Europe, the major source for tin was Great Britain's deposits of ore were found in Cornwall. Phoenician traders visited Great Britain to trade goods from the Mediterranean for tin.[citation needed]
File:Early Ewer Iran.JPG
Ewer from 7th century Iran. Cast, chased, and inlaid bronze. New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Though bronze is stronger (harder) than wrought iron,[citation needed] the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, but for many purposes the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong. Archaeologists suspect that a serious disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 12001100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean (and from Great Britain), limiting supplies and raising prices.[2] As ironworking improved, iron became cheaper, and people figured out how to make steel, which is stronger than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer.[3]
With the exception of steel, bronze is superior to iron in nearly every application. It is considerably less brittle than iron. Bronze only oxidizes superficially; once the surface oxidizes, the thin oxide layer protects the underlying metal from further corrosion. Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron, and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent heavier than steel, although alloys using aluminium or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronzes are softer and weaker than steel, bronze springs are less stiff (and so store less energy) for the same bulk. It resists corrosion (especially seawater corrosion) and metal fatigue better than steel and also conducts heat and electricity better than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-base alloys such as stainless steel.
Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, the excellent deep-drawing qualities of cartridge case brass, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze, the resonant qualities of bell bronze, and the resistance to corrosion by sea water of several bronze alloys.
In the twentieth century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Aluminium is also used for the structural metal aluminium bronze.
File:Norwid Relief.jpg
Fragment of the grave of Cyprian Kamil Norwid in the Bards' crypt in Wawel Cathedral, Cracow, Poland by sculptor Czesław Dźwigaj
Bronze is the most popular metal for top-quality bells and cymbals, and more recently, saxophones. It is also widely used for cast metal sculpture (see bronze sculpture). Common bronze alloys often have the unusual and very desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details of a mould. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs.
Bronze also has very little metal-on-metal friction, which made it invaluable for the building of cannons where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.[citation needed] It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs.
Commercial bronze (otherwise known as brass) is 90% copper and 10% zinc, and contains no tin. It is stronger than copper and it has equivalent ductility. It is used for screws and wires.
Classification of copper and its alloys[5]
Family Principal alloying element UNS numbers
Copper alloys, brass Zinc (Zn) C1xxxx–C4xxxx,C66400–C69800
Phosphor bronzes Tin (Sn) C5xxxx
Aluminium bronzes Aluminium (Al) C60600–C64200
Silicon bronzes Silicon (Si) C64700–C66100
Copper nickel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni) C7xxxx
See also
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Bronze.
1. Online Etymological Dictionary
3. rvde002.tmp
4. Knapp, Brian. (1996) Copper, Silver and Gold. Reed Library, Australia
5. Machinery's Handbook, Industrial Press Inc, New York, ISBN 0-8311-2492-X, Edition 24, page 501
External links
am:ናስ ar:برونز ast:Bronce bn:ব্রোঞ্জ zh-min-nan:Chheⁿ-tâng bs:Bronza bg:Бронз ca:Bronze cv:Бронза cs:Bronz da:Bronze de:Bronze et:Pronks el:Κρατέρωμα eo:Bronzo gd:Umha gl:Bronce ko:청동 hak:Thùng hy:Բրոնզ hi:कांसा hr:Bronca id:Perunggu is:Brons it:Bronzo he:ארד ka:ბრინჯაო (მეტალი) lv:Bronza lt:Bronza hu:Bronz ml:ഓട് ms:Gangsa nl:Brons no:Bronse nn:Bronse oc:Bronze qu:Champi simple:Bronze sk:Bronz sl:Bron sr:Бронза sh:Bronza fi:Pronssi sv:Brons ta:வெண்கலம் te:కంచు th:สำริด uk:Бронза yi:בראנזע
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Grinding (abrasive cutting)
Article Id: WHEBN0017000875
Reproduction Date:
Title: Grinding (abrasive cutting)
Author: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Language: English
Subject: Bar stock, Drill bit, Centerless grinding, Grinding machine, Bench grinder
Collection: Grinding and Lapping, Sharpening
Publisher: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Grinding (abrasive cutting)
A wide variety of machines are used for grinding:
Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can produce very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can also rough out large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is usually better suited to the machining of very hard materials than is "regular" machining (that is, cutting larger chips with cutting tools such as tool bits or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the only practical way to machine such materials as hardened steels. Compared to "regular" machining, it is usually better suited to taking very shallow cuts, such as reducing a shaft’s diameter by half a thousandth of an inch or 12.7 μm.
Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning, milling, drilling, tapping, etc.) . However, among people who work in the machining fields, the term cutting is often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is often mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms are usually used in separately in shop-floor practice.
Lapping and sanding are subsets of grinding.
• Processes 1
• Surface grinding 1.1
• Cylindrical grinding 1.2
• Creep-feed grinding 1.3
• Others 1.4
• Grinding wheel 2
• Lubrication 3
• The workpiece 4
• Workholding methods 4.1
• Workpiece materials 4.2
• Workpiece geometry 4.3
• Effects on workpiece materials 4.4
• See also 5
• References 6
• Bibliography 6.1
Selecting which of the following grinding operations to be used is determined by the size, shape, features and the desired production rate.
Surface grinding
Alt text
Surface grinder
Surface grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to remove material, creating a flat surface. The tolerances that are normally achieved with grinding are ± 2 × 10−4 inches for grinding a flat material, and ± 3 × 10−4 inches for a parallel surface (in metric units: 5 μm for flat material and 8 μm for parallel surface).
The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a workholding device known as a chuck, either electromagnetic or vacuum, and a reciprocating table.
Grinding is commonly used on cast iron and various types of steel. These materials lend themselves to grinding because they can be held by the magnetic chuck commonly used on grinding machines, and they do not melt into the wheel, clogging it and preventing it from cutting. Materials that are less commonly ground are Aluminum, stainless steel, brass & plastics. These all tend to clog the cutting wheel more than steel & cast iron, but with special techniques it is possible to grind them.
Cylindrical grinding
Cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding) is used to grind the cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of the workpiece. The workpiece is mounted on centers and rotated by a device known as a drive dog or center driver. The abrasive wheel and the workpiece are rotated by separate motors and at different speeds. The table can be adjusted to produce tapers. The wheel head can be swiveled.
The five types of cylindrical grinding are: outside diameter (OD) grinding, inside diameter (ID) grinding, plunge grinding, creep feed grinding, and centerless grinding.[1]
A cylindrical grinder has a grinding (abrasive) wheel, two centers that hold the workpiece, and a chuck, grinding dog, or other mechanism to drive the work. Most cylindrical grinding machines include a swivel to allow for the forming of tapered pieces. The wheel and workpiece move parallel to one another in both the radial and longitudinal directions. The abrasive wheel can have many shapes. Standard disk-shaped wheels can be used to create a tapered or straight workpiece geometry while formed wheels are used to create a shaped workpiece. The process using a formed wheel creates less vibration than using a regular disk-shaped wheel.[2]
Tolerances for cylindrical grinding are held within five ten-thousandths of an inch (± 0.0005) (metric: ± 13 um) for diameter and one ten-thousandth of an inch(± 0.0001) (metric: 2.5 um) for roundness. Precision work can reach tolerances as high as fifty millionths of an inch (± 0.00005) (metric: 1.3 um) for diameter and ten millionths (± 0.00001) (metric: 0.25 um) for roundness. Surface finishes can range from 2 to 125 microinches (metric: 50 nm to 3 um), with typical finishes ranging from 8 to 32 microinches. (metric: 0.2 um to 0.8 um)
Creep-feed grinding
Creep-feed grinding (CFG) was invented in Germany in the late 1950s by Edmund and Gerhard Lang. Unlike normal grinding, which is used primarily to finish surfaces, CFG is used for high rates of material removal, competing with milling and turning as a manufacturing process choice. Depths of cut of up to 6 mm (0.25 inches) are used along with low workpiece speed. Surfaces with a softer-grade resin bond are used to keep workpiece temperature low and an improved surface finish up to 1.6 micrometres Rmax
With CFG it takes 117 sec to remove 1 in.3 of material, whereas precision grinding would take more than 200 sec to do the same. CFG has the disadvantage of a wheel that is constantly degrading, and requires high spindle power, 51 hp (38 kW), and is limited in the length of part it can machine.[3]
To address the problem of wheel sharpness, continuous-dress creep-feed grinding (CDCF) was developed in the 1970s. It dresses the wheel constantly during machining, keeping it in a state of specified sharpness. It takes only 17 sec. to remove 1 in3 of material, a huge gain in productivity. 38 hp (28 kW) spindle power is required, and runs at low to conventional spindle speeds. The limit on part length was erased.
High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) uses plated superabrasive wheels, which never need dressing and last longer than other wheels. This reduces capital equipment investment costs. HEDG can be used on long part lengths, and removes material at a rate of 1 in3 in 83 sec. It requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.[3]
Peel grinding, patented under the name of Quickpoint in 1985 by Erwin Junker Maschinenfabrik, GmbH in Nordrach, Germany, uses a tool with with a superabrasive nose and can machine cylindrical parts.[3]
Ultra-high speed grinding (UHSG) can run at speeds higher than 40,000 fpm (200 m/s), taking 41 sec to remove 1 in.3 of material, but is still in the R&D stage. It also requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.[3]
Alt text
Centerless grinding
Form grinding is a specialized type of cylindrical grinding where the grinding wheel has the exact shape of the final product. The grinding wheel does not traverse the workpiece.[4]
Pre-grinding When a new tool has been built and has been heat-treated, it is pre-ground before welding or hardfacing commences. This usually involves grinding the OD slightly higher than the finish grind OD to ensure the correct finish size.
Electrochemical grinding is a type of grinding in which a positively charged workpiece in a conductive fluid is eroded by a negatively charged grinding wheel. The pieces from the workpiece are dissolved into the conductive fluid.
A schematic of ELID grinding
Electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) grinding is one of the most accurate grinding methods. In this ultra precision grinding technology the grinding wheel is dressed electrochemically and in-process to maintain the accuracy of the grinding. An ELID cell consists of a metal bonded grinding wheel, a cathode electrode, a pulsed DC power supply and electrolyte. The wheel is connected to the positive terminal of the DC power supply through a carbon brush whereas the electrode is connected to the negative pole of the power supply. Usually alkaline liquids are used as both electrolytes and coolant for grinding. A nozzle is used to inject the electrolyte into the gap between wheel and electrode. The gap is usually maintained to be approximately 0.1mm to 0.3 mm. During the grinding operation one side of the wheel takes part in the grinding operation whereas the other side of the wheel is being dressed by electrochemical reaction. The dissolution of the metallic bond material is caused by the dressing which in turns results continuous protrusion of new sharp grits.[5]
Grinding wheel
A grinding wheel is an expendable wheel used for various grinding and abrasive machining operations. It is generally made from a matrix of coarse abrasive particles pressed and bonded together to form a solid, circular shape, various profiles and cross sections are available depending on the intended usage for the wheel. Grinding wheels may also be made from a solid steel or aluminium disc with particles bonded to the surface.
The use of fluids in a grinding process is necessary to cool and lubricate the wheel and workpiece as well as remove the chips produced in the grinding process. The most common grinding fluids are water-soluble chemical fluids, water-soluble oils, synthetic oils, and petroleum-based oils. It is imperative that the fluid be applied directly to the cutting area to prevent the fluid being blown away from the piece due to rapid rotation of the wheel.
Work Material Cutting Fluid Application
Aluminum Light-duty oil Flood
Brass Light-duty oil Flood
Cast Iron Heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, light-duty chemical oil, synthetic oil Flood
Mild Steel Heavy-duty water-soluble oil Flood
Stainless Steel Heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, heavy-duty chemical oil, synthetic oil Flood
Plastics Water-soluble oil, dry, heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, dry, light-duty chemical oil, synthetic oil Flood
The workpiece
Workholding methods
The workpiece is manually clamped to a lathe dog, powered by the faceplate, that holds the piece in between two centers and rotates the piece. The piece and the grinding wheel rotate in opposite directions and small bits of the piece are removed as it passes along the grinding wheel. In some instances special drive centers may be used to allow the edges to be ground. The workholding method affects the production time as it changes set up times.
Workpiece materials
Typical workpiece materials include aluminum, brass, plastics, cast iron, mild steel, and stainless steel. Aluminum, brass and plastics can have poor to fair machinability characteristics for cylindrical grinding. Cast Iron and mild steel have very good characteristics for cylindrical grinding. Stainless steel is very difficult to grind due to its toughness and ability to work harden, but can be worked with the right grade of grinding wheels.
Workpiece geometry
The final shape of a workpiece is the mirror image of the grinding wheel, with cylindrical wheels creating cylindrical pieces and formed wheels creating formed pieces. Typical sizes on workpieces range from .75 in. to 20 in. (metric: 18mm to 1 m) and .80 in. to 75 in. in length (metric: 2 cm to 4 m), although pieces between .25 in. and 60 in. in diameter (metric: 6 mm to 1.5 m) and .30 in. and 100 in. in length (metric: 8 mm to 2.5 m) can be ground. Resulting shapes can range from straight cylinders, straight edged conical shapes, or even crankshafts for engines that experience relatively low torque.
Effects on workpiece materials
Mechanical properties will change due to stresses put on the part during finishing. High grinding temperatures may cause a thin martensitic layer to form on the part, which will lead to reduced material strength from microcracks.
Physical property changes include the possible loss of magnetic properties on ferromagnetic materials.
Chemical property changes include an increased susceptibility to corrosion because of high surface stress.
See also
1. ^ Stephenson, David. Metal Cutting Theory and Practice. 2nd. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1997. 52–60.
2. ^
3. ^ a b c d Salmon, Stuart, "What is Abrasive Machining?," Manufacturing Engineering Feb. 2010, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
4. ^ Adithan & Gupta 2002, p. 129.
5. ^ [1]], T. Saleh, M. Sazedur Rahman, H.S. Lim, M. Rahman, Development and performance evaluation of an ultra precision ELID grinding machine, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volumes 192-193, Pages 287-291.
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A. Talmud Rosh Hashanah 2b learns it from a juxtaposition of Shlomo’s royal reckoning and the reckoning from the Exodus. Rabbeynu Nissim explains this is because there would never be a Jewish King if we hadn’t left Egypt. In the language of the Haggadah “if G-d would not have taken us out then, we would still be slaves to Pharaoh in Egypt.”
From a Chassidic perspective, an ideal Jewish king is a quality leader with spiritual inspiration and connection to G-d. This explains why Samuel was reluctant to appoint a king when the Jews asked for one, even though the Torah itself encourages us to have a king. For the Jews of Samuel’s time asked for a King “like all other nations” which is very different from what an ideal Jewish king should be about – and that ideal is worth celebrating in the month of Nissan, when we became the Jewish nation.
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Theories of Fairy Tales
During the past century at least, folklorists have taken a serious look at fairy tales. The familiar tales from our childhood are not as simple or as childlike as we might think. It has been argued that the original context of traditional folk and fairy tales involved little or no differentiation between adults and children, and that these tales served predominantly to instruct and entertain adults. How significant was the role played by these tales in shaping social norms, values, aesthetic tastes and aspirations? Is there a difference between myth, fairy tale, and legend?
Folklorists have abandoned the search for origins, but there is still an effort to construct a “scene of origin”, a primal scene of narration, to explain how fairy tales came into being. It is usually pictured as peasants sitting around the fireside telling tales while they are repairing tools, patching clothes or spinning yarn. Many of today’s fairy tales can be, and have been extensively re-worked. They are stories about the quest for power, wealth, and romance, often moralistic in tone, but the characters are mostly opportunistic, they respond to circumstances as they happen, as children themselves often do..
Generally, they are beloved of children, for a variety of reasons, such as an aid to understanding, a mirror of their own emotional longings, for close family, happiness, for independence, to cope with change, or simply to survive, to live, to hope. Children love happy endings and resolutions in which the villain is converted, integrated into the family, or the triumph of good over evil.
There are many different theories concerning the fairy tale’s psychological meaning and value, but most start with the premise that the stories are symbolic expressions of the human mind and emotional experience. According to this view, proposed by Sigmund Freud, fairy‐tale plots and motifs are not representations of historical reality, but symbols of inner experience that provide insight into human behaviour. Consequently, the psychological approach to fairy tales involves symbolic interpretation, both for psychoanalysts, who use fairy tales diagnostically to bolster psychological theories, and for folklorists and literary critics, who use psychological theories to illuminate the symbols they draw from fairy tales. Recent research tends to discount these views. There is no evidence to support the psychoanalytic claim that fairy tales aid children in resolving psychological conflicts.
In the popular German series Weisheit im Märchen (Wisdom in the Fairy Tale, 1983–8), each volume is written by a different author who interprets a single tale to show readers how to achieve better relationships, self‐confidence, self‐acceptance, and other improvements in their lives. This seems to indicate at least, the adaptability of the original tales. If they help their readers who is to condemn them?
Carl Gustav Jung, who had also been a disciple of Freud, developed a new branch of analytic psychology that has had an enormous impact on fairy‐tale scholarship and the popular reception of fairy tales. While Freudian psychoanalytic theory generally viewed a person’s behaviour, actions and expressions as manifestations of the unconscious, Jung looked beyond the individual mind for the source and meaning of symbols. Jung believed in the existence of an impersonal collective unconscious that was a reservoir of images and forms universally shared by all humans. According to Jung, the symbolic language of myths, dreams, and fairy tales was composed of these timeless symbolic forms, which he called archetypes. From the Jungian perspective, archetypes were universal symbols, that once recognized as such, led to transformation and development. This theory is of increasing interest to the minority of brain scientists interested in Jung’s work. The objection from folklorists might be that a collective unconscious origin is at odds with their research, built on distinctions between the three genres: myth, tale, and legend.
This is why characters good and bad, humble or proud, often seem interchangeable between tales, or can be adapted in new forms, such as The Wizard of Oz, The Princess Bride, or Shrek.
In the telling of fairy tales, it is critical to know that the horrible events described are not always meant to be literally true, and so they symbolise another level of challenge or conflict.
Fairy tales also offer historians a window into the mental world of earlier centuries, reflecting the social, economic and personal lives in specific cultures. The current ‘best guess’ at their origins need go no further back than the Middle Ages, for feudal Europe, a time of war, famine and pestilence, a world of step-mothers and orphans, a world of unending toil and brutal emotions, both raw and repressed. The Pied Piper of Hamelin is one tale told by the Brothers Grimm with a historical basis, with the children possibly travelling east to Poland or Transylvania.
The History of Reynard the Fox, a French narrative which developed between 1170 and 1250, illustrates the preoccupations of the peasant classes with subsistence and survival. It is a compilation of fairy tales or “branches” written by over twenty writers, whose styles, personalities and talents are discernably different. As a parody, it mocks and ridicules epic and chivalric literature, illustrates politics and the daily life of the time, as well as the all-pervasive obsession with food among the ordinary people. Yet food in medieval literary texts relates also to any sort of intake, be it nutritional, sexual or spiritual, and its necessity for survival and reproduction. When describing basic human instincts, by today’s tastes, the stories are vulgar. The History of Reynard the Fox became extremely popular during the thirteenth century, captivating monks who were fascinated by the adventures of the main character, Reynard, a charismatic and clever fox who draws pleasure mainly from cheating and playing tricks on others and thus is always in trouble. Some indication of how these tales grow may be seen by comparing Reynard the Fox with Disney’s Robin Hood, Warner Bros’ Bugs Bunny, or Roald Dahl’s Fantastic Mr Fox.
There is no sign of anthropomorphic characters diminishing in popularity. Violence seems to be in fairy tales from all cultures and in all the variations. Even as children we know that some fairy tales have strong undercurrents of violence. You can confirm this by examining classic fairy tales and learning their original versions. Compare with modern re-tellings, some tone down violence, especially of a sexual nature, but some appear to intensify the original implications. Think of the scene of Snow White in the woods. This is quite tame in the Grimm’s version, she is just abandoned and it is narrated in a very dry manner. In Disney, that scene becomes quite nightmarish: we have a terrified Snow White making her way through trees that have become animated, tearing at her clothes as she runs. Why is the violence there? Did the film’s release during the turbulent mid-twentieth Century (1937) make a difference?
One important distinction must be made; violence directed at the child versus violence directed against the persecutors of the child. For example, in Hansel and Gretel there is the disturbing scenario of people who should be caring for you trying to destroy you, as when the stepmother wants to kill the children, and their father weakly goes along with the plan. Or have we, in our time, forgotten the effects of starvation on normal family relationships?
Mention must be made here of the feminist perspective. The role of women in the tales themselves, and as tellers of the tales, cannot be ignored, or undervalued. The book to recommend exploring this perspective is Marina Warner’s From The Beast To The Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers (1994).
Fairy tales permeate film culture as well. Think of Ever After: A Cinderella Story (1998) with Drew Barrymore as a latter-day Cinderella. This seems a laudable concept; why not explore the possibility of real events behind the familiar embellishments? There is no doubt of the cultural elasticity and extraordinary resilience of fairy tales. They can be re-scripted, reshaped, parodied or treated with reverence, and they thrive in the old forms as well as in new incarnations.
With Reference also to: When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition 2nd Ed.(2007) by Jack Zipes
Fairy Tales, A History by Ruth B. Bottigheimer
See also Post “More original versions of classic fairytales” at (his interpretation of the meanings behind the tales) and for online annotations of well-known tales.
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A giant curtain surrounding a plot of cloud forest on the border of Peru’s Manu National Park.
Image: Daniel Setiawan
CUSCO, PERU—British scientist Dan Metcalfe is attempting to take the clouds out of cloud forests. It sounds like something out of an Ian Fleming novel, but Metcalfe is no Bond villain, and his plan to remove clouds from a portion of forest in Peru with a giant cloud catching net is not part of some sinister plot. Rather, Metcalfe hopes that his wild experiment can help protect these rare ecosystems from being destroyed by climate change.
Cloud forests—mountainside jungles persistently enshrouded in mist—thrive at high altitudes, usually between 400-2,800 meters above sea level, in countries along the equator. At this elevation, warm, wet air rising up the mountainside cools and condenses into clouds that continuously drift through the forest, supplying the entire ecosystem with water.
But, what will happen to these forests if cloud levels rise, as some scientists have predicted will occur due to rising global temperatures? That is what Metcalfe, an ecosystems scientist at Sweden’s Lund University, is determined to find out by constructing a giant curtain roughly half the size of a soccer pitch around a plot of cloud forest on the border of Peru’s Manu National Park.
“It’s like a big, long shower curtain,” Metcalfe told Earther, describing the project that has been four years in the making. “I thought it would be fun to try and take a new approach that no one else has tried before.”
“It’s simple in a way, but logistically challenging, we are just literally removing or reducing the number of clouds that are getting to a portion of forest, and then seeing what happens to that forest,” he said.
The cloud forest curtain viewed from a distance.
The cloud forest curtain viewed from a distance.
Image: Daniel Setiawan
The curtain, made from strips of agricultural netting, is 30 meters high by 40 meters long and encloses approximately 400 square meters of forest at the Wayqecha Biological Station, where Metcalfe conducted postgraduate research and first got the idea for the project. The strips, positioned to intercept the moisture from the clouds as they rise up the hillside, are suspended from steel cables strung between two aluminum towers that rise incongruously above the jungle canopy.
Cloud forests like the one at Wayqecha are rare, making up about one percent of the Earth’s total woodlands, but these forests are biological hotspots. Many species of plants and animals—like the copper headed emerald hummingbird, and the recently discovered olinguito, a carnivore that looks like a teddy bear—are only found in cloud forests. No one knows how many more rare plants and animals remain undiscovered.
As average temperatures continue to rise, clouds will be forced higher up mountainsides, in turn forcing the forests and the animals that call them home to migrate. Many of Metcalfe’s colleagues, like Miles Silman, a professor of conservation biology at Wake Forest University, fear that trees just aren’t moving fast enough to keep up with the current pace of climate change.
“Tree species in general are moving up,” Silman, who has spent over a decade tracking species migration in the Andes, told Earther. His office in Cusco is crammed floor to ceiling with plant samples representing over a thousand different tree species from Andean forests. “But these trees are being forced to migrate at a rate that’s over an order of magnitude greater than anything they’ve experienced in the past.”
“We are in the age of discovery with these forests,” Silman continued. “We don’t even know what’s there, and yet they are disappearing at a fast clip. There are species that will go extinct before they even have a chance to be described. That should give us pause.”
If trees in cloud forests around the world can’t keep up with rising clouds, they will be left high and dry. Even if they can migrate upslope to adapt to some amount of climate change, eventually, the cloud banks could rise of the mountains entirely, leaving these forests and their species with nowhere to go. Little research has been done on the possible impacts of this scenario, and that’s where Metcalfe’s curtain comes in. Metcalfe is hoping his experiment will help us better understand how cloud forests will adapt to the loss of clouds, what trees will be better suited to deal with dryer conditions, what species won’t fare so well, and how the whole process will unfold.
“It’s the only one, there is nothing else out there like it,” Metcalfe said, more somber than proud. “So, I believe this could be our best shot in a long time to see what will happen to these forests with future climate change.”
The curtain, funded by grants from Swedish government agencies Sida and VR, was finally finished last November, but as Metcalfe says, getting to this point was, “a bit of a saga.” There were bureaucratic delays and permits to be obtained, cargo boxes full of equipment got stuck in Peruvian customs for months, his head engineer got sick, and right when he got funding for the project, Metcalfe’s first child was born and he went on five month paternity leave.
Then, there was the challenge of building the massive structure itself in the middle of a remote Peruvian jungle. Off the top of his head, John Kelson, one of the head designers and builders of the structure estimates that his crew hand-carried around 8,000 kg (17,600 pounds) of material—aluminum tower parts, steel cable, agricultural netting, food, camping supplies, giant drill bits—down muddy paths through the remote jungles of Peru.
“I would be willing to bet a lot of money that no one is going to build something like this for a long time,” Metcalfe said, reflecting on the four years it took to make the curtain a reality. And there is still a long road ahead. Metcalfe estimates that it may take several years before any conclusions are drawn from the experiment.
At the Wayqecha Biological Station, Metcalfe’s research assistants—young, Peruvian biologists working with the NGO ABIDA—collect data from a number of experiments set up behind Metcalfe’s cloud net. In the green tinted light coming through the mesh curtain, two of the researchers connect what looks like a vacuum hose to a PVC pipe sticking out of the ground. The other end of the hose is connected to a small box that displays the amount of CO2 being emitted by the soil. Others download data from tiny sensors the size of shirt buttons hanging from the trees that measure micro-climates, while a few collect the canopy debris caught in nets set up under the trees. This debris will be weighed to determine the amount of carbon stored in it.
Collectively, the data collected by the ABIDA team every month over the next few years will give scientists a better understanding of how the forest’s carbon cycle could change as cloud banks disappear.
Beisit Luz Puma-Vilca is the head field biologist at ABIDA. Her rubber boots make sucking noises in the mud as she gingerly makes her way down the steep trail to point out another experiment—a small plot of land where different tree saplings are planted to test which species will grow best in the new conditions.
Like the other biologists on Metcalfe’s team, Puma-Vilca has been working in cloud forests for many years, and feels a personal connection to them. “When I first came here I saw an environment full of life,” she said. “I felt that this place was special and I wanted to come back again and again.”
Beisit Luz Puma-Vilca working within the cloud forest curtain.
Beisit Luz Puma-Vilca working within the cloud forest curtain.
Image: Daniel Setiawan
She frets not just about rising cloud levels, but about other threats to cloud forests like mass deforestation from agricultural and ranching development, mining, lumber operations, and forest fires. To emphasize the danger, she points across the valley to a square of grass where an unprecedented wildfire three years ago consumed a large part of forest similar to the one we’re standing in. When drought hits the rainforest, deforested regions are more at risk from wildfires, which are an increasing threat across the Amazon due to climate change, population growth, and habitat degradation.
If Peru’s cloud forests are lost, that would be bad news for the plants and animals living in them, but also for the surrounding ecosystems and human communities. Puma-Vilca explains that the villages and farms depend on these forests to filter and store fresh water. That water eventually makes its way into the streams that feed the Kosnipata River, seen snaking through the valley below.
Back in her offices in Cusco, Puma-Vilca will compile the data her team has collected into spreadsheets; rows and columns of dizzying figures that crowd her desktop monitor—the first of the data sets to be sent to Metcalfe. It is meticulous work. Science, like the rhythms of the forest, can be slow.
Hopefully, by the time the researchers have gained some understanding of how the forest will change, and what can be done to mitigate any losses, it won’t be too late. Puma-Vilca is watching the clock anxiously as CO2 levels in the atmosphere continue to rise.
“We hope we can demonstrate to the government and everyone what is happening to our forest, and what we can do about it,” she said. “Now our main enemy is time. This forest is like a genetic bank. If we lose it, what will happen for the generations of the future.”
Daniel Setiawan is a freelance writer based out of Austin, Texas.
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"fasttext_score": 0.045886456966400146,
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"url": "https://earther.gizmodo.com/1824106400"
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Opioid facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
(Redirected from Opiates)
Opium pod cut to demonstrate fluid extraction1
Raw opium
Raw opium
Opioids are substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects. Opioid receptors are widespread in the brain, and are also in the spinal cord and digestive tract.
Opioids are chemical substances that relieve pain. There are a wide range of natral and artificial opioids. They are used in hospitals to treat acute pain, as can occur after an operation. They can also be used to relieve pain, where treatment no longer makes sense, for example in certain cancer patients. Drugs that can relieve pain are broadly known as analgesics.
Opioid Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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"language_score": 0.9539924263954163,
"url": "https://kids.kiddle.co/Opiates"
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Chickadee Social Dominance
Some animals have non-linear hierarchies, where one individual dominates others but he himself can also be dominated. In contrast, dominance hierarchies in black-capped chickadees are linear, where one individual dominates all the others; a second dominates all but the first, and so on. Aaron Harvey ’17 is carrying out a project at the Vassar Farm and Ecological Preserve (VFEP) to establish hierarchies of the resident chickadee populations. Determining who is dominant and who is submissive between two chickadees requires designating a “win” and a “loss.” Behaviors such as chasing another bird away from a feeding station, resisting an attack, or obtaining a submissive reaction from another bird count as “wins.” Measuring wins as a percent of total interactions can help determine dominance rank. We are doing this by reviewing videos taken by a mounted Kodak Pixpro of chickadees interacting at feeding platforms. Potential dominance behaviors we are looking for include:
1. The black-capped chickadee on the right elicits a submissive reaction from the one on the left, who turns away from his opponent. (AP Photo/Mark Duncan)
Supplants: One bird forces another off the platform
1. Resisting a Supplant: One resists being forced off the platform by another
2. Submissive Posturing: While a bird eats, another faces its head away until the first finishes
3. Waiting: One bird waits on the platform until the first has finished feeding
Jack Blomberg ’18 holds chickadee for the first time
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"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.18423670530319214,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9366608262062073,
"url": "https://pages.vassar.edu/sensoryecology/chickadee-social-dominance/"
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Each neuron in your brain has one long cable that snakes away from the main part of the cell. This cable, several times thinner than a human hair, is called an axon, and it is where electrical impulses from the neuron travel away to be received by other neurons.
Depending on the type of neuron, axons greatly vary in length - many are just a millimetre or so, but the longest ones, such as those that go from the brain down the spinal cord, can extend for more than a metre.
An axon typically develops side branches called axon collaterals, so that one neuron can send information to several others. These collaterals, just like the roots of a tree, split into smaller extensions called terminal branches. Each of these has a synaptic terminal on the tip.
Neurons communicate through synapses - contact points between the axon terminals on one side and dendrites or cell bodies on the other. Here, in a 20-40 nanometre-wide gap, electrical signals coming via the axon are converted into chemical signals through the release of neurotransmitters, and then promptly converted back into electricity as information moves from neuron to neuron.
Some axons are encased in a fatty substance called myelin, which is what makes your brain’s white matter white. Myelin acts as a form of insulation for axons, helping to send their signals over long distances. For this reason, myelin is mostly found in neurons that connect different brain regions, rather than in the neurons whose axons remain in the local region.
Axons and nerve degeneration
Neurons cannot properly communicate if axons are damaged or broken. This can happen both with nerve injury, and also in the earliest stages of neurodegenerative diseases such as motor neurone disease (MND), Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s Disease. Scientists at QBI are working to better understand the underlying processes and genetics involved.
Since axons are much longer than the rest of the cell, they need to be maintained by transporting essential molecules and organelles through them. QBI scientists have discovered that the gene mec-17 is involved in stabilising the internal neuronal structure to support proper transport within the axon and its maintenance. A mutation of this gene, and others with similar functions, can disrupt this process, leading to damaged axons and eventual disease.
QBI researchers have also discovered two proteins involved in axon degeneration in the roundworm C. elegans, a small organism which is an excellent research model for studying individual neurons and observing what happens at a molecular level. When an axon is damaged with a laser, it sends out signals to the surrounding tissue to be 'cleaned up', triggering the release of proteins that hastens degeneration of the axon. If such molecules are prevented from showing up, it could slow down the progress and extent of nerve damage.
Research that involves QBI scientists has also showed that severed neurons in roundworms (C. elegans) send out a 'save-me' signal to initiate nerve repair - to build a bridge to fuse the axon back together. This process was able to be modified by the researchers, giving hope for reating nerve injuries in humans in the future.
Image: istock
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"language_score": 0.9444130659103394,
"url": "https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/axons-cable-transmission-neurons"
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School Logo
Clayton St. John C of E Primary School
Growing together in God’s love
Contact Details
Living Things and Their Habitats: Classification
Last week, we learnt all about Carl Linnaeus and his classification system. See what you can remember by answering the quiz questions below. I will post the answers later today.
1. How many Kingdoms did Linnaeus originally include?
2. Which of his Kingdoms is no longer used in the standard system of classification?
3. What is the new level of classification that has been introduced above the kingdoms?
4. Approximately how many specimens of plants, animals and shells did Linnaeus collect and examine when working on his classification system?
5. Which edition of his ‘Systema Naturae’ is thought to be the most important?
6. Are amphibians, birds, mammals, reptiles and fish classes or orders?
7. Does the phylum chordata include vertebrates or invertebrates?
8. The definition of a species is a group of animals that can reproduce to produce fertile __________?
Today we are going to focus on classifying vertebrates and invertebrates based on their characteristics. Look through the PowerPoint presentation to find out how some creatures are classified.
Imagine you have discovered a new creature. You are going to draw it and create a factfile detailing it’s characteristics.
Before you design it, think carefully about what group of animals it will belong to and make sure you include the characteristics of that group. For example, if your creature is to be classified as a crustacean it needs a hard, external shell, a head, abdomen and to be cold blooded.
You may choose to use the sheet below to design your creature on or you may want to use your own paper.
Once you have done, share your creature on the blog so we can guess what it is classified as!
Miss Riley
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9308744072914124,
"url": "https://www.claytonce.co.uk/science-18/"
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Pound sign
The pound sign £ is the symbol for the pound sterling – the currency of the United Kingdom and previously of Great Britain and of the Kingdom of England. The same symbol is used for other currencies called pound, such as the Gibraltar, Egyptian, Manx and Syrian pounds. A similar symbol (with two bars) was used on some banknotes from time to time, but the Bank of England has not done so since 1975. (This two-bar symbol is also used for currencies named lira, for example the (withdrawn) Italian lira.)
Pound sign
In UnicodeU+00A3 £ POUND SIGN (HTML £ · £)
CurrencyPound sterling
Different from
Different fromU+20A4 LIRA SIGN
The £ grapheme in a selection of fonts
For some people in the US, "pound sign" refers to the symbol # (number sign).
The symbol derives from the upper case Latin letter L, representing libra pondo, the basic unit of weight in the Roman Empire, which in turn is derived from the Latin word, libra, meaning scales or a balance. The pound became an English unit of weight and in England became defined as the tower pound (equivalent to 350 grams) of sterling silver.[1][2] According to the Royal Mint Museum:
It is not known for certain when the horizontal line or lines, which indicate an abbreviation, first came to be drawn through the L. However, there is in the Bank of England Museum a cheque dated 7 January 1661 with a clearly discernible £ sign. By the time the Bank was founded in 1694 the £ sign was in common use.[3]
However, the simple letter L, in lower- or uppercase, was used to represent the pound sterling in printed books and newspapers until well into the 19th century.[4] In the blackletter type used until the seventeenth century,[5] the letter L is rendered as .
The pound sign is placed before the number (e.g., £12,000) and separated from the following digits by no space or only a thin space.
Other English variants
Canadian English
In Canadian English the symbols £ and # are both called the pound sign, but the # is also known as the 'number sign' and as the 'noughts-and-crosses board'.[lower-alpha 1][6]
US English
In American English, the term "pound sign" usually refers to the symbol # (number sign), and the corresponding telephone key is called the "pound key".[7]
Historic variants
Double bar style
Banknotes issued by the Bank of England since 1975 have only used the single bar style as a pound sign.[8][9] The Bank used both the two-bar style () and the one-bar style (£) (and sometimes a figure without any symbol whatever) more or less equally since 1725 until 1971, intermittently and sometimes concurrently.[8] In typography, the symbols are allographs style choices when used to represent the pound; consequently fonts use U+00A3 £ POUND SIGN (HTML £ · £) (Unicode) code point irrespective of which style chosen, (not U+20A4 LIRA SIGN (HTML ₤) despite its simlarity).
Note the leading J of Jacquard
In the eighteenth-century Caslon metal fonts, the pound sign was identical to an italic uppercase J, rotated 180 degrees.[10]
Currencies that use the pound sign
Code points
In the Unicode standard, the symbol £ is called POUND SIGN, and the symbol ₤ is the LIRA SIGN. These have respective code points:
• U+00A3 £ POUND SIGN (HTML £ · £ · inherited from Latin-1)[11]
• U+20A4 LIRA SIGN (HTML ₤)[12]
Unicode notes that the "lira sign" is not widely used and was added due to both it and the pound sign being available on HP printers, and also states that the preferred sign for lira is the pound sign.[13]
The encoding of the £ symbol in position xA3 was first standardised by ISO Latin-1 in 1985. Position xA3 was used by the Digital Equipment Corporation VT220 terminal, Mac OS Roman, the Amstrad CPC, the Commodore Amiga and the Acorn Archimedes.
Many early computers (limited to a 7-bit, 128-position character set) used a variant of ASCII with one of the less-frequently used characters replaced by the £. The UK national variant of ISO 646 was standardised as BS 4730 in 1985. This code was identical to ASCII except for two characters: x23 encoded £ instead of #, while x7E encoded instead of ~. MSDOS on the IBM PC originally used a non-standard 8-bit character set Code page 437 in which the £ symbol was encoded as x9C; adoption of ISO character codes only came later with Microsoft Windows. The Atari ST also used position x9C. The HP Laserjet used position xBA for the £ symbol, while most other printers used x9C. The BBC Ceefax system which dated from 1976 encoded the £ as x23. The ZX Spectrum and the BBC Micro used x60 ` (grave). The Commodore 64 used x5C \ while the Oric used x5F _. IBM's EBCDIC code page 037 uses xB1 for the £ while its code page 285 uses x5B. ICL's 1900-series mainframes used a six-bit (64-position character set) encoding for characters, loosely based on BS 4730, with the £ symbol represented as octal 23 (hex 13, dec 19).
Entry methods
Typewriters produced for the British market included a "£" sign from the earliest days, though its position varied widely. A 1921 advertisement for an Imperial Typewriters model D, for example[14] shows a machine with two modifier shifts (CAPS and FIG), with the "£" sign occupying the FIG shift position on the key for letter "B". But the advertisement notes that "We make special keyboards containing symbols, fractions, signs, etc., for the peculiar needs of Engineers, Builders, Architects, Chemists, Scientists, etc., or any staple trade."
Compose key
The compose key sequence is:[15]
• Compose+L+-
Windows, Linux, Unix
• ⇧ Shift+3
On a US-International keyboard in Windows,[16] the "£" can be entered using:
• ⇧ Shift+AltGr+4
• ⇧ Shift+Ctrl+Alt+4 (on older keyboards without an AltGr key)
• Ctrl+⇧ Shift+U followed by a 3
• ⇧ Shift+AltGr+3
In Windows, it can also be generated through the Alt keycodes, although the results vary depending on factors such as the locale, codepage and OS version:
• Alt+156 (this also works in MS-DOS)
The Character Map utility and Microsoft Word's Insert Symbol commands may also be used to enter this character.[lower-alpha 2]
Pressing and holding the local currency sign will invoke a pop-up box presenting an array of currency signs, from which the pound sign may be chosen.[17]
Other uses
The logo of the UK Independence Party, a British political party, is based on the pound sign,[18] symbolising the party's opposition to adoption of the euro and to the European Union generally.
A symbol that appears to be a double-barred pound sign is used as the logo of the British record label Parlophone. In fact this is a stylised version of a blackletter L (), standing for Lindström (the firm's founder Carl Lindström).
The pound sign was used as an uppercase letter (the lowercase being ſ) signifying [ʒ] in the early 1993–1995 version of the Turkmen Latin alphabet.[19]
See also
1. "Noughts-and-crosses" is another name for the game called "Tic-tac-toe" in American English.
2. Be careful not to choose the similar as this will produce a lira sign, which has a different code point.
3. "The Origins of £sd". The Royal Mint Museum. Archived from the original on 8 March 2020.
4. For example, Samuel Pepys (2 January 1660). "Diary of Samuel Pepys/1660/January". Retrieved 23 September 2019. Then I went to Mr. Crew's and borrowed L10 of Mr. Andrewes for my own use, and so went to my office, where there was nothing to do.
8. "Withdrawn banknotes". Bank of England. Retrieved 13 September 2019. ("£1 1st Series Treasury Issue" to "£5 Series B")
9. "Current banknotes". Bank of England. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
10. Howes, Justin (2000). "Caslon's punches and matrices". Matrix. 20: 1–7.
11. The Unicode Consortium (11 June 2015). "The Unicode Standard, Version 10.0 | Character Code Charts" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-01-23.
12. The Unicode Consortium (26 August 2015). "The Unicode Standard, Version 10.0 | Character Code Charts" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-01-23.
13. Allen, Julie D., ed. (August 2015) [1991]. The Unicode Standard - Version 8.0 - Core Specification - Chapter 22.1. Currency Symbols (PDF). Mountain View, CA, USA: Unicode, Inc. pp. 751–752. ISBN 978-1-936213-10-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-12-06. Retrieved 2016-12-06. […] Currency Symbols: U+20A0–U+20CF […] Lira Sign. A separate currency sign U+20A4 LIRA SIGN is encoded for compatibility with the HP Roman-8 character set, which is still widely implemented in printers. In general, U+00A3 POUND SIGN may be used for both the various currencies known as pound (or punt) and the currencies known as lira. […]
14. "Imperial Typewriter Co". www.gracesguide.co.uk.
15. "Compose Key cheat sheet". GitHub. Retrieved 12 November 2019. (Caution: the 'additional' method suggested, Compose/l/=, should produce a lira sign U+20A4 rather than a pound sign).
16. "Using the US International Keyboard Layout" (PDF). College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
17. J. D. Biersdorfer (7 January 2016). "TECH TIP: How to Add Currency Symbols to Text in Android". New York Times. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
18. "UKIP". Retrieved 17 April 2017.
19. Clement, Victoria. 2008. Emblems of independence: script choice in post-Soviet Turkmenistan in the 1990s. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 192: 171-185
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A new paper has shown examples of cetacean skulls with fractured ear bones and hypothesises what may have caused them…
It is well known that marine mammals, particularly cetaceans, are very dependent on hearing and all evidence suggests that hearing is their primary sensory system. Adaptations to the skull and the hearing system reduce conduction of sound through the bones and help for directional hearing underwater. Of particular importance is the tympanic bulla which is a sort of capsule around the middle ear and is essential in the cetacean sound reception pathway.
A new paper has been published reporting on 11 examples of cetacean tympanic bulla that show healed fractures. The species examined included: fin, sei and minke whales, common dolphins and Baird’s beaked whales. All large whale samples were obtained from the Canadian Museum of Nature collected from Canadian whaling operations while others came from bycatch samples. The samples examined were definitely not post mortem fractures (ie: as a result of the preservation/transport of skeletons) as the authors only report on those fractures that showed remodelling and healing of fractures which had to happen while the animal was still alive. The fractured and healed tympanic bulla were extensive in some cases and would have caused hearing damage for the animals. However, due to the levels of remodelling and healing, the animals lived for a long time after the trauma occurred.
The authors hypothesise on how they could have been caused:
• Blunt trauma
• Collisions?
• Ship strike?
• Intraspecific conflicts?
• not likely as an impact that shatters the tympanic bulla would probably cause death
• Pressure waves from high explosives causing blast injuries
• explosive harpoons during whaling?
• Seismic exploration?
• Dynamite fishing?
• Malfunction in tissue with pressure changes from deep diving?
• Foreign objects disrupting pressure regulation
• Parasites?
• Rare for baleen whales to have middle ear parasites
• Abnormal sneeze or cough
• Loud acoustic sources
• Sonar?
• Disease weakened bones
• Lytic lesion/fracture
The full article can be read here.
This paper presents some really interesting findings and hypotheses. It certainly leads us to ask lots of questions such as: how does having a fractured ear bone effect the animals? how well can they cope with diving, feeding etc with fractured ear bones? How often does it happen? Are certain species more susceptible? We will be keeping an eye out for any further developments in this area…
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The Answer to Whether or Not Your Cat Can See in the Dark
Cats function very well in low-light conditions, so much so that cat owners sometimes believe them to be nocturnal creatures. This is incorrect. Instead, cats are crepuscular creatures, meaning that they are most active during dawn and dusk. As for why cats are crepuscular creatures, well, there are a number of benefits for being so. For instance, a lot of predators are active during either the day or the night, meaning that being active during dawn and dusk reduces the chances of an animal running into them. Something that is very important for cats because they are predators that can be predated upon. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that this can increase the population of crepuscular creatures, thus creating more feeding opportunities for the predators that are active during dawn and dusk.
Regardless, the crepuscular nature of cats means that they are better at seeing under low-light conditions than humans. They can’t see under total darkness. However, cats can see with just one sixth of the light that humans need to see, which is possible because feline eyes have a number of features to help them out in this regard. For example, their pupils can dilate to full circles, thus enabling them to capture more light than otherwise possible. Likewise, feline eyes have more rods when compared with human eyes, which is important because rods are responsible for sensing light. It is not a coincidence that all of these things are beneficial for a cats engaging in normal cat activities during dawn and dusk.
Having said this, it should be mentioned that a simple comparison of feline eyes with human eyes isn’t possible. Yes, there are areas in which feline eyes are much better than human eyes. Their superior night-vision is an excellent example. Moreover, others include their superior field of vision and their superior ability to pick up on subtle movements, both of which are connected to their increased number of rods. However, there are serious tradeoffs for these disadvantages. For instance, the dilated pupils that enable the capture of more light are also responsible for cats having much blurrier vision than humans. Similarly, human eyes have more rods, with the result that we are better at seeing color as well as seeing far-off things. Cats are still capable of seeing color, but they see a more limited palette that isn’t as rich. As such, just because cats have sight that is very well-suited for normal cat activities, that is no reason for cat owners to be envious of them.
Can Any Animal See in Total Darkness?
Some people might be curious if any animal can see in total darkness. For starters, it is worth mentioning that the concept of total darkness can be rather complicated. Generally speaking, when we think of light, we think of what we call visible light. However, visible light is just a part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which goes from the low-frequency radio waves and microwaves to the high-frequency X-rays and gamma rays. Furthermore, it is important to note that we define visible light based on our own capabilities. As such, just because we can’t see what we call infrared light and ultraviolet light, it doesn’t mean that other animals are bound by the same limitations. For example, there are numerous species of fish, frogs, snakes, and blood-sucking insects that can see in infrared. Similarly, both butterflies and reindeer are capable of seeing ultraviolet light. Amusingly, goldfish has the distinction of being the one known species that can see in both infrared and ultraviolet, though insufficient research means that it is perfectly possible that there are other species that can do the same out there. Regardless, the important point is that what counts as total darkness isn’t necessarily total darkness for some species. To be fair, total darkness in the strictest sense is so impractical that it isn’t worth considering. However, it is definitely possible to come up with a set of conditions that produce what is effectively total darkness for known forms of life. Under those circumstances, nothing can see for the simple reason that sight is reliant upon light.
Interested individuals might have heard accounts of people who can still see even under total darkness. However, this has been proven to be a case of the human brain engaging in some very interesting shenanigans. For those who are curious, a pair of researchers looked into whether people could see their own hands moving while in total darkness. Remarkably, between 50 and 75 percent of the participants showed some ability to see their own movements. Something that was actually confirmed by special cameras that captured their eyes following the movement of their hands in a very smooth fashion, which shouldn’t be possible unless their eyes were indeed tracking something. For comparison, the participants who reported an inability to see their own movements showed no such smoothness in their eyes but rather the random jerks that are normal when human eyes aren’t tracking something. The researchers weren’t 100 percent why this was the case, but they speculated that the brain was essentially filling in the gaps based on previous experience, which is something that brains do in the case of sight on a regular basis. As for why they suspected that this was the case rather than some people possessing the real ability to see in total darkness, well, suffice to say that the participants had very different results when it came to movements that weren’t their own.
Further evidence for the inability of animals to see in total darkness can be seen in the example of species that have become adapted to living in caves on a full-time basis. Essentially, what happens is that they start losing features that are useless in their circumstances while picking up other features that have become more useful. For example, a lot of cave-dwelling species lack pigmentation because there is no need for it. Similarly, a lot of cave-dwelling species are either blind or have very poor vision, which makes sense because they have no need for the very energy-intensive eyes of their predecessors. Meanwhile, it is very common for these animals to pick up heightened senses of touch, smell, and hearing because those remain useful for them even though they are living in total darkness.
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suborder of arboreal marsupials
The possum is an Australasian marsupial which was later introduced to China and New Zealand. There are about 69 species alive today.
Brushtail possum.jpg
Common Brushtail Possum
(Trichosurus vulpecula)
Scientific classification
Ringtail Possum at night. Possums are often found in towns at night
Possums are members of the Phalangeriformes. This is a suborder of the Diprotodonts, a large order which includes the kangaroos and its relatives.
Possums are native to Australia and are protected there. Possums spend the first four months of their lives in their mother's pouch. By the time they are six months old, the young possums live outside the pouch.
They are nocturnal and at least partly arboreal. Some of the smaller species are gliders. They have sharp claws and a keen sense of smell. They eat the leaves of trees, insects, berries and bird's eggs.
The first possums were brought to New Zealand in 1837 from Australia[1]. In New Zealand, possums have no natural enemies, so possum numbers increased quickly. It is thought of as a pest in New Zealand. The possum has done a lot of damage to the native plants, animals and birds.
1. "Types of Possums found in Australia". Thursday, March 2, 2017
Other websitesEdit
Data related to Phalangeriformes at Wikispecies
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"url": "https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possum"
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<< Chapter < Page Chapter >> Page >
Life orientation
Grade 8
Social development and career orientation
Module 22
Human beings do not live in isolation
To explain that human beings do not live in isolation and without having some impact on someone or something else
[lo 2.3]
John Donne, a famous poet, wrote: "No man is an island." What did this man, who lived from 1572 to 1613, actually try to say? Your language educator might be able to clarify it better, but we can think of a couple of possible interpretations.
"No man is an island" may mean that there is no one on whom some other person cannot have an impact. Think for a moment about other people who have had an influence on your life and feelings. You might be aware of current world news and tendencies. You are not like an island that is isolated from everything else and you are not altogether self-sufficient.
The quotation could also mean that each person has an influence on the people and environment that surrounds him or her. When someone carelessly drops a cigarette in dry grasses, his action might result in a veldt fire that destroys nature and homes. Reckless driving might destroy a whole family. This affects the victims' lives and the lives of their extended family. Think of Mother Theresa and the mass of suffering and starving people whom she served. Think of Nelson Mandela, probably one of the best known people of all times. Millions of people are trying to follow his example. Through this example, he has an influence on other people.
What would you like to leave behind one day? How would you like to be remembered?
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain "No man is an island" in your own words.
2. The well-known concept of “ubuntu” exists in South Africa. How would you explain it to someone who has not heard of it before?
3. We have also heard the expression "kamala(h)" from a friend in the Bo-Kiap. Do you know what it means?
4. Do the above-mentioned concepts have anything in common? Discuss this briefly in your groups.
Now read on
We have established that people influence one another and that there is interaction between people and the environment.
What is the difference between the natural environment and the manmade environment? The city is an example of a manmade environment and a natural forest with its animals is part of the natural environment.
Answer the following:
5. Consider the following carefully. Provide examples from the natural environment where you live or go to school (is a park natural or manmade?). Explain why you might regard an area as natural.
Read further
People primarily live in a manmade environment. Although there are people who live in untouched forests, people hardly ever live altogether on their own in nature. Those that do so are hermits.
Learning outcomes (LOs)
LO 1
Promotion of Health The learner is able to make informed decisions concerning personal, community and environmental health.
Assessment standards (ASs)
We know this when the learner:
1.1 plans an action in which laws and/or policies for protecting environmental health are applied to address an environmental health issue;
1.2 critically analyses the causes of common diseases in relation to socio-economic and environmental factors;
1.4 indicates that he/she is able to take responsible and informed decisions on personal and environmental safety; and;1.5 examines a health and safety issue related to violence, and proposes alternatives to violence as well as counter-strategies.
LO 2
Social Development The learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of and commitment to constitutional rights and responsibilities, and to show an understanding of diverse cultures and religions.
We know this when the learner:
2.1 discusses the violation of human rights and plans counter strategies;
2.2 explains how democratic processes can be employed to deal with local problems;
2.3 discusses how he / she would promote nation building in different contexts;
2.4 critically evaluates changes in cultural norms and values in terms of personal and community issues; and
2.5 is able to discuss the contributions made to social development by organisations from within different religions.
LO 5
Orientation with Regard to the World of Work The learner will be able to make informed decisions about further study and career choices.
We know this when the learner:
5.1 identifies and discusses career and study choices and their corresponding requirements;5.2 investigates career and study opportunities related to own interests and abilities.
Questions & Answers
what's economic development and growth
Popoola Reply
what do you understand by Ceteris Paribus?
Gabriel Reply
explain the uses of microeconomics
Nikita Reply
uses of microeconomics
Adam Smith's definition of economics
Sylvia Reply
what is economic deficit
this is a situation whereby a nation's outcome or available resources are not enough to the people thereby causing scarcity
prices of Quality demanded is equal to Quality supplied
it's quantity demand and quantity supplied that's called equilibrium
they deal With prices
define the elasticity
explain different types of elasticity
oops 😬 you are right you talk about quality I tell about quantity
elasticity is the measurement of the percentage change of one economic variable in response to a change in another
Cross Elasticity of Demand (XED) Income Elasticity of Demand (YED) Price Elasticity of Supply (PES)
anything else?
I need to know everything about theory of consumer behavior
How does one analyze a market where both demand and supply shift?
Gabriel Reply
That's equilibrium market
but an equlibrum can appear twice on the same market... both in Movement along the Demand/supply curve of shift in the Curve
I Mean on the same curve..
how can consumer surplus be calculated
How can we analyze the effect on demand or supply if multiple factors are changing at the same time—say price rises and income falls?
Gabriel Reply
because of fall of income, less will be demanded and much will be supply as a result of price rises. Rise in price always motivate new supplier to enter into the system. But it only possible in the short run
yeah.. I think Ceteris Paribus is applied in this case
that is the law of Demand is Inversely related to the law of Supply... so that mean a positive change in demand may produce a negative return to supply I think.
what are the difference between Wants and Needs
Gabriel Reply
When the price is above the equilibrium, explain how market forces move the market price to equilibrium. Do the same when the price is below the equilibrium.
economic problems
yeah please Explain
I don't know this is my question
no it was a mistake...😂😂 can you explain how Wants and needs differs 😌
wants is what human desire but might not need them, human want are mostly articles of ostentatious while need is what human must get to live e.g inferior goods
what's equilibrium price
equilibrium prices is a situation whereby the price of goods supplied equates to the demand
this whereby the prices of quality demanded is equivalent to quality demanded
wants are numerous desire man that man can do without if not purchased e.g. cosmetic while need are desires that you cannot do without e.g. food
equilibrium price is that level of output were quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied
what are the importance of studying economics
Bherla Reply
To know if the country is growing or not through the country's GDP
to manage our resources
compare base years GDP and the current years GDP
To tell whether a country is growing there are many factors to be considered not necessarily only the GDP due to weaknesses of GDP approach
What is the law of demand
Yaw Reply
price increase demand decrease...price decrease demand increase
how is the economy of usa now
What is demand
jude Reply
Okay congratulations I'll join you guys later .
demand is the quantity and quality of goods and services a consumer is willingly and able to purchase at a particular price over a given period of time.
calculate elasticity of income exercises
Susan Reply
cause of poverty in urban
DAVY Reply
Falak Reply
Beverly Reply
Got questions? Join the online conversation and get instant answers!
Jobilize.com Reply
Get Jobilize Job Search Mobile App in your pocket Now!
Get it on Google Play
Source: OpenStax, Life orientation grade 8. OpenStax CNX. Sep 12, 2009 Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11048/1.1
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<urn:uuid:4620e19b-67b8-49b8-84b1-65744f16e773>
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{
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"language_score": 0.9239893555641174,
"url": "https://www.jobilize.com/course/section/life-orientation-human-reproduction-by-openstax?qcr=www.quizover.com"
}
|
Counting Frogs Worksheet
0 based on 0 votes
The worksheet teaches your child how to count better and also shows them the life cycle of a frog. First, teach your little one that the picture shows the frog starting out an egg, then on to a tadpole, and finally maturing into a fully grown adult frog. Ask them if they can see the missing numbers in the picture. Then, ask them to check the missing numbers to count properly from 100 to 120. The correct answers are in the squares beneath the numbers. Help them check the correct ones.
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<urn:uuid:566f211c-a3b3-4765-b12e-5ad1b1db6f51>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.0833393931388855,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9198045134544373,
"url": "https://www.kidsacademy.mobi/printables/counting-frogs/"
}
|
how to use the structure 'for' ?
–1 vote
asked Dec 31, 2020 by Bechair Hechlef (130 points)
1 Answer
+3 votes
answered Jan 4 by Peter Minarik (15,580 points)
for is a keyword and the usage changes slightly from language to language. In C/C++ it has the following syntax:
• INITIALISATION is typically setting up the start conditions of the for loop.
• CONDITION is typically a logical expression to check whether the for loop should keep running (exit when it fails).
• INCREMENT is typically an instruction to increment a loop variable for the next iteration of the loop
• INSTRUCTION is the body of the loop to execute in every iteration
an actual example would be like this:
printf("The %dth square number is: %d\n", i, i * i);
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<urn:uuid:e57545da-9aab-4104-8cb0-5efc9df35027>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.859375,
"fasttext_score": 0.9930706024169922,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8801447749137878,
"url": "http://question.onlinegdb.com/9009/how-to-use-the-structure-for?show=9026"
}
|
Log In
0 votes
The binary operation $\square$ is defined as $a \square b = ab+(a+b)$, where $a$ and $b$ are any two real numbers. The value of the identity element of this operation, defined as the number $x$ such that $a \square x = a$, for any $a$, is
1. $0$
2. $1$
3. $2$
4. $10$
in Others 7.9k points
edited by
Please log in or register to answer this question.
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<urn:uuid:08787fee-c6d4-485b-be45-4a9a48579f75>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.9989954829216003,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8863036632537842,
"url": "https://bt.gateoverflow.in/447/gate2016-ga-9"
}
|
Caledonia provided the Romans with essential goods such as timber, wool and leather as well as lead. Some native tribes fought on the side of the Romans as auxilliary soldiers who were first into battle. The tribes did this to help protect themselves from rival tribes to the north or from the Romans themselves.
First broadcast:
14 November 2008
This clip would be useful as a stimulus for discussion on how advanced the Romans were in their organisation of armies and colonisation. Children could further research what the Romans needed the timber, wool, leather and lead for. This can also be used as an opening to an investigation on Roman colonisation and expansion of their Empire and as a look at who the different Caledonian tribes were and how their lives and customs compared with those of the Romans.
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<urn:uuid:1ba0675c-b8eb-446e-aa64-6824d4fb3540>
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{
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"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.049233078956604004,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9844384789466858,
"url": "https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/clips/z4m6n39"
}
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In Technology
A middle ear infection — also known as otitis media — happens when your middle ear becomes infected and fills up with fluid. This makes your ear hurt (a lot!) and also makes it difficult to hear properly. But why are middle ear infections more common in winter than summer? And how can a temporary ear infection cause permanent hearing loss? Read on to find out.
1. Middle ear infections aren’t contagious.
But the viruses and bacteria that cause them are! Many middle ear infections are caused by the common cold or flu. Your ears are connected to your throat via the Eustachian tubes, which makes it easy for infections in your throat or chest to spread to your ears. Once there, your middle ear starts to fill with fluid, putting pressure on your eardrum and making your ear hurt.
2. Middle ear infections are more common in winter than in summer.
If you think about it, this makes perfect sense. Middle ear infections are often caused by colds and flu, and there are more cold and flu viruses flying around in winter than in summer. Therefore, you are much more likely to get a middle ear infection in January than you are in July.
3. And they’re also more common in children.
This one’s less obvious. Children are more likely to develop middle ear infections because of the shape of their ears. In adults, the Eustachian tube (see point 1 above) slopes down away from their ear, making it easier for fluid in their middle ear to drain away. But in children, the Eustachian tube is more level, so the fluid doesn’t drain away as easily. This nice, warm fluid is the perfect breeding ground for bacteria, so children are much more likely to suffer from ear infections than adults.
4. Most ear infections go away on their own.
Just like the colds and flu that often cause them, most ear infections will go away by themselves. In fact, many doctors won’t prescribe antibiotics until you’ve had symptoms for at least three days.
5. But middle ear infections can cause permanent hearing loss.
Most ear infections cause some kind of temporary hearing loss. The fluid in your middle ear stops sound waves from reaching your cochlea, making it harder to hear. This usually disappears once the infection is over and the fluid drains away from your middle ear.
However, if you get lots of ear infections (known as chronic otitis media), or one particularly severe ear infection, this could cause permanent damage to your ear. Bacteria need food in order to survive and multiply, so they start to eat away at your eardrum and the three little bones, or ossicles, in your middle ear. These damaged bones and eardrum then can’t transfer sound waves properly, causing you permanent conductive hearing loss.
6. Chronic ear infections affect children’s speech development.
The peak age range for getting ear infections is between 6 and 18 months. Unfortunately, this is also one of the most critical periods for language development. If a child can’t hear properly during this time, they may have problems learning to listen, talk, and even read. Therefore it’s important that children who regularly get middle ear infections receive the right hearing device early on so that their language development is not affected.
7. It’s possible to hear with an ear infection.
And the good news is that there are hearing devices out there that can help you to hear, even with the most serious ear infection. Bone conductions systems like ADHEAR are completely removable. This means they can be worn during the ear infection to let you hear and then taken off once the infection has gone away. For a young child with chronic ear infections, ADHEAR allows them to hear the world around them so that they can learn to speak just like any other child.
Want to learn more about ADHEAR? 12-year-old William tells us how this bone conduction device changed his life.
Think your child’s ear infections might be causing hearing loss? Check these signs of hearing loss in children.
Want to find out more about bone conduction hearing solutions? Read all about ADHEAR.
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Condensate trap
The condensate trap is a device inside a condensing boiler which collects water from the condensing process before it is expelled into the sewer via the condensate pipe. The purpose of the trap is to prevent toxic gases from entering the condensate pipe, and to manage the flow of condensate fluid out of the boiler.
Condensate trap overview
The condensing process
When a boiler burns a fuel, one of the end products of the combustion process is water vapour. In a non-condensing boiler, this water vapour is simply expelled out of the flue. However, the water vapour is hot: it carries heat energy. This is why non-condensing boilers generally only have an energy efficiency rating of 50-80%. For every £1 you spend on fuel, 20 to 50p’s worth of heat is simply being pumped outside.
This is where condensing boilers come in. Condensing boilers draw the heat energy out of that water vapour to the extent that it condenses and turns into a liquid – water. By recovering this heat which would otherwise be wasted, condensing boilers typically have an energy efficiency rating of around 90%.
More on this topic: Condensing vs. Non-condensing boilers – what’s the difference?
The condensate trap itself
This water, or condensate as its known, is then expelled into the sewer via the condensate pipe. But before this happens, the water is collected in the boiler’s sump. It then flows into the condensate trap.
The trap has two purposes. Firstly, the water forms a barrier between the condensate pipe and the combustion areas inside. This is important because noxious fumes should always be expelled via the flue, not the condensate pipe. Think of it in the same way as the trap in your toilet or sink, which also uses a body of water to prevent the movement of fumes – in that case, to prevent bad smells from the sewer entering your your home.
The other purpose of the trap is to control the flow of condensate exiting the boiler. This is important because in the winter months, condensate pipes have a tendency to freeze and block. The boiler will then detect that it cannot expel condensate, and will shut itself down.
Frozen condensate pipes are often a result of a constant drip-drip-drip of water. To prevent this, condensate traps have an auto-siphon. Once the water in the trap reaches a certain level, the siphon is activated and all the water is siphoned out of the trap. By releasing the condensate in bursts like this, it’s much less vulnerable to freezing, and the warmth of the water should shift any ice which has started to form.
Condensate trap types
Generally speaking, there are two different kinds of condensate trap – those with an auto-siphon, and those without. The ones without may simply be in the form of a U-bend shape of pipe.
However, regardless of type, condensate traps are always made out of plastic, like other boiler components which handle condensate. This is because condensate itself is slightly acidic and would corrode metal-based fittings.
The boiler should never be operated without the condensate trap in place, as it prevents noxious combustion gases from travelling down the condensate pipe. Should the trap have to be removed from the boiler, it must be topped up with water when it’s replaced. This will ensure the presence of the water barrier between the condensate pipe and the boiler’s combustion chambers.
Note that it is illegal for someone who is not listed on the Gas Safe register to work on a gas appliance, such as a gas boiler.
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"url": "https://www.diyplumbing.co.uk/condensate-trap/"
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Home » Duty Sumarry photosyntesis
Duty Sumarry photosyntesis
Leaf Cross-Section
Leaf Cross-Section Photosynthesis takes place primarily in plant leaves, and little to none occurs in stems, etc. The parts of a typical leaf include the upper and lower epidermis, the mesophyll, the vascular bundle(s) (veins), and the stomates. The upper and lower epidermal cells do not have chloroplasts, thus photosynthesis does not occur there. They serve primarily as protection for the rest of the leaf. The stomates are holes which occur primarily in the lower epidermis and are for air exchange: they let CO2 in and O2 out. The vascular bundles or veins in a leaf are part of the plant’s transportation system, moving water and nutrients around the plant as needed. The mesophyll cells have chloroplasts and this is where photosynthesis occurs.
Chlorplast As you hopefully recall, the parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoids stacked in grana. The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids.
Chlorophyll looks green because it absorbs red and blue light, making these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes. It is the green light which is NOT absorbed that finally reaches our eyes, making chlorophyll appear green. However, it is the energy from the absorbed red and blue light that is, thereby, able to be used to do photosynthesis. The green light we can see is not/cannot be absorbed by the plant, and this cannot be used to do photosynthesis.
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NASA Secrets Regarding the Apollo Program Revealed
NASA Secrets Regarding the Apollo Program Revealed
While racing to get to the Moon, NASA took into consideration the probability that the Apollo 11 Lunar Module could crash on the lunar surface leaving behind no telemetry about the reason for the crash.
In such a situation, NASA might have to deport a high-powered camera, coming from a top-secret reconnaissance satellite, to capture the accident site in a secret crash scene investigation. That never happened, but NASA was close to finishing the hardware to complete the mission when they canceled the program, back in 1967.
Declassified data suggest that NASA and a secretive organization going by the name of National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) partnered on the classified UPWARD project. UPWARD aimed to image the Moon in very high-resolution photographs in training for lunar landings. However, the program made some of the US intelligence agencies anxious, and as soon as the urgent requirement for it vanished, the two organizations quarreled about its extension.
First ever expeditions to the Moon
While preparing the first stages of the Apollo lunar landing project, NASA engineers were worried as they knew quite little about the Moon’s surface. Even though the majority of scientists ignored suggestions that the Moon might be covered in a fine dust that could absorb a Lunar Module, they were initially guessing about the features of the surface. Because they were planning to send astronauts in an untested vehicle, they needed as much data on the Moon’s surface as they could get.
Therefore, NASA conducted a series of prototype robotic expeditions that would collect data on the lunar surface, such as the size of surface characteristics, the smoothness of terrain, and the slope of the surface.
Lunar Orbiter takes flight
As the production of top-secret spacecraft required for Apollo mission was designed, NASA began launching the Lunar Orbiter missions. The Lunar Orbiter program started in 1962 and benefited from access to classified spy satellite technology resulting in a contract between NASA and NRO. Lunar Orbiter I launched in August 1966, then the Lunar Orbiter II followed in November 1966. Both expeditions were successful, and NASA determined that these missions had confirmed numerous Apollo landing sites.
In January 1967, the Apollo 1 fire produced a significant setback to the program. As NASA examined the fire, this offered a pause that allowed those who were supervising the backup project of Apollo, dubbed Lunar Mapping and Survey System, or LM&SS, to consider its use. It also caused a rift between those who saw LMSS a tool the agency could use and those who wanted to conceal their activities from the public.
By April 1967, NASA Associate Administrator Robert Seamans talked about the future of the LMSS program with the DoD (Department of Defense) and NRO officials. Seamans has also commanded a complete review of basing the landing decision on the data collected by Lunar Orbiter. They discussed three variants: cancellation, continuation without testing in Earth orbit, and continuation with testing in Earth orbit. The latter option would have been an issue because it would have resulted in the creation of unclassified images and would have drawn attention to the concealed program they were rolling.
Finally, besides the LMSS hardware, NRO and NASA had elaborated a cover story and measures for unveiling the existence of the camera system.
What happened to UPWARD and LMSS?
After a period of indecision concerning the disposal of the LMSS hardware, Seamans commanded that the concealed hardware be sent to the storage until a decision would be taken. The hardware consisted of four units in different stages of development, including two that were almost completed.
What happened to the stored hardware is still unknown. The hardware was classified, and placed somewhere at NASA, most probably, before being transferred to the NRO, or ordered its destruction.
The code name UPWARD was classified, together with some technical details of the gear, but the existence of the LMSS program was not made secret anymore. However, NASA did nothing to make the existence of the project known during Apollo. It is also not mentioned in official reports of hundreds of popular books about the Apollo program.
What the UPWARD and LMSS story shows is that after 50 years after the alleged Moon landing, the report of Apollo is far from integral. There may still be numerous secrets of the Apollo program kept secret by NASA.
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Where is the Midwest?
By on in World Facts
The Midwest maintains the agricultural values instilled by early settlers.
The Midwest is also known as the Midwestern United States or the Middle West. It was officially known as the North Central Region by the Census Bureau until 1984. The Midwest is one of the four census regions of the United States the others being, the West, Northeast, and South regions. The Midwest region occupies the north-central part of the country. The Midwest is both the population and geographic center of the United States.
Midwestern States
It consists of the states of Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Missouri, North Dakota, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and South Dakota. The census bureau further subdivides the Midwest into West North Central and East North Central. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the region west of Mississippi was known as the West while the land east of the Mississippi and west of the Appalachians became the Midwest. In time, the states of Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota became part of the Midwest.
Physical Features
Much of the Midwest is relatively flat except for the eastern Midwest that lies on the foothill of the Appalachians, the northern parts of Minnesota, and Iowa that demonstrate topographical variation. The Midwest west of the Mississippi is majorly covered by prairies except for the southern end of Illinois, southern Missouri, and eastern Minnesota. The rainfall pattern in the increases from west to east resulting in tallgrass prairie in the east and short grass prairie in the Rockies. Hardwood forests were logged to extinction in the 1800s and replaced by agriculture land and urban areas.
Culture of the Midwest
The Midwest includes religious heritage of the abolitionist, stalwart Calvinist, Midwestern Protestants, and agricultural values instilled by the early settlers of the lands. The region remains a hotbed of Calvinism and Protestantism, and a mistrust of power and authority. The small agricultural communities of Kansas, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Iowa represent the traditional Midwestern values and lifestyle while the more developed cities of the Great Lakes represent modern American culture characterized by immigration, politics, manufacturing, and improved infrastructure.
Politics of the Midwest
The politics of the Midwest is more cautious than the rest of the country, but at times the caution is peppered with protest especially by minority communities associated with labor, agriculture, and populist roots. This was represented well in the early 20th century when the West became a hub for socialist movements in the country by electing socialist leaders. The Great Lakes region is the most liberal area but the liberal presence decreases gradually towards the South and West.
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning shapes and their relationships to one another. Because of its immediate practical applications it was one of the first to be developed, and was likewise the first field to be put on an axiomatic basis, by Euclid. The next most significant development had to wait until a millennium later, and that was analytic geometry, in which points are represented by as ordered pairs or triples of numbers. This sort of representation has since then allowed us to construct new geometries other than the standard Euclidean version.
The central notion in geometry is that of congruence. In Euclidean geometry, two figures are said to be congruent if they are related by a series of reflections, rotations, and translations. For instance:
* * *
* * * * *
* * *
* *
The first two figures are congruent to each other. The third is a different size, and so is similar but not congruent to the others; the fourth is different altogether. Note that congruences alter some properties, such as location and orientation, but leave others unchanged, like distances and angles. The latter sort of properties are called invariants and studying them is the essence of geometry.
Other geometries can be constructed by choosing a new underlying space to work with (Euclidean geometry uses Euclidean space, Rn) or by choosing a new group of transformations to work with (Euclidean geometry uses the special orthogonal transformations, SO(n)). In general, the more congruences we have, the fewer invariants there are. As an example, in affine geometry any linear transformation is allowed, and so the first three figures are all congruent; distances and angles are no longer invariants, but linearity is.
Euclidean geometry -- Conic sections -- Non-euclidean geometry -- Projective geometry -- Geometers
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Voids In Solid State
Voids literally mean gaps between the constituent particles. Voids in solid states mean the vacant space between the constituent particles in a closed packed structure. Close packing in solids can be generally done in three ways: 1D close packing, 2D close packing and 3D close packing.
In 2 dimensional structures when the atoms are arranged in square close packing and hexagonal close packing, we see empty spaces left over between the atoms. These empty spaces are called voids and in the case of hexagonal packing, these voids are in triangular shapes and are known as the triangular voids.
Voids In Solid State
Packing of Spheres in 2 dimension
These triangular voids in hexagonal packing are shown in two orientations. We can see that in one row, the apex of the triangle points in an upward direction and in the other row it points in the downward direction.
In the three-dimensional structure, both in CCP and HCP close packing in solids, about 26% of total space is vacant and is not covered by spheres. These empty spaces are known as the interstitial voids, interstices or holes. The above voids in solids depend on the number of spheres.
There are two types of interstitial voids in a 3D structure:
1. Tetrahedral voids: In cubic close packed structure, spheres of the second layer lie above the triangular voids of the first layer. Each sphere touches the three spheres of the first layer. By joining the centre of these four spheres, it forms a tetrahedron and the empty space left over by joining the centre of these spheres forms a tetrahedral void.
In closed packed structure the number of tetrahedral voids is two times the number of spheres.
Let the number of spheres be n.
Then the number of tetrahedral voids will be 2n.
1. Octahedral voids: Adjacent to tetrahedral voids you can find octahedral voids. So now, what are Octahedral Voids? When the triangular voids of the first layer coincides with the triangular voids of the layer above or below it, we get a void that is formed by enclosing six spheres. This vacant space formed by combining the triangular voids of the first layer and that of the second layer are called Octahedral Voids.
If the number of spheres in a close-packed structure is n, then the number of octahedral voids will be n.
Octahedral voids
Tetrahedral and octahedral void
Related Videos
Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs
What is tetrahedral void?
It is called a tetrahedral space the space filled by four spheres residing at the corners of a regular tetrahedron. — when a tetrahedral void is created above the void of the first layer, the sphere of the second layer.
How many octahedral sites are there in BCC?
It may be known that both spheres are hard and strike each other. The six spheres describe a regular octahedra, and there is a given space for an interstitial atom in its interior, bordered by six spheres. Octahedral sites occur in crystals such as FCC and BCC.
What are octahedral sites?
An octahedral location is a space in the middle of a cluster of six atoms forming an octahedron. The octahedral area is greater than that of the tetrahedral site. Since atoms of the same size are packed together as tightly as possible, each atom has one octahedral site.
What are interstitial voids?
Vacuums in solid states mean empty space in a closed packed system between the constituent particles. Such empty spaces are known as the openings, interstices or interstitial voids.
Are all solids crystals?
A crystal is a solid where a periodic arrangement of atoms is formed. Not all crystals are solids. For example, as liquid water starts to freeze, the transition in process begins with tiny ice crystals rising until they merge, creating a polycrystalline structure.
Learning never comes to an end. There is much more to learn in solid states of which voids form just a small part. To know more about the solid states, join BYJU’S classes and feel the difference in the process of learning.
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Co-designing inclusive and equitable intelligent systems with and for kids around the world
Published onMay 05, 2019
Equity in opportunities for child’s wellbeing is one of the core values that has been the focus of international organizations for child’s protection for a long period of time. While there are considerable advances in providing equal opportunities for children to reach their full potential and pursue their interests, talents and skills, inequity in education remains one of the biggest unsolved problem of our global society. With every new wave of technology comes the promise of revolutionizing education and the reality of access and usage divide. With the advent of AI in the home we recognize the need to design inclusive AI literacy programs that will prevent a new digital gap in children interaction with smart devices. Currently there are several initiative that aim to promote and standardize AI curriculum in K-12 (eg however children’s voices are not being included as part of this conversation. In order to ensure an equitable and inclusive AI education for kids around the world we recognize the importance of including young people in all stages of curriculum and interaction design. We compared how 102 children (7-12 years old), from four different countries (U.S.A, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden) imagine future smart companions and perceive current AI technologies. Children outside of U.S.A were overall more critical of these technologies and less exposed to them. The way children collaborated and communicated while describing their AI perception and expectations were influenced both by their social-economical and cultural background. Children in low and medium SES schools and centers were better are collaborating compared to high SES children, but had a harder time advancing because they had less experience with coding and interacting with these technologies. Children in high SES schools and centers had troubles collaborating initially but displayed a stronger understanding of AI concepts.
Design your AI companion activity with paper and LEGO during author’s study in an international school in Billund, Denmark in 2018
In addition to this, taking into consideration the importance of social interaction for child’s learning and development and the potential role of embodied AI, we have conducted a series of studies to investigate the ways in which social robotic agents should be designed to support equitable and inclusive learning opportunities for all children. We included children from various socio-cultural settings including children of different cognitive abilities and interests. Micro-genetic learning analyses of children’s developmental processes reveal children’s tendency for exploration as one of the catalytic stages for the emergence and development of advanced cognitive strategies. Our research has shown that during exploratory actions children follow different paths with each other and there is a variety in children’s need to be supported by a social agent. Taking into consideration children’s diversity is essential for the development of dynamic autonomous inclusive systems. Towards this end, we are suggesting design principles for the development of flexible autonomous agents that self-supervise in realistic physical environments by supporting human tendency for self-directed cognitive activities and the development of children’s creative thinking.
Playing with a social robot: author’s behavioural observation of child-robot and child-child social dynamics in a collaborative play activity (University of Twente, the Netherlands 2017
In either cases of cultural, geographical and cognitive diversity, our research indicates that children’s active involvement in the design and development of AI and robotic autonomous systems has a dual benefit; first, this is one of the ways to educate and provide children with the necessary skills and literacies for their current and future wellbeing in the era of AI; and second, by observing children interacting with intelligent systems in their play and learning and we gain a deeper understanding of child development and human nature, which in turn is taken into consideration for the design of autonomous intelligent systems in a child-centered way.
Example of drawings made by children (7-10 years old) from Denmark, Sweden, Germany and USA when asked to imagine their future AI companion. “Growing up with AI” S. Druga MIT Master Thesis, 2018.
For a systematic and effective way of developing equitable and inclusive intelligent systems, we ensure that children’s voice, as it is being revealed through our research, reaches the ears of various stakeholders, such as academia, industry, governmental and non-governmental institutions. The development of AI technologies that promote the basic values of equity and inclusion is a collective societal endeavour, which requires extensive and constructive collaborations. With this paper, we suggest a systemic bottom-up approach to co-design inclusive and equitable intelligent systems with and for kids around the world.
Stefania Druga is the creator of Cognimates, platform for AI education for families and a Ph.D candidate at the University of Washington. Her research on AI education started during her master in Personal Robots Group at MIT Media Lab. Currently, she is also a Weizenbaum research fellow in the Critical AI Lab and an assistant professor at NYU ITP and RISD, teaching graduate students how to hack smart toys for AI education. She co-founded Hackidemia, a global community for maker education present in 40 countries, Afrimakers, initiative for learning by solving global challenges in 10 African countries and MakerCamp , global camps for learning how to build and run maker spaces. During her research in the past two years, she has observed in longitudinal studies how 450 children from 7 countries are growing up with AI and how they can acquire AI literacy concepts through creative learning activities with the open source AI coding platform she has created.
Vicky Charisi is a Research Scientist at the Centre for Advanced Studies, Joint Research Centre of the European Commission with a focus on the impact of Artificial Intelligence on Human Behaviour with an expertise on Embodied AI and Child-Robot Interaction. Her research at the European Commission is connected with policy-making in the field of Education. Vicky has completed her Ph.D studies at the UCL, Institute of Education, London, UK with a focus on children’s musical creativity in digital contexts. She is currently leading cross-cultural research on Human-Robot Interaction in collaboration with the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology AIST, Tokyo, in schools in Uganda, Rwanda and Nigeria and she collaborates with the School of Design, University of Technology Sydney and the Honda Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan for the development of a domestic socially intelligent robot. She is a leading member of the International Consortium for Socially Intelligent Robotics, she has been listed as 1 of 100 women in AI Ethics for 2019 and she serves as a Chair at the IEEE Computational Intelligence Society for Cognitive and Developmental Systems TF Human-Robot Interaction (2019-2021).
1. Inclusive AI literacy for kids around the world: Stefania Druga, Sarah T.Vu, Eesh Likhith, Tammy Qiu
2. Towards moral autonomous systems Charisi, V., Dennis, L., Fischer, M., Lieck, R., Matthias, A., Slavkovik, M., Sombetski, J.,Winfield, A., Yampolskiy, R. (2017).
3. Examining Adult-Child Interactions in Intergenerational Participatory Design, Jason C. Yip, Kiley Sobel, Caroline Pitt, Kung Jin Lee, Sijin Chen, Kari Nasu, and Laura R. Pina. 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '17). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 5742-5754.
4. Hey Google is it Ok if I eat you?: Stefania Druga, Randi Williams, Cynthia Breazeal, and Mitchel Resnick. 2017. "Hey Google is it OK if I eat you?": Initial Explorations in Child-Agent Interaction. In Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC '17). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 595-600.
5. How smart are the smart toys ?: Stefania Druga, Randi Williams, Cynthia Breazeal. ““How smart are the smart toys ?"- Children’s and parents’ attributions of intelligence to computational objects.” IDC. 2018
6. My Doll Says It's OK: Voice-Enabled Toy Influences Children's Moral Decisions : Randi Williams, Christian Vazquez, Stefania Druga, Pattie Maes, Cynthia Breazeal. “My Doll Says It's OK: Voice-Enabled Toy Influences Children's Moral Decisions.” IDC. 2018
7. Envisioning AI for K-12 - What should every child know about AI?: David Touretzky, Christina Gardner-McCune, Fred Martin, Deborah Seehorn
8. The Near Future of Children’s Robotics. Charisi, V., Alcorn, A. M., Kennedy, J., Johal, W., Baxter, P., and Kynigos, C. (2018). In Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC ’18). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 720-727.
9. Children’s Views on Identification and Intention Communication of Self-driving Vehicles. Charisi, V., Habibovic, A., Andersson, J., Li, J. and Evers, V. (2017). In Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC ’17). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 399-404.
10. IEEE Guide for Embedding Values into Autonomous and Intelligent Systems
11. UNICEF
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Infographic Template Galleries
Created with Fabric.js 1.4.5 DROWNING PREVENTION About one in five people who drown are children aged 14 and younger. Around 4,000 people nearly drown each year, around 400 of them die. If parents and their children follow the circle of drowning prevention, this could decrease the amount of people drowning yearly. Fence pools and spas with suitable barriers.This stops their access to the pool without parental supervision. Children who are inexperienced swimmers should always wear life jackets. This also applies to people on boat. Always provide close and consistent attentionto children you are supervising when they are near or in water. Always swim in a life guard area. Most inportantly encouraged all children and adults to learn to swim and be familiar with water survival skills. If you are in a position where a child or adult has drowned, be sure to follow this procedure .... Step 1: Call for help! ( notify a life guard or call 000)Step 2: Check for dangers and try and remove the person from the water.Step3: Check if the person is breathing and if they have a pulse.Step 4: If the person doesn't have a pulse, immediately give CPR. Give 2 breaths followed by 30 chest compressions. Repeat until ambulance has arrived. If you are faced in a situation when you are drowning, do not panic. Try and keep you head above the water and put yourhand in the air to alert life guards and others.Try and swim parallel to shore to get out of the current.Try your best to tread water and hold your breath. CALL 000 IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY.
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Swahili architecture
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Swahili architecture is a term used today to designate a whole range of diverse building traditions practiced or once practiced along the eastern and southeastern coasts of Africa. What is today seen as typically Swahili architecture is still very visible in the thriving urban centers of Mombasa, Lamu and Zanzibar. As archeological evidence has revealed, Swahili coast construction technologies are in many ways an extension of mainland African traditions, although structural elements, such as domes and barrel vaulting clearly connect to Persian Gulf area and South Asia building traditions as well. Exotic ornament and design elements also connected the architecture of the Swahili coast to other Islamic port cities. In fact, many of the classic mansions and palaces of the Swahili coast belonged to wealthy merchants and landowners, who played a key role in the mercantile economy of the Swahili coast. It was not the case, as British archeologists assumed during the colonial period (today some people still believe this outdated information, which is not corroborated by evidence), that Arab or Persian colonizers brought stone architecture and urban civilization to the Swahili coast. Local people--who of course also had overseas connections and relations--developed the Swahili coast built environment. Most importantly, even when a house was made to look like a house across the Indian Ocean it structured local experiences. Swahili architecture exhibits a range of influences and innovations and diverse forms and histories interlock and overlap to create densely layered structures that cannot be broken down into distinct stylistic parts. Many spectacular ruins of the so-called golden age of Swahili architecture may also still be observed near the southern Kenyan port of Malindi in the ruins of Gedi (the lost city of Gede/Gedi).
Swahili architecture Wikipedia
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From Wikiversity
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>Brain Imaging>Neurosociety Media Centre
Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the cerebral cortex at the time of the scan. The measurements are usually taken using electrodes that are placed on the scalp. Neural activity generates electric field potentials in the brain which can be measured, these usually appear as regular rhythms at different frequencies on the EEG trace.
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COVID-19 Vaccine: What You Need to Know
COVID-19 Vaccine: What You Need to Know
How do vaccines work?
Is there a vaccine for the coronavirus disease?
Pfizer’s vaccine was authorized on Dec. 12, 2020, and Moderna’s version on Dec. 18, 2020.
How will a vaccine prevent COVID-19?
The coronavirus that causes COVID-19 has spikes of protein on each viral particle. These spikes help the viruses attach to cells and cause disease. Some of the coronavirus vaccines in development are designed to help the body “recognize” these spike proteins and fight the coronavirus that has them.
An effective vaccine will protect a person who receives it by lowering their chances of getting COVID-19 if they encounter the coronavirus. Widespread vaccination for the coronavirus means that the virus will not infect as many people. This will limit spread through communities.
Both Pfizer and Moderna report that their vaccines show approximately 95% efficacy at preventing both mild and severe symptoms of COVID-19. This level of efficacy appears to apply across age groups, racial and ethnic groups, and both sexes, as reported in the Pfizer trial.
Safety and Effectiveness of a COVID-19 Vaccine
Learn more about the safety of the COVID-19 vaccines
How Do We Know a COVID-19 Vaccine Will Be Safe and Effective?
A few people who have had COVID-19 have apparently had a second, often milder case of the disease, and researchers are exploring what this means in terms of how long immunity from the coronavirus lasts. Vaccine developers are looking at ways to boost the effectiveness of a vaccine so that it provides longer immune protection than a natural infection with the coronavirus.
Availability of a COVID-19 Vaccine
Will there be enough vaccine for everyone who wants it?
Now that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized COVID-19 vaccines, initial quantities of the vaccine are being distributed across the United States.
Because it will take a while to make and distribute enough of the vaccine for everyone who wishes to be vaccinated against COVID-19, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is recommending groups of people who should get priority. The CDC has been working closely with state health departments and partners to develop these recommendations.
If you are a Johns Hopkins Medicine patient, visit our COVID-19 Vaccine Information and Updates page for all current information on getting vaccinated. Your state’s health department website can also provide updates on vaccine distribution in your area.
Will it be easier or harder to get in some areas?
There could be differences in availability from one place to another. Availability might depend on how much vaccine is produced and how it needs to be transported and stored. For instance, some vaccines must be kept frozen at very low temperatures in order to be effective. Every effort will be made to distribute the vaccine fairly.
Will older adults receive a COVID-19 vaccine>
The CDC is providing recommendations on the order of who receives vaccines. The first group to receive authorized COVID-19 vaccines are frontline healthcare workers and residents of long-term care facilities. Adults, 75 and older, are expected to receive vaccines, possibly starting in January.
Review the CDC’s guidelines for who gets vaccinated first when supplies are limited
Will children receive a COVID-19 vaccine?
The Food and Drug Administration has authorized the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for distribution to individuals ages 16 years and older. At this time, however, Johns Hopkins is only offering vaccines to essential health care workers.
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Balance sheet
What is a balance sheet?
balance sheet is a summary of the financial balances of a company. A standard company balance sheet has three parts: assets, liabilities and shareholders‘ equity.
These three items show investors how much the company owns and owes, plus the amount invested by its shareholders. The assets always equal the liabilities and equity combined.
The balance sheet is drawn up at least once a year as part of the company’s accounts. It is also often published quarterly to provide a detailed picture within a shorter time frame.
It is called a balance sheet because assets balance the liabilities plus equity. The company’s assets (what it owns) have to be paid for, either through debt (by borrowing money), which is its liabilities or by raising the money from shareholders (the equity).
The balance sheet’s importance for traders and investors
The balance sheet is a key part of the financial statements that help investors analyse the value of a stock. The other financial statements are the cash flow, income and profit and loss (P&L). Together they show the financial health of a company.
The ability to read between the lines of a balance sheet gives investors an idea of what’s going on inside a company. Comparing a current balance sheet to previous ones can show whether a company is growing, stagnating or in difficulty and can help decide if the company is worth investing in.
Note that the balance sheet shows a company’s financial position for just one single day at its fiscal year-end. This is usually the last day of the firm’s accounting period and the date will be displayed as follows: “Balance sheet as at 31 December 2012”.
Understanding the balance sheet
The balance sheet is usually broken down in detail so that investors can see the different elements that make up the assets, liabilities and equity.
Cash, inventory and real estate or property are all assets. There may also be items such as securities and tangibles on the balance sheet. A high amount of assets can be a good indicator of sales growth. Assets are usually listed in descending order of their liquidity, or how quickly they can be converted into cash.
On the liability side of the balance sheet all forms of the company’s debt will be declared, such as bank loans, monies owed to suppliers, taxes due, leases, accounts payable, mortgages, deferred revenues and accrued expenses. Liabilities are usually listed in the order of priority for being paid off or paid down, with current (short-term) liabilities generally being listed higher than non-current (long-term) liabilities.
The equity shown on the balance sheet will be broken down to show how many shares are owned by external investors and how many by the company, how many shares are in free float, and what proportion of shares are either common shares or preferred shares (which determines voting rights).
Also see:
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Golden Eagle
Tony Hisgett
Scientific Name
Aquila chrysaetos
The golden eagle is one of the largest, fastest, and nimblest raptors in North America. Lustrous gold feathers gleam on the back of its head and neck;a powerful beak and talons advertise its hunting prowess. Although they had never bred historically on the Channel Islands, golden eagles were able to colonize the northern Channel Islands in the mid 1990s due to the presence of an alien prey base (feral pigs and mule deer fawns) and the absence of the native bald eagle, extirpated from the islands by chemical contaminants and by direct persecution. Golden eagles also preyed on the vulnerable island fox, nearly driving foxes to extinction. Subsequent conservation efforts successfully relocated golden eagles to the mainland, and restored bald eagles to the Channel Islands, helping to bring back the island fox from the brink of extinction.
Quick and Cool Facts
• The golden eagle is the most common official national animal in the world, being the emblem of Albania, Germany, Austria, Mexico, and Kazakhstan.
• Golden eagles are important to many Native American cultures, which include the bird and its feathers in ceremonies.
• Golden eagles are not typically found in the densely populated eastern portion of the United States, but are found instead in the rugged solitude of the sparsely populated western U.S.
• Although capable of killing large prey such as cranes, wild ungulates, and domestic livestock, the golden eagle subsists primarily on rabbits, hares, ground squirrels, and prairie dogs.
• Nests are huge, averaging some 5-6 feet wide, and 2 feet high, enclosing a bowl about 3 feet by 2 feet deep. The largest golden eagle nest on record was 20 feet tall, 8.5 feet wide.
The golden eagle is a large, dark brown raptor with broad wings. Its size is variable: it ranges 28-33 inches in length, has a wingspan of 6-7 feet , and weighs 7 to 13 pounds.Sexes are similar in plumage but display the typical reversed sexual dimorphism of raptors, in which the female is much larger than the male.Adults are primarily brown, with gold on the back of the crown and nape, and some grey on the wings and tail. Tarsal feathers range from white to dark brown. In addition, some birds have white epaulettes on the upper part of shoulder feathers on each wing.The bill is dark at the tip, fading to a lighter horn color, with the waxy top of the beak, called a cere, colored yellow.
Golden eagles can be found throughout much of the northern hemisphere, typically in sparsely populated areas
The golden eagle seeks open areas with large, rocky cliffs or large trees, such as pines, cypress or sycamores. They are often found in alpine parkland, open forests and mid-elevation clear-cuts, as well as in chaparral or plains areas.
The golden eagle's predominant prey in North America are medium-sized mammals such as rabbits and ground squirrels. Other species, such as foxes, martens, young deer are also taken. Ranchers have historically battled the eagle because of its ability to prey upon small livestock such as lambs and small goats. In Channel Islands National Park, predation by the golden eagle on the endemic island fox brought the latter close to extinction, with golden eagle breeding on the islands supported by feral pigs on Santa Cruz Island and deer on Santa Rosa Island Other important prey include birds; indeed,virtually any bird, from jays to swans, are potential prey. Golden eagles also r steal prey from other raptors. While not as large as some vultures, golden eagles are capable of driving vultures and other raptors from carrion. Golden eagles are avian apex predators, meaning they make their living at the top of the food chain (nothing preys on a golden eagle).
Golden eagles usually mate for life. They build several eyries within their territory and use them alternately for several years. These nests consist of heavy tree branches, upholstered with grass when in use. Old eyries may be quite large as the eagles repair their nests whenever necessary and enlarge them during each use. If the eyrie is situated on a tree, supporting tree branches may break because of the weight of the nest. The female usually lays two eggs between January and September, depending on the locality. The eggs vary from all white to white with cinnamon or brown spots and blotches. They start incubation immediately after the first egg is laid, and after 40 to 45 days the young hatch. They are covered in fluffy white down and are fed for fifty days before they are able to make their first flight attempts and eat on their own. In most cases only the older chick survives, while the younger one dies without leaving the eyrie. This is due to the older chick having a few days' advantage in growth and consequently winning most squabbles for food. This strategy, called asynchronous nesting, is useful because it makes the parents' workload manageable even when food is scarce, while providing a reserve chick in case the first-born dies soon after hatching. Golden eagles invest much time and effort in bringing up their young; once able to hunt on their own, most golden eagles survive many years, but mortality even among first-born nestlings is much higher, in particular in the first weeks after hatching.
Some golden eagles live in their nesting territory all year. Others may migrate due to lack of food during the winter. As a rule, they do not have to migrate large distances because of their excellent hunting abilities.
Golden Eagle Status in the Park
From 1999 through 2006, golden eagles were live-trapped and removed from the park, because golden eagle predation was the primary source of mortality for island foxes and was responsible for the massive island fox decline from 1994–2000.
Until the 1990s, golden eagles never bred on the Channel Islands. Golden eagles nested on both Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa Islands from the mid-1990s to as recently as 2006. They were able to colonize the islands because of several factors. First, bald eagles were absent from the Channel Islands, having disappeared by the mid-20th century due to both human persecution and the presence of DDT in the environment. Territorial bald eagles may have deterred goldens from establishing. Second, golden eagles arriving on the islands found food sources that were not available prior to the ranching era: feral pigs on Santa Cruz Island, and mule deer on Santa Rosa.
In order to mitigate golden eagle predation on island foxes, The Santa Cruz Predatory Bird Research Group, with the support of the Park Service and The Nature Conservancy, relocated golden eagles to distant sites on the California mainland. A total of 44 golden eagles, including 10 eaglets born on the islands, were trapped and relocated, and monitoring indicates that none have returned.
Other ecosystem-wide actions, such as the removal of feral pigs from Santa Cruz Island and the restoration of bald eagles, have tipped the balance in favor of island foxes and away from continued golden eagle use of the islands. As of 2009 the occasional golden eagle visits the islands, but the level of predation on island foxes is negligible;all three island fox subspecies in the park are recovering rapidly.
Conservation Status
In North America the situation is not as dramatic as it has been in in temperate Europe, North Asia, North Africa, and Japan, but there has still been a noticeable population decline. The main threat is habitat destruction which by the late 19th century already had driven golden eagles from some regions they used to inhabit.In the 20th century, organochloride and heavy metal poisonings were also commonplace, but these have declined thanks to tighter regulations on pollution. Within the United States, the golden eagle is legally protected by the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. Available habitat and food are the main limiting factor nowadays. Collisions with power lines have become an increasingly significant cause of mortality since the early 20th century. On a global scale, the golden eagle is considered by the IUCN as of least concern,thanks mainly to the large Asian and American populations.
Additional Information
Last updated: June 28, 2016
Contact the Park
Mailing Address:
1901 Spinnaker Drive
Ventura, CA 93001
(805) 658-5730
Contact Us
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From Sprocket School
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Masking is the material on the border of the screen that covers the portion of the screen outside the picture area. When projecting film, the aperture plate casts a blurry shadow because it is not on the same focal plane as the film, and masking is used to crop off this shadow and giving the illusion of a sharp edge. It also hides structural elements of the screen and mechanical elements of the masking system itself. The top of the screen is covered by a valence, and the fixed drapery hanging below the screen is referred to as the skirt.
Masking is typically matte black, with the side masking and skirt made of a lightweight fabric that is acoustically transparent so that it doesn’t muffle the screen speakers.
In the silent era, projectors had a fixed aperture and screens had fixed masking. Apertures typically had rounded corners, which were often reflected in the masking. In the early years, a border was either painted directly onto the screen with matte black paint or constructed out of matte black fabric. However, at theaters that employed a stereopticon that projected a taller image than the 35mm picture, the film presentation could not be properly masked.
The use of fixed masking, often with rounded corners, continued after the standardization of 1.37:1 as the aspect ratio for sound film. It was not until the proliferation of widescreen aspect ratios in the 1950s that theaters had to adapt by providing adjustable masking, which by necessity resulted in sharp corners on the screen. There were a few exceptions to this, including early pre-1950s widescreen gimmicks like Magnascope which would have required adjustable masking as early as the mid-1920s for theaters interested in screening films using this early widescreen projection process.
The early days of widescreen were fairly chaotic as studios tried out different widescreen aspect ratios. Many films released during this period were produced with the understanding that some theaters would still need to screen them 1.37:1 while those who were able (i.e had updated their theaters to accommodate widescreen) would screen them in a widescreen aspect ratio, with widescreen masking.
Fixed Height Screens
By the late 1950s most American studios eventually coalesced around the 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 formats for 35mm, with some exceptions. Many theaters began installing masking systems that could only mask these two aspect ratios. The masking was typically fixed-height, with the sides expanding for 2.39 and narrowing for 1.85. This strikes a good balance between the aperture size and the illuminated surface area of the screen, with the larger Scope aperture corresponding to a larger projected image. With the same light output from the lamp, both aspect ratios can be illuminated within the SMPTE-specified parameters.
Fixed Width Screens
Although it is more rare some theaters have fixed-width screens in which case the visible screen size with the masking all the way open would be 1.85:1 and the top and bottom masking would close down for wider aspect ratios like 2.39:1 or 2.2:1. This is common in theaters built before the widescreen era that retained their original screen footprint and front of house (rather than installing a wider screener in front).
Modern Masking Scenarios
Although being able to only accommodate 1.85:1 "flat" and 2.39:1 "scope" works well for venues screening mostly new releases and older titles produced after the "widescreen chaos" era (so after the 1950s) American films, those committed to the proper presentation of films from any era, and any country, need more flexibility. They require masking systems that enable them to properly mask films of a wider variety of aspect ratios.
In the digital era, some first-run theaters (or theaters built in the digital era) started to move away from the use of adjustable masking, relying instead on the projected image to provide a sharp edge to the picture. However, improperly masked digital images will have grey letterboxing or pillarboxing around the image instead of a black border.
Masking Systems
Masking can vary in many ways, including which dimensions are adjustable, the rigging and motors employed, and the control mechanism.
Masking may be fixed-height, fixed width, have a fixed bottom with adjustable top and sides, or may be adjustable on all sides. Typically, masking moves symmetrically on both sides of the image (ex., when the image is widened, the masking on the left and right will travel the same distance), but in some systems each side may be adjusted independently, allowing the image area to be adjusted with greater precision. This can help address odd print issues, and can be used to compensate for films that are printed with an atypical lateral alignment that would otherwise need to be corrected by shifting the lens (ex., full-frame 1.33, Cinemascope with magnetic sound, Superscope).
For variable-height masking systems, it is preferable for both the top and bottom masking to be adjustable. When only the top is adjustable, the vertical alignment of the image will shift when switching between formats. This can be accounted for by adjusting the lenses or by tilting the projector. Some projector bases have a crank to allow the operator to quickly adjust the tilt.
For systems with adjustable top and bottom masking, the masking usually consists of a solid panel that runs the length of the screen, which is partially hidden behind the valence and skirt so that only the edge bordering the image is visible. Side masking usually has a solid edge facing the image; for masking hanging from an upper track this may be a pipe or board wrapped in fabric, while masking supported by an upper and lower track may use a flat piece of fabric held taut between the tracks. Loose drapery hangs between the inside edge of the masking and the outside side of the screen and as the masking opens to reveal more of the screen, this fabric is packed in on the sides. The amount of fabric that can be packed in as the masking opens is one of the factors that determines the maximum travel distance between the narrowest image and the widest image.
While side masking is often suspended from a track at the top of the screen, it is ideal to have both the top and the bottom of the side masking supported. With only the top supported, the bottom may swing during masking changes, which is visible to the audience. This motion can also make it difficult to fine-tune the masking position from the booth. When the bottom edge is loose, it may also catch when the masking is adjusted, causing the side of the image to be uneven.
Motors & Rigging
Some masking systems are fully manual, but most are motorized. Motorized systems may be chain-drive or cable-driven, with either a sprocket or cable drum attached to the motor shaft. For motorized systems, stops are programmed for each format. For manual systems, the stops must be marked somewhere on the masking system (ex., tape may be applied to the side of the screen frame or the top of the skirt to denote how far the sides should be brought in).
Cable-driven systems are more likely to slip and lose their position over time, and require more frequent calibration. However, chains can also become loose and even slip off the sprocket if slack develops elsewhere in the rigging. To help prevent the rigging from slipping, turnbuckles can be locked in place with a zip-tie to keep them from loosening. Great care should be taken when lubricating masking chains, especially if the chain is located behind the screen, because excess lubricant may spray from the chain onto the screen. Liquid lubricant should be avoided entirely.
The number of motors per screen and the features offered will vary between masking systems. For fixed height masking that only accommodates 1.85 and 2.39, a single motor with only two stops will suffice. Masking that can be adjusted on all sides requires at least two motors, and should ideally allow the operator to program stops for all commonly played formats.
It’s a good idea to keep spare fuses on-hand for the masking motors, since masking frozen in the wrong position may require show cancellations.
Masking Controls
MDI masking controls with ten programmable masking stops.
Motorized masking can typically be controlled from the projection booth, and is often tied into the automation system. A fixed-height system with only two stops may have a single toggle switch, while systems with multiple programmable stops may have a control panel for each motor. Some controls have jog buttons to fine-tune the masking position when the image doesn’t match the programmed stops. Some motors have multiple speed settings and ramped starts and stops for gentler operation.
For theaters running both film and digital projectors, it is often necessary to use separate masking stops for film and digital presentations of the same aspect ratio.
Always double check your masking stops in advance, especially when film projection is infrequent. Run test film, look for any drifting, and recalibrate as necessary. Ideally the masking should be fine-tuned ahead of time for the specific film being run. If the masking stops are easily programmable, they can be adjusted to accommodate the film being screened and reset using test film after the screening. When screening multiple films with the same aspect ratio that require slightly different stops, or when working with a masking system that is difficult to program, it may be more practical to mark the irregular masking position with tape on the top of the skirt or the side of the screen frame. The same can be done for formats that do not have preset masking stops.
Traditionally, masking changes were performed with the curtain closed so that the audience didn’t see the transition. For example, when transitioning from a Flat preshow to a Scope feature, the curtain would close at the end of the preshow and then reopen as the feature started to reveal the wider screen.
For theaters without curtains the masking should be set before the audience arrives, usually at the same time that you run a test reel or test loop to set the focus and framing. Ideally, any pre-show slides should be the same aspect ratio as the film presentation to follow so that they fill the entire screen. At venues that distribute pre-show slides to each auditorium from a single signal source, slides of the correct aspect ratio and size should be run from another input (ex., a special event slide can be run via a Blu-ray player during the walk-in period).
In particular, a masking change from a larger image to a smaller image should be avoided when the audience is present, as it can make the projected image seem less impressive.
Related Pages
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Examples of area of plane shapes
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional shape. The area can be understood as the amount of paint necessary to cover the surface with a single coat. The area of a shape can be measured by comparing the shape to squares of a fixed size 1 m^2 or 1 cm^2 etc. Every unit of length has a corresponding unit of area. Areas can be measured in square metres (m^2), square centimetres (cm^2), square millimetres (mm^2), square kilometres (km^2), square feet (ft^2), square yards (yd^2), square miles (mi^2), and so forth.
Number of problems found: 757
• Area of a triangle
• Folding table
stol_rozkladaci The folding kitchen table has a rectangular shape with an area of 168dm2 (side and is 14 dm long). If necessary, it can be enlarged by sliding two semi-circular plates (at sides b). How much percent will the table area increase? The result round to one-hu
• The funnel
kuzel_rs The funnel has the shape of an equilateral cone. Calculate the content of the area wetted with water if you pour 3 liters of water into the funnel.
• Diameter to area
circle_eq_1 Find the area of a circle whose diameter is 26cm.
• The plaster cast
pyramid_4s The plaster cast has the shape of a regular quadrilateral pyramid. The cover consists of four equilateral triangles with a 5 m side. Calculate its volume and surface area.
• Concrete pedestal
krychle_10 The carpenters made wooden mold on a concrete pedestal in the shape of a cube with edge 2 meter long. What is the area in which the concrete touches wooden molds? (No lid or bottom)
• Annular area
• The roof
odsek The roof has the shape of a spherical canopy with a base diameter of 8 m and a height of 2 m, calculate the area of the foil with which the roof is covered, when we calculate 13% for waste and residues.
• Area to perimeter
circle11_3 Calculate circle circumference if its area is 254.34cm2
• Rectangle vs square
• Area of square
big-square Calculate the content area of the square whose perimeter is 24 dm.
• Perimeter to area
• Area of rectangle
rectangle_9 Calculate the rectangle area in square meters whose sides have dimensions a = 80dm and b = 160dm.
• Seagull
• Content area and percents
squares_8 Determine what percentage is smaller cube surface, when the surface area of the wall decreases by 25%.
• The room
• Area of rectangle
• Area of ditch
• Horses playground
kone_dzokej The fence for the horses has the shape of a rectangular trapezoid with an area of 400 m2, the base lengths should be 31 m and 19 m. How many meters of boards will they need to fence it if the boards are stacked in 5 rows?
• Acreage
pozemek Plot has a diamond shape, its side is 25.6 m long and the distance of the opposite sides is 22.2 meters. Calculate its acreage.
See also more information on Wikipedia.
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• 한국어
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All you need to know about Acacia
Acacia introduction
Acacia belongs to the genus Acacia (scientific name: Acacia) is a genus of some species of shrubs and woody plants native to the ancient mainland of Gondwana, belongs to the subfamily Virgin (Mimosoideae) belongs to the Bean family (Fabaceae), first described by Linnaeus in 1773 in Africa. Today, there are about 1300 species of Acacia trees worldwide, of which about 950 species are native to Australia, and the rest are common in dry areas of the tropics and warm temperate climate in both hemispheres, including Africa, southern Asia, Americas. However, the genus Acacia does not appear to be monophyletic. This discovery led to the division of Acacia into 5 new genera.
The furthest northern species of this genus is Acacia greggii (cat’s claw acacia), reaching 37 ° 10 ′ north latitude in southern Utah, USA; the species that grow to the south are Acacia dealbata (silver acacia), Acacia longifolia (seaside acacia or Sydney yellow acacia), Acacia mearnsii (black acacia) and Acacia melanoxylon (black wood acacia), reaching 43 ° 30 ′ south latitude in Tasmania, Australia, while the Acacia caven reaches the same latitude to the south, in northeastern Chubut province, Argentina. In English, the Australian species are called wattle (Australian acacia), while the African and American species are collectively known as Acacia.
Acacia characteristics
Often the leaves of the acacia species are generally pinnate leaves. However, in some special species in Australia and the islands in the Pacific, the leaflets are annihilated and the petioles are flat, facing up, having the same effect as the leaves; they are called phyllode. The vertical orientation of the phyllode protects these plants from overheating due to the intense sunlight, because they block less light than the horizontal leaves. Some species (such as Acacia glaucoptera) lack both leaf and phyllode, but have stem like leaf-phylloclade, which are part of the stem that has been transformed into a leaf-like form for photosynthesis.
Acacia has small flowers with 5 very small petals, almost hidden in long stamens and is distributed in dense spherical or cylindrical inflorescences; they are yellow or cream in some species, others are whitish or even purple (such as Acacia purpureapetala) or red (in the recently grown Acacia leprosa).
There are some species that often have thorns, especially those that grow in arid areas. They are usually shortened, hard and sharp branches, or sometimes leaf-like leaves. Examples: Acacia armata is Kangaroo thorn in Australia, Acacia giraffe, is camel hemp in Africa. In Central America, Acacia sphaerocephala (cow thorn) and Acacia spadicigera, the leaves are similar to large spines that are often hollow and provide nesting places for the ants, which feed on secretions produced on petioles and other foods. eating singly at the tip of leaflets; on the contrary, they protect the plant against leaf-eating insects.
In Australia alone, acacia species are destroyed by the larvae of some moth species of the Hepialidae family, those of the genus Aenetus such as A. ligniveren. They burrow horizontally around the trunk, then vertically down. Other larvae of the same Lepidoptera have also been recorded to destroy Acacia, such as the brown-tailed butterfly, Endoclita malabaricus. Leaf-eating larvae of some species of the Bucculatricidae family also damage acacia leaves: for example, Bucculatrix agilis eats only Acacia horrida or Bucculatrix flexuosa leaves that only Acacia nilotica leaves.
The use of Acacia wood
There are several different species of acacia that produce substances, including Arab gum is actually a product of the Senegalese acacia (Acacia senegal), a common plant in the arid tropics of West Africa, from Senegal to northern Nigeria.
Acacia arabica is the “Arabian acacia” in India, but they produce lower quality gum than real Arabic gum. Acacia arabica bark is used in Sindh for tanning. In Ayurveda medicine, this bark is considered a useful remedy for the treatment of premature ejaculation.
The bark of different species of acacia is rich in tannin and an important export item; The species with the greatest value are Acacia pycnantha (yellow acacia), Acacia decurrens (acacia bark), Acacia dealbata (silver acacia) and Acacia mearnsii (black acacia). Black acacia is cultivated in South Africa. The fruit of Acacia nilotica (called “neb-neb” in the native language), another African species is also rich in tannin and is also used by tanners.
In addition, some species provide valuable timber; for example Acacia melanoxylon (black wood acacia) in Australia, they are large tree species; Their wood is used to make furniture and highly polished products; or Acacia homalophylla (Myall wood, also in Australia) produces scented wood, used for ornamental purposes. Acacia formosa offers a valuable Cuban wood called “sabicu”. Acacia seyal is considered to be the acacia (shitta) that appeared in the Bible and provided the wood shitta. It was used in the production of the Jewish Dharma box. As a spiritual symbol, it is also one of the most powerful symbols in Freemasonry, representing the soul of God and purity of soul. Acacia heterophylla from Réunion Island and Acacia koa (Hawaiian acacia) from the Hawaiian Islands are valuable timber species. In Vietnam, Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis are grown as raw materials for paper production and forest rehabilitation. Acacia farnesiana is used in perfumery industry because of its strong fragrance.
The astringent in medicine, rubber (catechu), is obtained from some species, but especially in Acacia catechu, by boiling wood and evaporating the solution to obtain the extract.
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An essay on the characters of perseus daedalus and theseus
Due to courage and honorablllty Theseus, Perseus, Hercules, and Jason are categorized as great heroes.
An essay on the characters of perseus daedalus and theseus
Etymology[ edit ] The origin of the word is uncertain. The location of that land as well as his conclusions are controversial. Herodotus and Strabo placed them on the banks of the Thermodon and Themiscyra. Ancient Greek Attic white-ground alabastronc. Apollonius Rhodiusat Argonauticamentions that at Thermodon the Amazons were not gathered together in one city, but scattered over the land, parted into three tribes.
Herodotus stated that in the Scythian language they were called Oiorpata, oior meaning "man", and pata meaning "to slay". There were two special months in the spring in which they would go up into the neighboring mountain which separates them and the Gargareans.
An essay on the characters of perseus daedalus and theseus
This plan was adopted by the Scythians because they desired to have children born from them. When the Amazons perceived that they had not come to do them any harm, they let them alone; and the two camps approached nearer to one another every day: One day a Scythian and an Amazon came close.
The men were not able to learn the language of the Amazons, but the women learned Scythian. They were brutal and aggressive, and their main concern in life was war.
On this desert island there were ravening birds, which in countless numbers haunt it. Zeus sent Boreas the North Windand with his help the Argonauts stood out from the shore near Themiscyra where the Themiscyreian Amazons were arming for battle.
An essay on the characters of perseus daedalus and theseus
Later Queen Myrine led her Amazons to victory against the Gorgons. After the battle against the Gorgons, Myrina accorded a funeral to her fallen comrades on three pyres and raised up three great heaps of earth as tombs, which are called "Amazon Mounds" Greek: In another version of this myth, Theseus made this voyage on his own account, after the time of Heracles.What Makes A Great Hero?
Due to courage and honorablllty Theseus, Perseus, Hercules, and Jason are categorized as great heroes. A hero in todays standards are seen to have different traits than a mythological hero. Theseus and Immortals Comparison Analysis Research Paper - The movie Immortals borrows some of the myth of Theseus for its plot.
A lot of the film seems to be a modern attempt at creating a Greek myth. The Cyclops Cave was an interesting story. the author wanted the mood to be eery and scary, and it was, somewhat.
Downloading prezi...
the tone was a bit funny in a way to me but it was a little creepy still. The Odyssey contains numerous examples of a hero’s journey which can be compared and contrasted with other Greek myths such as the stories of Theseus, Jason, Hercules, and Perseus.
More Essay Examples on Medusa Rubric. Perseus showed bravery but Theseus showed strength. Theseus did amazing things to get his gear to kill the Minotaur. Theseus qualified as a hero for sure.
Hercules, Theseus, Perseus, and Jason - New York Essays
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• michelleostrove
Updated: Nov 25, 2020
A chord is also called a triad, which is typically a group or a set of three (or more) notes played simultaneously. A chord can be three notes or more, whereas a triad is always three notes arranged in thirds. When all three notes are struck together at the same time, this is called a “block chord”. When struck non-simultaneously the chord is said to be a “broken chord“ or arpeggiated” (which means they are played consecutively not at the same time).
I teach triads to my piano students from the very beginning. When first learning triads, I have my students play chords in a “close position.” A close position means the notes are as “close” to each other as possible. In other words they are not spread out beyond an octave. In an open position there is more than one octave between the top and bottom notes.
Bands and choirs use this method for creating beautiful harmonies. You use the root (C chord - C is the root), a third (which is three notes up from C – counting C – which is an interval of three) and a fifth above the root. If the singer is singing a third, then you want to add the root below the singer and a fifth above the singer.
Major chords are indicated by a capital letter (by itself) “C.” The minor chords are indicated by a small “m“ in the chord symbol; for example a C minor chord would be written as Cm. There are augmented chords (C+), suspended chords (C sus) and a diminished chord (C dim). Chords can be played in multiple ways. If you have three notes C, E, G, you can also play the same chord in a different order E, G, C (inversion 1) or G, C, E (inversion 2). A “lead sheet” uses chord symbols for accompaniment.
Once you’ve learned how to play the chords in various ways, feel free to double the chord notes an octave above (sounds energetic) or below (sounds heavy, sad). If you are a singer, sing along with your favorite song and try finding a note below or above what the artist is singing that harmonies with the singer. Whether it’s singing or playing piano, chords/triads are what it’s all about. Listen to Koko Higa sing “Hello” and play chords on the piano to accompany her vocals.
A rock guitarist plays 3 chords for 10,000 people A jazz guitarist plays 10,000 chords for 3 people
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The treasures of Sutton Hoo might never have been uncovered without the help of a ghost. In early nineteenth-century Suffolk, England, the widow Mrs. Edith Pretty maintained an estate where many ancient burial mounds were located. Because burial mounds in the area had a history of being pillaged and robbed, she did not have any reason to search the mounds on her property. Then a series of events took place. Legend has it that an ancient warrior appeared to her in a vivid dream and plunged his sword into one of the mounds. Pretty’s friend also saw ghostly figures of warriors on top of the mound.
Pretty contacted self-taught archaeologist Basil Brown to come excavate. His team discovered an untouched burial mound of an ancient king. It was an Anglo-Saxon ship burial (the Anglo-Saxon people were similar to the Vikings). The archaeologists found the imprints of a magnificent ship (it had rotted away by then). Archaeologists believe they buried their ships because they symbolized a ship to be a living dragon. Inside the ship were items the Anglo-Saxons believed their king would need in the afterlife: a shield, a helmet, a splendid sword, treasure, status coins, and much more.
One of the most impressive findings was the Sutton Hoo helmet. It is a famous work of art that matches the descriptions in the epic poem Beowulf. In the poem, King Beowulf and his thane, Wiglaf, fight a dragon. Beowulf is mortally injured, and his last wish is to see the treasure, which consists of gold, weapons, tapestries, and helmets. Not all the descriptions in the poem were mythical—the poem describes a helmet in detail that looks just like the Sutton Hoo helmet. Because of this discovery, we can use the poem to learn more about Anglo-Saxon warriors. For example, we know they lusted after treasure, revered dragons, and glorified fighting.
Not only is the helmet an amazing connection to Beowulf, it is also an amazing artifact that tells us more about the ghostly warrior king of Sutton Hoo. The helmet is connected to a face mask. The facial features make a dragon with garnet eyes and gnashing teeth. The eyebrows of the face mask are the wings, the nose is the dragon’s body, and the mustache is the tail of the dragon (see picture above). With a dragon’s face on a ferocious mask, the warrior king would have been truly terrifying in battle!
There is ample evidence that Pretty saw his ghost. At least four relatives and Mrs. Pretty’s friends stated she found the mound because of ghostly intervention, as well as Basil Brown and his fellow archaeologist, Stanley West. No one denied the tale. She had nothing to gain from the story—she did not make a profit. She donated all the findings to the British Museum, and she turned down an honor for doing so. The treasures are still in the British Museum, thanks to her. Sutton Hoo was discovered at the right time and by the right person. It makes sense that there really was a warrior ghost, King Raedwald himself, who wanted us to learn more about his history and the Anglo-Saxons. And what we learned from the findings was incredible!
Next time you are in the UK, visit this famous destination. The site has a visitors’ center with both original artifacts and replicas on display. You can take a tour of the reconstructed ship burial chamber. And the surrounding area is gorgeous, too. Nearby is Glastonbury, with the castle on a hill where King Arthur is believed to have been buried. These places are rich with history.
The appearance of the warrior king of Sutton Hoo is a really, really good ghost story. Would the barrow have ever been found without ghostly intervention? Do the ghostly warriors of Sutton Hoo still walk today?
Did you get goosebumps? I hope so.
– Sharai McGill
(Photo by © Trustees of the British Museum)
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Industrial advances of the Civil War
673 Words3 Pages
The civil war was called the “first modern war” since the equipment and transportation which made generals rethink their strategies and objectives. The weight of the cannons made the generals rethink their travel time. The new cannons with different features on them were a lot heavier. Had to adjust the amount of animals to carry different equipment. There were great industrial and technological advancements made to the musketry, artillery, transportation and observation during the period of the civil war.
During the civil war rifling, repeating rifle, and the minie ball advancements were made to the muskets. Rifling played a big role in the civil war because it improved the accuracy and it was fairly cheap to produce. (Stoddard) A musket with the rifling feature could shoot farther and have a more stable trajectory. (The Rifle versus the Musket) During the civil war a gun with the riling feature could cost the U.S. treasury anywhere from $15-$20. (Stoddard) Being able to shoot more than one bullet at a time was a result of the rifling feature. The repeating rifle could fire more than one shoot in its loaded magazine. (The Rifle versus the Musket) This rifle proceded over the single fire rifle, and found use in the Civil war during the early 1860’s. (Hess) The trajectory and being easy to load was by virtue of the minie ball. The minie ball increased rifle range by 600 feet. (Dorian) The three easy steps it took to load the minie ball sped up the loading process. (Howey)
Artillery advanced in many ways by the rifled artillery, the advancements made to the material in guns, and design advancements. As a result of the sharp shooting and the rifling feature,were used in one of the most popular guns during the civil ...
... middle of paper ...
...the Confederacy) The horsepower and the quickness of steamboats progress throughout the war. (Duppstadt) Steamboats started using coal during the war which powered the boat and was quicker and harder to steer than a sailing vessel. (Duppstadt) The advancement made to the boats power meant it was harder to gun down out at sea because it had more speed. (Duppstadt)
Great Industrial and technological advances were made in the Civil War as seen by the muskets, artillery, and transportation and observation. For more information about his topic here are some suggestions on what to do further research on. From the information given the advances made to the technology and equipment helped the Union win the Civil War. Following the civil war the Spanish American war occurred and there were many advancements made to the equipment and technologies worth looking at.
More about Industrial advances of the Civil War
Open Document
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6th History
I. Choose the best answer:
1. The one who built fort Pataliputra
2. The book written by Megesthanese
3. Ashoka ascended the throne in
4. The place where the Third Buddhist Councils held
II. True or False:
1. Selucas Nikator was the ambassador of Megasthenese (True)
2. Mahapadmananda was the first king of Nanda dynasty (True)
3. Ashoka refused dharma Vijaya and accepted Dig Vijaya (False)
4. Ashoka was the first one to establish a welfare state for people (True)
5. Mahedra spread Buddhism at Ceylon (True)
III. Answer the following:
1. How did the Mahajapadas establish themselves?
· At the end of the Vedic period, the Janapadas fought with each other for the new fertile lands and mineral wealth.
· Ultimately the small Janapadas either defeated or joined themselves with the Mahajanapadas
· There were 16 powerful Mahajanapadas in north India during the period of Buddha
· The Magadha defeated others and became the most powerful Mahajanapadas.
2. To whom does the credit go in establishing the first empire in India? Explain
· The credit goes in establishing the first empire in India to Chandragupta Maurya.
· He revolted against the last Nanda king Dhana Nanda defeated him and took over the Magadha dynasty
· He defeated Selucas Nikator and annexed Afghanistan and Gandhara with his empire.
3. Ahoka was the one who established an Empire for the welfare of the People-Why?
· Ashoka constructed inns and hospitals for everyone irrespective of caste and creed.
· Medical assistance was given to cattle.
· Sacrifices were banned.
· The laws were altered on humanitarian basis.
· He appointed Dharma Mahamatras to help the people.
· So he was the first emperor who established the welfare state for people.
4. What are the causes for the change in Ashoka’s life?
· Ashoka waged a terrible war against Kalinga which was separated and annexed with the Mauryan empire.
· Ashoka was so upset and grief sticken at the sight of the war due to bloodshed.
· He took pledge that he would never wage a war again.
· This war was a turning point in his life.
· He gave up war and followed the policy of non-violence.
5. Explain the inscriptions used in the stone edicts of Ashoka.
· Ashoka’s royal proclamation and messages are inscribed on the walls of the caves, stone pillars and rocks that are kept all through his empire.
· Most of them are written in Prakrit, kharoshti in North western India. · These edicts depict Ashoka’s humanitarian love and non-violence.
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Task 4 - 隱形迷宮 Invisible Maze
小組運用記憶力過通於六格x 六格的迷宮中的隱形通道。組員輪流進入迷宮。每次失敗後需於起點由另一位組員重新開始。直至有組員能成功走出迷宮。
The team finds the correct path through trial and error in order to pass through a maze made of a grid of 6 cells by 6 cells. A member is sent to the maze at each trial and s/he will be replaced if an incorrect cell is stepped. The next member retraces the route and tries an alternate option. The challenge is completed when one of the members successfully passed through the maze. (Mutual Standard should be set)
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ADHD in Boys vs. Girls
ADHD (Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) is one of the most common mental health disorders diagnosed in children. This is a neurodevelopmental disorder that’s symptoms often consist of difficulty concentrating, difficulty staying still, and difficulty staying organized. This disorder is often noticed in children by about age 7 and much more noticeable by teachers at school where there are numerous expectations to sit in your seat, speak when you’re called on, and focus on lessons and assignments. However, there are circumstances in which people are not formally diagnosed until they are adults.
There are significant gender differences in the presentation of ADHD. However, it’s important to be aware of, that just as with any other mental disorder, two people can have the same issue and it can look differently and be treated in the same or different way.
According to the CDC, boys are 3 times as likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls. This doesn’t mean that boys are necessarily more afflicted by ADHD, but that the symptoms present in much different ways. With girls, the symptoms are often more subtle and harder to identify.
Boys tend to show more of the externalized symptoms such as running, physical aggression, blurting out or nonstop talking, and greater impulsivity. Girls however, tend to show more internalized symptoms such as inattentiveness, verbal aggression, and low self esteem. Due to girls showing fewer physical behavioral problems, they are often overlooked and not referred for an evaluation or treatment. This can lead to difficulties later on in life such as problems in school, difficulty in social settings and difficulty with other peer relationships. Because girls internalize their feelings of frustration, pain, and anger more, they are at a greater risk for other mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. Boys typically externalize their emotions and receive feedback for behavioral issues.
Girls more often display the inattentiveness side of the disorder, while boys display the hyperactive part of the disorder. It is easier to identify the hyperactive behaviors at home and school because a child won’t be able to sit still, continuously interrupts or doesn’t stop talking, and generally acts impulsively which at times can be dangerous. Inattentive behaviors are more subtle. The child is not as likely to be disruptive in class, but will often forget assignments and seem “spacey.” Unfortunately, this can be mistaken for laziness or a learning disability.
ADHD can also be misdiagnosed in boys. Because we traditionally see boys are more energetic, if they’re running around and acting out, we may attribute it to just a headstrong/hyper boy. Not all boys are hyperactive though. It is even less likely to properly diagnose a boy with ADHD if he has more of the inattentive symptoms and is not disruptive.
Regardless of gender, it is critical to treat ADHD as soon as possible. As children mature and become older, symptoms do become less intense and severe, but can still lead to numerous issues and affect multiple areas of a person’s life such as school, work, and relationships. They are also more likely to develop other issues such as anxiety and depression. They may not be diagnosed with a learning disability, but it is typical to fall behind in subjects due to disorganization and distraction. Getting a prompt diagnosis is helpful in order to begin treatment. Medication management is very successful for many children and adults, as well as behavioral therapy to work on organization and maintaining focus when conducting work.
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The mystery of leaf size solved
But it’s not that simple.
A global team of researchers, led by Associate Professor Ian Wright from Macquarie University, revealed that in much of the world the key limiting factor for leaf size is night temperature and the risk of frost damage to leaves.
Ian, and 16 colleagues from Australia, the UK, Canada, Argentina, the USA, Estonia, Spain, and China analysed leaves from more than 7,600 species, then teamed the data with new theory to create a series of equations that can predict the maximum viable leaf size anywhere in the world based on the risk of daytime overheating and night-time freezing.
“For example, the tropics are both wet and hot, and leaves in cooler parts of the world are unlikely to overheat.”
Wet autumn Fraxinus, credit: Ian Wright
A young Dipteris leaf at Mount Kinabalu, credit: Peter Wilf
Banner image credit: Ian Wright
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Treating Madness: Historical Perceptions of Mental Health
Sir Charles Bell, The anatomy and philosophy. Credit: Wellcome Collection.
Explore the history of mental health in more detail at our next INSIGHTS lecture on Saturday 9th January. Book your ticket!
The language of madness
‘Madness’ is not a medical term – but is a word that was once widely used by medical men (and they were usually men). It is a word used in conversation and writing, it can be provocative, insulting, stigmatising and hurtful (although it is being reclaimed by some people see #madtwitter or
Indeed, the language surrounding mental illnesses (as well as neurodiversity and learning disorders which were all lumped together historically) is often varied, changing, and can be utilised to create fear, chaos, insult, and humour. Over the centuries our interpretations of what ‘madness’ is, our social responses to it and our approaches to what (if anything) should be done about it, have changed massively.
Madhouses and mental asylums
Before the nineteenth century, there were few mental institutions. There were three English public asylums, including the Bethlem Royal Hospital in London; and there were private ‘madhouses’, where people paid to keep patients; or, more likely, people would be cared for at home.
Francisco de Goya’s The Madhouse which shows confinement in an asylum 1816-1819
Francisco de Goya’s The Madhouse which shows confinement in an asylum 1816-1819, Google Cultural Institute, Public Domain
In the eighteenth century, the ‘Age of Reason’, madness was often seen as the loss of reason. It was widely believed that a person suffering from madness had lost their higher faculties of reason, making them somehow less human. It could therefore be justified that patients in madhouses were often treated little better than animals, chained up and in filthy conditions. The care provided by these private institutions varied massively but many were cruel and corrupt. In Bethlem (England’s first charitable asylum), visitors could go and view the patients, a type of theatre where immorality and insanity could be observed. This practice eventually stopped in the 1770s but if anything, the lack of public eyes made the abuses committed worse.
During the late eighteenth century, attitudes towards the ‘mad’ began to slowly change. After the French Revolution Phillipe Pinel, a physician called by some, the father of psychiatry, was appointed to Paris hospital Bicêtre. In 1793, Pinel along with the hospital superintendent Jean-Baptiste Pussin and Pussin’s Wife Marguerite, removed the chains and straitjackets from the patients, heralding a more humane treatment of people with mental illness in France.
Progress close to home
Meanwhile, in York, England, Quaker tea and coffee merchant William Tuke and other Quakers formed the Retreat (opened 1796) after the death of a patient called Hannah Mills at the York Asylum. The York Retreat advocated for the moral treatment of patients. Unlike many others they did not believe that mental illness reduced people to animals and the persons inner humanity could be healed. They did away with manacles, purges, blistering and fear, which were common in asylums. Both Pinel and Tuke emphasise kindness and reason in dealing with patients.
As Thomas Bakewell, a madhouse keeper wrote:
“Certainly, authority and order must eb maintained, but these are better maintained by kindness, condescension, and indulgent attention, than by any severities whatsoever. Lunatics are not devoid of understanding, nor should they be treated as of they were; on the contrary, they should be treated as human beings.”
Following from the York retreat there was a reform movement in Britain, with campaigners disgusted at abuses in the old asylums or madhouses. Campaigns led to major Governmental Acts which legislate for the Counties of England & Wales to build and fund public asylums from raised taxation rather than relying on private institutions or domestic care as had been done previously. It was in these new asylums that the study and practice of Psychiatry came of age. This was the start of the scientific study and treatment of mental illness. Psychiatrists tried to show that mental illnesses were the results of deformed brains or heredity failings. These studies both helped diagnosis and treatments of patients and hindered them. The emphasis on heredity also influenced the growing eugenics movements of the time.
Compassion or control?
For as long as asylums were active, they (and psychiatry) have attracted both support and contempt, and histories written about them have been equally disputed. In the twentieth century, writers began to challenge the origins of asylums; where they had once been seen as a compassionate and progressive response to the issue of madness, thinkers like Michel Foucault said asylums had always acted as places of control, replacing the metal chains of madhouses with mental chains of discipline.
Whatever the philosophy behind the asylums, for the Victorians they were an essential part of their institutional structure. They were built along with prisons, workhouses and hospitals as the Victorians worked out ways to care for and punish people. Often these institutions had to be combined – Broadmoor was built to house the criminal-insane and workhouses had hospital wings and “lunatic wards” to house and care for impoverished people. ‘Lunatic’ was considered a medical diagnosis, but like madness the word could cover a range of illnesses and behaviours.
Broadmoor Hospital, pictured in 2006 (by Andrew Smith, CC BY-SA 2.0, wikicommons) is now known as a high-security psychiatric facility
The move away from private madhouses to state-supervised asylums, workhouses, and prison facilities called to question, who has authority to describe and treat madness? It was these debates moving from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century which took the discussion from “madness” to mental illness as medical men asserted their authority over the field of psychiatry.
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Civil War (1861-1865)
Referat, Hausaufgabe, Civil War (1861-1865)
Themengleiche Dokumente anzeigen
Civil War (1861-1865) Background: USA are divided into North and South by different economical systems North: industry, banking, international trade, expanding railway network South: manly agriculture (cotton, little rice, sugar, tobacco), rather poor railway connections A conflict rises: 1800 - 1840: cotton production rises by factor 18 (approx. 300 million kg per year) slaves are used as cheap workers expansion of state area necessary, because cotton monoculture exhausted the soil South: pro slavery attitude: not responsible for it, cultural habit, more humane under slavery system than under the northern wages system Northern antislavery movement: 1808: Congress abolishes slave trade with Africa afterwards antislavery-protest maintained by Quakers1831: Garrison publishes The Liberator appeals for uncompromising and complete liberation radical, combative, uncompromising Underground Railroad(Northerners freed slaves from the South) 1820: Missouri Compromise (slavery was limited to states where it already existed) 1845: Texas annexed (always had slavery) 1846: USA expand westwards (California, Utah, New Mexico) conflict about slavery issue: extent Missouri Compromise to the West? let the new states decide (popular sovereignty)1848: gold rush in California slavery issue had to be solved, before new government could be established1850: Compromise of 1850 free soil constitution in California New Mexico and Utah organised without mention of slavery more effective machinery to ...
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Diese Hausaufgabe wurde bisher 8 mal bewertet. Durchschnittlich wurde die Schulnote 3 vergeben.
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Why has nuclear fusion always been 20 years away? : Watch this myth-busting documentary
Courtesy: New Energy Times
Is nuclear fusion a likely solution to climate change? Is fusion a viable energy alternative?
For 70 years, fusion scientists have promoted new design concepts, pointed to computer models, and unequivocally stated that fusion is the answer.
But where is the experimental evidence that the scientific method demands? And why has energy from nuclear fusion always been 20 years away?
In a 1993 hearing, nuclear fusion research representatives convinced the U.S. Congress to spend public money on ITER, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor. ITER, they said, was the way to fusion energy. Elected officials in Europe, Japan, and the Soviet Union also agreed to fund ITER. Later, China, India, and South Korea joined the partnership.
The evidentiary foundation for ITER, they said, was the Joint European Torus fusion reactor, which, they implied, produced thermal power from fusion at a rate of 66 percent of the reactor input power. That foundation, as it turns out, was flawed.
Sometime around 2045, the $65 billion ITER project is expected to run its final experiments, which should produce, for 500 seconds, a thermal power output rate equivalent to the overall reactor electrical power input rate. Although this result would accomplish its scientific objective, the overall reactor output will be equivalent to a zero net-power reactor.
Instead, the fusion representatives told Congress, the public, and the news media that the ITER reactor would produce millions of Watts of power, ten times the power the reactor would consume. They said it would prove that fusion on Earth is commercially viable.
But the scientists didn’t disclose that the reactor would also consume millions of Watts of electrical power. They didn’t explain that the reactor is designed only for a power gain of the physics reactions, rather than a power gain of the overall reactor. If ITER works as designed, the 70-year research program will end up with a reactor that produces no overall net energy.
ITER, The Grand Illusion: A Forensic Investigation of Power Claims, featuring members of Congress, prominent representatives of the fusion community, and the two former spokesmen of the ITER organization, reveals the details of this story.
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Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Ancient Philosophy :: essays research papers fc
As Aristotle viewed the world around him, he observed that things are moving and changing in certain ways. Aristotle discovered that certain things cause other things, which in turn cause something else. Aristotle believed that an infinite chain of causation was not possible, thus, a prime mover of some kind must exist as the first cause of everything that changes or moves. The first evidence that Aristotle viewed was the world around him. He observed that everything is in motion, and that one motion causes another motion and so on. Much like billiard balls on a pool table. One ball hits another ball, that ball moves, hits a third ball, and the third ball moves. Like A causes B to move causes C to move etc. After careful observation, Aristotle noticed that everything is in motion, even the planets, and thus, there was a chain of causation. Aristotle believed that something can not come from nothing, that is, a thing can not pop in and out of existence, thus, there must either be an infinite chain of causation or a first cause/prime mover. Aristotle dismissed the possibility of infinite causation and instead attempted to prove that there is a prime mover or first cause. Aristotle also believed the universe was situated in a certain way. Aristotle believed that the heavens began just above the bottom of the moon and the everything above the lower portion of the moon wa s the heavens. In the heavens, Aristotle observed that everything was in a cyclical motion, and that the planets moved about each other in circles. If the planets moved about in circular motion then there must have been a cause to bring about their motion, thus, there must also be either an infinite chain of causation for heavenly bodies or a prime mover/first cause of the heavenly bodies. For Aristotle ‘local motion is the primary type of motion and the primary type of motion is circular motion' For Aristotle this means that everything is moving, and the best form of movement is movement in a circular motion because a circle is the perfect form of movement. It has no beginning and no end, it is continuous and everlasting. Aristotle saw this motion in everything, even the human existence is that of a cycle. We are born, reproduce and die, in a continuous existence just as the heavenly bodies begin at one point and move around until they are at the beginning point again.
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A History of the Roman-Parthian Wars, 54 BCE – 217 CE
These battles were part of long-lasting conflict between the Roman Empire and the Persians. Introduction The Roman–Parthian Wars (54 BC – 217 AD) were a series of conflicts between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It was the first series of conflicts in what would be 682 years of Roman–Persian Wars. Battles between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic began in 54 BC.[1] This first[…]
Parthian-Scythian Relations in the Ancient Eastern World
Using Scythian military tactics, they eventually took over the Seleucid Empire. Introduction While little is written about Parthian-Scythian relations, not only did the Parthians share origins with the Scythians and cooperated militarily, social, cultural, and commercial interactions were likely as well. Essentially leading a nomadic way of life – riding horses, tending cattle, and living in covered[…]
Art and Architecture in the Ancient Parthian Empire
The Parthians brought with them cultural influences from their Scythian cousins. By Patrick Scott Smith, M.A.Historian Introduction Parthian art flourished within the Eurasian cultural corridor from the late hundreds BCE to the early 1st and 2nd centuries CE. With the Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE) stretching from India and China in the east to[…]
The Collapse of the Ancient Hellenistic Seleucid Empire
The Romans and Parthians used internal dissent and succession problems within the Seleucid royal house to bring it down. Introduction For most of the third and second centuries BC, the Seleucid Empire was the greatest of Alexander the Great’s Hellenistic successor states. Stretching from boundary of Persia to the Mediterranean Sea, and at times including[…]
Parthian Culture: East Mixes with West in the Ancient World
Borrowing from the east and west, their culture and art was an amalgam easily identified as Parthian. Introduction Stretching between China and India in the east to the Mediterranean in the west, Parthia ruled over one of the widest expanses of empire in its time and Parthian culture flourished for 500 years (247 BCE – 224[…]
Ancient Parthian Warfare
Parthia controlled territories that stretched from the Mediterranean in the west to India and China in the east and were even a match for the Romans. Introduction Parthian warfare was characterized by the extensive use of cavalry and archers. Coming at enemy troops from all directions Parthian riders created confusion and wreaked havoc. They even[…]
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rhesus factor
Asked by Nandinisabesan | 1st Jan, 2009, 07:57: PM
Expert Answer:
The terms Rhesus factor and Rh factor refer to the Rh D antigen presenton the surface of red blood cells. People who possess the RhD antigen are indicated as 'RhD positive' while those who lack the antigen are called 'RhD negative'.
The Rh D antigen is inherited as one gene (RHD). This gene has 2 allele, of which Rh+ is dominant and Rh− recessive.
There may be danger to the fetus when a pregnant woman is RhD- and the biological father is RhD+. This is because under these circumstances the child is RhD+ and hence there is an incompatibility between the blood types of the mother and the baby. The disorder in the fetus due to rhesus-D incompatibility is known as erythroblastosis fetalis.
Answered by | 2nd Jan, 2009, 10:58: AM
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Century global skills
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Formative Assessment #1
To show understanding of the strength and weaknesses of Athens, Sparta, and Persia and how they contributed to conflicts among their governments, students will create maps that show how each army could conquer another.
Formative Assessment #2
Students will participate in a class debate about conflicts between government or cultures.
Formative Assessment #3
Create and complete a Venn Diagram of Minoans and Mycenaeans comparing and contrasting the two cultures of ancient Greece.
Formative Assessment #4
Sequencing: Have students place key events in Greek history in the proper order.
Formative Assessment #5
Students will compare and rights associated with citizenship in ancient Greece with those in the United States and decide which are more inclusive.
Formative Assessment #6
Have students work in pairs to create a postcard that illustrates the conflict between Greece and Persia.
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When using temperature and precipitation to define climate, the two must be combined in a single method. As seen in the previous part of this lesson, the temperature designations were mostly latitudinally driven. Moisture varied through other considerations causing the B (dry) climates to vary throughout latitude bands. Another system was developed to account for differing climates based mostly on the water balance of a region rather, the temperature and precipitation specifically.
Thornthwaite developed another classification system dependent on the modified potential evapotranspiration (PET) of a region. His concern was with the amount of water available. The driving factor in this system is the water budget of a region. Regions were classified in categories ranging from being humid to arid. The main factor used in classifying climates is then what is most important in the classification. The Thornthwaite system uses temperature as a modifying factor in determining PET, but it is not the major factor as in the Koeppen system. Temperature in this system was a controller of PET, not a direct classification.
Where the index Im is based on precipitation P and Potential Evapotranspiration PE. For the US this leads to Fig. 8.6
Fig. 8.6 United States climate types based on the Thornthwaite system.
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What Is the Division Sign Called?
By Staff WriterLast Updated Apr 11, 2020 3:42:21 AM ET
The commonly used division symbol "/" is called a "solidus" or "virgule," while an "obelus" appears like a hyphen with dots above and below it. Another division notation is the "vinculum," which is a horizontal line that is sometimes referred to as a "fractional bar."
The earliest known usage of the "obelus" was in the 1659 publication of the Swiss mathematician Johann Heinrich Rahn's book, "Teutsche Algebr." In computers, a virgule is also called a "forward slash," which is one of the keys in a standard keyboard. Aside from being a mathematical sign, the "virgule" is also used as a separator in various date formats.
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Century-Old Declaration Hardens Israeli-Palestinian Rift
British Foreign Secretary Lord Arthur Balfour in 1930. (AP Photo)
Historians still muse about Britain’s motivations, and its commitment to the declaration waned in the decades after it was issued. Yet the 67 words penned by a British Cabinet minister still resonate 100 years later, with both the Israelis and Palestinians seizing the anniversary to reinforce their narratives.
Each side is marking the centenary in starkly different ways, shining a light on the chasm between Israel and the Palestinians that some say was cleaved on Nov. 2, 1917.
“It’s so divisive even today because Zionists think that the Balfour Declaration laid the foundation stone for modern Israel — and they’re right to think that — and by the same token non-Jewish Palestinians and Arabs see it as the foundation stone of their dispossession and misery,” said Jonathan Schneer, a historian who authored a book on the document.
The declaration was the result of discussions between British Zionists seeking political recognition of their goal of Jewish statehood and British politicians embroiled in the First World War. Written by British Foreign Secretary Lord Arthur Balfour and addressed to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild, a British financier and Zionist leader, the declaration promised British assistance to create a Jewish homeland.
British motives for issuing the declaration include imperialist political calculations meant to secure a foothold in the Levant amid the collapse of the Ottoman Empire as well as the messianism of British politicians steeped in biblical history, hoping to restore Jews to their ancestral home.
The declaration served as the basis for the British Mandate of Palestine, which was approved in 1920 by the League of Nations. The following decades saw a spike in the number of Jews immigrating to Palestine as Zionist state institutions took root. With that came increased friction with the Arab population.
Israel is planning a major campaign meant to drive home that narrative and highlight its warm ties with Britain, an important ally at a time when the European Union has taken steps against Israel’s settlements. PM Netanyahu will mark the anniversary in London on Thursday at a dinner hosted by the current Lords Balfour and Rothschild and attended by Prime Minister Theresa May. An “anniversary concert” in London this weekend will feature British performers alongside a Jewish Israeli clarinetist and a pianist who is an Arab citizen of Israel.
British graffiti artist Banksy organized an event marking the anniversary in the town of Bethlehem on Wednesday. Children wore helmets with the British flag and a woman dressed as Queen Elizabeth unveiled a curtain to reveal the word “sorry” on Israel’s Yehudah amd Shomron separation barrier.
By the 1930s, a new government in Britain backed away from its earlier promise to the Zionists, with an official commission of inquiry deciding that Britain’s mandate over Palestine, with its constant internecine violence, proved untenable. The 1937 Peel Commission recommended that the land be split between Arabs and Jews. Relations between the Jews in Mandatory Palestine and Britain would further deteriorate before Israel declared independence.
Israel would later capture more territory in the 1967 Mideast war, including eastern Yerushalayim, Yehudah and Shomron and the Gaza Strip, land the Palestinians want for their state. The years since have seen repeated spasms of violence and the dwindling of hopes for peace.
“The Balfour Declaration is being used by both sides to advance a present agenda,” said Martin Kramer, a historian at Jerusalem’s Shalem College. “There are reasons for Israelis to be grateful for it and reasons for the Palestinians to regret it, but it’s history. It can’t be changed.”
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Since heat is unable to flow out of the focal spot as fast as it is pumped in, the maximum energy must be limited, in order to prevent the surface of the target melting. The maximum rating is further limited by the need to concentrate the electron beam onto a small area, in order to reduce the inevitable unsharpness. An X-ray image is essentially a shadowgraph. X-rays cannot be focused, and so the bigger the point of origin of the radiation, the more blur there is in the image. The Dutch company, Philips, introduced a tube in about 1938 that overcame the problem, by making the anode in the form of a Tungsten disk that was rotated by means of an induction motor, in which the Stator windings were outside of the glass envelope, and the copper rotor on the inside. In this way the focal spot was extended into a ring. The area of tungsten that was heated by the electron beam was rapidly moved out of the way to be replaced a cooler area of tungsten. As the heated spot on the anode moved around, the heat was able to diffuse into the body of the tungsten disk, until it reached equilibrium with rest of the anode. Early tubes running from a 50Hz mains supply rotated at 3,000 rpm, but modern high speed tubes may run at up to 12,000 rpm.
In order to extend the life of the bearing, which have to run in a vacuum, without lubrication, the anode disk is mounted on a Molybdenum stem. Molybdenum is an even worse conductor of heat than tungsten, and so limits the amount flowing down the shaft and into the bearings. Heat is therefore lost from the anode disk by radiation, rather than conduction.
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Dating Prehistoric Forteviot
Understanding the sequence of activity around the ritual complex was particularly challenging. There seems to have been no early prehistoric domestic activity at Forteviot, so the key artefacts used for dating, such as pottery and lithics, were scarce. In addition bone survived very poorly because of the soil conditions. The chronology of the site, therefore, has been constructed from deposits of charcoal and cremated bone deposits. The earliest activity around 3000 BC is represented by cremation burials, after which there is a more or less continuous sequence of dates until about 800 BC. After 800 BC, there is little evidence for activity at Forteviot, but coincidentally this is when the construction of hillforts became common. It would seem that communal effort and perhaps religious focus shifted away from Forteviot. Remarkably the spiritual importance was not forgotten and, after a break of about a 1000 years, the Picts returned to use Forteviot as a burial ground and ceremonial centre.
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The first people that are known to have lived in Antigua are the SIBONEY or 'stone people' who were here in 1775 B.C.. They had stone and shell tools, and lived on whatever natural resources they could find. Traces of them are found at Jolly Beach, Deep Bay and North Sound.
The ARAWAKS date from the time of Christ, coming to these islands in paddled canoes from South America. They introduced agriculture into Antigua and Barbuda, bringing such crops as pineapples, corn, sweet potatoes, peppers, guava, tobacco and cotton. They mostly lived on the north and east sides of Antigua, where the reefs provided good fishing. Some of the places they lived are at Indian Creek, Marmora Bay, Half Moon Bay, Mill Reef, Green Island, Cloverleaf Bay, Long Bay, Coconut Hall, Galley Bay, Hawksbill and Curtain Bluff. They left Antigua about 1100 A.D., but some remained, who were then raided by the CARIBS, another Indian people based in Dominica. The Caribs named Antigua "Waladli", Barbuda "Wa'omoni" and Redonda "Ocanamanru".
Columbus named this island "Antigua" in 1493, as he sailed past. It is named for the Cathedral in Seville, Spain, "Santa Maria La Antigua". He is said to have prayed in this church before the Voyage. From then on, several explorers came to Antigua, as well as Buccaneers, who exploited the island for its timbers, medicinal and dye plants, and the cattle which they had introduced as a source of meat.
The English settlers arrived in 1632 from St. Kitts, under Edward Warner, their leader and Governor. They produced cash crops of tobacco, ginger, indigo and sugar.
The French landed at Deep Bay in 1666 and occupied Antigua for eight months until it was given back to the English in the 'Treaty of Breda'. The other islands changed hands many times, but Antigua remained English from that time on.
Sugar became the main crop from about 1674, when Christopher Codrington resettled at Betty's Hope Estate. He came from Barbados, bringing the latest sugar technology with him. Betty's Hope, Antigua's first full-scale sugar plantation, was so successful that other planters turned from tobacco to sugar. This resulted in a huge increase of slaves, as sugar requires so much labour.
The first forts were built in 1672, one on Blake Island in Falmouth Harbour, and the other on Rat Island in St. John's Harbour. From then until 1815, forty forts were built around Antigua's casts to protect the valuable sugar industry.
Monk's Hill or Fort George was started in 1689. It was to defend Falmouth, which was then the main town of Antigua, with the only church, which also served as the Court House. Fort George was built to be a place of last refuge, in case of invasion by the French or the Caribs. The whole population of the Island, about 1200 people (half whites and half blacks), could be accommodated inside. Today there are still remains of very large cisterns in the complex.
By 1736, so many slaves had been brought in from Africa that their conditions were crowded and open to unrest. An uprising was planned by "Prince Klaas" (whose real name was Count) in which the whites would be massacred, but the plot was discovered and put down.
The Dockyard was started in 1725, to provide a base for a squadron of ships patrolling the West Indies and maintaining England's sea power. The present docks were formed by blasting away a small hill and spreading it on the surrounding reefs, a remarkable piece of engineering. Ships were brought alongside to be careened, which means pulling the vessel on its side so the bottom can be scrubbed and painted. Many ships and famous Admirals have been stationed at the dockyard, including Rodney, Hood and Nelson. It was given up by the Royal Navy in 1889, and is now administered by the National Parks Authority as an historic monument, yacht centre and tourist attraction.
Nelson was Senior Naval Officer of the Leeward Islands from 1784 to 1787 on H.M.S. Boreas, based in the Dockyard. He was a young and zealous Officer, who tried to enforce the Navigation Acts, prohibiting trade with the newly formed United States of America. As most of the merchants in Antigua depended upon this trade, he was very unpopular here, and was unable to get a promotion for some time after.
Shirley Heights was named after Governor sir Thomas Shirley, who on November 26th, 1781 ordered fortifications to be built around English Harbour in order to further protect the Naval Dockyard. Some of the buildings here were also used to billet the soldiers coming and going in the Troopships calling at the Dockyard. The last soldiers stationed at Shirley Heights were the 67th Regiment, who left in 1854. There was also a Signal Station here at the Lookout, the highest point (487 ft.). Hoisted flags sent messages to the fort at Monk's Hill, which then relayed them to other forts and St. John's. Today the Historic sites commission is relying on visitor donations to help clean up and maintain the ruins, so they can be a pleasure and recreational area for all.
* 1807 Total abolition of the slave trade
* 1834 Emancipation of the slaves
* 1850's Decline of the sugar industry
* 1981 Independence.
D.V. Nicholson Historic Sites & Conservation Commission
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Editorial Feature
Nanoparticles Defined - What Nanoparticles Are And What Makes Them Special
Nanoparticles are ultra-small objects with dimensions measured in nanometres (nm). Nanoparticles typically have at least one dimension less than 100nm in size.
What Makes Nanoparticles Special
Nanoparticles fascinate materials scientists and engineers because they possess properties different from those seen in bulk samples of the same material. Copper, as an example, is known as a soft, malleable metal – but copper nanoparticles smaller than 50nm diameter are known as ultra-hard materials. Nanoparticles smaller than 10nm are known to emit light or glow with a light frequency determined by material composition and particle size. These nanoparticles are known as quantum dots.
The unique properties of nanoparticles are often caused by either the extremely high surface area to volume ratio or quantum
Types of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles come in a range of different types. Nanoparticles can be man-made to possess highly desired and specific properties or they can simply be found in nature. Man-made nanoparticles include:
• Quantum Dots
• Carbon Nanotubes also known as Buckyballs and Buckytubes
• Nanorods
• Nanocrystals
• Nanowires
• Nanoribbons
Source: AZoNano
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1. 1. Classification<br /><ul><li>Why we put organisms into groups
2. 2. How we do this</li></li></ul><li>The 2 name (binomial) system<br />All organisms have 2 names – a name for the species and a name for a larger group called a genus. <br />Both names are in latin<br />So scientists all around the world understand<br />The genus name comes first, and starts with a capital<br />You underline the name ( in a book/ website it’s in italics)<br />EgHomo sapiens ( humans)<br />
3. 3. Find some names for other organisms<br />Go to<br />Type in:<br />Cat<br />Dog<br />wolf<br />Tiger<br />Lion<br />Any other organism<br />WRITE DOWN THE LATIN NAMES FOR GENUS AND SPECIES.<br />What do you notice about the tiger and the lion?<br />What do you notice about the wolf and the dog? What does this tell you?<br />
4. 4. 5 Kingdoms<br />These are the largest groups of organisms:<br />Animals<br />Plants<br />Fungi<br />Bacteria<br />protists<br />
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At Saint Thomas’ we believe that geography is a brilliant way of developing children’s natural fascination for the world around them. Teaching geography enables children to compare locations ,investigate, research and use both primary and secondary sources of information.
In Early Years children begin to make sense of their physical world and their community. They do this by exploring, observing and finding out about people ,places, technology and the environment.
At KS1 children learn about the United Kingdom. They also look at hot and cold areas of the World. They use ICT, World maps, atlases and globes. They begin to develop simple field work and observational skills.
At KS2 children learn more about Europe and North and South America.. They also focus more on human and physical geography including rivers, mountains , volcanoes , earthquakes and the water cycle.
St Thomas CE Academy
Mattox Road,
Wolverhampton WV11 3TG
Telephone: 01902 558963
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Earth Day - Pachamama
The ancient Peruvian cultures developed a close link with the nature of respect, fear, and adoration. The origin is born concerning the mother earth or Pachamama, men and animals depended exclusively on what the earth produced and provided, this led to the need to express their veneration to the Earth as a source of life. The religion of the Andean world starts from the Andean cosmovision, the Inti, or Sun God, was one of the most important gods, the Apus constituted the spirits that lived in the tutelary mountains and Mother Earth (Pachamama) was the goddess of fertility. It is for this reason that, in the form of thanking the spirits associated with the natural forces, the benefits or benefits granted to them are made these payments or offerings. The offerings that are buried in Mother Earth include coca leaves (for the Andean cosmovision are the mediators between nature and the human) variety of cereal seeds, silver not worked, sullus (fetuses of llamas or sheep), chicha, wine , fat of animals, sweets and huairuros (red and black seeds with symbolic and magical powers).
The payment to the land or Pachamama is often practiced in the Peruvian Andes, is done on the first day of August and continues throughout the month because the farmers say that at this time that period the Pachamama is thirsty and hungry, and it is necessary to satisfy, nourish it and offer the best foods to give it strength and energy. Another form of offering is the apachetas or mounds of stone left by walkers near the Apus, in a way of respect for allowing to reach these places. In festivals or social gatherings, it is also common to throw beer or chicha on the land simulating respect and payment for everything it offers for human consumption.
The offering ceremony to the Pachamama is of ancestral origin as part of a system of reciprocity that the ancestors had with the spiritual world, whose purpose is to return to Mother Earth what has been given to her. The rituals are destined to the Apus (the masculine aspect of nature) and the Pachamama (feminine aspect of nature), the breaking of this reciprocity would break the harmony and in the natural, social and religious systems. The person in charge of performing the ceremony is the "altomisayoq" who claims to have supernatural powers and communication with the spirit world. It offers the offering called "office", after requesting permission a table tends and among prayers those present make their prayers asking for a lot of faith in personal benefit and aspects that they consider important for a harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. That is why the month of August of each year is the month dedicated to Mother Earth or Pachamama a month of recidivism and gratitude.
Published date: 19/07/2019
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Ancient Roman Columns
April 12, 2016
30, 2013 photo shows ancient
History, Facts and Information about Roman Columns
The content of this article provides interesting history, facts and information about Roman Columns. The most imposing forms of Roman architecture may be traced to a knowledge of the properties of the arch, and as brick was more extensively used than any other material, the Roman Columns were invaluable. The Romans took the best ideas and building concepts from conquered nations such as the Greeks and these included the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns.
Purpose of Ancient Roman Columns
The purpose of Roman columns in structural engineering is to provide a vertical structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. Roman columns were therefore often used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of buildings, walls or ceilings rest. Roman Columns enabled the ancient Romans to build vast edifices with the humblest materials, to build bridges, aqueducts, sewers, amphitheatres, and triumphal arches, as well as temples and palaces. The application of Roman Columns extend to domes and cupolas, to floors and corridors and roofs, and to various other parts of buildings where economy of material and labor was desired. It was applied extensively to doorways and windows and is an ornament as well as a utility.
Description of Roman Columns
Columns are vertical, upright pillars. Columns may provide support or simply be purely decorative. The lower portion of a column is called the base or stylobate. The middle section is called the shaft. The upper portion of a column is called the capital. The area which the column supports is called the entablature.
Types of Roman Columns - Doric Columns - Simplest Style of Columns
The Doric order or style of columns are the oldest and simplest of the classical styles. An example of the Doric column can be shown in the image at the top of the page. The oldest and simplest of the three main orders of classical Roman architecture are characterized by heavy fluted columns with plain, saucer-shaped capitals and base. The capital of the Doric column consists of a cushion-like convex molding known as an "echinus" and a square slab called an "abacus." The first level of the arches at the Colosseum are framed by half columns of the Doric order. The Doric style Roman Columns were considered to be able to hold more weight..
Types of Roman Columns - Ionic Style of Columns with Spiral Scrolls
The Ionic order, invented by the Asiatic Greeks is more graceful, though not so imposing as the Doric style. The capital is more ornamented than the Doric. The shaft is fluted and more slender. The Ionic Roman columns...
Ancient Roman Columns in Bet-Shea
Ancient Roman Columns in Bet-Shea
ISIS blows up hostages with ancient Roman columns in Palymra
ISIS blows up hostages with ancient Roman columns in Palymra
Lego Ancient Greek/Roman Column Custom Designs
Lego Ancient Greek/Roman Column Custom Designs
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Allium crispum facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Crinkled onion
Allium crispum 3.jpg
Scientific classification
Allium peninsulare var. crispum (Greene) Jeps.
Allium crispum is a species of wild onion known by the common name crinkled onion. It is endemic to California, where it grows along the Central Coast in the Coast Ranges and in the Santa Monica Mountains, often in clays and serpentine soils.
Allium crispum grows from a bulb one to one and a half centimeters wide and sends up naked green stems topped with inflorescences of many flowers, each on a short pedicel. The flowers are magenta in color and have six triangular tepals. The inner three tepals are smaller and crinkled like cloth and may curl under. Anthers and pollen are yellow.
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Allium crispum Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Partridges and other related birds: Infection in the red-legged partridge, grey and chukar partridges, phaisans and other related gamebirds - Microbiological diagnosis
Information 27-08-2018.
During the last decades the natural populations of game birds have decreased in many areas. The strategy to obviate the lack of wild species has been to release the birds raised on farms to replop or to supply for the hunting sector. Among these species are the common pheasants (Phasianus colchicus); the red partridges (Alectoris rufa), gray (Perdix perdix) or chukar (Alectoris chukar); quail (Coturnix coturnix), pigeons of different species, ducks and geese. This process includes a phase of breeding and development in interiors, followed by an air conditioning phase in large aviaries located outside. When the birds are ready for release, they are released in the repopulation or hunting areas.
The release of farm-raised birds presents some risks that may imply a high rate of mortality in the reintroduced population, due to poor behavior when released, predation by mammals or birds of prey, less resistance to diseases that they can cause epidemic outbreaks of them and genetic differences between released birds and wild birds.
Among these birds, the partridges are highly appreciated by gourmets and hunters, so it is considered a very popular hunting bird. It belongs to the Gallinaceas, included in the Phasianidae family of which there are two genera: Perdix and Alectoris.
The gray partridge (Perdix perdix), is a natural bird of Europe, which has been introduced in many parts of the world, but has declined a lot in Europe since the second half of the 20th century. Among the causes of this decline include an accentuated decrease of the life of the chicks due to the use of pesticides, the loss of habitats due to intensive agriculture and the mechanization of the field, the lower hatching of eggs, and the increase of predation by raptors or some wild mammals.
The red partridge (Alectoris rufa) is native to the Iberian Peninsula and is presently present in the South and Center of France, and Northwest of Italy, as well as in Spain. Its population has also declined much as it has happened in Europe with the gray partridge.
Due to the high demand of the partridge for hunting and the shortage of wild birds, captive breeding has developed a lot and today has a significant economic importance. It has been published that in France about 15 million are raised, of which 2 thirds are exported to the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal and Italy. In France, 1.7 million were hunted in 1998. In 2010, 6 million were produced in France for the French market, of which 77 to 80% were of the red species. In Spain, it is estimated that 3 million are hunted per year, so it has a relevant socio-economic importance.
The red partridge grows and reproduces easily in captivity if the proper hygienic and therapeutic conditions are taken to avoid diseases. This species is very sensitive to several pathogens that are responsible for 10 to 15% mortality and in some cases up to 70 to 80%, which means that some breeders sometimes decide to abandon their offspring. Death rates of 46 to 52% have been cited in these birds between 26 and 31 days of age.
The red partridge reared in Spain, accounts for approximately 7% of global avian production. It is estimated that between 3 and 4.5 million red partridges are raised in the wild, and that the number released from breeding farms can be 10 million per hunting season. The lack of biosecurity measures in some of the red partridge farms, together with the limited control measures before or after release to the field, may favor the introduction, adaptation, maintenance and dissemination of pathogens.
Birds from hatcheries on farms may introduce new agents into wild populations or suffer the adverse effects of the parasite load they contain. The release of pheasants or red partridge can also be harmful to the gray partridge, due to competition in the habitat or the transmission of pathogens.
There are several types of infections that can occur affecting one or other organs, sometimes with higher prevalence in some species than in others, and even within the same species or in any of the species, there may be differences according to the age of the species. birds in which the infection occurs.
Virus infections
There are viruses that can cause infections in these birds, some of them that affect the nervous system, others to the respiratory system and others produce a general infection. Among these viruses are the following: Bagaza virus, West Nile virus, several types and subtypes of Influenza virus, Newcastle disease virus, Avian Poxvirus and Marek's disease virus. Then we describe some characteristics of these viruses and the affectations that they can cause in infected birds.
Bagaza Virus (BAGV)
This virus is synonymous with Israel's turkey meningoencephalomyelitis virus (ITV: Israel Turkey meningoencephalomyelitis virus), named for having been initially described in Israel in 1958. It is a virus transmitted by mosquitoes, belonging to the Flaviviridae family, genus Flavivirus, which causes a severe neurological disease in chickens and wild birds, making it an Arbovirus (Arbovirus: Arthropod Borne Virus). Some 7 years later (1966) of the description in Israel, the virus was isolated from a batch of Culex mosquitoes in the city of Bagaza (Central African Republic), showing that both were genetically identical, that of Israel and the city of Bagaza, The change of name was proposed by "Avian Meningoencephalomyelitis virus" (avian meningoencephalomyelitis virus) (acronym AMEV).
For a long time, the virus was restricted to sub-Saharan Africa (Central African Republic, Mauritania, Senegal and South Africa), Israel, and India, but in 2010 it appeared in Europe causing an outbreak that affected the red partridge (Alectoris rufa) and the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) in the South of Spain. With this outbreak it was demonstrated that it causes a high mortality in the red partridge, and that it can even be transmitted by contact between these animals. The studies carried out with the gray partridge (Perdix perdix) have shown that these birds also suffer from a serious disease with neurological signs and mortality of 40%. Serological studies have shown that the virus continues to circulate in Spain.
Experimentally, it has been shown that the virus affects the central nervous system, but also the vascular endothelium, causing an intense hemolytic process in partridges that does not appear in the other birds studied. The birds of the 2010 outbreak showed incoordination, disorientation and ataxia. Mortality was 37% in partridges and 11% in pheasants. Histopathological studies showed the existence of encephalitis, myocarditis, leiomyositis, meningoencephalitis and neuritis.
West Nile virus (West Nile virus -WNV)
West Nile virus is a neurotropic virus transmitted by arthropods (Arbovirus: Arthropod Borne Virus), belonging to the family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus. Its natural cycle involves several species of birds in which the virus multiplies and a wide variety of mosquitoes that transmit it to each other. These mosquitoes can also transmit the virus to horses or people, who may suffer from clinically manifest disease or be infected with an asymptomatic infection without suffering symptoms. Before the 1990s, it was considered a virus of limited importance in birds, but since then it has spread widely geographically and is now considered to be of worldwide distribution, having passed from Europe to the USA. where it has spread across all states.
Studies have been conducted on the red partridge (Alectoris rufa), as a native species of European birds, showing that infected birds develop disease with a mortality of 70% when infected with strains of European West Nile virus, but also that they are susceptible to the American virus strains with a mortality of 14 to 45%. The affectation depends on the age at which the birds are infected. The virus causes an encephalitis. Its pathogenesis has been studied in the chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) and in the red partridge (Alectoris rufa), demonstrating experimentally that both species can be infected with the West Nile vius (WNV) strains of the Mediterranean. The most affected organs are the heart, brain, and spinal cord. However, the degree of involvement caused by the European strains of the virus seems to be lower than that caused by the American strains of the virus.
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) (Avian Paramyxovirus type 1)
Newcastle disease in domestic poultry is caused by infection with avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV-1: Avian Paramyxovirus type 1; NDV) of the genus Avulavirus family Paramyxoviridae. This is one of the two most important diseases of poultry and other birds worldwide, not only for the economic losses involved, but also for its health implications that include high mortality in the pens. However, the involvement by NDV can be variable, including from the absence of symptoms to an acute disease with high mortality.
Some variants, such as the so-called Paramyxovirus 1 of pigeons (Pigeon Paramyxovirus type 1 -PPMV-1) have been responsible for panzootias in pigeon farms. Outbreaks of this disease in pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) are not uncommon and it has been shown that they are very susceptible to NDV infection.
In 2006, an outbreak of Newcastle disease (ND) was described caused by PPMV-1 in a gray partridge farm (Perdix perdix) in East Lothian (Scotland). The affected birds suffered diarrhea, progressive neurological signs and a mortality of 24%. It was intuited that the infection was transmitted from nearby pigeons because the pigeon virus variants (Pigeon paramyxovirus type 1, PPMV-1) had been found.
Influenza A Virus
Avian influenza viruses (Avian Influenza virus -AIV-) have been isolated from many bird species. Among the most interesting for their breeding in farms are the following: turkeys, ducks, geese, quail, partridges, guinea fowl, pheasants, ostriches and chickens. Of these, the turkeys are especially susceptible and the first infection in them was diagnosed in Wisconsin (USA) in 1966. Also, it is of interest the fact that the quail can act as amplifier of recombinations of the virus, making subtypes that previously did not affect some species, such as humans or other mammals, can become infected after having passed the virus through the quail. The quail can allow the replication of most of the subtypes, as it happens with the pig and the subtypes H1 and H3 of the Influenza A viruses. In the same way, the quail is more susceptible than the chickens to the H9 viruses. , which suggests that adaptation of strains transmitted from waterfowl (ducks) can occur in them, and then infect other terrestrial birds. In this sense, the quail would act as the intermediary host species. This same fact, has been found in the partridges, so it is a kind of great interest for the spread of influenza A viruses.
Avian influenza viruses (AIVs: Avian Influenza viruses) according to the ability to cause disease and death in Most poultry species (eg, chicken - Gallus domesticus) can be classified into two different pathotypes: a) Low pathogenicity (LPAIVs: Low Pathogenic), and b) High pathogenicity (HPAIVs: Highly Pathogenic). Infections with LPAIVs can be asymptomatic, but in general, they cause a mild to severe respiratory disease, which is usually accompanied by a decrease in food and water intake and a drop in egg production. On the contrary, HPAIVs cause a serious systemic disease, with high mortality in chickens, but which does not imply the same degree of disease in other species.
Since the first isolation of an AIV from wild birds, an HPAIV H5N3, in a seabird (Sterna hirundo) in South Africa (1961), viruses of the subtypes corresponding to the 16 hemagglutinins and 9 different neuraminidases have been isolated from more than 100 species of wild birds belonging to more than 25 families, confirming that AIVs have a worldwide distribution in free-living waterbird populations.
Waterfowl, mainly those of the Order Anseniformes (ducks, geese, swans), have been recognized as the natural hosts and reservoir of all LPAIVs. These viruses are highly adapted to their reservoirs, usually producing asymptomatic infections and replicating in the gastrointestinal epithelial cells, with elimination of a high content of virus in their feces for prolonged periods. Therefore, it is considered that the fecal-oral route is the primary route of transmission of LPAIVs in waterfowl. LPAIVs can be found in many different birds other than their natural reservoirs, but it is not clear in which of these species the LPAIVs are endemic and in which the virus is a transient agent.
Unlike what happens with LPAIVs, HPAIVs are not usually found in natural hosts, but arise from LPAIVs H5 and H7 after circulating in gallinaceous poultry for a variable period of time. Therefore, the exposure of waterfowl viruses to poultry, either by direct contact with wild birds, by contact in live poultry markets, or through bird drink waters is critical to the emergency of HPAIVs.
Since 2002, panzootic outbreaks have been reported in domestic and wild Anseniformes of Asia and Eastern Europe. These evolved viruses are highly pathogenic (HP) in these species under experimental conditions, something that is unusual for HPAIVs. The usual pattern of excretion of HPAIVs H5N1 in waterfowl implies a low virus titer and for a short period. Chickens and turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) are birds, which along with ducks, have been studied more extensively for AIVs.
Some studies suggest that turkeys are more susceptible to LPAIVs than chickens. This high susceptibility demonstrates the relevance of turkeys as intermediate hosts and source of infection for other poultry or even for mammals. In addition, turkeys seem highly sensitive to HPAIVs, with a dynamics of infection and pathological findings very similar to chickens. Experimental studies in turkeys and chickens show that LPAIVs are predominantly eliminated from the oropharynx, and in lesser amount by the cloaca, unlike what occurs with waterfowl, which act as natural hosts. A similar dynamic occurs with HPAIVs, although in a greater proportion than LPAIVs. To date, several experimental studies have evaluated the sensitivity for LPAIVs and HPAIVs in the main species (chickens, turkeys and domestic ducks), and wild aquatic birds.
Wild birds, particularly those of the orders Anseniformes and Charadriiformes, have been recognized as the natural reservoirs of AIVs. Some studies suggest that turkeys, pheasants and Japanese quail are more susceptible than chickens to Influenza A viruses transmitted from free waterbirds. Experimentally, it has been shown that HPAIVs can cause specific clinical signs and mortality in the species mentioned, and that pheasants are efficient eliminators of LPAIVs. In addition, free breeding of birds has been identified as one of the factors that contribute to the increase of outbreaks of AIVs.
So far, most experimental studies on AIVs have been conducted with chickens, turkeys or aquatic species, while studies on minor species are scarce and many aspects of the epidemiology of both LPAIVs and HPAIVs in poultry are unknown. of free breeding and game birds. There are almost no studies of sensitivity to the infection and pathogenicity of AIVs in the red partridge (Alectoris rufa). This important hunting species is widely distributed in the South West of Europe and in the South of the United Kingdom.
To know the affectation that the partridges can suffer, experimental studies have been carried out in the red partridge (Alectoris rufa) inoculated with both a strain of HPAIVS H7N1 (A / Chicken / Italy / 5093/1999), as with one of low pathogenicity H7N9 (A / Anas crecca / Spain / 1460/2008), demonstrating that they are very affected by the high pathogenicity strains (HPAIVs) in comparison with the low pathogenicity strains (LPAIVs). Affectation by the HPAIV strain damages the kidneys, adrenal glands, feather follicles and the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) more intensely. Only the gonads, spleen, bone marrow and sciatic nerve showed no significant involvement.
Poxvirus (Avian Poxvirus - Avipoxvirus)
Avian poxviruses belong to the family Poxviridae, genus Avipoxvirus and include several species each specific for different groups of birds. The species Fowlpox affects the gallinaceae. Other species are: Canarypox, Juncopox, Mynahpox, Pigeonpox, Psittacinepox, Quailpox, Sparrowpox, Starlingox and Turkeypox. All these species are characterized by avian pox, a clinical entity characterized by the development of cutaneous pustules in their hosts, and also by involvement of the oral mucosa and upper respiratory tract.
Unlike other viruses, Avipoxviruses can tolerate extreme dryness, an advantage that allows them to spread with dust and adapt to the dry mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract of birds. Being very stable in the environment, transmission between wild birds can occur through mechanical transmission through mosquitoes or through small skin lesions that allow it to penetrate the skin.
Avian pox (Avian pox) is a contagious viral infection of worldwide distribution that has been described in more than 60 bird species of about 20 families, especially galliformes. Because of its importance, vaccination is usually carried out in many farms. However, the disease persists due to domestic poultry houses, where preventive measures are not taken and since these can be extended to wild birds. The current tendency to change production systems, doing so with birds in freedom, could mean an increased risk of outbreaks of smallpox. Despite the specificity of Avian Poxvirus species, infections of wild bird populations could pose a risk to chickens.
This virus can cause respiratory distress, decreased intake of food and drink by infected birds. External lesions are limited to non-feathery parts, in general the face and legs, where they generate lesions characterized by proliferative and necrotizing dermatitis. In addition, it can form bloody vesicles that collapse when pricking and draining. The virus induces high mortality in pheasants, quail and partridges, songbirds, seabirds such as seagulls, parrots and peregrine birds such as hawks. Mortality in free-living galliforms ranges from 2% to 54%, depending on many factors. In experimental studies it ranges from 21 and 27%.
The infection in the red partridge (Alectoris rufa) of free life in Spain is frequent. In the year 2000-2001, there was an outbreak of avian Poxvirus infection in the South of Spain, in which it was demonstrated that the affectation occurs with greater intensity of the young specimens, compared with adults.
Marek's disease virus (MDV-1; Gallid herpesvirus 2 -GaHV-2)
Marek's disease is a well-known disease in poultry throughout the world and is caused by a herpesvirus (Gallid herpesvirus 2 -GaHV- 2), also known as Marek's disease virus serotype 1 (MDV-1). Since the introduction of a vaccine, its incidence has been greatly reduced but it is still diagnosed in unvaccinated chickens.
Apart from the chickens, the disease has also been described in turkeys, Japanese quail, pheasants, and more recently in the crested quail (Rollulus rouloul) in Belgium (2015). In the crested quail, it presents with lesions characterized by swelling of the periorbital area, as well as corneal and lens opacity that lead to blindness. Over a few months all the affected birds die.
Toxin poisoning (botulinum toxin) - Avian botulism
Avian botulism is a paralytic disease caused by the ingestion of the toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium. The toxin acts by blocking nerve function and as a consequence causing respiratory and musculoskeletal paralysis.
The affectation is due to the toxin and not to infection by Clostridium botulinum. There are several types of toxins produced by different strains of this bacterium. In birds, type C predominates and in a lesser proportion type E.
This bacterium is very distributed in the soil (soil) and only requires warm temperatures, a source of proteins and an anaerobic environment (without oxygen) to multiply and produce the toxin.
Decomposing plants and invertebrates (insects) combined at the right temperatures can provide the ideal conditions for this bacterium to multiply and produce the toxin.
Birds are affected when they ingest the preformed toxin directly or when they ingest invertebrates (eg, fly larvae, chironomid larvae - diptera similar to non-biting mosquitoes), which contain the toxin that does not affect them. In fly larvae, the toxin accumulates when they ingest it from carcasses of dead animals. Preferably, this occurs in waterfowl, which can be affected by botulism when they eat 3 or 4 fly larvae.
The disease is manifested by flaccid paralysis that usually occurs in the legs, wings, neck (can not keep the neck upright) and eyelids.
Brain Infections due to Listeria monocytogenes (encephalitis)
The genus Listeria is composed of 10 species, of which two of them have been related to infection in humans and animals. Listeria ivanovii infections are rare and restricted to ruminants. In contrast, Listeria monocytogenes infections are related to a variety of animal species and humans. Listeria monocytogenes has a universal distribution and is widespread in the environment. 16 serotypes are known but of them the most involved in diseases are serotypes 1 / 2a; 1 / 2b and 4b.
Interest in Listeria monocytogenes began in the 1980s when it was recognized as a significant foodborne pathogen causing human infections. Infections have been described in 17 avian species, including chickens, turkeys, ducks, canaries, parrots and others. However, listeriosis as a disease is rare, and outbreaks are sporadic with variable morbidity and mortality. Birds are difficult to infect and young birds are considered more susceptible. Listeriosis in birds usually presents as a septicemia with splenomegaly, hepatic and myocardial necrosis and pericarditis. Descriptions of Listeria encephalitis are rare and have occurred in chickens in the US, Japan and India. Birds affected with encephalitis usually show torticollis, depression and incoordination. These neurological signs cannot be distinguished from those manifested by Newcastle disease, which should be considered in the differential diagnosis of Listeria encephalitis. Scientific reports have described isolated cases of neurological involvement in partridges in France (1957) and an outbreak in the United Kingdom in red partridges (Alectoris rufa), with neurological affectations.
Coccidiosis Infections
Coccidiosis is one of the most widespread diseases affecting birds in the world. It is caused by a highly specific parasitic protozoon Coccidia, of the genus Eimeria. Several of its species can specifically invade specific segments of the intestine of birds, where it penetrates the intestinal cells of birds, causing them enteritis, accompanied by diarrhea and occasionally death. This leads to significant economic losses in the intensive production systems of poultry. Currently, there is only prevention and some coccidiostatic drugs for its control. For this reason, the risk of resistance to treatment is high, as has been observed in game birds, and numerous outbreaks have been reported, which means that some breeders have given up raising game birds.
Birds reared on farms for repopulation or hunts can be carriers of coccidia such as Eimeria spp.
Studies conducted in Brazil indicate that there is no parasitization by Eimeria spp. in the chukar partridges studied (Alectoris chukar), unlike the quail (Coturnix coturnix), which did have mild parasitation.
The production of the red partridge (Alectoris rufa) can be affected by frequent enteric diseases such as coccidiosis that is associated with high morbidity and mortality in them.
Eimeria kofoidi, Eimeria caucasica and Eimeria legionensis have been isolated from the ejecta of the red partridge (Alectoris rufa), in which it is rare to find monospecific infections. In experimental studies, it has been shown that when monospecific infections are carried out it is difficult to cause mortality comparatively with non-inoculated controls, whereas when they are inoculated with the three species, a mortality of 28% can be achieved. The largest cecal lesions are obtained in birds infected with E. kofoidi and E. legionensis species. Each individual infection causes growth depression and even weight loss in birds inoculated with E. legionensis. Dual infections by E. kofoidi and E. legionensis, or triple infections, increase this effect.
Little is known of coccidiosis in red partridges. When oocysts of E. kofoidi (300,000 oocysts / partridge) are inoculated, intense lesions appear in the duodenum and jejunum, characterized by a thickened edematous mucosa and intestinal lumen filled with thick mucus, gas and sometimes false membranes by the detached epithelium. E. caucasica also invades both the duodenum and the jejunum, causing occasional haemorrhages of the serous surface as well as mucoid duodenitis and catarrhal enteritis when 30,000 oocysts per bird are inoculated. E. legionensis mainly invades the caecum, and low mortality is observed when 200,000 oocysts per bird are inoculated. Cecal walls thicken and caseous material condenses. For each species, the elimination of oocysts begins at 5 days postinoculation, reaches the maximum at 9, 8 and 6 days post-inoculum for E. kofoidi, E. caucasica and E. legionensis, respectively, and then decreases and persists for about 15 days postinoculation
Infections by Hexamita meleagridis (Spironucleus meleagridis)
Hexamita meleagridis (Spironucleus meleagridis) is a flagellated protozoan found in the intestine of a wide variety of poultry, including turkeys, chukar partridges, quails and peacocks, in which it causes a catarrhal enteritis infectious.
This parasite was first found in 1939 in quail and chukar partridges. However, most diseases related to Hexamita meleagridis come from turkeys. The infectious catarrhal enteritis due to H. meleagridis was a problem in the USA. and Canada during the first years of industrial breeding of turkeys between the 1940s and 1950s, and resulted in significant economic losses. From then on, the incidence of this disease decreased and very few cases have been described. In recent years, infectious catarrhal enteritis seems to have relapsed, with the increasing frequency of commercial operations of turkeys, and likewise, the ability of this parasite to cause a devastating disease in chukar partridges has been written. In an outbreak in 1999 and 2000 in California, the affected birds were between 4 and 6 weeks old, showing diarrhea, languor, depression and high mortality. In addition, most affected birds showed facial dermatitis, and legs, suggestive of a deficiency of B vitamins.
The flagellated protozoan can be found in the lumen of the duodenum and jejunum and in the intestinal crypts. In some cases, the flagellates are located between epithelial cells or localized intracellular cells within the mucosal epithelium and the lamina propria of the mucosa.
Infections by Mycoplasmas (Mycoplama gallisepticum and others)
Mycoplasmas mainly cause upper respiratory diseases and they have been described in pheasants and quail in the United Kingdom and the USA. for many years.
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae, Mycoplasma meleagridis, and Mycoplasma iowae are considered the most important pathogenic mycoplasmas for chickens. The economic impact of mycoplasmosis in the production of chickens has been amply demonstrated, mainly in the sec of meat, where the conversion of food decreases and mortality increases. A new clinical disease associated with Mycoplasma synoviae has been reported, which is characterized by affecting egg layers by altering egg production and decreasing it.
Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection is characterized by conjunctivitis and sinusitis, sometimes accompanied by intense bilateral swelling of the eggs. the infraorbital sinuses. There may also be involvement of the lower respiratory tract. Affected birds lose capacity and morbidity is high, although mortality is variable, perhaps depending on adjuvant factors.
It has been shown that pheasants and partridges have many species of rapidly growing mycoplasmas in the upper respiratory tract. The role of these organisms in affectation is unknown, but their presence may mask the isolation of slow-growing species such as Mycoplasma gallisepticum or Mycoplasma synoviae.
Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection has been demonstrated in partridges. The affectation has been reproduced in experimental studies carried out in the USA. and the United Kingdom in chukar and red partridges with Mycoplama gallisepticum as sole infecting agent. Outbreaks of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection, typical of chickens, have been reported in gray partridge farms in Moravia (Czech Republic).
Mycoplasma iowae is considered a specific pathogen of turkeys, although it occasionally infects other bird species, including chickens. Turkeys and chickens experimentally inoculated with Mycoplasma synoviae show lower growth, leg abnormalities, moderate air sacculitis and plumage alteration. In commercial breeding turkeys it has been observed that the most significant sign of their infection is an increase in the death of embryos. Other signs include poor growth, anomalies of the legs and bones, arthrosynovitis and moderate air sacculitis.
In gray partridges (Perdix perdix) it has been found that M. iowae can cause recurrent intestinal and respiratory alterations. In an outbreak described in 2011, respiratory and intestinal alterations were found in all ages with an average mortality of 20% (11.7% to 36.3%, higher for the younger age and indoor location, and lower in the older age and location outdoors). The most important manifestations were poor body growth, poor development of breasts muscles, anomaly in the development of the keel and bone fragility. Some birds showed infraorbital sinusitis with serofibrinous exudate and catarrhal tracheitis, while others had serofibrinous air sacculitis and splenomegaly.
Mycobacterial infections (Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium)
Avian tuberculosis is an infectious disease that affects many bird species throughout the world, although currently it seems to be more prevalent in birds found in zoo aviaries, captive birds, or in company.
The disease is associated mostly with Mycobacteium avium subsp. avium and, less frequently, other species of mycobacteria.
Avian tuberculosis is a chronic disease causing granulomas that appear most frequently in the liver, spleen, gastrointestinal tract and bone marrow.
Microscopically, the disease can manifest itself in three ways depending on the affected species: the classic tuberculoid, focal or multifocal form; a diffuse form; or a paratuberculosis-like form in the gastrointestinal tract.
There are descriptions of involvement in red partridges that were in zoos and in wild birds. Also, an outbreak of tuberculosis by Mycobacyterium avium subsp. avium has been described in the scientific literature. avium in this partridge species in breeding farm.
Fungal infections
• Systemic karyadiasis in red partridge.
• Mycotic proventriculitis in gray partridge by Macrorhabdus ornithogaster in breeding farms.
Recommended tests for diagnosis and performed in IVAMI:
• Virus infections: molecular diagnosis (PCR ).
• Botulinum toxin: see specific information.
• Infections due to coccidia or other intestinal protozoa: microscopic examination and molecular identification. Detection of intracellular phases in samples of intestinal mucosa through histopathological studies.
• Infections by bacteria or fungi: culture and molecular identification.
Recommended sample:
• Infections with neurological affectation (Bagaza virus, West Nile virus, Newcastle disease virus, Listeria monocytogenes encephalitis, ...): brain sample.
• Botulism: serum from live animals; coagulated blood of the heart, intestinal content of dead birds.
• Other types of infections: sample of the tissue where the infection is located.
Conservation and sample shipment:
• Refrigerated (preferred) for less than 2 days.
• Frozen: more than 2 days.
Delivery of results:
• Molecular diagnosis of virus infections (PCR): 24 to 48 hours. This period can be increased if the detection of a large number of pathogens at the same time is requested.
• Botulism (see specific information).
• Coccidiosis: microscopic examination of feces to detect oocysts: 2 to 4 working days.
• Coccidiosis: examination of mucosal biopsies intestinal for intracellular phases: 5 to 7 working days; Examination of intestinal mucosal biopsies for intracellular phases and identification of species by molecular typing: 15 working days.
• Infections by bacteria or fungi by culture and molecular identification: 3 to 5 working days.
Cost of the test:
• Molecular detection of infectious agents such as viruses or others (PCR): consult
• Botulismo: see the specific information of this toxin.
• Coccidiosis: microscopic examination of feces to detect oocysts: consult ivami @
• Coccidiosis: examination of intestinal mucosa biopsies for intracellular phases: consult
• Coccidiosis: identification of species by molecular typing: consult
• Infections by bacteria or fungi by culture and identification molecular: consult
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Carbon Nanotube Yarn Cellphone and Wireless Antennas
University of Cincinnati researchers have taken 25-micron carbon nanotube thread and created a dipole antenna using double-sided transparent tape and silver paste. They were immediately successful in transmitting radio signals. “It transmitted almost as well as the copper did, but at about one ten-thousandth of the weight,” says. They transmitted both AM and FM in the lab, broadcasting a local NPR station. They also replaced a cellphone antenna and got superior reception. They also used it to transmit video from a wireless webcam.
“Carbon thread that is a fraction of the weight of current copper conductors and antennas could directly apply and would be significant to aerospace activities — commercial, military and space,” he adds. “On any aircraft, there are about several hundred pounds of copper as cables and wiring.”
Schulz explains that the carbon nanotube threads work well as an antenna because of something called the “skin effect.”
“The electrons transfer well because they want to go to the surface,” he says. “Instead of traveling through a bulk mass, they are traveling across a skin.”
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The benefits of free trade were outlined in On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, published in 1817 by economist David Ricardo. Trade agreements, any contractual agreement between states on their trade relations. Trade agreements can be bilateral or multilateral, i.e. between two states or more than two states. Trade pacts are often politically controversial because they can change economic practices and deepen interdependence with trading partners. Improving efficiency through “free trade” is a common goal. Most governments support other trade agreements. Encyclopedia Article on Trade Agreements There are three different types of trade agreements. The first is a unilateral trade agreement[3] if one country wants certain restrictions to be enforced, but no other country wants them to be imposed. It also allows countries to reduce the amount of trade restrictions.
It is also something that is not common and could affect a country. A free trade agreement is a pact between two or more nations to reduce barriers to trade between imports and exports. Under a free trade policy, goods and services can be bought and sold across international borders without government tariffs, quotas, subsidies or bans. This view became popular for the first time in 1817 by the economist David Ricardo in his book On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. He argued that free trade broadens diversity and reduces the prices of goods available in a nation, while making a better part of its own resources, knowledge and specialized skills. Member States form an essentially borderless unit for trade purposes, and the introduction of the euro by most of these countries paves the way. It should be noted that this system is governed by a Brussels-based bureaucracy, which has to deal with the many trade-related issues that arise between the representatives of the Member States. A trade agreement (also known as a trade pact) is a large-scale tax, customs and trade agreement, which often includes investment guarantees.
Posted in Uncategorized
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When quartz is a crystalline solid, why is quartz glass amorphous?
Quartz glass, also known as fused silica, is glass made […]
Quartz glass, also known as fused silica, is glass made by melting and quenching of quartz. Glass has no regular, repeatable molecular structure. In contrast, the silicon and oxygen atoms in quartz form a tetrahedron with a very special arrangement. For details, see the quartz structure.
The rapid quenching of the silica melt prevents the nucleation of crystal "seeds" and prevents the crystal form from propagating throughout the growing solid. In contrast, the disordered state that exists in the melt / liquid remains in the solid.
Fused silica is very tough and has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. If you bake a small fused silica core on a Bunsen burner and then put it in liquid helium, but the fused silica cylinder has not experienced phase / damage / breakage at all. On the contrary, the same treatment, the difference is that the use of liquid nitrogen to form a similar core quartz will cause the quartz to produce a high degree of fracture.
Quartz does not necessarily grow from aqueous solutions. It can grow well from magma, for example, quartz in granite does not grow from aqueous liquids.
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Home Sun & Moon Eclipses Total Solar
What Are Total Solar Eclipses?
Total solar eclipses happen when the New Moon comes between the Sun and Earth and casts the darkest part of its shadow, the umbra, on Earth.
Total solar eclipse at its maximum point or totality. (Illustration)
A total eclipse is spectacular to see.
During a total eclipse of the Sun, the Moon covers the entire disk of the Sun. In partial and annular solar eclipses, the Moon blocks only a part of the Sun.
Not Total Everywhere
Only viewers located in the path of the Moon's full shadow, its umbra, can see a total solar eclipse. Those outside the path see a partial eclipse. By convention, therefore, eclipses are named after their darkest phase—if a solar eclipse is total at any point on Earth, it is called a total solar eclipse.
Hybrid solar eclipses or annular-total eclipses are an exception to this rule. This is because they change from an annular to a total eclipse or from a total to an annular eclipse along their path.
Complete Solar Eclipse Has Five Phases
There are five stages in a total solar eclipse:
1. Partial eclipse begins (1st contact): The Moon becomes visible over the Sun's disk. It looks like the Moon has taken a bite out of the Sun.
2. Total eclipse begins (2nd contact): The Moon covers the entire disk of the Sun. Observers in the Moon's umbral path may be able to see the diamond ring effect and Baily's beads just before totality.
4. Total eclipse ends (3rd contact): The Moon starts moving away, and the Sun reappears. Those fortunate enough to be in the Moon's umbral can see Baily's beads and the diamond ring effect just after totality ends.
5. Partial eclipse ends (4th contact): The eclipse ends as the Moon leaves the Sun's disk.
Protect Your Eyes!
Never look directly at the Sun, eclipsed or otherwise, without proper protective eyewear. The Sun’s radiation can burn your eye's retinas and cause permanent damage or even blindness.
To safely watch a solar eclipse, wear protective eclipse glasses or project an image of the eclipsed Sun using a pinhole projector.
Only Safe during Full Eclipse
It is safe to view a fully eclipsed Sun, totality, with the naked eye. It is also safe to observe totality through cameras, telescopes, or binoculars without any special filters. Do not look at the Sun with naked eyes unless the Moon blocks the entire Sun. Even a small amount of direct sunlight can damage your eyes. Make sure you know how long totality lasts in your location.
Unique Sights around Totality
Illustration of totality of a Total Solar Eclipse
Phenomena only visible near the totality.
Some sights are only visible during a total solar eclipse. They appear in this order as totality sets in (and in reverse order as totality ends):
1. Shadow bands: About a minute before totality, moving, wavy lines of alternating light and dark can be seen on the ground and along walls. These shadow bands are the result of Earth’s turbulent atmosphere refracting the last rays of sunlight.
2. Diamond ring: Seen about 10 to 15 seconds before and after totality, the solar corona (the outer atmosphere of the Sun) becomes visible. Together with the single jewel of light from the Sun, it creates the well-known diamond ring effect.
3. The Sun's corona: As the diamond ring fades, the outermost part of the Sun's atmosphere becomes more prominent. It is visible as a faint ring of rays surrounding the silhouetted Moon and is around 200–300 times hotter than the Sun’s surface—its temperature can reach over 1 million °C (1.8 million °F).
4. Baily's beads: About five seconds before totality, Baily's beads appear. They are little bead-like blobs of light at the edge of the Moon created by the sunlight passing through gaps in the mountains and valleys on the Moon's surface.
5. The Sun's chromosphere: The second most outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere gives out a reddish glow. It is only visible for a few seconds right after totality.
These events then repeat in reverse order: First, the Sun's chromosphere reappears just before totality ends. The Baily's beads follow this as the Moon continues to move away. The diamond ring and corona then makes an appearance, following which shadow bands reappear before the crescent Sun is visible again.
The Science of Total Solar Eclipses
Illustration image
Illustration image
The Sun, Moon, and Earth are aligned
On average, one total solar eclipse happens every 18 months, when:
• There's a New Moon,
• at the same time, the Moon is at (or very near) a lunar node, so the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun line up in a straight (or nearly straight) line,
• and the Moon is near perigee.
Not Every New Moon
Illustration of lunar nodes with Sun, Earth, and Moon
Illustration of lunar nodes with Sun, Earth, and Moon
Lunar nodes are the locations where the Moon crosses the Earth's orbital plane.
The Moon's orbital path around Earth is inclined at an angle of approximately 5° to the Earth's orbital plane around the Sun (ecliptic). Without this slant, we would be able to see two eclipses per lunar month—a solar eclipse at every New Moon and a lunar eclipse at every Full Moon. In reality, solar eclipses happen only 2—5 times a year.
For a solar eclipse to occur, the New Moon must be at or very close to one of the two points where the orbital planes meet. These locations are called lunar nodes.
If the Moon is not near a lunar node during New Moon, the Sun, Moon, and Earth do not align in a straight or almost straight line, and a solar eclipse cannot occur. Seen from Earth, the Moon passes just above or just below the Sun (see image).
Near Lunar Perigee
The Moon's path around Earth is elliptical, with one side of the orbit closer to Earth than the other. The point closest to Earth is called the perigee and the side farthest from Earth is known as the apogee.
Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, with the Sun closest at perihelion, and farthest away at aphelion.
Earth's and the Moon's elliptical orbits mean that Earth’s distance from the Sun and the Moon's distance from Earth varies throughout the year. It also means that from Earth, the Sun's and Moon's apparent sizes change during the year.
When the Moon is about 400 times closer to Earth than the Sun, the Moon's and the Sun's apparent sizes roughly match. Because of this, total eclipses of the Sun can only occur when the Moon is near perigee—it is the only time when the disk of the Moon looks big enough to cover the entire disk of the Sun.
How Long Does Totality Last?
A total solar eclipse can last for several hours and totality can range from a few seconds to 7.5 minutes. The longest total solar eclipse of the 21st century took place on July 22, 2009, when totality lasted 6 minutes and 39 seconds!
Upcoming 5 Total Solar Eclipses
More details about upcoming Eclipses
Topics: Astronomy, Eclipses, Moon, Sun
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Explore BrainMass
Explore BrainMass
Theory of Personality and Self-esteem
-How does Freud's theory apply to the construct of self-esteem?
- What would the Freudian perspective postulate about people with low self-esteem?
- How would this perspective describe low self-esteem in the words of its own theoretical model?
Also, Use the Cai et al. article, "Self-Esteem and Culture: Differences in Cognitive Self-Evaluations or Affective Self-Regard?"
© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com March 4, 2021, 11:30 pm ad1c9bdddf
Solution Preview
(1) How does Freud's theory apply to the construct of self-esteem?
An oxford definition describes self-esteem as having a low opinion of one's self [low self-esteem], and an unduly high regard for oneself [high self-esteem] (p. 212). Self-esteem is involved when a particular crisis in self-concept (personal identity) is threatened by some internal or external event. Psychodynamic theories are predicated upon the notion that each person has thoughts and feelings that are hidden (unconscious) in the mind. One of the key concepts of Freudian psychoanalyses is that much of the mental life (i.e., thoughts, perception, etc) occurs at an unconscious level. Freudian psychoanalyses attempted to explain how unconscious feelings affect emotions and behaviors. Relative to self-esteem, several studies have been conducted, and reviewed for evidence based on the Freudian theory. As an example, Baumeister, Dale, & Sommer (1998) explored the concept of self-esteem from the perspective of Freud's seven defense mechanisms. Freud hypothesized that the ego defended itself against internal events such as sexual and/or aggressive desires. However, according to Fenichel (1945 as cited in Baumeister et al, 1998), Freud's defense mechanism are ...
Solution Summary
This solution describes Sigmund Freu's Personality Theory, and its applicability to the construct of self-esteem
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Bottlenose dolphin
Tursiops truncatus
Suborder : Odontoceti
Family : Delphinidae
Habitat : Coastal zone
Maximum lenght : 4m
Average weight : 320 kg
It is maybe the better known of small cetaceans. Being a coastal species, present all over the world, it is relatively easy to study.
Additionally, its prevalence in dolphinaria and zoos and its frequent media and advertising appearance made him very popular with the general public.
Bottlenose dolphins get their name from their distinctive bottle-shaped mouth, known as a “rostrum.”
They grow up to 4 m long and 590 kg. Female bottlenose dolphins give birth to a calf every 3 to 6 years after a 12-month gestation period.
The average age would be between 15 and 16 years, even if some specimen reached 40 years of age.
Common bottlenose dolphins along the coast travel alone or in groups of about 12. Still, herds of hundreds of dolphins have been spotted in oceanic waters reaching speeds of 12 miles per hour. iles per hour. They eat various food from fish to squid and shrimp, with hunting techniques that may differ from place to place consuming 6-7 kg of food a day.
From IUCN Red List Owing to their occurrence in coastal waters, Bottlenose Dolphins in the Mediterranean are exposed to a wide variety of human activities. Whilst intentional killing was likely the most important cause of mortality until the 1960s (Bearzi et al. 2004, 2008), important ongoing threats include incidental mortality in fishing gear and the reduced availability of key prey caused by region-wide overfishing and environmental degradation. Additional potential or likely threats include the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals, epizootic outbreaks, direct disturbance from boating and shipping, noise, and the consequences of climate change. It is worth noting that this same array of known and potential threats applies to riverine, estuarine and coastal cetaceans in many other parts of the world as well (e.g., Reeves et al. 2003).
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What would it take to make a unicorn?
If unicorns evolved or people created them, they could be like the unruly ones in Onward
Unicorns are often depicted as white horses with heads that have sprouted a single spiraling horn. Unicorns aren’t real, of course, but scientists have some ideas about how they might become so.
Warpaintcobra/iStock/Getty Images Plus
The unicorns in the new movie Onward may look like the beauties that adorn fanciful clothing and school supplies. But don’t be fooled by their silvery white color and shimmery horns. These gussied-up ponies act like dumpster-diving raccoons while snarling at residents. They roam the streets of Mushroomton, a town populated by magical creatures.
The unicorns popular today typically aren’t garbage-eating pests. But they often have a similar look: white horses with heads that have sprouted a single spiraling horn. While everyone knows that these unicorns are just a flight of fancy, is there any chance they could ever exist?
The short answer: It’s highly unlikely. But scientists have ideas about how these animals could become real. A bigger question, though, is whether it would be a good idea to make one.
The long road to a unicorn
A unicorn doesn’t look that much different from a white horse. And getting a white horse is pretty easy. One mutation on a single gene turns an animal into an albino. These animals don’t make the pigment melanin. Albino horses have white bodies and manes and light eyes. But this mutation can also mess with other processes inside the body. In some animals, it can lead to poor vision or even blindness. So unicorns that evolved from albino horses might not be all that healthy.
albino horse
Maybe unicorns could evolve from albino horses. These animals lack the pigment melanin. That leaves them with white bodies and light eyes. Zuzule/iStock/Getty Images Plus
A horn or rainbow coloring are more complex traits. They tend to involve more than one gene. “We can’t say ‘we are going to change this gene and now we’re going to have a horn,’” says Alisa Vershinina. She studies the DNA of ancient horses at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
If any of these traits were to evolve, they would need to give a unicorn some advantage that helps it survive or reproduce. A horn, for instance, might help a unicorn defend itself against predators. Colorful features might help a male unicorn attract a mate. That’s why many birds have bright and bold colors. “Maybe horses would be able develop these crazy colors … that would favor boys that are very beautiful pink and purple,” Vershinina says.
But none of this would happen fast because horses (and the resulting unicorns) have relatively long lifespans and reproduce slowly. Evolution “doesn’t work in a snap,” Vershinina notes.
Insects generally have short generation times, so they can evolve body parts quickly. Some beetles have horns that they use for defense. A beetle might be able to evolve such a horn in 20 years, Vershinina says. But even if it were possible for a horse to evolve into a unicorn, that “would take more than a hundred years, probably, if not a thousand,” she says.
Fast-tracking a unicorn
Perhaps instead of waiting for evolution to make a unicorn, people could engineer them. Scientists might use the tools of bioengineering to cobble together the traits of a unicorn from other creatures.
Paul Knoepfler is a biologist and stem-cell researcher at the University of California, Davis. He and his daughter Julie wrote a book, How to Build a Dragon or Die Trying. In it, they ponder how modern techniques could be used to build mythical creatures, including unicorns. To transform a horse into a unicorn, you could try adding a horn from a related animal, Paul Knoepfler says.
A narwhal’s tusk looks like a unicorn horn, but it’s actually a tooth that grows in a long straight spiral. It grows through a narwhal’s upper lip. That might make it tricky to successfully put one on a horse’s head, says Paul Knoepfler. It’s not clear how a horse could grow something similar, he says. If it could, it might get infected or damage the animal’s brain.dottedhippo/iStock/Getty Images Plus
One approach would be to use CRISPR. This gene-editing tool lets scientists tweak an organism’s DNA. Researchers have found certain genes that are turned off or on when animals are growing their horns. So in a horse, “you might be able to … add a few different genes that would result in a horn sprouting on their head,” he says.
It would take some work to figure out which genes are the best to edit, Knoepfler notes. And then there are challenges to making the horn grow properly. Also, CRISPR itself isn’t perfect. If CRISPR creates the wrong mutation, this could give the horse an unwanted trait. Maybe “instead of the horn off the top of its head, there’s a tail growing there,” he says. A change that drastic, though, would be pretty unlikely.
A different approach would be to create an animal that contains DNA from several species. You might start with a horse embryo, Knoepfler says. As it develops, “you might be able to transplant some tissue from an antelope or some animal that naturally has a horn.” But there’s a risk that the horse’s immune system might reject the other animal’s tissue.
With all these methods, “there’s a lot of things that could go wrong,” Knoepfler notes. Still, he says, making a unicorn seems almost realistic compared with creating a dragon. And for any approach, you’d need a team of researchers, plus veterinarians and reproductive experts. Such a project would take years, he notes.
The ethics of making a unicorn
If scientists succeed in giving a horse a horn, it might not be good for the animal. Vershinina questions whether a horse’s body could support a long horn. A horn might make it harder for a horse to eat. Horses haven’t evolved to deal with a horn’s weight as some other animals have. “Rhinos have this awesome horn on their head. But they also have a massive head and they can eat with it,” she notes. “This is because this horn evolved as a part of the body.”
There are many other potential problems. Lab-grown unicorns would never have existed as part of an ecosystem. If they entered the wild, we have no clue what would happen and how they would interact with other species, Knoepfler says.
rainbow unicorn
Cartoon unicorns sometimes sport vivid rainbow manes. “To have something like a rainbow, it’s got to take tons of genes interacting in a very interesting way,” Alisa Vershinina says.ddraw/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Also, huge ethical questions surround the possibility of modifying animals or creating something like a new species. The purpose for creating these unicorns would matter, argues Knoepfler. “We’d want these new creatures to have happy lives and not suffer,” he says. That might not happen if they were being bred like circus animals just to make money.
Vershinina has considered the ethics of trying to recreate creatures, such as mammoths, that don’t exist anymore. One question that would apply to unicorns and mammoths alike is how such an animal might survive in an environment to which it’s not adapted. “Are we going to be solely responsible for keeping it alive and feeding it?” she asks. Is it OK to make just one, or does a unicorn need others of its kind? And what happens if the process isn’t successful — will those creatures suffer? Ultimately, “who are we on this planet to play this role?” she asks.
And what if unicorns aren’t the sparkly, happy creatures of our fantasies? “What if we did all this work and we have these beautiful perfect unicorns with rainbow manes and these perfect horns, but they’re very grumpy?” Knoepfler asks. They could be destructive, he says. They might even turn out to pests, like the ones in Onward.
More Stories from Science News for Students on Genetics
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If Life Doesn’t Go the Way
Culture is the social behavior and norms found in human societies. Culture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Some aspects of human behavior, social practices such as culture, expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies such as tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing are said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies. The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature (both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.
In the humanities, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in the arts, sciences, education, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in class-based distinctions between a high culture of the social elite and a low culture, popular culture, or folk culture of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to cultural capital.
In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by ethnic groups to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as body modification, clothing or jewelry. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as Marxism and critical theory, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a false consciousness, and such perspectives are common in the discipline of cultural studies.
In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.
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"language_score": 0.9549388885498047,
"url": "http://thanhphophuquoc.com/if-life-doesnt-go-the-way/"
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Select Page
Magna Carta
Why Commemorate the 800th Anniversary of Magna Carta?
Magna Carta matters. It is the foundation stone supporting the freedoms enjoyed today by hundreds of millions of people in more than 100 countries.
Magna Carta enshrined the Rule of Law in English society. It limited the power of authoritarian rule. It paved the way for trial by jury, modified through the ages as the franchise was extended.
It proclaimed certain religious liberties,’the English Church shall be free’. It defined limits on taxation; every American remembers that ‘no taxation without representation’ was the cry of the American colonists petitioning the King for their rights as free men.
For centuries it has influenced constitutional thinking worldwide including in France, Germany, Japan, the United States and India as well as many Commonwealth countries, and throughout Latin America and Africa. Over the past 800 years, denials of Magna Carta’s basic principles have led to a loss of liberties, loss of human rights and even genocide. It is an exceptional document on which democratic society has been constructed.
‘Bad’ King John
On 15th June 1215 a reluctant, but resigned and most definitely scheming King John was brought to Runnymede to put his seal to the Great Charter of Liberty – Magna Carta, which is widely viewed as establishing the rule of constitutional law and individual freedoms that many of us take for granted today. Magna Carta was the first document imposed upon a King of England by a group of his subjects, the feudal barons, in an attempt to limit his powers by law and protect their rights.
John might have acceded to the Barons’ demands, but he plainly had no intention of sticking to the bargain. Once at a safe distance from Runnymede he was urging Pope Innocent III to declare it void. The Pope agreed to John’s request, and on 24August 1215, a mere ten weeks after its sealing, the Magna Carta was declared null and void by a Papal Bull.
And there its place in history may well have stopped. But, fifteen months later, after first facing a Baronial war, and then losing the royal treasury in the Wash, John fell victim to a bad dose of dysentery. And on 18 October 1216 he died, to be succeeded by his son, the more devout, less intelligent, longer lasting, but equally ineffective Henry III. The redoubtable Earl Marshal, the new young King’s regent, rescued Magna Carta from its threatened obscurity, revising and reissuing it twice. When he came of age, Henry III also reissued it, as did his son, Edward I, when he became King in 1297. It is Edward I’s version which remains on the statute books to this day.
William Malet – Lord of Curry Mallet, Somerset
In 1215 William Malet, Lord of Curry Mallet, now a small Somerset village, was one of the twenty five rebel barons elected as a surety or guarantor of the Magna Carta. Each baron had at least one barony that was made up of a number of fees or manors, and one manor in particular was the caput honouris, thechief manor which, in our case, was Curry Mallet. Yet, these men were very much a product of those unsettled times. They were the aristocratic elite of Anglo-Norman society, holding large swathes of land from the king, particularly in the North of England and East Anglia.
William Malet (c. 1175-1215) was one of the sizeable group of rebel barons who were heavily indebted to King John, making the revolt of 1215 in some sense a debtors’ revolt. William, was the descendant of Robert Malet (d. before 1156), first holder of the barony, and the son of Gilbert Malet, who died in 1194. In 1196 he paid Richard the Lionheart a fine and relief of £150 to enter into his inheritance.
William’s early career, characteristically for someone of his background and upbringing, had been in royal service. He had accompanied Richard the Lionheart on crusade from 1190 and he had taken part in the siege of Acre in 1191. He was appointed sheriff of Somerset and Dorset by King John in 1209 after the two counties had petitioned to have someone local as their sheriff instead of the courtier William Brewer, and he served in the office until 1212. By this latter year he was running into financial difficulties, although the cause of his problems is not clear, and by 1214 he was owing the king as much as 2000 marks (about £1333). In 1214 he entered into an agreement to serve with the king in Poitou with ten knights and twenty other soldiers in return for the cancellation of his debt. In 1215 he went over to the barons, joining the confederacy at their muster at Stamford in Easter week, and in June was appointed to the Twenty Five.
William appears to have died only months afterwards, for by that time his estates were in the possession of his son-in-law, Hugh de Vivonia. He left three daughters between whom his estates were divided: Mabel, who married first Nicholas Avenel and then Hugh de Vivonia (d. 1249) of Chewton (Somerset); Helewise, who married first Hugh Pointz (d. 1220), an associate of Malet in the rebellion, and second Robert de Mucegros (d. 1254), a future servant of Henry III; and Bertha, who died unmarried before 1221.
(Text courtesy of Professor Nigel Saul and the Magna Carta 800th Anniversary Committee).
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"url": "https://www.currymallet.org/magna-carta/magna-carta-2015/"
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Brave as a Mountain Lion
Brave as a Mountain Lion
Spider, a contemporary Shoshone boy, is worried. He has a note from school saying he qualifies for the school-wide spelling bee, but he knows that he will be too afraid to walk onto the stage or utter a sound. His loving family encourages him to overcome his fear by thinking about the good qualities of various animals. Only when the boy sees a spider courageously fall into space and begin weaving a web does he find the inspiration he needs.
Coalson's expressive watercolor and pastel artwork beautifully portrays the snow-covered outdoors and the warm interior and perfectly illustrates Spider's anxiety and the close relationship the family enjoys. This warm, sensitive story is valuable for a child facing a fearful situation and also as a representation of contemporary Native American life on the reservation. A treasure for children who have advanced beyond the picture-book crowd. 32 pages. Ages 6-10
Recommended by Barbara Karp,Librarian.
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"url": "https://abookandahug.com/brave-as-a-mountain-lion/"
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Skip to main content
Statistics, data and test instruments: Stats basics
Locate test instruments and critiques of measures
Banner image source: Pixabay 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 licensed under a CC0 Public Domain licence.
Contact for support
Email your questions to our friendly library staff.
HDR Students
UWA Staff
More contact options are available on the Library Contact us page.
Statistical methods
Statistics explained online
Wolfram Math World Statistics at Square One book cover
Wolfram MathWorld provides links to probability and statistics web resources.
The online textbook Statistics at Square One is a useful resource, particularly the chapter "Study design and choosing a statistical test".
Stats basics
There are two main types of statistics.
1. Descriptive statistics such as "The median number of friends on Facebook is 342" which describe a population
Graph distribution of number of facebook friends. High peak around 300, trails down to almost 0 around 2000
Image source:
2. Inferential statistics which seek to answer questions about set of data, such as "Does X Brand of anaesthetic cause less complications than Y Brand?"
In simple terms, this is done by mathematically comparing groups within the data (eg; XBrand or YBrand) and seeing if the Effect (statistical difference between groups of data) is larger than the Error (differences through random chance).
Business, Medicine, Psychology, and Math/Statistics students all use data and statistics in their studies.
In almost all cases data is only gathered from a sample population. How large and representative that sample is affects if statistics can be used to make statements or even predictions beyond the sample. Good statistics can significantly empower an argument or decision.
Statistics can be used to :
• Predict an outcome
• Test a hypothesis
• Compare information
• Provide information in a structured way
Types of statistics in health and medical sciences
There are a number of different types of statistics:
• Incidence
The number of specified new events
e.g., persons falling ill with a specified disease
• Mortality
An estimate of the proportion of the population that dies during a specified period
• Survival
The proportion of the population that is alive at a specific period in time despite the diagnosis of their disease/condition
• Prevalence
The number of cases of a disease existing in a given population at a specific period of time (period prevalence)
(all definitions taken from Stedman's Medical Dictionary)
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"language_score": 0.8148623704910278,
"url": "https://guides.library.uwa.edu.au/datastatistics"
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Robots can talk in own language
Robots can talk in own language
An international team has developed the ‘Lingodroids’ — a pair of mobile robots — which communicate by generating their own words for new places, and relationships between the places based on distance and direction.
The language sounds like a sequence of phone tones, which are easy for the robots to produce and hear in a noisy office environment, before being translated into syllables to make it easy for humans to recognise them, say the scientists. Dr Ruth Schulz of University of Queensland, who led the team, said the robots start by playing where-are-we games. “If they encounter an area that has not yet been named, one will invent a word, such as ‘kuzo’, choosing a random combination of syllables, which it is then able to communicate to other robots it meets, thus defining the name of the place,” said Dr Schulz.
“These words are known as ‘toponyms’ (‘topo’ meaning place and ‘nym’ meaning name). The robots then start to play how-far and which-direction games, which enable them to develop relationship words (like English prepositions),” she said. The resulting language consists of location, distance and direction words, enabling the robots to refer to new places based on their relationship to known locations.
“These languages are very powerful — they are known as ‘generative’ languages because they enable the robots to refer to places they haven’t been to or even places that they imagine beyond the edges of their explored world,” she said.
An essential aspect of these games is that the robots develop robust ideas of where a word should be used. Their understanding of the new language was tested using games in which two robots attempted to meet at a particular place name.
If one robot told the other “jaya”, they would independently navigate to where they thought “jaya” was. When both robots arrived at the same location, the concept “jaya” was consistent between the robots.
After having played hundreds of games to develop their language, the robots agreed upon concepts for toponyms within 0.65 metres, directions within 10 degrees and distances within 0.375 metres. The robots consist of a mobile platform which is fitted with a camera, laser range finder, sonar for mapping and obstacle avoidance, and a microphone and speakers for audible communication with each other, say the scientists.
“We believe that the natural way to communicate with robots will be through human language. The Lingodroids have developed their own proto-language as part of realising this ambition. In the future, our aim is to extend the types of concepts able to be formed by the robots, as well as expand to additional grammatical features of language and to human-robot interaction,” Dr Schulz said.
The findings have been presented at the International Conference on Robotics and Automation in Shanghai.
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"url": "https://www.deccanherald.com/content/164068/robots-can-talk-own-language.html"
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