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Sediment along the Queensland Coast
Sediment along the Queensland Coast
Sediment remained suspended in the waters off the Queensland coast of Australia in the wake of Tropical Cyclone Yasi. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this natural-color image on February 5, 2011.
Ocean water that would normally appear navy, instead sports shades of peacock blue. Nearer the coast, the water appears green, especially north of Townsville. The water nearest the shore has likely acquired its sediment load from river runoff, while water farther out to sea probably holds sediment churned up from the sea floor. The sediment is suspended around the Great Barrier Reef.
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"fasttext_score": 0.030700325965881348,
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"language_score": 0.8996483087539673,
"url": "https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/49156/sediment-along-the-queensland-coast"
}
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The Visible Sun
A broad-band image shows the Sun as we see it normally-a white or yellow featureless disk, called the photosphere or visible surface. A closer inspection of this telescopic image, however, reveals several dark spots, called sunspots. These appear darker then their surroundings because thay are considerably cooler (at 4,000 K that's about 8 times hoter then your oven) then the average tempetrature of the surrounding photosphere, 6,000 K. Thay generally occur in paips or groups. Sunspots are places were teh Sun's magnetic field emerges from below the photosphere. If we were to keep a daily record of the sunspot positions, we would descover that the Sun rotates from east to west(from left to right in the image) once every 27 days. in the next cuple of years, as the new sunspot cycle begins, spots will occur at latitudes and these spots will rotate at a slightly slower rate.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9589681625366211,
"url": "https://umbra.nascom.nasa.gov/yohkoh/about_Y/white.html"
}
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The Singapore Treaty was signed by Thomas Stamford Raffles, Sultan Hussein and Temenggong Abdu’r Rahman
6 February 1819: Raffles, Sultan Hussein and Temenggong Abdu’r Rahman sign the Singapore Treaty, marking the official founding of modern Singapore as a British settlement.
The Singapore Treaty of 1891 gave the British East India Company the right to have a trading post in Singapore. In return, Sultan Hussein would receive 5000 Spanish dollars the Temenggong would receive 3000 per year. To mark the occasion, the Union Jack was hoisted to mark the birth of modern Singapore as a British settlement.
Written in English on the left and Malay on the right, the Singapore Treaty was signed by Thomas Stamford Raffles, Sultan Hussein and Temenggong Abdu’r Rahman in front of Chinese planters, Malays, the Orang Laut, British officials and Malay dignitaries.
The British pledge to help the Sultan in the event of external attacks but agreed to avoid getting involved in internal affairs. The Sultan would in return agree to protect the East India Company against enemies. The National Library Board (NLB) writes that the Sultan and Temenggong also agreed that they would “not enter into any treaty with any other nation…nor admit or consent to the settlement in any part of their Dominions of any other power European or American”.
Whilst Singapore was recognised as a British colony after the treaty was signed, the Sultan and the Temenggong still retained a great deal of power in the land. NLB writes “[the Sultan] was also allowed to engage in practices such as debt bondage and slavery, which Raffles found morally unacceptable.”
Further agreements in June 1819 and October 1822 between the Sultan, Temenggong and Raffles attempted to reduce the influence of Malay authorities. The Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 1824 gave more power to the British, eventually replacing Singapore Treaty.
Thomas Stamford Raffles
Thomas Stamford Raffles was born on 6 July 1781 in a ship off the coast of Jamaica to a merchant captain father. Working as a clerk for the East India Company at age 14, Raffles was educated in science and languages. At age 25, Raffles was appointed Assistant Secretary to the government of Penang, an island in the Malacca Strait of Malaya.
Raffles was also appointed Lieutenant Governor of Java. However, he was eventually removed from his position in the East India Company after the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars.
When Raffles returned to England in 1817, he was knighted and created a Knight Bachelor by the Prince Regent. In an effort to reduce the Dutch dominance as a western regional power, Raffles convinced Lords Hastings, Governor General of India that Britain needed a fortified post in the east.
Raffles then headed east to pursue a British post. In late 1818, Raffles secured a British presence Malacca. After his success in Malaysia, Raffles was given permission to set up a settlement in Singapore, which was called Lion City at the time. The city seemed strategically advantageous for trade.
Raffles left the city on the day after the treaty was signed.
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"url": "http://www.weareresonate.com/2017/02/modern-singapore-founded-day-198-years-ago-singapore-treaty/"
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|
Skip to main content
Themes by Topic
Delaware Grade 8 2.4bL Students will be able to demonstrate an overall understanding of literary texts by identifying the story elements (e.g., characters, setting, and plot) and story structures (conflict, resolution, cause/effect).
2.4bL.7 Distinguish between main plot and multiple subplots
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"language_score": 0.8256065249443054,
"url": "https://ethemes.missouri.edu/topics/1122942?locale=en"
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Butterflys, Mirrors and Broken Legs
The famous "butterfly effect" of chaos theory posits that a butterfly flapping its wings in South America can impact the weather in Texas. But can a broken leg in Uruguay change teaching in Dublin NH?
A hallmark of history teacher Rodrigo Villaamil's teaching style is to use imagery as a primary classroom vehicle. He finds that it is often hard for students to understand abstract concepts defining significant social and economic change. He says, "These are often difficult to teach without concrete anchors..." Historical art serves as a useful device in both exploring the ideas of the past and serving as a memory trigger for students.
Arnolfini Portrait by Van Eyck
Asked for an example, Rodrigo points to the Renaissance, which is he covers extensively in World History II. Among the many changes that occurred at that time were the rise of capitalism, profit-seeking, individualism and rapid advances in scientific knowledge. As part of his class, the students spend time examining the iconic J. Van Eyck painting, the "Arnolfini Portrait."
The portrait has many hidden lessons that students can tease out. For instance, this work is one of the early paintings of a merchant. Before it, most artworks were either of religious subjects or the aristocracy. Instead, the subject of this painting is a member of what will later be termed the bourgeoisie. This is the beginning of wealth existing outside either the church or the feudal landowners. Moreover, the subject is from Italy, but the painting was commissioned and executed in Bruges, demonstrating the social impact of long-distance trade and the wealth that was able to accrue from trading what was scarce in one place but abundant in another.
Van Eyck in mirror
The painting also points to the emergence of individualism, both directly regarding it being a portrait, but also in another hidden way. On the back wall of the room behind the Arnolfini's, there is a small bullseye mirror. In it, there is the reflection of Van Eyck painting or surveying the scene. Above it on the wall is graffiti that reads - "Jan van Eyck was here 1434". The work displays not just the individualism of the patron but the artist as well.
While the painting is not primarily religious, it does contain religious themes in terms of showing the stations of the cross set in the frame of the mirror in the background. So it alludes to the continuing importance of religion but in an understated and secondary manner.
Finally, the rediscovery of perspective and a vanishing point coincides with the emerging consensus of astronomers and mathematicians of the possibility of infinity and infinite universe.
The use of this work in the classroom allows students to discover the change that was occurring during this culturally and economically revolutionary period.
But what about the broken leg?
In July 2009, Rodrigo received a call from a colleague in Uruguay who had broken her leg. She needed someone to substitute for her in teaching her history classes in Uruguay. At the time Rodrigo was primarily teaching Spanish language classes at Dublin. Since it was summer here, Rodrigo saw it as an opportunity to return home, teach his great passion and help a friend.
Since Rodrigo was not teaching a full schedule in Uruguay, he had time to wander into other classrooms and watch others teach. He visited a class where the teacher was teaching art as a systematic vehicle for studying history. This approach instantly clicked with Rodrigo. As part of his teaching education, Rodrigo had spent two years learning art history from Professor Hector Balsas (Instituto de Profesores Antigas) who argued that while "most of you will never teach art history, I will give you the tools to integrate art into the classroom." He saw the potential of this new approach and decided instantly that he would integrate art into his teaching when he returned to Dublin.
And the rest, as they say, is history.
Dublin School
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"url": "https://www.dublinschool.org/consolidated-blog/2017/10/6/butterflys-mirrors-and-broken-legs"
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Petrarch (Francesco Petrarcha)
Petrarch (Francesco Petrarcha)
Petrarch regarded his own era as an age of decadence and darkness. He yearned for a better future and turned to the study of classical antiquity for consolation and intellectual enlightenment. His enthusiasm for antiquity and his Latin writings made him the central figure in the classical revival that began in 14th-century Italy and laid the foundation for Renaissance humanism.
Petrarch’s humanism was a blend of the ethical teachings of pagan writers and the moral and spiritual works of the church fathers. He was crowned poet laureate in Rome in 1341 for his achievements in Latin literature. His vernacular poems, often expressed in sonnets, also won him acclaim and were emulated by other poets.
Petrarch was born in Arezzo, Italy, on July 20, 1304, to parents exiled from Florence for political reasons. The family moved to Carpentras near Avignon, the seat of the papacy, where his father was employed in the papal curia. In his early years, Petrarch was educated in Latin grammar and rhetoric and in touch with the cultural life of Avignon.
He studied law at Montpellier and Bologna but rejected law after his father’s death. Petrarch turned to his true interests, the literature of classical antiquity and patristic Christianity. Peripatetic by nature, he traveled extensively in Europe but often returned to Avignon and nearby Vaucluse.
While on these excursions, he recovered several of Cicero’s orations and a number of his letters. A visit to Rome and its ruins energized his interest in the revival of antiquity and he envisioned Rome as the cultural and spiritual center of a renewed Italy. He expressed these thoughts in his vernacular poem, Italia mia.
Petrarch statue
Petrarch statue
As Petrarch gained in stature from his writings and his study of antiquity, he was welcomed by secular and religious leaders and was sustained by their patronage. He left Avignon and Vaucluse in 1353 and resided for several years at Milan before moving on to Venice and Padua. He died and was buried in 1374 in Arqua, a village south of Padua.
Petrarch’s Latin works deal with a number of themes pertinent to an understanding of the nature of his humanism. His epic poem, Africa, narrates the victory of Scipio Africanus over Hannibal.
De viris illustribus is a study of famous men. Secretum consists of three imaginary dialogues between Petrarch and Saint Augustine. They demonstrate Petrarch’s struggle to maintain a balance between his temporal and spiritual interests.
De otio religioso justifies monastic solitude and De vita solitaria defends a life of contemplation for the scholar. Many of his letters to contemporaries as well as those to Livy and his autobiographical Letter to Posterity express his discontent with his own age. Petrarch’s vernacular works have outlasted those in Latin.
His Canzoniere, a collection of 366 poems, mainly sonnets, focus on his unrequited love for Laura, a woman he met in Avignon whose allure haunted him throughout his life. In Trionfi, figures from legend and history encounter the allegorical forms of Love, Chastity, Death, Fame, Time, and Eternity.
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"url": "http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/petrarch-francesco-petrarcha.html"
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methanal (HCHO)
Methanal (HCHO) is a colorless, acidic, toxic gas, also known as formaldehyde. Methanal is the simplest and most reactive of the aldehydes, and the aldehyde derivative of formic acid. It was discovered in 1867 by Augustus von Hofmann.
Methanal is made by catalytic air oxidation of methanol vapor or of natural gas. Methanal gas is unstable and is usually stored as its aqueous solution (35–40% methanal), formalin, which is used as a disinfectant and preservative for biological specimens; on keeping, formalin deposits a polymer, polyoxymethylene (paraformaldehyde), which regenerates methanal on heating.
Methanal is condensed with urea and phenols to make plastics, with ammonia to give hexamethylenetetramine (a urinary antiseptic also used to make RDX), and with ethanal (acetaldehyde) to give penaerithrytol and hence PETN. It is also used in tanning and textile manufacture.
relative molecular mass 30.0
density relative to water 0.82 (at -20°C)
melting point -92°C (-133.6°F)
boiling point -19°C (-2.2°F)
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"fasttext_score": 0.13627910614013672,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9092414975166321,
"url": "http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/M/methanal.html"
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Froebel and the Kidnergarten Movement
Updated on August 11, 2014
Friedrich Froebel was born in 1782 in Oberweissbach, Germany. His mother passed away when he was still an infant, and as a result, he was a profoundly unhappy child. Froebel developed a love and respect for nature, gardens and forests that continued throughout his lifetime. He possessed a natural interest in learning and read numerous books on a wide array of subjects. Each of these experiences inspired his future views of education and children. Froebel during his younger years, accepted a teaching position at the Frankfurt Model School. The Frankfurt Model School was founded on the teachings of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, a well-recognized educator of the day. His strategy incorporated the notion that children need to be active learners.
Froebel utilized his "hands-on learning" technique when he left the school to be a private tutor. The parents of the children he tutored provided Froebel a simple area of their property to use as a garden. The learning experiences with the children in the garden convinced Froebel that activity and direct observance were the ideal ways to educate. In 1837 Friedrich Froebel created his own school and called it "kindergarten," or the children's garden. Prior to Froebel's kindergarten, children under the age of 7 did not participate in school. It was considered that young children did not have the capability to focus or to develop cognitive and emotional capabilities prior to this age. Froebel described his method to education as "self-activity." This concept enables the child to follow his own interests and to openly discover them. The teacher's purpose, was to assist as opposed to lecture.
Froebel’s kindergarten applied free play, games, songs, stories, and crafts to encourage creativity along with developing motor skills. The kindergarten method was created to fulfill children’s requirements for physical activity, sensory recognition, creative expression, and the exploration of ideas and principles. His educational technique was for “self-activity,” the concept that encouraged the child to freely explore. Froebel designed toys for creative play that he labeled “gifts” and “occupations.” Gifts were items which were secured in form, such as blocks and balls. Children’s symbolic play with blocks offered a less unrestricted play experience than the complex, decorated toys that children typically played with. He imagined that the Gifts could show children to use their surroundings as an educational aid and that they would see the association between human life and life in nature. Occupations were items that children could shape and control freely utilizing their own imagination, such as clay, sand, beads, and rope. Froebel's educational approach is concerned with the child's total growth. It starts out with what a child can naturally do and utilizes this know-how as a starting point to improve the child physically and links it with the child's surroundings building it slowly over time. The child learns best by using their senses and through play.
Learning humanities in this playful method will ultimately result in a deeper comprehension of their world. "Realizing how the gifts were eventually misused by Kindergarten teachers who followed after Froebel, it is important to consider what Froebel expected the Gifts to achieve. He envisaged that the Gifts will teach the child to use his environment as an educational aid; secondly, that they will give the child an indication of the connection between human life and life in nature; and finally that they will create a bond between the adult and the child who play with them" (Liebschner, 2002, p.82) To support children in their development of shifting from one plane of educational progress to another, Froebel supplied the children with many challenging activities to encourage their creative abilities and skills. Froebel created a series of educational materials that he called "gifts and occupations", which displayed particular interactions and led children to creative exploration activities (Watson, 1997b). A gift was an object provided for a child to play with--such as a sphere, cube, or cylinder--which assisted the child to discover and internalize the principles of shape, dimension, size, and their relationships (Staff, 1998). The occupations were items such as paints and clay which the children could utilize to create whatever they desired; through the occupations, children externalized the concepts existing within their creative minds (Staff, 1998). Subsequently, through the child’s own self-activity and creative imaginative play, the child would start to comprehend both the inner and outer components of things.
Froebel did not think that children should be put into society’s mold, but ought to be encouraged to shape their own mold and grow at their own pace through the developmental stages of the educational process. Corbett (1998) upholds Froebel’s principles that a child should never be rushed in their development; they ought to be involved in all of the experiences each stage involves and assisted to see the relationships of things and ideas to each other so that they can make sense out of both their subjective and objective worlds. Corbett further believes that development is constant, with one stage developing upon another, so that nothing should be lost through hurry or for any other reason as the child proceeds through the educational process. Responsible educators need to make an effort to acknowledge every child's unique level of development to ensure that vital materials and experiences stimulate suitable educational progress. Froebel's vision was to encourage an appreciation and love for children and to offer a unique yet small world--a world that grew to be known as the Kindergarten--where children could play with others their own age, and experience independence. Watson further adds that this early educational vision set the basis for the structure of Froebel's vision of education which is encompassed by four primary elements of free self-activity, creativity, social participation, and motor expression.
For Froebel, play assisted in children's process of socialization. By playing, children interact socially and mimic adult social and economic activities as they are slowly driven into the larger world of group life. The kindergarten supplied a surrounding that motivated children to connect with each other under the direction of a nurturing teacher. Most importantly, Froebel's Theory of education is one of freedom and creativity. Additionally, a child cannot be forced to learn, they need to be guided. Through play and self-discovery a child will learn when they are ready. Froebel's Theory combines the teacher, child, parents and the community. Froebel's system influenced and advised the work of Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, and many others, who followed his concepts and used his materials in accordance to their own work. Before Friedrich Froebel, young children did not receive an education. Froebel was the first to acknowledge that substantial brain development takes place between birth and age 3. His approach brings together an awareness of human structure as well as the understanding that individuals, are innovative and creative beings. Once early childhood education came to be universally followed, it was the starting point for the many advancements that have followed.
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Tectonic Plate Boundaries By: Jazmin Gonzalez
Divergent Boundaries
The divergent boundary is also known as the constructive boundary
It is a linear feature that goes between 2 tectonic plates that are moving the opposite direction from each other
The stress that happens in the divergent boundary is when the plates move away from each other
Convergent Boundary
Convergent boundary is also known as the destructive plate boundary
The plates are moving towards each other and colide
Andes Mountain Range of western South America is an example of a convergent boundary
Transform Boundary
The plates aren't destructive so they move horizontal from each other
The stress on a transform boundary is they move right past each other
As the plates move past these form strong earthquakes
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Solar Energy Lab Report
Solar Energy Lab Report
By: Jenzel, Carrie, and Emily
Abstract (Carrie)
For this project, the group created a 31-solar cell line by soldering each cell together through wires. The highest DC voltage obtained in direct sunlight was 12.34 volts, and the lowest DC voltage obtained was indoors without a flashlight, giving off 4.37 volts at most.
Introduction (Jenzel)
When there is a sunny day, the sun shines almost 1000 watts of power per square meter on
the entire planet. So, if we can get all that energy, we can power up the entire planet for no cost at all! Although it is a great alternative to fuel, the question that is being looked into is…how does solar energy work?
Inside a solar panel are photovoltaic cells (photo = light, voltaic = electricity), made from a semiconductor type of material called silicon (Si). A semiconductor has an N-type and a P-type of its element in it. The silicon atom’s valence (or outer) shell is filled with 4 of 8 electrons, so it needs 4 more to be neutral. When sunlight strikes on the solar panel, some electrons are knocked off its bonds, making them move around freely (free carriers). Photovoltaic cells also have either one or more magnetic fields that force the free carriers to move in one direction (called a current). Once wired up to a load (the object that needs to be powered up), the electrons pass through the wire and power up the object.
In order to make the solar panel more efficient, solar panels are doped (adding impurities to an atom) with boron or phosphorous. Silicon mixed with phosphorous take less energy for their electrons to break loose from them because some of the extra phosphorous atoms are not in a bond, and the other atoms beside it aren’t holding it together. So, more than normal electrons break free in that silicon, the silicon becomes N-type. If pure silicon was used, it wouldn’t work as well because N-type silicon is a better conductor.
The P-type silicon is doped with boron, an element that only has 3 electrons in its valence shell. This means that it has more holes, a place where there are no electrons, and they move the same way electrons do. When N-type silicon and P-type silicon are placed next to each other, the electrons in the N-type rush over to the P-type silicon so that it can balance out the charges.
Since the electrons, the N-type silicon becomes positive. So, the electrons try to go back to the N-type where there are holes, but the electric field (made when they crossed to the P-type silicon) prevents them from returning, and now they are stuck. The only way that they can get back is through an external path (wires). The wires are connected to the load, and as the electrons pass through it, it powers up the load with electricity. Once it gets back to the N-type silicon, the P-type is unbalanced again, so they cross to the other silicon and then go back through the wire. This continuous cycle creates consistent electricity, powering up the load with the necessary electricity that it needs to work.
For our project, our final design consists of a line of solar cells, soldered and held together by wires. Our hypothesis for this project is that with a 31-solar cell line, it will be able to create at least 10 volts, hopefully more. Since every solar cell will be hit by sunlight, we will be able to get much more voltage than before, which is why we think that it is a good design. We also believe that it might actually get the mixer to work because with a high voltage, it will be able to power up the mixer.
Parts of a Solar Panel
A. Cover Glass
B. Anti-Reflective Coating
C. Contact Grid
D. N-Type Silicon
E. P-Type Silicon
F. Back Contact
Materials and Methods (Carrie)
- Broken solar paneling
- Sunlight
- Styrofoam
- Multimeter
- Soldering Iron
- Wires
- Metal Meltable Wire
1. Solder broken pieces of solar paneling together (the amount used is up to you)
2. Scratch the ribbon wire (the white line on solar paneling) to ease soldering
3. Lay the pieces on Styrofoam for easy and stable soldering, solder in an over-under effect to receive both negative and positive charges from solar cells
4. Make sure to have enough wire on the ends of the panel pieces, to make it easier when connecting to a load
5. Take cells into a source of light (preferably sunlight), and check voltage every now and then until it stabilizes (check every 5-10 mins)
6. Record data in a table, telling how many solar cells were used, and how much DC voltage was produced
Results (Emily)
Using a Flashlight Indoors
Solar Cells Voltage Produced (DC)
2 .762
6 1.308
10 2.022
13 2.669
18 4.10
26 5.10
30 6.36
Without a Flashlight Indoors
Solar Cells Voltage Produced (DC)
1 .10
5 .73
10 1.37
15 2.23
20 2.93
25 3.63
30 4.37
Outside, 2:51 PM
Solar Cells Voltage Produced (DC)
1 .36
5 1.95
10 3.79
15 5.45
20 7.08
25 9.43
30 12.34
Best Results (30 Cells): 12.34 Volts, outside in the sunlight
Worst Results (30 Cells): 4.37 Volts, nighttime and no extra light but the two overhead lights
Conditions were the same for the other test indoors, but a flashlight was used. Using lots of lighting simulated what it would be like during the day. Leaving the solar panels in any source of light made the results more accurate because the voltage stabilized. The 31-solar cell line also lit up an LED indoors with a flashlight. All the solar cells used are different sizes and that affects their voltage. Bigger solar cells cover more area and so more sunlight hits
Conclusions (Jenzel)
Well, when it was tested, it actually ended up getting around 12.5 volts with sunlight, which was a pretty good voltage for us. We only tried to go for 6 volts, and it actually doubled with our new final design that Emily was able to produce. It ended up powering up the LED, but for some reason, it couldn’t power up the incandescent bulb, the motor, and the hot plate. From the hypothesis that we made, it is partly true. We did end up getting more than 10 volts during testing, but it wasn’t able to power up the mixer. So, we were half right on our hypothesis.
Maybe, if we end up getting to redo this project and having more time, we’d probably try to get more solar cells in order to increase the voltage even more. That would probably be able to power up the mixer/hot plate once we get to a certain voltage. Also, our final design didn’t look really neat, so maybe if we found some way to make it look better, that would make it seem more professional.
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The Science of Oil Drilling
The skill of oil drilling is a relatively complicated scientific process. In layman’s terms, crude oil is extracted from oil wells. This oil is then sent to refineries where it is turned into gasoline, heating oil, kerosene and other products.
Formed between 10 million and 600 million years ago, oil is the remains of tiny plankton animals and plants that perished in the ocean. Once these small organisms died, they then descended deep into the sand on the bottom of the ocean. Over millions of years, these organisms decayed, which formed sedimentary layers. Oxygen was rarely present in these layers, which caused the decay to form an organic material or fine-grained shale. Over the years additional layers were deposited and intense pressured, combined with heat, distilled these organic materials into the natural resources we know as natural gas and crude oil.
Geologists are generally responsible for locating natural gas deposits. They analyze the earth’s formation and sedimentary makeup to determine areas that had ideal conditions to produce oil traps. Scientists use several methods to unearth potential natural gas deposits, including examining terrain, surface rocks and satellite images. Once potential deposits are mapped, seismic surveys are untaken to determine if waves reflect through or back to the surface. These shock waves can be measured using compressed-air guns, thumper trucks and even explosives. These waves travel at different speeds depending upon the rock’s density, which allows scientists to determine if gas or oil is trapped below surfaces.
Bureaucratic paperwork is abundant, but once red tape is cleared, the oil drilling preparation process begins. First, the land must be cleared and an appropriate roadway built. Ensuring the area has an adequate water source nearby follows this. If not, a deep well must be drilled. The oil crew then digs a large reserve pit, which helps to dispose of drilling mud and rock cuttings during the complicated drilling process. This hole is lined with plastic to protect the earth’s sensitive environment.
An oilrig is then built on site. This complicated system features large diesel engines, electric generators, a mechanical system, hoisting system, turntable, rotating equipment, swivel, kelly, rotary table, drill string, drill bits, casing, circulation system, pumps, pipes, hoses, mud-return line, shale shaker, shale slide, reserve pit, mud pit, mud-mixing hopper, derrick and a blowout preventer.
Once the oil is extracted, tests are performed to confirm the oil’s quality and flow. Once the oilrig is removed, a pump is placed on the wellhead. This helps create a suction that ultimately brings the oil to the surface. This unprocessed oil is known as crude oil. To process this oil into a product that is commonly used, such as petroleum gas, gasoline, lubricating oil, etc., the oil must undergo a refining process. Oil refining is simply the process of extracting and separating hydrocarbon chains by distillation. Different chains are extracted at different temperatures, which is why so many different types of products are derived from crude oil.
Mine Loans offers oil well funding, natural gas loans and mine funding.
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Mine Funding Blog offers prospectors gold mine loans. While many requirements must be met, including geological reports, executive business plans, permits, claims and financial information, also requires assay reports. Assay reports are specific to the raw mineral industry and they are an analysis of alloy, ore or metals. Different assay methods are used depending upon the […]
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Ecnomus (256 BCE)
Battle of Ecnomus (256 BCE): naval battle in the First Punic War, in which the navy of the unexperienced Romans unexpectedly defeated the well-trained navy of the Carthaginians. This was one of the largest battles in ancient history.
In 256, the Romans sent a fleet of no less than 330 ships from Sicily to Africa, where the army aboard was supposed to strike at the Carthaginian homeland. Before crossing the Mediterranean, it encountered a Carthaginian navy of 350 ships, not far from modern Licata, at Ecnomus, an early third-century city founded by refugees from Gela.
The fight at Ecnomus was to be one of the greatest battles in history, because both sides sent more than 140,000 men to the front. We can be confident about these figures because they are based on crew numbers. The Romans won the battle, and could continue to Africa, where they were eventually defeated.
The story is told by Polybius of Megalopolis in his History of the World 1.25.5-29.1, which is offered here in the translation by W. R. Paton, and was taken from LacusCurtius.
Strategic Objectives
Both sides thought that they fought now on equal terms, and both threw themselves most thoroughly into the task of organizing naval forces and disputing the command of the sea, while in the meantime the land forces accomplished nothing worthy of mention, but spent their time in minor operations of no significance.
The Romans, therefore, after making preparations as I said, for the coming summer, set to sea with a fleet of 330 decked ships of war and put in to Messana.note Starting again from there they sailed with Sicily on their right hand, and doubling Cape Pachynus they came round to Ecnomus, because their land forces too happened to be just in that neighborhood. The Carthaginians, setting sail with 350 decked vessels, touched at Lilybaeum,note and proceeding thence came to anchor off Heraclea Minoa.
Tactical Preparations
Battle of Ecnomus, first stage
About the same time the Carthaginian commanders briefly addressed their forces. They pointed out to them that in the event of victory in the battle they would be fighting afterwards for Sicily, but that if defeated they would have to fight for their own country and their homes, and bade them take this to heart and embark. When all readily did as they were ordered, as their general's words had made clear to them the issues at stake, they set to sea in a confident and menacing spirit. The commanders, when they saw the enemy's order, adapted their own to it. Three-quarters of their force they drew up in a single line, extending their right wing to the open sea for the purpose of encircling the enemy and with all their ships facing the Romans. The remaining quarter of their force formed the left wing of their whole line, and reached shoreward at angle with the rest.
Battle of Ecnomus, second stage
Model of the "raven"
At one and the same time Hanno with the right wing, which had held its distance in the first attack, sailed across the open sea and fell upon the ships of the triarii, causing them great embarrassment and distress. Meanwhile that part of the Carthaginian force which was posted near the shore, changing their former formation and deploying into line with their prows facing the enemy, attacked the vessels which were towing the horse-transports. Letting go their tow-lines this squadron met and engaged the enemy. Thus the whole conflict consisted of three parts, and three sea-battles were going on at a wide distance from each other.
As the respective forces were in each case of equal strength owing to their disposition at the outset, the battle also was fought on equal terms. However, in each case things fell out as one would expect, when the forces engaged are so equally matched. Those who had commenced the battle were the first to be separated, for Hamilcar's division was finally forced back and took to flight.
The battle of Ecnomus, third stage
Lucius [Manlius] was now occupied in taking the prizes in tow, and Marcus [Atilius Regulus], observing the struggle in which the triarii and horse-transports were involved, hastened to their assistance with such of the ships of the second squadron as were undamaged. When he reached Hanno's division and came into conflict with it, the triarii at once took heart, though they had had much the worst of it, and recovered their fighting spirit.
The Carthaginians, attacked both in front and in the rear, were in difficulties, finding themselves surrounded, to their surprise, by the relieving force, and giving way, they began to retreat out to sea. Meanwhile both Lucius [Manlius], who was by this time sailing up and observed that the third squadron was shut in close to the shore by the Carthaginian left wing, and Marcus [Atilius Regulus], who had now left the horse-transports and triarii in safety, hastened together to the relief of this force which was in grave peril; for the state of matters now was just like a siege, and they all would evidently have been lost if the Carthaginians had not been afraid of the ravens and simply hedged them in and held them close to the land instead of charging, apprehensive as they were of coming to close quarters.
The consuls, coming up rapidly and surrounding the Carthaginians, captured 50 ships with their crews, a few managing to slip out along shore and escape. The separate encounters fell out as I have described, and the final result of the whole battle was in favor of the Romans. The latter lost 24 sail sunk and the Carthaginians more than 30. Not a single Roman ship with its crew fell into the enemy's hands, but 64 Carthaginian ships were so captured.
This page was created in 2004; last modified on 10 June 2017.
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A Little About Methods And Algorithms
To solve the Rubik's Cube , cubers use methods. There are many different ones, but each method consists of steps. In those steps, cubers solve part of the cube, so that in the end the cube is solved.
In order to solve part of the cube in each step, cubers turn the sides certain ways, changing something. This is called an algorithm. Cubers learn algorithms, "alg(s)" for short, to complete different steps.
Methods and algorithms don't just come out of thin air. Cubers have to discover them. When cubers discover new algorithms, they have to test a lot. They have to try different moves to see what they do. Sometimes it takes a long time to discover algorithms, other times it doesn't.
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What is a lever?
• A lever is one type of simple machine that allows energy to be used in the most advantageous way. Levers can change the 1) direction of the applied force, 2) distance and speed of movement produced by an applied force, 3) effective strength of the applied force.
• A lever is a rigid bar with three parts: the fixed point around which the bar pivots is the fulcrum; the effort arm (in-lever arm) is the part of the lever to which force is applied; the resistance arm (out-lever arm) is the part that bears the load to be moved.
• The effort, or in-force, is applied to the effort arm (in-lever); it is the force put into the machine to move the load.
• The out-force is the force the lever uses to move the load, AFTER the effort force has overcome the resistance of the load (weight). The resistance arm (out-lever) bears the load, so the out-force is produced on this end of the lever to move the load.
• The effort applied to the lever (in-force) must overcome the resistance that the load exerts on the lever (the weight of the load or the force of gravity), in order to produce movement of the load (out-force).
• Mechanical advantage (MA) is simply the ratio of the resistance force to the effort force (MA=Force of resistance/force of effort). *Note: force of resistance is NOT the out-force. To increase the MA, move the fulcrum closer to the load so that you shorten the resistance arm and lengthen the effort arm; this allows you to put the same or less force into the system to move more resistance. By lengthening the effort arm, you are reducing the ratio of the resistance arm to the effort arm (Velocity Ratio), and increasing the ratio of the resistance force to the effort force. The higher the MA, the greater the power of the lever.
• Velocity ratio (VR) is the ratio of the lengths of out-lever to in-lever (length of resistance arm/effort arm). To increase the velocity ratio that the load is moved, increase the resistance arm by moving the fulcrum closer to the effort. The higher the VR, the greater the speed of the lever.
• There are 3 orders of levers that differ only in the relative position of the fulcrum, effort arm, and resistance arm.
1st Order
2nd Order
3rd Order
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How Cerebral Palsy Is Diagnosed
Show Article Table of Contents
cerebral palsy diagnosis
© Verywell, 2018
Self Checks
Labs and Tests
Clinical History and Physical Examination.
An evaluation of a child’s abilities using a detailed neurological exam is between 90-98 percent accurate in diagnosing cerebral palsy. A few other methods of testing a child’s abilities include the Prechtl Qualitative Assessment of General Movements and the Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination, both of which systematically assess and score a child’s physical and cognitive abilities on a scale.
Blood Tests
Blood tests are not expected to show abnormalities in cerebral palsy. Metabolic syndromes that are characterized by symptoms similar to those of cerebral palsy are expected to show blood test abnormalities, which can help in differentiating the conditions. A blood test may also be considered if a child with symptoms of cerebral palsy has symptoms of an illness, organ failure or an infection.
Genetic Tests
Genetic tests may help in identifying genetic abnormalities associated with cerebral palsy. Cerebral palsy is only rarely associated with verifiable genetic defects, and the greater value of genetic testing lies in the diagnosis of other conditions that are clinically similar to cerebral palsy and that have known genetic patterns.
Electroencephalogram EEG
Nerve Conduction Studies (NCV) and Electromyography (EMG)
Brain CT
Brain MRI
A brain MRI is a more detailed imaging study of the brain than a CT scan. The presence of some types of malformations, as well as abnormalities suggestive of prior ischemic injuries (lack of blood flow) to the white or gray matter of the brain, may support the diagnosis of cerebral palsy. Evidence of active inflammation may point to other conditions such as cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy.
Differential Diagnosis
Shaken Baby Syndrome
A condition caused by repeated trauma—shaken baby syndrome—can affect young children of all ages, and is more common in older babies than in newborns. Shaken baby syndrome is characterized by skull fractures, hemorrhage (bleeding) in the brain, and often trauma to other areas of the body.
Depending on when the trauma begins, shaken baby syndrome can result in a loss of cognitive skills that have already begun to emerge, while cerebral palsy is characterized by lack of emerging skills.
Rett Syndrome
A rare condition that affects girls, Rett syndrome may cause lack of motor control and cognitive deficits. The biggest differences between the conditions are that children with Rett syndrome develop normally for 6 to 12 months, and then show a decline in function, while children with cerebral palsy do not attain developmental milestones.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
A complicated disorder with symptoms that can manifest as cognitive and behavioral deficits, some children on the autism spectrum can display motor or speech deficits with characteristics that may be mistaken for cerebral palsy or the other way around.
Metabolic Syndromes
Conditions that interfere with metabolism or with protein production such as Tay Sacks disease, Noonan Syndrome, Lesch-Nyan syndrome, and Neimann-Pick disease can all have features of motor weakness and cognitive deficits that may be mistaken for cerebral palsy—and cerebral palsy can be mistaken for these conditions.
• Infectious: Infectious encephalitis is characterized by rapid onset, and as evidence of infection and inflammation on blood tests, brain CT, brain MRI or in lumbar fluid.
• Inflammatory: Inflammatory encephalitis may be serious despite the lack of an infectious cause. There may be associated fevers and usually blood tests, brain CT, brain MRI and lumbar fluid show evidence of inflammation.
Spinal Muscular Atrophy
A disorder that can begin during infancy, childhood, or adulthood, the form of spinal muscular atrophy that begins during infancy can be devastating, causing paralysis or near paralysis. The motor weakness of early onset spinal muscular atrophy, also often referred to as SMA type 0, is more debilitating than that of cerebral palsy. The illness is expected to rapidly progress to a fatal outcome, which is not typical with cerebral palsy.
Cerebral Adrenoleukodystrophy
A rare disorder characterized by visual deficits and cognitive decline, cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy predominantly affects boys. The key differences between adrenoleukodystrophy and cerebral palsy are that children with cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy have white matter abnormalities on their brain MRI and the condition causes a decline in cognitive and motor function, not a lack of development of skills as in cerebral palsy.
Muscular Dystrophy
How Cerebral Palsy Is Treated
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Oral hygiene is important for teeth and gum health but despite our best efforts, the enamel still suffers wear and tear. A new study found that no matter a person’s diet, the act of chewing food wears teeth down at the nanoscale.
chewing highland beauty
A chewing highland beauty. Credit: Pixabay.
Peter Ungar, an anthropologist, and Ryan Tian, associate professor of inorganic chemistry, both at the University of Arkansas, worked with Chinese colleagues at the Southwest Jiaotong University in Chengdu to study the different kinds of wear on the nanostructures that make up tooth enamel.
Enamel is the outer layer of each tooth and is the hardest, most highly mineralized substance in the human body. It’s made of ribbon-like strings of nanoparticles called hydroxyapatite crystallites, which are stacked on top of each other and glued together by proteins. Enamel is actually translucent, so you can see right through it. Dentin, the bulk material of any tooth, is what’s responsible for tooth color — whether white, grey, or yellowed.
Using high power microscopes, researchers imaged the surface of human molars as they applied pressure using tips made of different kinds of materials. This simulated the pressure created on enamel when crushing food. They also moved the tip across the surface of the molars, simulating the action of teeth moving against each other when eating.
Researchers found that scratching damaged molars more than indentation. In other words, blunt force was less damaging than sharp objects scraping against teeth, i.e. chewing. There was visible damage in both cases, nevertheless.
Three kinds of defects on the surface of enamel were reported — plucking, deformation, and fragmentation.
Nanoscale crystallites that make up tooth enamel before and after researchers applied pressure. Credit: University of Arkansas.
Plucking happened when the crystallites were separated from each other. When the force was increased, deformation occurred which represents the bending and squeezing of crystallites. Applying even more pressure caused the chemical bonds holding the crystallites together to break, resulting in fragmentation.
“Hydroxyapatite crystallites are the fundamental units of enamel, each less than 1/1000th the thickness of a human hair,” said Ungar. “Most research on tooth wear to date has focused on effects at much larger scales, but we have to study enamel at this finer level to truly understand the nature of how the hardest tissue in our bodies resists wear and tear.”
Understanding how chewing damages teeth at a fundamental level is important not only for clinical dentistry but also for seemingly unrelated fields like evolutionary biology. This basic understanding could help some scientists spot new clues from archaeological remains.
“The findings in the surface tribological chemistry can help us understand the nature of the interfacial chemical bonding between the nanoparticles that Mother Nature uses to make biominerals of all types on demand,” said Tian.
Scientific reference: Enamel crystallite strength and wear: Nanoscale responses of teeth to chewing loadsJournal of the Royal Society Interface (2017).
Estimate my solar savings!
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Sundarban Physiography
The mangrove-dominated Ganges Delta – the Sundarbans – is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world. Situated mostly in Bangladesh, a small portion of it lies in India. The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 19 percent, while the Bangladeshi part is 81 percent. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 square kilometres (6,400 sq mi). Now it has dwindled into about 1/3 of the original size. The total land area today is 4,143 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi), including exposed sandbars with a total area of 42 square kilometres (16 sq mi); the remaining water area of 1,874 square kilometres (724 sq mi) encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal.
The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans’ floor varies from 0.9 to 2.11 metres (3.0 to 6.9 ft) above sea level.
Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution, and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed which include beaches, estuaries, permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, tidal creeks, coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays a significant role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes is controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants. Creepers, grasses and sedges stabilise sand dunes and uncompacted sediments. The Sunderbans mudflats (Banerjee, 1998) are found at the estuary and on the deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The tides are so large that approximately one third of the land disappears and reappears every day. The interior parts of the mudflats serve as a perfect home for mangroves.
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Sense of taste
The tongue is the organ of taste. In order to taste something you must actually put it in your mouth. In addition, the substance must be dissolved in water or saliva, as you can only taste liquids or soluble solids.
The observation of taste is made up of two components, the actual taste of something and its smell. When something is in your mouth, its smell enters your nose. When you put something in your mouth, its smell can change as new scent particles are released. Actual taste is limited to four possibilities: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. If you hold your nose and put something in your mouth, you will only be able to distinguish these four tastes. There would be no olfactory observations. If you couldn't smell, all jams would taste the same: sugary and sweet. The four tastes are perceived by the tongue which has four zones, one for each taste (see figure 6). The sweet zone is on the tip of your tongue, so you will perceive this taste first. The receptors for sour and salty are on the sides of the tongue, and bitter is tasted at the back edge of the tongue. You cannot bear very strong tastes: with the exception of sweet, too much of any taste quickly becomes an unpleasant experience.
Children have the greatest difficulty learning to appreciate bitter foods, as bitterness is quickest to taste bad . Even as adults, we can tolerate only a little bitterness. Sour things are often perceived as being refreshing, while salt is rarely perceived but draws out the full palate of tastes. For example, an unsalted boiled egg has little taste, but once you sprinkle some salt on it, it tastes just like an egg should.
Our judgment of food, and whether or not it is healthy, is determined in part by taste. You can taste whether something is good for you or not, and you also know very well if you are taking that extra bite because you're still hungry or because you don't want to offend the cook. You can strengthen your emotive judgment by focusing your attention on how something tastes.
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The locations of the taste buds on the tongue
Taste different foods, first while you are holding your nose and then without holding your nose. What observations can you make?
Make liquid solutions for each of the tastes sweet, sour, salty and bitter. You can make a bitter solution by steeping used coffee grounds in water. Brush each taste in turn on different parts of someone's tongue. Do not let the subject know which taste is being brushed onto the tongue. Ask the subject to describe his observations, and what he tastes.
Hold your nose and close your eyes, and ask someone to put something in your mouth. Do not move your tongue. Try to find out what it is. First, only rely on your sense of taste. Then feel it by rolling it around in your mouth. Then stop holding your nose so you can smell. Describe the differences in your observations. At what point could you guess what was in your mouth?
© Heirs Tom van Gelder - Stichting AntroVista
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Sealer and Asbestos Exposure
Sealers were simple and standby products commonly used in most parts of building construction and equipment manufacturing. Sealants did an excellent job of blending seams, patching holes and covering up mistakes in the installation of primary products.
Many times, tradespeople took the view that close enough was good enough and finished joints with gobs of sealer. Although the building and manufacturing industries depended on sealants for a wide range of tasks, many end-users had no idea how dangerous sealants could be. That’s because, before the 1980s, almost every type of sealer on the American market contained harmful quantities of asbestos fibers.
Most sealants were semi-solid materials like caulking and adhesives. Malleability was the key to good sealers so they could be squeezed out or scooped from containers then beaded along cracks and porous surfaces. Workers applied sealants in all kinds of conditions. They placed sealers in high heat applications like chimneys and boilers. Sealants were spread on damp surfaces like water pipes and containers as well as on roofs and exterior walls. Sealers also helped insulate building products, stopped electrical contact and, most importantly, prevented fires.
That was a lot to ask from semi-liquid construction product. But almost every sealer seemed to be improved by adding asbestos fibers into the mix. From the early 1900s to the later twentieth century, most sealers on the American market contained asbestos particles. Asbestos was widely available, easy to manipulate and exceptionally cost-effective. And sealers with asbestos materials as an ingredient were stable. Asbestos fibers didn’t chemically react with other materials.
Asbestos Fibers in Sealers
Another significant advantage to adding asbestos materials in sealers was making the products pliable. Sealers needed the flexibility to do their job and asbestos was an excellent additive for enhancing sealant pliability. Many industrial sealants contained between 10 and 50 percent asbestos fibers. Content amounts depended on what purpose the sealer had. It also depended on what type of asbestos fiber the manufacturer blended into their sealant product.
The sealer industry primarily used two different types of asbestos fibers. Chrysotile asbestos was the most common additive. It was also called “white asbestos” due to its natural mineral color.
Chrysotile asbestos was commonly available and used in low-stress sealer applications like:
• Residential, commercial and industrial building construction.
• Automotive, aircraft and railroad equipment manufacturing.
• Medical supplies and hospital settings.
• Electrical components.
• Household goods.
Chrysotile asbestos was also known as “good asbestos.” That’s because the health hazards from the other type of asbestos fibers used in sealant manufacturing were well-known. Amphibole asbestos belonged to a different classification of crystalline asbestos minerals than chrysotile. Amphibole colors ranged from blue, green and brown. High heat and pressure resistance were the main benefit sealant makers got from blending amphibole fibers into sealants.
Amphibole asbestos was useful for:
Exposure to Asbestos Fibers in Sealants
Sealants exposed workers to asbestos fibers in three ways. One was manufacturing the original sealer product. The second was applying sealants at a worksite. And third, workers maintaining, repairing or removing sealants were exposed to airborne asbestos fibers when old sealers were disturbed.
Once asbestos sealers were in placed and allowed to cure, they were stable and safe. Health risks occurred when asbestos fibers were added or handled in a factory setting or if sealants were disturbed during construction or demolition. Old sealants that turned dry and crumbly also presented severe exposure risk. Dried out sealers became friable where microscopic asbestos particles were released into the air as dust when broken down. When inhaled by workers, asbestos fibers turned deadly.
Asbestos Sealers and Mesothelioma
MJN Brief
A mesothelioma is a fatal form of lung cancer. Its only cause is exposure to airborne asbestos fibers. Inhaled asbestos particles bond to the lung lining or mesothelium. They remain permanently fixed and, over time, cause scar tissue that turns tumorous. There is no known cure for mesothelioma.
Compensation for Mesothelioma Victims
Compensation may be available for anyone who developed mesothelioma due to workplace asbestos exposure. Negligent manufacturers of asbestos-containing products like sealers are held accountable for personal injury, lost income and medical expenses. Families of mesothelioma victims can claim on members’ behalf. They are also entitled to file wrongful death lawsuits.
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The Lewis And Clark Expedition Essay Help
Lewis and Clark went on their journey to explore the western region of what is now known as the western half of the United States of America. On their journey they drew maps and made friends with Indians and described them and their ways of living.
In 1803, Congress appropriated funds for the exploration of the West. Jefferson desperately looked for a leader whom he could trust to lead the expedition. When he came to his conclusion about who the leader would be, he had picked Meriwether Lewis, whom was a good friend. Lewis also brought along his Virginian neighbor to help lead his expedition. Together they chose forty other men to accompany them. The purpose of this expedition was to find a water route to the Pacific, to develop friendship and trade with the Indians, and to map the new land. Also, they had to take note of the climate and wildlife of the West.
On May 14, 1804, the journey began in St. Louis. They started up the Missouri River, in hopes of finding a water route to the Pacific Ocean. During their expedition they saw a wide range of animals such as buffalo, elk, antelope, pelicans, bears, and prairie dogs. They marveled at the wide grassy plains. Their journey was hard because they were forced to travel up the Missouri River. On their way up the river, they ran into many obstacles like floating tree branches.
For the first winter, they stayed with the Mandan Indians, who lived near Bismarck, North Dakota. They became friends with an Indian woman named Sacajewea. She and her husband helped guide the expedition over the Rockies. On the way to the Rockies, Lewis and Clark stopped and visited the Shoshone Indians; Sacajewea's native tribe. Lewis and Clark bought horses from the Shoshone because there was no river to take them over the Rockies.
While they were crossing the Rockies, they crossed the Continental Divide. Their trip got easier after the Continental Divide because from then on, all the rivers flowed towards the Pacific. After the Rockies, Lewis and Clark ran into the Nez Perces Indians. The Indians helped Lewis and Clark make canoes to finish the trip to the Pacific. They made it to the Pacific on November 15, 1805. In their journal they stated, "about 3 oClock the wind luled, and the river became calm, I had the canoes loaded in great haste and Set Out, from this dismal nitch where we have been confined for 6 days passed, without the possibility of proceeding on, returning to a better Situation, or get out to hunt; Scerce of Provisions, and torents of rain poreing on us all the time. proceeded on passed the blustering point below which I found a butifull Sand beech thro which runs a Small river from the hills, below the mouth of this Stream is a village of 36 houses uninhabited by anything except flees, here I met G. Shannon and 5 Indians. Shannon informed me that he met Capt. Lewis at an Indian hut about 10 miles below who had sent him back to meet me, he also told me the Indians were thievish, as the night before they had Stolen both his and Willards rifles from under their heads." Lewis told the Indians if any one of them stole anything from them, then he would have them shot.
They stayed at the Ocean for the winter where they set up Fort Clatsop. After the winter, they went back to the United States. They were back by 1806. Lewis and Clark achieved their goal of reaching the Pacific. Unfortunately, one of their goals was not reached. They did not find a water route across the country. On their journey, they lost only one man.
Lewis and Clark mapped over 7700 miles of uncharted territory opening western routes to settlers. A treaty was formed by Thomas Jefferson between the settlers and the Indians. Both Lewis and Clark signed and sealed the treaty. In 1806, Lewis was appointed governor of the Louisiana Territory. On October 10, 1809, he died mysteriously from two gunshot wounds near the Natchez trace, where there was a number of robbers coming up and down the river. Nobody knows whether it was a suicide or a murder. Clark later became the governor of the Missouri Territory and Superintendent of Indian Affairs.
The Journals of Lewis and Clark; Edited and with an
introduction by Frank Bergon.
Undaunted Courage by Stephen E. Ambrose.
The Lewis And Clark Expedition Essay example
1548 Words7 Pages
Quite possibly one of the most important purchases in the
history of The United States was the one in which Thomas
Jefferson enabled the size of the country to double. The
territory was the Louisiana Territory, the 820,000 square mile
piece of land was bought for 15 million dollars which equaled
out to about three cents an acre.
The United States originally only wanted to buy the port of
New Orleans. Thomas Jefferson wanted to buy this because there
was a risk that the half million Americans living west of the
Appalachian would secede from the Union. Purchasing the port
would keep them from seceding because they would then have a
port that they could easily use to…show more content…
Jefferson’s proposed expedition would travel through unknown
lands that were owned by the two most poweful nations, France
and Britan with Spain in possesion in the land to the south
west. Spansh officials administering the region for France had
turned down Jefferson’s request to explore the region. None the
less Jefferson sent his request to Congress. To make his
request more tempting he asked for only $2,500 to fund the trip
but in acctuality it cost $38,722. So on Feburary 28,1803
Jefferson’s request was approved. Jefferson appointed
Meriwether Louis in charge of the expedition.
When the Louisiana purchase was announced on july 3, just
two days before Lewis was to set out to Pittsburgh to buy
supplies and hire men, the semi-covert mission through foreign
land was turned into a daring survey into newly aquired
American land. To ensure that Louis could buy every thing he
needed Jefferson gave a signed page that gave the “faith of the
United States” to reimburse anyone for any goods or services
needed by Louis. Before leaving Louis had Albert Gallatin (a
map collector) make a map that showed North America from the
Mississippi to the Pacific. The only points on the map were
the mouth of the Columbia
Show More
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Teachers should be careful that the pupils do not strain their eyes by working in a poor light. On dark days, talks, which are of great assistance and benefit may be given on relevant subjects, as needles, thread, cotton, wool, silk and linen, their manufacture and use (see page 222), and on the making of garments. A dark day may also be employed in teaching the pupils to make knots, including square and bow-knots.
A shopping expedition will greatly interest the pupils, for instance: - "What kind of a store shall we visit to purchase our sewing materials?" "What shall we buy?" "How much material shall we get for a bag, apron or skirt?" "What kind of material?" "Why?" "Are we ready to go home?" "O, no, we must have other things." Mention them; tell why different numbers of needles are needed for different materials, etc. Question on the difference in the quality of materials, and explain that a good quality is generally cheaper in the end.
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Updatetime: 2018-04-03 Printer Text Size:A A A
Can we know the color of a 200-million-year-old insect? Some people will say we can only imagine its actual color. But no! Scientists from China, Germany and the UK have new evidence to reveal the “true color” of fossil insects. The research was recently published in Science Advances.
Structural colors have evolved in a myriad of animals and plants and result from the wavelength-selective scattering of incident light. Such colors are typically more vibrant and visually arresting than those produced via pigmentation and are often multifunctional, playing important roles in intraspecific sexual signaling, aposematism and crypsis.
Lepidoptera exhibit in their scales some of the most diverse structural colors produced by insects, with this diversity undoubtedly having contributed to the evolutionary success of the order. Despite sustained interest in the structure, development, and photonic and other biomimetic properties of lepidopteran scales in neontological studies, as well as recent research into structural colors in fossil beetles and feathers, the deep evolutionary history of scales and structural colors in lepidopterans is poorly understood.
Recently, researchers from the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology (NIGP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and their colleagues from Germany and the UK reported scale architectures from Jurassic Lepidoptera from the UK, Germany, Kazakhstan and China and Tarachoptera (a stem group of Amphiesmenoptera) from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber.
They used optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to reveal the gross morphology and ultrastructure of the scales.
Using the ultrastructural parameters identified in Jurassic specimens, they demonstrated the use of optical modeling to describe the theoretical optical properties of the type-1 bilayer scale arrangement, thus providing the earliest evidence of structural colors in the insect fossil record.
The Jurassic lepidopterans exhibit a type1 bilayer scale vestiture: an upper layer of large fused cover scales and a lower layer of small fused ground scales. This scale arrangement, plus preserved herringbone ornamentation on the cover scale surface, is almost identical to those of some extant Micropterigidae. Critically, the fossil scale ultrastructures possess periodicities measuring from 140–2000 nm and are therefore capable of scattering visible light.
The fossil tarachopteran scales exhibit a unique suite of characteristics, including small size, elongate-spatulate shape, ridged ornamentation and irregular arrangement, providing novel insight into the early evolution of lepidopteran scales. Combined, these new results provide the earliest evidence for structural coloration in fossil lepidopterans and support the hypothesis that fused wing scales and the type1 bilayer covering are fundamental features of the group.
"These findings have broader implications,” said Prof. WANG Bo from NIGP, the leader of the research group. The widespread occurrence of wing scales in Jurassic lepidopterans and in tarachopterans strongly suggests that wing scales (including some possibly unknown morphotypes) were widespread in stem Amphiesmenoptera prior to their apogee in the Lepidoptera.
Given the presence of structural coloration in these basal fossil lepidopterans, the advent of major lepidopteran clades by the Cretaceous raises the possibility that this taxonomic radiation may have been accompanied by increased diversity in scale shape, microstructure and optical effects.
Future studies will characterize the optical response of scale nanostructures in other fossil specimens and will provide evidence for the presence of scale pigments in fossil lepidopterans in order to inform models of the evolution of structural colors in lepidopterans.
Reference Zhang Qingqing, Mey W., Ansorge J., Starkey T.A., McDonald L.T., McNamara M.E., Jarzembowski E.A., Wichard W., Kelly R., Ren Xiaoying, Chen Jun, Zhang Haichun, Wang Bo* (2018) Fossil scales illuminate the early evolution of lepidopterans and structural colors, Science Advances 4: e1700988. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1700988.
Fig. 1. Wings and scales of Jurassic Lepidoptera and extant Micropterigidae.(Image by ZHANG Qingqing et al.)
Fig. 2. Tarachoptera from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber .(Image by ZHANG Qingqing et al.)
Fig. 3. Optical modeling showing the photonic response of a simplified fused cover scale structure. (Image by ZHANG Qingqing et al.)
Fig. 4. Ecological restoration of moths in the Cretaceous Burmese amber forest. (Image by YANG Dinghua)
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology Chinese Academy of Sciences
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C++: Relational Operators
Relational Operators
This C++ tutorial teaches about the use and syntax of relational operators. Relational operators are operators, which compare two values and tell the relationship with respect to the operator. As we showed in the video lesson, the syntax for the relational operators is somewhat different in C++ because there is no key for some of the operator symbols.
We will use relational operators frequently in the coming lessons. For example, we might program a videogame and need to determine whether a score is high enough to make it into the hall of fame. Otherwise, we might check to see if the player's score has earned him a new ship of life. Additionally, relational operators will play heavily in controlling the execution of programs.
It is assumed that the reader has some familiarity with these relationships from mathematics courses. Otherwise, you may want to brush up on some mathematics. We will probably be adding more mathematics videos as we get more into game programming, graphics, and neural networks.
Relational operators are all binary operators, which take two arguments and evaluate to a bool value. These operators will typically be used on ints and doubles for numerical ordering and on chars for alphabetical ordering. Moreover, we note that there is some redundancy in the operators as three of them are the negation of the other three:
Here, the exclamation point denotes a negation, as is does in C++. However, we have used the standard mathematical symbols for operators otherwise.
In addition to the simple number line and linear half-spaces in the videos, relational operators can be used to specify more complex regions like this area above the parabola:
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Words to Know
Not sure what some terms mean? Here's a quick reference guide to help you out.
The understanding that people experience oppression and privilege in varying configurations and degrees of intensity because of race, class, ability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, and age.
Political Correctness
Put simply, showing common decency towards others while engaging in respectful discussions about issues that may be controversial or affect marginalized and disadvantaged groups.
Social, economic, political, and/or cultural advantages that a person is granted on the basis of their identity with a particular group. Privilege exists whether we recognize it or not. Only in recognizing privilege can we begin to dismantle it.
Unity that is based upon and produces a shared vision via mutual interests, objectives, standards, and empathy. Solidarity for social justice requires diverse leadership, voices, and perspectives to be honored and upheld.
Systemic Discrimination
Long-held patterns of behavior, policies, and practices that are part of the structure of a society and which create perpetual disadvantage and harm towards targeted populations. This includes an array of interconnected discrimination from sexism, racism, and ableism to homophobia, xenophobia, and islamophobia.
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The Ophiocistioidea
is a class of extinct echinoderms from the Palaeozoic. Ophiocistioids had a flattened dome-shaped body encased in a solid test of calcareous plates, similar to that of a modern sea urchin. The mouth was at the apex of the dome, and surrounded by a set of five jaws. The animals apparently did not have an anus, but a madreporite was on the upper surface, surrounded by what appear to be genital pores for the release of gametes. Five ambulacra radiated outwards from the mouth across the upper surface, but did not extend onto the flat underside. Each had three unusually large tube feet at the margin of the dome. Unlike normal tube feet, these were covered in small bony scales, and therefore remain visible in fossils. See also List of echinodermata orders. References[edit]
^ Reich, M., and R. Haude. " Ophiocistioidea
(fossil Echinodermata): an overview." Echinoderms: München. Taylor & Francis, London (2004): 489-494.
Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. p. 1011. ISBN 0-03-056747-5.
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q7097934 Fossilworks: 31220
This prehistoric echinoderm-related article is a stub. You can help by expanding it.
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Image of the Day
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Heavy Water
During the austral summer of 2016, WHOI scientists Viviane Menezes and Alison Macdonald traveled to Antarctica to study a physical ocean process known as Antarctic Bottom Water or AABW. In some places along the Antarctic coast, ice formation causes seawater to grow saltier and denser, causing it to sink to the sea floor. These deep, cold waters play a critical role in regulating circulation, temperature, and availability of oxygen and nutrients throughout the world’s oceans. It also serves as both a barometer for climate change and a factor that can contribute to that change. (Photo by Alison Macdonald, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)
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An Archaeological Dig in Israel Provides Clues to How Feasting Became an Important Ritual
File 20171213 27588 121rjcv.png?ixlib=rb 1.1
LightField Studios/
By Natalie Munro, University of Connecticut, The Conversation
This holiday season millions of families will come together to celebrate their respective festivals and engage in myriad rituals. These may include exchanging gifts, singing songs, giving thanks, and most importantly, preparing and consuming the holiday feast.
Archaeological evidence shows that such communally shared meals have long been vital components of human rituals. My colleague Leore Grosman and I discovered the earliest evidence of a ritual feast at a 12,000-year-old archaeological site in northern Israel and learned how feasts came to be integral components of modern-day ritual practice.
First, what are rituals?
Rituals involve meaningful, often repeated actions. In modern-day practices they are expressed through rites such as the hooding of a doctoral student, birthdays, weddings or even sipping wine at Holy Communion or lighting Hanukkah candles.
Pompeii family feast painting, Naples.
Unknown painter before 79 AD, via Wikimedia Commons
Ritual practice may have emerged along with other early modern human behaviors more than 100,000 years ago. However, proving this with material evidence is a challenge. For example, researchers have found that both Neanderthals and early modern humans buried their dead, but scholars weren’t certain whether this was for spiritual or symbolic reasons and not for something more mundane like maintaining site hygiene. Likewise, the discovery of 100,000-year-old symbolic artifacts like pierced shell ornaments and decorated chunks of red ochre in caves in South Africa, was not sufficient to prove that they were part of any ritual activities.
It was only when archaeologists found these artifacts, placed in graves going back 40,000-20,000 years, that it was confirmed they were part of ritual practice.
The first feasts
We had a similar experience during our research. When Leore Grosman and I first embarked on the excavations at Hilazon Tachtit in the late 1990s, we were only hoping to document the activities of the last hunter-gatherers in Israel, at what appeared to be a small campsite. It was only over several seasons of excavation that it slowly became clear to us that this was not a site where people had lived. Rather it was a site for rituals.
Hilazon Tachtit cave interior.
Naftali Hilger, CC BY-NC-ND
No houses, fireplaces or cooking areas were recovered. Instead the cave yielded the skeletal remains of at least 28 individuals interred in three pits and two small structures.
One of these structures contained the complete skeleton of an older woman, who we interpreted as a shaman based on her special treatment at death. Her grave stood apart due to its fine construction – the walls were plastered with clay and inset with flat stone slabs. Even more remarkable was the eclectic array of animal body parts buried alongside of her. The pelvis of a leopard, the wing tip of an eagle, the skulls of two martens and many other unusual body parts surrounded her skeleton.
The butchered remnants of more than 90 tortoises buried in the grave and the leftovers of at least three wild cattle deposited in a second adjacent depression excavated in the cave floor represent the remains of a funeral feast.
Hilazon Tachtit cave.
Naftali Hilger, CC BY-NC-ND
The outstanding preservation of the grave enabled us to detect multiple phases of a ritual performance that included the consumption of the feast, the burial of the woman, and the filling of the grave in several stages, including the intentional deposition of garbage from the feast.
Feasting at the beginning of agriculture
Archaeologists have found other sites that show evidence of ritual feasting. Many of these date to the time when humans were beginning to farm.
Site of Göbekli Tepe.
Teomancimit (Own work) , via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA
One of the most striking is the site of Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey, dating slightly later than Hilazon Tachtit. It includes multiple large structures adorned with benches and giant stone slab carved with exquisite animal depictions in relief dating to 11-12,000 years ago. Perhaps, these were very early communal buildings. The archaeologists who excavated Göbekli Tepe argue that massive quantities of animal bones associated with the structures represent the remains of feasts.
Rituals that bind
The simultaneous appearance of feasting, communal structures and specialized ritual sites suggest that humans were seeking to solve this problem by engaging the community in ritual practice.
One of the central functions of ritual in these communities was to provide a kind of social glue that bound community members by promoting social cohesion and solidarity. Feasts generate loyalty and commitment to the community’s success. Sharing food is intimate and it builds trust.
Communal rituals would have provided a shared sense of identity at a time when social circles were increasing in scale and permanence. They reinforced new ideologies that emerged out of a dramatic reorganization of economic and social life.
Role of feasts today
What’s the role of feasting today?
Yuganov Konstantin
Feasting plays the same essential role today. Like the earliest feasts, our holiday celebrations are replete with actions that are repeated year after year.
The ConversationThe holiday feast today builds family traditions. By cooking and sharing food together, telling stories of past holidays and exchanging intergenerational wisdom, holiday rituals bond extended families and give them a shared identity.
Natalie Munro, Professor, University of Connecticut
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A Beginner’s Tutorial on Basics of Delegates, Anonymous Functions and Lambda Expressions in C#
This article talks about the delegates and how to write delegate handlers using functions, anonymous functions and Lambda expressions. This article is written from a beginner’s perspective and contain very introductory material on the related topics.
There are many a times when we need one part/object of our application to do something when some other part/object has been changed. One way to achieve this is by having an object poll continuously to another object and act whenever the other objects state is changed. Now this approach is not elegant it involves too much of CPU usage. Also, there will be some time interval between 2 consecutive poll request and if the other objects state was changed during this period then we will get to know it later i.e. delayed information.
Now the way this problem is solved is called the Observer Pattern. Here the object who wants to listen to the state change can subscribe to the object whose state will be changed. If we need to put this mechanism in a C# application then we need to take care of both the aspects of this pattern. One is sending the state change from an object to the listener(all the listeners) and receiving the state change of the object.
Delegatesis the C# way of implementing the first part i.e. keeping a track of all the listeners and sending them the notification when any state is changed. Anonymousmethods and Lambda expressions come on the other side i.e. handling the response coming from a delegate
Using the code
Let us try to implement a simple application with a class called BatteryLevelto understand these topics in action. This class will keep track of the current battery level of a device. Other classes can subscribe to a delegateprovided by this class to listen to battery level change. Let us look at this class without any delegates introduced.
To implement delegates and its handlers there are mainly 4 steps involved:
1. Declaring the delegate
2. Creating the delegate
3. Hooking the delegate with handler functions
4. Invoking the delegates
Now before adding a delegate to this class lets get some basics clear. Delegates are types which we can define. The definition will declare the delegate and specify the method signature that this delegate can hold and call. Typical delegate declaration will look like:
[<em>Access Modifier</em>] delegate [<em>Return type</em>] [DELEGATE_NAME]([<em>Function arguments</em>]);
So to declare a delegate for our class, lets say we want the handler functions to return void and accept an integer value indicating the new battery level. The declaration will look like:
Delegates can hold reference to a number of methods and when a delegate is invoked, it will call all the methods one by one sequentially. C++ programmers can think of delegates as a list of type safe function pointers.
Now we have seen the first part of our 4 step process. Now if we move on to the second part i.e Creating the delegate, we simply need create a type of the delegate and assign some handler functions to it. if no handlers are associated with the delegate object it will be null. So lets create a delegate type first.
Now we have seen the second part of our 4 step process. Now if we move on to the fourth part i.e. invoking the delegate. The the typical way to call all the functions associated with this delegate would be to call the delegate like a function.
So now the BatteryLevelclass definition with the delegate will look like:
Now we have seen the invoker objects part of implementing delegates i.e. declaring, creating and invoking a delegate. Now let us see how the handing part can be written i.e. hooking the functions to the delegates and having the handler function’s body.
To hook a function to the delegate we simply need to create the delegate type with the function name passed in the constructor. We can then assign this delegate type to the delegate exposed by the class.
The above code simply creates a function and then attach that function to the delegate exposed by the class as the handler function. the function signature matches the delegate signature otherwise the code would not compile.
We are also setting the value of battery level to test the application. Whenever we call set our handler function will be invoked and it will print the message on the console.
Note: We have used += to assign the delegate because we need our function to add to the list of functions already added to this delegate. If we simply use = sign, it will wipe off the list of existing functions and have this function as the only function associated with the delegate.
So we have seen the 3rd part of our 4 step process i.e. hooking up the handler functions with the delegates. When we run the application we can see the handler function getting called via the delegate.
Anonymous functions
Anonymous functions are the functions without any function name. C# gives us the possibility of creating functions without name. But how will this function be called if it has no name. In fact there is no way to call an anonymous function via code because the name of the function is the handle to call this function.
But we have just seen that the delegates keep handles/references of all the handler functions with them. delegates don’t need the name of the function to invoke them. so the anonymous functions are useful with the delegates only.
What anonymous function does is that instead of having separate code to hook the handler to delegate and body of the handler function we can simply have the body written in place where we are hooking the function to the delegate. So if I need to achieve the above functionality using anonymous function, I simply need to write it as:
And it will produce the same result as the earlier version but it doesn’t need the programmer to write a separate function. this is very useful when the handler function has little code and using this approach gives a cleaner code compared to the earlier version.
Lambda Expressions
Newer version of C# has Lambda expression which has made the anonymous functions more or less obsolete. For the scope of this article lets understand lambda expression is one more way of creating local anonymous functions that can be used with delegates.
Note: Lambda expression has other merits over anonymous function like the can directly be assigned to expression trees but we will keep things simple in this article and will not talk about these.
A Lambda expression can be thought of as an alternative to the anonymous methods with the following syntax:
So if were to write the similar code using lambda expression we can do that in the following manner:
Note: in this above code instead of having the implicit type parameter in lambda expression, we could have specified the type in the expression too.
The result of the above code is same as the earlier versions but the code is much cleaner compared to the earlier versions(one with the handler functions and anonymous methods).
Point of Interest
In this small article we tried to look into what delegates are and how we can implement custom delegates and their handlers. Delegates have been around from quite some time and this article seems quite late or out of time. I have written this article because someone in the Codeproject Q&A section seems quite confused about the topic. This article has been written from a beginner’s perspective. I hope this has been somewhat informative.
Download sample code for this article: DelgateAnonymousLambdaSample
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{
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"fasttext_score": 0.06436151266098022,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9094191789627075,
"url": "http://rahulrajatsingh.com/2014/06/a-beginners-tutorial-on-basics-of-delegates-anonymous-functions-and-lambda-expressions-in-c/"
}
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Create your own at Storyboard That When a Jew came and made a sacrifice to the statue, Matityahu became even angrier. He killed the Jew and then the soldier with a knife. Then he raised the knife and yelled "he who is unto God, follow me!" Many people fled into the hills with him and his sons. They became the Maccabees. The Maccabees used guerrilla warfare tactics to ambush the Greeks at night, catching the soldiers by surprise. The Greeks used elephants to help them get an advantage over the Jews. It worked to some extent - one of Matityahu's sons, Shimon, was flattened by an elephant! When they finally reclaimed the Temple, it was unholy and desecrated. None of the oil was kosher anymore and there were statues and pork sacrifices all over the place! When they finally restored the Temple, there was only enough oil for one day, and it would take eight days to make more oil. But, miraculously, the oil burned for eight days instead. That is why we have eight days of Chanukah - one for each day the oil burned. THE END
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"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.2552438974380493,
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November 12, 2018 | ° F
Rutgers professor sets out to use sound waves to screen images of ancient sea creatures
Photo by Naaz Modan |
Gregory Mountain, a professor in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, plans to use sound waves to create images of microscopic, ancient sea creatures and the rocks they live in. NAAZ MODAN / PHOTO EDITOR
Gregory Mountain plans to use sound waves to create images of microscopic, ancient sea creatures and the rocks they are embedded in.
Acoustic imaging devices can map the seafloor, creating images and models of the sediments beneath the surface that can help scientists understand how high water levels were millions of years ago, said Mountain, a professor in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences.
“We know the water can go in as far as the New Jersey Turnpike and has gone out as far as the continental shelf (in the past),” he said.
Mountain said he plans to create a three-dimensional image of previously mapped terrain in order to better understand it.
The devices work by firing a pellet of air underwater towards the ocean floor, said Kimberly Baldwin, a graduate student in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences. A machine called an “airgun” fires a bubble of air toward the ground.
A second pulse is then injected into the bubble to prevent it from collapsing and ensure higher quality sound, Baldwin said.
The sounds recorded by these pulses are at a different frequency than sonar waves, she said. They are more effective at penetrating the ground, which creates a clearer picture than otherwise would be possible.
The device trails behind the ship that the team is attached to, she said. Along with the set of airguns, a group of listening devices are towed by the ship in order to gather data.
The listening devices trail behind the ship to avoid interference from the noise on the vessel itself, such as the ship’s engines, she said.
The sound bounces off different layers of sediments, Mountain said. They can reach up to three-fourths of a mile down, where sediments may be 35 million years old.
Among the actual sediments are tiny fossils that help date the layer, Mountain said.
“We can tell based on the microfossils, the plankton that are in the sediment … if they were in 60 meters of water or 10 meters,” he said.
By understanding how much water these plankton were in when they lived, Mountain said scientists can try to paint a more complete picture of how sea levels rise and fall.
The planet’s temperature is a factor, he said. If the planet is colder, there might be more ice, resulting in lower water levels. When the planet is warmer, the glaciers tend to melt.
“If all the glaciers melted the water would rise 70 meters,” he said. “In the past there has been so much ice the water level was 120 meters lower, (so) that’s the range.”
Some controversy exists over the use of airguns in the ocean. One of the main concerns is that the pulses fired by an airgun harms marine animals, according to Oceana, an organization aimed at protecting marine life.
Oil companies use versions of Mountain’s machine to look for oil, he said. These commercial devices are 10 times larger than the one being used by the scientific team.
More importantly, he said, there are regulations in place that protect marine creatures from harm.
“It’s all overseen by the rule of law,” he said. “They put five marine biologists out on the ship with us, and they are there to enforce the rules. They can tell us to shut down at a moment’s notice, if they perceive any undue harm to marine species.”
These biologists, known as protected species observers, are on constant watch for animals that might be disturbed, he said. The airgun does not necessarily need to actively harm anything for the team to be told to shut down.
Even the slightest disturbance will force a shutdown, he said. If a whale were to stop vocalizing or change the direction it was swimming in because of the expedition’s ship, it would be marked as a "disturbance" or "take." After a certain number of "takes," the crew would be required to stop working altogether.
In a previous expedition the team was shut down briefly to accommodate a group of turtles swimming nearby, Mountain said.
“There’s very little concrete factual data to confirm there is a direct relationship between the seismic sources that we use and any negative impact on the environment,” he said. “I’ve (been doing this) since 1990 (and) have not harmed a marine species (or) angry fisherman.”
Another complaint is that the ship’s presence might scare away fish and other marine animals in the region, Mountain said. Based on his previous experiences, Mountain said he does not think this is likely.
Mountain said he saw several creatures in his previous trips that would not be there if they were scared away.
“We were out last summer, (and) the protected species observers saw two whales,” he said. “You can’t say we scared them all off, because we’re shooting all the time.”
Mountain said this is the first year he received any backlash on using airguns.
It would be important for skeptics to understand how the technology works and what regulations are in place to protect ocean life, he said.
The goal of the research is to help protect human lives through understanding sea level change, he said.
“One-hundred million human beings live (so) close to sea level in elevation, (that) the height the sea level is going to rise over the next 100 years (will impact them),” he said.
Nikhilesh De
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"url": "http://www.dailytargum.com/article/2015/04/rutgers-professor-sets-out-to-use-sound-waves-to-screen-images-of-ancient-sea-creatures"
}
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Improving Elections in the United States
By the end of this lesson, students will:
* Use viewing skills and note-taking strategies to understand and interpret video clips.
* Write a position paper that addresses the question: How well does the U.S. election process achieve the nation’s democratic ideal of free and fair elections?
Comments / Notes
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.637462854385376,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8351607918739319,
"url": "http://www.lessonplans.com/improving-elections-in-the-united-states/"
}
|
3000010: Magnets in Motion Kit
Home About Us Physical Sciences Chemistry Biological Sciences Earth Sciences Science Mechanics Space Science Scientific Newsletters Store Policy Privacy Contact Us Site Map
3000010: Magnets in Motion Kit
Kids will have a blast learning about magnetism as they experiment with Lenz's Law with this fascinating kit. They can do 10 magnetism projects & experiments as they see how roller coaster brakes work, how falling magnets create electric currents, and more. This kit includes strong neodymium magnets, ring magnets, iron filings, compass, nail, steel plug, rubber bumpers, and tubes made of copper, aluminum, and plastic. Ages 10-14.
Lenz's law shows that a magnet falling through a metal tube creates circular electric currents (eddy currents). These eddy currents then create their own magnetic field that repels the magnet, causing it to fall in slow motion. This is the same theory used for braking systems in subways and roller coasters!
The following questions might help you come up with a good science fair project: Can you use a magnet to find traces of iron in food, dollar bills, and other household materials? Can you create "brakes" to stop a free-falling magnet?
PRICE: 36.50
3000010: Magnets in Motion Kit
Add to Cart
CATEGORY: Home>Physical Science>Magnetism>
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"edu_score": 3.828125,
"fasttext_score": 0.05133587121963501,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8010954260826111,
"url": "http://www.scientifichobbies.com/magnetsinmotionkit.html"
}
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Hernando De Soto. (1500?-1542). Why is De Soto Famous?. Hernando De Soto (1500?-1542) was a Spanish explorer who sailed the Atlantic Ocean and was the first European to explore Florida and the southeastern US. Hernando De Soto (1536 to 1537).
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Hernando De Soto
why is de soto famous
Why is De Soto Famous?
hernando de soto 1536 to 1537
Hernando De Soto(1536 to 1537)
De Soto returned to Spain in 1536, was granted the rights to conquer Florida and was named governor of Cuba in 1537.
This is an early 1500’s map of Florida and Cuba.
De Soto brought Spaniards, dogs and horses with him.
european explorer ships
European Explorer Ships
These ships were used by Spanish Explorers.
what else did de soto do
What else did De Soto Do?
The Spanish Conquistador,Francisco Pizarro, hired de Soto to go on an expedition to Peru (1531-1532). During this expedition they met and killed Atahualpa, the ruler of the Incas, and conquered the Incan empire.De Soto became extremely rich!
Francisco Pizarro
Hernando De Soto
Pizarro and De Soto conquering the Incan Empire
de soto 1539
De Soto (1539)
In May 1539, de Soto and his expedition of 570 men and women arrived near present-day Tampa. His exact route is unknown, but his party became the first Europeans to penetrate the Southeast during a remarkable trek through what is now Florida, central Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas. They were looking for gold and silver.
what happened to hernando de soto
What happened to Hernando De Soto?
In the spring of 1541, De Soto traveled due north through Kentucky and Indiana: his scouts went as far as Chicago. Finding no gold or silver, De Soto retreated southwestward through Illinois, Missouri then into Arkansas for winter. On May 21, 1542, he died at Lake Village, Arkansas. His body was placed in the Mississippi River. His army fled to Mexico.
drawings made by european explorers
Drawings made by European Explorers
The glass window in a New World Church - 1580
New World Maps Were Made
and Shared in Europe.
Native American Village
color plates of the new world from theodore de bry
Color Plates of the New World from Theodore de Bry
Native American Slaves working for Spaniards.
Spanish Conquistadors
hernando de soto review
Hernando De Soto Review
Question: What is De Soto famous for?
Answer: He was the first European to explore Florida and SE U.S.
Question: De Soto was governor of ?
Answer: Cuba
Question: What did Pizarro and De Soto do in Peru that made them extremely wealthy?
Answer: They conquerored the Incan Empire.
Question: After De Soto became governor, he took a group of Spaniards on an expedition through the SE U.S. What were they looking for?
Answer: gold and silver
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"edu_score": 3.75,
"fasttext_score": 0.9705315828323364,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9221370816230774,
"url": "https://www.slideserve.com/lumina/1500-1542"
}
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LiveLoveLearnTogether we will soar to new heights
This term we will be looking at different everyday materials
In year 1 children should be taught to:
· distinguish between an object and the material from which it is made
· describe the simple physical properties of a variety of everyday materials
Beware! The big bad wolf will be visiting soon to test the materials you have chosen!
Today when we arrived into class a huge parcel was on the floor. In the bag we found the story of the ‘Three Little pigs’ with some puppets to help us retell the story. As we looked around the room we noticed that there was lots of different materials on the table. The pigs had left us a message asking us to to help them build a house using the different materials. We then had to answer the question. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using straw, wood and bricks?
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<urn:uuid:3a22072d-831a-482c-bb27-ff549e0b614b>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4,
"fasttext_score": 0.48933154344558716,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9301972389221191,
"url": "http://www.holyspirit.st-helens.sch.uk/classes/year-6-5-1-1-1-1-1-1/science-2"
}
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Python rules
Quotes and Double quotes
Python is a case sensitive programming language
One of the first caveats programmers encounter when learning Python is the fact that there are no braces to indicate blocks of code for class and function definitions or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation, which is rigidly enforced.
If any of the code below doesn't work the first thing is to check the indentation (i.e use a space) for terms such as "print" which are below and if/loop/logic
The semicolon ( ; ) allows multiple statements on the single line
To run a python program python or chmod 755 and then ./
# are for comments
"doesn't" # or use double quotes
Any of the below starting with >>> is using the python command line.
Quotes and Double quotes
Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (''' or """) quotes to denote string literals, as long as the same type of quote starts and ends the string.(for more on triple quote see Triple quotes
In some cases, when you need to include really long strings instead of terminating each line with \n\, i.e
hello = """
Semi colons are very rarely used, colons are used a bit more frequetley with indentations (while,if,else,elif,defining functions)
taken from
if a == b
print a
if a == b:
print a
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<urn:uuid:e3bd48b1-bcdf-4328-ae30-1c842172b79f>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.29647690057754517,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8860681653022766,
"url": "https://linuxblog.info/python-rules/"
}
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Slideshows Images Quizzes
Definition of Respiratory rate
Respiratory rate: The number of breaths per minute or, more formally, the number of movements indicative of inspiration and expiration per unit time. In practice, the respiratory rate is usually determined by counting the number of times the chest rises or falls per minute. The aim of measuring respiratory rate is to determine whether the respirations are
Health Solutions From Our Sponsors
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.019144117832183838,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8038725852966309,
"url": "https://www.rxlist.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=5330"
}
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What Are the Effects of Computer Learning on Sleep Patterns?
Quick Answer
Studies show that light promotes wakefulness and that computer screens and small electronic devices can miscue the brain and promote wakefulness. Photoreceptors in the retina signal our brain about the outside world when they sense light and dark.
Continue Reading
Related Videos
Full Answer
Sensing light and dark helps align circadian rhythms to the cycle of day and night, helping people be alert in the morning and fall asleep at night.
Studies show that children who use electronic media as a sleep aid have later weekday bedtimes and fewer hours of sleep per week. They also report more daytime sleepiness. Adolescents who have a television in their bedrooms have later bedtimes, more difficulty initiating sleep and shorter total sleep times. Self-reported daytime sleepiness dramatically increases when texting and emailing happens after lights out even once per week.
Learn more about Human Anatomy
Related Questions
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.10363876819610596,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9201816320419312,
"url": "https://www.reference.com/science/effects-computer-learning-sleep-patterns-aa7354246b0d35bf"
}
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B-17 Flying Fortress
In August, 1934 the Boeing Aircraft Company began work on producing a multi-engined bomber for the United States Air Force. The specifications provided by the USAF included an aircraft that could carry 2,000 pounds of bombs a distance of 2,000 miles at speeds of 240 mph.
The B-17 Flying Fortress flew for the first time on 28th July, 1935. The aircraft, with its nine man crew, had a maximum speed of 317 mph (510 km) and had a range of 3,000 miles (4,800 km). It was 73 ft 10 in (9.83 m) long with a wingspan of 103 ft (31.62 m). The aircraft was armed with 10 machine-guns and could carry 17,600 lb (7.985 kg) of bombs.
When the B-17 entered service in June, 1939, it was the most advanced bomber in the world. On 17th August, 1942, it began making its first bombing raids in Europe. Whereas the Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax concentrated on night raids on Nazi Germany the B-17 took responsibility for the daylight bombing campaign.
The B-17 was constantly improved during the Second World War. The entire rear section was radically altered to provide greater stability at high altitude. The armament was increased and included two mechanically operated gun turrets. The B-17G version had an increased range of 3,400 miles (5,200 km) and carried a crew of ten.
A total of 12,731 B-17s were produced during the war. The Royal Air Force received over 200 of these and was used by Bomber Command over Germany.
B-17G Flying Fortress
B-17G Flying Fortress
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"fasttext_score": 0.01987767219543457,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9752379655838013,
"url": "https://spartacus-educational.com/2WWb17.htm"
}
|
You are here
Standing Rock Sioux Tribe
Covering 2.3 million acres, the Standing Rock Indian Reservation is the fifth largest reservation in the United States. It stretches across the expansive tall grass plains, rolling hills, and buttes that border the Missouri River. Lake Oahe, a Missouri River reservoir, is on the east side of Standing Rock. The Grand River is in the south and the Cannon Ball River is in the north. The reservation straddles the border between South Dakota and North Dakota.
Standing Rock Reservation takes its name from a natural formation that resembles a woman with a child on her back. Today, this sacred stone stands on a monument outside the Standing Rock Agency's office in Fort Yates, North Dakota.
The reservation is home to two bands of the Lakota Nation: the Sihasapa or Blackfoot and the Hunkpapa or Campers at the Horn. The Dakota people of Standing Rock include the Upper Yanktonai, called the Ihanktonwana or Little End Village and the Lower Yanktonai, called the Hunkatina or Cut Heads. The Hunkpapa and Sihasapa people were known as the horsemen of the plains and primarily hunted buffalo for their needs. The Yanktonai were a river-plains people who did some farming and buffalo hunting.
Standing Rock is the birthplace of Sitting Bull (c.1831-1890), one of the most widely-recognized Native American historical figures. Known in his language as Tatanka Iyotake, Sitting Bull was a medicine man and an Itancan, or Leader of the People. He was born along the Grand River and lived the traditional lifestyle of his people. In his lifetime, he fought to preserve and protect the ways of the people and stood firm against all attempts by the U.S. Government to buy land sacred to the Lakota and Dakota people and to being relocated to the reservation set aside for the Sioux Nation.
Sitting Bull was killed on December 15, 1890, during an attempt to arrest him. Two burial sites memorialize Sitting Bull: the original burial site, located at Fort Yates, North Dakota, and the site to where the grave was reportedly relocated across the Missouri River from Mobridge, South Dakota. At the Fort Yates site, a rock and bronze sign honor Sitting Bull. A bust, carved by Korzcak Ziolkowski, honors him at the site near Mobridge. This site overlooks the western bank of the Missouri River on the eastern boundary of the reservation.
Near the memorial bust of Sitting Bull stands a marker erected as a tribute to Sakakawea (c.1788-1812), the Shoshone woman who traveled with explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on their journey to the Pacific Ocean. Six years after that historic journey, Sakakawea entered the spirit world at Fort Manuel near Kenel, North Dakota. The Fort Manuel Replica, a recreation of where Sakakawea spent her last days, stands on the river bluffs near Kenel where visitors can admire the natural beauty and peace of her final resting place.
The Standing Rock National Native American Scenic Byway runs along historic S.D. Highway 1806 and S.D. Highway 24 for 86 miles. It crosses the lands of the Lakota and Dakota people, who preserve the history of several explorers, trappers and chiefs who were essential in the shaping of the American west. Memorial markers, interpretive signs and monuments commemorate the heritage of the Lakota and Dakota nations and allow visitors to learn history from the Native American and early settlers' points of view.
The Lewis and Clark Legacy Nature Trail, located at Prairie Knight Marina near Fort Yates, is a three-mile walking/biking/hiking trail. Markers identify natural plants, including explanations of how the Lakota and Dakota used them, and the wildlife of the area.
Standing Rock offers fishing, boating and other water recreation on Lake Oahe. The Bay, located in Indian Memorial Recreation Area near Grand River Casino and Resort near Mobridge and Prairie Knights Marina, provides RV hookups, camping areas, and ample space for boating and fishing.
Little Eagle, Wakpala, Kenel, McLaughlin, McIntosh, Bullhead
Standing Rock Sioux Tribe
Fort Yates, North Dakota
(701) 854-8500
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"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.02708137035369873,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9447858929634094,
"url": "https://www.travelsouthdakota.com/about-south-dakota/sd-tribes-plains-indians/sioux-tribes/standing-rock-sioux-tribe"
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Geniculate Ganglion: The sensory ganglion of the facial (7th cranial) nerve. The geniculate ganglion cells send central processes to the brain stem and peripheral processes to the taste buds in the anterior tongue, the soft palate, and the skin of the external auditory meatus and the mastoid process.Tongue: A muscular organ in the mouth that is covered with pink tissue called mucosa, tiny bumps called papillae, and thousands of taste buds. The tongue is anchored to the mouth and is vital for chewing, swallowing, and for speech.Facial Nerve: The 7th cranial nerve. The facial nerve has two parts, the larger motor root which may be called the facial nerve proper, and the smaller intermediate or sensory root. Together they provide efferent innervation to the muscles of facial expression and to the lacrimal and SALIVARY GLANDS, and convey afferent information for TASTE from the anterior two-thirds of the TONGUE and for TOUCH from the EXTERNAL EAR.Taste Buds: Small sensory organs which contain gustatory receptor cells, basal cells, and supporting cells. Taste buds in humans are found in the epithelia of the tongue, palate, and pharynx. They are innervated by the CHORDA TYMPANI NERVE (a branch of the facial nerve) and the GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE.Chorda Tympani Nerve: A branch of the facial (7th cranial) nerve which passes through the middle ear and continues through the petrotympanic fissure. The chorda tympani nerve carries taste sensation from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and conveys parasympathetic efferents to the salivary glands.Herpes Zoster Oticus: A syndrome characterized by facial palsy in association with a herpetic eruption of the external auditory meatus. This may occasionally be associated with tinnitus, vertigo, deafness, severe otalgia, and inflammation of the pinna. The condition is caused by reactivation of a latent HERPESVIRUS 3, HUMAN infection which causes inflammation of the facial and vestibular nerves, and may occasionally involve additional cranial nerves. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p757)Stomatognathic System: The mouth, teeth, jaws, pharynx, and related structures as they relate to mastication, deglutition, and speech.Facial Nerve Diseases: Diseases of the facial nerve or nuclei. Pontine disorders may affect the facial nuclei or nerve fascicle. The nerve may be involved intracranially, along its course through the petrous portion of the temporal bone, or along its extracranial course. Clinical manifestations include facial muscle weakness, loss of taste from the anterior tongue, hyperacusis, and decreased lacrimation.Taste: The ability to detect chemicals through gustatory receptors in the mouth, including those on the TONGUE; the PALATE; the PHARYNX; and the EPIGLOTTIS.Cranial Nerve Neoplasms: Benign and malignant neoplasms that arise from one or more of the twelve cranial nerves.Facial Paralysis: Severe or complete loss of facial muscle motor function. This condition may result from central or peripheral lesions. Damage to CNS motor pathways from the cerebral cortex to the facial nuclei in the pons leads to facial weakness that generally spares the forehead muscles. FACIAL NERVE DISEASES generally results in generalized hemifacial weakness. NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION DISEASES and MUSCULAR DISEASES may also cause facial paralysis or paresis.Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized CONNECTIVE TISSUE located outside the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.Retinal Ganglion Cells: Neurons of the innermost layer of the retina, the internal plexiform layer. They are of variable sizes and shapes, and their axons project via the OPTIC NERVE to the brain. A small subset of these cells act as photoreceptors with projections to the SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS, the center for regulating CIRCADIAN RHYTHM.Ganglia, Spinal: Sensory ganglia located on the dorsal spinal roots within the vertebral column. The spinal ganglion cells are pseudounipolar. The single primary branch bifurcates sending a peripheral process to carry sensory information from the periphery and a central branch which relays that information to the spinal cord or brain.Basal Ganglia: Large subcortical nuclear masses derived from the telencephalon and located in the basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres.
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How the death of one wolf can affect the entire pack
By September 24, 2015The Science Den
Can the death of a single wolf cause the rest of the pack to fall apart?
Studies show it can, depending on which wolf is killed, the size of the pack, and the season.
What happens to a pack when certain wolves, the alphas or other elders, for example, die?
Wolves are extremely social animals that live in families. Each wolf plays an important role in the pack’s survival, from the rearing of pups to teaching the younger wolves how to hunt. Yet, the long-term effects of losing specific individuals from such highly complex social groups are still poorly understood.
To begin to address this question, Bridget Borg, Scott Brainerd, Thomas Meier and Laura Prugh looked at what happens to a pack as well as to the overall wolf population following the death of a breeder (alpha female, alpha male or both). Specifically, Borg and her team studied individual pack fates, reproduction, and overall population growth following the loss of a breeder.
How do you measure how the loss of a breeder impacts the fate of the pack?
Bridget Borg, Scott Brainerd, Thomas Meier and Laura Prugh examined data from the past 26 years on 387 collared wolves in Denali National Park and Preserve (DNPP) in Alaska. The study area covered wolf habitat north and west of the Alaska Range in and adjacent to DNPP.
The data came from wolf population monitoring efforts that began in 1986. Wolves in DNPP were radio collared and tracked using radiotelemetry. Borg et. al.’s study looked at data from packs monitored from 1986 to 2013. About 10-20 wolf packs were monitored each year, mostly within DNPP boundaries.
Information such as wolf location, number of wolves in a pack, coat color, age, mortality, den site location and use, and pack affiliation were all recorded annually.
Although wolves within DNPP are protected from hunting and trapping, outside of the park boundaries, wolves are subject to hunting and trapping during set seasons. Park wolves tend to follow caribou out of the park in an annual migration, exposing them to hunting and trapping when the season permits.
What did Borg, Brainerd, Meier and Prugh find in their study, “Impacts of breeder loss on social structure, reproduction and population growth in a social canid”?
What they found is that in 77% of the cases where a pack dissolved, the dissolution was preceded by the death of a breeder. Moreover, the pack was more likely to dissolve if both breeders or if just the alpha female (mother) died, and if the pack was small, or if the death occurred just before or during breeding season.
But, interestingly, the loss of the alpha female and/or alpha pair didn’t appear to affect population growth that year or the following year. Scientists believe this is because wolves have compensatory breeding mechanisms. In intact packs, social carnivores like wolves suppress reproduction among others in the pack, essentially preventing them from breeding. But when the alpha pair is killed, there is no suppression, and as a result more and younger wolves tend to breed.
This study also noted that when breeders die of natural causes, it was less likely to result in the pack dissolving than when the death of the breeder was human-caused.
What percent of wolf deaths are human-caused?
In the United States, wolf management strategy focuses on wolf population numbers. Methods currently used to ensure wolf populations remain at desired levels include: hunting, trapping, snaring and the federal lethal control of wolves. In Idaho, for example, over the past two years, 99% of documented wolf deaths were human-caused (2014 Idaho Wolf Monitoring Progress Report, Idaho Fish and Game).
This method of population management removes individuals indiscriminately, not taking into account which wolf is killed, the wolves’ role in the familial structure, or the ways in which the loss of an individual wolf might affect the rest of the pack. It ignores how killing an important family member, like an alpha, might fundamentally alter the pack’s social structure, or even cause the family to break apart.
Food for thought
Should wolf management take individual pack structure into account when making decisions to lethally remove a member of a pack?
Should hunting regulations be changed to somehow protect the alphas (breeders)? If so, how?
Should hunting seasons be changed so as to not overlap with breeding season? Human-caused deaths in the study area were highest during winter and spring, which is just before and during breeding season for wolves.
What are the other ways survivors of a pack might be affected when the pack falls apart due to human-take?
Wolf families have been observed to lose knowledge (such as specific hunting techniques) passed down from generation to generation when the elder more knowledgeable wolves are killed and younger less experienced wolves are left to fend for themselves before having learned this specific pack culture (Gordon Haber observed this with the Toklat pack in Alaska). These types of losses are hard to measure scientifically.
In Beyond Words: What Animals Think and Feel, Carl Safina argues that animals, like wolves and elephants, have rich mental lives. And that the loss of an individual from a family of wolves, elephants or dolphins, for example, can have a surprising impact on the long term survival of the family:
When a poacher kills an elephant, he doesn’t just kill the elephant who dies. The family may lose the crucial memory of their elder matriarch, who knew where to travel during the very toughest years of drought to reach the food and water that would allow them to continue living. Thus one bullet may, years later, bring more deaths. Watching dolphins while thinking of elephants, what I realized is: when others recognize and depend on certain individuals, when a death makes the difference for individuals who survive, when relationships define us, we have traveled across a certain blurry boundary in the history of life on Earth—“it” has become “who.”
“Who” animals know who they are; they know who their family and friends are. They know their enemies. They make strategic alliances and cope with chronic rivalries. They aspire to higher rank and wait for their chance to challenge the existing order. Their status affects their offspring’s prospects. Their life follows the arc of a career. Personal relationships define them. Sound familiar? Of course. “They” includes us. But a vivid, familiar life is not the domain of humans alone. (Safina 2015).
Relationships define elephants, like they define wolves, like they define us. What happens to the survivors when individual family members are lost is a question that is perhaps hard to quantify, but the more closely we pay attention to these “who” animals and their relationships, the more clear the answer may become.
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Uncovering the Aspen Forest
Jul 12, 2018
We all know that we are surrounded by the great Northwoods, but how well do you know the different kinds of forests?
In this week’s Wildlife Matters, the Masked Biologist delves into succession and the important role of the aspen forest.
Wisconsin has a variety of forests, and each variety has an important role to play. Here in north central Wisconsin, we have a lot of pine forests, hardwoods, some oak forests, swamp conifers, and aspen forests along with a few other types. Aspen forests are an early successional habitat, which is favorable for many of our game species and nongame wildlife species that call Wisconsin home.
Succession is the term we use to describe the changes in land cover over time in a given area. We start with an event that “sets back the clock” of succession, what we call a natural disturbance. A disturbance like a tornado, flood, or fire may set succession back one generation, taking out trees of all ages, leaving the ground ready to produce new trees. A major disturbance, like a glacier, sets succession back to a bare dirt (or even bare mineral soil) condition. After a glacier, only small, hearty plants that are well suited for pioneering and colonizing an area will succeed. Over time, they live and die, reproduce, add nutrients and organic matter to the soil and other plant species that take longer to travel by seed and need more accommodating soil will move in. Eventually, seeds of shrubs and small trees will travel into the area either by wind or by hitching a ride on a bird or animal, and we will have an early successional forest. The same thing happens on a smaller scale in old farm fields.
Early succession trees grow rapidly, have a shorter life span, and may have more than one way of reproducing which is quite different from later succession tree species. Take the aspen tree for example. Aspen trees are dioecius, meaning there are male and female trees. Both trees flower in spring, but the male tree flowers produce pollen, where the females do not. When the pollen is carried from a male flower to a female flower, magic happens, and the female tree produces seeds that when planted grow into baby trees. The flowering parts of adult trees (called catkins) are a popular food for ruffed grouse, turkeys, and other birds.
Aspen have a second way of reproducing, called suckering. The tree will send out roots that have the ability to produce additional trees that are genetically identical to the parent. This becomes an organism called an aspen clone, and the death or removal of an individual tree or even trees does not kill it. Disturbance of the parent tree increases the suckering activity; if the tree is killed, or cut, the root system survives and aggressively produces small trees anywhere within reach. These lush, green-leaved suckers are a great food source for deer and other wildlife. As they grow, they grow fast, tall, and thin, so crowded together that a person can’t easily walk through them. Birds love these stands because they provide a lot of food, and the heavy cover protects them from predation.
You can almost think of aspen like the grass in a pasture, or your yard. The more you harvest, cut, or consume the part above the ground, the more the root system works to re-generate it. If you let your lawn get long enough, it eventually grows seed heads. When we want aspen to stop suckering, stop cloning itself and spreading into the open areas around them, we stop cutting them. If we let the aspen trees mature past 50, 60, maybe 70 years, they become old and decrepit, the condition of the organism above and below ground degrades enough that suckering is effectively ended, and the organism dies.
So, when we see an aspen forest that has been harvested, we call it a young forest, but in fact it may be older underground than many old growth hardwood trees. Aspen might appear to wink out over the years as climax vegetation, what we used to call old growth, takes over the forest. However, it can persist underground for hundreds to thousands of years, waiting for a disturbance to reset the clock and trigger the pioneering stage of succession again.
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usa world animals vocab health science math brain
A halibut is a type of flatfish from the family of the righteye flounders (Pleuronectidae). This name is derived from Dutch heilbot. Halibut live in both the North Pacific and the North Atlantic Oceans, and are highly regarded food fish.
Giant Fish: The halibut is the largest of all flatfish; the Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis, has been known to attain a weight of over 500 pounds (230 kg) and can be eight feet (2.4 m) or greater in length. A very large halibut is known as a "barn door". Females grow much larger than males with males only rarely reaching 100 pounds. Like the flounders, adult halibut typically have both eyes on the right side of the head. Halibut have speckled or brown top (right) sides and creamy white under (left) sides, and can be distinguished from other flatfish by the tail. Alantic and Pacific halibut have distinctly diffrent bone structures with that of Alantic halibut being eaiser to cut.
Easy to Please: Halibut feed on almost any animal they can fit in their mouths: animals found in their stomachs include sand lance, octopus, crab, salmon, hermit crabs, lamprey, sculpin, cod, pollack and flounder. Halibut can be found at depths as shallow as a few metres to hundreds of metres deep, and although they spend most of their time near the bottom, halibut will move up in the water column to feed. In most ecosystems the halibut is near the top of the marine food chain. In the North Pacific the only common predators on halibut are the sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus), the orca whale (Orcinus orca), and the salmon shark (Lamna ditropis).
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Pleuronectiformes
Family: Pleuronectidae
Genus: Hippoglossus
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Life inside the Forbidden City
Life inside the Forbidden City: how women were selected for service
July 12, 2018
All females living in the Forbidden City were carefully sequestered in the imperial quarters deep inside the palace. They were restricted to the inner court and forbidden from venturing out of the northern section. Most women in the Forbidden City were employed as maids and servants, but there was also a select group of concubines whose task was to bear children for the emperor – as many as he could father. Those who gave birth to male offspring were elevated to imperial consorts, with the empress at the top of the pecking order. The inner court was composed of three major groups of women: concubines, palace servants, and the royal princesses
Selecting partners
Women were selected as xiunu (elegant females) for the court as early as the Jin Dynasty (265-420 AD) and the selection criteria ranged from emperor to emperor. In the Ming dynasty, for example, no household was exempt from the selection. According to statutes, all young unmarried women went through xiunu selection process. Only girls who where married or with certified physical disabilities or deformities were exempt.
But the Qing Emperor Shunzhi (1638-61) began to exclude most of the Han population by limiting selection to "Eight Banners" families, who were mainly Manchurian and Mongolian. (Eight Banners was a Manchurian administrative and military framework.)
The Board of Revenue sent notices to officials in the capital and provincial garrisons to enlist the help of clan heads. The banner officials then submitted a list of all available females to the commanders’ headquarters in Beijing and to the Board of Revenue. The Board of Revenue then set the date for selection.
During the Qing dynasty, girls were brought on the appointed day to the Shenwu (Martial Spirit) Gate of the Forbidden City for inspection. They would be accompanied by their parents, or nearest relatives, together with their clan heads and local officials.
• In the Ming dynasty, social background was no barrier and many emperors chose concubines from the general public. The empress was the one exception – she was always selected from the family of a high-ranking official.
• Fewer than 100 candidates were selected to spend several nights with women who specialised in training and managing maids. Candidates’ bodies were inspected for problems, including skin infections, unwanted body hair and body odour.
• The finalists were initiated into forms of acceptable behaviour and how to speak, gesture and walk. They also learned arts such as painting, reading, writing, chess and dancing.
• Finally, the standout candidates spent several days serving as the emperor’s mother’s maids and taking care of her daily needs. They underwent further inspections while sleeping by the mother’s side to root out any bad nocturnal habits such as snoring, emitting odours, or talking or walking in their sleep.
During the first round of the competition, the women stood in lines of 100 according to age
One thousand were eliminated for being too tall, short, fat or thin
On the second day, the eunuchs intensively examined the women's bodies, and evaluated their voices and general manner. This slimmed down the field by another 2,000
The third day was spent observing their feet and hands, and grace of movement. Another 1,000 were eliminated
The remaining 1,000 underwent gynaecological examinations, dismissing another 700 from the process
The remaining 300 were then housed in the palace where they underwent a month-long series of tests for intelligence, merit, temperament and moral character
The top 50 candidates were subject to further examinations and interviews about maths, literature and art, and ranked accordingly
The three favourites would receive the highest ranking for imperial concubines
Only a few of those who made it through this rigorous process would be noticed by the emperor and win his favour. Most would spend their lives in bitter loneliness, and unsurprisingly, politics and jealousy was rife among concubines. Beauty was more of a curse than a blessing in China during this period of history.
Naturally, concubines were strictly forbidden from having sex with anyone other than the emperor.
Most of their activities were overseen and monitored by the eunuchs, who wielded great power in the palace. Concubines were required to bathe and be examined by a court doctor before the emperor visited their bed chamber.
With hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of concubines at the emperor’s disposal, any lady the emperor graced with a visit would be subject to jealous rivalries. Concubines had their own rooms and would fill their days applying make-up, sewing, practising various arts and socialising with other concubines. Many of them spent their entire lives in the palace without any contact with the emperor.
Qing Dynasty harem system
The ranking remained consistent but the number of consorts and concubines varied under different emperors
Polygamy was common practice in feudal China, although only upper- and wealthy middle-class men could afford to take several wives. It was seen as an affirmation of male potency, and the presence of many women was taken to indicate a man’s virility.
The emphasis was on procreation and the continuity of the father’s family name. Confucianism emphasised the ability of a man to manage a family as part of his personal growth in daxue (great learning). In the case of the emperor, guaranteeing a successor to the throne was of paramount importance.
1. The strict distinction between main wife and concubines
The main wife was superior to all other wives. She was responsible for submitting to the higher principles of polygamy and to mentor the other wives in harmonious behaviour for the greater good.
2. Women must not be jealous
Women, especially the main wife, had to rise above their earthly emotions. The belief that they were living for a higher purpose presumably helped displace feelings of bitterness, jealousy and rivalry.
3. Attachment could radically destabilise polygamy
The husband should not have a favourite, nor should any of the wives monopolise the man. Love had to be distributed evenly among the wives, which effectively meant that passionate attachment was not acceptable.
4. Polygamy could only survive by observing a strict hierarchy
Each dynasty had its own set of titles and ranks for the imperial wives. The empress ranked at the top, with more wives filling successive echelons below her. Most wives occupied the lower echelons. Hierarchy was determined at specific times, such as when a new wife joined the imperial family and was assigned a rank.
It was believed that organising the emperor’s sex life was essential to maintaining the well-being of the entire Chinese empire. The Chinese calendars of the 10th century were not used to keep track of time but rather to keep the emperor’s sex schedule in check. The rotation of concubines sleeping with the emperor was kept to a regimented order. Secretaries were employed to record the emperor’s sex life with brushes dipped in imperial vermilion.
In China, and some other Asian countries, age is determined from the moment of conception, not the moment of birth. The Imperial Chinese believed that women were most likely to conceive during the full moon, when the Yin, or female influence, was strong enough to match the Yang, or male force, of the emperor. The empress and other wives slept with the emperor around the time of the full moon because it was believed children of strong virtue would be conceived on those nights. The lower-ranking concubines were tasked with nourishing the emperor’s Yang with their Yin, sleeping with him around the time of the new moon.
Zhenfei entered the palace in 1899 during the Guangxu reign at the age of 13. She was later promoted to the title of imperial concubine, second to Empress Longyu, who was the niece of Empress Dowager Cixi. Zhenfei was a beautiful and intelligent woman. As the Guangxu emperor’s favourite consort, she gained much influence in the imperial court. Popularly known as the “Pearl Consort”, she hated rules and regulations. She was prone to acts of rebellion which infuriated Cixi, who began to look for an excuse to punish her.
On June 20, 1900, the Eight-Nation Alliance laid siege to Beijing and Cixi forced the emperor to flee with her to Xian. Before they left, Cixi ordered Zhenfei to commit suicide on the pretext that her youth and beauty would endanger the royal party as well as bring shame if she were raped by foreign soldiers. Zhenfei refused, asking instead for an audience with the emperor. It is believed Dowager Cixi responded by ordering eunuchs to throw Zhenfei to her death down a well behind the Ningxia Palace.
Palace servants
The Qing Palace Maids
Maids were female servants in the palace. They were ranked according to their families’ social position and they would only be recruited from the Eight Banners families that were mainly Manchurians and Mongolians. They were selected when they reached the age of 13. Their role was to attend to the daily needs of the empress, imperial consorts and concubines. They could not leave their ladies’ sides, day or night, seven days a week. The maid-in-waiting held the highest rank.
The number of maids assigned to high-ranking women varied
Imperial consorts and concubines wanted to mark their high status and spare themselves the physical challenges of breastfeeding. This resulted in wet nurses coming to high prominence during the Ming dynasty.
One of the more unusual responsibilities that the Rites and Proprietary office bestowed upon eunuchs was to recruit between 20 and 40 lactating women every three months.
Whenever a baby was due in the palace, 40 wet nurses and 80 substitutes were employed. Imperial sons were breastfed by a wet nurse whose own child was a girl, and vice versa in the cases of imperial daughters. This way the yin and yang could be matched and the substitution of babies, accidental or otherwise, could be averted.
When working, wet nurses received a clothing allowance, rice with about five ounces of meat a day, and coal in cold weather.
Royal princesess
Women in the imperial family
The emperor’s unmarried female relatives were not allowed to live outside the inner palace.
Imperial daughters were ranked according to their bloodline to the emperor and their mother’s title.
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Other male members of the nobility looking for wives and concubines also had access to the xiunu (beauties) from the Eight Banners families. Lists of candidates were made and presented to the palace in groups of three or five. Those selected would either become palace concubines, be married to either the emperor’s sons or grandsons, or be married to princes and dukes and their sons and grandsons. Empresses came from this rank of “beauties”.
This is the first chapter in a series exploring life in the Forbidden City.
You can navigate between the chapters as they are published. Future chapters will investigate daily life in the palace and follow the odyssey undergone by the royal collection. We hope you enjoy immersing yourself in the project much as we enjoyed making it.
The Palace Museum
By South China Morning Post Graphic Team
Life inside the Forbidden City
Enjoying South China Morning Post graphics?
Here are some other digital native projects you might want to visit
Or just visit our graphics home page
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EarthWorks Geospatial Catalog
Ancient Parishes of England and Wales, 1831
, , , and
The system of Ancient Parishes was not defined by central government, but grew up over the centuries starting in Saxon times. By origin it was an entirely ecclesiastical system, but it became the main geography for a variety of statistical reporting, partly because the main local sources for many government inquiries were the parish priests of the Church of England. Its origins mean there was no central record of the system, and boundary mapping of the whole country by the Ordnance Survey was not completed until the late 19th century, so there is room for substantial debate about what parishes actually existed at a given date. This file was constructed around the county-by-county parish listings of the 1831 Census of Population. Under the Ancient Parish system, many parishes especially in the north of England consisted of a mother parish based on the main settlement, plus surrounding Townships, Chapelries and hamlets (many of which later became separate Civil Parishes): the file makes no attempt to represent those subdivisions, only the overall parishes. Statistical data and other information used in “A Vision of Britain through Time” can be accessed and downloaded here: dataset is intended for researchers, students, and policy makers for reference and mapping purposes, and may be used for basic applications such as viewing, querying, and map output production, or to provide a basemap to support graphical overlays and analysis with other spatial data.
University of Portsmouth
England and Wales
Parishes, Administrative and political divisions, and Boundaries
Held by
More details at
Use and reproduction
These data are licensed by Stanford Libraries and are available to Stanford University affiliates for non-commercial activities of research, teaching, educational or scholarly work purposes only. Affiliates are limited to current faculty, staff and students. An End User License outlining the full terms of use is included with this download.
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How do space shuttles generate electricity?
1. Apr 24, 2008 #1
From what I understand NASA shuttles use electrolysis in fuel cells (their fuel cell power plants) . But how does it work? Do they bring up liquid oxygen and hydrogen, or is it something else with water? What is the byproduct?
Last edited: Apr 24, 2008
2. jcsd
3. Apr 24, 2008 #2
User Avatar
Science Advisor
Gold Member
4. Apr 24, 2008 #3
and if water is the by-product, why do they still need recycle bodily fluids to drink?
5. Apr 24, 2008 #4
User Avatar
Science Advisor
Homework Helper
The shuttle doesn't however the space station does recycle urine and humidity from the air.
The shuttle has relatively short missions and gets most of it's power form fuel cells, the ISS has more man-days to supply and gets most of it's power from solar panels.
In addition developing and testing recycling is part of the research program for longer term space exploration
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MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNAs, which are used generally to down-regulate gene expression from messenger RNA (mRNA) by binding to it. miRNAs are getting popular in potential application in cancer therapy. They could be used either to replace tumour suppressive miRNA lost in cancer or to inhibit oncogenic miRNA, which is overexpressed in cancer.
miRNAs are small single-stranded RNAs, usually consistent of 18-26 nucleotides. Mature miRNAs have RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which allows them to target many mRNAs. They use this mechanism to down-regulate mRNA. According to some predictions – each miRNA could regulate up to 200 individual mRNAs.
In cancer tumours use different mechanisms to overcome the control of the normal cells. The role of miRNAs was first studied in 2002 in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. There are several well-studied miRNAs that have oncogenic or tumour suppressive functions. Currently there are over 2 500 known miRNA but the functions of many of them as still unknown.
However there are some limitations in miRNA application:
• There should be very careful selection of the target as one miRNA could interact with many mRNAs and affect different processes.
• Current miRNA process involves targeting or imitating specific miRNA, which is involved in cancer related process. Therapeutic targeting may need miRNA to act as an oncogene or as a tumour suppressor.
Approaches that could be used in oncology
• Loss of cell-cell adhesion allow cancer cells to enter blood-stream and reach distant sites. There are miRNAs that target epithelia-to-mesenchymal transition, which is critical regulator of metastasis. There are artificial miRNAs that have shown to inhibit transformation, migration and invasiveness in vitro and suppress tumourigenicity in vivo.
• Targeting cancer cells and blocking their activity is a well-known strategy. There are many miRNAs involved in the process and currently over 40 miRNAs were identified. Many are involved in cell cycle suppression.
• miRNAs could be used to overcome chemotherapy resistance. There are evidence that chemotherapy resistance is result of epigenetic modifications and they are controlled by miRNAs. There is research to use miRNAs for delivery agents in combination of DNA damaging agents or chemotherapy.
• miRNAs are shown to be involved in tumour immune response and this makes them attractive potential therapeutic agent that can modulate immune response and suppress tumour metastasis.
While miRNA provide exciting new opportunities in oncology, there are still many unknown potential interactions and side effects which need to be studied. RNA technologies are definitely an exciting field to follow in the future.
Exploiting microRNAs As Cancer Therapeutics
Published on 4 January 2018
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Heroes: Beowulf and Jesus
has left behind. One manuscript exists in the British museum recording the epic tale of Beowulf. It has been estimated to be about a thousand years old. It
Beowulf as Christian and Christian Elements in the Poem “Beowulf”
overall situation and conflict between the pagan and Christian religions which existed in England at that time. The heavy Christian influence in the poem however, is reflected in the Christian
Beowulf & Odysseus/Ancient Heroes
inhabitants of England with the Christian influence that were undoubtedly added by the unknown poet who set the oral epic to paper. Nevertheless, despite the additions of Christian influence, the
Beowulf v. Odysseus/Who is the most attractive?
Beowulf & Aeneas
Beowulf : Pagan or Christian Hero?
the Church deemed it proper to allow them to retain many of their former customs, providing those customs were not explicitly forbidden by the Bible. The same approach applies
Christianity in Beowulf
Beowulf as a Christ-like Figure
Beowulf: Epic Hero Or Not?
of strength, courage, power and physical aptitude have as much in common with social implications as with historical rhetoric. The celebration of life that Beowulf represents is indicative of the
Beowulf was a Hero
Beowulf and Princess Diana
in order to deliver the king from his enemy, Grendel. He was not asked to do this. He merely felt that it was a task which needed to be done,
Hero and Anti Hero: Beowulf and Grendel
story of Beowulf, an epic heros journey set in Denmark and Sweden, in the sixth century. "To Beowulf now the glory was given, and
Digressions in Beouwulf.
as connectors, or "verbal doorways" which link the poem and its legends with larger worlds. Digressions The digressions in this poem seem to work at three levels. We have
The Epic “Beowulf”
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The research behind these two poems.
The origin and history behind acrostic poems.
These poems date back to ancient times. The word "acrostic" first used to describe prophecies of the Eirthaean Sibyl. They were written on leaves and arranged so the first letter formed a word on each leaf. One of the most famous and oldest acrostic poems, is the roman word-square.
What an acrostic poem is and how to write one.
An acrostic poem is where the first, last or other letters in a line spell out a word or phrase. The most common or simple form of an acrostic poem is where the first letters of the poem spell out a word or phrase.
Bio poem.
(Line 1) First name (Line 2) Three or four adjectives that describe the person (Line 3) Important relationship (daughter of . . . , mother of . . . , etc) (Line 4) Two or three things, people, or ideas that the person loved (Line 5) Three feelings the person experienced (Line 6) Three fears the person experienced (Line 7) Accomplishments (who composed . . . , who discovered . . . , etc.) (Line 8) Two or three things the person wanted to see happen or wanted to experience (Line 9) His or her residence (Line 10) Last name --------------------------
Big image
Big image
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Lesson 11: Jesus' Death and Resurrection
Intermediate Bible Study
As already stated, the most important event in the history of man is the coming of Jesus. The most important events in His life are His death and His resurrection.
Why Did Jesus Die?
Many times while Jesus was on the earth, He was very popular with the multitudes. One time there were about 5,000 men listening to Him preach, not counting the women and children. Just a week before His death, the people ran before Him coming into the city, shouting His praises. (Matthew 21:8,9).
Why then did He die? One reason was because of what He taught. He wasn't afraid to tell men of their sins, He spoke very plainly. (Matthew 23). He taught the Jews that God was planning to remove them from being His chosen people and that others, those not Jews, would be accepted. (Matthew 21:43; 8:11,1 2). He also taught that He was equal with the Father (John 5:1 8) and this made the Jews angry. Jesus died because men hated Him; yet it was these same men for whom He died!
His Death
A very close friend of Jesus named Judas, decided to sell Jesus to His enemies. The enemies promised Judas 30 pieces of silver if he would give Jesus into their hands. One night while Jesus was praying, Judas came with a mob and showed them who Jesus was by kissing Him. Later Judas killed himself because of what he had done.
His Trial And Crucifixion
Jesus was taken by the mob and, though not one time in His life had He done wrong, He was put on trial. Men lied about Him, about what He had done, and finally He was sentenced to die. All the time He was on trial, men were spitting on Him, hitting Him in the face, mocking Him and beating Him. Jesus, even though being treated wrong, still did no wrong. (I Peter 2:22-25).
Finally, He was taken to be crucified. They drove nails through His hands and feet and into the cross, then lifted the cross up, to watch Him die. Even while He was on the cross, they mocked Him.
His Burial
After Jesus was dead, His friends took Him from the cross to bury Him. A man named Joseph, from Arimathea, gave them a burial place. Because the Jewish leaders were afraid someone might steal the body, they placed guards around the tomb to keep the body of Jesus in the tomb.
His Resurrection
But nothing could keep Him in the tomb! On Sunday morning, when the friends of Jesus came to the tomb, they found it open; Jesus had been raised from the dead! In order for all men to know that Jesus was His son, God raised Him from the dead. Forty days later Jesus returned to heaven to be with God! Jesus is alive! He is a living Savior!
Student Information
First Name:
Last Name:
Teacher's Name:
Fill in the blanks:
1. Jesus was so popular that over people listened to Him preach at one time.
2. Jesus taught the Jews were to be removed from being God's ; and that He was with the Father.
3. When He was crucified they drove through His and His .
4. The place where Jesus was buried belonged to a man named , from .
5. List four things they did to Jesus while He was on trial:
6. Check the correct answer.
7. True False Judas sold Jesus for 35 pieces of silver.
8. True False The disciples stole the body of Jesus so people would believe He had been raised from the dead.
9. True False Judas was crucified with Jesus.
10. True False Jesus is a dead Savior.
11. True False Jesus did not claim, He was equal with God.
Questions or Comments you may have:
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• Research article
• Open Access
• Jason A Wilder1Email author,
• Murray P Cox2,
• Andrew M Paquette1,
• Regan Alford1,
• Ari W Satyagraha3,
• Alida Harahap3 and
• Herawati Sudoyo3
BMC Genetics201112:100
Received: 4 July 2011
Accepted: 18 November 2011
Published: 18 November 2011
Language GroupIndigenous LanguagePrincipal EigenvectorAncestry Informative MarkerAncestry Proportion
The islands of North Maluku, Indonesia (also known as the Moluccas or Spice Islands) lie in a pivotal position on the migration routes of humans through the Indo-Pacific. Two major prehistoric movements of people are particularly important with respect to the linguistic, cultural, and genetic diversity of the region. First, the initial Pleistocene colonization of the western Pacific flowed from west to east through Indonesia to New Guinea and Australia, bringing the ancestors of modern Papuans and Australians into the region. Although the exact route(s) of this migration are not known, North Maluku lies along a probable pathway of inter-island travel between Sulawesi and New Guinea [1]. Indeed, archaeological evidence confirms human habitation in North Maluku as far back as 32,500 years before present [2]. The second major migration event with a significant impact on North Maluku was the spread of Asian Austronesian-speaking populations from the north via the Philippines into island Southeast Asia and Oceania. The oldest pottery found in North Maluku and associated with the Austronesian culture dates to 3,500 years before present [2]. Several linguistic and cultural aspects of the Austronesian expansion appear to have originated in the islands of North Maluku, suggesting it played an important role in the spread of Austronesians throughout the region [3]. As such, the prehistoric contributions to present-day communities in this region can largely be framed around these two main events.
With respect to these prehistoric influences, North Maluku is particularly remarkable because it is one of only a handful of island groups in eastern Indonesia that maintains extant languages that likely reflect both the initial Pleistocene colonization event and subsequent immigration of Austronesians. Geographically, the most widespread languages in North Maluku are of Papuan origin and fall within the West Papuan language family; this family ultimately traces its ancestry back to the original Pleistocene colonization of Island Southeast Asia [4]. The West Papuan language group is particularly diverse on the Bird's Head peninsula of New Guinea, and North Maluku represents its western-most modern-day occurrence [5]. In addition to these Papuan languages there are also a number of Austronesian languages established in the area [6], particularly in the southern portions of the island of Halmahera and its satellite islands (Figure 1). As such, speakers of deeply divergent Papuan and Austronesian languages live in close proximity in this region today.
Figure 1
Figure 1
Study Area. A. Overview map of Island Southeast Asia. The region of North Maluku, Indonesia where the present study was performed is highlighted by the red dashed box. B. Focal study region showing the main island of North Maluku, Halmahera, and its satellite islands. Sampled populations are named together with numbers of sampled individuals in parentheses; red indicates speakers of Papuan languages, blue indicates Austronesian speakers. Map positions indicate general vicinities where individuals of sampled ethnicities reside (from [5]). The Sanana population lives on the island of Sanana, part of North Maluku province, approximately 80 km to the southwest of the region shown.
The mechanism by which Austronesian languages became established in North Maluku remains unknown. The diversity of Papuan languages in the area suggests that they were well-established prior to the arrival of Austronesians [2, 7]. Two simple models of the establishment of Austronesian languages that make opposing genetic predictions are a Replacement Model and an Adoption Model. The first of these posits that Austronesian-speakers partially colonized North Maluku, displacing speakers of Papuan languages in the process. Even if there was some intermarriage between Papuan- and Austronesian-speakers, this model suggests that populations representing these two language groups will be genetically distinct from one another [8]. Conversely, the Adoption Model posits that speakers of Papuan languages in North Maluku adopted Austronesian languages through cultural contact with Austronesian speakers, not intermarriage. This model predicts no major change in the genetic composition of the resident pre-existing population [8, 9], thereby proposing that there will be a minimal signature of Austronesian admixture in North Maluku and little genetic differentiation between Papuan and Austronesian-speaking populations. A genetic pattern consistent with the Adoption Model has been observed in many Austronesian-speaking populations in eastern Indonesia and Melanesia, and has been interpreted as evidence of widespread language borrowing in this region [10]. Of course, the Replacement and Adoption Models reflect opposite extremes on a spectrum of more complex scenarios.
Given the remarkable linguistic diversity of North Maluku, and the obvious importance of its geographic position for both Pleistocene and Austronesian migration, we have surprisingly little knowledge of the genetic composition of populations living in this region today. Because languages in North Maluku have both Asian and Papuan origins, our goal here is to test whether there is a genetic signature that also reflects this division.
One approach to this question would be to genotype large numbers (i.e., hundreds of thousands) of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across a range of samples (e.g., using a SNP chip). However, from the perspective of information content, this approach is expensive. The vast majority of SNPs in a population are unlikely to show frequency differences between Asian and Papuan groups, and therefore have no statistical power to infer Asian-Papuan ancestry. Instead, information about ancestry proportions is carried by a relatively small number of SNPs with high frequency differences between the parental groups. Such SNPs are called ancestry informative markers (AIMs). AIMs are considerably cheaper to screen than genotyping with standard SNP chips, but they retain extremely high power to infer ancestry proportions. One key limitation is that AIMs only have statistical power to answer the questions they were designed to address - in this case, proportions of Asian versus Papuan ancestry. Nevertheless, this is the main axis of population history in the Indo-Pacific region today.
The research presented here genotypes 27 previously identified AIMs in 340 individuals representing 11 different ethnicities in North Maluku (Figure 1). This sampling scheme includes multiple populations speaking both Papuan and Austronesian languages. The study has two main aims: 1) to estimate the amount of Asian admixture among populations in the region; and 2) to test whether linguistically differentiated groups are also genetically distinct from one another. Addressing these questions will enhance our understanding of how the remarkable contact zone in North Maluku originally formed, as well as shed light on the dynamics of the expansion of Austronesian speakers through the region.
Asian Admixture in North Maluku
To detect the genetic signature of Asian admixture into North Maluku, we genotyped 11 autosomal and 16 X-chromosomal AIMs in a sample of approximately 340 individuals. These unlinked and statistically independent markers were chosen because they have alleles that are highly differentiated between Asian and Melanesian source populations and are therefore useful to detect contributions from each of these potential parental sources [11]. The source populations used to identify these AIMs were the Southern Han Chinese and highland Papua New Guineans. Other potential source populations have similar allele frequencies at these AIMs, and the choice of parental population has little effect on the power to detect admixture along this Asian-Papuan axis [11]. Because we typed numerous markers from both the X chromosome and the autosomes, we are also able to explore potential sex biases in rates of admixture.
Each of the AIMs included in this study exhibited alleles of intermediate frequency in our total sample from North Maluku, thus suggesting strong Papuan and Asian contributions to genetic diversity in this region (Additional File 1). Using a least squares-based estimator (see Methods section), the overall average estimate of Asian admixture is 0.72 for X chromosomal loci and 0.64 for autosomal loci (Table 1). This trend of higher X chromosomal than autosomal Asian admixture is observed for all individual populations except Kayoa and Sawai, but is only statistically significant for around half of the studied populations (i.e., the point estimate of Asian admixture for X chromosomal loci exceeds the 95% confidence interval for autosomal loci). Nevertheless, the general pattern is indicative of female-biased gene flow into the region from Asia, as is consistent with earlier work [11]. There is very little heterogeneity among populations with respect to admixture estimates (Table 1). With the exception of the X chromosome data from Ternate, no outliers were observed after applying a 5% family-wise false discovery rate (FDR) correction for multiple testing.
Table 1
Asian admixture estimates
X chromosome
All Loci Combined
95% C.I.
95% C.I.
95% C.I.
All Papuan
0.61 - 0.68
0.66 - 0.74
0.65 - 0.70
0.58 - 0.73
0.69 - 0.84
0.66 - 0.77
0.38 - 0.67
0.66 - 1.00
0.58 - 1.00
0.61 - 0.69
0.65 - 0.75
0.64 - 0.71
0.58 - 0.70
0.71 - 0.85
0.67 - 0.77
0.63 - 0.71
0.62 - 0.72
0.64 - 0.70
0.60 - 0.78
0.65 - 0.87
0.65 - 0.81
All Austronesian
0.58 - 0.65
0.66 - 0.75
0.64 - 0.70
0.63 - 0.80
0.58 - 0.76
0.63 - 0.76
0.57 - 0.72
0.62 - 0.80
0.62 - 0.74
0.50 - 0.80
0.62 - 0.97
0.61 - 0.89
0.50 - 0.61
0.64 - 0.76
0.60 - 0.68
0.48 - 0.80
0.40 - 0.84
0.48 - 0.79
N indicates the average number of chromosomes typed per population across all AIMs in each category (X-linked or autosomal). The 'All Papuan' and 'All Austronesian' categories include individuals from ethnicities that did not meet our minimum sample size requirement (5 individuals) to be included in the population-based analysis.
Genetic Differentiation of North Maluku Populations
By partitioning the genetic variation in our dataset to separate components observed among major language groups, among populations within language groups, and within populations (i.e., performing an analysis of molecular variance, or AMOVA), we can begin to describe the genetic structure of human groups living in North Maluku. At both the X chromosome and autosomal loci, an average of ≥99.5% of the genetic variability can be found within populations (Table 2). The next largest component of variation exists among populations within language groups, and the smallest component falls among language groups.
Table 2
Hierarchical analysis of genetic differentiation (AMOVA)
Among Language Groups
Among Populations, Within Groups
Within Populations
X Chromosome
Values indicate averages across all AIMs in each category.
Generally speaking, there was very little variability among markers in terms of the AMOVA results (Additional File 2). With one exception, the among-group and among-population components of variation for each AIM did not significantly exceed values expected by chance under panmixia. The sole exception was for X-linked marker rs5987967, which had an among-populations component of 5.19% (p < 0.0001); however, the among-group component for this marker was not significantly higher than expected by chance (and was, in fact, statistically indistinguishable from zero). These results suggest that for the X-linked and autosomal AIMs examined here, there is no meaningful among-group or among-population component of sampled genetic variation (i.e., little genetic variation is apportioned according to linguistic groups or ethnicities).
Use of the clustering algorithm STRUCTURE also reveals little evidence for subdivision of language groups within North Maluku. When implementing analyses using STRUCTURE, we included our North Maluku dataset together with genotypes in the mainland Asian and Papuan populations from which the AIMs used here were originally developed. Given that our dataset was specifically designed to capture variation along the Asian-Papuan axis, we emphasize that only K = 2 has any natural interpretation in the context of the present study. Consistent with this, the estimated likelihood of our data plateaus at K = 2, suggesting this as the maximum number of latent groups necessary to capture the signal of genetic differentiation [12]. At K = 2 the results of the STRUCTURE analysis clearly show the Asian and Papuan parental populations to anchor the extremes of Asian-Papuan divergence, with our North Maluku samples showing evidence of extensive admixture between these two latent groups (Figure 2). There is no apparent differentiation of Austronesian- versus Papuan-speakers; the component of ancestry shared with Asia in the North Maluku population averages 0.67 (95% confidence interval; 0.62-0.72) among Austronesian-speakers and 0.68 (95% confidence interval; 0.62-0.74) among Papuan-speakers. It is notable that these admixture estimates are extremely close to those obtained with the least-squares method described above, and also show remarkably little variation among individuals or populations.
Figure 2
Figure 2
STRUCTURE admixture plot. STRUCTURE clearly delineates the two populations used to define the AIMs genotyped in the present study, the southern Han Chinese (1) and highland Papua New Guineans (4). Speakers of Austronesian and Papuan languages in North Maluku (groups 2 and 3, respectively) show a uniform degree of Asian admixture and no evidence of genetic differentiation. (Note the single individual with substantial Asian admixture in the highland Papua New Guinea sample).
As a final analysis of differentiation between Austronesian- and Papuan-speakers, we performed an individual-based principal component analysis. Examination of the two principal eigenvectors reveals broad overlap between individuals from these two language groups (Figure 3). There is no statistical difference in the position of these two groups along the principal eigenvectors (p = 0.45 and 0.22 for eigenvectors 1 and 2, respectively).
Figure 3
Figure 3
PCA Plot. The individual-based PCA reveals no significant difference in the distributions of speakers of Austronesian (indicated by black circles) and Papuan (indicated by 'x') languages along the two principal eigenvectors.
Populations in North Maluku have been substantially impacted by gene flow from Asia. At the ancestry informative loci tested here, we estimate the overall Asian admixture fraction to be ~67% (using two different methodologies). This fraction appears slightly higher on the X-chromosome, indicating a possible Asian female bias during the admixture process. In a regional context, these results mirror previously surveyed populations in eastern Indonesia. Several islands have broadly similar admixture profiles (e.g., Sumba, Alor and Flores), which also show a trend toward female-biased Asian admixture using the same AIMs we screened here [11]. It is interesting to note that Asian admixture estimates for Sulawesi, which is the major island immediately to the west of North Maluku, are much higher than observed in the Maluku islands (97% among three Sulawesi populations). Indeed, from Sulawesi west, all Island Southeast Asian populations exhibit near-complete Asian ancestry at these genetic markers, while populations surveyed to the east of North Maluku (including coastal New Guinea) show a substantially lower Asian contribution. As such, the Molucca Sea, between Sulawesi and North Maluku, represents a geographic breakpoint, to the east of which chromosomes of Papuan ancestry have been retained at appreciable frequency. Interestingly, this phylogeographic pattern is mirrored by the distribution of Austronesian languages. West of the Molucca Sea, indigenous languages have been completely replaced by Austronesian languages; to the east of the Molucca Sea, indigenous languages have tended more often to persist [5, 13]. Analyses of multiple genetic marker systems suggest a similar genetic breakpoint in the Nusa Tenggara region of Indonesia [11, 14], an area that also marks a linguistic boundary between Papuan and Austronesian languages [5]. These patterns suggest that there is a major east-west divide in Asian influence, with respect to both genes and language, in Island Southeast Asia that runs from the Molucca Sea south to Nusa Tenggara. One possible explanation for this pattern is that speakers of Austronesian languages, carrying the Asian alleles at the AIMs we tested here, became less likely to replace existing populations (genetically or linguistically) as they moved east through Island Southeast Asia. Another alternative is that Papuan back-migration occurred subsequent to the Austronesian expansion, reaching its limits at the observed breakpoints. Both of these processes appear to be ongoing today [15].
It is remarkable that the genetic divide we observe at the Molucca Sea (and which has been observed previously in Nusa Tenggara) precisely follows a breakpoint in human morphological phenotypes first observed by the nineteenth century biologist Alfred R. Wallace [16]. Wallace described this phenotypic boundary as the line dividing people with Malay versus Papuan physical characteristics. This breakpoint is displaced to the east of his more famous biogeographical divide (i.e., Wallace's Line), which he described based on the region's non-human fauna. Our data suggest that differing rates of Asian admixture, likely mediated by the geographical expansion of Austronesian-speakers, may be responsible for Wallace's phenotypic boundary observed for human populations in the region. Within North Maluku, Wallace also noted that individuals displayed what he deemed to be a composite of Papuan and Malay characteristics [16]. Similar observations have been reiterated by modern anthropologists [1719]. The results we report here suggest that these observations may reflect genuine genetic admixture between Asian and Papuan populations. This diverse ancestry of individuals in North Maluku suggests that they may harbour more deeply divergent genetic lineages than might be expected for small island populations, which likely has implications for health and medical care in this area. In particular, a number of alleles that confer protection against severe malaria, and also sometimes have negative pleiotropic effects, have been associated with either Austronesian or Melanesian origins [2025]. Given the lack of population structure that we observe, these functional genetic variants of diverse evolutionary origins may now be geographically widespread across North Maluku.
Despite the relatively strong contribution of Asian genetic material to the peoples of North Maluku, we observe no correlation between genes and language among our surveyed populations. Whether Papuan- or Austronesian-speaking, all populations shared similar levels of Asian admixture and showed no evidence of genetic differentiation. This result is not easy to reconcile with either the Replacement or Adoption Models. Unless swamped by subsequent gene flow, the Replacement hypothesis predicts some degree of genetic differentiation between populations speaking Austronesian versus Papuan languages. Likewise, the Adoption hypothesis predicts little genetic evidence of Austronesian admixture. Neither of these patterns is consistent with our observations. Instead, our results suggest a process of extensive Asian admixture with heterogeneous linguistic replacement. Austronesian languages made inroads in North Maluku, but this process only sporadically resulted in replacement of indigenous languages (predominantly on the southern and eastern coasts of Halmahera). Why some Papuan languages persisted in the face of widespread gene flow, and others did not, represents an intriguing open question.
This outcome contrasts strongly with other nearby island systems, including many populations in coastal Melanesia, where replacement of indigenous languages with Austronesian ones is complete, despite the persistence of Papuan genetic variation [10, 26]. Indeed, within Island Southeast Asia, previous studies have found a heterogeneous relationship between genes and languages in different settings. For instance, Lansing et al. [27] found that on the island of Sumba there is a positive correlation between villages that have retained linguistic elements that likely trace to the single founding Austronesian language of the island and the frequency of Austronesian Y chromosome lineages. In contrast, Mona et al. [28] found no relationship between speakers of Austronesian versus Papuan languages with respect to Y chromosome or mtDNA variation in a multi-island comparison in the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. The island of New Guinea has produced especially mixed results suggestive of substantial local-scale heterogeneity in gene-language correlations; neither mtDNA or Y chromosome show associations with language in Indonesian West New Guinea, while studies of classical markers have sometimes shown a very strong association and sometimes not [2932]. Regardless of the mechanism by which Austronesian languages replaced Papuan ones in North Maluku, our study suggests that deeply divergent languages do not necessarily represent a barrier to gene flow in this region, a pattern that is mirrored in many other parts of eastern Indonesia and the wider Melanesian area [33].
One important caveat of our AIM-based analysis is that it is designed expressly to tease out patterns of population genetic variation that have been shaped by Asian introgression into predominantly Papuan regions. Our finding of a lack of differentiation could be caused by either high rates of gene flow among populations or uniformly high rates of Asian admixture into individual populations, but not necessarily both. In other words, it would be premature to infer from our results that there exists no genetic structure that differentiates populations within North Maluku. However, if such population structure exists, it has not been caused by differential rates of Asian admixture. Other genetic systems may reveal important patterns of subdivision that result from alternative historical processes [34]. For instance, North Maluku was the major commercial hub for the long-distance spice trade to Asia and Europe during the last two millennia [35]. The genetic legacy of this global interaction may be better addressed using a different suite of genetic markers.
Populations in North Maluku inhabit a remarkable linguistic contact zone reflecting deeply divergent Papuan and Austronesian languages. Our data suggest that the arrival of Austronesian languages was accompanied by extensive genetic admixture across North Maluku together with sporadic replacement of indigenous Papuan languages by Austronesian ones. In the broader context of the Austronesian expansion into this region, we have identified the Molucca Sea as an important phylogeographic and linguistic divide, east of which indigenous languages and genes resisted replacement more effectively than to the west. The cause of this pattern remains unclear, but likely reflects a geographical or social transition point in the expansion dynamics of the Austronesian dispersal [36].
Sample Collection
DNA samples were collected from unrelated adults of both sexes attending secondary school in the city of Ternate, North Maluku. Data on natal language and self-identified ethnicity were obtained from each individual. Because DNA collection occurred at a centralized location, the number of samples representing each population varied widely. For population-based analyses, we included in this study only those for which the sample size was at least five individuals. All samples were collected with informed consent by staff of the Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, using protocols approved by the Institute.
AIM Genotyping
A total of 28 ancestry informative markers (AIMs) (see Additional File 1) were selected from previous work [11]. Briefly, these AIMs were identified using a SNP screening process designed to find those that showed high FST between southern Han Chinese and PNG highlanders. Candidate markers were chosen from two sources: the HOMINID dataset, a collection of re-sequenced putatively neutral regions distributed across the human genome [37], and the Jakobsson et al. dataset, a collection of 500,000 SNPs typed in the HGDP-CEPH panel [38]. To address the question of sex-specific admixture, markers were selected from both the autosomes and the X chromosome. To minimize the effects of natural selection, all AIMs were located away from genes (including introns, UTRs and immediate flanking regions) and are more than 1 cM distant from other markers in the panel (i.e., they are evolutionarily and statistically independent).
AIM genotype data were collected using a MassARRAY® iPLEX Gold SNP-typing platform (Sequenom) at the University of Arizona Genetics Core facility (Additional File 3). Genotype data from the 28 AIMs were initially checked for agreement with Hardy-Weinberg proportions and evidence of minimal sample dropout. One autosomal marker, rs12613102, showed significant deviations from expected Hard-Weinberg proportions and a high number of samples produced no genotype calls. The affected samples were not associated with missing data at other markers, and this marker was eliminated from all further analyses (data are not shown in Additional File 1).
Data Analysis
Admixture estimates and confidence intervals were generated for each population using a variant of the admixture estimation method introduced by Chakraborty et al. [39], as modified by Cox et al. [11]. Briefly, we inferred admixture rates using a weighted least-squares estimator [39] altered to account for the sampling error in each of the 'parental' (P1 and P2) and 'hybrid' (H) populations by inferring a frequency density for P1, P2 and H at each marker. Using a re-sampling approach, random variables were drawn from the three frequency distributions, admixture was calculated using the least-squares estimator and the process was repeated 105 times. The median admixture rate with 95% confidence intervals (i.e., 0.025 and 0.975 quantiles) was calculated from the distribution of re-sampled admixture rates. Note that this approach explicitly accounts for variation in sample sizes and effective population sizes, even when they are quite small and/or differ widely between populations.
Population differentiation was assessed using several methods. First, we employed a hierarchical analysis of variance (AMOVA), as described by Weir [40]. For this analysis, we considered populations, which were determined by self-identified ethnicity (described above), as a subordinate classification to language group (Austronesian- versus Papuan-speakers). Language group affiliations were determined using data compiled in [5]. Significance of individual components of variance (i.e., FST, FCT and FSC) was assessed using 1,000 random permutations of the data. We implemented the AMOVA using the program Arlequin version [41]. Our second examination of differentiation among populations used the Bayesian clustering algorithm STRUCTURE (v. 2.3.3) [42]. We implemented STRUCTURE using a dataset containing AIM genotypes from our test samples from North Maluku together with the "parental" populations from which our ancestry informative markers were initially chosen (southern Han Chinese and highland Papua New Guinea). Data for the parental populations was taken from [11]. We ran STRUCTURE with a burn-in period of at least 45,000 steps and 5 × 106 steps per run, varying K (the number of populations) from 1 to 5. We ran each condition multiple times to ensure similarity of results among runs. To improve the detection of structure in our data we allowed prior information about individuals to inform the clustering process, as described by Hubisz et al. [43]. All results shown here use language affiliation (i.e., Papuan versus Austronesian) as prior information. Use of ethnicity produced very similar results (data not shown).
As a final examination of population structure, we performed an individual-based principal components analysis (PCA), implemented using the program SMARTPCA [44], to test for differentiation between Austronesian- and Papuan-speakers. In addition to providing a graphical depiction of the position of each individual along the principal eigenvectors, this method applies a formal statistical test based on Tracy-Widom theory to detect structure in the dataset.
Chase Ridenour and John Zadrozny assisted with data collection at Northern Arizona University. Ryan Sprissler and Elizabeth Zukowski assisted with marker genotyping at the University of Arizona. Comments from three anonymous reviewers helped to improve an earlier draft of this work. Funding that enabled this study was provided to JAW from the Department of Biological Sciences at Northern Arizona University and the National Science Foundation (BCS-1062258). MPC was supported by a Rutherford Fellowship from the Royal Society of New Zealand (RDF-10-MAU-001).
Authors’ Affiliations
Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA
Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Massey University, New Zealand
Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology, Jakarta, Indonesia
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© Wilder et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2011
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Pharyngeal slit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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image showing gill slits in acorn worm and tunicate
The presence of gill slits (in blue) in an acorn worm (left) and tunicate (right)
Pharyngeal slits are filter-feeding organs found in Invertebrate chordates (lancelets and tunicates) and hemichordates living in aquatic environments. Pharyngeal slits are repeated openings that appear along the pharynx caudal to the mouth. With this position, they allow for the movement of water in the mouth and out the pharyngeal slits. It is postulated that this is how pharyngeal slits first assisted in filter-feeding, and later with the addition of gills along their walls, aided in respiration of aquatic chordates.[1] These repeated segments are controlled by similar developmental mechanisms. Some hemichordate species can have as many as 200 gill slits.[2] Pharyngeal slits resembling gill slits are transiently present during the embryonic stages of tetrapod development. The presence of gill-like slits in the neck of the developing human embryo famously led Ernst Haeckel to postulate that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"; this hypothesis, while false, contains elements of truth, as explored by Stephen Jay Gould in Ontogeny and Phylogeny.[3] However, it is now accepted that it is the vertebrate pharyngeal pouches and not the neck slits that are homologous to the pharyngeal slits of invertebrate chordates. Gill slits are, at some stage of life, found in all chordates. One theory of their origin is the fusion of nephridia which opened both on the outside and the gut, creating openings between the gut and the environment.[4]
Pharyngeal arches in Vertebrates[edit]
In vertebrates, the pharyngeal arches are derived from all three germ layers.[5] Neural crest cells enter these arches where they contribute to craniofacial features such as bone and cartilage.[5] However, the existence of pharyngeal structures before neural crest cells evolved is indicated by the existence of neural crest-independent mechanisms of pharyngeal arch development.[6] The first, most anterior pharyngeal arch gives rise to the oral jaw. The second arch becomes the hyoid and jaw support.[5] In fish, the other posterior arches contribute to the brachial skeleton, which support the gills; in tetrapods the anterior arches develop into components of the ear, tonsils, and thymus.[7] The genetic and developmental basis of pharyngeal arch development is well characterized. It has been shown that Hox genes and other developmental genes such as dlx are important for patterning the anterior/posterior and dorsal/ventral axes of the branchial arches.[8] Some fish species have jaws in their throat, known as pharyngeal jaws, which develop using the same genetic pathways involved in oral jaw formation.[9]
Evolution of pharyngeal slits[edit]
A phylogeny showing when gill slits may have arisen. It is thought that gill slits were subsequently lost in echinoderms.
The presence of pharyngeal slits in hemichordates led to debates of whether this structure was homologous to the slits found in chordates or a result of convergent evolution.[10] With the placement of hemichordates and echinoderms as a sister group to chordates, a new hypothesis has emerged-suggesting that pharyngeal gill slits were present in the deuterostome ancestor .[11] Intriguingly, extant echinoderms lack pharyngeal structures, but fossil records reveal that ancestral forms of echinoderms had gill-like structures.[12] Comparative developmental and genetic studies of these pharyngeal structures between hemichordates and urochordates have brought about important insights regarding the evolution of the deuterostome body plan.[13] Comparative molecular biology has revealed that the Pax1/9 genes (which encode for transcription factors) are expressed in similar patterns between hemichordates and urochordates; In vertebrates, Pax 1 and Pax 9 are expressed in the pharyngeal pouches and are important for thymus development.[14] applying excess retinoic acid (excess retincoic acid in vertebrates results in pharyngeal abnormalities) leads to the absence of gill slits in developing Amphioxus, suggesting that retinoic acid may act through the same mechanism in vertebrates and amphioxus.[15] These studies indicate that the pharyngeal slits found in hemichordates and chordates are indeed homologous in a molecular sense.
1. ^ Kardong KV. Vertebrates : comparative anatomy, function, evolution (Seventh ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 9780078023026. OCLC 862149184.
2. ^ Gerhart J, Lowe C, Kirschner M (2005). "Hemichordates and the origin of chordates". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 15 (4): 461–467. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2005.06.004. PMID 15964754.
4. ^ The Nephridial Hypothesis of the Gill Slit Origin
9. ^ Fraser GJ, Hulsey CD, Bloomquist RF, Uyesugi K, Manley NR, Streelman JT (February 2009). "An ancient gene network is co-opted for teeth on old and new jaws". PLOS Biology. 7 (2): e31. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000031. PMC 2637924Freely accessible. PMID 19215146.
10. ^ Gee H (1996). "Before the backbone. Views on the origin of vertebrates". London (Chapman & hall).
11. ^ Winchell CJ, Sullivan J, Cameron CB, Swalla BJ, Mallatt J (2002). "Evaluating hypotheses of deuterostome phylogeny and chordate evolution with new LSU and SSU ribosomal DNA data". Mol Biol Evol. 19 (5): 762–776. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004134. PMID 11961109.
12. ^ Shu D, Morris SC, Zhang ZF, Liu JN, Han J, Chen L, Zhang XL, Yasui K, Li Y (2003). "A new species of yunnanozoan with implications for deuterostome evolution". Science. 299 (5611): 1380–1384. doi:10.1126/science.1079846. PMID 12610301.
13. ^ Brown FD, Prendergast A, Swalla BJ (2008). "Man is but a worm: chordate origins". Genesis. 46 (11): 605–613. doi:10.1002/dvg.20471. PMID 19003926.
14. ^ Ogasawara M, Wada H, Peters H, Satoh N (1999). "Developmental expression of Pax 1/9 genes in urochordate and hemichordate gills: insight into function and evolution of the pharyngeal epithelium". Development. 126 (11): 2539–2550. PMID 10226012.
15. ^ Holland LZ, Holland N (1996). "Expression of AmphiHox-1 and AmphiPax-1 in amphioxus embryos treated with retinoic acid: insights into evolution and patterning of the chordate nerve cord and pharynx". Development. 122 (6): 1829–1838. PMID 8674422.
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Resources on Faith, Ethics and Public Life
B. R. Ambedkar
This individual is not a direct affiliate of the Berkley Center.
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was an Indian nationalist, Dalit leader, and Buddhist revivalist. He was born into a poor Untouchable/Dalit Hindu family in 1891 and became one of the first Untouchables to earn a college degree. He led numerous efforts throughout his life to end caste discrimination, and became a vocal critic of Gandhi for Gandhi’s support of the caste system. To ensure equal untouchable representation, Ambedkar advocated a separate electorate system for Dalits. Gandhi opposed this, but they reached a compromise with the Poona Pact in 1932. In 1935, he announced that, because of caste injustices, he would not die a Hindu. He urged his followers to abandon Hinduism and grew increasingly involved with Buddhism. After independence, he was invited to draft India’s new constitution. He officially converted to Buddhism in 1956 and died less than two months later.
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Manufacturers use thermoplastics because they're easy to mold and shape when they're hot. Some types of thermoplastics are expensive, strong and used in place of metal, while others are used in common everyday products. Thermoplastics are materials that turn to liquid at high temperatures, but when they cool turn into hard, solid plastic. Keyboards are often made of thermoplastics. Another common use of thermoplastics is for compact disc cases.
Thermoplastics melt and turn into liquid when heated.
Thermoplastics are well suited for many different types of uses, because they have high strength, are lightweight and have relatively low processing costs. In addition, it's relatively easy to manufacture thermoplastic components quickly in high volumes with high precision. Sometimes engineers use thermoplastics instead of metals because of their much lighter weight.
The primary disadvantage of using thermoplastics instead of materials like metal is that thermoplastics can melt. Some types of low-quality thermoplastics melt when they're exposed to ultraviolet light for extended times. In addition, thermoplastics can have poor resistance to organic solvents, hydrocarbons and highly polar solvents. Thermoplastics are sometimes the victim of creep, which is when the material relaxes or weakens when exposed to long-term loading. Some types of thermoplastics, such as composites, fracture instead of becoming deformed when exposed to high levels of stress.
The two types of thermoplastics are high-temperature thermoplastics and engineering thermoplastics. Examples of high-temperature thermoplastics include common materials such as polypropylene and PVC. Engineering thermoplastics cost much more to produce than these common materials, and include materials such as nylons and polyesters. Thermoplastics can be as soft as rubber or as strong as aluminum, depending on how they're made. Some types of high-temperature thermoplastics are capable of withstanding temperature of up to 600 degrees F. without melting. Other types of thermoplastics can maintain their original properties in temperatures as cold as -100 degrees F. The majority of thermoplastics are excellent thermal and electric insulators. Engineering thermoplastics are typically flame-retardant and can withstand temperatures of up to 100 degrees C.
Common Uses
One type of thermoplastic, called polyvinyl chloride, or PVC, is commonly used for pipes, bottles and plastic containers. Another type, called polyester resin, is used for car bodies and garden furniture. A third type, polymethyl methacrylate, is used for things such as lenses and windows.
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Microsoft word - the chemistry of combustion.doc
Chemical reaction occurs continuously in the atmosphere, in factories, in
vehicles, in the environment and in our bodies. In a chemical reaction, one or
more kinds of matter are changed in a new kind – or several new kinds – of
Life as we know it, could not exist without these processes: plants could not
photosynthesize, cars could not more, pudding could thicken, muscles could not
burn energy, glue could not stick and fire could not burn. With these few jesters
in mind, we can define chemistry.
This is said to be the (study) science of composition, structure and the properties
of substances and how they react with other substances to form new substances
with the addition or removal of energy in any of its forms.
There are two processes by which changes take place in the subject matter of
It is important to realize that many aspects of substance are not included in the subject matter of chemistry. For instance, water may be cooled, and at a certain temperature freezes and forms ice; the temperature at which this happens is (0˚) which is an important fact about water, but this is physical rather than a chemical property. This is mainly because the process of freezing water is merely changing from the liquid state to the solid and is not changing into a new substance. Freezing is therefore regarded as a physical rather than a chemical process. On the other hand, when magnesium ribbon is heated in a flame, it burns brilliantly and the white powder which is formed is a completely new substance; a chemical process has taken place in this case. There are several important differences between physical and chemical processes:- Figure i. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES
Matter is that which has weight and occupies space. Matter is the name given to
all substances and can exist in any one of three states – solid liquid or gas.
Some forms of matter eg. water may be found quite commonly in all three states,
but many substances at normal temperature are found only in one or two of the
states. Because the total number of substances is so large, running into millions,
it is helpful to think about them grouped into different classes rather than as
Substances can be grouped into three classes:
Element can be defined as substances that cannot be broken down by chemical
treatment into any simpler substances. Elements consist of atom of the same
type. Out of millions of substances that exist, this statement applies to about a
hundred. Iron for example, is a familiar substance that part in many chemical
processes. If it is left for some time in a moist atmosphere, it will change into a
new substance, rust. Analysis of the rust shows that along with the iron, it also
contains oxygen. Again, iron may be dissolved in sulphuric acid. If the resulting
liquid is evaporated, green crystals are obtained. If these crystals are analyzed,
they will be found to contain not only iron but sulphur and oxygen. In these two
reactions and in all other reactions in which iron takes part, the iron is converted
into a more complicated substance. Apparently there is not chemical treatment
which can convert iron into a simpler substance than it already is. Substances
such as iron are placed into a class called elements. By using these simplest
substances as building blocks and by putting them together in two different ways,
all other substances known to exist can be made.
The group of elements may be divided into sub groups in several different ways –
for example into solids (such as iron and sulphur), liquids (such as mercury and
bromine), and gases (such as oxygen and nitrogen). Another division is into
metals (such as iron and magnesium) and non-metal (such as sulphur and
Mixtures and Compounds
A mixture is the product of mixing two or more substances in which these
substances retain their properties. If iron powder and sulphur are put in a test
tube and the content shaken, a mixture of iron and sulphur is produced.
The points listed in the left hand column of table ii. apply to this and other
However, if the mixture is gently heated, after a time, the content of the tube
begins to produce so much heat that they become red-hot. If the content is
allowed to cool and then examine, it is found that the points listed in the right
hand column of table ii apply. In fact, the material is no longer a mixture of irn
and sulphur but a compound given the name ferrus sulphide.
Therefore, we can define compounds as being made up of elements, but looks
and behave quite differently as a rule from any of its components or as a
chemical combination of two or more substances which look and behave quite
differently than any of its component element.
Thus, element can be placed together in two different ways, to make a mixture or
a compound, many of which contains several elements, rather than only two, as
in the above example. Also, compounds may themselves be mixed together.
Sea water, many rocks and minerals, and on a purely chemical level, the human
body are mixtures of compounds.
In order to properly explain the formation of compounds, it is necessary to refer
the atomic theory of matter. According to the theory, a sample of an element
such as iron or sulphur is a collection of many millions of tiny iron or sulphur
atoms and the chemical behaviour of these elements is a reflection of the
behaviour of the individual atoms. When the iron and sulphur are mixed
together, the iron and the sulphur atoms are not altered in any way so that no
changed in behaviour is observed. The iron atoms in the mixture go on behaving
in the same manner as the iron atom in pure iron and the same applies to the
sulphur atoms.
The compound of iron and sulphur however, behaves in a completely different
way from either iron or sulphur, so we have to conclude that separate atoms of
iron and sulphur no longer exist in the compound. A reasonable explanation for
this is that the iron atoms and the sulphur atoms have joined to form larger
particles called molecules in some ways such as this
in the compound (bonds are formed between the atoms).
Since there are no longer any separate iron and sulphur atoms in the compound,
the behaviour of these is no longer shown and instead we observe the different
behaviour of the new ferrous sulphur molecules.
Molecules of some compounds contain many more than two atoms combined
together. The molecules of substances such as wool and cotton and of many
plastics, contain thousands of atom.
However, most elements like iron and sulphur can be regarded as an assembly
of atoms but certain elements exist as assemblies of molecules. Examples such
as nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine and hydrogen are all encountered in the form of
molecules, each containing two atoms of the element combined.
There are many ways of defining the chemically complex process called
combustion. Essentially it is a chemical reaction or a series of reaction in
which heat and light are evolved.
All combustion or burning reactions involve the combination with oxygen or some
other supporter of combustion. It could also be defined as the rapid oxidation
of a substance, liberating heat and light and combustion by-products
(smoke, gases etc.)
When the rate of reaction is very slow, only heat energy is evolved as in the case
of iron rusting. Combustion represents a rapid rate of reaction in which light is
emitted as well as heat. And if however the reaction is extremely rapid an
explosion may be or is likely to be present.
Factors Involved in Combustion
One way of discussing combustion is by using the triangle of combustion in figure
iii which has evolved overtime into the fire tetrahedron. It is considered that for
combustion to occur three factors are necessary: a fuel, heat and a supporter of
combustion. The stable geometric form of the triangle suggests that combustion
will continue as long as these three factors are present. The removal of any one
of these factors will result in the collapse of the triangle and combustion will
Figure iii.
The Fire Tetrahedron
Modern fire science has recognized that in order to support flaming combustion a
fourth element must be added to what was previously known as the fire triangle.
In addition to fuel, heat, and oxygen, a chemical chain reaction is required to
continue flaming combustion. The addition of this fourth element graphically
creates a pyramid structure that is called The Fire Tetrahedron.
Fuels exist as solids, liquids or gases. In fact, material which can be oxidized
may become fuel and the size and shape will influence the ease of combustion.
The burning of most material produces flame. This occurs when gases or vapor
given off by a liquid or solid material are ignited. There are however, instances of
solid state burning in which surface burning occurs with little or no visible flame.
Most of the substances that burn are of the class known as organic chemicals
that is substances that contain carbon. There is a very large number of these
including gases such as methane, liquids such as benzene and toluene and
solids such as phenol and naphthalene. In addition to these, many metals burn
particularly when in the form of dusts or powders and so do a few non-metals
including hydrogen, carbon, sulphor and phosphorus. The physical properties of
fuels including their size and shape will influence the ease of ignition and rate of
burning. Some of the properties to be considered are:
The Supporter of Combustion
The supporter of combustion in the case of most fires is oxygen. This is the most
uncontrollable leg of the triangle. However, in some situation, particularly in
industry, there are several other possibilities of combustion. These include
chlorine, a very common industrial chemical, and also fluorine, bromine, sulphor
and even nitrogen. Oxygen supports combustion but does not burn. There is
normally 21% of oxygen in the air, however, the lower limits required for
combustion is 6% - 10%, while 15% - 16% is the lower limits for free burning. If
we should increase the oxygen level over 21%, the rate of burning would speed
up significantly.
The amount of heat necessary to bring about combustion is that which is enough
to raise the temperature of at least some of the fuel to its ignition temperature in
the particular circumstance at the time. This will depend on such factors as the
physical chemical nature of the fuel.
Most solids and liquids have to be heated above normal temperature before
flammable vapours are emitted. In discussing combustion of such materials,
several terms are used which are defined below:
Flash Point - is the lowest temperature at which there is sufficient
vaporization of the substance to produce a vapour which will flash
momentarily when a flame is applied. This temperature will be affected by
atmospheric pressure and in some fire situations, will result in a reduction
of flash-point temperature.
Fire Point - may be defined as the lowest temperature at which the heat
from the combustion of a burning vapour is capable of producing sufficient
vapour to enable combustion to continue. It will be seen that the
difference between flash point and fire point is that the flash point
temperature is only required to produce vapour to enable a momentary
flash to take place, whereas the fire point temperature has to be high
enough to produce sufficient vapour to sustain the reaction so that
substance continues to burn independently of the ignition source.
Spontaneous Ignition Temperature - is the lowest temperature at which
the substance will ignite spontaneously. That is the substance will burn
without the introduction of a flame or other ignition source. This is
sometimes referred to as the ignition temperature. This implies that
under certain conditions, some materials undergo spontaneous
Spontaneous Combustion - certain materials, especially organic
materials based on carbon may react with oxygen at room temperature. If
the fuel is a good thermal insulator, the heat generated in such a reaction
cannot escape. The temperature rises, which increases the rate of
reaction and the situation escalates. Eventually the ignition temperature is
reached and true combustion occurs. Compounds such as linseed oil
contain carbon double bands which are very prone to this type of reaction.
An Exothermic Reaction - is a chemical reaction in which heat is
produced. Most chemical reactions that take place spontaneously are of
this type. If follows from the definition of combustion that all combustion
reactions are exothermic.
An Endothermic Reaction is a chemical reaction in which heat is
Explosion is defined as a violent and rapid chemical change in which a
substance, solid, liquid or gas, is converted into gases at a high
temperature, the volume of gases being much greater than the bulk of the
original substance.
The heat required for combustion can be generated from a number of different
sources which fall under two broad headings:
Figure iv. Sources of Heat
Chemical Mechanical a. Heat of combustion In addition to the chemical and mechanical sources, heat is also produced by
electricity (including heat from arching and lighting), and nuclear fission and
Heat travels from a high region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature. This is true no matter how small the temperature difference. There
are four methods by which heat travels. These are – direct burning,
conduction, convection and radiation.
- may occur in solids, liquids and gases although it is most clearly
present in solids. In this method, heat energy is passed on from one molecule to
the next. The ability to conduct heat (thermal conductivity) varies between
materials. Most metal conduct heat relatively easy and are therefore classed as
good conductors. In fire situations, thermal conductivity is important in terms of
the danger of fire spread of heat conducted along it.
- occurs only in liquid gases. When a liquid or gas is heated, it
expands and therefore becomes less dense. The lighter fluid rises, being
displaced by colder and therefore denser fluid. This in turn becomes heated and
so a circulation is set up. Heat energy is carried throughout the fluid by actual
movement of molecules until a state uniform temperature is reached.
Radiation – this method of heat transmission does not involve any contact
between bodies and is independent of any material in the intervening space but
involve the transfer of heat through infrared rays and is one of the major sources
of fire spread. This heat is transmitted in straight lines. Heat from the sun
passes through empty space to warm the earth and the heat from a heater
placed at a high level in a room can be felt underneath the heater where neither
conduction nor convection can carry it.
A rapid chemical combination of fuel and oxygen in the presence of heat,
accompanied by the production of heat, light and combustion by-products
(smoke, gases etc.)
First Phase – Incipient
Oxygen content 20% - 21% with ceiling temperatures of approximately 37˚ C°.
At this stage the produces of combustion are water vapour, carbon dioxide and
sulphur dioxiode, and hot gases rising. Smoldering fires my last for a few
seconds to several hours before breaking into flames. A large volume of smoke
will be present until flaming starts and then progress is rapid.
Second Phase – free burning, flame producing or steady state
At this stage the oxygen content is 15% - 19% and the ceiling temperatures are
above 537°C and the products of combustion are water vapour, carbon dixiode,
carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide. There large quantities of dark grey smoke
and rapid destruction of combustible materials. It is at this point that flash over
occurs. Flash over is when room and all its contents reach their ignition
temperature and the area becomes fully involved in fire. Flame is now rapid.
Third Phase – smoldering
Oxygen content is less than 15% - 16% and ceiling temperature is above 815° C
and soot is now added to the produce of combustion. Dense, dark flammable
smoke and toxic flammable gases are being emoted and a black draft or smoke
explosion is now possible.
Some typical indications of a back draft are:
the smoke under pressure will “puff or breathe” smoke colour is very dark and dirty or yellow grey just prior to back draft rapid inward movement or air when an opening is made
Fires are classified into four main groups mainly due to the type of material that is
Class ‘A’
These are fire involving solid materials normally of organic nature (compounds of carbon), in which combustion generally occurs with the formation of glowing embers. Class ‘A’ fires are the most common and the most effective extinguishing agent is generally water in the form of a jet or spray. Class ‘B’ These are fire involving liquids or liquefiable solids. For the purpose of choosing effective extinguishing agents. Flammable liquids may be divided into two groups:
Depending on i and ii, the extinguishing agents include water spray, foam, light
water, vaporizing liquids, carbon dioxide and dry chemical powders. Examples of
these materials are alcohol, kerosene, gasoline, beeswax, tar etc.
Class ‘C’
These are fire involving gases or liquefiable gases in the form of a liquid spillage,
or a liquid or gas leak and these include methane, propane, butane, etc. Foam
or dry chemical powder can be used to control fires involving shallow liquid spills.
(Water in the form of spray is generally used to cool the container).
Class ‘D’
These are fires involving metals. Extinguishing agents containing water are
ineffective and even dangerous. Carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate classes of
dry chemical powders may also be hazardous if applied to most fires. Powered
Talc, soda ash, limestone and dry sand are normally suitable for Class ‘D’ fires.
Special fusing powders have been developed for fires involving some metals,
especially the radioactive ones.
Electrical Fires
It is not considered that electrical fires constitute a class, since any fire involving
or started by electrical equipment must in fact be a fire of Class A, B, C or D.
The normal procedure in such circumstances is to cut off the electricity and use
the extinguishing method appropriate to what is burning. Only when this cannot
be done with certainly will special extinguishing agents be required which are
non-conductors of electricity and non-damaging to the equipment. These include
vaporizing liquids, dry chemical powders and carbon dioxide.
Despite the many new techniques which have come to the assistance of
firefighters, water is still the most efficient, cheapest and most readily available
medium for extinguishing fires of a general nature. It is caused by fire brigades
although the methods of application have undergone a number of improvements.
Steam in large quantities can be used to smother a fire and in situations where it
is available, eg. onboard ships or in factories, it can be used in fixed installations.
Some of the most dangerous substance so far as fire risk is concerned are
liquids having a specific gravity lower than that of water. When water is applied
to the burning surface of such liquids, it lowers the temperature briefly and then
sinks below the surface where any further usefulness is lost. Except in the case
of liquids such as mentholated spirits which mix freely with water and where
dilation may occur to the point where combustion is halted. Foam which is
relatively insoluble in most liquids and because of its light weight, floats on the
surface of the liquid, forms a blanket capable of covering the surface of the
burning liquid and so extinguishes the fire. It also forms a radiant heat barrier
which is of importance in the extinction of oil and petrol fires.
Vaporizing Liquid
The halogenated hydrocarbons used for extinguishing fires have the property of
vaporizing readily when heated and are therefore generally known as vaporizing
liquids. They form a dense heavier than air cloud of non-flammable vapor which
not only blankets a fire by the displacement of air, but also have the property of
interfering with the chemical reactions within the flames of burning materials.
This property is termed inhibitory factor.
If a certain portion of the extinguishing medium (eg.16% chlorobromomethane is
present), it interferes with the chemical reaction involving the oxygen and is
stopped. The most common types are chlorobromomethane (CBM),
bromochloridifluoromethane (BCF) and bromotrifluromethane (BTM).
Carbon dioxide and Inert Gas
At normal temperatures, carbon dioxide is a gas 1.5 times as dense as air. It is
easily liquefied and bottled where it is contained under a pressure of 51 bars
(750lb/in). As a fire extinguisher, it acts in a manner similar to vaporizing liquids.
When carbon dioxide is discharged, the liquid boils off rapidly as a gas,
extracting heat from the surrounding atmosphere. The gas however extinguishes
by smothering or reducing the oxygen content of the air. Materials which supply
their own oxygen will continue to burn as well as those materials that tend to
decompose carbon dioxide, eg. magnesium. Apart from these considerations,
carbon dioxide is quick, clean, non-conductive of electricity non-toxic and does
not harm most fabrics.
As an alternative to carbon dioxide, liquid nitrogen in bulk or in cylinders
containing the gas will also produce the inert or smothering effect necessary for
successful fire suppression.
Dry Chemical Powders
Water cannot be used on most fires involving burning metals. The chief method
of extinction is by using dry chemicals which are stored in cylinders under
pressure or can be ejected by the release of a gas under pressure (see
extinguishers). The basis of most chemical powder is sodium bicarbonate. This,
with the addition of a metallic stearate as waterproofing agent is widely used as
an extinguishing agent.
Sand etc.
Dry earth sand, powdered graphite, talc, etc may be used on metal fire as a
smothering agent. Dry sand may also be used to prevent burning liquids, such
as paints or oils from flowing down drains. Sand may also be used to confine
shallow layers of such liquids so that foam or spray branches may be used. . on
no account should sand be used far extinguishing fires in machinery, such as
electric motors, since it may cause the entire machine to be dismantled for
cleaning, even though the fire damage was small
Beating Out
Small fires in materials such as textiles etc. may often be extinguished by beating
them out, or by rolling and screwing up the burning material tightly to exclude the
air. Beating is also the method normally employed to extinguish heat, crop,
grass and other similar fires in rural areas when water is not readily available.
Another method by which fires may be extinguished, especially for persons
whose clothing may be on fire, is blanketing. The person should be laid down
and covered or rolled in a rug, a coat, blanket etc. For dealing with fires in small
utensils such as those containing cooking fats, the best method is to smother the
fire with a fire blanket or a doormat which has been wetted first.
7. ONDE E COMO DEVO GUARDAR ESTE MEDICAMENTO? O fumarato de quetiapina deve ser mantido em temperatura ambiente (15ºC a 30°C). Todo medicamento deve ser mantido em sua embalagem original até o momento do uso. fumarato de quetiapina TODO MEDICAMENTO DEVE SER MANTIDO FORA DO ALCANCE DAS CRIANÇAS. INFORMAÇÕES TÉCNICAS AOS PROFISSIONAIS DE SAÚDE IDENTIFICAÇÃO DO MEDICAMENTO Com
Microsoft word - mental health in baseball _2_.doc
MENTAL HEALTH IN BASEBALL: FEAR STRIKES OUT? By Jim Bloch Community Relations, St. Clair County CMH Say you’re a professional baseball pitcher. How would it be possible to pitch in front of tens of thousands of fans if you had a social anxiety disorder? According the DSM-IV, a social anxiety disorder is a “marked and persistent fear of social or performance situations in which emb
Copyright © 2010-2014 Predicting Disease Pdf
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Film: 3913
Shipping | 1960 | Sound | Colour
British Royal Navy in South Pacific to chart the coast.
Map showing various pacific islands. Royal Navy vessel drops anchor. On board the ship moored off Fiji
Their mission is to chart the coastline and measure the water depth and record any reefs or wrecks which may be dangerous to shipping. On board are portable radio navigation system, two will be placed on two different Fijian islands. The ship will transmit a signal which will be answered by the portable radios. They will then be able to accurately plot the ships position using triangularisation. Women and children on Fijian island sit on the ground singing as they make baskets etc. Fijian men help the Royal Navy personnel construct a camp and hoist the radio mast. Seaman fills a small fridge with beer, another sets up a small gas cooker. They contact the ship via the portable radio transmitter.
Echo sounder is used to measure water depth. Every two minutes the ship's position is plotted and the depth of water noted. Bar check on the depth sounder. A object is lowered a known depth to see if the echo sounder is functioning correctly. Computer dials and display boards for instruments on the ship. Ship turns around to do another sweep of the area. A seaman with the ship's dog on the deck. Flight deck, helicopter takes off and hovers over the flight deck. Crew below arrange a net on the flight deck and put a large canister or drum in the centre. The net is hauled up and attached to a rope dangling from the hovering helicopter. Seamen climb down a rope with knots in it into an inflatable dingy. Helicopter flies off with drum suspended beneath it. Two divers go into the sea from the inflatable dingy. Underwater, coral and fish. On a Fijian island, a waterfall, palm trees. Drum dropped by helicopter onto the beach. 35 foot boats used in shallow water where the ship can not go. They use two flags erected on two islands to chart their location using triangularisation. They use a sexton to find their longitude and latitude. They also have an echo sounder to read the depth of water. Helicopter lands back on the flight deck of the ship. In the Chart Room on the ship where the information from the survey is being collated. Contour lines drawn on a chart and a man marks coral etc.
In ships radio room an officer is being interviewed about Oceanography. Officer explains the tests he is conducting. On the deck of the ship there are two large winches that carry three miles of cables. On the port side they are collecting samples of the sea bed to send for analysis back to the British Museum. On the starboard side they are collecting sea water samples and testing it for temperature and content etc.
Seaman explains the ships satellite navigation system.
Seamen on Fijian island dancing with the indigenous population, the native women wear grass skirts and garlands of flowers. They dance. around a bonfire. A tribal ceremony. In the ship's galley or mess, seamen sit around drinking beer and telling jokes. Up on deck the ships crew welcome some well dressed visitors to a function, men and women, all white.
To request more details on this film, please contact us quoting Film number 3913.
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Mysterious Deep-Space Radio Bursts Puzzle Astronomers
Planet Earth has been unknowingly and knowingly beaming radio transmissions into space since the development of radio technology. While science fiction often portrays alien civilizations learning about life on Earth by picking up on our errant transmissions, the speed at which these waves travel means they likely haven’t gotten very far yet; wireless transmission has only been around for around 150 years after all. However, the nearest solar system, Alpha Centauri, is only just four light years away. That means if alien civilizations happen to be found in Alpha Centauri, the transmissions they are currently receiving from Earth are only about four years behind our current time. Hope they like Lady Gaga.
α Centauri, β Centauri, the brightest stars in the Alpha Centauri system.
α Centauri and β Centauri, the brightest stars in the Alpha Centauri system.
While we’ve so far turned up no concrete evidence of other civilizations in our search for deep space transmissions, more and more evidence is being discovered of so-called “fast radio bursts” (FRB). In particular, a group of FRBs coming from a source known as FRB 121102 has been an increasing subject of astronomical research. This mysterious source still remains unknown and lies close to 3 billion light-years away in the constellation Auriga.
Constellation Auriga
Constellation Auriga.
FRB 121102 was first detected in 2012 by the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and has since been also observed by the Green Bank Telescope in West Virginia. In all, 17 radio bursts have been detected from this mysterious source.
The Arecibo Observatory. Yes it's the same one from that Bond movie. No, you can't skate on it.
The Arecibo Observatory. Yes it’s the same one from that Bond movie. No, you can’t skate on it.
According to a new study of FRB 121102 published in The Astrophysical Journal, the consistent position and strength of of the bursts indicate that the radio waves are not created by a man-made satellite nor could they be ruled out as background radiation:
The underlying origin and timescales of this behavior remains uncertain […] The spectra of those bursts are also not well described by a typical power law and vary significantly from burst to burst.
Spectrographic data of one of the bursts.
Spectrographic data of one of the bursts.
While many of us would love that to mean that these radio transmissions are being beamed from an alien civilization’s television antennae, the researchers speculate a more natural source is behind these radio anomalies:
The nearly certain extragalactic distance and repeating nature of FRB 121102 lead us to favor an origin for the bursts that invokes a young extragalactic neutron star. Supergiant pulses from young pulsars or magnetars or radio counterparts to magnetar X-ray bursts remain plausible models.
Sigh. Neutron stars. It’s always neutron stars. However, with more and more fast radio bursts being detected all the time, astronomers still believe these anomalous radio signals to be our best bet of finding life elsewhere in the universe. Just this year, the world’s largest radio telescope was constructed in China to aid in the search for possible alien civilizations. Keep those fingers crossed.
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Pantomime Scenes
By Dana Fleming
Unit Objective: Students will be able to demonstrate their ability to craft a storyline
and convey physicality and emotion by performing an original duo-pantomime
Lesson One—Intro to Movement
Objective: Students will understand the basics of communication through movement
and implement them through a game of Charades.
Materials Needed:
High-energy aerobics music and means by which to play it.
Many little strips of paper, bowls or cups to put them in, and pens for Charades.
Excitedly invite all students to the stage and get them PUMPED UP FOR AEROBICS.
Have the students form dance lines and turn on the music. Lead students through
an aerobic routine and stretching.
Step One—DISCUSSION: Ask students what tools they have to use as actors. Their
bodies should be one of the answers given. Ask students why and how their bodies
are useful in performance and in acting. What can be conveyed?
Step Two—DIRECTIONS/GUIDED PRACTICE: Ask students if they have ever played
Telephone Charades. This game is played in the following manner. Select five to six
participants and ask them to leave the room. The audience chooses an action that is
specific, silly, and obscure to act out (ie: “a nerd’s romantic first date”, “washing an
elephant”, “going skydiving naked”, etc.) Once the clue has been decided, bring in all
the participants and instruct them to face the right side. The moderator reveals the
clue to the first person, who taps the second person on the shoulder and acts out the
topic using charades rules (no talking allowed, no noises). The second person then
This continues until it reaches the last person in line, who must guess what the
action is. This is a fun game because the action mutates and changes based upon
each person’s interpretation of what is going on, often leading to confusion and silly
Step Three—DISCUSSION: Between each round of Telephone Charades, ask the
audience members what the participants did well to convey the message. Where
did the message get lost? Why did it get lost? What are effective methods of
communicating clear meaning through movement?
Step Four—DIRECTIONS/GUIDED PRACTICE: Divide students into two teams—
place the slips of paper, pens, and two bowls on the ground and allow students to
write down whatever move, song, play, book, or television show they like for a game
of Charades. Explain the basic rules of Charades and play the game! May the best
movers win.
Ask students what movement can convey aside from just story? Tell them that in
the coming days, these areas will be covered. Students are assessed by
Lesson Two—Pantomime
Objective: Students will demonstrate their understanding of pantomime by
performing simple actions.
Materials Needed: Two copies of the improvisation duo scenes (attached), cut and
ready to be handed out.
As students enter the classroom, stand by the door. Randomly hand students an
improv scene (there should be eight pieces of paper total, equaling four random
partnerships). After role has been taken, ask everyone to come to the stage with a
half-sheet of paper and a writing implement—and for these eight students to find
their partners and discuss who will be who in the improved scenes. Have them
perform their scenes and after each performance have the class guess what the
scene was about, down to the smallest detail. Who was on stage? What was going
on? What is the relationship between the two? What was the conflict?
Step One—DISCUSSION: ask students if the performances were fun or engaging to
watch? Why? Simple action CAN be engaging to watch. This is helped as action is
clear and precise—it is important for action to be understandable to the audience.
Step Two—GUIDED PRACTICE: Have students leave their paper on the ground and
circle up. Have them rub their hands together. Slowly as they continue to move
their hands, a sphere forms between their palms. Some kind of ball. It can be very
small, it can grow and become very large. It can be small as a marble or a pearl—it
can be as large and heavy as an exercise ball or a watermelon. What size is it? Feel
its weight. Feel its heaviness or its lightness. Try throwing it up into the air—be
sure to catch it again! What is its color, its texture? Can you balance it in one hand?
On one finger? What does it smell like? Give it a good lick—Does a basketball taste
different from an orange? Now, using all of your strength, you will throw your ball
as high as you can into the air, watch it go up and then fall back down—as it hits the
ground it immediately becomes liquid and soaks into the floor.
Step Three—DISCUSSION: Having students reflect on the exercise just performed,
teach them the basic qualities of pantomime. There are three! 1. Consistency—
keeping objects the same size, in the same place, etc. 2. Exaggerated Resistance—
define and make movements sharp and crisp, make every movement bigger than
life. 3. Exaggerated Facial Expression and Gestures—keeping expressions and
gestures specific, but bigger than life! Discuss each one in detail.
Step Four—DIRECTIONS: Get your papers and pencils. Sit in a circle. Think of an
object, larger than a marble, but smaller than a microwave. Write it down on your
paper. Pass your paper to the left. Using the object you on this new paper, write a
simple, complete task or action based on the object. For example—if the object you
receive is “balloon” a task can be “you begin to blow up the balloon. It gets bigger
and bigger. Suddenly, it pops!”. Pass this paper to the left once more. You will have
two minutes to create a short pantomime based on your object and action.
Step Five—INDEPENDENT PRACTICE: Give students two minutes to work.
Step Six—PERFORMANCE/DISCUSSION: Have students perform their pantomimes
in front of the classroom. At the close of each pantomime, students will discuss
what they saw—what was the object? What was the action? How did you know?
Participation is the assessment in this lesson.
1. You are waiting in line at a grocery store carrying a heavy basket and a
screaming baby. The person in front of you is writing a check very slowly
and having a lovely little chat with the cashier. You grow impatient and ask
the person ahead of you to hurry along. The person sees the state you’re in,
apologizes, and retrieves a $20.00 bill from her wallet to give to you.
2. You are children playing in the sand box. One of you is finishing the final
touches on a very delicate and magnificent sand castle. You call your friend
over to see it, but in his excitement he she trips and falls onto your castle.
You are distraught. Suddenly it begins to pour rain. You both run under the
nearest tree and collapse, laughing.
3. You are at a Doctor’s office. She comes in and greets you. She asks you to sit
on the examination bed. She checks your temperature, your heart-rate, and
your reflexes. She informs you that she’ll need to draw some blood and goes
to get a needle. You are deathly afraid of needles and try to warn her. She
assures you you’ll be fine as she prepares the needle. You take deep breaths,
but as she puts the needle into your elbow, you faint.
4. You are playing a video game with your brother. He is winning. He puts it on
pause and says he needs to go to get a drink of water and he’ll be right back.
He leaves and you un-pause his controller and begin to play for him, making
him lose. He walks in with the water to see what you’re doing. He is furious.
He drops the water and chases you off stage.
Lesson Three—Storylines
interesting storyline by turning it an outline with a clear beginning, middle, and end.
Materials Needed:
One big bag filled with “props”. I basically just filled it with any fun or interesting
items I could find at home—weights, a map, a stuffed animal, Russian stacking dolls,
a can-opener, a bible, high-heels, a scarf, incense, a pepper grinder, etc. I make sure
to bring enough for each partnership and a few extra to offer variety.
White board and marker.
30-second-story. Ask the students who knows the story of Little Red Riding Hood.
Ask if anyone feels like they could tell the complete story in one minute. Choose a
volunteer. Time her and stop her at a minute. If she couldn’t do it, ask her if she’d
like to try again or let someone else try. If she was able to do it, ask her if she can
tell it in 50 seconds. 40 seconds. 30 seconds. And so on. Continue until she’s gone
as far as she can. Ask the class what three basic components does a story boil down
to. Answer: A beginning, a middle, and an end.
Step One—DISCUSSION: Write on a the white board leaving space after each word to
define, “BEGINNING, MIDDLE, and END” Ask the class “What does a beginning
entail? What makes a beginning different from the other two? Why is it important?
What does a middle entail? How does it move along the action? What about an
ending? What makes it an ending?” Continue like this until you have sufficient
definitions for the beginning, middle, and end. The beginning is where characters,
location, relationship, etc. are established. The middle presents a conflict that needs
to be solve. The end is the resolution to the conflict.
Step Two—MODELING: Ask for three volunteers to stand in front of the story. They
are to tell a story as a group. Person one tells the beginning or establishment of
character, location, and relationships, person two tells the middle, or conflict, and
person three tells the resolution. The audience will decide whether or not each
person did their task correctly. Two or three groups can model this if time permits.
Step Three—DISCUSSION: Back to the white board, you will introduce the two other
important elements of storyline creation. 1. KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid)—make
audiences need all the clues they can get to understand what you’re doing. 2. Be
Fantastic—both in the “good performance” aspect and the “not reality” aspect;
Step Four—DIRECTIONS: Ask students to get into pairs and come to the stage. This
partner will be their partner for the final assessment in this class. Pull out bag of
props and begin to place props on the floor. Tell the students that when you let
them, they are to come and choose a prop as partnership to create a pantomime
story surrounding that prop. The scene can be practiced WITH the prop but must be
performed WITHOUT it. It should be about one-two minutes long. The story should
have a clear beginning, middle, and end. Remind them what those entail.
Step Five—INDEPENDENT/PARTNER PRACTICE: Students are to create and
practice their stories. They are to then pick another pair and to perform the scenes
for one another.
Step Six—PERFORMANCE: For however long time permits, pairs who want to go
may volunteer to perform their scenes without the props. Class will discuss the
storyline—the beginning, middle, and end evident in the scene.
Step Seven—DIRECTIONS/INDEPENDENT PRACTICE: Tell students that they are
now to get with their partner and create a rough draft of the story for their
pantomime. Leave them at least ten minutes to create this and write it down. They
need to write down the beginning, middle, and end with all information that those
entail. Volunteer to help if they feel stuck.
Have students turn in their outlines. You will look them over and return them to the
students with your assessment.
Lesson Four—Emotion and Characters in Pantomime
Objective—Students will demonstrate an understanding of how physicality portrays
emotion and character by creating emotions and characters for their scenes.
Materials Needed:
List of stereotypical characters, cut and put in a jar (attached)
Adverbs, cut and put in a jar (attached)
Enough half or quarter sheets of paper and writing implements (these can be
shared) for all students.
Students’ storyline outlines they turned in yesterday.
Have students find a partner and then to take that partner and find a place on the
floor. Decide who is person A and person B. Ask them to be perfectly silent and
follow the instructions you give one at a time while the other watches. For example,
“Person A, stand with your weight on one leg. Cross your arms in front of your
chest. Look down and over your left shoulder. Eyes narrow and lids drop. Outer
brow turns downward. Mouth turns down. Facial muscles sag. Hold that position.
Breathe. Person B, what do you see? What is the emotion being portrayed? How
can you tell? What are your clues? Good. Person A, relax. Person B, your turn…”
etc. This exercise will show students how movement portrays emotion even
without assigning meaning to it.
Step One—GUIDED PRACTICE: Have a jar of stereotypical characters on little sheets
of paper. Pass the jar around and have everyone take a character. Tell them to put
the sheet of the paper in their pockets. Group A take a seat and Group B fill the
space. They are to begin walking around the space as their character without
interacting with any other characters. Ask the questions—“how does your
character move? Fast? Slow? How is his or her posture? Do they walk with
confidence? In fear? Do they carry anything special with them? Now, without
words, interact with other characters on stage. How do you approach others? How
do others respond to you? How do you get to know someone else? What do you
think of the characters you are interacting with?” Have group A guess what
characters were being portrayed. Have them defend their answers. Switch groups
and repeat.
Step Two—GROUP PRACTICE: Character Relay Race! Have students form four even
lines on stage right facing stage left. Tell the students that they are going to have a
relay race to stage let and back, running AS their characters. If they aren’t running
as their character would run, they get called out and sent back at which point they
need to start over and try again. This should be a fun, funny, and energetic activity.
Feel free to laugh very hard and allow others to do the same.
Step Three—GUIDED PRACTICE: Have students sit in a circle with their half-sheets
of paper and pencils. At the top of the piece of paper have each student write down
an action (like unpacking groceries, chopping wood, making a sandwich, brushing
teeth, etc.) When everyone is done, have them pass their paper to the right. At this
point, pass around the jar of adverbs and ask each student to take one. With the
new paper, write the adverb below it (ie: chopping wood tenderly, making a
sandwich angrily, etc.) Have them pass that paper to the right once more. Students
are to take this paper and to create a short 15-30 second pantomime.
Step Four—PARTNER PRACTICE: Students will choose a partner. Partners will
present their pantomime to one another.
Step Six—PERFORMANCE: Students who desire can perform their pantomime and
class will discuss their performance in the same way they did with their partners.
Step Seven—DIRECTIONS: Ask students to get with their partners. Hand students
back their storyline outlines. Ask them to describe their character in-detail and
character’s emotions in the beginning, middle, and end of the story.
Have students turn in their storyline outlines now with detailed character and
emotion descriptions.
Ditzy Blonde
Football Player
Elderly Person
Rock Star
Super Hero
50’s Housewife
Business Man
Body Builder
Country Hick
Brave Knight
Track Star
Computer Geek
Proper Lady
School Principal
With Boredom
Lesson Five—Rehearsal of Stories
Objective: Students will use the story outlines they’ve made to create full scenes by
using the “How to Develop a Pantomime” handouts.
Materials Needed:
Students storyline outlines with character/emotion descriptions to return
Enough copies of “Pantomime Preview Rubrics” for each pair of students
Ask students to walk around the stage. Who is their character in their pantomime
scenes? Begin walking as your character, embodying all physicality. Imagine one
prop you use in your scene. See it somewhere on the stage. Walk towards it. Circle
around it. What are it’s colors? Bend down and pick it up. Feel its weight. Its
shape. Its texture. Is it hard to hold? Is it nice to hold? Begin to handle it—move it
back and forth between hands. Lift it up and down. Give it a close examination.
Feel and see every tiny detail. Find a partner. Show him or her your prop.
Demonstrate how it is used. Switch props with your partner. Use your new prop
and notice it’s details, weight, texture, etc. The prop in your hand suddenly turns to
a magical clay that gets smaller as you compress it. Squeeze it in to a ball and roll it
between your hands as it gets smaller and smaller. It has now become a salted
caramel. Enjoy it!
Step One—DIRECTIONS: Hand out “Pantomime Preview Rubric” sheets. Attention
paid to smallest details in forming these scenes will make a huge difference in and
bring life to your final production! Start with your framework, and fill it in with
purpose, detail, and energy. Use the time. Consult the “Pantomime Preview Rubric”
sheet for help. For the last fifteen minutes of class you will perform your scene to
another partnership.
Step Two—INDIVIDUAL PRACTICE: Give students the bulk of class time to work on
their scenes. Move throughout the classroom to observe and ensure work-ethic.
Offer help as requested and appropriate.
Step Three—PARTNER PRACTICE: When there are fifteen minutes left, have each
partnership choose another partnership they haven’t worked with yet. Each pair
will perform while the other watches. As they watch one another they will note
their favorite moment and one area of improvement and share accordingly.
Gather students together. Tomorrow they will be previewing their scenes. They are
to bring their rubrics filled out to class. Their ticket out of class is signing up for the
order of performance.
Pantomime Preview Rubric
Title _______________________________
Names(s) _______________________________
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Scene is rehearsed and
actors know the
elements and location
of story events
Scene is only
rehearsed and actors
do not know where
to go on the stage or
order in which
events happened
Scene had limited
rehearsal and it
appears actors are
performing sections
of the piece for the
first time
Unprepared. No
thought to story,
characters, or simple
actions required by
the performers
Partner Work
Action is well-timed
with partners and each
actor reacts to what
his/her partner is doing
Actors are missing
moments of timing
or awareness with
their partners
Actors are not
responding or
paying attention to
partners except
when in direct
Actors refuse to
acknowledge or
respond to partner
at all
Actors maintain the
required consistency
throughout the piece
with regards to location
and size of objects. All
items are picked up and
set down
Actors are
inconsistent with
handling items, but
maintain the
location of major
items in the scene.
Major items move
and handles items
vanish and appear
frequently during
the scene
No thought is given
to the consistency
and location of
items, audience
struggles to
understand what
items are handled
during the scene
Actors showing varying
levels of resistance
when handling items
throughout the scene
Actors show
resistance extremes,
but some items have
not resistance
Actors show
resistance on only
one or two items in
the scene
Actors show no
resistance when
handling items
Actors exaggerate
actions and expressions
throughout the scene to
clearly communicate
events to the audience
Actors exaggerate
some events to help
the story along, but
some events happen
too quickly or too
small to understand
Actors have limited
exaggeration and
audience frequently
does not understand
events or actions
Actors show no
exaggeration in
actions or
Story has a strong
beginning, middle and
end and a clear conflict
Story events build on Story is a chain of
one another, but
events with no
conflict is weak or
conflict does not get
Story does not have
a clear beginning,
middle or end and
has not conflict
Lesson 6—Previews
Objective—Students will perform their pantomimes and analyze the performances of
their peers by recording one moment in each pantomime that they enjoyed, and one
area of assessment each pantomime can work on.
Materials Needed:
Pantomime Preview worksheets (attached) enough copies for each student.
Extra copies of preview rubrics (from previous lesson) for students who
will…inevitably forget them.
The sign-up list they filled out yesterday.
*This might take longer than one day—make adjustments accordingly.
Follow-the-leader! Have the class form two lines each with a leader. Explain that
each line can use the entire space. Whoever is in front of the line can move however
the want and everyone behind has to copy the leader’s movement exactly. They can
run, leap, skip, twirl, crawl, summersault, whatever they want! The leader leads for
about 15, 20 seconds and then when you yell “switch!” the leader runs to the back
and lets someone else lead. Turn some energetic music on and let them go!
Step One—DIRECTIONS: Hand out Pantomime Preview worksheets (one to each
student) and tell them they’ll need to bring those along with their rubrics and a
writing implement to the stage for previews. Tell students they have 10 minutes to
use as they please. Ask, “What would be an intelligent way to spend this time?”
Warm up/run anything they need to run/make any last minute changes.
Step Two—INDEPENDENT PRACTICE: Allow students 10 minutes, during this time,
set up a performance space. After ten minutes ask everyone to come to the space
with all of the necessary items.
Step Three—DIRECTIONS: Ask students to list some components of acceptable
audience behavior. Explain to them how to fill out the Pantomime Preview
worksheets. Read off the order and ask the first group to get set up!
Step Four—PERFORMANCES: Have each group go up, introduce themselves and
their piece, and perform. Take notes using the rubric and be sure to time each piece.
At the end of each performance, announce the time to the students.
Collect all Pantomime Preview worksheets. Ask the students to consider the
performances of the class as a whole. What strengths did they have as a whole?
What were some common weaknesses? You can offer your own insights as well.
Tell students you will assess their performances and return your notes as well as
select notes from their peers to them the next day.
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
What was your favorite moment?:
What area does this pair need to work on?:
PREPARATION: Scene is well rehearsed and actors know the elements and location
of story events
PARTNER WORK: Action is well-timed with partners and each actor reacts to what
his/her partner is doing
CONSISTANCY: Consistency is maintained throughout the piece with regards to
location and size of objects. All items picked up and set down.
RESISTANCE: Actors show varying levels of resistance when handling items
throughout scene
EXAGGERATION: Actors exaggerate actions and expressions throughout the scene to
clearly communicate events to the audience
STORY: Story has a strong beginning, middle, and end.
Lesson Seven—Revisions
Objective: Students will demonstrate their ability to revise and improve by turning in
one area of their pantomime that they will work on this period to improve and be
graded on for improvement in their final assessment.
Materials Needed:
Rubrics for final assessment (attached)
Preview Rubrics graded with notes (see below)
Teacher Preparation:
Using the Pantomime Preview Worksheets you’ve collected from your students,
type up lists of useful notes to give to each pair from what you’ve gathered from the
remarks of their peers. Add to these remarks of your own typed here (even if
they’re already written on the rubric).
Ask students to sit with their partners.
into the sting they give.” —Ralf Waldo Emerson
Place this quote on the board. Ask students what this means? What are examples of
artists. Are they artists? What does it mean to sacrifice to your art? Ask them to
think of something they really love and give a great deal of time to—it could be
sports, academics, hobbies. Ask them if it’s good enough to do okay. To do their
very mediocre-ist. Ask them how they can improve their art.
Step One—DISCUSSION: Ask students to think about their scenes and an area they
feel they could improve upon or be revised. Students are to now turn to their
neighbors and share with them what they’ve come up with. Any students who are
willing can share with the class. As students volunteer information, ask them how
they intend to go about making these revisions. Try to get a variety of areas—time
constraints, better ending to story, consistency in environment, etc.
Step Two—DIRECTIONS: Tell students you will hand back the rubric and the notes
for each partnership. They are to read them over, and to focus on one area of
improvement in their scenes. If they have time, they can move onto others, but they
will be asked to record on a piece of paper what that area is. Tell them that you will
collect this paper near the end of class and use it in part with the final assessment.
Step Three—INDIVIDUAL PRACTICE: Allow students the bulk of class time to work
on improvements/revisions. If students feel they are done, separate them as a pair
and ask them to volunteer by helping other classmates improve their scenes.
With 6-7 minutes left, gather the students together. Collect their pieces of paper
with their priority area of improvement. Hand out rubrics for their final
performance. Go over the experience of making revisions. Does anyone have
anything they’d like to share? What improvements were made? How? What
worked in helping accomplish this? Why is this process so important to you as
actors, artists, and people?
Pantomime Evaluation
Names: _____________________________
Grade: ______________
Time: _______________
Title: __________________________________________________________
Always in
personality &
through face
and body
Mostly in
shows some
and emotions
Occasionally in
personality and
face is hard to
see because they
are not
Characterization is
not seen, facial
expressions and
emotions are not
No preparation, no
personality, no
Took time to
exaggeration of
were crisp and
was shown at
were mostly
Opportunities to
show resistance
were ignored;
were vague
Little resistance is
shown; movements
were hard to
No resistance
shown; movements
were too vague to
Objects and
consistent with
location and
with objects
slips in and out,
objects vanish
and/or move
Shows glimpse of
consistency, objects
and movements
Simply going
through the motions
without a concern
for consistency
Interact well,
reacts to other
movement and
timing works
fairly well,
attention to
the other
actor, timing
mostly on
Pays attention
but only
reacts to other
Interaction hard to
see, timing is off,
reaction to each
other is minimal
Characters unable
to work off of each
Exaggerated Facial
Expressions & Gestures
Exaggerated Weight
Objects and ideas stay
Working with Partner
Scene is fun to
characters are
easy to get
involved with,
storyline has a
middle and end
with conflicts
Scene is fun
to watch with
are mostly
storyline has
Scene is mostly
fun to watch
with some
problem spots,
storyline is
Scene is a little
hard to watch with
several problem
spots, storyline is
Storyline is very
weak and hard to
watch because
everything is too
Lesson Eight—Performances
Objective: Students will demonstrate proficiency in pantomime by performing their
polished and improved scenes to their peers.
Materials Needed:
Extra Rubrics for final assessment…just in case…
“Programs” for students with the order of performances, names of performers and
their pieces.
*Note—this might take more than one day. Plan accordingly.
Hand out programs to students as they enter the classroom and ask them to please
be seated in the audience.
Step One—DIRECTIONS: Welcome students to the final performances of their
pantomime pieces. The performances will proceed as outlined in their programs.
Everyone will have five minutes to warm up on their own, and then we will begin
with the first performance, while the next partnership waits backstage “on deck”—
or waiting backstage. Following the first performance, the second group will set up
for their scene while the third group is “on deck”.
Step Two—PERFORMANCES: Keep the audience behavior under control, and keep
moving one performance to the next. Make certain to time each performance—if
you need help from a timer, arrange beforehand.
Be sure to leave some time at the end of the performances for a discussion. Have
students sit near a partner to share one thing they learned or improved upon about
performance in this unit. Ask students to share their answers, and conduct a brief
discussion. What did you learn? Why is an understanding of pantomime important
to performance? How will what you learned help you in future performances?
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AskDefine | Define caesium
Dictionary Definition
caesium n : a soft silver-white ductile metallic element (liquid at normal temperatures); the most electropositive and alkaline metal [syn: cesium, Cs, atomic number 55]
User Contributed Dictionary
Alternative spellings
• sē'zēəm, /ˈsiːziəm/, /"si:zi@m/
1. A metallic chemical element (symbol Cs) with an atomic number of 55.
Related terms
a metallic chemical element
External links
For etymology and more information refer to (a lot of the translations were taken from that site with permission from the author).
Extensive Definition
Caesium or cesium () is the chemical element with the symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a melting point of , which makes it one of only five metals that are liquid at or near room temperature. Caesium is most notably used in atomic clocks.
Notable characteristics
The emission spectrum of caesium has two bright lines in the blue part of the spectrum along with several other lines in the red, yellow, and green. This metal is silvery gold in color and is both soft and ductile. Caesium is the second most electropositive and alkaline of the chemical elements and has the second lowest ionization potential (after francium). Caesium is the least abundant of the five non-radioactive alkali metals. (Francium is the least common alkali metal, but since it is highly radioactive with an estimated 30 grams in the entire Earth's crust at one time, its abundance can be considered zero in practical terms.)
Along with gallium, francium, rubidium, and mercury, caesium is among the only metals that are liquid at or near room temperature. Caesium reacts explosively in cold water and also reacts with ice at temperatures above , 157 K).
Probably the most widespread use of caesium today is in caesium formate-based drilling fluids for the oil industry. The high density of the caesium formate brine (up to 2.3 sg), coupled with the relatively benign nature of 133Cs , reduces the requirement for toxic high-density suspended solids in the drilling fluid, which is a significant technological, engineering and environmental advantage. Caesium is also used in atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds in many thousands of years. Since 1967, the International System of Measurements has based its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium. SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation which corresponds to the transition between two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom.
• Caesium vapor is used in many common magnetometers.
• Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer to burn silicon in infrared flares like the LUU-19 flare, because it emits much of its light in the near infrared spectrum.
• moisture density gauges
• leveling gauges
• thickness gauges
• well-logging devices which are used to measure the electron density, which is analagous to the bulk density, of the rock formations.
• Caesium is also used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry.
Caesium (Latin caesius meaning "blueish grey") was spectroscopically discovered by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 in mineral water from Dürkheim, Germany. The residues of 44000 liters of mineral water yielded several grams of caesium salt for further analysis. Its identification was based upon the bright blue lines in its spectrum and it was the first element discovered by spectrum analysis. The first caesium metal was produced in 1882 by electrolysis of caesium chloride by Carl Setterberg. Setterberg received his PhD from Kekule and Bunsen for this work. Historically, the most important use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical applications.
Beginning in 1945 with the commencement of nuclear testing, 137Cs was released into the atmosphere where it is not absorbed readily into solution and is returned to the surface of the earth as a component of radioactive fallout. Once 137Cs enters the ground water, it is deposited on soil surfaces and removed from the landscape primarily by particle transport. As a result, the input function of these isotopes can't be estimated as a function of time. Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30.17 years. It decomposes to barium-137m (a short-lived product of decay) then to a form of nonradioactive barium.
All alkali metals are highly reactive. Caesium, being one of the heavier alkali metals, is also one of the most reactive and is highly explosive when it comes in contact with water. The hydrogen gas produced by the reaction is heated by the thermal energy released at the same time, causing ignition and a violent explosion (the same as all alkali metals) - but caesium is so reactive that this explosive reaction can even be triggered by cold water or ice. Caesium hydroxide is an extremely strong base, and can etch glass.
See also
External links
caesium in Afrikaans: Sesium
caesium in Arabic: سيزيوم
caesium in Bengali: সিজিয়াম
caesium in Belarusian: Цэзій
caesium in Bosnian: Cezijum
caesium in Bulgarian: Цезий
caesium in Catalan: Cesi
caesium in Czech: Cesium
caesium in Corsican: Cesiu
caesium in Welsh: Cesiwm
caesium in Danish: Cæsium
caesium in German: Caesium
caesium in Estonian: Tseesium
caesium in Modern Greek (1453-): Καίσιο
caesium in Spanish: Cesio
caesium in Esperanto: Cezio
caesium in Basque: Zesio
caesium in Persian: سزیوم
caesium in French: Césium
caesium in Friulian: Cesi
caesium in Irish: Caeisiam
caesium in Manx: Kaishum
caesium in Galician: Cesio
caesium in Korean: 세슘
caesium in Armenian: Ցեզիում
caesium in Croatian: Cezij
caesium in Ido: Cesio
caesium in Indonesian: Sesium
caesium in Icelandic: Sesín
caesium in Italian: Cesio (elemento)
caesium in Hebrew: צסיום
caesium in Swahili (macrolanguage): Caesi
caesium in Haitian: Sezyòm
caesium in Kurdish: Sezyûm
caesium in Latin: Caesium
caesium in Latvian: Cēzijs
caesium in Luxembourgish: Cäsium
caesium in Lithuanian: Cezis
caesium in Lojban: blasodna
caesium in Hungarian: Cézium
caesium in Malayalam: സീസിയം
caesium in Marathi: सिझियम
caesium in Dutch: Cesium
caesium in Japanese: セシウム
caesium in Norwegian: Cesium
caesium in Norwegian Nynorsk: Cesium
caesium in Occitan (post 1500): Cèsi
caesium in Polish: Cez
caesium in Portuguese: Césio
caesium in Romanian: Cesiu
caesium in Quechua: Sesyu
caesium in Russian: Цезий
caesium in Sicilian: Cesiu (elementu)
caesium in Simple English: Caesium
caesium in Slovak: Cézium
caesium in Slovenian: Cezij
caesium in Serbian: Цезијум
caesium in Serbo-Croatian: Cezijum
caesium in Saterfriesisch: Cesium
caesium in Finnish: Cesium
caesium in Swedish: Cesium
caesium in Tamil: சீசியம்
caesium in Thai: ซีเซียม
caesium in Vietnamese: Xêzi
caesium in Turkish: Sezyum
caesium in Ukrainian: Цезій
caesium in Walloon: Ceziom
caesium in Contenese: 銫
caesium in Chinese: 铯
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Created with Fabric.js 1.4.5 Loss of territories - productive land,industries and raw resources : English Musical and Historical Advances Music Music and literature have been paired together throughout the ages. Minstrels would recite poetry or play music, often times both simultaneously.The perfect era to show the development of music as well as literature, and their parallel movements, is the Renaissance, it being the period of advancements in all of the arts and the intellectual advancements of the human race in general. Many changes in music were due to the lack of control from the churchand the new found freedoms following thedecline in power. Music before the Renaissance was mostly church choral music Idea of life based around the church was replaced by humanism, which placed a high value on the individual (Stolba, p.149). A popular cadence before the Renaissance was the Plagal cadence (IV-I), but the development of the Authentic cadence (V-I) as an ending was proven to be stronger. Literature Widely referred to as the golden period for choral composition (History of Classical Music, para. 5). The changes in literature were very heavily influenced by the stress on the individual person and the period of invention that was brought about by the Renaissance. One invention that changed literature extremely that was invented during this time was the printing press ("Renaissance -- Printing and Thinking", 2014). This allowedpeople With new trends, many writers found it easier to express themselves and their ideas through their writings, because of this shift from the importance of the church to the individual. During this time period somewriters spoke against the churchsuch as Martin Luther, though writers such as St. Ignatius Loyola defended it (Naxos, Para. 4). There are many similarities between music and literatureduring the Renaissance, but the biggest were the church'sloss of total control and the discovery of new found freedoms References Notari, D. (n.d.). Renaissance Literature: Characteristics. Retrieved November 15, 2014, from, K. (1990). The Development of Western Music: A history (3rd ed., p. 149). Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown.Taine, H. (1965). Renaissance. In History of English literature. New York: F. Ungar Pub.The World's Leading Classical Music Group. (n.d.). Retrieved November 15, 2014, from -- Printing and Thinking. (2014, July 4). Retrieved December 9, 2014, from Formatted by
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Part of the Judicial Branch
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Presentation on theme: "Part of the Judicial Branch"— Presentation transcript:
1 Part of the Judicial Branch
The Supreme Court Part of the Judicial Branch
2 Basics of the Supreme Court
Part of the Judicial Branch 9 justices on the Supreme Court (8 judges and 1 Chief Justice) Court is on a equal plane with President and Congress (framers of the Constitution) 1981 first woman- Sandra Day O’Connor 1967 first African-America- Thurgood Marshall Justices serve for life President appoints, Congress has to approve
3 Where do the cases come from?
8,000 cases are appealed to the Supreme Court each year Court operates from the 1st Monday in October- June or July Rule of 4- 4 judges must agree to put a case on the docket Writ of mandamus- a court order telling a government officer to perform an act that they have legal duty to perform
4 How does a case get to the Supreme Court?
4 judges have to agree to hear a case Writ of Certiorari- a writ from a high court to a low one to get the records of the proceedings to review If 4 or more judges do not agree, the lower court ruling stands If a lower court is unsure of the rule of law that should apply to the case they issue a certificate If they agree they hear the oral arguments, accept the case and set a date
5 What happens during a court session?
1st two weeks- justices hold public sessions and they listen to the facts of several cases (lawyers present, justices listen and question) (30 minutes) 2nd two weeks- justices study the facts of the case (lawyers give them briefs about the case) Called a recess or court in conference
6 What’s the Vote? Decisions are reached by a majority vote
Six justices must be present to call for a vote After the Court has voted, it writes an opinion ( a carefully worded statement that explains why the decision was made) 1/3 of decisions are unanimous, most are divided
7 What are the type of opinions?
Majority Opinion- Announces the Court’s decision of the case and why they voted the way they did Precedents- Examples to be followed in similar cases Concurring Opinion- Other justices may right this if a point of theirs was not made in the majority opinion Dissenting Opinion- Written by those justices who do not agree with the Court’s decision
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In 1835 in Rio Grande do Sul saw an uprising of the people seeking a more republican form of government. This was likely brought to the forefront due to the economy. The local population mainly produced beef, selling it as a dried and salted product. The trouble seemed to center on Uruguay and Argentina. Dried and salted beef from these countries was available to all of Brazil. While the Rio Grande do Sul dried and salted beef could be sold throughout Brazil, it was taxed heavily by the Brazilian Government. The result was dried and salted beef from Argentina and Uruguay was cheaper than the same dried and salted beef coming from within Brazil.
In 1835 when a new President was installed in Rio Grande do Sul, the ranchers were happy. Their demand for a fair marketplace seemed to have been heard. On the first day in office, however, the President accused the ranchers of being separatists. It was now clear the Rio Grande do Sul Government would continue the same unfair treatment by taxing dried and salted beef heavily. With tempers flaring, the uprising resulted in the new president escaping the capital as the revolutionaries took the city.
With those from the uprising in control, they quickly placed their own president in power. In a defiant move, Brazil appointed a new president for the state. This action, the proverbial straw that broke the camel’s back, showed Brazil had no intent on trying to resolve the problem. The war was on in full speed.
The new nation run by the disgruntled former citizens had control of much of the state for a few years and the result was a growing resentment of Brazil in the state to the north, Santa Catarina. By 1839, in his first military action, Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian revolutionary, expelled from his home country, led the takeover of Santa Catarina by taking its capital, Laguna. With this action, the Juliana Republic was proclaimed. Garibaldi would later be credited with the unification of Italy.
The Juliana Republic was only independent for four months, but this was long enough to produce an offspring, Juliana Island.
Garibaldi met his future wife, Ana Ribeiro de Silva, known better as Anita, and she joined him in the fight that led to the Juliana Republic.
It is believed Garibaldi hired around 50 British soldiers as soldiers of fortune to assist in the takeover of Santa Catarina.
As the imperial forces took Laguna, Garibaldi, knowing the fate of the new republic, planned a hasty escape and released his hired military. Escaping with their lives, the British soldiers of fortune along with a good number of women and some local men with various skills escaped to the open seas. Some think Garibaldi and his future wife were aboard.
The British soldiers feared Brazilian officials would be looking for them and would have likely been aided by British officials who would condemn such a renegade action, so they set sail to find a place to hide until tensions cooled and hopefully remain far from prying eyes until the actions became a more distant memory.
The ship sailed to an island of ‘substantial size’ offering ‘proper cover’ for the ship’s passengers. Located north of the Falkland Islands, this 40+ square mile island was shaped more like a bowl with high hills along the exterior and a fertile valley in the center. The rugged exterior left no indication of a pleasant inner valley. On the east side a peninsula offered a deep, narrow passage to a cove where a fairly large ship could anchor. From the cove, a narrow land passage between steep hills curved its way to the hidden inner valley some 5 kilometers distant. Fate had brought this group to a place where the outside world would likely never find them.
The some 180 inhabitants lived life in much the way they had in Brazil in the early days, It was quite colonial. The British soldiers along with Garibaldi, held control. They considered the Brazilian women and men as somewhat second class citizens, but one must understand this attitude was enriched on both sides. The British were given somewhat parental authority. The were seen as people who had kept them safe and helped to provide for their needs. Still, the British males were the decision makers with others having little, if any voice in matters. The soldiers demanded English be spoken and there are stories of other languages being outlawed including punishing school children for speaking any language other than English. Some claim the birth rate was strictly controlled and claim stiff drink was banned. Adultery was outlawed. Over time, through the blending of the population, this quickly fell by the wayside.
Some feel Garibaldi, a driven man, and his wife to be, became impatient staying on the island, assembled a small group of about 50 and set sail for Uruguay after a few months. The original ship that made for their escape was utilized to take Garibaldi to Uruguay, leaving the islanders cut off from the world. Garibaldi felt he must leave and promised to help the remaining people establish a clandestine trade amongst people of like mind. This paved the way for a brisk trade and survival for the island.
It would take until 1859 before any ship under the charge of any authority would visit Juliana. The vessel, bearing the British flag discovered the island’s protected cove. Although records do not expressly state, it was likely the same vessel that proclaimed the Falkland Islands for the Crown. It seems the crew, upon landing at Juliana, asked the name of the land and a local uttered his hometown’s name, Laguna. When asked the political affiliation, the group responded they were under the authority of Argentina. This was a bold face lie, but fearing they would be found out, figured if the captain felt another government was in control, he might set sail without provocation. Indeed, this was the case.
A few years later the settlers had discovered the Brazilian government had long since pardoned the revolutionaries and felt enough time had gone by for the British to consider the actions of these British military men a distant memory. Later the Crown did ‘forgive’ according to locals but no written record exists today. Even with their identity known, the islanders had spent so much time building a home on the island, they were content to stay.
By 1870 a merchant ship noted a small community of about 180 mixed descent people of friendly and optimistic nature were living peacefully on the fruits of their land.
The island is 8 miles long and 5 to 7 miles wide with a total land area of around 40 square miles. Today the population stands at about 400.
Juliana was the perfect hiding place for the crew. The island was certainly large enough to graze cattle in very good quantity and the soil, in areas, was substantial enough to grow the food the population needed. The east end of the island offered a cut deep enough for a large vessel and offered protection from stormy seas. Best of all, the protective strip of land prevented any vessel at sea from viewing these protective waters. Several streams provided an ample clean water supply. Even the makeup of the island with it’s mixture of valleys and hills provided a safe spot for the community where prying eyes would not see.
Laguna, connected to the cove through a valley that twisted back and forth, is almost 3 miles from the cove, intentionally placed at its location because it would take an hour of so of hiking to discover. The thinking was a vessel arriving would trek in a mile or so and seeing no life, consider the island uninhabited.
Tall hills flanking either end of the island offered exceptional 360 degree views and in the early years, a lookout was always on duty to alert the community of any nearby ship.
Most of the inner portion of the island is rolling hills flanked by two hills on the east and west, the eastern side allowing a narrow deep channel that empties into a small protected bay. From the bay, a narrow valley curves out to a more expansive center section where the main hub of the community is located. Spreading out from the center, the rolling hills rise further and further in elevation to effectively hide the center of the community.
As for the structures, the island is not extravagant. Homes and businesses are simple and a nearly Mediterranean feel or colonial South American feel prevails. Some ornate woodwork trim is about all that stands out. Even the church, usually a grand structure, is rather basic. Even so, the community seems out of place, as it seems it should be in a sunnier clime.
Part of the success of Juliana is the plentiful precipitation. Receiving almost 80 inches of rain annually, the climate averages about 8 degrees F. warmer than the Falkland Islands and while breezy, gales are not as frequent because of a more northerly location. Summer thunderstorms can be intense and sudden as most summer thunderstorms are over the open seas. Winter storms tend to be wet, windy events but snowfall can occur, although limited to once or twice a year and normally short-lived.
There was an amazing diversity among the inhabitants. A few were top notch in their trade. This is reflected in their architecture and layout of the settlement. Taking a cue from colonial influence, most homes were constructed in what was very much the style of Laguna, the community they departed from in Brazil. At the center stone roads were built, coming to a plaza at its center. Unlike many communities of Spanish influence, the plaza’s center was a nature lover’s delight with imported trees and flowers, walkways and covered gazebo-like structure supporting a bell, thought to be used to warn locals of a ship on the horizon in the earlier days.
Small fishing vessels were the first to call on Juliana and a brisk trade was established. Although the climate was not quite as rough as the Falkland Islands, it was certainly more severe than the coast of southern Brazil. It was the protected valleys that gave the islanders the ability to grow foods more common to the coast of Brazil. Imported plantings sometimes took root, creating a lush feel to the inner valleys.
The community was able to utilize their abilities and knowledge of ‘civilized and cultured’ life to establish a rare outpost in this portion of the Atlantic. Religion played an important role is establishing a safe and productive community. Soon schools and a church led to a civilized feel for the island. In fact, it was the quality of life built through hard labor and sharp minds that created a lifestyle that was of such quality that when the islanders learned they might settle elsewhere without persecution, they chose to stay.
Great attention was paid to forming a government that afforded freedom and effectiveness for the people. Perhaps the British soldiers of fortune were responsible for the results oriented efficiency. Certainly, they were influenced, like the remainder of the world, by the charm of the United States of America model of justice. Many of the non-British came from backgrounds where there was little hope of being more than a servant of a wealthy landowner, so the pleasure of greater equality and control of one’s destiny was clearly an incentive to create a very workable government passionately bent toward individual freedom and personal responsibility coupled with the reality that it took the cooperation among neighbors to achieve.
The fact was there were few power struggles and few incidents requiring justice to be served. Likely the biggest dispute was over religion. The Catholic faith and Church of England, while not to far from one another in belief, still held a resentment of the other that had been kept alive for a few centuries. Even this faded in time.
Some speculate it was religious beliefs that resulted in the unity of the people. As the years went on, the marriages between those of British influence and other heritages dissolved as the community had effectively become a ‘mutt’ ethnically. It was through this process, coupled with the requests of a priest to head the church, that the Catholic and Church of English beliefs morphed into a hybrid comfortable to all.
At the beginning, the British soldiers of fortune ruled the land unchallenged. Their command was effective in communicating to the men that they were the fathers of this community responsible for the community’s survival and the only true route to a successful and prosperous community was through a fair and just chain of command. One could say this was an amazing feat considering any titles or authority were ‘given’ rather than ‘authorized’. In most situations such characters soon find anarchy and paranoia prevailing among a group, quickly leading to a rapid downfall and fast failure.
Some feel the skills and value of the non-British commanded the respect of the ‘fathers’ of the community and their opinions and desires were eagerly included in decisions. It would take some years before a true government would develop. As the chain of command placed authority over certain aspects of life on the island, a council evolved. As the non-British were included in the decisions, a non-British council seemed to evolve. This dual council continued for ‘roughly a generation’ until the British bloodline became so blurred the council became one. But the path was not what would be expected.
As the two councils became one and equal in power (the British born council was considered superior), the various council members were undisputedly in charge of a certain aspect of the functioning government or perhaps a better term would be a minister of a segment of government. In earlier years these department heads reported their work without input from others, but soon other department heads began to question and suggest other alternatives resulting in a power struggle of sorts. As more rational heads prevailed, the problem was nipped in the bud through reforming the governing structure. Department heads were directed to formulate plans at the direction of the full council of department heads, “seeking unity and cooperation in all matters of the public interest”. The role changed from a dictatorial style to that of a servant of the people.
It was shortly after this announcement a formal government was established with a constitution and set rules for the election of governing officials as well as contesting their work.
Borrowing from the Constitution of the United States of American, with modification for the local situation, Juliana Island adopted the original Juliana Republic motto: Liberty, Equality, Humanity. Various ‘departments’ were articulated in writing with monthly business meetings commanded. Each government official was expected to serve the country without pay and commanded to serve in ‘purity from influence’ and ‘at the directive of the unified council’. Later, as some posts required more time, a provision was added to allow a ‘remittance of pay for workers required to execute the duties of the occupation of the government official in his absence caused by attending to matters of governance as approved by the unified council’. This simply meant that an assistant might be hired to oversee the occupation of the department head when government duties prevented the department head from working in his occupation. This was a provision that has yet to be abused but was needed as the Constitution clearly states: “It shall be the duty of all called by the people to serve, to fulfill their tasks for the greater good of all, as to be selected by the general populace is a great honor commanding the utmost in seriousness, attention and integrity. No greater honor can be bestowed upon man than the favor of his people.” To refuse was considered ‘a treacherous act’.
The constitution came in 1880 and was intentionally signed and ratified on the July 24, exactly 41 years after the creation of the original Juliana Republic.
The Government is made up of eleven department heads, all elected by popular vote. There are no political parties. Citizens 18 years and above may vote. Over the years some of the elected officials did not run for office. Unlike other nations, voters are urged to vote for the best person for the position. Those seeking a position announce their intent and are almost without exception elected to office. Terms are for 6 years. Elections are held each year for two positions. The head of government is called the Administrator, responsible for overseeing all departments and creating cooperation among all segments of government. Although the Administrator is not a department head, he can cast the deciding vote and is charged with bringing unity to the council. The Administrator is elected to a 3 year term.
The governing body works more like a company management team than a government. Each department must attempt to finance their work upon approval of the council. The work does not enter a governmental structure as such, but simply as a division of a company that is expected to find solvency in its operations.
As for legal matters, a court system is in place. Citizens are urged to ‘work out their differences’. When matters cannot be worked out, citizens are expected to find an arbitrator (usually a friend or neighbor) to help resolve the matter. If this is not effective, the case can be taken to the council, but this is considered a last resort option as the council typically frowns on this as it demonstrates a lack of cooperation among citizens. In instances as divorce, each party selects an arbitrator to represent them in negotiation a fair settlement.
The current rates of increase in silver and gold values against foreign currencies has led to somewhat of an economic boom in wages although exports are having a hard time finding themselves affordable in foreign markets. As a result, the council seems set on pushing self sufficiency versus pushing for lowered wages. There has been talk of allowing some immigration to establish new companies that can lead to more self sufficiency. It is a hotly debated topic.
Traditionally immigration has never been permitted unless it was an immediate family member. Foreigners have never been allowed any interest in a local company. The Constitution affords no option for citizenship or ownership rights to any person not born on the island (remember the Constitution came well after initial settlement…over 40 years later). Even the original settlers were up in age and had made arrangements for their children to take over their business if they had not done so already. To seek approval, the board granted this provision if those not born on the island would be exempt from taxes levied on their business and provided their children who would be left with ownership of the business, if they would tend to the needs of their parents ‘in a fashion that they have become accustomed’.
From what we can gather, the island population generates about $10.5 million U.S. per annum with the average worker making almost US$13.50 an hour during an average 35 hour work week.
Even at that rate of pay, the price of goods exceeds pricing on the mainland for imported goods. As all imports come on smaller vessels, shipping charges are rather costly. As you might suspect, locally produced products are much lower in price and the concerted effort of the population to be more self-sufficient, it is only natural locals prefer local over imported items.
The level of modern convenience and prosperity of the island is on par with the rest of the world.
Homes are plumbed and have electricity, being solidly constructed. Most homes contain several rooms and do not differ much from American, European or South American homes. The home sizes are considered sufficient and upscale housing does not exist.
Most homes have a motorized vehicle. There is a good road system with some 40 kilometers of all weather roads, some 26 kilometers of gravel roads and 64 kilometers of earthen roads. Farms, dairies and ranches dot the valleys.
External transportation is by boat. While there is sufficient land for an airport to service small commuter planes, the distance such a plane would have to cover before refueling and the tendency for quickly changing weather conditions would likely discourage most. The amount of flat land for larger planes is not available. When airstrips are contemplated, the question becomes the best use of the land in question. The discussion usually ends with an evaluation of how much food can be produced from the land versus the benefit of air travel.
Ships provide external transport of imports, exports and passengers. For this small population, sea transport seems adequate.
It is interesting that in time of dire emergencies, helicopters have been used by stationing a ship at a specific location for refueling. In one such medical evacuation, this was utilized, in coordination of foreign military and medical officials.
Per capita income is on a level with the United States of America and most of Europe, the typical family would be considered lower middle class, slightly below the middle class median. The cost of living compares to a South American modern city of 100,000 to 250,000 as found in Southern Brazil and its southern neighbors. While most of a family’s basic needs would be considered ‘cheap’, most imported items would be considered a bit over the continental price due to transportation costs being added.
The community seems to lack the social problems found elsewhere. Crime is almost non-existent and the country has but one fulltime police officer and three trained deputies who may be called in times of need.
The education level on the island has proven acceptable to allow a few students to gain entrance to various colleges. Students receive a very unique education including not only classroom instruction but also ‘life-learning’ or in the field education. The typical graduate has a basic understanding of many career choices through hands-on work in times classroom instruction takes a holiday. The typical student has basic knowledge in most occupations available on the island, understands how government and community work and has a general classroom education with accelerated learning in specific subjects of the student’s interest. Drug use and alcohol abuse is unheard of. Very few female students become pregnant and just as few use tobacco. As one visitor put it, they seem to be model students that would make any parent proud. Educators point out they always recognize positive achievements of students which they say deters negative behavior because negative behavior is a cry for attention. Educators say the attention given positive results satisfies this need for attention and centers the student on productive pursuits.
Medical access is much like neighboring areas and the quality of life is generally equal to southern Brazil. There is a small hospital with pharmacy, dental and optical departments. The hospital is well equipped and the small staff is ‘up on modern advances in medicine’.
Only the most critical cases must be attended to off the island. Overall, the health of the islanders is considered good to very good.
One visitor was impressed with the balance of work and play among the population. The statement was that the people seem happy and content, having found a balance between work and family that does not demand one take the priority over the other.
Coinage has always played a part in Juliana’s history but it typically took a back seat to silver and gold in its pure form. In the early days revolutionary coinage and British small change was the medium of exchange for small purchases however as coins wore down or were hoarded, chunks of silver and gold quickly became the norm. It was more common to cut off a chunk from a silver or gold bar to make a purchase even though the rare revolutionary and British coin showed up here and there.
From what we can determine, the Copper Penny and Half Penny of Britain were common as well as the crude coins made from buttons that circulated in southern Brazil during the War of the Tatters. It was thought about 2,000 of the button coins might have made it to Juliana. It was thought the soldiers of fortune were paid in silver and gold.
An attempt at a currency in the 1850s was unsuccessful. Money was made from the horns of cattle and small squares of cowhide. The decree was that a square of cowhide was equal to a British Half Penny and a bone coin was worth 24 cowhide squares. The original Juliana Republic counterstamp found on the original coins was burned in the bone and leather in a method no different from branding cattle. For commerce, however, the plan did not find the approval of the general population and was quickly abandoned.
The first coins made on Juliana were fabricated by Jonathon Smith, one of the original settlers. He made his hammered coins of pure silver without any markings to identify the value or origin of the coin. Although only a few have survived the years, the tiny coin was equal to the British Half Penny of previous centuries.
There had been a great deal of attention given the identity of the woman appearing on the Juliana Island coins. Nobody knows for sure who she is. It seems an engraver around 140 to 150 years ago created the image. While several theories abound, there was a child born on the island given the name Juliana who grew up to become known for her work in education and a reputation for kindness, fairness and respect for all on the island. Many think this may be her image. She was said to be quite lovely. So, this unknown woman gracing Juliana Island coins has popularly been known to be the iconic Juliana representing all the ‘good’ qualities of the people of Juliana Island. Her identity will likely be mired in mystery.
The Government eventually changed the denomination to the “Reis” (setting the Smith coins at 10 Reis), the currency in use during the Juliana Republic days but at local values. Although the typical conversion for the Brazilian Reis during the original Juliana Republic days was about 40 Reis to the gram of silver. Locally, the official exchange was is around 22.5 Reis to the gram of silver.
The 2012 Juliana Island 150 Reis is a very rare and lovely .999 silver klippe brakteat. It seems that during production, a few odd weights became mixed with the mintage. Thus, the official weight is 6.66 grams but we know of 10 coins at 4.1 grams, 9 at 6.4 grams and 7 at 7.4 grams. These off weights are quite rare and highly sought after.
A blue anodized titanium version was reportedly made but we have not seen this version. The blue coin is not for standard circulation but traditionally used as a special gift coin. There are many uses for the coin. Generally it is to signify an act of kindness and to offer one’s blessings, say for a wedding, to give upon the birth of a child, to solidify a business deal and to offer to someone you are attracted to. There are additional uses for this coin. This beautiful tradition offers recognition for the good in society. These blue coins are cherished heirlooms that a person collects and keeps through life. Naturally, offering one from your box of coins is a substantial and meaningful gesture not to be taken lightly.
With silver and gold markets affecting exports and wages so directly, Juliana Island has opted to begin minting currency to be sold off the island to collectors. A series of coins shall be issued periodically, perhaps annually. While precise specifics are forthcoming, we are assured the numbers shall be substantial for such a small state, yet minimal when compared to other nations. We think this will aid in creating a good market for Juliana coins.
Compiled by Bill Turner for 2010-2012
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What Are the Differences Between Oxygenated and Deoxygenated Blood?
Quick Answer
Oxygenated blood is filled with oxygen from the lungs. In contrast, deoxygenated blood has had most of its oxygen removed and is returning to the lungs, ready to become reoxygenated.
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Full Answer
Oxygen is carried within red blood cells by a compound called hemoglobin, which is able to bind up to four oxygen molecules and form oxyhemoglobin. Each red blood cell contains large quantities of this molecule, allowing them to carry around far more oxygen than needed to ensure that supply always meets demand. Blood is never truly deoxygenated in the sense that all the oxygen is removed. When oxygenated blood reaches the tissue, hemoglobin lets go of oxygen molecules in a reversible reaction. The first couple of oxygen molecules are much easier to remove than the last two, providing a gradient of release. The color of blood changes from bright red, when oxygenated, to dark red, when the oxygen has been removed to be used by the body.
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What causes orange leaves on boxwoods?
Updated November 21, 2016
Boxwoods are commonly used as a hedge or screen in many landscape designs. According to NC State University, there are more than 160 registered boxwood cultivars. Boxwoods are susceptible to certain pests and conditions that cause leaves to turn orange or bronze.
Cold Weather Damage
Boxwoods can develop discoloured foliage if damaged by cold weather. Boxwoods exposed to cold temperatures, frost and blowing wind can sustain winter injury. Winter weather is more likely to affect plants under stress from drought or low pH. The primary symptom associated with winter injury in boxwoods is foliage turning orange, yellow or red known as bronzing. According to NC State University, it is normal for certain boxwoods such as the Japanese boxwood to develop symptoms of bronzing each year. Planting your boxwood in a shady area protected from the bitterly cold winds reduces bronzing. After winter bronzing, boxwoods usually develop healthy, green leaves the following spring.
English boxwoods are susceptible to decline, which occurs slowly over the course of time. The symptoms associated with English boxwood decline include light-coloured leaves in certain areas of the plant that gradually turn orange, bronze, green and brown. Leaves fall from the shrub and continue until the boxwood is bare. Providing the best growing conditions possible is often effective in reducing English boxwood decline. Preventing stress from drought and avoiding winter injury often reduces the risk of decline. Good sanitation practices such as removing and destroying plant debris can also prevent English boxwood decline.
Nematodes can adversely affect the boxwood. The most common nematode in boxwoods is the lesion nematode, followed by root knot, ring and boxwood spiral. Nematodes are very small, unsegmented roundworms that live in wet soil particles. The symptoms associated with nematodes in boxwoods include stunted growth, leaf drop and orange or bronze foliage. Preventing nematode infestation in boxwoods is best accomplished by fertilising regularly and frequent watering to avoid stress from drought.
About the Author
Tracy Hodge has been a professional writer since 2007. She currently writes content for various websites, specializing in health and fitness. Hodge also does ghostwriting projects for books, as well as poetry pieces. She has studied nutrition extensively, especially bodybuilding diets and nutritional supplements.
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What is the Meaning of: Possessive pronouns | Concept and Definition of: Possessive pronouns
Meanings, definitions, concepts of daily use
Pronouns are a class of words that has no fixed referent because its determination is made by the relationship with other words that have already been mentioned.
The Group of personal pronouns (which express various grammatical categories, are devoid of lexical content and often refer to objects, animals or people), it is appropriate to mention the possessive pronouns.
These pronouns vary depending upon the grammatical person and appear with names to identify the owner. The possessive pronoun makes the explicit property, proximity or the relationship between a grammatical person and a grammatical element.
"The wish", "mine", "ours" and "his" are a few examples of possessive pronouns. "This book is yours" is a sentence that uses the possessive pronoun 'yours' to refer to the property of a 'book '. The comment is directed to the owner of "book". Otherwise, the sentence is build differently ("this book is yours").
If the book would belong to the transmitter, the correct term would be "this book is mine" because the personal pronoun 'mine' indicates that the property of the book belongs to one who says.
"Makes John what is to him", "the country's most expensive players are ours" and "this car is yours?" are other expressions with possessive pronouns.
It is necessary to underline that pronouns are very similar to the possessive adjectives, except that the possessive pronouns act independently and need not necessarily the close presence of the name that they complement.
Recommended Contents
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Baby Shark Facts
Updated November 21, 2016
Baby sharks are called pups. The facts about shark pups will depend upon the specific species, though there are some facts that remain constant in regards to conception, gestation, birth, survival and development.
A female shark may mate with a male shark in order to produce offspring. In at least three instances with three different shark species, the female has reproduced without ever mating with a male shark. This process of reproduction is known as parthenogenesis, and the offspring of these sharks were healthy and long-lived.
The amount of time the baby sharks are carried inside the mother depends upon the species of shark and the type of birth the mother shark gives. Gestation can last as short as nine months, or as long as 22 months.
Sharks are born in groups of one to 100 and are born in one of three ways. Some sharks lay eggs, while others carry their eggs inside them until it is time for the eggs to hatch. The majority of sharks carry live young in their oviducts and provide nourishment through the pup's umbilical cord.
Shark pups are not cared for by their mothers after their birth. Live-bearing sharks do provide their pups with boosted energy reserves stored in the pups' livers, which serves as a backup during the early weeks of life. The early weeks of a shark pup's life is spent learning to catch prey and avoid predators, which include other sharks.
Eyes are among the first external features that develop fully. Fins develop within the first 53 days. The development of other features depends upon the species, type of birth and water temperature.
About the Author
Since 1994 Carrie Glossmanz has been writing freelance articles for publications such as "Animal Fair," "Delicious Living" and "Diabetes Health." Glossmanz is a Registered Dietitian and earned her Master of Science in nutritional sciences with an emphasis on clinical nutrition from the University of Kentucky.
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5. Physical Evidence
Since we decided to focus our studies on the religious epicentre of Tenochtitlan, we found it important to use examples from her sister city, Tlatelcolco, as reference. Both of these cities housed massive temples dedicated to the different gods that created and maintained their cosmic universe. In Tenochtitlan, we focused our research on its religious center, the Templo Mayor and in Tlatelolco we focused on Templo R. Both of these temples were extremely important in the everyday lives of the Aztec people. Worshiping and taking care of the gods were essential to daily life because the Aztec believed that if you did not take care of your gods, they would not take care of you. Read (1998) argues that if the Aztec wanted the cosmos to provide them with sustenance, they believed that they must first feed the cosmos with the blood and flesh of human beings.
Tlatelolco is known amongst archaeologists for its violent past. A great drought is believed to have occurred between the years 1454 and 1457 that led to the mass sacrifice of 37 children and 6 adults. Below are pictures of the dig site at the steps of Templo R platform.
This find of 43 skeletons is extremely important in the process of proving that the Aztec actually sacrificed human beings in their festivals and ceremonies. From the skeletons found buried at the foot of Templo R in Tlatelcolco, archaeologists have discovered that most of the skeletons belonged to children (De La Cruz et al. 2008). The author discusses that they appear to be placed into the grave with extreme care and order and believes that this is a sign of ceremonial processes that would have occurred. It seems unusual to us that children were sacrificed because in all of the accounts we have discussed previously the victims were adult warriors or other adults obtained in raids or during the Flowery Wars. De La Cruz et al. (2008) also mention that these children could have been sacrificed during a time of extreme drought and were possibly sacrificed to appease the God of Rain, feed him with the sacrifice of human blood and he will provide rain to the Aztec Empire.
It is believed that these children were sacrificed to appease the Aztec god of wind and rain, Ehecatl‐Quetzalcoatl” (De La Cruz et al. 2008). The recent excavations that recovered the skeletal remains of the 37 sub adults and 6 adults also discovered that these people were buried with many valuable objects. De La Cruz (2008) suggests that, together, the human remains as well as the artifacts help to provide evidence of a sacrificial offering made in a single ceremony. She states that seventeen infants and one adult were buried in globular ceramic urns while the remainders were buried directly in the ground.
The ages of 31 children and 1 adult were then estimated using standard morphometric analyses, including an evaluation of tooth calcification and eruption. Archaeologists also used standard forms of examination for determining the sex of the skeletal remains found. By observing sexual dimorphism clearly visible on the adult bones, they were able to determine that most of the skeletal remains were those of males. “This remarkable gender bias is consistent with the notion that the victims chosen for sacrifice were a living impersonation of the god to whom they were offered” (De La Cruz et al. 2008). The process of DNA abstraction was also used in aiding the sexing of the skeletons.
At the site of Templo Mayor, the skeletal remains of a child were found beneath a flight of stone temple steps. Archaeologist Ximena Chavez (2005) believes that the child was sacrificed in 1450, in a ceremony intended to dedicate a new layer of building. This child is believed to have been sacrificed to the god of war, Huitzilopochtli. Like the other child sacrifices found in Tlatelolco, these remains were found with grave goods such as whistles, collars, ankle bracelets which were made of shells and bells made of copper (Chavez 2005).
There is not a significant amount of physical evidence of burial practices left in Templo Mayor. Lots of information has been lost due to negligence or theft. Eight “true burials” have been found, though (Iguaz 1993). Seven of these eight were cremated and buried underneath the stucco floors. To do this, the Aztecs would actually dig a hole into their floor, bury the remains in the hole, fill it with dirt, and then resurface the floor. It would be interesting to understand the social role of these people and why their deaths required the destruction and rebuilding of parts of the sacred temple. Smith and Burdan (1992) also discuss the problems which exist within Aztec archaeology. They note that there are two main factors which contribute to a lack of archaeological evidence from the Aztecs (which includes a very small amount of evidence for human sacrifice); the first being the low number of archaeological studies on the Aztec period, and the second being the methodological problems which are associated with studying this group.
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Friday, 13 March 2015
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was born to Jewish Galician parents on May 6, 1856 in the Moravian town of Příbor, now part of the Czech Republic. He was the eldest of three brothers and five sisters.
His father, Jakob Freud (1815–1896) was a wool merchant. A remote and authoritarian figure, he had two sons from his first marriage. Freud did not get on with his dad.
Freud's mother, Amalia (née Nathansohn), an assertive and good looking woman, was 20 years her husband's junior. (Jakob was 41 Amalia 21 when he was born.)
Sigmund's two half-brothers, Emmanuel and Philipp, were almost the same age as his mother.
His parents were struggling financially and living in a crowded rented room, in a locksmith's house at Schlossergasse 117 when Sigmund was born.
Freud's birthplace, a rented room in a locksmith's house
The Freud family was forced to flee to Leipzig when Sigmund was 3-years-old, due to riots that characterized the strong anti-Semitic feeling that prevailed within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
After a year there his family moved again to Vienna, where discriminating laws against the Jews had been cancelled during 1850s and 1860s.
Four of Freud’s five sisters died in Nazi concentration camps.
He was originally called Sigismund Freud. His first name was used in anti-Semitic jokes and could be translated as "Leading mouth". So in 1875 he shortened it to Sigmund.
Sigmund grew up a bookworm with no interest in more energetic activities. When only eight years old, he was reading the works of Shakespeare.In recognition of his brilliance, his parents privileged Sigmund over his siblings by giving him a room to himself, to study in peace.
In 1865, the nine-year-old Sigmund entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. Located at 24 Taborstrasse, Vienna. He was ranked first in his class in 6 of 8 years of his schooling.
In 1873 Sigmund graduated from the high school with honors. Apparently inspired by a public reading of an essay by Goethe on nature, he turned to medicine as a career.
Freud at 16 with his mother
He entered Vienna University to study medicine but was sidetracked by his growing interest in physiology and other diversions, which weren't part of the course. It took Freud eight, rather than the usual five years, to qualify as a Doctor.
Freud originally thought of being a lawyer. Then in the mid 1870s he seemed destined for a career as a research zoologist.
In 1876 Freud spent four weeks at Claus's zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting 400 mature eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organ. He had to concede failure in his first major published research paper.
In 1882 Freud entered the General Hospital in Vienna as an assistant chief physician to train with the psychiatrist Theodor Meynert and the professor of internal medicine Hermann Nothnagel.
Freud studied under Professor Charcotat at Salpêtrière Neurogical Hospital, Paris for 19 weeks in 1885-86. There the hypnotic treatment of women, who suffered from a medical state called "hysteria", led Freud to take an interest in psychiatry.
Once he had set up in private practice in his Vienna home in 1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work.
Following the Nazi occupation of Austria, Freud fled to London. When he left Vienna for England he had no money. The Nazis had taken it all.
In England Freud charged his patients between £75 and £100 an hour. .
Freud made arguments about the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious thought and behavior. He called dreams the "royal road to the knowledge of the unconscious in mental life".
Having watched a colleague battle with morphine addiction, Freud confidently prescribed injections of cocaine as a cure and then had to watch helplessly from the sidelines as Dr Von Fieschl descended into a drug hell, creating Europe's first cocaine addict..
His Psychoanalysis method aimed to bring to the surface the conflicts of the unconscious mind to help find the reason for disturbance. Patients revealed their unconscious conflict through talking. He was able to teach his patients to stand on their feet by lying on couches. Freud's work changed the whole approach to mental illness, for the first time symptoms had meaning and they were seen as sick people rather than weirdos.
The Austrian founding father of psychoanalysis was given his famous couch by a client.
Freud's critics would say that his psychoanalysis techniques resulted in the creation of a blameless man, by tracing his failings back to his childhood, when he was morally innocent. Thanks to his ideas, many adults claim to have a plausible reason to avoid responsibility for their actions.
In 1925, Freud turned down $100,000 from movie mogul Samuel Goldwyn — who called him "the greatest love specialist in the world" — to advise on a film about Antony and Cleopatra.
Freud had a considerable talent for writing seldom seen in scientists.
Freud's 1895 Studies In Hysteria with Josef Breuer was a landmark in the history of Psychology as it revealed the existence of the unconscious mind, (the root of nervous illness.)
His 1896 paper The Aetiology of Hysteria used for the first time the term "psycho-analysis."
Sigmund Freud published Interpretation Of Dreams on November 4, 1899 in which he argued that understanding dreams can give an insight into our personality. It was slow to take off, the first edition selling only 351 copies in its first six years. However, in time it became the book that gave Freud worldwide recognition.
In 1905 Freud published Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious, in which he referred to the essence of comedy as "the awakening of the infantile." He did not believe that there was such a thing as a joke, it being just stuff from the unconscious and he felt laughter was just a way of dealing with fear.
Freud's 1913 Totem and Taboo explored how culture and society are rooted in the prohibition against incest, an assertion contrary to the development of Carl Jung's studies
Freud first met Martha Bernays (1861-1951), his sister's sister in law in 1882, but they couldn't afford to get married until 1886.
The daughter of a prominent Jewish family, Martha's ancestors included a chief rabbi of Hamburg and Heinrich Heine.
Martha was a devoted maternal wife to him and was famed for the care she took of her husband. She even put the toothpaste on his toothbrush.
Martha's more intellectual sister Minna lived with her and Sigmund for 42 years.
They had six children - Mathilde (1887-1978), Jean Martin (1889-1967), Oliver (1891-1969), Ernst (1892-1970), Sophie (1893-1920), Anna (1895-1982). Anna became a distinguished child psychoanalyst in her own right. whilst Oliver was named after Oliver Cromwell.
A grandson Lucien (1922-2011 ) became a renowned painter. Other ancestors include the politician and writer Clement Freud, the TV presenter and journalist Emma Freud and fashion designer Bella Freud.
Freud was a friend and colleague of the Swiss adherent of psychoanalysis, Carl Gustav Jung, until they split over their different takes on mystical experiences.
In 1918 Freud lost his entire fortune which was tied up in Austrian State Bonds.
A chronic migraine and sinusitis sufferer, Freud took cocaine to alleviate his sinusitis but found it did little for his headaches. One cause of Freud’s migraines was an Alpine wind called the Föhn, which dramatically changes the atmospheric pressure and temperature.
From 1891 until 1938, Freud and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse 19 near the Innere Stadt or historical quarter of Vienna
Following the Nazi occupation of Austria and already a victim of their anti-Semitic policies, Sigmund Freud fled to London.
En route to London, Freud was met by a group of admirers in Paris. They asked him "What did they do to you?" " They inhibited me" replied the refugee with a smile.
Freud initially took digs at 39 Elsworthy Road, Primrose Hill, then sets up home at 20 Maresfield Gardens, Hampstead. It cost £6,500. His daughter, Anna, came with him.
Sigmund Freud was totally disinterested in all music apart from opera. He felt that a "turn of mind in me rebels against being moved by a thing without knowing why I am thus affected."
Freud had a vast collection of Greek painted vases.
He was a keen zoologist as a youngster and was fond of dogs. Freud once had an orange chow called Jo-Fi who attended his analysis sessions sitting under his desk then came out at the end of his patient's session.
In his old age Freud read Kipling's Jungle Book many times. He said it was one of those books that affect a persons 'weltanschauung' (Way of looking at the world).
French writer Honoré de Balzac's 1831 novel La Peau de Chagrin was the last book read by Sigmund Freud before he committed suicide.
Freud never learned how to read a railway timetable and was almost always accompanied on journeys in case he got lost. Often it was his sister-in-law Minna accompanying him as Martha disliked travelling.
Freud was of Jewish descent but an agnostic himself. He was influenced by the anti Christian writings of Feuerbach. Freud claimed “At bottom God is nothing more than an exalted Father” and the devil is a “primitive feudal father”.
Freud believed knowledge came through the sciences and also argued that religious beliefs can be “cured” by psychotherapy. He claimed, “when a man is freed of religion he has a better chance to live a normal and wholesome life.”
Freud's childhood nursemaid was a devout Catholic and despite his lack of faith, he maintained a deep interest in Biblical history and religion, possibly influenced by her. Freud put it on record that he began his study of human nature with the Scriptures. He recognized the Bible to be an honest book about human nature.
Towards the end of his life, Freud wrote Moses and Monotheism, in which he took up the idea that Moses got his monotheism from Egypt. Moses was an amalgam of two men, one an Egyptian who taught the Hebrews the monotheistic religion of Akhnaten and was murdered by the Hebrews, and the other a Midianite who taught the Hebrews to serve Yahweh, a volcano-god whose abode was Mount Sinai in western Arabia.
In his analysis of the roots of anti-Jewish feeling, Freud wrote that Jews bear the reproach of other peoples as having killed God: "They will not admit that they killed God, whereas we do and are cleansed from the guilt of it."
Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24, believing that it enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise self-control in moderating it. Initially a cigarette smoker, he later became a cigar smoker.
In 1923 the first signs of Freud’s cancer of the jaw were detected. By the end of the year he was undergoing surgery whereby part of his jaw and palate was removed surgically and an uncomfortable metal roof was fitted to his mouth. From then on speech was very difficult for him and he had to endure over thirty surgical procedures; pain and discomfort marked the rest of his life.
Freud continued smoking his 20 cigars a day even after he developed the oral cancer for seven years until a heart attack forced him to give them up.
Freud, late 1930s. By David Webb from Alicante, Spain - Wikipedia
By mid-September 1939, Freud's cancer of the jaw was causing him increasingly severe pain and had been declared to be inoperable. His doctor, friend and fellow refugee, Max Schur, administered fatal doses of morphine on 21 and 22 September . Freud died in his study at 20 Maresfield Gardens on September 23, 1939.
After cremation Freud's ashes were placed in one of his Greek vases and deposited in the crematorium at Golders Green in London.
Freud's major academic regret was that he did not get the Nobel Prize which he had long coveted. The psychiatric community remained hostile to his 'sexual' theories and even Albert Einstein refused to support Freud's candidacy.
The term “Freudian slip” to indicate a mistake that may reveal a subconscious intention was first recorded in English in 1959.
Sources Encyclopedia of Britannica, Daily Mail
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Skylar McDaniel
Sparta's government was very unusual. They had two kings of the city. Their citizens were only men that were in the army. If the men got hurt and could not fight, they were not a citizen. Men were the only people that could be in the army. That means that women and children and elders were not considered citizens.
In Sparta the men were the ones who would go out and fight for the army. Women would not. Men who fought were considered citizens. The men wore a bronze helmet and a bronze breast plate. They had a spear for long range killing and they had a sword for short range, hand to hand combat.
Spartan's ate meat. They covered the meat in blood before they ate it. They did this for the protein. It gives them more muscle strength.
They women would stay in the village while the men were fighting. They would have to know some hand to hand combat encase anyone were to come to the village while the men were out fighting.
Young boys were forced to got to military camps. They were forced to go at young ages so that they could get really strong. They would make them sleep outside and make them go hand to hand combat on each other. They did not give the kids much food because the kids had to steal food. If they got caught stealing they were punished. They were punished because they got caught. Not because they were stealing.
Important buildings
• Temple of Orthia Artemis
1. Temple used to worship
• Spartan Assembly Hall
1. Meeting of Council of Elders and Assembly came together
Big image
1. Battle of Thermopylae
• They had 300 spartan's fighting
• They were fighting a ton of other people
• They did not win the battle
Spartans: At the Gates of Fire Clip
5 interesting facts
1. Only men could be in the army
2. Only men could be citizens
3. They ate meat with blood on it for protein
4. Their armor and all their weapons were made out of bronze
5. Young boys had to go to a military camp to toughen up
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Slavery is the condition of a person being owned by someone else, forced to work, and without personal freedoms.
Padrone system
A padrone (from the Italian padroni for “patrons” or “bosses”) was a middleman in the labor trade, helping poor immigrants obtain transportation to North America, jobs upon arrival, and basic needs in an alien society.
Molly Maguires
The Molly Maguires was a secret Irish Catholic society, originally bent on terrorizing English mine and landowners in the name of labor justice.
Mine War
Labor organization and immigration
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW, Wobblies)
Founded in 1905, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was the most important of the radical labor organizations that operated in the United States and Canada.
Samuel Gompers (1850–1924) labor leader
Samuel Gompers was the most influential early labor leader in the United States. The son of Jewish parents who had emigrated from Holland to England in 1844, he and his family immigrated to New York City in 1863.
The AFL-CIO is the largest labor organization in the United States, comprising some 66 self-governing national and international labor unions with a total membership of 13 million workers (2002).
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Liming in Scotland
Lime is a chemical compound used widely in both construction and agriculture.
The uses of lime
In building, it was used in cement and mortar and lime-wash was used to waterproof walls.
In farming, the calcium-based compound neutralises acids in the soil, sweetening it for crops. In addition, calcium is an important nutrient for plants.
Liming process
Calcining is the chemical process that turns limestone (calcium carbonate) into quicklime (calcium oxide), traditionally achieved by heating it in a stone-built kiln. There is a limekiln at Dunardry in Knapdale Forest.
liming heritage
This is a picture of the lime kiln at Dunardry.
The lime removed from the kiln was in lumps, sometimes called lime shells because of their size and shape. To spread across the soil, it needed to be in powder form.
The next process was slaking. This involved adding water to the lime. It immediately reacted and began to crumble. Often farmers undertook this process while transporting it by cart to the fields. This was dangerous. The violent reaction between the water and lime creates heat that could set carts on fire.
Alternatively, the lime was left in little piles in fields to allow the elements to complete the slaking process and then ploughed into the soil. This final process is known as liming. Based on information from Limekilns and Limeburning by Richard Williams (2004).
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9 Jan 2012
Inverse Kinematics And Trigonometry Basics
So firstly, why do we need kinematics? What are they?
With your robot having legs the position of those legs dictates where its feet are. Where its feet are dictate its point of balance.
As you undoubtedly know balance can be defined as the robot's centre of mass (affectionately referred to as its centre of gravity) being between its centre of pivots (i.e. the edges of where its feet contact the ground).
If the centre of mass is above the centre of pivots and between them the robot will balance (almost an unstable equilibrium, if you're an applied mathemetician).
If the centre of mass is above but outside the centre of pivots (i.e. beyond the edges of his feet) the robot will overbalance and fall. Fast.
If you feel confident about the basics, here is an implementation example of a 3 DOF hexapod robot using IK:
If you're a little unclear about this start with something basic, a cube is a good start, and imagine that its centre of mass is right in the middle (which it will be if its density is even throughout). When the cube is just sat there it's stable. The centre of mass is above the centre of pivot (the edges) but because it's between them (when viewed from every direction) it will just sit there until you prod it.
Now you prod it and slowly tilt it. As the centre of mass approaches a point directly above one of the edges (our centre of pivot) the cube will feel lighter to your touch and if you can get the centre of mass directly over that centre of pivot it will balance. As soon as you push it past that point, so the centre of mass is the other side of the centre of pivot it will fall.
The robot is exactly the same. This is why the kinematics of the feet are important to you. If you want the robot to balance dynamically you NEED to know where the feet are and where they're going to need to be.
Please understand that I'm not going to do all your work for you, so the code or equations I share are not guaranteed on their accuracy but purely a demonstration of how the method is derived and works.
Forward and Inverse Kinematics
Forward kinematics is the method for determining the orientation and position of the end effector (x,y,z)
coordinates relative to the centre of mass , given the joint angles and link lengths of the robot arm (servo positions)This equation is deterministic. You know absolutely from the servo positions exactly where the foot is.
Inverse kinematics is the opposite of forward kinematics. This is when you have a desired end effector position, but need to know the joint angles required to achieve it. This is harder than FK, and there could be more than one solution.
The FK is not very useful here, because if we are given a change of angle of a servo, only one effector moves in the chain. But if we are given a change of coordinate, the whole chain of effectors (servos) might have to move a certain angle for the end point to reach the desired position. And also the movement tend to be more natural as well!
There are two approaches to solving inverse kinematics:
• Analytical - requires a lot of trigonometry or matrix algebra
• Iterative - better if there are lots of links and degrees of freedom.
IK - Analytical approach
If there are only two or three links then it may be possible to solve it analytically. One possibly might be to draw out the arm with the angles shown on it, then solve for the angles using geometry. The problem is that this is not really a very general approach.
IK - Iterative -approach (only if you are interested reading)
This is a more general approach for programming complex chains.
because we will be mainly dealing with 3DOF hexapod or Quadurped robot legs, Analytical, or trigonometry would do the trick for now.
Let's get started, write a trigonometric library first!
1. need to do is refresh your memory on trigonometry.
Understand how you can obtain the sine and cosine of an angle, what they mean when converting angles and distances into x/y coordinates.
Also understand how you take a two dimensional coordinate (x,y) and rotate it about a point (say a,b) by a given angle. This is absolutely CRITICAL to understanding kinematics.
2. implement trigonometric functions
Once you've understood all this you need to implement sines, cosines and tangents (and the inverse versions) in your software. Using the library versions of these functions is going to be expensive in space and computation. So, try not to use standard library function, WRITE your own functions!
Scared? Don't be. Writing your own on a microcontroller is actually surprisingly easy. All we need to do is to pre-calculate values and store them in a table, so we can just look it up.
Let's try to write sine and cos functions first and test them. 3D trigonometry is just 2D trigonometry applied in three dimensions. Create yourself some functions that rotate 3D points around each of the three axes.
Now test again. You have to be confident that it works without bugs and with an accuracy suitable to your application.
If you've got this far you've got trig working in your microcontroller. You've probably also written a whole bunch of supporting functions (e.g. printf() debugging, square root functions etc). You're probably pretty damn proud of yourself.
Now, the fun starts from here.
To get this turned into a program, you'll have to remember that the angles are the unknowns, and proceed from there.
So, first thing is going to be turn this from a 3D problem into a 2D one, by solving for gamma. I would recommend thinking about theta in terms of the tangent function, X and Y. There is a common function called atan2 which is typically used to find gamma , given X and Y. So, a single function gets you gamma (sweet!).
Now that you have gamma, you have two links and two joints left to place (and they are in the same plane), which are your red leg lines:
1. You would typically then find OB using OB^2 = (L1^2 + L2^2). OB, L1, and L2 form a plane, which all our calculations are now on.
2. Now, we notice that the same atan2 function could be used to find alpha (based on Zb and the length of the horizontal projection of OB).
3. You can then solve for (alpha + delta), because you have all three sides of your triangle -- and then subtract the alpha value you just determined to find delta.
4. And now, you have a function to describe phi in your sheet (as acos of a really nasty set of numbers).
At that point, you have your values for your servos!
So now we have IK, the next step would be on 'How to use IK to form Gaits'.
the idea is, to make a step, we will have to tell the servo to move to a set of positions. the more positions, the more smooth the motion would be. and that's how gaits are generated.
The best way to study gaits generation, is to go through people's code. Here are some good code we could study:
Best way to learn with those topic is to download the PowerPod program from Lynxmotion's shopsite:
Generate a basic code, and try to follow the code line by line and understand what its doing (not necessarily focusing on how), then once you figure out the flow of the code, you can go back into the details of the how by following some basic trig.
It took quite a while for me to figure out what it's doing.
The code is basically doing inverse-kinematics. Kinematics is giving the servo an angle and calculating where it's supposed to land given the length of the arm/apendage. Inverse is giving it a target location and figuring out the angle the servo needs to move in order to accomplish the movement [of the tip of the appendage] to that location. But that's a very high level understanding.
For me, I printed out the awesome explanation of the code by Luis Hidalgo, the code generated by Powerpod, and also the IK-diagram, and just kept studying it over and over until it started to click.
I'm no expert at it, but I'm still on the path to getting to know it more. You should do some google search on this topic (inverse kinematics) and there are several websites out that explains this quite readily. Some useful ones I found are:
Here are some good sites to explore more of the IK field:
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Modeling Conflict: WWI and Trench Warfare
The archaeology of warfare encompasses much of human history and extends to all corners of the globe. Although war has been a recurring theme across cultures, few individual wars remain fresh, scars on society’s collective memory. World War One, deemed the “Great War,” is one such instance where a combination of time, place, and scale culminate in an event of far reaching proportions. The soldiers who fought left behind records in letters, journals, and even art, but their legacy continues on a larger scale.
The battle of Messines led up to the much larger battle of Ypres. At Messines, the men worked for approximately 18 months preparing fortifications, and in the actual battle there were close to a total of 50,000 casualties and injuries. What makes this site of particular interest lies not on the battlefield, but rather at the Brocton and Rugeley training camps, located in England. During the war, these facilities were used to train allied troops but also to house prisoners of war. These camps are, of late, the focus of an Archaeological investigation focused on a specific area, known as Cannock Chase, which since the war has become overgrown from disuse. Under this reclaimed field lies the remnants of a large-scale construction project.
An actual trench from Messines
Built by soldiers with a great deal of labor from prisoners of war, the trench system at Cannock Chase perfectly matches that of Messines in 1917. The only difference is the location and size. Why, during a war, would allied forces spend time constructing a scale model of a battlefield that was subject to change at any minute? This seems a tactic of little use in today’s age of urban warfare, but in its time Cannock Chase served several important duties. First and foremost, they served as invaluable training tools for new infantry forces. The fighting at Messines stretched out over several years, and during that time trenches changed sides and forces shuffled across a barren wasteland. By using these model trenches, officers were able to prepare their troops for the exact environment they would soon face. The trenches were quite literally a chessboard where officers could safely shuffle troops about, practicing maneuvers and attempting new tactics. By training in these trenches, soldiers also became accustomed to the lay of the battlefield at Messines before they set foot in the actual war zone.
Part of Brocton and Rugeley Camps where the trenches are located
What can this site tell anthropologists about warfare? Well the answer is not quite clear yet, but with the mapping and excavation these fortifications should yield insight into the daily life both of prisoners of war but also the allied forces preparing to enter the real trenches. It is hoped that this model will help historians and archaeologists learn more about the actual battlefield at Messines, for the site at Cannock Chase remained largely unoccupied and undisturbed after the war. Until the investigation is complete, these trenches remain another of conflict covered up by time, with the promise of new information in store for those studying the site.
For More Information:
Not Just History at Risk
This week we explored the destruction of artifacts central to different cultures at the hands of war, as well as the archaeology of warfare. What better way to cut down an enemy than to extinguish what represents their past? One of our readings stated, “The relevance of the past to the present is evident in many facets of daily life…The past is a means through which identities–whether ethnic, national, religious, or other–can be formed and reinforced in the present.”
We looked at many examples that spanned from Iraq, India to Syria. I wanted to learn more into the specifics about Syria and found an article that examined the specific treasures that are threatened by conflict in this area, as well as the efforts to combat this large destruction in Syria.
The Aleppo castle where pro-government forces are based
The Aleppo castle where pro-government forces are based
The so-called most important artifacts to go missing, the bronze statue, dated back 2,000 years, which was put on Interpol’s ‘Most Wanted’ list, as well as a marble artifact stolen from a museum. Many archaeological sites have also been a target. Looting and illegal excavations have increased dramatically during this time of conflict. Buildings and markets have also been subject to harm. Specifically, seven old markets in Aleppo were practically destroyed by a large fire. Army shelling has been seen to damage ancient homes. Syria treasures have become a battleground for Middle Eastern conflict. The head of Syria’s iniquities and museums, Maamoun Abdulkarim, noted this while talking about looters, “If they reach these places then my conviction is that Syria would no longer exist…It would signal the end of the end…Syria as we know it would then be over.”
Aleppo markets
As a result of this looming truth, many actions have been taken to protect Syria’s treasures. All Syrian museums were stripped of all artifacts, besides ones that were too troublesome to move out. Abdulkarim said that, “They are in effect empty halls…” They were sent to specialist warehouses to prevent any danger. UNESCO, the cultural UN body, shared their concern about the Six World Heritage Sites (places listed as having special cultural or physical significance) and reached out to help protect ancient treasures of Syria. They are even helping tracking down specific artifacts such as eighteen mosaic panels smuggled to Lebanon.
Some particularly inspiring examples are the acts of citizens to protect artifacts. Some examples of this are the work of a local community in the town of Maarat al-Noman to ensure famous mosaic portraits were kept safe as well as an instance in Hama where neighborhood youths defended their local museum’s Roman and Byzantine statues until they were safe from looters. Some looting has also simply ceased due to the lack of success in finding goods.
“God forbid, then we are approaching the start of the tragic demolition of our past and future.”
UN Cultural Body- UNESCO
Further Reading:
Amid the devastation and danger of civil war, Syrian archaeologists and activists are risking their lives in the battle against looting:
Syria, graced with thousands of historic sites, is seeing its cultural heritage vandalized looted and destroyed by war – but volunteers are doing what they can to document the damage and save the country’s cultural identity from obliteration (as seen through photographs):
Links to photographs:
Photograph one, Aleppo:
Photograph two, markets:
Photograph three, UNESCO:
Al-Khalidi, Suleiman. “Syrian Violence Threatens Ancient Treasures.” Reuters. February 20, 2013. Accessed November 24, 2014.
Bernbeck, Reinhard, and Susan Pollock. “Ayodhya, Archaeology, and Identity.” JSTOR. January 1, 1996. Accessed November 24, 2014.
4000 Years, Little Change
Hammurabi’s code is a series of 282 laws from ancient Mesopotamia (around 1727 BCE) that is well known for its harsh ruling on crimes as well as its distinction between classes and gender.
What gave Hammurabi the right to rule in the first place?
Hammurabi descended from a line of kings so the continued rule by his family line would be considered the “norm.” In addition to this, his affiliation with the gods, and his popularity for expanding his empire gave him power.
Hammurabi with Shamash, god of Justice
Hammurabi with Shamash, god of Justice
He unites people under this shared document. Ruling 195 states that, “If a son has struck his father, his hands shall be cut off.” This same punishment is also applied to a surgeon who has killed or “cut out the eye” of another. Law 196 is the famous “eye for an eye,” case, followed by teeth and genitals.
From a biological imperative standpoint, our ability to perform specialized tasks with our hands, to avoid dangerous situations with our vision, to process foods that are otherwise too hard for consumption, and to reproduce, thus passing on our genes, are all evolutionary advantages. The code focuses on the essential functions while omitting features that could be lived without. The harsh environment of Mesopotamia led to a desire for individuals to pull their own weight, thus setting criminals, now disabled, up for resentment and “other-ing” by the rest of the society. The absence of one’s hands is immediately apparent, and therefore a permanent badge of misbehavior.
3600 years after Hammurabi, King Leopold II (see below) began his exploitation of the “African cake.” Under the same idea of expansion, King Leopold used his “right” as a European to civilize the people of Congo, while in reality profiting from growing rubber and ivory industries that resulted in the enslavement of the local peoples and the deaths of approximately 10 Million.
King Leopold II
King Leopold II
King Leopold’s army added insult to injury, so to speak, by damaging the bodies of the dead, even hanging them “in the form of a cross.” A cross, a symbol of Christianity (a European idea), becomes a symbol of terror for the survivors.
His war crimes included mass mutilation where “They [hands] became a form of currency,” proof that bullets were not “wasted.” Again, the removal of hands is a means of exerting power over the socially inferior group. By allowing the trade of severed hands, the victims of this genocide are dehumanized. Amputation is not always fatal, allowing the person to live for years with this form of mutilation. As in Hammurabi’s time, these people also had to bear the physical signs of oppression.
Warfare is a matter of intimidation, often seeking to “warn off” outsiders. So who would be left to intimidate if war were more “efficient?”
This reasoning would help explain why the removal of hands has been a punishment over the centuries.
Read Hammurabi’s code here:
The idea is even brought forward into the modern day:
“Ancient History Sourcebook: Code of Hammurabi, C. 1780 BCE.” Internet History Sourcebooks. Ed. Paul Halsall. Fordham University, 6 Nov. 2014. Web. 22 Nov. 2014. <>.
Ceallaigh, Liam O. “When You Kill Ten Million Africans You Aren’t Called ‘Hitler'” Diary of a Walking Butterfly. Diary of a Walking Butterfly, 22 Dec. 2010. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.
“The Code of Hammurabi.” Constitution Society. Constitution Society, n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2014.
James, Andre C. “The Butcher of Congo: King Leopold II of Belgium.” Digital Journal. Digital Journal, 4 Apr. 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2014.
Knox, Gordon. “Heart of Darkness – There Was Nothing Exactly Profitable in These Heads Being There.” Book Drum. Book Drum, 2013. Web. 22 Nov. 2014.
Selwyn-Holmes, Alex. “Congo, Then and Now.” Iconic Photos. Word Press, 10 Feb. 2011. Web. 22 Nov. 2014. <>.
Sliwinski, Sharon. “The Kodak on the Congo: The Childhood of Human Rights.”, 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2014. <>.
Stolze, Dolly. “A Criminal’s Relic: The Macabre History of Severed Hands.” Strange Remains. Strange Remains, 6 Apr. 2014. Web. 18 Nov. 2014.
The Mother of Invention
We’ve been trained and taught to think that tools and our dependence on material culture stems from a fundamental need for them in order to survive. This perspective fails to recognize other factors that influence tool use, creating a misleading picture when applied to the material aspects of culture. Recent studies challenge this idea that we depend on tools for survival. Dr. Kathelijne Koops of the University of Cambridge, Elisabetta Visalberghi, and Carel van Schaik challenge the assumption that necessity and survival are the “mothers of invention.” She and her colleagues argue that research into tool use by primates should look at the opportunities for tool use provided by the local environment.
Chimpanzee using a stone to crack open a nut
Chimpanzee using a stone to crack open a nut
Dr. Koops, Visalberghi, and van Schaik conducted studies of tool use amongst chimpanzees, orangutans, and bearded capuchins. The studies revealed that their tool use didn’t increase during times of scarcity, but rather tools were used when there were hard to reach and calorie rich foods available in the environment. This reveal challenges the held notion that necessity and survival governs the development and use of tools. Koops comments, “Our study suggests that published research on primate cultures, which depend on the ‘method of exclusion’, may well underestimate the cultural repertoires of primates in the wild, perhaps by a wide margin.” Their studies explain that opportunity, not necessity, governs tool use. This explicitly recognizes how the environment and landscape are influences on material culture. The previous model that defined tool use based on necessity illustrates tool usage solely dependent on survival, whereas this new model illustrates tool usage dependent on the environment and what the environment is offering the user.
This new model employs historical ecology, the anthropological paradigm that traces the dialectic relationship between human actions and nature. Using the historic-ecological perspective, it is established that the landscape retains the physical evidence of mental activities. In this case, the landscape retains the physical evidence of the development of material culture. Understanding tool usage in this way encourages us to view the environment as people centered, not environment centered. In viewing the environment as a landscape as opposed to an ecosystem, Dr. Koops, Visalberghi, and van Schaik recognize the dialectic relationship between nature and human behavior and how little or minor activities have major, lasting impacts on landscapes.
Their research can also help explain the development of tool use by ancient humans. Once we better understand tool use by ancient humans we can then focus on ways to encourage sustainable tool use by future users. Dr. Koops, Visalberghi, and van Schaik’s research can be applied to modern problems: by studying how primates use tools, it tells us how humans of the past have developed material culture and technology, and by finding the patterns of the past, we can apply them to the present. Their research can be used to find new ways of production, methods, practices, etc. for tool use that support a global effort towards sustainability.
Sources Used:
Sabloff, Jeremy A. “Chapter Three: How Can the Prospects for a Sustainable World Be Improved?” Archaeology Matters: Action Archaeology in the Modern World. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2008. Print.
New Content:
Wonder Women
Wonder-Woman, Xenu Warrior Princess, and Katniss Everdeen are today’s interpretations of Greek history’s elusive group of Amazon women. This all female tribe is usually associated with violence, war, infanticide, mutilation, and overall aggressive ruthlessness. People claim that the Amazons removed one of their breasts for more effective archery, killed any male sons, and were all homosexual because of their deep hatred for men. These legends have led the public to believe that Amazons are a myth. However, archaeologists today are finding more and more evidence suggesting the existence of “Amazons,” who are far different from their monstrous reputation.
Now to separate fact from myth: although the fantastical image of a wild tribe of women has proven to be just that, there is real evidence of ancient women exemplifying Amazonian traits. Recent excavations of Scythian kurgans (burial mounds of the nomadic Scythe population) have found female remains buried in the same fashion as warrior men–with bows, knives, daggers, tools, and hemp-smoking kits. Just like the men, their remains had war injuries. This was not a marginality either; in fact one third of Scythian women were buried this way. These findings deconstruct the idea of male burials. Rather, this ceremonial type of grave was that of an ungendered warrior. Although Amazons may not have been their own separate force, there were certainly women of Amazonian character that fought alongside men. Such rules out the origin of their respective warfare to be in reproduction, one of the four main causes for war along with territory, status, and nationalism.
The striped legs of this female warrior show her wearing trousers, which were invented for riding horses and were uncommon amongst both men and women at the time.
Scythian warrior women had a strong bond of sisterhood, which although never suggested in antiquity, were today assumed to be lesbians. This may have been true based on the Greeks’ comfort with homosexuality. Still, evidence suggests they were not regarded as lesbians, but man-lovers.
Depictions Amazon-esque women in pottery sanctified them as symbol of beauty, courage, strength, and war-spirit. In the 1300 images of Amazonian battles found in Adrienne Mayor’s studies of the infamous women, only two or three of them show signs of gesturing for mercy. They were horsebacked, arrow shooting heroes.
This image shows Amazon queen Penthesileia killing an inferior male warrior
With all of these suggestions of power, beauty, and greatness, why do we have such a negative, malicious view of the Amazons? I believe this to be a result of one of the pitfalls of archaeology: that it can reflect our present ideologies more than the past. Historically, women haven’t been viewed as valiant. We usually don’t teach history of women fighting under a male alias, or leading troops. Because the notion of heroic warrior women in our culture is so unheard of, it’s easy to rationalize the idea by dehumanizing these women. In androcentric interpretations of archaeology, it would seem more feasible for there to be crazy, animal-like lesbians on the loose than accept the fact that women may have been just as valuable and honored as men in wartime. It’s time to use proper feminist archaeology to rethink past gender roles so that we can celebrate Scythian warrior women rather than vilifying them.
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Interested in more about the Scythian warriors like the Amazons? Of course you are:
Forgotten Africa; how and why an oversimplified history dominates a diverse continent
Perspectives on Africa, its peoples and various parts, often oversimplify the continent. The fact that I can even, in my opening sentence and title, refer to a singular “Africa” rather than a more specific part, and yet be confident that readers will have an already formed image and understanding of this “Africa,” shows how we tend to group this vast continents’ diverse histories and peoples into a singular entity.
So why do we have this oversimplified view of the continent? Many pan-Africanists talk about the role of colonialism in not only destroying a lot of Africa’s past, physically and culturally, but also in contributing to the contemporary socio-political scene, where Africa almost always comes off second best.
Archaeologists and historians have, in more recent times, been uncovering more and more history about pre-colonial Africa, and shedding light on how and why these pasts are not always remembered.
Firstly, the historical archaeological approach to Africa can be exemplified through examples such as Great Zimbabwe or The Ife Kingdom in West Africa. These well-known, impressive monuments and remnants of past societies were at first attributed, by early European explorers, to belong to more civilized societies from further north, rather than of being of African origin. The Ife Kingdom in modern day Nigeria was thought to be the lost city of Atlantis by German explorer Leo Frobenius, who refused to accept that the complex and ornate bronze sculptures he found were made by Africans. This diffusionist explanation has gradually been replaced by a more processual one, and places like these have been shown to originate from local cultures and histories as opposed to more northern, “higher centres.”
Image 1: Examples of the bronze sculptures of the Ife Kingdom. Leading art experts believe they are among the most aesthetically striking and technically sophisticated in the world.
Apart from this early trend in attributing African monuments to non-African sources, there was a subsequent and wider spanning history of the systematic destruction of African societies.
In the period between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, known as the “scramble for Africa,” European powers invaded, occupied, colonized and annexed parts of the continent. The political justification for this manifested early on under the “Terra Nullius’ law, which stated that any land which lacks sovereignty by any state is open to acquisition by occupation. When it became clear that Africa was not “Terra Nullius,” the justification shifted to the duty of colonial rule over societies of savages and uncivilized peoples. This too was a short-lived agenda as colonialists discovered the aforementioned monuments and cities that indicated anything but savagery or lack of civilization. The resulting approach was to destroy these physical manifestations of civilization in order to create not only a landscape lacking the signs of sophisticated society but also the segmentation of these societies by the destruction of their physical centres.
Image 2: What survives today of the ancient city of Timbuktu in Mali. In the 14th century Timbuktu was five times bigger than the city of London at that time, and was the richest city in the world. Today it is 236 times smaller than London and has nothing of a modern city.
Modern archaeology and historical review has done much to broaden our knowledge of Africa’s past. These more accurate, and enlightened, historical perspectives are critical in helping address the current social regard for Africa, not as a singular entity, but as a continent filled with widespread and diverse peoples, cultures and histories.
Additional Reading:
100 African cities destroyed by Europeans:
How Europe under-developed Africa by Walter Rodney:
Renfrew, C and Bahn, P. Archaeology Essentials. Thames & Hudson, London, 2010: pp 271.
Mawuna Remarque Koutonin. 100 African Cities Destroyed By Europeans: WHY there are seldom historical buildings and monuments in sub-Saharan Africa!” 16 November 2014. <>
Stephanie Busari. The African Sculptures mistaken for remains of Atlantis.” 16 November 2014. <>
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Bring Back the Artifacts: Artifacts Returned to Peru from U.S. Museum
For four years, the Burke Museum of Natural History worked with the Peruvian government to identify objects such as human remains, ceramic vessels and bowls, a collection of dolls, necklaces, and textiles. On November 5, the Peruvian Consul General attended a gathering for the final exhibition of the items; and the following week, the items were packed up and transported to Peru. Those items were identified for repatriation under a UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. The convention permits government to designate meaningful objects of cultural heritage and protect them from leaving the country from which they originated. This repatriation shows that the museum is fulfilling the ethical responsibilities that come with having excavated artifacts. The UNESCO convention supports the idea that the identity of people is linked to the past, which people learn about from artifacts. Thus, the countries that use the UNESCO convention to repatriate artifacts can reclaim information from their past.
Figure 1- A ceramic vessel collected from Mochica, Peru, is one of the objects returned to the Peruvian government.
Dr. Peter Lape, associate director of research and curator of archaeology at the Burke Museum, said, “We are glad to help send these collections to Peru.” The artifacts were flown by the United States Air Force to the Peruvian Air Force base in Lima, Peru. Two officers from the Peruvian Ministry of Foreign Relations took the objects and transferred them to the Ministry of Culture for further preservation. The positive attitude from Dr. Lape and the level of involvement for transportation indicate the importance of repatriation and the power that the UNESCO convention holds.
This pot, given to the Burke by a Seattle woman in 2007, was returned to Peru.
The museum was prompted to examine their Peruvian collections by a different ruling concerning the handling of Native American cultural items for federal agencies or institutions that receive federal funding. The ruling led the museum to re-inventory all of their human remains and they found three sets of Peruvian remains. Laura Phillip, the museum’s archaeology collections manager, said, “So, it’s sort of in the spirit of that law [Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990], we talked to the Peruvian government and said ‘Would you be interested in these individuals?’ And they said yes.” So, the legislation regarding archaeology and artifacts has the potential to stimulate further discussion of repatriation. Existing legislation combined with ethical standards of archaeologists and museums foster a system for dealing with artifacts that is respectful to the people who consider the artifacts as parts of their past.
Sabloff, Jeremy A. “Chapter Five: Why Cities?” Archaeology Matters: Action Archaeology in the Modern World. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2008. 71-72. Print.
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Further Reading:
How The Immortal City Fell
This small city of Misis located in Turkey like most cities is located near water ways. This city was located on the silk road at one point. This city has a rich history and up to 100,000 city inhabitants lived there at one time. Misis now has a population of just a few thousand and is a small village known as Yakapinar. This city was restored to its former glory with the discovery of mosaics in the Misis mound. These mosaics show the vast amount of animals that were imported into the city. These mosaics show that we still repeat many of the actions of past societies. One mosaic includes a way of caging poultry the same way the locals still do.
This former city was known as the immortal city, not because of its age, but because of the reference in the Quran where the recipe for immortality was dropped into the river from this location. Through the recent excavation new mosaics, a stone bridge and the Havraniye Caravanserai were unearthed. The Havraniye Caravanserai is a center for commerce; the only thing that remains of it now is the large gate to its entrance. The excavations show how the city has changed hands so many times. The artifacts found are from the Neolithic, Roman, Byzantine, and Armenian eras.
Misis is similar to modern cities such as St. Louis and Detroit which were at one point large economic centers and are now decreasing rapidly in population. The village of Yakapinar was also a huge economic center but the population fell due to external conflicts such as the crusades and the city being burned down.
The government of Turkey has set up plans to keep the village and area alive by giving out incentives to maintain normal life there as well as build new housing complexes to allow people to move back to this area. The head archaeologist believes that this will be a hot spot in tourism because of the variety of different cultures that have influenced the area over time.
The only Mosaic known to show Eros in this manner
The only Mosaic known to show Eros in this manner
The mosaics discovered from this excavation as well as the original ones in 1956, show what the culture at that time felt was most important. There is a Noah’s Ark mosaic, and one of eros the greek/roman god of love. The mosaics and the Roman and Byzantium ruins hold a lot of aesthetic value which unfortunately cause their true meanings to be forgotton. The latest digs discovered more about the culture and the extent of the city’s history going back past the fifth millennium. The original excavation in the 1950’s appears neglected everyday life and why the city fell, and instead appreciates the aesthetic value of these ruins.
This is the ruins of the market place of Misis
This is the ruins of the market place of Misis
From text it seems that the reason this city was able to survive for so long was its stable economic location. Its proximity to a river and the Mediterranean and to the middle east (Israel) allowed for this city to maintain a strong economic center with multiple markets. The small village still has modern inhabitants just like the desolate cities of the American Midwest. This “immortal” city of Turkey shows how archaeology should be able to help understand how cities rapidly fall in population, but with the original excavation more focused on aesthetic value, it is the recently discovered artifacts and ruins which will help us correct the past mistakes and help us understand what life was like in this economic center and how the external conflicts caused the population to decrease.
Work Cited:
Yale, Pat. Turkey From the Inside. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <>.
“ARCHAEOLOGY – Turkey’s Immortal City Gets New Lease on Life.” Turkey’s Immortal City Gets New Lease on Life. N.p., 14 Nov. 2014. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <>.
Halicioglu, Seref. Misis Kervansarayı (Misis Caravanserai). Digital image. Panoramio. N.p., 10 Sept. 2014. Web. <>.
Eros Mosaic. Digital image. Eros Mosaic Found in Southern Turkish City. Doğan News Agency, 20 Feb. 2013. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <>.
additional reading:
Observations on the Samson Floor at Mopsuestia; This article not only gives a good history of the city but goes into detail about some of the mosaics discovered.
City Fortification or Sacred Monument? The Case of a 5,000 Year-Old Landscape Abnormality
Has there ever been anything in your life which turned out to be nothing of what you originally thought of? If so, then this phenomenon also turned out to be the case when archaeologists recently discovered the true purpose of a crescent-shaped stone monument in northern Israel.
Lunar monument located near the Sea of Galilee. Until recently, it was thought to be a portion of the walls of an old city.
The monument, which is located approximately 8 miles northwest of the Sea of Galilee, is measured at 150 meters (or 492 feet) in length with a height of 7 meters (about 23 feet) and a volume of 14,000 cubic meters (nearly 500,000 cubic feet). It is known to the locals of the area in Arabic as “Rujum en-Nabi Shua’ayb,” but it is also known by the name “Jethro’s Cairn”, a probable link to the Druze prophet Jethro who is mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible. Along with the stone formation’s impressive size, it has also been dated based on pottery found in the structure as being built between the years 3050 and 2650 BC, making it older than the Great Pyramids of Egypt and Stonehenge in the United Kingdom.
Depiction of the Mesopotamian moon god Sin. The monument is thought to be devoted to the moon god by the inhabitants of nearby Bet Yerah.
Past work by archaeologists led many to the conclusion that the monument was once the part of a city wall, but recent work done by Hebrew University doctoral student Ido Wachtel has yielded no evidence of a nearby city. Rather than being city fortifications, Wachtel posits that the structure served as a symbolization for the ancient Mesopotamian moon god Sin, with the lunar crescent shape of the monument being one of Sin’s symbols. He supports this claim by also stating that a nearby ancient town named Bet Yerah (Hebrew for “house of the moon god”) is only a day’s journey from the structure, a distance which allows the monument to possibly serve as the town’s borders. As Wachtel wrote in a presentation to the International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, “The proposed interpretation for the site is that it constituted a prominent landmark in its natural landscape, serving to mark possession and to assert authority and rights over natural resources by a local rural or pastoral population.”
In terms of how the monument was built, Wachtel estimates that the job would have taken approximately 200 workers many months to complete, also keeping in mind the fact that those workers had to tend to their crops as well. The town of Bet Yerah, known in Arabic as “Khirbet Kerak,” was believed to have been thriving during the monument’s construction, with the inhabitants had good trade relations with early Egyptian rulers.
Nevertheless, an aerial view of the landscape displays a breathtaking site, one which now can be seen as a sacred location to those who once lived there. In addition to being a symbolic dedication to an ancient deity, the monument also serves as a potent symbol displaying Bet Yerah’s economic power at the time of its construction. Overall, the monument, although still leaving some unanswered questions, has served as a long-lasting reminder of Bet Yerah’s spiritual and cultural strength.
More Reading On This Topic Can Be Found At:
Works Cited
Jarus, By Owen. “Massive 5,000-Year-Old Stone Monument Revealed in Israel.” LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 15 Sept. 2014. Web. 15 Nov. 2014. <>.
Haaretz. “5,000-year-old Moon-shaped Stone Structure Identified in Northern Israel – Archaeology.” N.p., 16 Sept. 2014. Web. 15 Nov. 2014. <>.
Image 1:
Image 2:
Rare Indian Burial Ground Demolished
In Larkspur, California a burial site over 4,500 years old containing 600 human bodies was annihilated for the construction of a housing complex. The mound was the Coast Miwok’s who were the inhabitants of Marin and southern Sonoma Counties. Archaeologists were able to record some of the findings from the mound but the things found are now unavailable for people who want to study them. All of the artifacts at the site were removed and reburied in an undisclosed location. The geological records of the artifacts were destroyed concluding the chances of further studying the original mound.
The archaeologists hired to excavate the mound were required to let the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria manage the excavation due to the Environmental Quality Act. The Graton Rancheria gave the go ahead to rebury and relocate the mound. The archaeologists worked with the demands of the Native Americans in order to solve the problem. Unlike many of the problems between anthropologists and Natives, this encounter resulted in terms favorable to the Indians. But in the end, this decision left other archaeologists puzzled.
The chairman of the tribe, Greg Harris said, “The tribe traditionally reburies sacred objects because many of them are intended to stay with the person who died.” In other words, it’s in the best interest to rebury these artifacts and not examine them because they are supposed to remain in the ground forever (with the dead). Thus, the Natives don’t care that the items from the mound have archaeological value since they are only concerned with where they end up. Archaeologists, Jelmer Eerkens told the chronicle “ It [the mound] should have been protected.” Eerkens believes that the developers have the authority to build their own land, but they also have the responsibility to save samples from the building site and protect the archaeological information discovered. Archaeologists like Eerkens assert that a crucial chunk of Native American history had been lost. The excavation was first conducted under secrecy and wasn’t known by other archaeologists until March of 2014 when it was disclosed at the Society for California Archaeology symposium, already too late to preserve the ancient site.
Photo of after the site was repaved over
After the site was repaved over
Over the years, the preservation of Native cultural sites has been a controversial procedure in San Francisco, since Native American mounds are no longer abundant in the area. Many times there is tension present, sometimes resulting to courtroom battles between Native Americans, who usually want ancestral artifacts left alone, and archaeologists who want to gather and keep the ancient artifacts to better understand the history of their people. But the archaeologists don’t have the right to examine something that is not rightfully theirs (without permission). Even though we cannot ever examine these artifacts, I still believe that it was the right decision to listen to the Graton Rancheria because their cultural needs are more important.
One of the homes built over the burial site
One of the homes built over the burial site
further reading:
Photo 1:
Photo 2:
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Saturday, July 21, 2012
Behavior Tools: Understanding Behavior
Merriam-Webster dictionary defines behavior as "the manner of conducting oneself."
Simply put, behavior is what we say or do in any given situation.
And what we do or say is always influenced by something else. We do what we do for a reason.
Think about that for a second. Everything we do or say, we do for a reason.
Sometimes those reasons are obvious...
I eat because I'm hungry.
I tie my shoe so it won't fall off when I'm walking.
I wear a jacket so I won't get as cold.
Sometimes those reasons are not as when we say something mean to a friend when we are feeling hurt or angry or defensive.
The point is, there is always something behind the way we choose to behave, and that is just as true for kids as it is for adults.
Understanding the why behind a child's behavior can help us to behave more appropriately in response. The why or function of a behavior can typically be generalized into two categories. We do things because we want to obtain something tangible (i.e. attention, validation, item) or we do it to avoid or escape something (i.e. avoid shame, attention, punishment, etc.)
As adults, we have had a lot of experience and practice with behaving in certain ways to either get what we want or avoid things we don't want. Even still, we make mistakes and don't always make the best choice.
The thing with kids is that they haven't had those years of experience and practice to always know what the best choice of behavior is in any given situation. As such, they are constantly trying out different behaviors to see what works and what doesn't. If a behavior gets the result they are looking for, then they are very likely to continue using that behavior to get what they want- even if it is considered inappropriate by adult standards.
That's where the importance of teaching comes in. We can't expect kids just to know how best to behave- even if we've told them or punished them for a certain undesirable behavior. So often I hear the phrase: "They know better." I'm sure I've even used this phrase before. But the truth is, if they are still using a negative behavior to get what they want, then they really don't know better. And that's probably because we haven't given them the right kind of teaching and practice to learn a better behavior.
For me, understanding the why of behavior helps me to be more patient with teaching appropriate behavior. When I understand that B (for a boy) is really shy and gets anxiety in whole group situations, I recognize that his behaviors of laying down on the rug and poking other kids is a way for him to escape the anxiety that he feels. Perhaps then, instead of being offended that he is not paying attention to my lesson and constantly nagging him to sit up and keep his hands to himself, I can focus on teaching him strategies to participate appropriately and deal with his anxiety, while also doing what I can to make him more comfortable in that situation. It completely changes the way I handle the situation, which is the only thing I have control over anyways.
Behavior Tools is a series about understanding and managing behavior with young children. The more we understand children and their behavior, the better we are able to teach them how to make good choices and build a solid foundation of self worth and confidence. There is no one-size-fits-all answer to helping a child learn appropriate behavior, which is why we need a lot of different tools and strategies to draw upon when we work with young children.
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What to Do When Excel's TRIM Function Doesn't Work
Remove Non-breaking Spaces with the TRIM, SUBSTITUTE and CHAR Functions
Excel trim function
TRIM-SUBSTITUTE-CHAR Formula to Remove Non-breaking Spaces in Excel. © Ted French
When you copy or import text data into an Excel worksheet, the spreadsheet occasionally retains extra spaces in addition to the content you've inserted. Normally, the TRIM function on its own can remove these unwanted spaces whether they occur between words or at the beginning or end of a text string. In certain situations, however, TRIM can't do the job.
On a computer, a space between words is not a blank area but a character—and there is more than one type of space character. One space character commonly used in Web pages that TRIM will not remove is the non-breaking space.
If you have imported or copied data from Web pages you may not be able to remove the extra spaces with the TRIM function if they are created by non-breaking spaces.
Non-breaking vs. Regular Spaces
Spaces are characters and each character is referenced by its ASCII code value.
ASCII stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange—an international standard for text characters in computer operating environments that creates one set of codes for 255 different characters and symbols used in computer programs.
The ASCII code for a non-breaking space is 160. The ASCII code for a regular space is 32.
The TRIM function can only remove spaces that have an ASCII code of 32.
Removing Non-breaking Spaces
Remove non-breaking spaces from a line of text using the TRIM, SUBSTITUTE, and CHAR functions.
Because the SUBSTITUTE and CHAR functions are nested inside the TRIM function, the formula will be typed into the worksheet rather than using the functions' dialog boxes to enter the arguments.
1. Copy the line of text below, which contains several non-breaking spaces between the words non-breaking and spaces, into cell D1:
Removing non-breaking spaces
2. Click cell D3—this cell is where the formula to remove those spaces will be located.
3. Type the following formula into cell D3: =TRIM(SUBSTITUTE(D1,CHAR(160),CHAR(32))) and press the Enter key on the keyboard. The line of text Removing non-breaking spaces in Excel should appear in cell D3 without the extra spaces between the words.
4. Click cell D3 to display the complete formula, which appears in the formula bar above the worksheet.
How the Formula Works
Each nested function performs a specific task:
• the CHAR function is used to enter the ASCII codes for the two different spaces into the formula—160 and 32
• the SUBSTITUTE function replaces or substitutes all of the non-breaking spaces between the words with regular spaces
• the TRIM function removes the extra regular spaces between words so that the statement appears normally in the worksheet
If TRIM cannot get the job done, you may have problems other than non-breaking spaces, particularly if you're working with original source material rendered in HTML. When you paste the material into Excel, paste it as plain text to strip background formatting from the string and remove special formatting like characters that are rendered as white-on-white—which looks like a space, but isn't. Check, too, for embedded tabs, which may be substituted using the same formula as above, but replacing ASCII code 160 with 9.
SUBSTITUTE is useful for replacing any ASCII code with any other.
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Monkeypox, the silently emerging threat
Monkeypox is not a rare disease anymore. Appropriate and effective interventions and active surveillance activities are urgently needed to make sure that monkeypox won’t become the new smallpox.
Monkeypox (caused by Monkeypox virus, genus Orthopoxvirus) has long been thought to be a rare disease occurring in humans only sporadically1. But after its “cousin” variola (causing smallpox) was eradicated in 19802 and the vaccination was stopped3, it left more people every year vulnerable to all orthopoxvirus infections. This, together with higher exposure to possibly infected animals because of anthropogenic and demographic changes in the last decades, caused a 20-fold increase in monkeypox incidence4. Today, monkeypox is endemic in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and occurs also in other countries of western and central Africa5. It already left the African continent once when rodents shipped from Ghana to the USA in 2003 caused an outbreak counting 47 cases6-8.
It is estimated that 75% of the (re-)emerging pathogens are zoonotic9 and a striking number of newly described zoonoses is linked to an expanding global population and accelerated global changes10. Drastic wildlife reduction, global climate changes, changes in agricultural practices, wildlife trade, traveling and migration of people are hot topics of the last decades which are closely linked to the (re-)emergence or introduction of a new pathogen into a population211,13. Recently we have seen such pathogens (e.g. Ebola and Zika) to emerge and cause an epidemic. So we are aware of the dangers that zoonotic pathogens constitute and we know that they will emerge and possibly cause an epidemic or pandemic more frequently in the future. Yet, we still rather spend much more money for response and control of outbreaks than less money for research and surveillance before it emerges so that we could be more prepared and possibly prevent it. Before the Ebola outbreak in 2014, there was no treatment or vaccine even though we knew about the virus since 1976. This Ebola outbreak cost more than $3,6 billion (not mentioning the lives and GDP loss of the three affected countries)14 while it is estimated that it would cost only about $3,4 billion to identify 99% of high-consequence viruses in wildlife hosts that are most likely to carry the next pandemic15.
Monkeypox outbreak reports are often incomplete because the data are nowadays acquired through a passive surveillance program. It has been shown that passive surveillance systems often miss most cases, leading to an underestimation of the burden of MPXV infections in humans4, 16. In the DRC, this is largely due to years of civil war throughout the country which has made surveillance activities, but also research on the ecology, epidemiology, natural history and pathogenesis of the infection very difficult. It means that most recent data on MPX cases are probably significantly underreported leading to underestimating the magnitude of the problem.
Monkeypox pic
Monkeypox virus currently belongs to the “biosafety level 3” category, the “high threat” biodefence category in the EU17 and is on the list of select agents in the USA18. In any of the following cases, the treat would further increase virulence increase (both naturally19,20 or genetic engineering21), virus spill into more widely distributed taxa22 or introduction in other continents4. In fact, we are probably allowing the virus to increase its virulence by not controlling its transmission, partially because of not knowing about all monkeypox cases. Moreover, an unintentional import of a disease to a new continent is nowadays fairly easy due to air transportation. And yet, there is too little research being done about the topic and not all generated data is published for various reasons. The latter is an issue limiting scientific progress in any research area but is even more pronounced in the field of neglected tropical disease where much is unknown.
Monkeypox is not a rare disease anymore. Its incidence in the DRC increased 20-fold compared to 1980s4 and some sources suggest changes in transmission rate23 and mortality rate24. Appropriate and effective interventions and active surveillance activities are urgently needed to make sure that monkeypox won’t become the new smallpox22.
1. The current status of human monkeypox: Memorandum from a WHO Meeting. Bull World Health Organ. 1984;62(5):703-13.
2. Breman JG, Arita I. The confirmation and maintenance of smallpox eradication. N Engl J Med. 1980;303(22):1263-73.
3. Jezek Z, Khodakevich LN, Wickett JF. Smallpox and its post-eradication surveillance. Bull World Health Organ. 1987;65(4):425-34.
4. Rimoin AW, Mulembakani PM, Johnston SC, Lloyd Smith JO, Kisalu NK, Kinkela TL, et al. Major increase in human monkeypox incidence 30 years after smallpox vaccination campaigns cease in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107(37):16262-7.
5. Meyer H, Perrichot M, Stemmler M, Emmerich P, Schmitz H, Varaine F, et al. Outbreaks of disease suspected of being due to human monkeypox virus infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2001. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40(8):2919-21.
6. CDC. 2003 U.S. Outbreak. 2015 [accessed 23/01/2017]. Available from:
7. Reed KD, Melski JW, Graham MB, Regnery RL, Sotir MJ, Wegner MV, et al. The detection of monkeypox in humans in the Western Hemisphere. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(4):342-50.
8. Multistate outbreak of monkeypox—Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, 2003. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003 Contract No.: 23.
11. Chomel BB, Belotto A, Meslin Fç X. Wildlife, Exotic Pets, and Emerging Zoonoses. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(1):6-11.
12. Barnett ED, Walker PF. Role of immigrants and migrants in emerging infectious diseases. Med Clin North Am. 2008;92(6):1447-58.
13. Rohr JR, Dobson AP, Johnson PTJ, Kilpatrick AM, Paull SH, Raffel TR, et al. Frontiers in climate change-disease research. Trends Ecol Evol. 2011;26(6):270-7.
14. CDC. Cost of the Ebola Epidemic 2016 [accessed 7/8/2017]. Available from:
15. TheGlobalViromeProject. Fighting outbreaks before they happen makes good sense. Available from:
16. Mwamba DK, Kebela BI, Shongo RL, Pukuta E, Kayembe NJM. Profil épidemiologique du monkeypox en RDC, 2010-2014. Ann Afr Med. 2014;8(1):1855-60.
17. Tian D, Zheng T. Comparison and Analysis of Biological Agent Category Lists Based On Biosafety and Biodefense. PLoS One. 2014;9(6).
18. FSAP. Select Agents Regulations, 42 C.F.R. Part 73. 2017.
19. Shchelkunov SN, Marennikova SS, Moyer RW. Classification of poxviruses and brief characterization of the genus. Orthopovxiruses pathogenic for humans. USA: Springer; 2005.
20. Blumberg S, Lloyd-Smith JO. Inference of R0 and Transmission Heterogeneity from the Size Distribution of Stuttering Chains. PLoS Comput Biol. 2013;9(5).
21. Jackson RJ, Ramsay AJ, Christensen CD, Beaton S, Hall DF, Ramshaw IA. Expression of mouse interleukin-4 by a recombinant ectromelia virus suppresses cytolytic lymphocyte responses and overcomes genetic resistance to mousepox. J Virol. 2001;75(3):1205-10.
22. Reynolds MG, Carroll DS, Karem KL. Factors affecting the likelihood of monkeypox’s emergence and spread in the post-smallpox era. Curr Opin Virol. 2012;2(3):335-43.
23. Learned LA, Reynolds MG, Wassa DW, Li Y, Olson VA, Karem K, et al. Extended interhuman transmission of monkeypox in a hospital community in the Republic of the Congo, 2003. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;73(2):428-34.
24. ElPais. La viruela de los monos, ese nuevo desafío 2017 [28/7/2017]. Available from: La viruela de los monos, ese nuevo desafío.
Sklenovska_pic Nikola Sklenovská is a young global health professional with a master in Biomedical Sciences. Nikola’s main interests are emerging infectious diseases. With her work, she wants to have a positive impact in the World while discovering new perspectives and ideas.
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Henry V Assignment
Extracts from this document...
HENRY V ASSIGNMENT Henry V is an impressive piece of literature, which can be read in its entirety to oneself. However, if the full dramatic effectiveness is to be appreciated, it must be seen in its true context as a performance on stage. At the time Henry V was written, theatre played an important part in people's lives. It was a way of life, and people of all social levels went to see plays by their favourite playwright. Theatres in Elizabethan times took on a conventional style. They are described the Chorus in Henry V as a 'wooden O' as they were indeed wooden and ring shaped. At a performance in an Elizabethan theatre the place where you stood depended on your social level. Lower-class people or 'groundlings' as they would be called, stood on the ground, surrounding the stage. Here you would not only find people standing to watch the performance, but you would also find family pets and entertainers like Jugglers and Fire Eaters and the richer patrons of the theatre sat in the outer ring. In Henry V there are many scenes, which cannot be acted out on stage effectively. These are mainly the battle scenes, which would involve large armies of men in real life. Shakespeare managed to overcome this problem and keep his audience entertained. The chorus is the first person in the play to speak. He asks the audience "On your imaginary forces work." He makes excuses that the stage they are acting on cannot be the same as the battlefields that these events actually took place on "Can this cock-pit hold the vasty fields of France?" ...read more.
So therefore we did not learn whether Henry is a good Christian king from the French but we did learn that he is powerful and not so weak as to be rejected as an easy victory. There is another instance where the two countries meet. The Dauphin meets with him earlier in the play and then reports back to King Charles. He tells the king HENRY IS "THE MIRROR OF ALL CHRISTIAN KINGS," HOW DOES SHAKESPEARE BUILD UP HIS CHARACTER TO SUGGEST THIS AND WHY? that England is ruled by a "vain, giddy, shallow, humorous youth." and that because of this, they have no fear of going to war. King Charles then tells his princes and knights to beware of Henry, because he doesn't want France to live its past history again. "And he is bred out of that bloody strain that haunted us in our familiar paths. Witness our too-much memorable shame when Cr�cy battle fatally struck," King Charles, Act 2, Scene 4, Lines 51-54. The person who I felt told us the most about Henry's character was Henry himself. One of the first serious actions we see him take is against the three traitors, Richard, Earl of Cambridge, Henry, Lord Scrope of Masham and Thomas Grey, Knight of Northumberland. Their plan was to kill Henry at Southampton before he departed for France. Henry caught wind of this but didn't straight away order them to be executed for high treason. We see Henry tell the three traitors that a man had been arrested for shouting abuse at him whilst drunk, he then asks them what they think the punishment should be. ...read more.
His speech is enough to make any reader feel patriotic, as it did me and shows that he is a good king, who does not always think of himself as a king. So Shakespeare creates an almost perfect character in this play. Henry is, calm under pressure and doesn't always regard himself as above all the rest. He can be aggressive when needed but always thinks before he is. He is also certain that he is just a human being, not a God like person who is greater than everyone else, and this shows when he is going in to battle with his soldiers. It is then when his true character comes out, a patriotic person with spirit for his friends. Although Shakespeare has made an almost perfect character, he couldn't have made Henry so perfect that he wasn't realistic. Therefore Shakespeare makes Henry have a few weaknesses, one of these weaknesses is when Bardolph, an old friend of Henry steals a pax from a church. Henry has to stand up to his power as a King and hangs Bardolph for his crime. Henry is the "The Mirror of all Christian kings"; I would find this a true statement. He is a King who should be looked up to and respected for his good qualities. He should also be respected even for his bad qualities, because everyone has a flaw but it doesn't mean that they are a bad person. Whilst he is a good Christian King, he is also a good Christian person. He is kind, forgiving and calm under pressure and when needed. ...read more.
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pleasure - seeking teenage prince who wrestles with his role as heir to the throne: "...as for proof now, a purse of Gold most resolutely snatched on Monday night, and most dissolutely spent on Tuesday morning; got with swearing 'lay by!', and spent with crying 'bring in!'", here Shakespeare illustrates Hal as a thieving, rebellious and undesirable youth.
2. Henry V Character Analysis
Hence the previous contrast outlines the superficiality of the French nobility who clearly underestimate Henry and his men. The Constable claims his certainty that "when he shall see our army/ He'll drop his heart into the sink of fear/ And for achievement offer us his ransom."
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1. Shakespeare's Henry V
In the first scene Canterbury and Ely discuss Church matters, they talk about Henry and how the death of his father brought about the death of his 'wild' side, "The breath no sooner left his father's body but that his wildness, mortified in him, seemed to die too."
2. Changes in Crime and Punishment.
Smugglers also gave people access to goods that they would not have otherwise been able to afford. By looking at source C smuggling can also be interpreted in this manner. The facts that Tax was on duties and not on income, made many people feel hard done by.
So, first of all the reader can see how unfair it is. The poet also makes her feelings clear by the sheer joy she has in telling the employer that she is leaving and from now on she can do her dirty work herself.
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Spanish 2B Biography
Una biografía de una persona hispánica: ¿Quién es?
Objectivo: To increase your knowledge of famous Hispanics and improve your writing and speaking ability in Spanish.
Trabajo de clase:
#1:You will choose a biography from your local library or from the media center in school about a famous Hispanic person and have your Spanish teacher approve it. Person can be a famous writer, bullfighter, singer, dancer, actor, explorer, political figure, sports person, etc. You need to take good notes (in Spanish or English) about the life and accomplishments of the person.
Trabajo de casa:
#2: Write a summary in Spanish of the Famous Hispanic you chose.
• Tell profession, birth place & date, physical and personality description (present and imperfect).
• Describe at least 6 major life events of the famous person you have chosen in complete sentences (probably preterit for most)
• Make sure to use the correct form of the past tense in your writing (preterit or imperfect)
Bibliography - List of Biographies in the MLK MS Library
Biography Template
Sample completed template
Encyclopedia Britannica School Edition
Encyclopedia Britannica Image Quest
Click here to log in
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Handwriting Analysis
By: Kayden and Bryson
Classes of Handwriting Characteristics
1. Letter form-the shape, curve, angle, or slant of letters.
2. Line form- Smoothness and darkness of lines and letters of line strokes.
3. Formatting- Spacing between words and lines.
Types of Handwriting Characteristics
1. Line quality- defined by whether the letters flow or are shaky.
2. Spacing- defined by whether letters are equally spaced or crowded.
3. Size consistency- the ratio of height to width.
4. Continuous- Whether the writing continuous or has the author lifted the pen.
5. Connecting letters- whether capital and lowercase letters are connected/continuous.
6. Letters complete- whether the lines are completely formed, or if part of letter is missing.
7. Cursive and printed letters- Defined by if the letters are printed, cursive, or both.
8. Pen pressure- Whether the pressure is equal when applied to upward and downward strokes.
9. Slant- defined by if the words are slanted left, right, or varied.
10. Line habits- If the text is on the line, above, or below.
11. Fancy curls or loops- Are there curls or loops in letter formation.
12. Placement of crosses on "t", and dots on "i"- Defined by the placement of crosses of the letter "t", and dots above the letter "i".
Line Quality Example
Big image
Spacing Example
Big image
Size consistancy Example
Big image
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John Hancock
How much do you know about John Hancock?
Nobody loved John Hancock, more than John Hancock. He had a huge ego for himself. He inherited a thriving trading business from his uncle. He then met Samuel Adams, and they both went on to play key roles in the struggle to split from British rule. Hancock went on to become the richest man in New England, and the second richest in America. But that wasn't it, he also became a substantial tribute to the parting of America and Britain. He became the president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first person to sign the Declaration of Independence.
John Hancock as a Child
John Hancock was born on January 23, 1737 in Braintree, Massachusetts. When Hancock was 7, his father passed away. He then moved in with his uncle who had constructed a thriving trading business which he inherited after his uncle's passing.
John Hancock's reputation
Hancock loved money. He loved to dress in the fanciest, shiniest clothes, so he could stand out among everyone else. He was often criticized for his exorbitance. But he wanted everyone to like him. He loved throwing parties, and was often recognized by the sensational parties that he threw. In the mid-1760's, John Hancock won two consecutive political positions. First managing affairs in Boston and then becoming the Colonial Legislature.
The Fight Against Great Britain.
By entering politics at a time when the Colonies were becoming rather irritated by Great Britain, John Hancock found himself amidst the chaos, and decided to take it a step further. He protested the financial regulations, like the Stamp act and the Townshend act. He requisitioned public protests. Also, to avoid British taxation, he smuggled goods aboard his vessels.
Did you know?
The reason Hancock opposed the financial taxes like the Stamp act and Townshend act was because of his business interests. The more financial taxes there were, the worse business would be.
Sons of Liberty
John Hancock was part of the Sons of Liberty. The Sons of Liberty rebelled against Great Britain and its taxes. They also executed the plan of the Boston Tea Party. When John Hancock became a member of the Sons of Liberty he resorted to less violence and a more political approach.
Danger Ahead
King George despised John Hancock, and expressed his emotions by placing a huge bounty on him. Also, the British had their suspicions that John Hancock was smuggling goods. This led to the seizing of The Liberty (one of John Hancock's vessels). They discovered he wasn't paying the fees for the goods. He was taken to court and forced to pay a fine, until Samuel Adams somehow got him off the hook. Samuel Adams and John Hancock were hunted by British General Thomas Gage. They were warned by Paul Revere that the British were coming on his famous Midnight Ride.
The Declaration Of Independence
In 1774 John Hancock was elected as the President of the Second Continental Congress. On July 4, 1776, John Hancock and the rest of the delegates got ready to sign the Declaration of Independence. This meant that the thirteen American Colonies were free of British rule. John Hancock was the first to sign his name, and left a sizable signature. "There, I guess King George will be able to read that without his spectacles!" John Hancock stated after he wrote his name.
Resigning from the Continental Congress
In 1777 John Hancock was experiencing health issues, therefore, he resigned. In 1778, He started working with the French Navy. There, he led an unsuccessful military campaign to recapture Newport, Rhode Island from the British. In 1780 John Hancock won the election to become Massachusetts first governor.
Nearing the End
On October 8, 1793, John Hancock, the former president of the Continental Congress, passed away. Plenty of people mourned the death, but knew that, if he didn't contribute in the fight against Great Britain, the dreams of Americans being free, might have never come true.
Did you know?
Although John Hancock had many positive qualities he did have one problem that stood out among the rest. Hancock was a smuggler. He would smuggle goods aboard his Vessels so he wouldn't have to pay the fee. But one Pro that stood out among the rest was that he was very generous with his money. He would donate them to people in need, throw parties, give gifts to Massachusetts, and even little deeds, like buy some beer for someone at the bar.
In present time, there is a building in his name. There is also a stone that has his face and name carved into it. Because of Hancock's self-admiration, he would have been proud to know that so many people were inspired by his actions.
Also during this timeline
During this time, people like George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Samuel Adams and, many more. Some of them helped write the Declaration of Independence. Like Thomas Jefferson. Some contributed in the war. Like George Washington.
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tr.v. sur·round·ed, sur·round·ing, sur·rounds
1. To extend on all sides of simultaneously; encircle: the magnetic field that surrounds the earth.
2. To enclose or confine on all sides so as to bar escape or outside communication: The police surrounded the house.
1. Something, such as fencing or a border, that surrounds: a fireplace surround.
a. The area around a thing or place: inflammation extending to the surround of the eye.
b. often surrounds Surroundings; environment: "It was the country, the flat agricultural surround, that so ravished me" (Listener).
3. A method of hunting wild animals by surrounding them and driving them to a place from which they cannot escape.
[Middle English surrounden, to inundate, from Old French suronder, from Late Latin superundāre : Latin super-, super- + Latin undāre, to rise in waves (from unda, wave; see wed- in Indo-European roots).]
• involve - First meant "enfold, surround, wrap."
• enclave, exclave - An enclave is a group or area different from the surroundings, a secured area within another secured area, from Latin clavis, "key"; an exclave is the same thing, but usually describes a portion of a country separated from the main part and surrounded by politically alien territory.
• woebegone - Begone in woebegone means "beset" or "surrounded," so the word means "beset by woe."
• glade - Originally referred to a part of water not frozen over, but surrounded by ice, drawing an analogy to the same word for an opening in the woods.
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Adj.1.surrounded - confined on all sides; "a camp surrounded by enemies"; "the encircled pioneers"
enclosed - closed in or surrounded or included within; "an enclosed porch"; "an enclosed yard"; "the enclosed check is to cover shipping and handling"
References in classic literature ?
The Princess, who expected to be quite alone, was pleased at finding herself surrounded by a number of pretty girls, all anxious to wait on her, whilst a brilliantly-coloured parrot said the most agreeable things in the world.
I was somewhat astonished to perceive that among the number of natives that surrounded us, not a single female was to be seen.
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Two part paper on convective bursts in hurricanes published in Monthly Weather Review
These two papers analyze extreme upward air currents, called “convective bursts,” in hurricanes that have been believed to be important for hurricane intensification. We use the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to look at convective bursts in two hurricanes: Hurricane Dean from 2007 and Hurricane Bill from 2009. In the first paper, we study how convective bursts form, and in the second paper, we analyze how the convective bursts affected the intensity of the two hurricanes.
Important Conclusions:
1. Convective bursts form when the hurricane eyewall, the ring of thunderstorms around the center, goes from a circular to an oval shape.
2. Convective bursts near or in the eyewall of a hurricane tend to lead to intensification of the hurricane.
3. Small-scale features such as these are hard to observe; we need to continue to improve both observations and models to better understand how they work and how they impact hurricanes.
Screen Shot 2017-07-17 at 2.46.21 PM.png
Part I is available at, and Part II at
Screen Shot 2017-07-17 at 2.46.21 PM.png
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Role of Lysine in Protein Synthesis
Lysine is needed for the synthesis of muscle tissue.
Lysine is needed for the synthesis of muscle tissue.
Lysine is an amino acid, one of the "building blocks" of protein. Your body uses 22 amino acids to make protein-based substances such as muscle, skin and enzymes. As an adult, you can make most of the amino acids needed to build protein within your body, but eight of them must come directly from dietary sources. Lysine is in this group of eight, which are called "essential" amino acids. A lack of dietary lysine slows down protein synthesis and results in various health issues.
Building Muscle Tissue
Like most amino acids, lysine is used to build muscle fibers and collagen, which is an elastic-like compound found in skin, cartilage and other connective tissues such as ligaments and tendons. Muscle tissue has a higher proportion of lysine compared to other amino acids, so lysine deficiency is especially detrimental to muscle growth, strength and repair. Muscle weakness, increased injury recovery time and sagging skin are common symptoms of lysine deficiency. Athletes sometimes take lysine supplements in efforts to build leaner muscle and reduce recovery times after workouts. Lysine also stimulates growth hormone production, which helps with muscle growth as well.
Synthesizing Enzymes, Hormones and Antibodies
In addition to muscle and connective tissues, enzymes, hormones and antibodies are also made from protein and rely partially on lysine for synthesis. Enzymes are important for metabolizing foods and precipitating biochemical reactions in your body. Hormones are important for regulating various aspects of the body, including mood, weight, sleep and energy levels. Antibodies are essential for the immune system, because they are able to “recognize and tag” foreign material in the blood and other tissues for destruction and elimination. Consequently, lysine deficiency also can result in poor metabolism, fatigue, hormone imbalance and compromised immunity.
Availability of Lysine
Lysine is found in low concentrations in the proteins of cereal grains such as wheat, and many other vegetable sources of protein. Furthermore, lysine is not fully biologically available in many foods, which means your body cannot metabolize and absorb it as well as other amino acids. Lysine deficiency is not common, but strict vegetarians are more at risk because lysine is much more plentiful in meats and other animal products. However, some decent plant sources of lysine include green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale, cauliflower, soybeans, green beans, papaya, apricots, almonds and cashews.
Lysine Supplements
Bodybuilders often take large amounts of amino acid supplements -- especially lysine and leucine -- to try to stimulate protein synthesis. Lysine supplementation has proven effective in helping injured muscles recover more quickly, but most people get more than enough dietary lysine for normal body functions that rely on protein synthesis. Too much supplemental lysine, such as more than 1,500 milligrams daily, increases your risk of nausea, diarrhea, high blood cholesterol levels and gallstone formation. Consult your doctor before taking lysine supplements.
Video of the Day
Brought to you by LIVESTRONG.COM
Brought to you by LIVESTRONG.COM
• Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance; William D. McArdle, et al.
• Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach; Dee Silverthorn, et al.
• Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism; James L. Groff, et al.
• Natural Standard Herb & Supplement Reference: Evidence-based Clinical Reviews; Catherine E. Ulbricht, et al.
About the Author
Photo Credits
• Photodisc/Photodisc/Getty Images
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Nuclear clustering with pinholes and probes
Quantum mechanics can be described in terms of particle-like or wave-like behavior. This famous duality also extends to numerical simulations of quantum mechanics using random number sampling in a general technique called quantum Monte Carlo. In one version of quantum Monte Carlo, the simulations sample all possible random paths of interacting particles. In another version of quantum Monte Carlo, the simulations work with wave functions. In this case the interactions are produced in an indirect manner by sampling random fluctuations in space and time. This approach, known as auxiliary-field quantum Monte Carlo, can lead to efficient simulations, however information about the positions of particles relative to the center of mass is lost.
In the recent paper Ab initio calculations of the isotopic dependence of nuclear clustering,” which appeared in Phys. Rev. Lett. 119, 222505 (2017), the authors solved this problem by inserting an opaque sheet into the simulation that lets particles through only at certain pinhole locations. The locations of the pinholes are then sampled to determine the distribution of particle positions. The authors studied the formation of alpha-particle clusters (or 4He nuclei) as substructures within larger nuclei by measuring the probability of four particles clumping together into a small region of space. They also mapped out the geometrical arrangement of the clusters. By using these probes, they concluded that alpha-particle clustering becomes less prominent in neutron-rich nuclei due to the quantum entanglement of particles in neighboring clusters.
Figure: An opaque sheet allowing particles to pass only at chosen pinhole locations. The pinhole locations are sampled to give the particle distribution.
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A Misty, Moisty Moon-World: So Close, And Yet So Far Away
By Judith E Braffman-Miller
Enshrouded in a thick, secretive orange mist, tormented Titan–Saturn’s largest moon–for centuries kept its mysterious face well-hidden beneath this alien veil composed of obscuring hydrocarbons. An inhabitant of the outer Solar System–far from our Sun–this frigid moon-world finally was forced to reveal its hidden face to the prying eyes of astronomers using the Huygens Probe–that had been carried piggy-back, through interplanetary space, by NASA’s Cassini spacecraft. Cassini’s highly successful mission of exploration to the Saturn system is now over, but astronomers are still pouring over the treasure trove of important data that Cassini/Huygens sent back to Earth. In December 2017, using the now-complete Cassini data set, astronomers published two papers describing newly discovered features on Titan. The papers present a new global topographical map of Saturn’s misty, moisty, mysterious orange enshrouded moon-world, and this map has opened intriguing new windows into the many mysteries of Titan’s surface–its strange hydrocarbon liquid flows, as well as its hydrocarbon-slashed terrain, and bizarre seas of liquid ethane and methane. Although Titan is nearly a billion miles from Earth, the two topographical studies, based on data obtained from the Cassini spacecraft, reveal a new way that this distant moon and our own planet are eerily, hauntingly similar.
Just as the surface of oceans on our own planet are situated at an average elevation that we commonly refer to as “sea level”, Titan’s liquid hydrocarbon seas also lie at an average elevation. This is the most recent discovery showing intriguing likenesses between our Earth and this distant moon-world. Titan is the only other world that astronomers know of in our own Solar System that has stable liquid pooling on its surface. However, the difference is that Titan’s lakes and seas are filled with hydrocarbons instead of the liquid water that fills Earth’s familiar lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans.
Using the Cassini data set, astronomers at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, were able to create the new topographical map of Titan. Creating the map required about a year, according to Cornell doctoral student Paul Corlies, who is first author on a paper describing the research. This study is published under the title: Titan’s Topography and Shape at the End of the Cassini Mission.
The new map combines all of the Titan topography data collected from many different sources. Because only about 9 percent of Titan has been observed in relatively high-resolution–compared to the 25 to 30 percent of its topography imaged in lower-resolution–the remainder of Titan was mapped, by the Cornell team, using an interpolation algorithm and global minimization process. This method reduced errors such as those resulting from the location of the Cassini spacecraft.
The second paper, published under the title: Topographic Constraints on the Evolution and Connectivity of Titan’s Lacutrine Basins, finds that Titan’s three known seas share a common equipotential surface. This means that they form a sea level, just like that on our own planet. This is either because there is a flow through the subsurface between the three liquid hydrocarbon-filled seas or because the channels between them permit sufficient liquid ethane and methane to flow through. The oceans on Titan are all on the same elevation.
Both papers describing the map, and the discoveries resulting from it, are published in the December 2, 2017 Geographical Review Letters. The new research is based on data obtained by Cassini’s radar instrument until only months before the spacecraft was intentionally crashed into the whirling atmosphere of Saturn in 2017–where it burned up in the magnificent Grand Finale of a highly successful mission.
The Cassini-Huygens mission was a collaborative NASA/European Space Agency/Italian Space Agency robotic spacecraft that was made up of two components: One was the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) Huygens Probe, that had been named in honor of the Dutch mathematician and astronomer Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), who discovered Titan. Huygens also studied Saturn’s beautiful system of gossamer rings. The second component, the NASA-designed Cassini Orbiter, was named after the Italian-French astronomer Giovanni Dominico Cassini (1625-1712) who discovered a quartet of Saturn’s other numerous–and mostly icy–moons. After a dangerous, long journey through interplanetary space, the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft finally reached Saturn on July 1, 2004. On December 25, 2004, the Huygens Probe was intentionally separated from the Cassini Orbiter. Huygens then began its historic descent down through the dense orange clouds of Titan, to reach, at last, the never-before-seen secretive surface of this mysterious moon-world. Titan’s hidden face was finally unveiled.
Lifting Titan’s Veil
Titan is a little larger than Mercury–the smallest major planet belonging to our Sun’s family–and it would certainly be classified as a planet if it orbited our Star instead of Saturn. The Huygens Probe images revealed a smooth, youthful surface, scarred by relatively few impact craters. The Probe also discovered that this frigid moon’s climate includes downpours of heavy hydrocarbon rain, as well as fierce, powerful winds. Some of Titan’s surface features were immediately recognized by planetary scientists to be hauntingly similar to surface features on Earth. Indeed, the scientists studying the first batch of images derived from Huygens stared at sand dunes, seas, rivers, lakes, and deltas–all strangely resembling features on our own planet. Many planetary scientists now propose that Titan may be similar to the way Earth was, very long ago, before life had emerged and evolved out of non-living substances.
Titan orbits its beautiful gas-giant parent-planet once every 15 days and 22 hours. Like our planet’s own large Moon, as well as a number of other moons circling the quartet of large gaseous planets in our Solar System’s outer limits, Titan’s rotation period is precisely the same as its orbital period. This means that the moon is tidally locked in synchronous rotation with its ringed parent-planet. As a result, Titan always shows only one face to Saturn.
Titan has three large seas. However, these seas are not filled with water, but contain liquid hydrocarbons. All three seas are located close to Titan’s north pole, and they are all surrounded by a large number of smaller hydrocarbon lakes in the northern hemisphere. In sharp contrast, there is only one solitary lake situated in Titan’s southern hemisphere.
The exact composition of these hydrocarbon lakes and seas was not known until 2014, when Cassini’s radar instrument revealed that Ligeia Mare–the second largest of Titan’s seas–is loaded with methane. Ligeia Mare is about the same size as two of Earth’s Great Lakes combined–Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. The seabed of Ligeia Mare is believed to be coated with a layer of sludge composed of organic-rich compounds.
The nitrogen and methane that swirl around together in Titan’s atmosphere react with one another to create a variety of organic compounds. Many planetary scientists propose that the heaviest materials sink down to the surface of this tormented moon-world. When these compounds enter the hydrocarbon seas–whether by directly somersaulting down from the air as heavy, large, and lazy drops of hydrocarbon rain, or by traveling along with Titan’s rivers–some are dissolved in the liquid methane. The compounds that do not dissolve, such as nitrites and benzene, float down to the floors of these alien seas.
Both our own planet and Titan sport atmospheres that are dominated by nitrogen–more than 95% nitrogen, in Titan’s case. However, unlike our own planet’s atmosphere, Titan’s atmosphere contains very little oxygen. Indeed, the remainder of Titan’s atmosphere is primarily composed of methane, along with scanty amounts of other gases, such as ethane. At the frigid temperatures that are present at Saturn’s great distance from the golden light and warmth of our Sun, Titan’s methane and ethane can pool on the surface as liquids.
For this very reason, astronomers, for years, considered the possibility that hydrocarbon lakes and seas might exist on the surface of this mysterious, veiled moon-world. The data obtained from Cassini/Huygens validated their expectations. Ever since it arrived at the Saturn-system, the Cassini spacecraft managed to unveil more than 620,000 square miles of Titan’s well-hidden surface. During its mission, Cassini showed that almost 2% of Titan’s entire surface is covered with liquid.
Titan’s Topography and Shape at the End of the Cassini Mission
The new map of Titan reveals several features on Titan that had not been seen before. The recently discovered features include mountains that are no higher than 700 meters. The map also provides a global view of the highs and lows of Titan’s topography, which helped the astronomers to confirm that two locations in Titan’s equatorial region are actually depressions, that could be either dried ancient seas, or ice volcanoes (cryovolcanoes).
The map also showed that Titan is a little bit more oblate (flatter) than was previously believed. This indicates that there is more variability in the thickness of Titan’s crust than planetary scientists originally proposed.
“The main point of the work was to create a map for use by the scientific community,” commented Paul Corlies in a January 3, 2018 Cornell University Press Release. Within only 30 minutes of the data being made available online, Corlies began to receive inquiries on how to use it. The data set is downloadable in the form of the data that was observed, as well as interpolated data that was not observed. The map will be valuable to those scientists modeling Titan’s climate, studying Titan’s shape and gravity, and testing interior models, as well as for those seeking to understand morphologic land forms on this frigid, distant moon-world.
Other Cornell authors on the paper are senior author Dr. Alex Hayes, assistant professor of astronomy, doctoral candidate Samuel Birch, and research associate Dr. Valerio Poggiali.
Topographic Constraints on the Evolution and Connectivity of Titan’s Lacustrine Basins
“We’re measuring the elevation of a liquid surface on another body 10 astronomical units away from the Sun to an accuracy of roughly 40 centimeters. Because we have such amazing accuracy we were able to see that between the two seas the elevation varied smoothly about 11 meters, relative to the center of mass of Titan, consistent with the expected change in the gravitational potential. We are measuring Titan’s geoid. This is the shape that the surface would take under the influence of gravity and rotation alone, which is the same shape that dominates Earth’s oceans,” Dr. Alex Hayes explained in the January 3, 2018 Cornell University Press Release. One astronomical unit (AU) is equal to the average distance between the Earth and Sun, which is about 93,000,000 miles.
Other authors on this second paper are Paul Corlies, Samuel Birch, Dr. Valerio Poggiali, research associate Dr. Marco Mastrogiuseppe and Dr. Roger Michaelides.
The second result, described in this paper, proves a hypothesis that Dr. Hayes proposed in his first paper, when he was still in graduate school: that Titan’s lakes connect with each other beneath its alien surface. Dr. Hayes and his team measured the elevation of lakes brimming with liquid as well as those that are ancient and, by this time, dry. The planetary scientists found that lakes exist hundreds of meters above sea level, and that within a watershed, the floors of the dry lake beds are all at higher elevations than the lakes that are still filled with liquid that are located nearby.
“We don’t see any empty lakes that are below the local filled lakes because, if they did go below that level, they would be filled themselves. This suggests that there’s flow in the subsurface and that they are communicating with each other. It’s also telling us that there is liquid hydrocarbon stored on the subsurface of Titan,” Dr. Hayes continued to explain in the Cornell University Press Release.
However, this paper’s final conclusion has created another mystery. The researchers found that most of Titan’s lakes are atop sharp-edged depressions that “literally look like you took a cookie cutter and cut out holes in Titan’s surface,” Dr. Hayes added. The hydrocarbon filled lakes are encircled by high ridges that are hundreds of meters high in some areas.
The lakes appear to have been formed the same way karst is on our own planet. On Earth, in places like the Florida Everglades, underlying material dissolves, causing the surface to collapse. Similar holes, to those seen on Earth, apparently form in the ground on Titan. The lakes of Titan, in a way that is akin to Earth’s karst, are topographically shut, with no inflow or outflow channels. However, Earth’s karst does not sport sharp, raised rims.
The shape of Titan’s liquid hydrocarbon lakes suggests a process termed uniform scarp retreat, where the edges of the lakes are expanding by a constant amount every time. The largest lake located in the south, for example, appears to be a series of smaller dry lakes that have coalesced or conglomerated into one large feature.
Dr. Hayes commented in the January 3, 2018 Cornell University Press Release: “But if these things do grow outward, does that mean you’re destroying and recreating the rims all the time and that the rims are moving outward with it? Understanding these things is in my opinion the lynchpin to understanding the evolution of the polar basins on Titan.”
Article Source:,-Moisty-Moon-World:-So-Close,-And-Yet-So-Far-Away&id=9868123
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Importance of Dry stone Walling in an Historical Context
Drystone walling is one of the oldest crafts of building which uses complementary interlocking stones to create the wall without any mortar in between. As stones were the primary building material that was known to man, the constructions of drystone walls can be dated even back to the Neolithic periods. The great Stonehenge, Peruvian temple are few of the famous examples of dry stone walling.
Reasons for Stone Walls Building
Dry stone walls were built by the early dwellers to mark the boundaries of their lands. Another reason for building dry stones was to deter any cattle that tried to escape from the owner or to deter wild animals from carrying away cattle or other pets. In the old days, stone was aplenty and so was labor so it makes perfect sense that people chose stone as building materials for their boundary walls. Stone being so durable and strong, these walls would not require frequent repairs or rebuilding.
Historical Background for Stone Walling
During the medieval period settlers settled in higher lands where there were fewer and fewer trees. As a result of this, wood was not readily available, but stones were available in plenty, as a result most of the people of those times would have selected stones to build their walls as it was very cost effective and strong. It is one of the most nature friendly building materials as well.
Most of the monastic houses that were situated in remote locations preferred by monks of the 12th century were also built using this walling method. One of the best examples for this is the Fountain abbey that is situated in North Yorkshire.
After the collapsing of the feudal system, the villagers enclosed their properties by stone walls so they could show off their agricultural boundaries to their neighbors. The enclosed lands were used for farming or as a grazing land for the cattle. Use of dry stone walling’s has now reduced due to the use of wire fencing and they are under the threat of going extinct as more and more constructors are dismantling them and using the stones for modern constructions. This is a thing that should be avoided at all costs if we want to gift this ancient legacy to the future generations.
Dry stone walling is notable as one of the most nature friendly and eye-catching invention of men’s skilled craftsmanship. They were built by our ancestor’s either to mark their agricultural boundaries or to safe guard their holdings and cattle, stone was used because they were sturdier than wood and more easily available..
So remember, dry stone walling has a lot of stories to tell you about its history from Neolithic period up to the end of feudalism, even if they are composed of only stones without mortar in between. The use of stone walling has now gone down and they are beginning to vanish but a lot of skill is required to create a mortar less wall that would not fall down at the slightest tremor.
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}
|
Optimum Tilt Angle Determine
Optimum Tilt Angle Determine
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2950-7.ch005
After treating extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar radiations in the previous chapters, the use of this information in treating an important question regarding the installation of fixed solar systems, namely the tilt and orientation of the solar receivers, becomes possible. There are several rules that guide designers in this field. These rules are called the rules of thumb. There are two rules that are directly related to the subject of this chapter. One of these two rules says that a solar collector should be orientated towards Equator. The other one says that solar collector should have a latitude tilt value. Are these two rules valid all over the world? The present chapter focuses on presenting an algorithm for determining the optimum tilt angle all over the world and for any collector azimuth angle. The Earth surface, located between latitudes 66.45oS and 66.45oN, is divided into 3 characteristic zones. The first zone is the tropical between latitudes 23.45oS and 23.45oN. The second zone is the mid-latitude zone between 23.45oN and 43.45oN and between 23.45oS and 43.45oS. The third zone is the high-latitude zone between 43.45oN and 66.45oN and between 43.45oS and 66.45oS. For each of these zones an adequate method is proposed for calculating the solar collector optimum tilt. Moreover, four simple equations are proposed for predicting daily optimum tilt angle and optimum tilt angle for any number of consecutive days. It is found that the above mentioned rules of thumb are not applicable in the tropical zone while they could be applied with a sufficient accuracy when dealing with fixed installations all over the year in the mid- and high latitude zones.
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Due to pollution problems related to fossil fuels, such as being non-renewable, their impact on environment and increasing their price due to uncertainties in future, the global investment to utilize renewable energy sources is rapidly growing. The total global investment in renewable energy from $220 billion in 2010 reached to $257 billion in 2011. Also by the end of 2011 the total renewable energy capacity reached to 1,360 GW with the most contribution belong to hydro power and wind power summing up to 970 GW and 238 GW, respectively.
Most countries in the world have realized the need for reduction of gases emission to contrast the adverse global climatic change, encouraging the use of renewable and sustainable sources of energy. Indeed, large quantities of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and sulfur oxides are emitted in the world by conventional energy sources, which are released to the earth’s atmosphere contributing to climate change. Furthermore, the world will soon run out of its conventional energy resources because of the rapid depletion of fossil fuel reserves. This future scenario and the risks associated with CO2 emissions and global warming have increased the interest in renewable energy.
The major renewable energy systems include solar photovoltaic (PVs), solar thermal, wind, biomass, hydroelectric, and geothermal. However, among various renewable energy sources, the photovoltaic technology for power generation is considered well-suited technology, particularly for distributed power generation. Solar panel is the energy conversion fundamental component of PV systems or solar collectors. Solar panels use light energy from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect, whereas solar thermal systems generate heat. The amount of electrical power produced from PV systems is related to the amount of solar irradiation projecting on the modules. Hence, the global solar irradiation on tilted surfaces facing in different directions should be considered to estimate thermal and electrical power obtained in architectural planning.
Renewable energy obtained from the sun is very important because of the fact that it is free and environment-friendly. The importance of detailed knowledge of solar radiation received from the sun at a site in the design and selection of solar devices cannot be overstated. Solar energy is the most important clean, free and unending renewable energy source which can be utilized in many parts of the world. The limitation and shortage of fossil fuels and the issues resulted from changes of world environmental and weather conditions have created a good opportunity for solar energy to compete with fossil based fuels. This is more important, in countries with high potential of solar radiation to be benefited from green and clean energy. Utilization of different kinds of solar energy technologies such as solar photovoltaic, concentrating solar thermal power, solar hot water/space heating systems, solar dryers, solar stills and solar ovens are becoming rapidly widespread. Aligned with recent augmented deployment of these technologies, many studies have been undertaken to enhance the performance of such technologies (Khorasanizadeh, Aghaei, Ehteram, Dehghani Yazdeli and Hataminasar, 2014). In order to optimize solar isolation on solar collectors, appropriate method to determine solar tilt angles at any given time is essential to increase the efficiencies of the collectors and that of the devices connected to them (Gunerhan and Hepbasli, 2007). The position of the earth relative to the sun changes with time; the change must be monitored adequately in order to increase the amount of energy being received by solar devices (Gavin, 2007). The magnitude of solar radiation received by a collector is a function of many factors such as location latitude, the declination angle (the angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the plane of the equator), tilt angle, the sunrise hour angle and the azimuth angle (Kumarasamy, Tulika, Guddy and Manicam, 2013).
Complete Chapter List
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<urn:uuid:2aa52557-36d0-4c81-bfb7-c4240c3a7f32>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
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"url": "https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/optimum-tilt-angle-determine/189626"
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Valence Bond Theory (VBT) – Shape of Molecules | Chemistry Class 12
ChemistryReference Notes | Science
Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
Unit: Chemical Bonding and Shape of Molecules
Chemistry Class 12
The first quantum mechanical model to explain the nature and stability of a covalent bond was formulated by Hilter and London in 1927 and modified by Linus Pauling in 1931, who was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1954. This theory is called valence bond theory.
Postulates of Valence Bond Theory (VBT):
1. Overlapping of the outermost half-filled orbitals of the combining atoms form covalent bond.
2. The outermost half-filled orbitals should contain electrons with opposite spin.
3. The orbitals which are completely filled with electrons do not take part in the bond formation.
4. The strength of the bond is determined by the extent of overlap.
5. The greater is the overlapping of atomic orbitals, the stronger is the covalent bond formed.
6. The valency of an element is equal to the half-filled orbitals present in it.
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<urn:uuid:75be11c0-2914-49f0-a55f-4ea522f18423>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
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"fasttext_score": 0.032264530658721924,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8927707672119141,
"url": "https://www.merospark.com/hseb-notes/valence-bond-theory-vbt/"
}
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Denial of Service
DoS and DDoS Attack
It is important to differentiate between Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks.
In a DoS attack, one computer and one internet connection is used to flood a server with packets, with the aim of overloading the targeted server’s bandwidth and resources.
A DDoS attack, uses many devices and multiple Internet connections, often distributed globally into what is referred to as a botnet. A DDoS attack is, therefore, much harder to deflect, simply because there is no single attacker to defend from, as the targeted resource will be flooded with requests from many hundreds and thousands of multiple sources.
Types of DoS Attacks
The most common type of Denial of Service attack involves flooding the target resource with external communication requests. This overload prevents the resource from responding to legitimate traffic, or slows its response so significantly that it is rendered effectively unavailable.
Resources targeted in a DoS attack can be a specific computer, a port or service on the targeted system, an entire network, a component of a given network any system component. DoS attacks may also target human-system communications (e.g. disabling an alarm or printer), or human-response systems (e.g. disabling an important technician's phone or laptop).
DoS attacks can also target tangible system resources, such as computational resources (bandwidth, disk space, processor time); configuration information (routing information, etc.); state information (for example, unsolicited TCP session resetting). Moreover, a DoS attack can be designed to: execute malware that maxes out the processor, preventing usage; trigger errors in machine microcode or sequencing of instructions, forcing the computer into an unstable state; exploit operating system vulnerabilities to sap system resources; crash the operating system altogether.
The overriding similarity in these examples is that, as a result of the successful Denial of Service attack, the system in question does not respond as before, and service is either denied or severly limited.
Types of DDoS Attacks
DDoS attacks can divided in three types:
• Volume Based Attacks - This type of attack includes UDP floods, ICMP floods, and other spoofed packet floods. The goal of this DDoS attack is to saturate the bandwidth of the attacked site. The magnitude of a volume-based attack is usually measured in Bits per second.
• Protocol Attacks - This type of DDoS attack consumes the resources of either the servers themselves, or of intermediate communication equipment, such as routers, load balancers and even some firewalls. Some examples of protocol attacks include SYN floods, fragmented packet attacks, Ping of Death, Smurf DDoS and more. Protocol attacks are usually measured in Packets per second.
• Application Layer Attacks - Perhaps the most dangerous type of DDoS attack, application layer attacks are comprised of seemingly legitimate and innocent requests. The intent of these attacks is to crash the web server. SDome examples of application layer attacks include Slowloris, Zero-day DDoS attacks, DDoS attacks that target Apache, Windows or OpenBSD vulnerabilities and more. The magnitude of this type of attack is measured in Requests per second.
Symptoms and Manifestations
The United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) defines symptoms of denial-of-service attacks to include:
• Unavailability of a particular web site
• Inability to access any web site
• Disconnection of a wireless or wired internet connection
• The term "hit offline" being used on you, then you (the target) may disconnect from the internet
Methods of attack
A "Denial-of-Service" attack is characterized by an explicit attempt by attackers to prevent legitimate users of a service from using that service. There are two general forms of DoS attacks: those that crash services and those that flood services.
2. Disruption of configuration information, such as routing information.
4. Disruption of physical network components.
A DoS attack may include execution of malware intended to:[citation needed]
1. Max out the processor's usage, preventing any work from occurring.
2. Trigger errors in the microcode of the machine.
4. Exploit errors in the operating system, causing resource starvation and/or thrashing, i.e. to use up all available facilities so no real work can be accomplished or it can crash the system itself
5. Crash the operating system itself.
Preventing DoS and DDoS Vulnerabilities
Defending against Denial of Service attacks typically involves the use of a combination of attack detection, traffic classification and response tools, aiming to block traffic that they identify as illegitimate and allow traffic that they identify as legitimate. A list of prevention and response tools is provided below:
More complex attacks will however be hard to block with simple rules: for example, if there is an ongoing attack on port 80 (web service), it is not possible to drop all incoming traffic on this port because doing so will prevent the server from serving legitimate traffic. Additionally, firewalls may be too deep in the network hierarchy. Routers may be affected before the traffic gets to the firewall. Nonetheless, firewalls can effectively prevent users from launching simple flooding type attacks from machines behind the firewall.
Some stateful firewalls, like OpenBSD's pf packet filter, can act as a proxy for connections: the handshake is validated (with the client) instead of simply forwarding the packet to the destination. It is available for other BSDs as well. In that context, it is called "synproxy".
Similar to switches, routers have some rate-limiting and ACL capability. They, too, are manually set. Most routers can be easily overwhelmed under DoS attack. Cisco IOS has features that prevent flooding, i.e. example settings.
Application Front-end Hardware
IPS Based Prevention
An ASIC based IPS may detect and block denial of service attacks because they have the processing power and the granularity to analyze the attacks and act like a circuit breaker in an automated way.
DDS Based Defense
Like IPS, a purpose-built system, such as the well-known Top Layer IPS products, can detect and block denial of service attacks at much nearer line speed than a software based system.
Blackholing and Sinkholing
With blackholing, all the traffic to the attacked DNS or IP address is sent to a "black hole" (null interface, non-existent server, ...). To be more efficient and avoid affecting network connectivity, it can be managed by the ISP.
Sinkholing routes to a valid IP address which analyzes traffic and rejects bad ones. Sinkholing is not efficient for most severe attacks.
Clean Pipes
Download - Hackers Toolkit
CORE Impact Professional
IBM Security AppScan
HP WebInspect
Acunetix WVS
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<urn:uuid:1990ee8c-7228-4876-ba08-6ed07a166b00>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.1274285912513733,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9089389443397522,
"url": "http://w4rri0r.com/vulnerabilities-attacker-surface/denial-of-service.html"
}
|
Buoy refers to an an anchored floating device used as an aid to navigation. May carry a light, horn, whistle, bell, gong, or combination thereof for identification.
Buoy may be used to mark a mooring, floating object anchored to the bottom or attached to another object; used as a navigational aid or surface marker. Buoys are also used to monitor ice movement and characteristics of the polar sea ice. These stations are designed to monitor sea ice motion and transmit the information to satellites automatically.
Ref: 122328/2006-09-19
Other Database Pages Exist for this Phrase:
Anchor (Anchor relates to hyperlinks - the underlined ...)
Floating (Floating is concerned with a method of aligning ...)
Pot (Pot in aluminum production: the electrolytic ...)
ICE (ICE is an acronym for internal-combustion engine ...)
List of books: Buoy
Other Related Pages
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<urn:uuid:69c4d2fb-52af-4f77-acca-2cb42ceddda4>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.04520523548126221,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8767113089561462,
"url": "https://www.top500.de/cms/glossary/65-glossary-b/18615-buoy.html"
}
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Code of Hammurabi
Code of Hammurabi, Babylon, 2000-1600 BC
Cuneiform text that records a portion of the 282 laws that are collectively known as the Code of Hammurabi are pictured on this fragment of a clay tablet. This codex is one of the earliest known set of laws ever created. The law’s ethos reflect what we would now call Old Testament, think an eye for an eye. These laws regulate a wide variety of subjects, including commercial, property and family law.
Many properties of modern jurisprudence descend directly from this code. The accused is given a presumption of innocence. Both the accused and the accuser have the opportunity to present evidence. While the code strived to achieve some equality, biases still existed within it. It reinforced the society’s class structure, with one law for the rich and another for the poor. For example, the punishment for a doctor who kills a rich patient, was the loss of both hands. While, for poor people, the same offence only warranted a fine as punishment. Sexism was also enforced within the code. For men, having sex with servants and slaves was permitted, but for women any adultery was punished. And then there was the whole codification of slavery.
Law is built on precedence. It is thought that the Code of Hammurabi originated first as a collection of his rulings, before it eventually became codified as law. From this start, almost 4,000 years ago, the law has evolved much. Sometimes moving forward, sometimes back. The human flaws inherited from Hammurabi have rippled through time. The current impeachment trial lies both outside the realm of normal jurisprudence, while still being rooted within the law. Infused with politics, its justice has become corrupted. Making any verdict that this trial decrees suspect. Giving neither a conviction nor any true vindication.
2 thoughts on “Code of Hammurabi
1. Oi! The GAO, a non-partisan agency of the federal government, resolved that withholding legislated aid to a foreign country is a breach of law. There is no question that Trump withheld such earmarked monies and arms to Ukraine, a country in a bloody war with Russian backed insurgent separatists. His excuse is that the current administration of Ukraine was not following up on spurious rumours of corruption in their gas industry. The House of Representatives impeached Trump for this transgression. There has been no effort successful or otherwise to impune that conviction. Trump’s defense has only presented arguments of executive privilege, patriotic motivation, and a desire to deter corruption in US elections. None of these “reasons” exhonerates Trump from the conviction of impeachment. How could a decree to remove Trump from office be suspect? Oi vey!
• The New Yorker had a cartoon this week that was apropos. The Founding Fathers were standing around a TV set in heaven. The caption read, “George, C-SPAN can’t hear you.”
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<urn:uuid:01e124a8-0d8b-4874-93d3-79a66ae6d339>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.15150445699691772,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.95224928855896,
"url": "https://regenaxe.com/2020/01/31/code-of-hammurabi/"
}
|
Brain Tumor
A brain tumor is a mass or growth of abnormal cells in your brain.
Many different types of brain tumors exist. Some brain tumors are noncancerous (benign), and some brain tumors are cancerous (malignant). Brain tumors can begin in your brain (primary brain tumors), or cancer can begin in other parts of your body and spread to your brain (secondary, or metastatic, brain tumors).
How quickly a brain tumor grows can vary greatly. The growth rate as well as location of a brain tumor determines how it will affect the function of your nervous system.
Brain tumor treatment options depend on the type of brain tumor you have, as well as its size and location.
The signs and symptoms of a brain tumor vary greatly and depend on the brain tumor's size, location and rate of growth.
General signs and symptoms caused by brain tumors may include:
• New onset or change in pattern of headaches
• Headaches that gradually become more frequent and more severe
• Unexplained nausea or vomiting
• Gradual loss of sensation or movement in an arm or a leg
• Difficulty with balance
• Speech difficulties
• Confusion in everyday matters
• Personality or behavior changes
• Seizures, especially in someone who doesn't have a history of seizures
• Hearing problems
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<urn:uuid:83a3844e-1d8d-4497-9c2e-fd9c68dc0594>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.3028947710990906,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9047507643699646,
"url": "http://drhimanshugupta.com/Brain-Tumor-Treatment.html"
}
|
The Physics Philes, lesson 107: The Subjective Side of Physics
We’ve been riding waves for a while now, and last week we dove head-long into sound waves. Sound is particularly interesting, I think, because it’s really easy to illustrate how physics informs how our bodies react to external stimuli.
What you hear when you hear a sound is directly related to the sound wave’s physical characteristics. The greater the pressure amplitude (the maximum pressure fluctuation) of a sinusoidal sound wave, the louder it seems at a given frequency. Normally, in physics we can talk about laws that are universal, that are the same everywhere in the universe. In this case, though, the perceived loudness of a sound is in some ways subjective. It will vary from person to person. On reason for this is that the human ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies in the audible range. A sound at one frequency can be perceived as louder as another sound that has the same pressure amplitude but different frequency. For example, at 1000 Hz, the minimum pressure amplitude to hear the sound with normal hearing is about 3 x 10^-5 Pa. To get the same loudness at 200 Hz, you need 3 x 10^-4 Pa.
Our physical response to sound – i.e. what we can perceive – changes with age. As we age, our ability to hear high-frequency sound waves will lesson. Also, it’s possible damage your hearing by listening to music too loud though ear buds or headphones, for example.
When you describe a sound as “high” or “low,” you’re describing the sound’s pitch. That also means that you are recognizing the sound wave’s frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch. But pitch is not totally the domain of the frequency. The pressure amplitude has a role to play, as well. If someone hears two sinusoidal sound waves that have the same frequency but different pressure amplitudes, the wave with the greater pressure amplitude will usually be heard as louder with a slightly lower pitch.
Musical sounds, as I have noted in previous posts, are complex. Wind instruments like the clarinet produce vibrations at a fundamental frequency and at many harmonics at the same time. The sound wave produced has a similar amount of each harmonic. In other words, the sound wave has a similar harmonic content.
Two instruments can be played at the same pitch (fundamental frequency), but they will sound different because of differing harmonic contents. The difference in sound is called the timbre. Again, we move into the realm of the subjective when describing timbre. We might say an instrument sounds “reedy” or “tinny.” This same principle applies to the human voice, as well. The vowels “a” and “e” sound different because of the difference in the harmonic content.
One more factor in determining tone quality is the behavior at the beginning (aka attack) and end (aka decay) of the tone. For example, a piano tone will start with a thump and slowly fade away. But a harpsichord tone will behave differently. It will begin more quickly and die out more quickly.
We’ve been talking about music so far, which is a lovely and beautiful use of sound. But we know that not all sound is beautiful. Sometimes it can be a cacophony. This is what we call noise, and it’s the combination of all frequencies, not just the frequencies that are integer multiples of a fundamental frequency. We all know about white noise, which is equal amounts of all frequencies in the audible range. But try making an “s” sound. That also fulfills the definition of noise.
That’s it for this week. Next week we’ll start looking at how quickly sound moves in various media.
Featured image credit: Timothy Swinson via Flickr
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<urn:uuid:de89ad1c-9655-4cd4-a990-dd2c0dfcca25>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.28125,
"fasttext_score": 0.12826895713806152,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9321597218513489,
"url": "https://teenskepchick.org/2014/07/21/the-physics-philes-lesson-107-the-subjective-side-of-physics/"
}
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How to Make an Accurate Three-Dimensional Model of Any Crystal from Its Stereogram
To make an accurate three-dimensional model of any crystal, plot partial stereograms of one face from each form on the crystal and all the faces with which it shares edges. Rotate each partial stereogram until the chosen pole is on the W radius of the stereonet. Translate the desired pole to the east along the W radius to the center of the net, moving all other poles congruently along the small circles of the stereonet. Label the reoriented poles. For any edge, draw a zone circle containing the poles of the chosen face and its edge neighbor, and the zone pole line. The orientation of this zone pole line is also that of the common edge of the two faces, so an edge orientation line may be drawn parallel to it. Then, draw this edge line on the stereogram at a convenient position and repeat for all edges of the face. Next, arrange the edges to make a face of chosen shape and size and repeat for all faces, keeping common edges constant in length. Finally, transfer multiple copies of each face drawing to a rigid material such as sheet balsa, cut them out, and glue the faces together with wood glue to make the model.
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<urn:uuid:2ccd58ef-cafc-4546-9585-1d772819aae6>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.96875,
"fasttext_score": 0.029234707355499268,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9094153046607971,
"url": "https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/publications/v118rf25g"
}
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Language & Poetry
The Vietnamese language was originally written in a script called Chữ Nôm which was derived from Chinese characters. It was not until the 17th century when Roman Catholic missionaries introduced a new French-like script called Quốc Ngữ to help spread Christianity. Today all Vietnamese literature is written in this script. When spoken, Vietnamese is phonetic thanks to the five Diacritics (´, `, ˀ, ~, •) placed above Vietnamese vowels.
Vietnamese poetry stems from the language being so flexible and lyrical. There are many types of structures for poems, literally known as "six-eight", "couplet of seven”, “sextuplet of eight”, etc. with words arranged to provide certain phonetic rhythms. Vietnamese poem citing is an entertaining art in which the poem reader practically “sings” the poem with traditional Vietnamese music played in the background.
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<urn:uuid:e7f0da1f-774f-44a1-9e13-7bcf0cb2e93f>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.2510160803794861,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.971130907535553,
"url": "http://www.vsscanada.org/en/culture/language_and_poetry/language_and_poetry.php"
}
|
Font.SmallCaps property (Word)
True if the font is formatted as small capital letters. Read/write Long.
expression. SmallCaps
expression An expression that returns a Font object.
Returns True, False or wdUndefined (a mixture of True and False). Can be set to True, False, or wdToggle.
Setting the SmallCaps property to True sets the AllCaps property to False, and vice versa.
This example demonstrates the difference between small capital letters and all capital letters in a new document.
Set myRange = Documents.Add.Content
With myRange
.InsertAfter "This is a demonstration of SmallCaps."
.Words(6).Font.SmallCaps = True
.InsertAfter "This is a demonstration of AllCaps."
.Words(14).Font.AllCaps = True
End With
This example formats the entire selection as small capital letters if part of the selection is already formatted as small capital letters.
If Selection.Type = wdSelectionNormal Then
mySel = Selection.Font.SmallCaps
If mySel = wdUndefined Then Selection.Font.SmallCaps = True
MsgBox "You need to select some text."
End If
See also
Font Object
Support and feedback
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<urn:uuid:8665c2fb-b558-4e7d-b5fc-615ee3e04789>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.5995950698852539,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7316198945045471,
"url": "https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/office/vba/api/word.font.smallcaps"
}
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Dip pole
Thank you for your feedback
Dip pole, any point on the Earth’s surface where the dip (magnetic inclination; i.e., the angle between the Earth’s surface and the total magnetic field vector) of the Earth’s magnetic field is 90 degrees—that is, perpendicular to the surface. There are two main dip poles, one on the Antarctic coast and one in Canada’s Arctic near Bathurst Island. Dip poles may occur locally over strongly magnetic mineral deposits.
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<urn:uuid:a622480f-bf1c-4cf5-97a2-0498a4c44b1c>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.8125,
"fasttext_score": 0.031231582164764404,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.85028076171875,
"url": "https://www.britannica.com/science/dip-pole"
}
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Brain Hemorrhage
A brain hemorrhage is bleeding in or around the brain. It is a form of stroke. Causes of brain hemorrhage include high blood pressure (hypertension), abnormally weak or dilated (aneurysm) blood vessels that leak, drug abuse, and trauma. Many people who experience a brain hemorrhage have symptoms as though they are having a stroke, and can develop weakness on one side of their body, difficulty speaking, or a sense of numbness. Difficulty performing usual activities, including problems with walking or even falling, are not uncommon symptoms. About 13% of all strokes are hemorrhagic strokes, or caused by bleeding into the brain.
Brain hemorrhage is often labeled according to precisely where it occurs in the brain. In general, bleeding anywhere inside of the skull is called an intracranial hemorrhage. Bleeding within the brain itself is known as an intracerebral hemorrhage. Bleeding can also occur between the covering of the brain and the brain tissue itself, referred to as a subarachnoid hemorrhage. If a blood clot occurs between the skull and the brain, it is known as either a subdural or epidural hematoma depending on whether it is below or above the tough covering (dura) of the brain. Subdural and epidural hematomas are more likely to occur as a result of a traumatic brain injury or after a fall and will not be addressed in detail here.
It is important to recognize that when bleeding occurs within the brain itself, headache may not occur, as our brains don't have the ability to sense the ongoing disturbance. However, the coverings of the brain (meninges) are extremely sensitive and if bleeding occurs there, as when an aneurysm ruptures, a sudden and severe headache is a common stroke symptom.
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<urn:uuid:d76706aa-4064-42e4-a44b-3e844f72cfc9>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
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Cardiology: The cardiac conduction system and electrocardiograms
CPD hours:
This cardiac nursing module reviews the electrochemical processes that make the heart contract and how the cardiac conduction system initiates and controls the heartbeat.
The module will also discuss how technology in healthcare has used the heart’s electrical activity to improve patient care. It will explain how heart monitors and electrocardiograms can be used to monitor and recognise changes in the heart rate and rhythm and identify cardiac abnormalities.
This module assumes a thorough understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the heart.
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At the end of this module participants will be able to:
• Understand two distinct properties of the heart: electrical and mechanical function.
• Know how the muscle of the heart contracts.
• Understand how electrical activity is generated in and travels through the heart.
• Describe the steps of the action potential.
• Identify the components of the cardiac conduction system.
• Gain a basic understanding of how technology is used to monitor the rate and rhythm of the heart.
At the end of this module participants will be able to:
• This is learning objective 1.
• This is learning objective 2.
• This is learning objective 3.
• This is learning objective 4.
• This is learning objective 5.
• This is learning objective 6.
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"url": "https://www.healthstaffed.com.au/modules/cardiology-the-cardiac-conduction-system-and-electrocardiograms"
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How2Recycle and the Standardization of Recycling Labels
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When we think of recycling, we often break things down into a few main categories such as plastics, metals, and paper. As technology advances and more materials (and their variants) are created, the process of recycling them efficiently and effectively becomes challenging. Doubly so when no one’s really sure what bin to toss them in. To fight this problem, the Sustainable Packaging Coalition seeks to treat the issue with standardized recycling labels to help educate American consumers on how to recycle their waste correctly.
Certainly, recycling has grown to a $200 billion industry in the United States with no indication of slowing down any time soon. When our country’s recycling levels reach 75%, it’s estimated to be the equivalent of removing 55 million cars from the roads each year, while also creating a million and a half new jobs to support the recycling industry’s expansion. But we still have a long way to go before we get to that magic 75% threshold.
Despite roughly three quarters of Americans having curbside access to recycling services that come right up to their houses, people still aren’t educated well enough to recycle things properly. The EPA estimates that 75% of what’s thrown away is recyclable, with only 30% actually making it into the recycling process. This phenomenon is a bit silly, especially since non-ferrous metals like aluminum can be recycled and re-formed an infinite number of times with virtually no loss in product quality.
As there’s so many types of recyclable materials nowadays, some cities simply don’t have the collection services to support them all. According to the Federal Trade Commission’s guidelines, if at least 60% of the population has access to a certain material’s collection services, it’s considered within a sufficient recycling threshold.
As Packaging Digest observed, “with the exception of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene (PS), all plastic bottles, cups, and rigid containers were found to be accepted in recycling programs available to more than 60% of the population. Aluminum beverage cans and glass bottles were found to be well over the 60% threshold [along with] aerosol containers (both steel and aluminum).”
There is still a need, however, for better recycling programs and collection services for “rigid polystyrene containers, polypropylene and polyethylene lids, aluminum food containers, bulky plastics, and others.” Moreover, the separation of multiple recyclable components, such as paper labels on plastic containers, aren’t taken into account when consumers toss their recyclables in collection bins; while it might seem harmless, this “cross contamination” of materials makes it difficult to properly reclaim them. After all, no one wants bits of paper fibers floating in recycled plastic for a variety of quality and cosmetic reasons.
Bringing Order to Recycling Chaos
Believe it or not, there isn’t any strong enforcement for standardizing recycling labels. The Sustainable Packaging Coalition has designed a new labeling system, however, to reflect the FTC’s new 2012 Green Guides to help Americans sort their recyclables and gather data on areas without sufficient collection and materials reclaim services. By increasing education and awareness, it’s theorized consumers can then call these issues to attention in their own towns. After all, if you can’t recognize a problem’s existence, you can’t do much to solve it.
But according to How2Recycle, the Sustainable Packaging Coalition’s labeling system, education just scratches the surface of what the program’s intended to do:
“Available to recycling isn’t the only fact that How2Recycle analyzes. We also look to whether or not a package is likely to be sorted correctly at material recovery facilities, as well as reprocessed effectively. What that means for How2Recycle is that our recycling labels don’t just convey whether the material a package is made out of has a certain available percentage; we holistically look at the entire package and analyze how the components fit and interact with one another.”
This is again the example of paper pulp being caught in plastics and polymers, chiefly PET thermoforms: “individual paper fibers making up pulp are very small and difficult to remove, so some travel with the PET. Paper fibers remaining in the RPET carbonize when the material is heated and melted, causing unacceptable quality degradation.”
Overall, How2Recycle aims to solve three main problems:
1. Most recyclables end up in landfills due to lack of consumer awareness and education;
2. There’s no standardization of recycling labels, leaving most recyclable packages labeled improperly or inconsistently;
3. And recycling information is difficult to understand, especially with the amount of specialized materials such as PET and other polymers.
All of these are addressed through the program’s easy-to-read labels that break down information in one helpful image, such as the one shown at right. As you can see, the new label includes preparation, how the package is recycled, what it’s made from, and what format the material is in (that is, a plastic bottle isn’t in the same format as a rigid plastic container for cold cut deli meats).
How2Recycle and the Standardization of Recycling Labels
For those multi-component packages, How2Recycle has expanded instructions to help consumers understand and break down complex packages.
With a growing list of major consumer goods manufacturers and companies like Kellogg’s, Nestle, General Mills, McDonald’s, Target, Clorox, and REI, How2Recycle looks like it’s set to spread throughout the market. As people become more educated and aware of good recycling habits and what programs they have available locally, public demand will continue to increase along with an expectation for these standard labels, forcing other companies to join in.
Rather than waiting for the very last minute to join in, according to a recent consumer survey, 77% of respondents told How2Recycle that their impression of a company becomes more positive when they learn the company participates in this program. Naturally, this is a reflection of current consumer trends favoring green and sustainable technologies and initiatives.
That in mind, feel free to visit How2Recycle’s website for more information about these cool new informative labels and how to sign your business up today! If this is meant to be the FTC-approved standard, might as well get the ball rolling. With clearer, standardized recycling labels along with increased awareness, the full benefits of this new program are yet to be seen. By getting consumers more involved with sorting, preparing and separating complex packaging, only time will tell how their participation will affect the entire recycling industry, streamlining the process while reclaiming more materials that otherwise would’ve been left to rot in landfills.
Learn more about FP International’s stance on plastic use here.
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