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terça-feira, 5 de fevereiro de 2008
A Possible Answer to Flyby Anomalies
Written by Ian O'Neill
So, when Galileo completed gravity assist past Earth on December 8, 1990, to speed it toward Jupiter, you can imagine NASA's surprise to find that Galileo had accelerated suddenly, and for no apparent reason. This small boost was tiny, but through the use of the Deep Space Network, extremely accurate measurements of the speeding craft could be made. Galileo had accelerated 3.9 mm/s.
This isn't an isolated case. During Earth flybys by the space probes NEAR, Cassini-Huygens and Rosetta, all experienced a unexplained boosts of 13 mm/s, 0.11 mm/s and 2 mm/s respectively. Once technical faults, observational errors, radiation pressure, magnetic instabilities and electrical charge build-up could be ruled out, focus is beginning to turn to more exotic explanations.
A recent study by Magic McCulloch suggests that "Unruh radiation" may be the culprit. The Unruh effect, put simply, suggests that accelerating bodies experience a type of electromagnetic radiation. At very low acceleration, the wavelength emitted will be so large that a whole wavelength will be longer than the dimensions of the Universe (otherwise known as the Hubble Distance). Low acceleration would therefore generate waves that have no effect on the body. However, should the accelerating body (i.e. Galileo getting accelerated by Earth's gravity during the 1990 flyby) slowly exceed an acceleration threshold, the Unruh radiation will decrease in wavelength (smaller than the Hubble Distance), causing a tiny, but measurable "boost" to its increasing velocity.
Although complex, this theory is very interesting and proves that although we can calculate the arrival time of space probes down to the nearest minute, the Universe will continue to throw up some perplexing issues for a long time yet.
Sources: arXiv Blog, arXiv abstract and paper download
Posted by:
Lucimary Vargas
Além Paraíba-MG-Brasil
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Mutually exclusive
Mutually exclusive
Ask a question about 'Mutually exclusive'
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Full Discussion Forum
In layman
A layperson or layman is a person who is not an expert in a given field of knowledge. The term originally meant a member of the laity, i.e. a non-clergymen, but over the centuries shifted in definition....
In the coin-tossing example, both outcomes are collectively exhaustive, which means that at least one of the outcomes must happen, so these two possibilities together exhaust all the possibilities. However, not all mutually exclusive events are collectively exhaustive. For example, the outcomes 1 and 4 of a single roll of a six-sided die are mutually exclusive (cannot both happen) but not collectively exhaustive (there are other possible outcomes).
In logic
, two mutually exclusive propositions are propositions that logically cannot
Logical possibility
A logically possible proposition is one that can be asserted without implying a logical contradiction. This is to say that a proposition is logically possible if there is some coherent way for the world to be, under which the proposition would be true...
In probability theory
Probability theory
Probability theory is the branch of mathematics concerned with analysis of random phenomena. The central objects of probability theory are random variables, stochastic processes, and events: mathematical abstractions of non-deterministic events or measured quantities that may either be single...
, events E1, E2, ..., En are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of any one of them automatically implies the non-occurrence of the remaining n − 1 events. Therefore, two mutually exclusive events cannot both occur. Mutually exclusive events have the property: P(A and B) = 0. For example, one cannot draw a card that is both red and a club because clubs are always black. If one draws just one card from the deck, either a red card or a club can be drawn. When A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B). One might ask, "What is the probability of drawing a red card or a club?" This problem would be solved by adding together the probability of drawing a red card and the probability of drawing a club. In a standard 52-card deck, there are twenty-six red cards and thirteen clubs: 26/52 + 13/52 = 39/52 or 3/4.
In probability theory the word "or" allows for the possibility of both events happening. The probability of one or both events occurring is denoted P(A or B) and in general it equals P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B). Therefore, if one asks, "What is the probability of drawing a red card or a king?", drawing any of a red king, a red non-king, or a black king is considered a success. In a standard 52-card deck, there are twenty-six red cards and four kings, two of which are red, so the probability of drawing a red or a king is 26/52 + 4/52 – 2/52 = 28/52. However, with mutually exclusive events the last term in the formula, – P(A and B), is zero, so the formula simplifies to the one given in the previous paragraph.
Events are collectively exhaustive
Collectively exhaustive
In probability theory, a set of events is jointly or collectively exhaustive if at least one of the events must occur. For example, when rolling a six-sided die, the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are collectively exhaustive, because they encompass the entire range of possible outcomes.Another way...
In statistics
and regression analysis
Regression analysis
In statistics, regression analysis includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables...
, an independent variable
Dependent and independent variables
Dummy variable
In statistics and econometrics, particularly in regression analysis, a dummy variable is one that takes the values 0 or 1 to indicate the absence or presence of some categorical effect that may be expected to shift the outcome...
Ordinary least squares
In statistics, ordinary least squares or linear least squares is a method for estimating the unknown parameters in a linear regression model. This method minimizes the sum of squared vertical distances between the observed responses in the dataset and the responses predicted by the linear...
Logistic regression
In statistics, logistic regression is used for prediction of the probability of occurrence of an event by fitting data to a logit function logistic curve. It is a generalized linear model used for binomial regression...
Multinomial probit
In econometrics and statistics, the multinomial probit model, a popular alternative to the multinomial logit model, is a generalization of the probit model that allows more than two discrete, unordered outcomes. It is not to be confused with the multivariate probit model, which is used to model...
or multinomial logit
Multinomial logit
In statistics, economics, and genetics, a multinomial logit model, also known as multinomial logistic regression, is a regression model which generalizes logistic regression by allowing more than two discrete outcomes...
technique is used.
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Idaho’s Path to Statehood
Lewis and Clark arrived in Idaho in 1805. A Gold Rush in the 1860s brought settlers from the United States, and Idaho became a territory in 1863. Idaho’s population had grown to 32,610 by 1880 and Idaho became a state in 1890.
Idaho wanted statehood for several reasons. First, they wanted to be able to vote in presidential elections and to have voting representatives in Congress. Territories don’t have this voice in U.S. politics. That’s why Puerto Rico isn’t represented as states are. As more settlers came in from the states, their demand to have the power of a state made Idaho want to be a state.
People could also see that it would be financially beneficial for Idaho to become a state. They could expect to jump from $28,000 a year in federal funds to $3.5 million. They would also be able to work with foreign investors, which would help their mining industry. And, with pioneers traveling through Idaho on their way to California and Oregon, they knew that statehood would encourage more people to settle in Idaho.
Internal conflicts
Every territory that has become a state has had issues to deal with. Idaho was a diverse territory, with Hawaiian and Basque residents as well as Native Americans, European Americans, African Americans, and more. During the territorial period, however, a split between Mormon residents in the South and non-Mormon settlers in the North threatened Idaho’s chances of statehood. A representative from Congress put it this way:
At that time, Mormons allowed polygamy — one man could have more than one wife. This was illegal in the United States, and the issue delayed Utah’s statehood, too. The people in the North used public feeling against polygamy to pass a law saying that Mormons could not vote. This rule was included in the state constitution in 1889… since the Mormons were not allowed to vote.
With the mostly Democratic Mormons disenfranchised, Utah became a Republican territory, and the Republican Congress of the time accepted Utah as a state. The new Republican president, Benjamin Harrison, signed the bill and Utah became a state.
The rule against Mormon voting, called the Idaho Test Oath, was repealed in 1892. All of the anti-Mormon language wasn’t cleaned out of the Idaho Constitution until 1982.
Lessons for Puerto Rico
Did the statehood supporters use anti-Mormon feelings to get a Republican majority, just so they could win over the Republican Congress? Some say they did. Or was it that Congress had anti-Mormon feelings and they used statehood as bait to get Idaho to discriminate against their Mormon residents?
Either way, the internal conflicts were resolved after statehood.
When internal conflicts delay statehood, they create hardships for everyone. Getting together to support statehood makes sense. Internal conflicts can wait.
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General Chemistry – Unit 7 Chemical Equations
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Presentation on theme: "General Chemistry – Unit 7 Chemical Equations"— Presentation transcript:
1 General Chemistry – Unit 7 Chemical Equations
Chapter 7
2 What is a chemical rxn? A process where one or more substances changes to one or more other substances. Exchange of electrons!!!
3 Parts of a chemical reaction
Reactants the original substances Products the resulting substances
4 ASK YOURSELF: Which are the products and which are the reactants in these equations? Na+ + Cl- NaCl 2H2O 2H2 + O2
5 Quick Demo Magnesium
6 A word equation Magnesium metal reacts with oxygen gas to form white magnesium oxide solid. We must learn how to translate these!
7 Balancing equations Tips
__Fe2O3 + __H2SO4 __Fe2(SO4)3 + __H2O If possible treat polyatomic ions as 1 unit Balance hydrogen 2nd last Balance oxygen last If the last element does not balance double everything
8 Ways to Represent Reactions
Chemical equation: symbols that describe a chemical reaction and show what atoms (and how many, relatively speaking) are involved. Word equation: the names of each product/reactant are written out. Doesn’t show how many of each
9 Write out the word equation
Magnesium metal reacts with oxygen gas to form magnesium oxide solid. Mg + O MgO
10 Remember BrINClOFH Br2 – a liquid I2 - a solid N2 - a gas Cl2 - a gas
O2 - a gas F2 - a gas H2 - a gas
11 Check for BrINClOFH Any time you see 1 of the 7 diatomic elements alone, write them with a 2 subscript Mg + O2 MgO
12 Balance the charges of ionic comp
In our reaction we have already done this, but make sure to use proper formulas (for molecular comp too!): MgO = Mg2+ O2- Mg + O2 MgO
13 Balance number of atoms/ions on each side
In ordinary chemical changes, atoms just rearrange This is the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER We do this with coefficients 2Mg O2 2MgO
14 Example If you take Ca(NO3)2 and change it to 2Ca(NO3)2, how many of each element do you have?
15 Put in physical states Symbols used in chemical equations: (s) solid
(l) liquid (g) gas (aq) aqueous solution (dissolved in H2O)
16 Put in physical states I will give you physical states in word problems: Magnesium metal reacts with oxygen gas to form magnesium oxide solid 2Mg(s) O2(g) 2MgO(s)
17 Word Equation example Hydrogen gas and Oxygen gas combine to form liquid water. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
18 Example: Sodium solid reacts with chlorine gas to form sodium chloride solid. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
19 Try this one: Dicarbon dihydride reacts with oxygen gas to produce carbon dioxide gas and water
20 Evidence of rxns All rxns involve chemical change
Look for evidence of those changes: Light, heat, gas, color change, precipitate
21 Other Symbols precipitate forms gas forms “produces” or “yields”
products can reform in to reactants – end result is a mix of the two. Δ – means that heat was added
22 Chemistry – Chemical Equations
Part II
23 Experiment 17 Please read over steps 1-8 carefully
Get the proper safety gear, and the proper equipment Do steps 1-8, then set the solid aside to dry (step 9) Return to your seat – while the solid dries, you can work on A7 At the end of class – record the mass of your beaker and solid.
24 Balanced equations show RATIOS
The coefficients of a balanced equation reveal the RATIO of each reactant to each product: 2H2 + O2 2H2O means there is a 2:1:2 ratio of H2 to O2 to H2O. This is the same as a 4:2:4 ratio, etc. etc.
25 The activity series Writing an equation doesn’t mean it will actually happen How do we know it will happen? Single replacement reactions are predicted with the activity series This activity series has been created through experiment.
26 The activity series Things on the list will displace anything below but not above other things on the list There are two lists – one for elements that become positive ions, and one for elements that become negative ions.
27 Element Reactivity Li Rb K Ba Ca Na React with cold H2O and acids, replacing hydrogen F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 Listed from most reactive to least reactive Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe React with acids or steam but usually not liquid water, to replace hydrogen Ni Sn Pb All react with acids but not water, to replace hydrogen H2 Cu Hg All react with oxygen to form oxides Ag Pt Au Mostly unreactive
28 ? When a rxn releases energy, where does it come from?
You have to put energy in to break bonds If bonding is stronger in the products they will be more stable More stable = lower energy Lower energy means energy must be RELEASED This is an exothermic reaction Is this an example of an ENDOthermic or EXOthermic reaction?
29 If bonding is weaker in the products, they will be less stable, have more energy, and will therefore absorb it. Is this an endo or exothermic rxn?
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How thick is skin?
Skin, Hair, and Nails Read more from
Chapter Human Body
What is the purpose of goose bumps?
The puckering of the skin that takes place when goose-flesh is formed is the result of contraction of the muscle fibers in the skin. This muscular activity will produce more heat, and raises the temperature of the body.
The thickness of skin varies, depending on where it is found on the body. Skin averages 0.05 inches (0.127 centimeters) in thickness. The thinnest skin is found in the eyelids and is less than 0.002 inches (0.005 centimeters) thick, while the thickest skin is on the upper back (0.2 inches or 0.5 centimeters).
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the Akkadian language
Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform texts, an introduction collected by John Heise.
Akkadian is one of the great cultural languages of world history. Akkadian (or Babylonian-Assyrian) is the collective name for the spoken languages of the culture in the three millennia BCE in Mesopotamia, the area between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, approx. covering modern Irak. The name Akkadian --so called in ancient time-- is derived from the city-state of Akkad, founded in the middle of the third millennium BCE and capital of one of the first great empires after the dawn of human history. The downfall of Akkad is described (in literary terms) in the curse of Akkad, but the name has continued to be used for millennia since.
Akkadian is first attested to in proper names in Sumerian texts (ca. 2800 BCE). From ca. 2500 BCE one finds texts fully written in Akkadian. Hundreds of thousands of texts and text fragments have been excavated, covering many subjects, e.g.
-economy (business, administrative records, purchase and rentals),
-politics (treaties),
-law (witnessed and sealed contracts of marriage, divorce; codes of law),
-history (chronological text, census reports),
-letters (personal, business and state letters),
-religion (prayers, hymns, omens, divination reports),
-scholarly texts (language, word lists, history, technology, mathematics, astronomy) and
-literature (narrative poetry, recounting myths, epics).
The last texts date from the first century A.D. By then Akkadian was already an extinct language, replaced as a spoken language by Aramaic.
The language used a writing system called cuneiform. Wedge shaped symbols were inscribed on clay tablets with a reed stylus. This writing system was invented by the Sumerians around the end of the fourth millennium BCE. Many neighboring countries later adopted this writing method to record their own language (Eblaites, Hittites, Hurrites, Elamites).
Akkadian has been for centuries the international medium of communication, the lingua franca or language of diplomacy in the Ancient Near East. Because of this (and also by other means) the Mesopotamian civilization has had a powerful influence on other areas in the Ancient Near East and traces of it are found in the Bible and in Greek civilization. The Occident, in several aspects, indirectly became heir to the Orient, in science (astronomy, mathematics, medicine), in art (narrative techniques, epic) and in religion (mythology, theology). Indeed, in classical terminology one could say:
Ex oriente lux ''the light (comes) from the east''
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Sunday, 8 June 2014
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was born sometime before October 31, 1451 in Genoa. His birthplace is now a historic attraction.
He was the son of Domenico Colombo, an Italian wool weaver and Susanna Fontanarossa, the daughter of a wool weaver. Christopher's father also owned a cheese stand and later, a tavern.
Christopher was the oldest of five. Her had three younger brothers, Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo, and a sister, Bianchinetta.
As his family was of limited means Christopher's education was also restricted. He would have learnt basic Latin and Mathematics until the age of 14. From his teens when he first set sail he learnt a great deal about Astronomy and map reading.
His first documented voyage was to the Island of Chios in the Aegean Sea.
After being shipwrecked off Portugal, (when a French ship sank his ship) Columbus swam to land clinging onto an oar, and settled there in 1476.
He worked as a Cartographer in Lisbon in the late 1470s with his brother, Bartholomew.
Christopher Columbus set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain on August 3, 1492 to try to find a new route to the Orient. Palos is also the site of the Rábida Monastery where Columbus consulted with the Franciscans about his plans for organizing an expedition of discovery.
Before Spain agreed to bankroll Christopher Columbus's journey across the Atlantic, he was turned down by Portugal, England and France.
The Pinta, Niña, and Santa María made their first landfall when they landed on an island in the West Indies on October 12, 1492, 71 days after leaving Spain. Columbus named the newly discovered island, “San Salvador” meaning, “Saint of Salvation”, to express his thankfulness at landing safely.
On landing in San Salvador, Columbus offered the natives red caps and green beads, which they accepted gratefully.
On reaching America, Columbus thought he was in the East Indies because of Biblical scripture. His calculations were based on the Second Book of Esdras in the Apocrypha which suggested the Earth was six parts land to one part water.
Columbus’ mission was gold and the gospel, to fill up the Spanish coffers, (he was being sponsored by the Spanish monarchy) and convert the eastern people (he mistakenly though he had landed on an island near Japan).
On January 6, 1494 Columbus and all his men disembarked at Isabela on the island of Haiti and entered the temporary church that they had built. There they heard Fray Buil offer mass--the first mass ever heard on land in the New World.
Columbus' crews survived on salted meat or fish stews cooked on wood burning stoves, hard biscuits and watered wine.
Christopher Columbus was the first European to visit Cuba during his first voyage to the New World on October 28, 1492. Two of Columbus' scouts in Cuba came back with wild tales of a sort of grain, which was "well tasted baked, dried and made into flour." The natives in their language called it “mahiz”; Columbus named it “maize”.
Columbus anchored next to the King's harbor patrol ship on March 4, 1493 in Portugal. Hearing of Columbus's discoveries, the Portuguese king informed him that he believed the voyage to be in violation of the 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas. After spending more than a week in Portugal, and paying his respects to Eleanor of Viseu, he again set sail for Spain. Columbus crossed the bar of Saltes and entered the harbor of Palos on March 15, 1493. Word of his finding new lands rapidly spread throughout Europe.
Christopher Columbus audience before King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella by Eugène Delacroix
1200 colonists went in 1495 with Columbus to Hispaniola but he was not a successful governor and he got upset with the natives when they couldn't find gold. Soon Columbus' governorship was in disgrace and in 1500 he returned in chains.
Columbus often stayed at Los Palmas in the Canaries on the way back from America, whilst his ships were refitted. The house where he stayed is now a museum.
During his fourth voyage westwards Columbus was given, as a sign of welcome by the Aztecs, a sack of brown cocoa beans. He ascertained these beans were used as money but was unaware a drink couldn be made from them. He gave the Spanish King Ferdinand some beans, but overwhelmed by the countless other treasures Columbus brought, they were ignored.
Columbus took wine not water on his voyages as water becomes stagnant and deteriorates on long trips across the seas, whilst ways had been found to enable wine to keep its taste better and remain wholesome.
During Columbus’ fourth voyage, his crew waited until nightfall before tucking into their meal of crumbled-biscuit porridge, so that they wouldn't see the worms.
During his fourth voyage westwards Columbus was anchored off Jamaica and rations were low (the natives wouldn't trade.) The explorer learned from his Zacuto almanac that on February 29, 1504 there was to be an eclipse of the moon. Columbus summoned the Jamaican chiefs and told them if they don't give him food he had the power to blot out the moon. They laughed but then the eclipse begun. The terrified natives begged him to bring the moon back and they would give him what he wanted.
Columbus predicts lunar eclipse to the natives
A lay Franciscan himself, Columbus bought with him a group of Franciscans who hoped to convert the Native Americans to Christianity.
Columbus grew increasingly religious in his later years. He claimed to hear divine voices and lobbied for a new crusade to capture Jerusalem. He was prepared to sell what remained of his possessions to sail again this time eastwards to take back the Holy City from the hands of the infidel.
Columbus described his discoveries of the "paradise" as part of God's plan which would soon result in the Last Judgement and the end of the world.
No contemporary portrait of Columbus has ever been found so we can’t say what he looked like, but writings at the time describe him as tall, with blond or red hair and light eyes and skin.
Columbus' body was twisted by arthritis and he suffered from what is probably Reiter's syndrome.
His last residence was a modest home in Valladolid, Spain.
Columbus died in poverty at Valladolid in Spain on May 20, 1506 after four voyages westwards to the New World.
The first celebration of Columbus Day in the USA held in was held in New York on October 12, 1792.
Colorado was the first state to officially recognize Columbus Day as a state holiday in 1905.
Columbus Day only became an official American Holiday in 1937. It happened because The Knights of Columbus, an influential male-only Catholic organization, wanted a strong Catholic role model for their children to be dignified by the government. After intense lobbying by the Knights, President Franklin Roosevelt and Congress declared Columbus Day a legal and federal holiday.
Since 1971, Columbus Day has been commemorated in the United States on the second Monday of each October.
Sources Daily ExpressFood For Thought by Ed Pearce
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Understanding Melting Points
Tuesday, July 11th, 2017
Ice Salt Experiment
How do you explain the states of matter to a child? It’s a difficult concept to master. Even some adults have trouble wrapping their heads around how something can go from solid to liquid to gas with just a few small tweaks in temperature or location.
The best way to teach kids is to have fun, and a science experiment that demonstrates melting points while also incorporating ice — fun! — and food coloring — super fun! — can help illustrate how something changes from one state of matter to another.
Melting points also demonstrate a chemical reaction. Not just any change equals a reaction. For example, an air conditioner cooling off the air in a hot room is not causing a chemical reaction. It’s making a physical change. By contrast, in a chemical reaction, molecules interact, resulting in the change. Atoms may bond, and then those bonds may break to form new molecules.
The melting of ice is a physical change when it occurs naturally. But when you speed up the process by using a reactant, such as salt, it becomes a chemical reaction. Here’s an easy experiment you can do with household items — did we mention the food coloring? — that everyone in your home will find enjoyable.
The Ice-Salt Melting Experiment
• Bowls of varying different sizes
• Water
• Food coloring
• Spoons
• Salt
• Cups
• Cookie sheets
First you’ll need to make the ice in the bowls. You can use as many as you prefer, but start with at least three, so your child can see what happens with ice of various sizes. Fill the bowls with water — halfway to the top is fine but again, try to get some varying shapes — and store in the freezer overnight.
The next morning, dump each one out on the cookie sheet, or sheets if you’re using a lot of bowls. For extra protection from mess, put an old towel underneath the sheet. Before you move to the next step, ask your child what they think will happen when the salt is placed on the ice.
Give your child a small bowl of salt. Allow them to sprinkle it on top of the ice domes. Encourage them to use differing amounts on each dome. Try a big scoop on one and a small drizzle on another.
Fill cups with a small amount of water, and then add a few drops of food coloring so you have a red, a green, a blue, etc. Using the spoon, your child can dribble the food coloring over the ice domes, making each one into a colorful mountain.
The food coloring also serves another purpose. It will let your child see where the salt has really melted the ice dome, forming crevices and cracks that become deeper the further the ice melts.
The Takeaway
When your child has “colored” the ice domes to their heart’s delight, revisit your initial question. Did the salt do what they expected it would to the ice? Why did the ice melt faster in the spots where they put the salt? Talk about what a chemical reaction is and why it occurred. Do your best to answer any questions that may arise from the experiment, and remember that it’s okay to Google the answers if your child stumps you.
If your child is interested in these types of experiments they’ll likely enjoy our summer camps and after school programs! We proudly offer our programs to children across PA, NJ, MD and DE.
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Position Location Direction * Positions, Relative Locations and DirectionsTo describe topographic relationships of structures or parts to other structures in the body, we use the following terms:
- Superior or cranial (cephalic) indicate that a structure is located at a higher level or closer to the head. The opposite of these are inferior or caudal, which indicate that a structure is located at a lower level or downwards. In case of the limbs, the terms proximal and distal indicate the level or the relative distance from the attached end of the limb (for example: the arm in standard anatomic position; proximal would mean near to the shoulder; distal would mean further away or located below).
- The terms anterior or ventral indicate a relation to the front of the body or of a bone (e.g. anterior surface). The terms posterior or dorsal indicate that a structure is located near to the back of the body.
- The terms medial and lateral refer to a position in relation to the medial plane (or the long axis) of the body or of a structure (medial: toward midline; lateral: away from midline or located at the side).
- The terms superficial or profundal are used to describe a position or location relative to the surface of areas, structures or tissues. The term superficial indicates that a structure is located close to the surface of a tissue, the term profundal indicates that it is located more deeply.
- The terms internal and external describe a structure's position or a view in relation to inner and outer surfaces (for example in organs or cavities).
- The term ipsilateral indicates that two structures are located on same side of the body.
- The term contralateral indicates the opposite (opposite side of the body).
Regiones Abdominales * Regiones abdominales
1 - Regio epigastrica,
2 - Regio hypochondriaca,
3 - Regio umbilicalis,
4 - Regio lateralis,
5 - Regio pubica,
6 - Regio inguinalis.
The regions of the stomach (Regiones abdominales) can be described with virtual lines: a vertical line through the middle of the Clavicula (medioclavicular line), a horizontal line halfway between the upper Sternum and the upper genital region (the horizontal layer is called Planum transpyloricum), and a horizontal line between the humps of the pelvic bone (Tuberculum iliacum) on both sides (the horizontal layer is called Planum intertuberculare).
Regio epigastrica is located right under the Processus xiphoideus (at the bottom of Sternum) of the skeletal Thorax, marked by Planum transpyloricum at the bottom, and the medioclavicular lines on both sides. Regio hypochondriaca is located on both sides of Regio epigastrica, marked also by the Thorax, the medioclavicular line and Planum transpyloricum. Regio umbilicalis (the area around the belly) is marked by medioclavicular lines on both sides, by Planum transpyloricum at the top and Planum intertuberculare at the bottom. Regio lateralis is located on both sides of Regio umbilicalis, marked by Planum transpyloricum, Planum intertuberculare and medioclavicular lines on both sides.
Regio pubica is located under the Regio umbilicalis, with a flowing transition into the lower located non-abdominal genital region (Regio urogenitalis). Regio inguinalis is located on both sides of Regio pubica. It is marked at the top by the Planum intertuberculare and the groin ligament (Ligamentum inguinale between the frontal upper spine of the pelvic bone= Spina iliaca anterior superior to the hump of the pubic bone= Tuberculum pubicum) at the bottom.
Regiones Capitis * Regiones capitis
Reg. frontalis (1),
Reg. orbitalis (2),
Reg. nasalis (3),
Reg. infraorbitalis (4),
Reg. oralis (5),
Reg. mentalis (6),
Reg. buccalis (7),
Reg. zygomatica (8),
Reg. temporalis (9),
Reg. parietalis (10),
Reg. occipitalis (11)
Regiones Colli * Regiones Colli
1 - Regio sternocleidomastoidea,
2 - Trigonum submentale,
3 - Trigonum musculare,
4 - Trigonum submandibulare,
5 - Trigonum caroticum,
6 - Regio cervicalis lateralis.
Regiones Membri Inferioris 1 * Regiones membri inferioris (Aspectus anterior)
1 - Regio femoralis anterior,
2 - Trigonum femorale,
3 - Regio genus anterior,
4 - Regio cruralis anterior,
5 - Dorsum pedis,
6 - Digiti.
The regions of the leg (Regiones membri inferioris) begin below Regio inguinalis on the front and below Regio lumbaris on the backside.
The front side of the Femur (thigh) is called Regio femoralis anterior, the back side is covered by Regio glutaealis above the Musculus glutaeus maximus (origin at Os ilium, Os sacrum and Os coccygis= the coccyx; insertion at Femur and Tractus iliotibialis) and Regio femoralis posterior, divided by Sulcus glutaealis (bottom furrow).
Regio femoralis anterior contains a region inside, called Trigonum femorale, marked by Musculus sartorius (origin at the frontal upper spine of the pelvic bone= Spina iliaca anterior superior; insertion at upper Tibia) and Musculus adductor longus (origin at the pubic bone= Os pubis; insertion at the back shaft of Femur bone= Linea aspera) at the sides and Regio inguinalis at the top. The area around the knee joint is called Regio genus (anterior and posterior).
The lower leg (Crus) begins under this area, consisting of Regio cruralis anterior and posterior (the calf area is also called Sura or Regio suralis). The area of the heel is called Regio calcanea (Calx). The foot (Pes) can be divided into an upper area (Dorsum pedis), directed against the body, and a bottom area= the sole (Planta pedis), directed against the ground.
Similar to the hands, the foot can be further divided into a Tarsus, Metatarsus and Digiti (Toes; I= Hallux, II= Digitus secundus, III= Digitus tertius, IV= Digitus quartus, V= Digitus minimus).
Next slide
Regiones Membri Inferioris 2.jpg - nov 22, 2004
Regiones Membri Superioris * Regiones membri superioris
1 - Regio deltoidea,
2 - Regio brachialis anterior,
3 - Regio cubitalis anterior,
4 - Regio antebrachialis anterior,
5 - Regio antebrachialis posterior,
6 - Regio carpalis anterior et posterior,
7 - Dorsum manus,
8 - Digiti, in this illustration pointing at Digitus secundus= Index
Regiones Pectorales * Regiones Pectorales
1 - Regio pectoralis,
2 - Regio praesternalis,
3 - Trigonum clavipectorale,
4 - Regio axillaris.
Skeleton * The Human Skeleton
Bones form the skeleton, a protective and supportive framework, which has the following functions:
The skeletal system protects and stabilizes inner structures like the thoracic organs (lungs, heart) or the brain. It acts as a lever to provide movement by muscular contractions and supports the body's upright posture, it produces blood cells in marrow (Haematopoiesis) and stores almost all of the body's calcium.
The skeleton of an adult consists of 206 bones. This number must be seen as a variable because of possible variations in the number of the ribs, the sacral vertebrae or the sesamoid bones.
Following the body axis, the skeleton may be divided into an axial skeleton, which consists of the bones of the skull, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column and the thoracic cage, and into an appendicular skeleton, consisting of the pectoral- and pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper- and lower limbs:
- Axial skeleton: The bones of the Skull, Hyoid bone, the bones of the Vertebral column (Vertebrae), Sternum, Ribs
- Appendicular skeleton: The Pelvic bone, Femur, Tibia, Fibula, bones of the Tarsus and Metatarsus, Phalanges, Humerus, Ulna, Radius, bones of the Carpus and Metacarpus
Standard Anatomic Position * Standard Anatomic Position of the Body
In order to describe positions and orientations of the structures of the human body in three dimensions, the body is supposed to be in standing position, looking forward, arms at sides with palms of the hands pointing forward, and feet together pointing forward.
The Cell * The CellThis image presents the basic cellular structures.
The nucleus contains the genetic material (DNA). It is responsible for the function and the replication of the cell.
The mitochondria provide with their enzymes the cellular energy support. The are max. 6 micrometers long.
The endoplasmatic reticulum builds proteins and enzymes, which are specific for the cellular function and excretion.
The lysosomes are small digestive particles, which contain material to be sliced and eliminated.
The cell membrane supports the cellular integrity and protects the cell from external alterations. It encapsulates the cytoplasma, which is the special fluid inside the cell. It bears the organelles and the nucleus.
Image: Regiones membri inferioris (Aspectus posterior)
1 - Regio glutaealis,
2 - Regio femoralis posterior,
3 - Regio genus posterior,
4 - Regio cruralis posterior= Reg. suralis,
5 - Regio calcanea,
6 - Planta pedis.
Page last updated on nov 23, 2004
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Saturday, February 16, 2008
Were the First Stars Powered by Dark Matter?
When scientists look at what makes a star and what makes it burn, they turn to fusion. However, according to new research, this may not have been the case for the stars classified as “Population 3."
“The first stars were different in a lot of ways,” Katherine Freese, a theoretical physicist at the University of Michigan, told According to Freese, dark matter annihilation was the source of energy for the earliest stars, rather than fusion, when the universe was only 100 to 200 million years young.
“Annihilation means that matter goes into something else,” Freese explains. She says that everything has a partner opposite – matter and anti-matter, electrons and positrons. When these opposites meet, their identity is lost and the energy goes elsewhere. “Dark matter particles are their own anti. When they meet, one-third of the energy goes into neutrinos, which escape, one-third goes into photons and the last third goes into electrons and positrons.”
“In order for a star to form, in order for its matter to collapse into a dense object, it has to be able to cool off,” Freese continues. “We noticed that in the first stars something was competing with the cooling. The stars couldn’t collapse down small enough to get fusion going. But they were still giving off energy. They were in a phase we hadn’t discovered before.”
But how did they move from a dark matter phase and in to the more standard fusion stage that we are more familiar with? Freese explains; “The annihilation products getting stuck is what allows the dark matter heating to stay inside the star, and is what prevents the star from collapsing into a fusion driven one.” When all the dark matter has been annihilated the star then collapses enough so that fusion can take over.
What happens next is another “circle of life” thing that really makes you think. Hydrogen and helium atoms are forced together by the fusion process within the star and form new elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and various metals. Once it becomes dense enough with these new elements it collapses in on itself and goes supernova. Then, all the new elements made up within the old star spread out in to the universe to help in the creation of new stars.
“This new phase is only true in the first stars,” Freese insists. “The stars we see today are called population one stars. Earlier stars were population two stars. The first stars are referred to as population three stars. Our work is to modify how we believe population three stars developed. At first, they weren’t fusion driven.”
If the three are indeed right about this new theory, it will change what we know about how stars are formed. “It adds a new phase of stellar evolution,” Freese says.
Sadly though, according to Freese, any further study of this theory is going to have to wait until at least 2013, when NASA is scheduled to launch the James Webb Space Telescope. “We call them dark stars,” Freese explains, “but they would still shine, looking a little different. They would be cooler than a fusion driven star. We hope the next phase telescope will be able to tell between the standard stars now, and what we think happened in the first stars.”
Their study appears in Physical Review Letters with the title “Dark Matter and the First Stars: A New Phase of Stellar Evolution.”
Thanks to PhysOrg for the permission to work from their article, found at the link below.
Posted by Josh Hill.
Original here
No comments:
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Music in Nature and Human Nature
Music connects us all, even before the conception of civilization music, in one form or another, existed. There are some ancient mammoth bones, dating back to 40,000 years ago, that somewhat resembles a primitive musical instrument. All cultures have their own style of music, many have instruments indigenous to them. Music and our appreciation to it, is a thing that all human beings share. But it seems that it is not only humans that show appreciation for music, it has long been observed that many animals have a similar appreciation for music, so is it might truly be the one thing that connects everything and everyone.
It believed that a common ancient ancestor that connects us all first created a primitive form of music which evolved and branched out as different races began to form civilizations away from the point of everyone’s origin, Africa. This theory is supported due to the fact that even isolated tribes, tribes that has little to no contact with outsiders, has their own form of music. But it can be argued that this is merely humanity’s imitation of nature, as we hear the beautiful chirps of the birds and rhythm of the noises made by the natural environment. That each civilization found music one way or another, but then again, the beauty of finding the same thing, though separated by great distances, is quite astonishing as well.
Ancient animal bones show that primitive humans that predates known civilizations, supports the earlier theory that a common ancestor created music and merely influenced generations that spread across the globe. But if civilization was not the reason music was developed and nurtured. Then it can be argued that all humans have the natural urge to create and search for music.
Oceanside dentist
Animals show us that music, in one form or another, is necessary in the animal kingdom. It may be a mating call, or it can be a way to communicate from vast distances by relaying a message that is quite melodically to our ears, but a terrifying message of danger to theirs. We can only speculate what it is they are trying to tell each other, or even if it is truly a way of communication to them. But one thing is certain because of this observation, music does not only connect us humans to each other, but to the world around us.
Even the stars sings their own song, forever singing a lonely melody that echoes throughout the universe, only to be heard by humans trillions of trillions of miles away millions of years after the song was sung. Much like the carbons that were formed in those ancient stars, their song remains in us, maybe it is the memory of the stars which the elements of life originated from, maybe it is the faint whisper of a lonely star singing right now, whatever it maybe it urges all living things to sing. Some humans even become a star to their follow humans, no longer lonely, no longer singing to the vastness of space.
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Encyclopedia of Lakes and Reservoirs
2012 Edition
| Editors: Lars Bengtsson, Reginald W. Herschy, Rhodes W. Fairbridge
Water Balance of Lakes
• Lars Bengtsson
Reference work entry
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4410-6_18
The most basic in river basin hydrology is the water balance – and so it is for lakes. Most lakes have outflows, but some of the most famous lakes of the world are terminal lakes with no outflow, for example, the Caspian Sea, Lake Chad, and the Dead Sea. The water level in the overflowing lakes is rather stable, while the water level in the terminal lakes varies with the climate. In some lakes with small upstream catchment, the inflow to the lake is dominated by the precipitation on the lake, but usually inflow rivers are the dominating source of inflow to a lake. Some lakes only have subsurface inflow, but in most lakes, the most important inflow is from rivers. There also exist kettle lakes, which are part of the groundwater system with only subsurface inflow and outflow.
The water balance of a lake is
$$\begin{array}{lll} \frac{{dVOl}}{{dt}} & = A(h)\frac{{dh}}{{dt}}\\ & = {Q_{\rm{in}}} - {Q_{\rm{out}}}(h) + {Q_{\rm{gwin}}} -{Q_{\rm{gwout}}} + (P - E)\,A(h) \end{array}$$
1. Belyaev, A. V., 1991. Changes in the level of the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea. In Schiller, G., Lemmelä, R., and Spreafico, M. (eds.), Hydrology of Natural and Manmade Lakes. Wallingford: IAHS, Vol. 206, pp. 45–54.Google Scholar
2. Croley, T. E., and Lewis, C. F. M., 2008. Warmer and drier climates that make Lake Huron into a terminal lake. Aquatic Ecosystem & Health, 11, 153–160.Google Scholar
3. Harlin, J., 1989. Proposed Swedish spillway design guidelines compared with historical flood marks at Lake Siljan. Nordic Hydrology, 20, 293–304.Google Scholar
4. Street, F. A., 1980. The relative importance of climate and hydrogeological factors in influencing lake-level fluctuations. Palaeoecology of Africa, 12, 137–158.Google Scholar
5. Szestay, K., 1974. Water balance and water level fluctuations of lakes. Hydrological Sciences Bulletin, 19, 73–84.Google Scholar
6. Yin, X., and Nicholson, Sh. E., 1998. The water balance of Lake Victoria. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 43, 789–811.Google Scholar
Copyright information
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Authors and Affiliations
1. 1.Department of Water Resources EngineeringLund UniversityLundSweden
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next up previous contents
Next: A Warning Up: Introduction Previous: Declarative vs Procedural
What Kind of Logic?
Prolog is based on First Order Predicate Logic ---sometimes abbreviated to FOPL.
First order predicate logic implies the existence of a set of predicate symbols along with a set of connectives.
First order predicate logic implies that there is no means provided for ``talking about'' the predicates themselves.
Prolog is based on FOPL but uses a restricted version of the clausal form. Clausal form is a particular way of writing the propositions of FOPL. The restriction is known as Horn clause form.
Prolog is a so-called logic programming language. Strictly, it is not the only one but most such languages are its descendents.
We will spend a little time outlining the basic ideas underlying both propositional and predicate logic. It is not the intention to use Prolog as a vehicle to teach logic but some appreciation of the issues is invaluable.
Paul Brna
Mon May 24 20:14:48 BST 1999
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Tundra Animals
Tundra includes some of the most inhospitable regions in the world, characterized by sub-zero temperatures and short growing seasons. The three geographically distinct regions are the Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and the Antarctic tundra. Vegetation in these regions comprises of sedge, moss, lichen, dwarf shrub, and grass, while larger trees may also grow in a scattered fashion.
Animals living in these regions need special adaptations to deal with the extreme cold. Even with the hostile climatic conditions, there are hundreds of types of mammals, birds, and aquatic animals found here.
Tundra Animals
What animals live in the tundra
Arctic tundra animals
Ruddy turnstone Harbor seal
Arctic lamprey Arctic fox
Polar bear Beluga whale
Harlequin duck Rock ptarmigan
Arctic hare Arctic tern
Arctic wolf Caribou
Bald eagle Dall sheep
Stoat Harp seal
Greenland shark Lemming
Moose Narwhal
Muskox Orca
Horned puffin Sea otter
Ringed seal Snow goose
Snowshoe hare Wolverine
Walrus Mountain goat
Snowy owl Tundra Shrew
Snow bunting Arctic fulmar
North American porcupine Arctic ground squirrel
Tundra vole Arctic loon
Peregrine falcon Tundra swan
Ross’s gull Arctic bumblebee
Common raven Grizzly bear
Alpine tundra animals
Hoary marmot American pika
Mountain goat Himalayan tahr
Elk Snow quail
White-tailed ptarmigan Prairie falcon
Mule deer Bushy-tailed wood rat (Packrat)
Coyote Yellow-bellied marmot
Water pipit Clark’s nutcracker
Horned lark Rosy finch
White-crowned sparrow Golden-mantled ground squirrel
Bobcat Red fox
Mule deer Bighorn sheep
American badger Canada lynx
Snow leopard Wild yak
Alpine musk deer Himalayan musk deer
Antarctic tundra animals
Chinstrap penguin Gentoo penguin
Macaroni penguin Adelie penguin
Yellow-eyed penguin Blue whale
Weddell seal Sea leopard
Minke whale Blue-eyed shag
Humpback whale Spectacled porpoise
Southern bottlenose whale Fin whale
Grey-headed albatross King penguin
Emperor penguin Southern rockhopper penguin
Wandering albatross Antipodean albatross
Southern royal albatross Shy albatross
Northern royal albatross Salvin’s albatross
Hall’s giant petrel Sooty albatross
Blue petrel Snow petrel
Cape petrel Antarctic petrel
White-headed petrel Salvin’s prion
Antarctic prion Fairy prion
White-chinned petrel Kerguelen petrel
Sooty shearwater Southern fulmar
Black-browed albatross Light-mantled albatross
Hall’s giant petrel Antarctic giant petrel
Slender-billed prion Wilson’s storm petrel
Great-winged petrel South Georgia diving petrel
Black-bellied storm petrel Grey-backed storm petrel
South Georgia diving petrel Imperial shag
Common diving petrel Yellow-billed pintail
Antarctic shag Brown skua
Snowy sheathbill Antarctic tern
Kelp gull South polar skua
Arctic tern Crabeater seal
Elephant seal Leopard seal
Sei whale Antarctic krill
Ross seal Patagonian toothfish
Adaptations: How do animals survive in the tundra biome
Surviving in the cold
• Animals living in the tundra regions have thick fur and extra layers of fat to keep them insulated.
• The bodies of most animals are large with short limbs and tails helping them to retain heat within their body as much as possible.
• Birds of the tundra usually have two layers of thick feathers to stay warm.
• Animals like bears, arctic squirrels, and marmots hibernate through the winter season.
• Smaller animals like lemmings and stoats dig holes, known as burrows and spend the cold season in there.
• Many animals, especially birds, migrate away from the Tundra during the winter season, and come back during the brief summers.
Locomoting on the snow
• Most ground-dwelling species have a characteristic fur lining on their feet to prevent them from getting too cold when walking long distances.
Pictures of Tundra Animals
Camouflaging to the surroundings
• Many animals of this region are white in color so they can blend in with the white snow, and use it as an effective camouflage. This adaptation is useful for both predator and prey. Arctic foxes lose their white fur in the summer to maintain the masquerade through that season.
• Penguins have a unique coloration because of their regular forays in the water. For something that looks up towards the surface of the water, the penguin will blend in with the skies above, and for predatory birds looking into the water from above, it blends in with the black background of the sea floor.
Tundra Animal Food Chain
Optimizing food resources
• The competition for food is naturally extremely high, especially during the winter months. So, many tundra animals have been seen to grow at a slower rate to optimize whatever little food they get during the summer.
Tundra Animal Pictures
Conservation status: Are there any endangered animals in the tundra
Because of the difficulty of access to humans, and the sheer inhospitable environment that it poses to humankind, most of the animals of the tundra ecosystem are relatively safe. Although the populations of some animals, like polar bears, Eskimo curlews, and the Arctic subspecies of the peregrine falcon, have been on a downward spiral for the past few decades because of the improvements in technology and man’s ability to finally catch up and deal with the harsh conditions of the tundra.
Tundra Animal Images
Did You Know?
• The word tundra comes from the Finnish term ‘tunturia’, which means ‘treeless plains.’
• The snow-covering of the ground is thick enough to actually provide ample insulation for burrowing animals.
• Even during the summer season, the temperatures do not exceed 10°C (50°F), and the daytime hours can last for up to 24 hours in the Polar Regions.
• The dominant animals in the tundra food chain, including the Arctic fox, polar bear, and Arctic wolf, obtain water from the body of their prey.
• One example of a symbiotic relationship in the tundra would be where a fox follows a caribou in search of food so the latter can dig holes in the ground to get lichens for itself, exposing some subnivean animals in the process that the fox can feed on.
• Polar bears rarely drink water; they chemically break down fat within their body to make water instead. The fat sources are replenished by feasting on the fatty parts of their prey, particularly the blubbers of seals. Most other parts of the seal’s body are left for scavengers.
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Definitions of wage
2. as of wars, battles, or campaigns; " Napoleon and Hitler waged war against all of Europe"
3. Usually.
9. To give security for the performance of.
10. To bind one's self; to engage.
12. That for which one labors; meed; reward; stipulated payment for service performed; hire; pay; compensation; - at present generally used in the plural. See Wages.
13. The remuneration paid or benefits granted to an employee.
14. To engage in, or carry on, as war.
15. Waging.
16. To pledge: to engage in as if by pledge: to carry on, esp. of war: to venture.
17. A gage or stake: that for which one labors: wages. Though a plural, wages sometimes has a verb in the singular. " The wages of sin is death."- Rom. vi. 23. " Wages, then, depend mainly upon the demand and supply of labor."- J. S. Mill. In ordinary language the term wages is usually restricted to the remuneration for mechanical or muscular labor, esp. to that which is ordinarily paid at short intervals, as weekly or fortnightly, to workmen. Correctly speaking, however, what is called the fees of professional men, as lawyers, physicians, etc., the salaries of public functionaries, businessmen, etc., the pay of military and naval men, and the like, all are wages. On the other hand, when an author publishes a book, or a shoemaker sells a pair of shoes, the sums received are not wages, though to the seller they are virtually the same thing.
18. To carry on, as war.
19. To engage in vigorously, as a conflict.
20. Payment for service rendered; usually in the plural.
21. To bet; to stake; to put at hazard on the event of a contest; to venture; to make; to undertake; to carry on, as to wage war. See Wed.
22. Usually in the.
23. To make or carry on, as war.
Usage examples for wage
1. Hrothgar's grief was profound, for he had lost thirty of his dearly loved bodyguard, and he himself was too old to wage a conflict against the foe- a foe who repeated night by night his awful deeds, in spite of all that valour could do to save the Danes from his terrible enmity. – Hero-Myths & Legends of the British Race by Maud Isabel Ebbutt
2. Owing to the dangerous character of the occupation, a high wage and pension was offered as an inducement to join the service; at least, the wage and pension were considered very good at the time. – Looking Seaward Again by Walter Runciman
3. He was to wage no less courageous a battle at home, in the King's own capital. – Richard Carvel, Volume 5 by Winston Churchill
4. 5103. Was that wage fixed at the commencement of the year or at settlement time? – Second Shetland Truck System Report by William Guthrie
5. You have had your full money value from me, fair work for fair wage. – The Heath Hover Mystery by Bertram Mitford
6. I know the secretary of the Women's Wage Increase Committee does- but who else? – Non-combatants and Others by Rose Macaulay
7. We can imagine the silent troopers assembling in the market- place late in the evening, and then marching out twelve companies strong to wage an unequal contest against a large body of Royalists. – Vanishing England by P. H. Ditchfield
8. A man earning between three and four hundred a year should not claim Government help to breed children, when there are such numbers of people living on a much lower wage. – Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Various Aspects of the Problem of Abortion in New Zealand by David G. McMillan Janet Fraser Sylvia G. Chapman Thomas F. Corkhill Tom L. Paget
9. They seemed to lack individuality and forcefulness, these pallid, serious- faced regulars of the civilian army of wage- getters. – Lost Farm Camp by Harry Herbert Knibbs
10. That is well said, said Arthur, now have I a sword, now will I wage battle with him, and be avenged on him. – Le Morte D'Arthur, Volume I (of II) King Arthur and of his Noble Knights of the Round Table by Thomas Malory
11. As a vantage point from which to wage commercial and military aggression in the Far East, the Philippines may possess certain advantages. – The American Empire by Scott Nearing
12. It was aimed at one of the strongest champions the wage- worker has ever had; at one of the most faithful representatives of the system of public rights and representative government who has ever risen to public office. – Complete State of the Union Addresses from 1790 to the Present by Various
13. American wage- workers work with their heads as well as their hands. – Complete State of the Union Addresses from 1790 to the Present by Various
14. They cannot hope to wage successful war, but they may bring much suffering to others. – Astounding Stories of Super-Science July 1930 by Various
15. A day's wage was only 5 cents, so each family was required to pay an equivalent of twenty days' labor annually. – The Bontoc Igorot by Albert Ernest Jenks
16. So now did I have two battles to wage: one with Alex Goddard and one with her? – Life Blood by Thomas Hoover
17. I began to get some understanding of the battle which it falls to the lot of some of us human beings to wage. – Lifted Masks Stories by Susan Glaspell
18. Can we ever flatter ourselves that we shall wage a more successful war? – The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke, Vol. I. (of 12) by Edmund Burke
19. They will tell you that all they ask is a living wage, a chance to work, and the just recognition of their services by those who know and appreciate and understand. – Craftsmanship in Teaching by William Chandler Bagley
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Field of Science
The Largest Crystals Ever Discovered Are At Risk Of Decay
The mine of Naica, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico, was opened in 1828 to mine for lead, zinc and silver ore. In 1910, a natural cave in the mine was discovered, which was later named Cueva de las Espadas, the Cave of Swords. The name derives from three-feet large, blade-like gypsum crystals (calcium-sulfate) completely covering the walls of the cave.
However, what the miners discovered almost 90 years later during the construction of a new tunnel was even more astounding. The Cueva de los Cristales, the Cave of the Crystals, hosts the most incredible crystals ever discovered. The mining operations, making the discovery possible, are also threatening this geological treasure.
110 Years After The Tunguska Event We Still Aren't Sure What Caused It
At 7:15 on the morning of June 30, 1908, something happened in the sky above the Stony Tunguska (Podkamennaya Tunguska) river in Siberia. Many thousand people in a radius of 900 miles observed the Tunguska event and more than 700 accounts were collected later. The reports describe a fireball in the sky, larger or similar to the size of the sun, a series of explosions “with a frightful sound”, followed by shaking of the ground as “the earth seemed to get opened wide and everything would fall in the abyss. Terrible strokes were heard from somewhere, which shook the air [].” The indigenous Evenks and Yakuts believed a god or shaman had sent the fireball to destroy the world. Various meteorological stations in Europe recorded both seismic and atmospheric waves. Days later strange phenomena were observed in the sky of Russia and Europe, such as glowing clouds, colorful sunsets and a strange luminescence in the night.
A devastating explosion occurred in a remote swampy area of Siberia in June 1908 that even now continues to spark controversy and theories of widely varying plausibility.
Hawaii's Kilauea Eruption Did Not Rain Gemstones From The Sky
Since the beginning of May 2018, the Kilauea volcano on Hawaii has been erupting. First a cloud of fragmented older lava, volcanic ash and vapor rose from the Pu‘u ‘O‘o crater on the summit, magma then migrated to the flanks, opening a series of fissures from where now lava is pouring out.
Around five weeks into the eruption, some residents of the town of Kalapana reported small, green crystals to be found on the ground, soon speculating that the crystals rained out from the eruption column or the lava fountains of Kilauea.
Olivine sand from the Papakolea Beach on Hawai'i. Source and Credit: Wikipedia-user Tomintx, CC BY-SA 4.0.
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Q5-Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow Article 16: Should any member of the League resort to war, it shall be regarded as having committed an act of war against all other members of the League, and this will end immediately all trade and financial relations with that member. From the Covenant of the League of Nations. (a) How did the League of Nations hope to prevent future wars between nations? - The League officially began operating in January 1920; their initial steps taken were small-scaled. The first step was to set up a commission to deal with specific problems hoping that it would solve minor issues and disputes between nations. ...read more.
(b) Why did the League of Nations fail to restrict the aggression of Japan in the 1930s? - When China appealed to the league at first, they were very cautious. Japan was a leading member in the league and needed careful handling. In being cautious, their actions were delayed greatly. After a full year of the League's hesitant contemplation of the issue, they had finally presented their report. The Judgment was that Japan had acted unlawfully, and that Manchuria should be returned to the Chinese. However, in 1933 instead of withdrawing from Manchuria, the Japanese announced that they intended to invade more of China. They still argued that this was necessary in self-defense. ...read more.
There was no outlook in Britain and France risking their armies or navies in a war with Japan. Only the USA and USSR had the resources to remove the Japanese from Manchuria by force and they were not even in the League. (c) How far was the League of Nations a failure? Explain your answer. - Successes of the League of Nations, were all little, but went a long way. If you think about it, the league did not really have much power in its hands due to the lack of powerful countries, etc. So they were only really capable of making minor-scaled adjustments (such as Vilna in 1920) but they had a great impact, since a war could have began from such minor troubles. In 1920, the league of Nations ...read more.
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Related AS and A Level International History, 1945-1991 essays
1. Why Did The League of Nations Fail To Keep Peace In The 1930s?
The League took a year to make a decision on the crisis and in the end decided that Japan was the aggressor and "told them off". Japan took no notice of this and resigned from the League. Economic sanctions never took place as Britain and France thought that Japan was
2. How Successful Was the League in The 1920's and 1930's? The League of ...
This was the Great Depression that went across the World. Unemployment rose to approximately 17 million in the USA, with figures in other countries astronomical. The effect on the League by the depression was serious. Practically all the countries were pre-occupied by internal problems such as debt, low morale and unemployment.
1. United Nations: The Wounded Dove
a democratic government, all countries would engage in trade freely with one another, all countries would share in world prosperity, and all counties would seek to reduce their weaponry" (The UN - HLS). The 'Big five' though drew up their plans for the international organization, they proposed the following ideas;
2. Arab-Israeli Wars.
where he lost in the preview was with Israel,it was also going to take revenge.Plo was trying establish its presence and it playeda small role in contributing the war. The outbreak of the war was bit conflicting,The arabs wanted Israel to be the agressor.So they were escalating the problems.For example,Egypt
1. Did The League of Nations Have any chance of long Term Success?
would take out their anger on their government forcing them to accept the League's decision. The League could order League members not to do any trade with an aggressor nation in an effort to bring that aggressor nation to heel. * if this failed, the League could introduce physical sanctions.
2. Discussing Japan.
Very recently companies have spread their roots to tackle smaller products such as mobile phones. Trium and Nokia are to name a few. This has got Japans economy back and now they are richer than ever! Japan now gets it's money by exporting the above goods.
1. The league of nations - How successful was The League in the 1920's?
The next main aim of the League was to encourage nations to disarm. The Treaty Of Versailles was instrumental in the disarmament of Germany and a few of its allies, though they had not been disarmed to the extent of Germany.
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In the early stages of the Earth’s development, it was covered in many of the same elements it has now. Water, nitrogen, oxygen, and minerals like carbon, nickle, iron and sulfur.
The Earth was without life.
Organic life requires much more complicated compounds which don’t seem to form on their own. Biologists have struggled with this for centuries. It’s difficult to study the early stages of life on earth when you don’t know where the basic building blocks came from. Recently a discovery was made that may have much to say about the formation of complex compounds on Earth.
The Science Channel was covering the Japanese Kaguya Lunar Orbiter mission and it’s impact on science and interviewed Dr Takeshi Kakegawa of Tohoku University in one of the segments.
Dr Kakegawa was studying meteor impacts and did a very interesting experiment.
(source : Meteorites could have thickened primordial soup)
His team analyzed the container after it was smashed.
Water, iron, oxygen, nitrogen, and amino acids.
Wait WHAT!?!
Amino acids?
So meteor impacts may not just be the destructive events we’ve been conditioned to fear, but may actually create the compounds necessary to life.
I wonder what we could create if we put some Abba CD’s in that thing and smashed them?
Probably nothing.
But it would be fun to smash them. You know, for science.
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The mechanism of resonance
In particular, resonance has an important dynamical role. It can take place in any n-body problem, and is easily comprehensible in the case of the solar system .
What is resonance ?
Let's consider the approximated orbit of a light body (for example an asteroid) around the Sun, calculated with a 2-body approximation. This asteroid is sufficiently close to Jupiter (which has a mass of 1/1000 the mass of the Sun) to be influenced by its attraction.
A representation of the orbit of an asteroid in resonance 2:1 (on the left) and on resonance 3:1 (on the right).
Click here to know more about mean-mode resonance.
As it is well known, the Newton attraction force between two bodies is inversely proportional to their distance. So, when Jupiter and the asteroid come to their closest approach, the asteroid receives its maximum pull from the planet, which contributes to move it from its original orbit.
An interesting consequence is the depletion of objects in those zones of the main belt that correspond to a resonant orbit (this is a physical explanation for the presence of the Kirkwood gaps in the main belt of asteroids).
Secular and mean mode of resonance
The kind of resonance with the planet Jupiter described above, is called mean mode resonance (click here to know more about mean mode resonance). The main consequence of this mechanism is the fact that the characteristics of the orbits change in time (and it's for this reason that these values are normally given as mean values). This kind of resonance, has a time-scale that can range from "short" periods of thousands years, to much longer periods.
There is another kind of resonance, with a much longer time-scale, called secular resonance. This kind of resonance is mainly responsible of the precession of the perihelion.
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Military and War Weapons Napalm
About the military and war weapon napalm, origins and history, first used in World War II, the use of napalm today.
Description. Napalm is a flammable gel which is sprayed from flamethrowers or encased in incendiary bombs. Scientifically, napalm is an aluminum soap that thickens gasoline and is composed of organic hydrocarbon acids. Also, napalm is the name given to the gasoline which is thickened by this aluminum soap. The word napalm is derived from two of its principal components, naphthenic acid and palmitic acid.
Origin. At the beginning of W.W. II, Great Britain developed an effective incendiary substance by mixing rubber and gasoline. However, after Japan seized the world's major rubberproducing regions, the Allies were forced to invent a new incendiary weapon. In the U.S., this task was assigned to researchers at Harvard University, Arthur D. Little, Inc., and Nuodex Products Company.
Working together, the scientists from Harvard and the two companies investigated a multitude of hydrocarbon acids. After more than a year of study, they came up with a formula for napalm, consisting of 25% oleic acids, 25% naphthenic acids derived from crude oil, and 50% palmitic acids derived from coconut oil. Next, they mixed napalm with aviation gasoline to produce an incendiary jelly. The U.S. Army was highly pleased with napalm, because it was easy and inexpensive to manufacture. Also, initial tests showed that napalm burned at a much higher temperature and for a much longer time than any other incendiary composition. Furthermore, napalm adhered to whatever it struck until it completely burned out, thus making it an excellent means of killing enemy personnel.
The U.S. Army Chemical Warfare Service constructed a large napalm bomb named the M-69. This bomb was dropped from a high altitude, but at a few hundred feet above the ground, it burst open and scattered hundreds of smaller napalm bombs over a wide area.
First Notable Use. The first major employment of napalm occurred on the night of Mar. 9-10, 1945. After high-explosive bombs failed to demolish Japanese cities, Gen. Curtis LeMay decided to use the new M-69 napalm bombs against them. On Mar. 9, without notifying Washington, LeMay ordered 279 B-29 bombers to attack Tokyo with napalm. That evening, the B-29's took off from the islands of Guam, Tinian, and Saipan and headed north for Tokyo.
Before midnight, air raid sirens blared in Tokyo, but the city's residents, who had become accustomed to the nightly visits of B-29's, paid little attention to the warning. At 12:15 A.M. on Mar. 10, two B-29's flew over Tokyo and dropped their napalm payloads, which created a flaming X, marking the center of the city. Guided by the X, three formations of bombers flew over and unloaded 1,900 tons of M-69 napalm bombs on Tokyo.
Tokyo's crowded wooden buildings erupted into flames, and strong winds spread the conflagration through central Tokyo out toward the suburbs. The firestorm lasted for days, reaching temperatures of 1,800 deg. F and totally destroying 15 sq. mi. of Tokyo. A quarter of the city was burned to the ground, a million people were left homeless, and more than 80,000 charred corpses littered the ruins.
Weapon Today. Napalm continues to be an important weapon today, especially in guerrilla wars. In the Vietnam War, the U.S. extensively and rather indiscriminately utilized napalm as an antipersonnel weapon. Also, napalm has been widely used by both sides in the Arab-Israeli wars and in countless anti-insurgency campaigns around the world. Presently, napalm is used in grenades, aerial bombs, and missile warheads, and is sprayed from flamethrowers and tank cannons.
« Military and War Weapons the Guided MissleMilitary and War Weapons Neutron Bomb »
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Presentation on theme: "Unit D MERCHANDISE INFORMATION"— Presentation transcript:
4.02 Explain the elements and principles of design.
2 Elements of design Line Texture Color Shape/Silhouette
3 Principles of design Balance Proportion Emphasis Rhythm
4 The elements of design are combined in different ways to form designs.
The principles of design are guidelines/rules for using the elements of design. When the elements of design are used effectively according to the principles of design, harmony results. Harmony: The pleasing visual effect of a design created by tasteful use of the elements of design following the principles of design.
5 The Importance of Color
Creates the greatest visual impact for the consumer Can affect illusions of the size and shape Can reflect the personality of an individual Is associated with psychological traits and emotions
6 Color Hue: (1) The technical word for color. (2) The name given to a color, such as red or yellow, that distinguishes one color from another.
7 Color Value: The lightness or darkness of a color.
Tint: The lighter hue created when white is added to a color. Shade: The darker hue created when black is added to a color. Intensity: The brightness or dullness of a color. Neutrals: Black, white, beige, and gray. Neutrals can be used alone or with any other colors.
8 Color wheel A diagram that illustrates hues and their relationship to each other.
9 Primary hues: Red, yellow, blue
Primary hues: Red, yellow, blue. These colors cannot be made by using any other color. All other colors are made from a combination of these. Secondary hues: Orange, green, violet. These are created by mixing equal amounts of two primary colors.
10 Intermediate hues: Blue-violet, blue-green, yellow-green, yellow-orange, red-orange, red-violet. Colors made by combining equal amounts of adjoining primary and secondary hues.
11 Warm and cool colors Warm colors: Red, orange yellow.
Think of the sun and its warmth. Cool colors: Green, blue, violet. Think of the calmness of the ocean or sky.
12 Color schemes Plans that can be used to provide harmonious color combinations.
Monochromatic Analogous Complementary Split-complementary Triad Accented Neutrals
13 Monochromatic color Different tints, shades, and intensities of a single color. Example: light blue trousers and jacket with a navy blue vest.
14 Analogous colors Two to five colors that are adjacent on the color wheel. Example: orange, yellow-orange and yellow worn together
15 Complementary colors Two colors opposite each other on the color wheel. Example: Orange and blue
16 Split-complementary colors
One color plus the colors on each side of its complement. Example: red combines with yellow-green and blue-green.
17 Triad colors Three colors that are equidistant from each other on the color wheel. Yellow-orange Blue-green Red-violet
18 Accented neutral White, gray, black, or beige with a bright color accent. Example: Businesswoman wearing a gray dress with a red scarf.
19 Psychology of color RED: exciting, aggressive, passionate
ORANGE: earthy, warm, hopeful YELLOW: cheerful, sunny, cowardly GREEN: restful, envious, fresh BLUE: calming, cool, depressed PURPLE: drama, rich, royal WHITE: innocent, pure, peaceful BLACK: sophisticated, gloomy, mysterious GRAY: old, sad, modest
20 Wednesday 11/9 Warm-up # 8 (write worksheet) Tasks Warm-up worksheet
Complete the 4.02 Colors review sheet using your color wheel and notes Tasks Warm-up worksheet Color Handbook
21 COLOR HANDBOOK In Microsoft Word, create a handbook with all of the following information: Color Schemes (definition and outfit example of the scheme) Monochromatic, Analogous, Complementary, Split-Complementary, Triad, and Accented Neutral Psychology of colors Be creative with your font. May use color! We will print these in color. You will be allowed to use your color handbook on Obj. 4 test!
22 Thursday 11/10 (no school tomorrow)
Warm-up # 9 (turn in tray) What is the importance of color? Tasks Warm-up Complete 4.02 notes. principles of design examples Fabric Finishing Dyeing T-shirts!
23 Shape The silhouette or the overall form or outline of an outfit or clothing style. Influences the illusion of size Indicates whether or not apparel is “in fashion” at a given time
24 Most silhouettes are formed by:
The width and length of the neckline, sleeves, and/or waistline. The width and length of pants and skirts.
25 Basic silhouettes for women’s fashions
Straight Bell-shaped Back fullness (bustle) Basic silhouettes for men’s clothing American or classic cut European
26 Silhouettes Are always changing in fashion
The general direction that a silhouette takes either becoming wider, narrower, longer, or shorter shows a fashion trend. Examples: varying lengths for women’s skirts, varying widths for men’s neckties
27 Line A distinct, elongated mark that can lead the path of eye movement up and down, side to side, or around objects. Give direction, or a feeling of movement Provides visual direction Helps draw attention to good points and play down the bad ones
28 Basic types of lines Straight lines: Lines without curves or bends. Straight lines are severe and formal and suggest power and dignity. Curved lines: Circular or gently waved lines. Curved lines add softness and roundness to apparel.
29 Directions of lines Vertical lines: Lines that go up and down. Vertical lines create a taller, more slender look. Horizontal lines: Lines that go across. Horizontal lines give a shorter, wider look. Diagonal lines: Lines that slant at an angle rather than being vertical or horizontal.
30 Ways to create lines in garments
Structural lines: Lines formed by the seams, darts, pleats, tucks, and edges when garments are constructed. Decorative lines: Lines created by details added to the surface of clothing including fabric design and trims such as top-stitching, lace, tabs, flaps, and buttons used to decorate the garment.
31 Texture: The look and feel of fabric.
Can create illusions of size Can disguise figure irregularities Can add interest to a garment *Textures used in apparel should be suited to the occasions for which the garments will be worn.
32 Texture can be provided in two ways…
Structural texture: Texture determined by the fibers, yarns, and the method of construction used to produce a garment. Examples: velvet shirt, striped wool pants Added visual texture: The finishes and designs applied to the surface of the fabric. Examples: The print of the fabric can give the illusion of height or width to the wearer. Shiny textures make people look larger because they reflect light.
33 Examples of textures Corduroy Velvet Denim Satin Cotton Polyester
34 Balance The principle of design that implies equilibrium or steadiness among the parts of a design or outfit. Balance in garments is produced by structural parts and added decoration. A properly balanced garment appears equal in weight and power of attraction from all sides, from top to bottom, and from front to back.
35 Formal balance Equilibrium provided by symmetrical parts. One side resembles the other.
36 Informal balance Equilibrium provided by asymmetrical parts. One side is unequal to the other.
37 Proportion The principle of design dealing with the relative sizes of all the parts in a design to each other and to the whole. Garment details and accessories should be proportioned for the wearer. Proportion is most pleasing when garment areas are unevenly divided.
38 Emphasis The principle of design that uses a concentration of interest or area of focus in a particular part or area of design. Emphasis or a focal point can be used to draw attention or to keep the eye away. Emphasis can be provided through the use of color, texture, structural lines, decorative lines, or accessories.
39 Rhythm The principle of design concerned with the pleasing arrangement of the design elements to produce a feeling of continuity or easy movement of the observer’s eye. Rhythm is what allows the viewer’s eye to move steadily and smoothly through the lines and spaces of the design.
40 Four main types of rhythm
Repetition Gradation Radiation Alternation
41 Rhythm Repetition: Rhythm created by repeated lines, shapes, colors, or textures in a garment. Gradation: Rhythm created by a gradual increase or decrease of similar design elements.
42 Rhythm (cont) Radiation: Rhythm created by lines emerging from a central point like rays, resulting in the parts being an equal distance from a given point. Alternation: Rhythm created by alternating elements such as light and dark colors or stripes of two colors or sizes.
43 To appear taller and thinner
Black, navy blue, charcoal, and chocolate brown Monochromatic colors Straight silhouettes Vertical lines Subtle prints, plaids Smooth, flat textures Narrow, matching belt
44 To appear shorter and thicker
Sharply contrasting colors Light, bright, warm colors Wide silhouettes Horizontal lines Bold prints, plaids Bulky texture Wide, contrasting belt Gathers or pleats
45 To attract attention White, yellow, orange, and red Bright colors
Busy prints Shiny or textured fabric Clingy fabrics
46 To avoid attention Dark, cool, and dull colors Plain patterns
Minimal structural design Earth tones No applied decoration
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What is Electrostatic Shielding? - QS Study
QS Study
Electrostatic shielding is the process of isolating a certain region of space from external field. It is based on the fact that electric field inside a conductor is zero. Electrostatic shielding is the best way to protect some area in vacuum from the influence of external electric field.
During a thunder accompanied by lightning, it is safer to sit inside a bus than in open ground or under a tree. The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding, where the electric field is zero.
During lightning the electric discharge passes through the body of the bus.
Application: Microwave ovens surround energy within itself, shielding the outside from harmful radiation.
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Jul 8, 2016
Like humans, lowly cockroach uses a GPS to get around, scientists find
By recording activity in the brain of a restrained cockroach, researchers found the insects use sight and a vestibular-like system to track direction and angle.
Rats, men and cockroaches appear to have a similar GPS in their heads that allows them to navigate new surroundings, researchers at Case Western Reserve University report.
The finding, published in journal Current Biology, is likely an example of convergent evolution--that is, distinct animals developed similar systems to manage the same problems.
Due to their simpler brain, further studies on cockroaches that would be difficult--if not impossible--on mammals may yield new insights into how humans orient themselves and navigate. Or, what goes awry in people who have extreme trouble getting their bearings.
"We've known that a mammal can come into a new area and, after a short period of being disoriented, find its way around," said Roy Ritzmann, a biology professor at Case Western Reserve and an author of the new study.
Humans and other mammals rely on head-direction, place and grid cells in their brains to process, integrate and update sensory information. The cues come from the direction they look, what they see and motion, he said.
Insects must maneuver through new environments, too.
"Orienting contributes to spatial memory, so they can return to point A or navigate to something they like or away from something they don't like," said PhD student Adrienn G. Varga, lead author of the study.
By repeating experiments that uncovered head-direction cells in rats, Ritzmann and Varga found head-direction-like activity and evidence of contextual cue processing in cockroaches.
The experiment
The researchers recorded cell activities in an area of the brain called the central complex while roaches were restrained in a tube.
Each roach was placed on a platform that rotated clockwise or counter clockwise. The platform was encircled by a black wall with a single removable landmark: a white square.
The insects were rotated 360 degrees in 30-degree increments, four to six times, both clockwise and counterclockwise.
Roaches could see, and though they lack an inner ear, have a vestibular-like system that appears to provide directional cues.
Similar to humans, who appear to have different cells that fire when turning clockwise compared to counterclockwise, the cell activity in roaches was different when turning clockwise from counterclockwise.
"The cells signaled which direction the animal just turned," Varga said.
The greatest cell activity came while the white card was inserted in the wall, providing a visual landmark along with the cues provided by the passive motion from the rotating platform.
When the card was removed, the activity of some cells was the same at the same angles as the roaches rotated, indicating the insects knew their orientation without visual input.
To test this further, the researchers put a foil cover over the heads of a new set of cockroaches. As they rotated, the blinded roaches showed similar central complex activity to the earlier roaches that were turned without the landmark.
The researchers then removed the foil and inserted the card in the wall. As the roaches rotated, some central complex cells shifted their peak activity, suggesting the GPS was remapping by including the new visual information.
Some cells, however, showed no change in peak activity, indicating they rely only on the internal cues that were provided by the passive motion as they rotated.
When the researchers closely examined the activity of central complex cells, they found that some neurons appear to encode head direction like a compass, while others appeared to encode the relative direction of the rotation (clockwise or counterclockwise) after each stop, storing navigational context. And a small subset did both.
The upshot
"The fact we found these cell activities that are very similar to those in mice and rats and us strongly indicates insects rely on the same sensory inputs we need to orient ourselves and their brains process these inputs in a similar manner," Varga said.
Ritzmann said either humans and cockroaches have a common ancestor, and this capability was retained or, more likely, represents convergent evolution.
"We argue that there are relatively few right solutions, that physics drives evolution and, ultimately, we get a very similar solution," he said. "Each animal has receptors that take in critical information in order to navigate a complex environment."
Read more at Science Daily
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The mesoderm is proliferated by primitive streak. It is formed as two layers. In front of the primitive streak an area without mesoderm is present. It is called proamnion. After 48 hours of incubation the proamnion is also occupied by mesoderm. The mesoderm is divided into dorsal and intermediate and lateral mesoderms.
The notochordal cells arrange themselves to form a cylindrical, rod called notochordal process. It will begin at hensen's node and it slowly grows. Because of its growth the primitive streak is slowly reduced. By the end of gastrulation the primitive streak is reduced and incorporate into tail bud.
The dorsal mesoderm is located on either side of notochord. It is divided into segments. They are called somites. The first pair of somites will form after 21 hours of incubation. Afterwards, for every one hour one pair of somie will add. The 24 hours old embryo contains four pairs of somites.
The intermediate mesoderm connects the dorsal mesoderm with lateral mesoderm as a stalk. Afterwards it undergoes segmentation and give kidneys.
The lateral mesoderm extends on periphery of embryo, it is divisible into extra embryonic and embryonic mesoderms. This lateral mesoderm will split into two layers. The upper layer is called somatic mesoderm and inner layer is called splanchnic mesoderm. Ectoderm and somatic mesoderm will be called somatopleure. The splanchnic layer and endoderm will be called splanchnopleure. In between the two layers of mesoderm the space is called coelome.
Thus at the end of gastrulation specific organ forming areas started to develop.
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<urn:uuid:8d2ee1f1-2a2a-4cf3-9b9a-e334e2dc0704>
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"url": "https://www.bioscience.com.pk/eg/itemlist/tag/Development%20of%20Mesoderm%20in%20Chick"
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Ancient farmers 5,400 years ago had much a much more refined understanding of animal rearing than you’d suspect, research from the University of Basel reveals.
Lower bovine jaw.
A lower bovine jaw found in the settlement.
Image credits University of Basel.
The study was performed by researchers from Switzerland, Germany, and the UK, led by Prof. Jörg Schibler from the University of Base. It focused on the ancient settlement of Arbon Bleiche 3, which once hugged the southern bank of Lake Constance, Switzerland.
Arbon Bleiche 3 is considered to be one of the most important Neolithic sites in the country of banks and chocolate. This is largely thanks to Lake Constance, whose silt deposits helped preserve the bits of organic material (such as houses’ timber elements) in their original form. Using dendrochronological (tree-ring dating) methods, the researchers were able to date the wood’s age down to the year. As such, they were able to determine that the settlement saw occupation for only 15 years in the 34th century BC.
Now that they had a “when”, the team also wanted to know “what was going on” during the time this settlement saw use — in particular, they were curious to see the socio-economic system the inhabitants were using 5,400 years ago. And the fastest way to get a glimpse into that system was to look at livestock and land use patterns in the community.
Toothy questions
Teeth and bones from some 25 heads of cattle were also unearthed at the site, which the team used to get their answers. Using strontium and carbon isotope analysis, the team was able to determine that the farmers in Arbon Bleiche 3 used three different livestock rearing strategies in parallel.
The herd was divided into three groups. One was kept close to the village around the year, a second one was kept on pastures far from the settlement. The third group alternated between these pastures, being sent on more distant pastures for a few months every year. Analysis of enamel and plant traces in the teeth suggests that some of the cattle were taken to higher pastures during the warmer seasons, potentially signaling the birth of modern Alpine pastoral farming.
Seeing such a specialized distribution of grazing lands hint to a more elevated society and more complex social systems than previously believed. Using a wider grazing land allows more animals to be reared while avoiding overgrazing, but requires social systems robust enough to dictate who gets to graze where, and then to ensure that these social contracts are observed.
The team further reports that different cattle herds moved about in different ways. Beyond the 27 houses and the farmer families that lived there, other groups specializing in different kinds of cattle farming also resided in Arbon Bleiche 3. All of which further point to refined social systems governing the settlement, as well as a keen understanding of the wants and needs of different species of livestock.
The paper “High-resolution isotopic evidence of specialised cattle herding in the European Neolithic” has been published in the journal PLOS One.
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29 November 1549
The papal conclave of 1549–50 starts.
The papal conclave from November 29, 1549, to February 7, 1550, convened after the death of Pope Paul III and eventually elected Giovanni Del Monte to the papacy as Pope Julius III. It was the second-longest papal conclave of the 16th century, and the largest papal conclave in history in terms of the number of cardinal electors. The cardinal electors were roughly divided between the factions of Henry II of France, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Alessandro Farnese, the cardinal-nephew of Paul III.
Noted for the extensive interference of European powers, the conclave was to determine whether and on what terms the Council of Trent would reconvene and the fate of the Duchies of Parma and Piacenza. Although the conclave nearly elected Reginald Pole, the late arrival of additional French cardinals pushed the conclave back into deadlock, and eventually Giovanni del Monte was elected Pope Julius III as a compromise candidate.
The French hoped that Julius III would be hostile to the interests of the Holy Roman Empire. Nevertheless, tensions between him and the French boiled over when he reconvened the Council of Trent in November 1550, culminating in the threat of schism in August 1551 and the brief War of Parma fought between French troops allied with Ottavio Farnese and a papal-imperial army. French prelates did not attend the 1551–1552 sessions of the Council of Trent and were slow to accept its reforms; because Henry II would not allow any French cardinals to reside in Rome, many missed the election of Pope Marcellus II, arriving in Rome just in time to elect Marcellus II’s successor Pope Paul IV after Marcellus II’s brief reign.
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In what can be described as a huge breakthrough in the field, scientists at University of New South Wales, Australia, unveiled a new quantum computer design that promises to overcome many challenges the technology faces today. The elegant novel blueprint uses so-called ‘flip-flop’ qubits that can be integrated on silicon chips — the kind found in everyday electronics — much easier and more reliably than ever thought possible.
“It’s a brilliant design, and like many such conceptual leaps, it’s amazing no-one had thought of it before,” said in a statement Andrea Morello, Program Manager in UNSW-based ARC Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology (CQC2T).
The crux of the UNSW innovation lies in the ‘flip-flop’ qubit which uses both the electron and the nucleus of the atom, in this case, the phosphorus atom.
Quantum revolution in computing
Artist's impression of the 'flip-flop' qubits exhibiting quantum entanglement. Credit: Tony Melov/UNSW.
Artist’s impression of the ‘flip-flop’ qubits exhibiting quantum entanglement. Credit: Tony Melov/UNSW.
A qubit is the quantum analog of the digital bit that encodes information in 1s and 0s. The crucial difference is that a quantum bit can exist in both states at the same time due to a quantum quirk called superposition.
It’s akin to saying a switch is both on and off at the same time or that water is flowing and not flowing through a pipe simultaneously — which in day to day life makes absolutely no sense, but in the quantum domain, few things are reasonable.
Two-qubits can perform operations on four values, three on eight values and so on in powers of two. Today’s computers have millions of transistors. Now imagine a quantum logic gate that works with millions of qubits. The computing force would be unheard of.
To problem is designing a quantum computer whose qubits don’t fail due to decoherence is extremely challenging. Some companies like D-Wave or Google, as well as many academic research groups, are investing heavily to build a working quantum computer but the consensus is there’s no such thing yet.
Some attempts proved successful though in making qubits ‘talk’ to each other. The issue lies in the fact that these require exotic methods and materials.
For instance, ion traps and so-called optical tweezers are typically used to cool down atoms close to absolute zero, thus almost grinding to a halt the atomic motion. This allows scientists to read quantum states but the drawback is these systems can’t be feasibly scaled to more than a couple hundred qubits. It’s a problem of space and we eventually want millions of qubits.
Crafting quantum logic gates with silicon is also essential since the this the de facto material of choice in any major semiconductor application. You want to exploit the existing mammoth infrastructure, not start from scratch. Quantum computers need not be electric cars.
A radical new approach
Dr. Guilherme Tosi and Professor Andrea Morello at the UNSW labs with a dilution refrigerator, which cools silicon chips down to 0.01 K above absolute zero. Credit: Quentin Jones/UNSW .
Electrons have both a charge and spin. It’s the spin which determines if an atom can generate a magnetic field and it’s the spin that can be used as a qubit where 0 and 1 correspond to spin-up and spin-down quantum states, respectively.
To avoid massive decoherence previous quantum systems required spacing qubits at a distance of only 10-20 nanometers, or just 50 atoms apart.
“If they’re too close, or too far apart, the ‘entanglement’ between quantum bits – which is what makes quantum computers so special – doesn’t occur,” said lead author Guilherme Tosi, a Research Fellow at CQC2T.
In this novel quantum design, a silicon chip is covered with a layer of insulating silicon oxide, over which a pattern of metallic electrodes operate at temperatures near absolute zero and in the presence of a very strong magnetic field.
The approach developed by Tosi and colleagues essentially led to a new kind of qubit where a qubit ‘0’ state is defined when the spin of a phosphorus electron is down and the nucleus spin is up, while the ‘1’ state is when the electron spin is up, and the nuclear spin is down. Hence, the ‘flip-flop qubit’ designation as reported in Nature Communications.
The main consequence is that qubits can now be controlled by electrical signals, which are “significantly easier to distribute and localize within an electronic chip” than magnetic ones.
“Our new silicon-based approach sits right at the sweet spot,” said Morello. “It’s easier to fabricate than atomic-scale devices, but still allows us to place a million qubits on a square millimetre.”
It’s important to note that all of this is a theoretical framework, a blueprint and such a device as described by Morello and Tosi doesn’t exist yet.
This visionary roadmap, however, has the potential to finally launch humanity in the space race of the 21st century. With millions of times the computing power we have today, numerous fields of science will be able to make quantum leaps. We will be able to model the climate in unprecedented detail leading to better adaptation measures. We’ll be able to test thousands of molecules and find new treatments or cures for some of the most debilitating diseases still haunting mankind. Finance, aerospace, transportation, these are just a couple out of the plethora of industries destined to become disrupted by quantum computers.
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Tonight’s program explores the concept of overture (derived from the French “ouverture,” or opening) in different European countries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In general, we use the term “overture” to mean an opening to a long musical work, such as an opera or more generally an opening to a larger event, such as a personal relationship or – for our purposes – a concert season. The idea of an overture being played by itself, like the concert overtures by Beethoven or Brahms, was primarily an invention of the early nineteenth century. In the Baroque era, musical overtures served either as beginnings of operas or dance suites, or as openings of “hit parades”: suites of movements extracted from popular operas or ballets. Our program includes overtures from two contexts: the first half presents works excerpted from Italian, English, and French operas, whereas the second half focuses on dance suites popular in court culture.
The first piece on our program is a suite from Handel’s Alcina, his last great success as a composer of Italian operas. The work was premiered at the Covent Garden opera house in London in 1735 as part of the final lucrative season of Handel’s opera company, the Royal Academy of Music. Although the Academy was founded under the patronage of the King in order to promote Italian opera in England, Alcina contains a good deal of French dance music. These dances were designed to showcase the talents of a well-known ballet company led by the famous French dancer Marie Sallé, which Handel employed in all his operas of the 1734-35 season. Instead of raising the curtain directly on the opening scene, the brilliant, virtuosic overture was followed in the original performance by two ballets danced to a stately Musette and a charming Minuet. In our extracted suite, we combine these two dances with ballet music from the opera’s first act, finishing with a rousing Tambourin. The inclusion of the ballet must have strongly contributed to Alcina’s initial success, since the opera was performed 18 times with dancers. When Handel tried to revive the work in the following season without the ballet, he had to end the run after two performances.
The English composer John Blow composed his chamber opera, Venus and Adonis, around the time of Handel’s birth, ca. 1685. Blow was a contemporary and colleague of Purcell, first as a boy soprano and then as organist of the Royal Chapel in London. Unlike Purcell, however, his interests lay primarily in sacred music, and thus Venus and Adonis is his only work for the stage. The dances from his opera show, however, that he was a talented ballet composer who knew how to combine incisive rhythm and memorable tunes and a typically English penchant for surprising harmonic turns. Blow shared Purcell’s fondness of the “Ground” – a series of variations over a repeated bass – and the dance suite concludes with a virtuosic ground on a chromatic bass theme.
Jean-Philippe Rameau, a close contemporary of both Handel and Bach, was the leading French composer of his time in the field of opera and an important innovator in harmonic theory. Like Handel, his parents expected him to embark on a career in law, while his own interests lay in music. After he was expelled from a Jesuit college at age 18 for having concentrated all his energy on music instead of his studies, his parents finally consented to his becoming a musician and sent him to Milan to study. He held several posts as organist before settling in Paris, where he eventually became the house composer and orchestra director of a wealthy financier, Joseph Le Riche de la Pouplinière. La Pouplinière provided for Rameau’s needs over 20 years, which enabled him to spend a good part of his time on his theoretical studies while also composing a plethora of dramatic works, cantatas, and instrumental pieces. Les Indes galantes (1736) is an “opéra-ballet,” a genre about halfway between an opera and a ballet, which was very popular in France in the early eighteenth century. The brilliant overture is followed by a series of dances depicting different scenes and/or characters, such as the grand entrance of youths from France, Spain, Italy, and Poland in the “Entrée des quatre nations”. The different groups then display typical national characteristics in the following dances: the French are portrayed by the sounds of a popular French instrument in the “Musette” (a kind of hurdy-gurdy). This is followed by a “serious air” for the Polish, after which the Italians and Spanish dance a minuet with oboes and flutes, respectively. The gracious “Air pour les Amours” (Cupids’ melody), an energetic Rigaudon, and a virtuosic Tambourin round out the suite.
In the second half of our program, we leave the realm of opera for that of the court and the dance suite. The idea of a string of dances to be performed – and danced – in a specific order dates back to the fifteenth century, when it became customary to pair slow dances with fast dances. In sixteenth century court balls, two pairs of dances often formed a suite: pavan (slow) and galliard (fast), and passamezzo (slow) and saltarello (fast). By the beginning of the seventeenth century, Italian and French courts had elevated dance suites to a semi-theatrical art form that served both as entertainment and as a showcase for the grandeur of the nobility who danced to them. Marini’s Balletto from 1655 evokes these semi-theatrical court ballets in sandwiching a dance suite between an “entrata,” for the dancers’ entry, and a “retirata” which portrays the dancers’ exhausted departure with a series of jarring harmonic juxtapositions. Although most of Marini’s numerous vocal and instrumental works are lost, this balletto and his other surviving music attests to his stature as one of the most imaginative and innovative musicians of the early seventeenth century.
By contrast, Bach‘s work presents a much later stage in the development of the orchestral suite: an overture followed by a suite of highly stylized, abstract dances that are no longer meant for dancing, but rather to dazzle the aristocratic audience with brilliant instrumental and contrapuntal virtuosity. Bach’s four orchestral suites (BWV 1066-69) were probably composed during the period 1717-1723, when he served as orchestra leader to Prince Leopold of Cöthen. Much of Bach’s instrumental music was composed for the prince who was an accomplished amateur musician and employed some of the foremost instrumentalists in Germany at the time. Although the C major overture has the typical form of the period — a French overture with its pompous section pervaded by dotted rhythms and fugue which prefaces a suite of dances popular in the era — each movement has its own special touch. The overture’s fugue, for example, turns into an extended concerto for a trio of 2 oboes and bassoon, and the forlane, instead of being a simple melody with accompaniment, is set by Bach as an elegant counterpoint of three contrasting ideas, a sprightly melody in the high instruments, a flowing middle voice, and a lively rhythmic bass.
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Mirrored from Sudopedia, the Free Sudoku Reference Guide
Even-Odd, or Odd-Even, is just like regular Sudoku but with shaded or colored squares which must contain either even or odd numbers according to the puzzle. For example, in an even-sudoku all shaded squares will only contain the numbers 2, 4, 6, or 8. This greatly decreases the possibilities and makes eliminating candidates easier.
This variant can be generalized further by having multiple colors, with each colour indicating the possible set of digits that can go into the cell.
External Link
This page was last modified 18:54, 13 October 2008.
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Category: Europe
is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. It comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is generally considered as separated from Asia by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways of the Turkish Straits.[5] Yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary and amount to a historical and social construct. The primarily physiographic term “continent” as applied to Europe also incorporates cultural and political elements whose discontinuities are not always reflected by the continent’s current overland boundary with Asia.
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Treaty of Versailles
Wait, there's more...
What is it?
The Treaty of Versailles was the peace treaty signed after World War 1 had ended in 1918, which was negotiated by Woodrow Wilson.
It was important because it was the peace settlement between Germany and the Allied Powers that officially ended World War 1. The conditions it made towards Germany were harsh, stating that they would have to pay war reparations to European countries.
World War I - Treaty of Versailles
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"url": "https://www.smore.com/w6jn"
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Terrorism refers to the illegitimate use of violence or intimidation to advance a group's interests. Examples include detonating explosives in public places, taking hostages, or assassinating politicians. Central to the concept of terrorism is that its objective is primarily ideological. Terrorists typically do not employ violence to gain wealth but rather to bring attention to political causes.
Because the term terrorism hinges on a distinction between legitimate and illegitimate use of violence, controversy often accompanies its use. For example, governments routinely use force to advance their interests, but do not characterize their actions as instances of terrorism. The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Building in Oklahoma City is readily identified as a terrorist act because it was undertaken by a very small group of individuals and not an entire government. Yet much more violent attacks directed against large cities during World War II are not characterized as acts of terrorism. Within a single conflict use of the term "terrorist" in news reports can reveal the political sympathies of the broadcaster or the government that released information about the attack. For example, in the American press violent events undertaken by Palestinians are far more likely to be characterized as acts of terrorism than equally or more violent actions taken by the Israeli military. This political component became very clear in the United States during the Reagan administration, which aided the Contra rebels who were waging a campaign of violence against the Sandinista government in Nicaragua. Officials in the American government characterized the Contras as "freedom fighters" while supporters of the Sandinistas portrayed them as terrorists.
The use of violence by small groups to advance their interests is not a twenty-first-century development. The term terrorism first appeared during the French Revolution and the Jacobin Reign of Terror. Similarly, many other words associated with terrorism (i.e., thug, assassin, and zealot ) derive from groups alleged to have used violence and death to advance their political objectives.
Historically terrorism is thought to have passed through several distinct stages, from its origin among religious groups fighting to defend or advance their organization's beliefs, to secular groups, whose objectives were clearly political. Traced by some historians to the French Revolution, this process of the secularization of terrorism continued throughout the twentieth century. Modern technology's ability to expand the audience for violent actions is thought by some analysts to have fueled terrorism's appeal, making nations with a free press particularly susceptible to the quest for media coverage. Twentieth- and twenty-first-century accounts of terrorism argue that it may have moved into a new period, as new technology allows small groups of individuals the ability to wield tremendous destructive power, and permits even faster coverage of that destruction to a wide audience, as evidenced by the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. Experts warn that such attacks are not limited to religiously motivated groups but can also include assaults stemming from personal grudges or psychopathological conditions.
In contrast to individual acts of violence, the use of terrorism by small political organizations is thought to serve several functions: (1) It makes the group committing the terrorist act appear large and powerful, thus intimidating outsiders and boosting morale of the terrorist group's members; (2) it reveals the vulnerability of the target, whose apparent strength is thereby placed in doubt and whose authority may become undermined; (3) it can eliminate opposition; (4) it may start a chain reaction of assaults undertaken by sympathetic political groups; and (5) it cements the terrorists to the organization because individuals who commit acts of terror cannot leave the organization very easily.
The impact of media coverage of terrorist acts is mixed. On the one hand, most Americans greatly overestimate the threat of terrorism, probably due to media coverage of the subject. In fact, the chances of being killed in an automobile accident are more than one hundred times higher than the chance of being killed by a terrorist action while overseas. On the other hand, sustained terrorist attacks can produce a backlash against the perpetrator's cause, as occurred in 1999 when bombings of Moscow apartment buildings increased the hostility of Russian citizens toward Chechens, who were thought to be responsible for the blasts.
Attempts to combat terrorism include use of metal detectors and dogs at locales thought to be likely targets for attack. While these methods are effective at reducing the frequency of terrorist acts, it appears impossible to protect targets completely against determined terrorists. Ironically, methods to offset terrorism exaggerate the public's perception of threat and thus advance one of terrorism's main objectives.
See also: Death Squads ; Terrorist Attacks on America
Crenshaw, Martha. "The Logic of Terrorism." In Walter Reich ed., Origins of Terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Fleming, Dan B., and Arnold Schuetz. "Terrorism, Assassination, and Political Torture." In Daniel Leviton ed., Horrendous Death, Health, and Well-Being. New York: Hemisphere Publishing, 1991.
Laqueur, Walter. The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Laqueur, Walter. Terrorism. Boston: Little, Brown, 1977.
Shurkin, Joel. "Modern Terrorists Are 'Anemic.'" Stanford Observer, 6 February 1988, 1ff.
Stern, Jessica. The Ultimate Terrorists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Stohl, Michael. The Politics of Terrorism. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1983.
Also read article about Terrorism from Wikipedia
User Contributions:
Terrorism forum
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Children's Voice
Image result for pupil voice
The child's voice or pupil voice is a phrase used to describe the real involvement of children and young people. It means more than seeking their views, which could just mean the child saying what they want, rather than being really involved in what happens.
At Dunham on Trent Church of England Primary school working with the government we believe that the voices of children and young people should be heard when decisions are made that affect them. ... The voice of the child is important to us as a school because it is vital we hear a child's opinion about their school and how it could effect them.
If you have any questions regarding Pupil Voice please speak to Mrs Brownlow.
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Age of Consent
Age of consent is the age at which an individual is deemed legally competent to consent to engage in sexual activities. This minimum age varies by state, and having sex with someone under the age of consent is considered to be a criminal act. Some jurisdictions make allowances for minors engaging in sexual activities with each other, though there may be guidelines as to the age difference. To explore this concept, consider the age of consent definition.
Definition of Age of Consent
1. The legal age at which a person is legally competent to consent to engage in sexual activities.
1275 English law: Statute of Westminster 1275
What is Age of Consent
Historically, society’s accepted age of consent for marriage and sexual activity was left to the family to decide. Prior to the 12th century, society had no concept of childhood. Children were thought of as small adults, and expected to take on adult responsibilities. Ancient Greek, Roman, and other societies generally accepted the onset of puberty to signify that the individual, whether boy or girl, was ready for marriage.
The first written age of consent law found by historians comes from England in 1275. This Westminster 1 statute made it a crime to “ravish” a maiden younger than the age of marriage, with or without her consent. The accepted age of marriage at the time was 12 years. Christianity made it clear to its followers that sexual relations outside marriage was forbidden, and children were commonly held responsible, and punished, for submitting to sexual acts with an adult.
The American colonists initially followed English tradition, which commonly recognized marriage at ages as young as 9 years, in the subject of marriage and sex. Enforcement of consent laws based on the participants’ actual ages were not common until the 19th century, because proof of age and date of birth were not readily available.
Modern Age of Consent
The age of consent is the age at which, according to law, a person may legally consent to engage in sexual activity. The actual term age of consent does not appear in the laws of most jurisdictions, though federal law sets this age at 12 to 16 years, and most states have similar ages. Age of consent in the United States refers to a person’s chronological age, but in some cases, a court may consider the person’s mental age, in determining whether he or she has been taken advantage of. This means that the mental capacity of a person may leave hi or her unable to legally consent to sexual activities, regardless of chronological age. Having sexual intercourse with a person under the age of consent is a crime referred to as “statutory rape.”
What is Statutory Rape
Statutory rape occurs when an individual over the legal age of consent engages in sexual activities with another person who is under the legal age of consent as specified by state law. Every state has statutory rape laws, though the specific definitions and punishments vary greatly. The term statutory rape can be misleading, as it does not refer to forced acts of sex, or coercion. Rather, statutory rape would not be a criminal act at all if both individuals engaging in sexual activities were above the legal age of consent.
Legal Age of Consent
According to federal law, the legal age of consent is between 12 and 16 years. Having sex with a minor between the ages of 12 and 16, who is at least four years younger, is a crime. This would mean that a 17-year-old boy engaging in sexual activity with a 13-year-old girl is a crime. If the girl was 15 years old, however, it is not. Each jurisdiction takes a slightly different approach to determining age of consent, which as the actual age ranging from 10 to 18 years. Many states consider the relative ages of the participants.
In all states, a person under the age of consent who engages in sexual activities is considered the victim, and the older partner is the perpetrator. The legal age of consent may also vary in each jurisdiction depending on the type of sexual act, the gender of the parties, and other special circumstances.
Romeo and Juliet Laws
Many statutory rape cases involve two teens engaging in sex with one another. Some involve one partner who is technically an adult, at age 18, with another who is a minor, though the two may have dated for a period of months or years. The age of consent laws in most jurisdictions were strict and inflexible, giving prosecutors no room for allowance of teenage lovers.
Many states, in an effort to address this issue, updated their statutes to reflect the true intent of statutory rape laws: to prevent young people from being manipulated into sex by adults. The new statutes, commonly referred to as “Romeo and Juliet laws,” take into account the actual and relative ages of the participants. These laws not only specify a legal age of consent, but also enforce a maximum age difference between the youths. Not all states have Romeo and Juliet laws.
Age of Consent by State
Each state has its own consent of age, but it typically ranges from 16 to 18 years. Many states also have an age gap law. These laws make sexual activities legal, even if the person is under the age of consent as long as the age gap does not exceed the guidelines. This is known as “Romeo and Juliet Laws.” Other states imposed lesser charges if the two parties have a close age gap.
For example:
In Texas, the age of consent is 17 with a 3-year age gap. Mary is 14 years old, which is under the legal consenting age in the state. She engages in sexual intercourse with her boyfriend, aged 16 at the time of the act. Though neither of the teens are of legal consenting age, there is only a two-year gap between the two, making the activity legal.
The following table shows each state and the age of consent according to the law. It also shows the age differences that are allowed by the state’s Romeo and Juliet law, if applicable in the state.
Age of Consent
by State
Legal Age
of Consent
Age Difference
Alabama 16 2
Alaska 16 3
Arizona 18 2
Arkansas 16 3
California 18 0
Colorado 17 4
Connecticut 16 2
Delaware 18 0
Florida 18 0
Georgia 16 0
Hawaii 16 5
Idaho 18 0
Illinois 17 0
Indiana 16 0
Iowa 16 4
Kansas 16 0
Kentucky 16 0
Louisiana 17 3
Maine 16 5
Maryland 16 4
Massachusetts 16 0
Michigan 16 0
Minnesota 16 2
Mississippi 16 2
Missouri 17 0
Montana 16 0
Nebraska 16 0
Nevada 16 0
New Hampshire 16 0
New Jersey 16 4
New Mexico 16 4
New York 17 0
North Carolina 16 4
North Dakota 18 0
Ohio 16 0
Oklahoma 16 0
Oregon 18 3
Pennsylvania 16 4
Rhode Island 16 0
South Carolina 16 0
South Dakota 16 3
Tennessee 18 4
Texas 17 3
Utah 18 0
Vermont 16 0
Virginia 18 0
Washington 16 2
West Virginia 16 4
Wisconsin 18 0
Wyoming 16 4
Teen Charged with Statutory Rape of His Girlfriend
In 2015, 18-year old Dalton Hayes took his 13-year old girlfriend, Cheyenne Phillips, on a 12-day, multi-state crime spree. The pair disappeared in January 2015, apparently living in various abandoned homes in their state of Kentucky. They stole cars and cashed stolen checks to fund their spree, as police followed them out of Kentucky, and through South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. This “teen Bonnie and Clyde” team was finally arrested in Florida.
Hayes was charged with burglary, theft, custodial interference, and statutory rape in the state of Kentucky. He told police that Phillips had lied to him about her age, saying she was 18 years old, and that she had showed him a fake ID. Hayes said Phillips had posted on her Facebook page that they were engaged, and told him she was pregnant. Because Phillips was only 13, well under Kentucky’s age of consent, Hayes was charged with first- and second-degree rape, in addition to the charges of theft, burglary, criminal mischief, custodial interference, and criminal trespassing.
Related Legal Terms and Issues
• Consent – To approve, permit, or agree.
Welcome all discussions
Notify of
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AP Biology Students Experiment with DNA Barcoding
AP Biology Students Experiment with DNA Barcoding Photo
Elwood-John H. Glenn High School students in Mrs. Regan's and Dr. Kamhi's AP Biology classes recently conducted a DNA Barcoding Lab at the Cold Spring Harbor DNA Learning Center.
The students extracted the DNA of different plants and amplified a gene to determine its unique DNA sequence. The sequence was then used as a "DNA barcode" to be loaded into a computer database in order to identify the species.
DNA barcodes are important as they can be used to catalog unidentified organisms before they disappear due to habitat destruction. Students also learned that DNA barcodes have many applications beyond species identification. For example, DNA barcodes can be used to detect food fraud (seafood mislabeled as a more expensive species) or product fraud (identifying designer handbags vs. knockoffs).
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Congenital Femoral Deformity
A congenital femoral deficiency (CFD) is a congenital defect involving the femur bone, the hip joint above the femur, the knee joint below the femur, and the muscles that cross the hip joint. The main feature of this disorder is that the femur bone is too short. In most children, not only is the femur bone severely shortened, but the hip joint is also deformed. In some cases, a hip joint may not form at all.
CFD may be associated with other limb deficiency conditions, with the most common one being a fibula hemimelia. Except when caused by rare genetic defects, children with CFD are often very healthy, have normal intelligence, and can lead normal lives.
Learn more about fibula hemimelia
The goal of CFD treatment is similar to any child with a large difference in limb lengths: to have the limbs be as close in length as possible by the time the child is fully grown. This minimizes future pain and maximizes potential function. The type of CFD treatment is based on two main factors:
1. How short one femur bone is projected to be compared to the other side
2. How involved the hip joint is
If the femur bone is not projected to be severely short, and the hip and knee are in good condition, your doctor may recommend a lengthening surgery in the future. If doctors determine the femur bone will be too short to lengthen, or the hip joint is not present, your physician may recommend surgery that will help your child to fit into a prosthesis.
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Turtle Biology:
Common Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina)
The most common turtle Intrepid runs into is the snapping turtle. These turtles can range in size from 9.8 to 18.5 inches and weighting between 9.9 and 35.3 pounds, they can even live up to 30 years in the wild. Typically snapping turtle’s diet consists of plants but they can also eat fish, snakes, smaller turtles, reptiles, invertebrates, and even small birds. These turtles can often be found in shallow streams, ponds or lakes. In these environments they will lay beneath the bottom and raise their head up for air. Usually when people encounter turtles its on land. The reason for snapping turtles found outside of water is because they will travel long stretches to reach a new location to lay eggs or find a new habitat. Their reproductive season lasts from April to November with a peak point in June and July.
Turtle Damage:
Heath Concerns:
Turtle Removal:
There are circumstances where Snapping Turtles will enter swimming pools or Coy pond on a client’s property and will be unable to get out. A trained technician will arrive and move the turtle to the edge of pool or pond by net than carefully grab it by hand and remove it. After the turtle will be released in a nearby waterway safely away from homes.
Turtle Prevention:
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Coriolis Fountain
Turning to the right
Coriolis fountain. Fill the bottle with water. Spin it from the string.
This fountain demonstrates the coriolis force that twists weather systems and ocean currents on earth.
Find the center of the dowel and mark it.
Hot melt glue the dowel to the bottom of the bottle. Glue the dowel to one side of the bottom center of the bottle. Allow the glue to harden.
Drill a hole in the bottom of the bottle.
Insert the tubing into the hole. It should be a tight fit. Hot melt glue the tubing into the hole.
The dowel is glued offcenter. The tygon tubing is glued into the tight-fitting hole.
Run the tubing out to one end of the dowel wrap it around the dowel once or twice then turn it back so that it points toward the center of the bottle. Tape the tubing in place.
Use a binder clip to hold the tube to the dowel and to direct the open end back toward the bottle.
Tie the middle of the string to the neck of the bottle.
Finished Bottle.
To Do and Notice
Fill the bottle with water, put the cap on the bottle to stop dripping.
Go outside where dripping water doesn't matter.
Remove the top of the bottle to start the water flow.
Hold the string. Spin the bottle.
Notice that the water that squirts out of the tubing deflects in the direction the dowel is moving.
Reverse the direction of spin on the bottle and notice that the water deflects in the opposite direction.
What's Going On?
The water flow is deflected by the coriolis force.
When the water comes out of the tubing it is moving to the side at a velocity of perhaps 10 cm/s.
As the water move toward the center of the bottle it travels in a straight line. It continues to move to the side at 10/cm/s. However, the dowel closer to the center is moving to the side more slowly. So the water moves ahead of the dowel.
The human eye and brain jumps into the frame of reference of the rotating dowel. In this frame of reference the water stream appears to deflect to the side. (While in the frame of the fixed stars the water is moving in a straight line.) In the rotating frame of reference physicists have to invent a force to explain the deflection of the water, the coriolis force.
So What?
If the dowel rotates counterclockwise when viewed from above then the water deflects to the right.
The earth rotates counterclockwise when viewed from above the north pole. The coriolis force deflects ocean currents and air masses to the right as they move.
I first saw the coriolis fountain exhibit at the museum "Tom Tits Experiment" in Stockholm Sweden where it was created by Klas Fresk.
Return to Draft Activities
Scientific Explorations with Paul Doherty
© 2003
1 November 2003
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The Struggle To Unify States in Germany
While many nations of today were formed in the course of independence movements German history is characterised by the struggle of unifying different states and peoples. It was not independence from an Empire that formed Germany, like the United States or other former colonial countries, but the process of implanting a central rule over the different states, which were only loosely connected for centuries.
When the Roman Empire broke down in 476 AD the Frankish kingdom became its most important successor. This kingdom formed the basis for the “Holy Roman Empire of German Nation”, which was built in the 10th century. However, the Empire did not have much in common with sovereign nations today as it was only a loose federation of states without central authorities.
Neither the absolutist governed subjects nor the different rulers had a sense of national consciousness or felt “German”. This changed when Napoleons troops raided over Europe and suppressed the population. A national sentiment emerged and lead to the “wars of liberation” which ended the French rule in German states in 1815. However, the hope of many people of the liberal and civic-democratic camp for a unified German state was disappointed, when European monarchs restored the political order prior to Napoleon and founded the “German Confederation”. The dissatisfaction among the people sparked the famous revolution of 1848/49. While the revolutionaries succeeded in repealing press censorship and achieved the so-called liberation of peasants, they failed in enforcing a German nation with one central government. The “German Confederation” was characterised by the struggle for power between Prussia and Austria – the two most influential German states. When Prussia fought wars against Austria and France, the Confederation was dissolved and in 1871 the “German Empire” was founded under the German Emperor Wilhelm I. and his famous Reich Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The national union was widely appreciated by the people, but failed to enable more freedom for the subjects, which continued to be ruled by one powerful man – Bismarck – who dependent on the confidence of the Kaiser.
However, there is another chapter of German history, in which the people did succeed in unifying their country. When post-WW2 Germany was liberated by the Allies eastern parts of Germany came under the control of the Soviet Union, while western Germany was ruled by the United States, Great-Britain and France. Although the Allies expressed their intentions to treat Germany as a whole, the great ideological differences lead to the development of two different German states: the German Democratic Republic in the East (known as “DDR”) and the Federal Republic of Germany in the West (“BRD”).
The DDR as a communist state was part of the Eastern bloc and the Warsaw Pact, West Germany allied with the Western States and became part of NATO. Despite of the efforts of German politicians to overcome the German division, it was the peaceful revolution of 1989 which unified the country when hundreds of thousands East Germans went on the streets and protested against the one-party government of the SED and the deteriorating economy.
Under pressure from the general public the Berlin Wall fell in November 1989 and one year later Germany was united again.
This excerpt from German history can only briefly summarize historical developments, but it might give an idea of how a nation can be built – as a result of aggressive politics and war as well as the engagement of the people.
by Schirin H.
First of, I need to say that Germany never really was in a struggle for independence, but more a struggle for unification. Until 1871, Germany as we know it today was constituted by multiple kingdoms and sovereign states. After the war against France, everything was set for the unification of all these german states into the First German Empire, led by Emperor Wilhelm the first. This creation of an unified Germany created a new strong nation which would play a major in Europe from there on. Even after the loss of WWI, Germany stayed independent, having only to give up some smaller parts of its territory. But with the loss of WWII, this changed. Germany was split up into four different sectors which were attributed to the different allies ( US, UK, USSR, France). After the end of the Berlin Blockade in 1949, the three western sectors were again unified to form the the Federal Republic of Germany, which was again a sovereign state ( under some supervision in the beginning ). East Germany however stayed a satellite to the USSR until the fall of the wall in 1989, and the unification of West and East Germany. Germany is now a key player in most global organisation. It is part of the G7, NATO, the EU. Having lost WWII, Germany does not have a permanent seat in the Security Council of the UN.
After having struggled for more than 40 years to finally be unified and still dealing with the challenges that this poses, Germany does not really have an interior movement for independence. The only movement you might have to consider is the uproar from the extreme right, which wants its independence from the EU. But even that movement is limited. I believe Germany is happy to finally be a strong and unified country which plays a key roles in all aspects of the World.
by Emil A.
“Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte”, Bonn, 1980 (27.10.2017)
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Sir William Watson Cheyne
Bacteria and antiseptics
Front page
An introduction to the website
An introduction to Sir William Watson Cheyne
Bacteria and antiseptics
In Lister's footsteps
Sir Watson
Sir Watson's bust at Fetlar Interpretive Centre
Sir Watson
Sir William Watson Cheyne
Diseases like tuberculosis were rife in the damp conditions of many 19th century households, and in the early-mid 19th century, ignorance and misunderstanding of the behaviour of germs and bacteria provided a background of unsanitary conditions in hospitals. Until the reforms effected by Florence Nightingale after the Crimean War, nursing standards were also largely unregulated, so that the general opinion was that anyone entering a hospital as a patient was unlikely to come out alive.
Pasteur's discoveries around 1860 regarding bacteria paved the way for the advances which Lister was to make. Prior to Lister's discoveries, it was widely believed that infection arose spontaneously from the air in dirty and poorly ventilated places. Pasteur's experiments showed that "it was not the gases of the air that the surgeon had to fear, but minute living particles floating in the air and settling on surrounding objects in the form of dust." (Cheyne, Sir W.W. Bt., Lister and his Achievement, London, 1925, p.9)
This led Lister to the conclusion that infection could probably be prevented by not allowing the bacteria to enter wounds before or after an operation and that, in cases where they had already entered a wound, they could be prevented from spreading. Lister worked on various solutions which could kill or inhibit the growth of these germs, finally settling on carbolic acid which was considered at the time to have a less detrimental effect on the surrounding tissue.
Lister's ideas were initially treated with considerable scepticism by the medical establishment, and were not taken into general use until much later. When William Watson Cheyne became involved with Lister's researches, he knew he was taking a considerable risk if he wanted to follow a career in medicine.
At Edinburgh University, William Watson Cheyne happened by chance upon Lister's lectures. He was so stimulated by Lister's ideas that he continued to follow the lectures and ultimately his enthusiasm came to Lister's attention. After a year's wait, during which Cheyne spent time at medical institutions in Vienna and Strasbourg, Cheyne took up post as Lister's House Surgeon, and was able to further Lister's work through research which helped confirm the latter's theory that infection of wounds could be prevented by keeping out bacteria with the use of an antiseptic solution.
© Fetlar Museum Trust,
Fetlar Interpretive Centre,
Beach of Houbie, Fetlar, Shetland, ZE2 9DJ.
Contact us by email Tel: 01957 733206
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Solar4Scholars: Hydroelectric Power
The principle of gravity is simple: water falls.
Types of hydropower plants:
Diversion, or run-of-river plants divert a portion of the current of a river through a canal or penstock. It may not require the use of a dam. There is a large hydroelectric power plant using diversion, at Niagara Falls, Canada.
Pumped Storage plants store energy by pumping water to a higher reservoir when demand is low. When electricity is needed, the water is released to turn turbines.
Quick fact:
The hydrologic cycle is driven by the sun. As many solar purists will tell you, everything is solar energy.
Advertiser Links for solar panels [ what's this?]
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The different types of leukemia
Types of Leukemia
Leukemia is a form of cancer that occurs when white blood cells develop mutations in their DNA. These abnormalities cause cells to grow and divide more rapidly than usual and to keep living when normal cells would die. This leads to healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets being reduced, which causes the signs and symptoms of leukemia.
The exact symptoms and treatment will vary depending on the type you suffer from. Leukemia is diagnosed based on the speed of its progression and the type of cells that are involved.
First Classification
The first level of classification is based on how fast the cancer is progressing. There are two different types in this classification:
• Acute leukemia: Acute leukemia means that the abnormal blood cells are blasts, also known as immature blood cells. They multiply very rapidly and are unable to carry out their normal functions. This type of leukemia will require aggressive treatment and prognosis is most promising the earlier it is detected.
• Chronic leukemia: Within this classification, there are many different types of chronic leukemias. Chronic leukemia involves more mature blood cells, meaning that they are able to function normally for at least a short period of time. Depending on the exact type, either too many cells are being produced or too few cells are being produced. Some types of chronic leukemia may not produce any symptoms early on, which means that it potentially can go undiagnosed for years.
Second Classification
The second level of classification depends on which type of white blood cells is being affected by the cancer. There are also two different types of leukemia within this classification:
• Lymphocytic leukemia: This type will affect the lymphoid cells, which are also called lymphocytes. These cells make up the lymphoid and lymphatic tissue, which is part of your immune system.
• Myelogenous leukemia: Myeloid cells are the cells that are affected by this type of leukemia. They are responsible for producing red blood cells, white blood cells ,and platelet-producing cells.
Types of Leukemia
Based on both these classifications, there are four main types of leukemia:
1. Acute lymphocytic leukemia: Although this form of leukemia can occur in adults, it is the most common type found in children.
2. Acute myelogenous leukemia: This type of acute leukemia is more common in adults, but it can occur in children too.
3. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: This is the most common chronic leukemia in adults. With this condition, you may feel completely normal for many years without receiving any treatment at all.
4. Chronic myelogenous leukemia: This type of leukemia primarily affects adults rather than children. It may not produce any symptoms for several months or even years before the cells grow rapidly enough to be noticed and diagnosed.
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Swallowing is a complex act that involves coordinated movement of muscles that make up three primary phases of the swallow: oral phase (mouth), pharyngeal phase (throat) and esophageal phase (food tube). When there is a problem in one or more of these phases, it is called dysphagia.
General signs may include:
• coughing during or right after eating or drinking
• wet or gurgly sounding voice during or after eating or drinking
• extra effort or time needed to chew or swallow
• recurring pneumonia or chest congestion after eating
• weight loss or dehydration from not being able to eat enough
As a result, adults may have:
• poor nutrition or dehydration
• less enjoyment of eating or drinking
• embarrassment or isolation in social situations involving eating
Dysphagia can occur at any age, but it's more common in older adults. The causes of swallowing problems vary, and treatment depends on the cause.Some causes of feeding and swallowing disorders in adults are problems affecting the head and neck, including cancer in the mouth, throat, or esophagus, injury or surgery involving the head and neck, decayed or missing teeth, or poorly fitting dentures and damage to the nervous system, such as:
• stroke
• brain injury
• spinal cord injury
• Parkinson's disease
• multiple sclerosis
• amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease)
• muscular dystrophy
• cerebral palsy
• Alzheimer's disease
People with a swallowing disorder can experience trouble forming food and liquid into a soft ball in the mouth, a need for extra time to chew or move food or liquid in the mouth, trouble pushing food or liquid to the back of the mouth, food or liquid entering the airway when swallowing causing coughing or throat clearing, choking, a sticking sensation in the throat after a swallow, trouble with food entering the esophagus, feeling food stick in the throat or chest after a swallow, regurgitation, and reflux.
Swallowing disorder patients often undergo a swallowing test to observe how they swallow with a flexible scope in the nose, or with x-rays of your neck and chest while the patient swallows.Some swallowing problems may be treatable with medication or surgery. Depending upon your working diagnosis, your doctor will discuss different treatment options available.
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Emma Duffy
Sandra Alden
17 February 2014
A Rhetorical Analysis: Martin Luther King Jr.
On August 28, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. stood tall in the blistering summer heat.
Standing at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. he prepared himself to give a speech that
later would change America. In the 1960’s the discrimination of the “free” black man was
evident almost everywhere and Martin Luther King Jr. wanted an end to it. By giving this
famous speech King hoped to display the severe inequalities black Americans faced through the
methods of Mohandas Gandhi and the use of ethos, pathos, and logos.
In earlier years, king was born into a financially stable African American family. Though
the family was financially stable, King faced racial discrimination. At a fairly young age King
rode a bus with his fellow classmates and was shocked to see that the black men and women had
to stand while the white people got to sit (Wilson). This was one of many incidents to ignite the
fire in Martin Luther King’s heart to fight for equal rights among race. At age 15 King attended
Morehouse College in Atlanta Georgia. Following that he attended Pennsylvania and Boston
University to get his P.h.D. Martin Luther King was an educated man that fought for his beliefs.
Not only was he an educated man, but he was also a spiritual and philosophical man. King was a
minister which helped him gain extra credibility with his audience. Also King used many of
Mohandas Gandhi's philosophy techniques to help him gain respect from the people that
supported his ideas of equality. Something that made Martin Luther King Jr. a respectable
activist was his non violent approach which was influenced by one of Gandhis philosophies.
These events all lead King to give one of the most influential speeches of all time; “I Have a
Dream.” In order to convey his dream of equality among race, Martin Luther King Jr.
incorporated Ethos, Pathos, and Logos while following philosophies of Gandhi to appeal to his
entire audience
Standing tall with dignity, Martin Luther King Jr. waited at the podium to give a speech
that would change America as he knew it. As he began to speak he gave off an undeniable sense
of power. His voice shook with anger at the lack of change in American since the Emancipation
Proclamation, but filled with hope when he talked about freedom ringing around America.
King’s demeanor is strong and inspiring, making the audience intrigued with every word. King
gained credibility by having a P.h.D. and and gained respect by his approach to the situation.Like
gandhi, he believed in a non-violent protest (Rosenberg 1). While he was outraged by the lack of
understanding some white’s had towards blacks, he wanted to go about the issue in a respectable,
non-threatening way. He displays etho’s in this speech while following Gandhi's tactics by
saying, “...And that is something that I must say to my people who stand on the worn threshold
(King). In that statement King openly says that he wants justice to be served, however he wants
it to be earned with dignity and discipline opposed to violence. This nonviolent appeal is an
ethos argument because it shows his morality. He promotes his non violence by showing a great
deal of character. King knows that the black Americans are being treated is unfair, however he
doesn’t want to fight back unfairly.
Martin Luther King’s voice fluctuated throughout this speech matching the emotions
behind his words. One second King’s voice was flooded with anger and the next it would be
filled with hope and passion. His voice would fluctuate the most when he used pathos arguments
to sway his audience. For instance, when he says, “I say to you today, my friends, though, even
equal.”(King) This pathos appeal is an attempt to instill hope in the listeners. Even though times
were tough for those not of the white race, King wanted everyone to stay optimistic for the
future, like himself. Also he wanted everyone to know that he was trying to promote a dream that
he had for America in the 1960’s. This idea is relatable to a philosophy of Gandhi’s. Gandi
changes his own nature, so does the attitude of the world change towards him.” Martin Luther
King wants everyone to see his dream and work towards it as he is by giving the speech and
participating in nonviolent protests. By giving off a positive ora, King hopes to get positive
results for race equality.
Emotions and ethics can gain the audience's attention by pulling at their heart strings and
confirm their own beliefs, but putting facts into the equation is a foolproof way to get the
audience thinking. Facts are unarguable. Martin Luther King incorporates facts throughout the
speech to help the audience really understand the injustice black people are facing in America.
For example King says, “We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the
unspeakable horrors of police brutality.”(King). This is a fact King displays to his audience to
display the severe the inequality among race. Being a man of nonviolent ways, police brutality
goes completely against his morals that are much like Mahatma Gandhis. He goes on to say,
their dignity by signs stating: "For Whites Only." We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in
This logos appeal takes the facts that blacks are not allowed in certain places. They are free, but
not equal. Martin Luther King Jr. wants blacks to be able to take part in the democratic systems
of America, and will not stop his protests until justice is served. Again, this mindset is relatable
to Mahatma Gandis. Gandhi worked his entire life to make even the poorest citizens of India
equal to those of britain (Rosenberg 1). He overall wanted to better the lives of others and end
the embarrassment of discrimination, much like Martin Luther King.
Martin Luther King Jr. Changed America with his uniting speech. By using the
philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and ethos, pathos, and logos appeals, he gained the respect of his
massive audience. A year later he won the Nobel Peace Prize. What started as a plea for racial
equality, resulted in the acceptance of blacks in America. Martin Luther King Jr.’s influence
speech is still alive and aspiring generation after generation to fight respectively for what they
believe to be right.
Work Cited
Rosenberg, Jennifer. “Biography of Mahatma Gandhi”, in Who Was Gandhi? pp.1. Web. Dec. 4.
Wilson. H.W. "Martin Luther King, Jr.", in Current Biography Yearbook 1965, ed. by Charles
Moritz, pp. 220-223. New York, April. 21. 2001.
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• Giraffes originally had short necks. This trait made it harder for the giraffes to eat and survive.
• Giraffes had many competition with other animals who would eat the same food as them. They started dying because they couldn't find enough food to survive.
• The giraffes got their long necks from a genetic mutation. Their long necks helped them eat the food off of tall trees. By eating from tall trees, they have no competition for food by other animals
• The giraffes with the trait of ling necks are more fit to survive. This trait will allow them to survive. The giraffes with the trait short necks will most likely die off.
• Overtime, giraffes overproduced since many of them actually died from hunger. They needed to overproduce so that their species would not go extinct or in danger of extinction.
• Most of the giraffes now have long necks. Long necks is now a trait in the gene pool.
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In a detailed study on whale kinship and family ties, researchers report that just like humans, whales also cherish their ancestral roots and family ties.
A while ago, people used to believe that only humans can use tools — but Jane Goodall (and many researchers after her) showed that humans aren’t the only ones to do so. We’ve since found several species that build and use their own tools. Then, many thought that it’s our cultural and family ties that separate us from the animals. Lo and behold, that’s not true either. Several other species, including whales, have shown important cultural behaviors. This new study confirms that. Researchers have found that related whales returned to the same locations year after year, and decade after decade, passing the information from one generation to the next.
Researchers analyzed the structure of the beluga whale society, finding that migratory culture is inherited. Furthermore, this cultural inheritance maintains the family ties of beluga whales. This cultural legacy is so powerful that some travel as far as 6,000 kilometers each year.
“What intrigued us most was whether particular whales returned to where they were born or grew up and if this was an inherited behavior,” said Greg O’Corry-Crowe, Ph.D., lead author and a research professor at FAU’s Harbor Branch. “The only way that we could definitively answer these questions was to find and track close relatives from one year to the next and one decade to the next.”
Researchers also found that beluga whales exhibit an impressively broad range of vocal repertoires and acoustic systems which suggests that they form complex interpersonal relationships. They like to hang out in the thousands nearshore during the summer when the ice melts — which researchers call a whale’s version of an “icebreaker.”
RELATED New vital feeding sensory organ discovered in Rorqual whales
Ultimately, researchers hope that this will not only enable us to better understand these surprisingly complex species but also devise better ways to protect them in the face of a changing environment — the polar regions, where the beluga whales live, are extremely vulnerable to climate change.
“Findings from our study are expanding our understanding of how sophisticated non-primate societies can be and how important culture is for the survival of these species,” said O’Corry-Crowe. “Our findings also will influence our thinking in terms of how populations and species are going to adapt to dramatic environmental changes. There are few places where this is more urgent than in the rapidly changing polar regions.”
Journal Reference: Greg O’Corry-Crowe, Robert Suydam, Lori Quakenbush, Brooke Potgieter, Lois Harwood, Dennis Litovka, Tatiana Ferrer, John Citta, Vladimir Burkanov, Kathy Frost, Barbara Mahoney. Migratory culture, population structure and stock identity in North Pacific beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas). PLOS ONE, 2018; 13 (3): e0194201 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194201
Estimate my solar savings!
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Development General
Phases of Child Growth and Development : Know Your Kids Better by Learning Ages & Stages of kids development
baby growth development week by week in the womb
baby growth n development in the womb
Every parents should know their kids better by just learning the important stages of their development. In this article we discuss exclusively Pre-Birth-Phases that includes every Trimester and Post-Birth-Phases of a child growth and development.
Right from the womb to the age of adolescence, a child experiences various stages of growth and transformations in the body. These changes happen at different time intervals and pace. Child growth and development occur right from the stage when the child is an embryo to the stage when it completes adolescence and becomes an adult. During each stage, the child goes through diverse developmental transformations.
Child growth can be divided into two major phases. The first one being the fetal development (in which the child is inside the womb and undergoes basic physical development such as the formation of vital organs) often termed as the pre-birth phase. Whereas, the second (post-birth) phase is observed after the birth when the child grows physically as well as mentally.
Almost every child’s development occurs at the same pace when he/she is inside the womb. But after the birth, the time duration of child growth and development stages vary due to miscellaneous influential factors which affect the process to a very large extent. In simple language, a child is ‘manufactured’ inside the womb and then it is ‘trained and transformed’ after the birth until it turns into an adult. Understanding the child growth and development stages help the parents to have a deep and proper insight of the phases their child goes through during the pregnancy period and after the birth.
A child is inside the mother’s womb for a period of 9 months. This phase is divided into ‘trimesters’ categorized on the basis of baby’s physical development. Generally, the pregnancy starts with the occurrence of the first day of the last menstrual period. As the fertilization takes place the egg starts to divide into multiple cells.
First Trimester:
During the initial stage of the first trimester, the child is nothing but a couple of layers of cells.
This is the most crucial stage of child growth and development because during this stage, the heart of the child is formed and the intestines start developing. Gradually the cells start to multiply very quickly and within 8-9 weeks, the child grows to the size of 1 inch! The vital organs are formed and they expand in the coming months. After the 11th week, the movement starts. The child can curl and uncurl the fingers by now. By the next two weeks, toes emerge from the feet and start a curly movement, the kidneys start functioning and brain grows at a rapid pace. Fingerprints are formed and the child grows to 3 inches (2 inches of growth in 4 weeks!).
Second Trimester:
In the second trimester, the child acquires basic senses. Taste buds start forming, the eyes can detect light. After the 16th week of pregnancy, the child growth will increase very rapidly. The foetus will gain a lot of weight and will also increase in size. In the seventeenth week, the skeleton will become harder and lose its flexible nature. Simultaneously, the umbilical cord will gain strength. By the upcoming two weeks, noticeable development and changes will take place. The genitals will be developed to an extent that they can be observed using ultrasound. This is the phase when the child gains the power of hearing and can understand sound! In the 20th week, the baby begins swallowing and starts creating meconium. The foetus can move and the eyebrows are developed in the following week. In the 22nd and 23rd week of pregnancy, the baby can sense the movements of the mother’s body and her belly starts to grow. By the end of 27th week, the baby starts to inhale amniotic fluid which is a positive indicator for breathing. The child can now suck fingers and can open and close the eyes. This is the stage where the child weighs around 1.5 lbs (660 grams).
Third Trimester
This is the last trimester of foetal development. By this time, the child can open the eyes and can detect the small amount of light that permeates through the womb. In the 29th month of pregnancy, the child’s muscles and lungs pick up growth rate. The skull starts increasing itself in size (making space for the brain to grow). In the upcoming two weeks, the child starts kicking strongly and it weighs just over 3 pounds. In the 33rd week of pregnancy, the child weighs 4 pounds and its central nervous system starts developing. After 38 weeks of fertilization, the foetus starts to gain around one ounce per day and the grip of its palm becomes firm. It is said that in the 39th week of pregnancy, the child is developed completely and is approximately the size of a pumpkin! By this time the child weighs almost 3.5 kilograms and grows up to 50 centimetres. (This is the average number. It may vary).
Until now, the child has undergone basic anatomical growth and development. Now we shall look at the second (post-birth) phase of child growth and development.
This is the phase when the child experiences physical transformation along with mental transformation. This is the most important child growth and development phase considering the overall wellbeing of the child when he/she grows to an adult person.
baby post birth phase
baby post birth phase
The post-birth child growth and development stages are stated below:
• Infancy (birth to 1-year-old)
• Toddler (1 year to 3 years old)
• Pre-school (3 years to 6/7 years old)
• School (6/7 years to 11 years for girls and 13 years for boys)
• Adolescence (11-18 years for girls and 13-20 years for boys)
By the time child is 6 months old, he/she starts understanding and chooses to gaze at faces and bright colors instead of randomly looking somewhere. The child can now lift the head when rests upon tummy. Gradually, the baby now starts to laugh at things, can sit easily on a chair or when his/her back is supported. This is the stage when the child starts to put everything into mouth because of the toothing. In the next 6 months, the child can now partially say his first words and start trying to walk on feet. In this stage, the child likes to be in motion always.
Toddler Stage
This is the stage when the child gains considerable intelligence. He begins understanding stories, talking and even reading and scribbling on walls and books. At this stage, a child learns to run and keep running everywhere. By this time, he can now name basic colors, use spoons and forks (with some aid) and vocabulary are increased. When a child touches 3 years of age, he/she is ready to learn new things.
Pre-school and School Stage (Early-Middle Childhood)
This is that stage in a child’s growth and development, in which the grasping power of the brain is at its maximum. During this phase, the external factors influence the child to a very large extent. A child asks silly and basic questions, might use language that isn’t nice, develop a sense of being social and like to play with friends and win.
In the schooling (middle childhood) stage, a child develops hobbies and interests like playing a sport or painting. The curiosity increases. The child now begins to ask logical questions and tries to get the answers.
Adolescent Stage (Late childhood)
This is the final stage of childhood which is also called as the ‘teen’ age. By this age, hormonal secretion increases and the child undergoes drastic physical and mental changes. The growth of hair around genitals and armpits can be seen. Differential features amongst the two sexes can be seen. The child experiences sudden mood swings and signs of frustration and anger are seen.
By the end of the adolescent phase, a child turns into an adult and in this way, childhood comes to an end and the child is now an adult.
The growth and development of a child depends upon many factors such as nutrition, growth environment and genetics.
This is the most crucial phase in a person’s life because this phase defines the basic thought process and thinking of an individual. It is said that a child’s brain is like wet clay. It can be moulded into any shape which has a huge impact on the child’s life.
One thought on “Phases of Child Growth and Development : Know Your Kids Better by Learning Ages & Stages of kids development”
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Loneliness affects all ages
Human beings are social creatures. Feeling like we’re part of a community helps us thrive. But we sometimes have a hard time making and keeping the relationships that sustain us. Connections with others are important for your health.
Many people report feeling lonely for long periods of time. Social isolation and loneliness can both cause problems.
“Isolation is about whether other people are physically there or not. Being lonely is about not feeling connected to others. You can feel lonely in a room full of people,” explains Dr. Steve Cole, an National Institute of Health (NIH) funded researcher at the University of California, Los Angeles, who studies loneliness.
Loneliness not only feels bad, it may also be harmful to your health. People who feel lonely are at higher risk of many diseases. These include heart disease, high blood pressure, and Alzheimer’s disease. Loneliness may also increase the risk of death for older adults.
Some of the increased risk of disease may come from changes in behavior. People who feel isolated may not have friends or family encouraging them to eat right, exercise, or see a doctor. New research suggests that loneliness can also directly harm our health.
“Lonely people have differences in their biology that make them more vulnerable to disease,” Cole explains. He and colleagues have studied how loneliness affects the immune system, your body’s disease fighting system.
"They found that loneliness may alter the tendency of cells in the immune system to promote inflammation. Inflammation is necessary to help our bodies heal from injury. But when it goes on too long, it may raise the risk of chronic diseases.
"People who feel lonely may also have weakened immune cells that have trouble fighting off viruses. “So that leaves lonely people more vulnerable to a variety of infectious diseases”.
People often associate loneliness with getting older. But you can feel lonely at any age. A recent survey found that young Americans are more likely to feel lonely than older adults. Some research suggests that social media tools and resources are preventing younger people from connecting in real life, Cole says. However, more studies are needed to know whether this is true.
It can be hard for people to talk about loneliness. A person may feel like something is wrong with them, even though feeling lonely happens to almost everyone at some point.
NIH-funded researchers are looking into ways to help people break the cycle of loneliness.
Studies have shown that feelings of loneliness can be reduced by helping others. Caregiving and volunteering to help others may therefore help people to feel less lonely.
Having a sense of purpose in life may be another way to fight the effects of loneliness.
Research has found that having a strong sense of mission in life is linked to healthier immune cells. “And when you start to pursue a goal that’s important to you, you almost always have to cooperate with others to do that. That helps bring people together,” Cole says.
Source: National Institute of Health USA
7 August 2018.
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The Qualities of Colonial Literature Essay
Colonial literature from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has made a large impact on society today. Literature from both the Puritan era and the Age of Reason contribute to this impact. Puritans were religious separatists who wished to ‘purify’ the Church of England of its catholic heritage. They believed in predestination; the idea that some people were saved and others were damned. The Puritans would scrutinize themselves for signs of grace from God. Following the Puritan era was the Age of Reason. This was a period of scientific and political enlightenment.
It stressed the idea that basic truths can be arrived at through reason, not faith. People began to improve their present, worldly life rather than preparing themselves for an afterlife in Heaven. Three qualities of American writing from the Colonial period are the beliefs of providence, self improvement, and divine mission. The belief in God’s providence is a major feature found throughout Colonial literature. God’s providence was the idea that it was in God’s power to control the salvation and damnation of humans. Their destinies were predetermined and they would live their lives looking for signs of grace.
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Every outcome of an action was considered a sign as God’s providence. They believed God’s intervention in their everyday lives revealed their fate. The belief in providence is predominately seen throughout Puritan writing, one of which being William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation. William Bradford was a Puritan leader who later became the governor of Plymouth Colony. His narrative described the Puritans’ arrival to the New World. He focused on the relationship the Puritans had with God. He mentioned many signs of God’s providence. The first act of providence was on the seaman.
There was a strong, able body seaman who always cursed and condemned the poor sick people on the ship, wishing them to be cast overboard. God then intervened and revealed the seaman’s fate. Bradford wrote, ” But it pleased God before they came half seas over, to smite this young man with a grievous disease, in which he died in a desperate manner, and so was himself the first that was thrown overboard” (24). God’s providence exposed the seaman’s damnation. His death was a sign that he was not one of The Elect and did not possess the quality of grace.
William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation embodies the belief of providence, a characteristic of Colonial literature. Another characteristic of Colonial literature is the idea of self-improvement. This idea is represented in both Puritan and the Age of Reason literature. It is the idea that people need to attain moral perfection. Benjamin Franklin, an autodidact of the Age of Reason, experimented with the idea of self-improvement. He found self-improvement to be a logical idea that every person should experience because it would better themselves and society.
In his autobiography, Franklin wrote, “I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous was not sufficient to prevent our slipping, and that the contrary habits must be broken, and good ones acquired and established, before we can have any dependence on a steady, uniform rectitude of conduct” (80). Franklin devised a method to help him become virtuous. He created a list of thirteen virtues and a plan to attain each one. He believed self-improvement was a realistic approach to achieve moral perfection which would develop a better society.
The belief in self-improvement is permeated throughout Colonial literature because it was useful to many people. In the Puritan era, moral perfection was essential to get into Heaven and to avoid Hell. In the Age of Reason reaching moral perfection was a reasonable idea that would better society. It secularized the Puritan values making moral perfection a more rational idea rather than religious. The belief in divine mission is also a characteristic of Colonial literature. Divine mission is the idea that America is a divinely guided nation.
Americans believe that God is on their side. This idea is common throughout American writing from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Puritans believed in divine mission and built a pious nation under God. They believed they were “The Chosen” people of God. In the Age of Reason, this concept continued. Thomas Paine, a radical, revolutionary, pamphleteer expressed the idea of divine mission in his papers, The Crisis. Paine wrote The Crisis papers to boost the morale among the common men and soldiers during the time of the Revolutionary War.
He assured a victory against Britain because America was a divinely guided nation. He wrote, “… that God Almighty will not give up a people to military destruction, or leave them unsupportedly to perish, who have so earnestly and so repeatedly sought to avoid the calamities of war, by every decent method which wisdom could intervene” (95). Paine argued that God would help them and not leave them in their time of need. He believed that the idea of divine mission would contribute to a victory over England.
Because of God’s celestial powers, the belief in divine mission was widely used throughout Colonial literature. Colonial literature has influenced American history and society. The qualities of writing from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries have contributed to this impact. The concept of divine mission is exemplified daily in classrooms across America when children stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance every morning. They all say, “… one nation under God… ” Also, the phrase “In God We Trust” is embossed on American currency and was adopted as our nation’s motto.
Even now America is viewed as a divinely guided nation. In addition, self-improvement is exercised in the education system. People try to fulfill their greatest potential by improving their knowledge. The public school system enables all individuals the right to an education that will precipitate to a more successful life. In higher education, scholarships are available to those who excel academically but cannot handle the financial obligation. It is clear that qualities of literature from the Puritan era and the Age of Reason are still relevant in today’s American society.
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Equilateral hyperbola
Also found in: Wikipedia.
(Geom.) one whose axes are equal.
See also: Equilateral
Mentioned in ?
References in periodicals archive ?
1, the arc of the content of tungsten is presented with an equilateral hyperbola Y = K/X wherein its different compounds (in particular [WO.
As is known, an equilateral hyperbola is symmetric with respect to the bisector of the angle XOY in the first quarter.
This is the hyperbolic law, according to which the content Y of any element (per 1 gram-atom) in any chemical compound of a molecular mass X can be described by the equation of the positive branches of an equilateral hyperbola of the kind Y = K/X (where Y < 1 and K < X).
This mean that the locus of A for which the polar is a parabola is the equilateral hyperbola
In the theoretical deduction of the hyperbolic law of the Periodic Table of Elements [1], the main attention was focused onto the following subjects: the equilateral hyperbola with the central point at the coordinates (0; 0), its top, the real axis, and the line tangential to the normal of the hyperbola.
To avoid possible mistakes in the future, the following terminology has been assumed: hyperbolas of the kind y = k/x are referred to as straight; equilateral hyperbolas of the kind y = (ax + b)/(cx + d) are referred to as adjacent.
Similarly, the development of the hyperbolic functions follows from the unit equilateral hyperbola, [x.
Contents Y of every single element (say, of a K-th element in the Table) in a chemical compound of a molecular mass X can be given by the equation of an equilateral hyperbola Y =K/X, according to which Y (in parts of unit) decreases with increasing X.
Its essence is reflected in the fact that in any chemical compound with molecular mass X referred to one gram-atom of a defined element if, its maintenance Y represents the equilateral hyperbola Y = K/X whose top is located on the valid axis located in a corner at 45 degrees with respect to the abscissa in the positive direction.
In mathematics, the two branches of an equilateral hyperbola are symmetric with respect to each other.
The regularity established by us represents equilateral hyperbolas Y = K/X, where Y is the content of any element if and X is the molecular mass of compounds taken according to one gram-atom of the defined element.
It is necessary to note that while our theory has been considered with reference to the first quadrant, the position of the second branches of equilateral hyperbolas in the third quadrant (where K > 0) has not been analyzed.
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"edu_score": 3.765625,
"fasttext_score": 0.3325014114379883,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9298516511917114,
"url": "https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Equilateral+hyperbola"
}
|
disc-hovercraftA hovercraft is also called Air-Cushion-Vehicle (ACV). It uses a blower to create air currents beneath itself. Resulting in the formation of air cushion that slightly lifts the craft upward. This upward lift reduces the friction of hovercraft with the surface on which it moves. Also, the lift allows it to move freely in any direction when pushed. We will build a model of hovercraft out of home materials, and this it will use the same principle.
Things You Will Need
• 1 Balloon
• CD or DVD Disc
• Cap of a plastic bottle
• Penknife
• A Glue gun
How to Make
1. Make a small hole in the center of the plastic bottle’s cap with a penknife (Be careful).
2. Cover the center hole of the disc with bottle’s cap by putting it on top of the disc. Then, apply some glue to make air-tight contact. But, don’t apply glue on the hole of the cap.
3. Blow up the balloon and pinch its mouth.
4. Fit mouth of the balloon over the cap and release it.
Your hovercraft is ready and working. Put it on a smooth surface, and push it in any direction you want. It will go there smoothly.
How it works
Air from the balloon passes through a hole in the cap. Then, it flows beneath the disc creating an air cushion that slightly lifts the disc up. As a result, the friction between surface and disc reduces. This reduced friction allows the hovercraft to move freely in any direction where it is pushed.
Try It
• Use large size balloon, instead of small size balloon.
• Make two more holes in the disc and cover each hole with a cap. Then, blow three balloons and fit them to the caps (This is easy with three people each handling one balloon).
• Try to land your hovercraft on water and sand.
• Check out! How much weight your hovercraft can lift. Try with paper clips, pencils, and rubbers.
• Think! What can you do to increase the payload capacity of your hovercraft?
boil-water-in-paper-bagIn the ancient time, before the invention of metal and clay pots. Humans have been boiling water in large cup-shaped leaves. So, this is an old method of boiling water. But, just for fun and learning how it works, we will boil water in a bag made out of paper.
You will Need
• Paper (for making the bag)
• Scotch tape
• A gas stove
What to Do
1. Make a simple cup-shaped paper bag with the help of scotch tape. But remember to keep the bottom area of the bag larger than the area of the fire of your gas stove.
2. Put your bag on the gas stove, and fill the bag with some water to boil.
3. Start fire gently, and keep its flame-level lower than the corner and sides of your paper bag. Otherwise, sides of your bag may burnout.
4. Wait until water starts to boil. If you have a household thermometer use it to check water temperature to find out how fast the temperature is rising.
What is Happening?
You may wonder how a thin sheet of paper has survived the hot flame. It is because the paper has the ability to absorb water. When you have poured water into your paper bag, it absorbed some water. This absorbed water prevented the bag from burning in the flame. But, the flame was keeping the paper dry to hold the water. In this way, the water that became hot went to the surface and cold water took its place. This process continued and water started to boil, as the temperature reached the 100 Celsius.
volcano-experimentIt is an ideal home experiment and science fair project. In this experiment, you will learn how lava is ejected from a volcano, and about the chemical reaction of vinegar and baking soda. We will use the materials from the kitchen to build a model of a volcano. It will look like a lava erupting mountain.
Things You Will Need
• Baking soda
• vinegar
• empty plastic bottle
• clay or wheat flour
• cardboard sheet
How to Make
1. Place the cardboard sheet on a clean surface, and put the empty plastic bottle on the center of the sheet.
2. Use wet clay or wet wheat flour to cover the plastic bottle. Try to shape the clay like a rough mountain, and place stones around it. Be careful, clay/wheat flour should not be dropped inside the bottle, and also don’t cover the opening of the bottle.
3. Dry your structure in sunlight until it is hard to break.
4. Add 2 to 3 spoonful of baking soda and 4 drops of red food coloring in the bottle that you have covered with clay.
Your Volcano is ready for eruption!
Take your model where you want to perform it, then add some vinegar in the bottle to start the volcano. You will see, a red fountain of foamy liquid will come out of the volcano model.
How it works
When baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and vinegar (acetic acid) are mixed, they react with each other. As a result, gas bubbles made of carbon dioxide are produced. These bubbles build the pressure inside the bottle. This pressure force the foamy liquid out from the bottle.
Try it
1. Use different quantities of baking soda and vinegar with different colors.
2. Use three bottles in the place of one with three different colors (Red, Green, and Blue).
3. Use glowing ink or powder with food coloring.
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<urn:uuid:a4d54228-a1c8-4984-a3b8-238c83a777d4>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06902730464935303,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9162442088127136,
"url": "http://science4fun.info/category/science-experiments/page/4/"
}
|
User interface
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Redundancy (user interfaces))
Jump to navigation Jump to search
User interfaces are composed of one or more layers including a human-machine interface (HMI) interfaces machines with physical input hardware such a keyboards, mice, game pads and output hardware such as computer monitors, speakers, and printers. A device that implements a HMI is called a human interface device (HID). Other terms for human-machine interfaces are man–machine interface (MMI) and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface. Additional UI layers may interact with one or more human sense, including: tactile UI (touch), visual UI (sight), auditory UI (sound), olfactory UI (smell), equilibrial UI (balance), and gustatory UI (taste).
Composite user interfaces (CUI) are UIs that interact with two or more senses. The most common CUI is a graphical user interface (GUI), which is composed of a tactile UI and a visual UI capable of displaying graphics. When sound is added to a GUI it becomes a multimedia user interface (MUI). There are three broad categories of CUI: standard, virtual and augmented. Standard composite user interfaces use standard human interface devices like keyboards, mice, and computer monitors. When the CUI blocks out the real world to create a virtual reality, the CUI is virtual and uses a virtual reality interface. When the CUI does not block out the real world and creates augmented reality, the CUI is augmented and uses an augmented reality interface. When a UI interacts with all human senses, it is called a qualia interface, named after the theory of qualia. CUI may also be classified by how many senses they interact with as either an X-sense virtual reality interface or X-sense augmented reality interface, where X is the number of senses interfaced with. For example, a Smell-O-Vision is a 3-sense (3S) Standard CUI with visual display, sound and smells; when virtual reality interfaces interface with smells and touch it is said to be a 4-sense (4S) virtual reality interface; and when augmented reality interfaces interface with smells and touch it is said to be a 4-sense (4S) augmented reality interface.
In complex systems, the human–machine interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system. In the context of computing, the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction.
• The user interface of a mechanical system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface (HMI).[1] HMI is a modification of the original term MMI (man-machine interface).[2] In practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used[3] although some[who?] may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is more commonly used for human–computer interaction.[3] Other terms used are operator interface console (OIC) and operator interface terminal (OIT).[4] However it is abbreviated, the terms refer to the 'layer' that separates a human that is operating a machine from the machine itself.[3] Without a clean and usable interface, humans would not be able to interact with information systems.
1945–1968: Batch interface[edit]
IBM 029 card punch
IBM 029
The input side of the user interfaces for batch machines was mainly punched cards or equivalent media like paper tape. The output side added line printers to these media. With the limited exception of the system operator's console, human beings did not interact with batch machines in real time at all.
The turnaround time for a single job often spanned entire days. If one were very lucky, it might be hours; there was no real-time response. But there were worse fates than the card queue; some computers required an even more tedious and error-prone process of toggling in programs in binary code using console switches. The very earliest machines had to be partly rewired to incorporate program logic into themselves, using devices known as plugboards.
1969–present: Command-line user interface[edit]
Teletype Model 33
Teletype Model 33 ASR
The VT100, introduced in 197″8, was the most popular VDT of all time. Most terminal emulators still default to VT100 mode.
DEC VT100 terminal
1985: SAA User Interface or Text-Based User Interface[edit]
1968–present: Graphical User Interface[edit]
AMX Desk made a basic WIMP GUI
Linotype WYSIWYG 2000, 1989
• 1987 – Macintosh II: first full-color Mac
Interface design[edit]
Primary methods used in the interface design include prototyping and simulation.
All great interfaces share eight qualities or characteristics:
3. Familiarity[13] Even if someone uses an interface for the first time, certain elements can still be familiar. Real-life metaphors can be used to communicate meaning.
5. Consistency[15] Keeping your interface consistent across your application is important because it allows users to recognize usage patterns.
Principle of least astonishment[edit]
The principle of least astonishment (POLA) is a general principle in the design of all kinds of interfaces. It is based on the idea that human beings can only pay full attention to one thing at one time,[16] leading to the conclusion that novelty should be minimized.
Habit formation[edit]
Touchscreen of the HP Series 100 HP-150
HP Series 100 HP-150 Touchscreen
• Command line interfaces (CLIs) prompt the user to provide input by typing a command string with the computer keyboard and respond by outputting text to the computer monitor. Used by programmers and system administrators, in engineering and scientific environments, and by technically advanced personal computer users.
• Reflexive user interfaces where the users control and redefine the entire system via the user interface alone, for instance to change its command verbs. Typically, this is only possible with very rich graphic user interfaces.
• Text-based user interfaces (TUIs) are user interfaces which interact via text. TUIs include command-line interfaces and text-based WIMP environments.
• Web-based user interfaces or web user interfaces (WUI) that accept input and provide output by generating web pages viewed by the user using a web browser program. Newer implementations utilize PHP, Java, JavaScript, AJAX, Apache Flex, .NET Framework, or similar technologies to provide real-time control in a separate program, eliminating the need to refresh a traditional HTML-based web browser. Administrative web interfaces for web-servers, servers and networked computers are often called control panels.
• Zero-input interfaces get inputs from a set of sensors instead of querying the user with input dialogs.[22]
See also[edit]
1. ^ Griffin, Ben; Baston, Laurel. "Interfaces" (Presentation): 5. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2014. The user interface of a mechanical system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human-machine interface (HMI).
2. ^ "User Interface Design and Ergonomics" (PDF). Course Cit 811. NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA: SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2014. In practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now.
3. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Nigeria was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cipriani, Christian; Segil, Jacob; Birdwell, Jay; Weir, Richard (2014). "Dexterous control of a prosthetic hand using fine-wire intramuscular electrodes in targeted extrinsic muscles". IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering. 22 (4): 1–1. doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2014.2301234. ISSN 1534-4320. PMC 4501393. PMID 24760929. Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Neural co-activations are present that in turn generate significant EMG levels and hence unintended movements in the case of the present human machine interface (HMI).
8. ^ Ravi (August 2009). "Introduction of HMI". Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 7 June 2014. In some circumstance computers might observe the user, and react according to their actions without specific commands. A means of tracking parts of the body is required, and sensors noting the position of the head, direction of gaze and so on have been used experimentally. This is particularly relevant to immersive interfaces.
9. ^ "HMI Guide". Archived from the original on 2014-06-20.
10. ^ Richard, Stéphane. "Text User Interface Development Series Part One - T.U.I. Basics". Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
11. ^ a b c McCown, Frank. "History of the Graphical User Interface (GUI)". Harding University. Archived from the original on 2014-11-08.
12. ^ Raymond, Eric Steven (2003). "11". The Art of Unix Programming. Thyrsus Enterprises. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
14. ^ Sweet, David (October 2001). "9 - Constructing A Responsive User Interface". KDE 2.0 Development. Sams Publishing. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
17. ^ Udell, John (9 May 2003). "Interfaces are habit-forming". Infoworld. Archived from the original on 4 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
18. ^ Errett, Joshua. "As app fatigue sets in, Toronto engineers move on to chatbots". CBC. CBC/Radio-Canada. Archived from the original on June 22, 2016. Retrieved July 4, 2016.
19. ^ Gordana Lamb. "Improve Your UI Design Process with Object-Oriented Techniques" Archived 2013-08-14 at the Wayback Machine.. Visual Basic Developer magazine. 2001. quote: "Table 1. Differences between the traditional application-oriented and object-oriented approaches to UI design."
20. ^ Archived 2009-06-19 at the Wayback Machine.
21. ^ Jakob Nielsen (April 1993). "Noncommand User Interfaces". Communications of the ACM. ACM Press. 36 (4): 83–99. doi:10.1145/255950.153582. Archived from the original on 2006-11-10.
22. ^ Sharon, Taly, Henry Lieberman, and Ted Selker. "A zero-input interface for leveraging group experience in web browsing Archived 2017-09-08 at the Wayback Machine.." Proceedings of the 8th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces. ACM, 2003.
External links[edit]
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<urn:uuid:446a8ac4-dd22-4861-8b17-c84a2978e974>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.953125,
"fasttext_score": 0.06827431917190552,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9085463881492615,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_(user_interfaces)"
}
|
<< Chapter < Page Chapter >> Page >
Memory management by thE StringBuffer Class
If the additional characters cause the size of the StringBuffer to grow beyond its current capacity when characters are added, additional memory is automatically allocated.
However, memory allocation is a relatively expensive operation and you can make your code more efficient by initializing StringBuffer capacity to a reasonable first guess. This will minimize the number of timesmemory must be allocated for it.
When using the insert methods of the StringBuffer class, you specify the index before which you want the data inserted.
The tostring method
Frequently you will need to convert an object to a String object because you need to pass it to a method that accepts only String values (or perhaps for some other reason) .
All classes inherit the toString method from the Object class. Many of the classes override this method to provide an implementation that is meaningful for objects of that class.
In addition, you may sometimes need to override the toString method for classes that you define to provide a meaningful toString behavior for objects of that class.
I explain the concept of overriding the toString method in detail in the module titled Java OOP: Polymorphism and the Object Class .
Strings and the java compiler
In Java, you specify literal strings between double quotes as in:
Literal strings "I am a literal string of the String type."
You can use literal strings anywhere you would use a String object.
You can also apply String methods directly to a literal string as in an earlier program that calls the length method on a literal string as shown below.
Using String methods with literal strings StringBuffer str6 = new StringBuffer( StringBuffer named str6".length());
Because the compiler automatically creates a new String object for every literal string, you can use a literal string to initialize a String object (without use of the new operator) as in the following code fragment from a previous program :
String str1 = "THIS STRING IS NAMED str1";
The above construct is equivalent to, but more efficient than the following, which, according to The Java Tutorial by Campione and Walrath, ends up creating two String objects instead of one:
String str1 = new String("THIS STRING IS NAMED str1");
In this case, the compiler creates the first String object when it encounters the literal string, and the second one when it encounters new String() .
Concatenation and the + operator
The plus (+) operator is overloaded so that in addition to performing the normal arithmetic operations, it can also be used to concatenate strings.
This will come as no surprise to you because we have been using code such as the following since the beginning of this group of Programming Fundamentals modules:
String cat = "cat"; System.out.println("con" + cat + "enation");
According to Campione and Walrath, Java uses StringBuffer objects behind the scenes to implement concatenation. They indicate that the above codefragment compiles to:
String cat = "cat"; System.out.println(new StringBuffer().append("con").append(cat).append("enation"));
Fortunately, that takes place behind the scenes and we don't have to deal directly with the syntax.
Run the programs
I encourage you to copy the code from Listing 1 and Listing 2 . Compile the code and execute it. Experiment with the code,making changes, and observing the results of your changes. Make certain that you can explain why your changes behave as they do.
Looking ahead
As you approach the end of this group of Programming Fundamentals modules, you should be preparing yourself for the more challenging ITSE 2321 OOP tracks identified below:
This section contains a variety of miscellaneous information.
Housekeeping material
• Module name: Jb0280: Java OOP: String and StringBuffer
• File: Jb0280.htm
• Originally published: 1997
• Published at cnx.org: 11/25/12
Questions & Answers
Do somebody tell me a best nano engineering book for beginners?
s. Reply
what is fullerene does it is used to make bukky balls
Devang Reply
are you nano engineer ?
Abhijith Reply
s. Reply
how to fabricate graphene ink ?
for screen printed electrodes ?
What is lattice structure?
s. Reply
of graphene you mean?
or in general
in general
Graphene has a hexagonal structure
what is biological synthesis of nanoparticles
Sanket Reply
what's the easiest and fastest way to the synthesize AgNP?
Damian Reply
types of nano material
abeetha Reply
many many of nanotubes
what is the k.e before it land
what is the function of carbon nanotubes?
I'm interested in nanotube
what is nanomaterials and their applications of sensors.
Ramkumar Reply
what is nano technology
Sravani Reply
what is system testing?
preparation of nanomaterial
Victor Reply
Himanshu Reply
good afternoon madam
what is system testing
what is the application of nanotechnology?
silver nanoparticles could handle the job?
not now but maybe in future only AgNP maybe any other nanomaterials
I'm interested in Nanotube
can nanotechnology change the direction of the face of the world
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<urn:uuid:7c0d338a-8999-44fe-9591-1c39bf43c5f7>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.84375,
"fasttext_score": 0.08455544710159302,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8844035267829895,
"url": "https://www.quizover.com/course/section/looking-ahead-jb0280-java-oop-string-and-stringbuffer-by-openstax"
}
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What Is Backflow Testing and Why Would I Need It?
As the name suggests, backflow occurs when water flows backwards in the opposite direction of its intended course. This may occur due to back pressure or siphoning of the water. Backflow is essentially the mixing of safe, drinkable water with ‘dirty’ water. A backflow preventer can be installed to prevent this and should be tested to ensure it works properly.
Backflow Testing Basics
When a plumbing system is running smoothly, water pressure is maintained at a certain level to facilitate flow from pipes to the faucet. Sometimes leaking, or a burst pipe occurs which alters the water pressure and can cause backflow.
Back-siphonage occurs when there is a vacuum in the supply pipe line which is typically from a burst pipe, or similar breakage. Back-pressure occurs when the added pressure from outside sources such as pumps, boilers or tanks, is greater than the pressure within the supply line.
A backflow preventer, also known as a check valve, is a mechanical safety device installed to stop any cross-contamination of water. Many municipalities have bylaws which mandate that all homeowners and tenants regularly maintain and test their backflow devices. Backflow tests need to be performed at least once a year to ensure seals, springs and moving pieces are all functioning properly and not worn out.
During a backflow test, a certified tester performs a check valve analysis and provides a test report to indicate compliance with the bylaw. The test itself is a fairly quick and simple process. A certified tester connects a test kit to the backflow preventer and turns off all water downstream during the test. If repairs are needed, the tester will indicate so on the report.
Failure to maintain your backflow preventer can result in a fine or discontinued water service and cause possible illness from contaminated drinking water.
The Dangers of Backflow
If there are cross-connections between drinking water lines (potable water) and sources of non-potable water which contain pollutants or contaminants, your drinking water could become unsafe to drink. Safety of drinking water is of course dependent on the types of contaminant(s) leaked to your potable water source, and the length of time it has been sitting.
Unfortunately, cross-connections can’t always be eliminated which is why backflow water preventers and testing are so important. A few common cross-connection locations are:
• Irrigation systems (risk of fertilizers and/or pesticides)
• Heating or cooling systems (bacteria build-up from sitting water)
• Fire suppression systems (bacteria build-up from sitting water)
If you are concerned about the safety of your drinking water, or would like to schedule an appointment, call Mr. Rooter to learn more about backflow testing.
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<urn:uuid:2481581a-67f3-4b7b-a408-5130e8581c99>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.11789906024932861,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9404786825180054,
"url": "http://www.nationalfloodprevention.com/?p=775"
}
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Supporting Pollinators At The Landscape Scale
Nowadays, most people are very aware of the role that bees play in the pollination of crops, and the decline of bees is a prominent topic across the media. However, the majority of those people only have honeybees in mind, and if you would tell them that there are thousands of wild bee species around, they would be more than just a little surprised.
It, therefore, comes as no surprise that managed pollinators, such as honeybees or bumblebees, are predominantly considered by farmers and beekeepers when thinking about the management of agricultural landscapes. However, wild bees, even though they are not as abundant as the social honeybee, do also play a crucial role in crop pollination, but their protection and rate of decline rarely make it into the mainstream media.
To protect pollination services by managed and wild pollinators alike, agricultural landscapes need to provide sufficient nesting and foraging resources. For managed pollinators, nesting sites are supplied by us – for the social honeybees and bumblebees, we install hives or nest boxes that allow the development of strong colonies. We also ensure abundant foraging resources by placing the colonies close to mass-flowering crops. This not only supports the colonies but also ensures crop pollination.
The picture looks quite different for wild pollinators, comprised of up to hundreds of different taxa in the same area with varying requirements concerning pollen and nectar resources, as well as different nesting strategies (for example, bare soil or nesting cavities).
In heterogeneous landscapes with a mosaic of different semi-natural and natural habitats and a variety of crops, these resources might be available, and agri-environmental schemes, such as sowing flowering strips or planting hedgerows, can further support resource availability. However, in homogeneous landscapes that are often dominated by few mass-flowering crops, forage might only be available for a short time, and nesting resources could be lacking if no natural or semi-natural habitats (forest fragments, hedges or grassland) are available.
The difficulty in supporting wild and managed pollinators in agricultural landscapes is not only in providing sufficient resources for both but actually understanding how we should provide these resources in space and time. This requires the understanding of the life history of the different taxa, including their foraging times, floral resources, nesting requirements, flight distances, and sociality. We then need to implement this knowledge to design agricultural landscapes that are attractive for managed as well as wild pollinators while at the same time fulfilling the increasing need for highly productive crops.
Bees are mobile organisms and, depending on the species, might travel distances between a few hundred meters up to several kilometers to forage. Social bees are usually active for the entire vegetation period, therefore requiring floral resources for a long period of time, whereas different wild bee species are active at different times of the year, and some species are specialized on only a few plant species.
Research on pollination services in agricultural landscapes has intensified over the last few years, spanning pollination efficiency of different bee species, effects of landscape heterogeneity on crop pollination or changes in the pollination of mass-flowering crops in different landscape contexts. However, our research is mostly focused on specific crops, landscapes, or distances between habitat elements, whereas pollinating bees use the entire landscape to different extents and we know little about how they move in the landscape and utilize different resources at varying spatial and temporal scales.
In a recent review on crop pollination at the landscape scale, we propose to combine all these different research aspects with methods such as remote sensing-based quantification of spatiotemporal floral resource and crop rotation dynamics and long-term experimental studies to identify how, within an agricultural landscape, all different elements might either work together or be arranged in such a way that they can provide needed nesting and flowering resources for a high diversity of pollinators.
These findings are described in the article entitled Crop pollination services at the landscape scale, recently published in the journal Current Opinion in Insect ScienceThis work was conducted by Gesine Pufal and Alexandra-Maria Klein from the University of Freiburg, and Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter from the University of Würzburg.
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Cite this article as:
Gesine Pufal. Supporting Pollinators At The Landscape Scale, Science Trends, 2018.
DOI: 10.31988/SciTrends.20512
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<urn:uuid:fcd54edf-d265-4857-8fbe-7727511476fd>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.030023813247680664,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9269648790359497,
"url": "https://sciencetrends.com/supporting-pollinators-at-the-landscape-scale/"
}
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Coronary Artery Disease
Coronary Artery Disease: Description:Coronary disease (or coronary heart disease) refers to the failure of coronary circulation to supply adequate circulation to cardiac muscle and surrounding tissue. It is sometimes equated with atherosclerotic coronary artery disease, a condition in which the arteries that supply blood to the heart become clogged and disrupt the normal blood supply to heart muscle. CAD is usually caused by atherosclerosis, a condition in which a substance called "plaque" builds up in the blood vessels. Without adequate blood, the heart becomes starved of oxygen and the vital nutrients it needs to work properly. This can cause chest pain called angina. When one or more of the coronary arteries are completely blocked, a heart attack (injury to the heart muscle) may occur.CORONARYWhat causes the coronary arteries to narrow?Your coronary arteries are shaped like hollow tubes through which blood can flow freely. The walls of the coronary arteries are normally smooth and elastic.Coronary artery disease starts when you are very young. Before your teen years, the blood vessel walls begin to show streaks of fat. As you get older, the fat builds up, causing slight injury to your blood vessel walls. In an attempt to heal the blood vessel walls, the cells release chemicals that make the blood vessel walls stickier.Other substances traveling through your blood stream, such as inflammatory cells, cellular waste products, proteins and calcium, begin to stick to the vessel walls. The fat and other substances combine to form a material called plaque.Over time, the inside of the arteries develop plaques of different sizes. Many of the plaque deposits are soft on the inside with a hard fibrous “cap” covering the outside. If the hard surface cracks or tears, the soft, fatty inside is exposed. Platelets (disc-shaped particles in the blood that aid clotting) come to the area, and blood clots form around the plaque.This causes the artery to narrow even more. Sometimes, the blood clot breaks apart, and blood supply is restored.In other cases, the blood clot (coronary thrombus) may totally block the blood supply to the heart muscle (coronary occlusion), causing one of three serious conditions, called acute coronary syndromes.Symptoms:The symptoms and signs of coronary artery disease are noted in the advanced state of disease, most individuals with coronary artery disease show no evidence of disease for decades as the disease progresses before the first onset of symptoms, often a "sudden" heart attack, finally arises. The disease is the most common cause of sudden death, and is also the most common reason for death of men and women over 20 years of age. As the degree of coronary artery disease progresses, there may be near-complete obstruction of the lumen of the coronary artery, severely restricting the flow of oxygen-carrying blood to the myocardium. Individuals with this degree of coronary artery disease typically have suffered from one or more myocardial infarctions (heart attacks), and may have signs and symptoms of chronic coronary ischemia, including symptoms of angina at rest and flash pulmonary edema.Treatment:Therapeutic options for coronary artery disease are based on three principles:1. Medical treatment - drugs (e.g. cholesterol lowering medications, beta-blockers, nitroglycerin, calcium, etc.).2. Coronary interventions as angioplasty and coronary stent-implantation.3. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG).Causes and Risk factors:Extensive clinical and statistical studies have identified several factors that increase the risk of coronary heart disease and heart attack. Major risk factors are those that research has shown significantly increase the risk of heart and blood vessel (cardiovascular) disease. Other factors are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, but their significance and prevalence haven't yet been precisely determined. They're called contributing risk factors.The American Heart Association has identified several risk factors, some of them can be modified, treated or controlled, and some can't. The more risk factors you have, the greater your chance of developing coronary heart disease. For example, a person with total cholesterol of 300 mg/dL has a greater risk than someone with total cholesterol of 245 mg/dL, even though everyone with total cholesterol greater than 240 is considered high-risk.What are the major risk factors that can't be changed?Increasing age — Over 83 percent of people who die of coronary heart disease are 65 or older. At older ages, women who have heart attacks are more likely than men are to die from them within a few weeks.Male sex (gender) — Men have a greater risk of heart attack than women do, and they have attacks earlier in life. Even after menopause, when women's death rate from heart disease increases, it's not as great as men's.Heredity (including Race) — Children of parents with heart disease are more likely to develop it themselves. Most people with a strong family history of heart disease have one or more other risk factors.What are the major risk factors you can modify, treat or control by changing your lifestyle or taking medicine?Tobacco smoke — Smokers' risk of developing coronary heart disease is 2-4 times that of nonsmokers. Cigarette smoking is a powerful independent risk factor for sudden cardiac death in patients with coronary heart disease; smokers have about twice the risk of nonsmokers. Cigarette smoking also acts with other risk factors to greatly increase the risk for coronary heart disease. People who smoke cigars or pipes seem to have a higher risk of death from coronary heart disease.High blood cholesterol — As blood cholesterol rises, so does risk of coronary heart disease. When other risk factors (such as high blood pressure and tobacco smoke) are present, this risk increases even more. A person's cholesterol level is also affected by age, sex, heredity and diet.Physical inactivity — An inactive lifestyle is a risk factor for coronary heart disease. Regular, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity helps prevent heart and blood vessel disease. The more vigorous the activity, the greater your benefits. However, even moderate-intensity activities help if done regularly and long term. Physical activity can help control blood cholesterol, diabetes and obesity, as well as help lower blood pressure in some people.Obesity and overweight — People who have excess body fat — especially if a lot of it is at the waist — are more likely to develop heart disease and stroke even if they have no other risk factors. Excess weight increases the heart's work. It also raises blood pressure and blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and lowers HDL ("good") cholesterol levels.What other factors contribute to coronary heart disease?Individual response to stress may be a contributing factor. Some scientists have noted a relationship between coronary heart disease risk and stress in a person's life, their health behaviors and socioeconomic status. For example, people under stress may overeat, start smoking or smoke more than they otherwise would, drinking too much alcohol can raise blood pressure, cause heart failure and lead to stroke.Diagnosis:To diagnose CAD, the following may be helpful:The diagnosis of angina is based mainly on your description of symptoms and precipitating factors. Other medical conditions, such as hypertension or diabetes, increase the risk of CAD.Physical examination — Since high cholesterol is a risk factor for CAD, doctors will look for evidence of elevated cholesterol, such as a collection of fatty tissue near the eyes (xanthoma). Your doctor will also listen for extra sounds in the heart, known as murmurs or gallops, which may suggest heart disease.Blood tests — Increased levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood sugar are risk factors for CAD, as are increased levels of homocysteine (an amino acid) and c-reactive protein. Angina may be precipitated or worsened by anemia, overactive thyroid, and kidney failure. Testing for the presence/quantity of heart muscle enzymes in the blood may indicate heart muscle damage.Electrocardiogram (EKG) — Electrodes are attached to your skin to record the electrical activity of your heart. This test can identify heart rhythm problems and damage to your heart caused by a previous heart attack. During anginal attacks, the EKG may show specific changes. Using this test to diagnose CAD has its limitations because other heart problems can also cause changes in the heart's electrical waves.Stress test — Stress tests will show how well the heart is functioning. Depending on your health, you may take a stress test involving exercise (sometimes on a treadmill) or take medication that will increase blood flow to the heart. You may be hooked up to an EKG or other heart monitor. If the exercise or medication causes an increased need for blood flow that the blood vessels diseased by CAD cannot accommodate, the EKG will appear abnormal. Also, a radioactive tracer can be injected so the doctor will be able to see which parts of the heart are not getting an adequate blood supply.Nuclear scanning — With this test, your doctor can see damaged areas of the heart and examine the heart's pumping action. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into one of your veins, usually in the arm. The healthy heart muscle takes up this material. Then, a scanning camera reads where the material does or does not show up. This determines which areas of the heart muscle have been previously damaged.A variety of imaging techniques may be used to examine the heart muscle after the radioactive material has been injected. These include: scintigraphy, computed tomography (CT) scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scan, and single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) imaging. Nuclear scanning can be performed with the patient at rest, immediately following exercise, or after the administration of a medication that simulates the stress of exercise.Echocardiogram — An ultrasound image of the heart demonstrates the heart muscle's movement with each heartbeat. When the heart doesn't get enough blood, the walls of the heart show irregular motion. The echocardiogram can be performed at rest, during exercise, or after the administration of medication that simulates the stress of exercise.Coronary angiography — Also called cardiac catheterization, this is the most accurate way to measure the severity of CAD. It is also the most expensive and invasive method. A thin tube (catheter) is put into an artery of the arm or leg and passed through the body into the arteries of the heart. A dye is injected through the catheter and into the heart's arteries. Several x-ray images are taken. These pictures will show the amount of blockage caused by atherosclerosis.Developing technologies include the following:Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) — The MRA test uses MRI technology to identify coronary artery blockages. This technique has its limitations and is not commonly used.Electron beam CT scan (EBCT) — This is a “heart scan” that uses some radiation to detect tiny calcium deposits in the lining of the coronary arteries. This technique is appealing because it is not invasive, physically exerting, or risky. However, results can often be incorrect or misleading, so research is still being done on EBCT.Computed tomography angiography (CTA) — CTA uses 64 slice CT imaging—along with an IV contrast injected in the hand or arm—to image the coronary arteries and look for blockages. This test is similar to coronary angiography, but poses less risk because there is no need for an invasive catheter placement.Medicine and medication:Medications used to treat CHD include:1. ACE inhibitors to lower blood pressure.2. Blood thinners (antiplatelet drugs) to reduce your risk of blood clots.3. Beta-blockers to lower heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen use by the heart.4. Calcium channel blockers to relax arteries, lowering blood pressure and reducing strain on the heart.5. Diuretics to lower blood pressure.6. Nitrates (such as nitroglycerin) to stop chest pain and improve blood supply to the heart.7. Statins to lower cholesterol.Lifestyle changes are very important:1. Avoid or reduce the amount of salt (sodium) you eat.2. Eat a heart healthy diet - one that is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, and trans fatGet regular exercise and maintain a healthy weight.3. Keep your blood sugar strictly under control if you have diabetes.4. Stop smoking.DISCLAIMER: This information should not substitute for seeking responsible, professional medical care.
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Home / Weight and Mass Conversion / Convert grams to milligrams
Convert grams to milligrams
Please provide values below to convert gram [g] to milligram [mg], or vice versa.
From: gram
To: milligram
Definition: A gram (symbol: g) is a unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). The definition of the gram is based on the kilogram, where a gram is one thousandth of a kilogram (the SI base unit of mass, currently based on an international prototype).
History/origin: Originally, a gram was defined as the absolute weight of pure water in a cubic centimeter at the temperature of melting ice (later 4 °C). The gram used to be a fundamental unit of mass as part of centimeter-gram-second systems of units up until the widespread adoption of SI, which uses kilograms as the base unit of mass. The gram was later redefined as one thousandth of a kilogram, the SI (meter-kilogram-second system of units) base unit of mass, which is currently (May 2018) based on the mass of a physical prototype of a specific alloy.
Current use: The gram is typically used to measure non-liquid ingredients used for cooking or groceries. Standards on the nutrition labels of food products often require the relative contents to be stated per 100 grams of the product.
Definition: A milligram is a unit of weight and mass that is based on the SI (International System of Units) base unit of mass, the kilogram. It is equal to 1/1,000 grams, or 1/1,000,000 kilograms.
History/origin: The milligram is based on the SI unit of weight and mass, the kilogram. As an SI unit, it uses the "milli" SI prefix to denote that it is a submultiple of the base unit. Although the "milli" prefix denotes a submultiple with respect to the gram, the kilogram, not the gram, is technically the SI base unit of mass.
Current use: As a submultiple of an SI base unit, the milligram is widely used in many applications, from everyday use to measure the weight or mass of foods, substances, etc., to widespread use in scientific labs, among other areas.
Gram to Milligram Conversion Table
Gram [g]Milligram [mg]
0.01 g10 mg
0.1 g100 mg
1 g1000 mg
2 g2000 mg
3 g3000 mg
5 g5000 mg
10 g10000 mg
20 g20000 mg
50 g50000 mg
100 g100000 mg
1000 g1000000 mg
How to Convert Gram to Milligram
1 g = 1000 mg
1 mg = 0.001 g
Example: convert 15 g to mg:
15 g = 15 × 1000 mg = 15000 mg
Popular Weight And Mass Unit Conversions
Convert Gram to Other Weight and Mass Units
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updated 1/22/2007 2:53:08 PM ET 2007-01-22T19:53:08
The extraordinary amount of heat seething below Earth's hard rocky crust could help supply the United States with a significant fraction of the electricity it will need in the future, probably at competitive prices and with minimal environmental impact, scientists now claim.
An 18-member panel led by MIT has prepared the first study in some 30 years to take a new look at the largely ignored area of geothermal energy.
Geothermal plants essentially mine heat by using wells at times a mile or more deep. These wells tap into hot rock and connect them with flowing water, producing large amounts of steam and super-hot water that can drive turbines and run electricity generators at the surface.
Unlike conventional power plants that burn coal, natural gas or oil, no fuel is required. And unlike solar power, a geothermal plant draws energy night and day.
Geothermal research was very active in the 1970s and early 1980s. As oil prices declined in the mid-1980s, enthusiasm for alternative energy sources waned and funding for research on geothermal and other renewable energy was greatly reduced, making it difficult for the technology to advance.
"Now that energy concerns have resurfaced, an opportunity exists for the U.S. to pursue the enhanced geothermal system option aggressively to meet long-term national needs," said panel head Jefferson Tester, a chemical engineer at MIT.
Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are increasingly expensive and dump carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Furthermore, oil and gas imports from foreign sources are not necessarily secure in the world's shifting political climate.
The United States is the world's biggest producer of geothermal energy. Nafi Toksöz, a geophysicist at MIT, noted that the electricity produced annually by geothermal plants now in use in California, Hawaii, Utah and Nevada is comparable to that produced by solar and wind power combined.
However, existing U.S. plants are concentrated mostly at isolated regions in the West. There, hot rocks are closer to the surface, requiring less drilling and thus lowering costs. Even then, drilling must reach depths of 5,000 feet or more in the West, and much deeper in the eastern United States.
Still, the panel now estimates geothermal power could meet roughly 10 percent of U.S. electricity needs by 2050. Their new study also finds the environmental impacts of geothermal development are markedly lower than conventional fossil fuel and nuclear power plants.
Tester and his colleagues emphasize that federally funded engineering research and development is still needed to lower risks and encourage investment by early adopters. The report also noted that meeting water requirements for geothermal plants may be an issue, particularly in arid regions. In addition, the potential for any seismic risks needs to be carefully monitored and managed.
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Sharp-shinned Hawks
Birds of Prey
Sharp-shinned Hawk
The Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus) is a small hawk. In fact, "sharp-shins" are the smallest to reside in USA and Canada, though some Neotropical species are smaller (notably the aptly named Tiny Hawk).
The taxonomy is far from resolved, with some authorities considering the southern taxa three separate species: White-breasted Hawk (A. chionogaster), Plain-breasted Hawk (A. ventralis) and Rufous-thighed Hawk (A. erythronemius). See taxonomy for further on this.
Distribution / Range
This species is widespread in North America, Central America, South America and the Greater Antilles. Below the distributions of the four groups (see taxonomy) are described as they roughly occur from north to south:
• The nominate (A. s. striatus) group is widespread in North America, occurring throughout a large part of USA and Canada, except in the ice-covered regions of the far north. Populations in the northern part of the range migrate south and spend the non-breeding season (winter) in southern USA, Mexico and Central America as far south as Panama, with a smaller number spending the winter in the Greater Antilles. Resident populations exists in temperate parts of USA, Canada (in a few coastal regions), Mexico (highlands from Sonora to Oaxaca), Cuba, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico.
Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus)
• A. (s.) chionogaster (White-breasted Hawk) occurs in highlands from far southern Mexico (Chiapas and Oaxaca), through Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador, to Nicaragua. It is, as far as known, resident, but some local movements may occur.
• A. (s.) erythronemius (Rufous-thighed Hawk) is widespread in eastern South America in eastern and southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, north-eastern Argentina and south-eastern Bolivia. It is, as far as known, resident in some regions and migratory in others. The movements are generally poorly understood, but it only occurs seasonally at some localities in Argentina.
Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus)
A small Accipiter hawk. Males are 24 to 30 cm (9.5 to 12 in) long, have a wingspan of 52 to 58 cm (20 to 23 in) and weigh from 87 to 114 g (3.1 to 4 oz). As common in Accipiter hawks, females average distinctly larger at a length of 29 to 37 cm (11.5 to 14.5 in), a wingspan of 58 to 68 cm (23 to 27 in) and a weight of 150 to 218 g (5.3 to 7.7 oz). Measurements given here are for the northern group, but they are comparable for the remaining.
• Nominate group: Cap dark and upperparts blue-grey (the former darker). Often, a few more or less random white spots can be seen on the back. Underparts white with rufous or tawny bars. Crissum white. Thighs rufous, but often barred white. The cheeks are tinged rufous (sometimes faint, but generally very distinct in taxa from the Greater Antilles). The irides (eyes) are dark orange to red, but these are yellowish to pale orange in juveniles. Juveniles have dark brownish upperparts with each feather edged rufous, giving a rather scaly appearance. The brown head is streaked whitish, and the whitish underparts are extensively streaked brown.
• A. (s.) chionogaster (White-breasted Hawk): Resembles the members of the nominate group, but upperparts darker (often appears almost black), thighs whitish-buff and underparts and cheeks entirely white. Juveniles with darker upperparts and distinctly finer streaking below than juveniles of the nominate group.
Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus)
• The northern group is easily mistaken for the slightly larger and lankier Cooper's Hawk, which match the Sharp-shinned in plumage. In flight, the Cooper's, with its longer wings and larger head, is sometimes compared to a "flying cross"; whereas the broader-winged and smaller-headed Sharp-shinned is described as a "flying mallet".
• A. (s.) chionogaster (White-breasted Hawk) is generally easily recognized by its white underparts. Juv. Bicolored Hawk, juv. Barred Forest Falcon and Collared Forest Falcon generally occur below the altitude of chionogaster, and they have whitish or buff nuchal collars. Juv. Double-toothed Kite and certain Buteo hawks (e.g. Short-tailed Hawk) may show a vaguely similar pattern, but are very differently shaped.
• A. (s.) ventralis (Plain-breasted Hawk), while itself very variable in plumage, is generally easily recognized by the Accipiter shape and the colour of the underparts. The grey underparts of the Bicolored Hawk are not duplicated by any plumage of ventralis and juv. Bicolored (which may be whitish below) has a nuchal collar. The smaller Tiny Hawk mainly occurs in lowlands, is very small and lacks the rufous thighs of ventralis. The rare dark morph ventralis is arguably the plumage most likely to cause confusion with other species (e.g. White-rumped Hawk, dark morph Collared Forest Falcon and various Buteo hawks), but the yellow eyes and the overall shape means that it too is relatively distinctive.
• A. (s.) erythronemius (Rufous-thighed Hawk) is distinctive within its range, but commonly confused with the Roadside Hawk (with a very different shape). The Bicolored Hawk is the only other Accipiter within the range of erythronemius which may show yellow eyes and rufous thighs, but it has a different pattern below.
Sharp-shinned vs. Cooper's Hawk
Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus) Habitat / Range:
Food and Hunting:
Sharp-shinned HawksBreeding:
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11 Facts Need to Know About Mosquito
11 Facts Need to Know About Mosquito
11 Facts Need to Know About Mosquito
During this summer time, We were in our backyard and enjoying dinner with family. Ouch! We just noticed a painful, swelling mosquito bite on our arms. Well, you must be thinking that you don’t need to bother as you dine in your dining room instead. Mosquitoes do not require any gate pass or someone’s permission to roam our entire surroundings. They can be seen in almost every place you think of. From the bedroom to dining, from Workplace to the playground they will not let you down and show their visibility.
There are more than 3,000 species of mosquitoes. It is surprised to know that out of 3,000 species only 3-5 members bear primary responsibility for spreading diseases in human beings. Only female mosquitoes have necessary the mouth parts for blood sucking. While biting with their proboscis, they stab two tubes into the skin: one for injecting anticoagulant enzyme to inhibits blood clotting; and while other tube used for blood sucking purpose . They use protein from the sucked blood to nourish their eggs. For their own nourishment, both males and females rely on nectar and plant sugars.
There are a number of diseases transmitted by mosquitoes. Anopheles mosquitoes are the only species known to transmit malaria. However, they also transmit filariasis and encephalitis. Culex mosquitoes carry West Nile virus.And Aedes mosquitoes, carry yellow fever, dengue, and Zika virus.
Mosquitoes are equipped with a battery of sensors intended to track and bite their prey, including:
Chemical sensors: Mosquitoes have chemical sensors which help them to sense carbon dioxide and lactic acid from even 100 feet away. Mammals and birds regularly release these gases as part of their normal breathing. Certain chemicals in sweat also have a tendency to attract mosquitoes. However, people who don’t sweat much are less prone to mosquito bites.
Heat sensors: Mosquitoes can also tend detect heat, That’s why they find warm-blooded mammals and birds very easily once they get close to them.
Life Cycle and Breeding:
Like other insects, mosquitoes hatch from eggs and go through several stages in order to become adults. The females lay their eggs in water. After hatching their larva and pupa stages completed entirely in the water. Once pupa changes into adults, they leave the water and become full-fledged flying insects. Their life cycle varies from one to several weeks depending on the species, temperature, and food availability.
11 Facts Related to Mosquitoes:
1: Mosquitoes have been serving since the Jurassic period:
That means they are around for about 210 million years old. Mosquitoes have been mentioned throughout history. They are mentioned in the works of Aristotle around 300 B.C. and in the writings of Sidonius Apollinaris in 467 B.C.
2: Mosquitoes are considered the deadliest animal in the world:
Anopheles mosquito, in particular, is very dangerous as it transmits malaria, which accounts more than one million deaths every year, primarily in Africa. It is also believed that Alexander the Great died of malaria in 323 B.C.
3: Mosquitoes are Toothless:
The female mosquitoes bite with a long, pointed mouth-part known as a proboscis. They use the serrated proboscis for the piercing and locating a capillary purpose then draw blood using one of the tubes.
4: A mosquito can suck or drink blood up to thrice of its own weight.
Don’t worry, though. It would take them about 1.2 million bites to drain all the blood from your body.
5: Only female mosquitoes bite:
Primarily both male and female feed on fruit and plant nectar, However females also need protein blood for their eggs development.
6: Female mosquitoes can lay up to 300 eggs at a time:
Eggs are deposited in clusters called rafts on the surface of stagnant water. Females may lay eggs up to three times throughout their entire life.
7: The average mosquito lifespan is less than two months:
Males have the shortest life span usually lasts 10 days, On the other hand, females can survive about six to eight weeks in ideal conditions.
8: Male mosquitoes locate females by their wing’s sound:
Females can beat their wings up to 500 times per second. Male mosquitoes pick females having higher wing beat frequency for mating purpose.
9: Mosquitoes do not transmit HIV:
AIDS-causing viruses do not replicate in mosquitoes. They actually digested in their stomachs and broken down without being passed on.
10: Dark clothing attracts mosquitoes:
Mosquitoes are attracted towards dark colors, So by choosing lighter outdoor clothes will help in avoiding unwanted bug bites. It also keeps you cooler in the summer heat.
11: Mosquitoes spend their first 1 0 days in water:
Water plays a vital role for the eggs to hatch into larvae called wigglers. Wigglers feed themselves on organic matter in stagnant water and for breathing they come on the water surface. They develop into pupae and later change into adult mosquitoes
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This is Stonehenge, one of the most famous monuments from the Neolithic Age. Located in southern England, Stonehenge dates to about 3,000 BCE. (Move over Beatles, Stonehenge is England's most famous rock group!)
Stonehenge is known as a megalith---a large object carved of stone. The stones in Stonehenge are arranged in a circle with the largest stones over 30 feet tall. There are "blue stones" made from rock that had to be moved some 100 miles from where they originated. Some of these stones weigh over 25 tons! (That is over 50,000 pounds! Consider this: the average car weighs 4,000 pounds. However, the world's largest pizza weighed 25 tons!)
This is what Stonehenge probably looked like 5,000 years ago:
Why was Stonehenge built? Like many things from Prehistoric times, we simply do not know. It could have been a sacred burial ground, a celestial calendar or some other symbolic purpose.
Megaliths exist all over the world, nearly on every continent.
Questions to Consider:
1. How were these statues created during the stone age? How were the moved?
2. What reasons could early human have had to create such art?
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1000px-CGTPL Trilobite
"Looks a bit like a giant woodlouse, but of course its a Trilobite."
Trilobites ("Three lobes") were prehistoric sea animals.
Trilobites were among the first creatures that ever lived on planet Earth. They lived during the Cambrian and the Silurian, 530-408 million years ago.
They ranged in size from a microscopic size, a millimeter in length, to the largest species, Isotelus, which grew to an enormous 72 cm long (which was about as big as they got). These sea creatures were arthropods and evolved sturdy skeletons on the outside of their bodies. There are no relatives of these creatures alive in the modern times but up to 15,000 species of trilobites
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New Chip Could Bring AI to Phones and More
Category: Science & Technology
Posted: 06:28AM
Neural networks and artificial intelligence are both things that have seemed to largely exist in science fiction for a long time, but recently advanced computer systems have been making them a reality. For most people though, these systems are something remote that data has to be sent to for processing. Thanks to researchers at MIT, we may actually be able to fit them into our pockets.
Neural networks are systems meant to emulate the operation of our brains with simple processing units. As GPUs are comprised of a great many cores, these are often used to create neural networks, and at 200 cores, even mobile GPUs can be used. The chip the MIT researchers created though is 10 times more efficiency than a mobile GPU, so it could allow mobile devices to run AI algorithms without help from the Cloud. To achieve this efficiency, the researchers designed the chip to reduce the number of times the cores access memory, which takes time and uses energy, and a circuit compresses the data before sending it. The cores also have the ability to communicate with their neighbors, so they can directly share data as needed. Finally there is special-purpose circuitry for allocating tasks to the cores, and this circuitry can be reprogrammed depending on what kind of network is desired.
Besides the possibility of phones being able to perform tasks locally and privately, this chip could also advance the Internet of Things by bringing neural networks to a variety of places. This would allow important decisions to be made automatically and without having to call back to a server, and would of course be helpful in battery-powered autonomous robots.
Source: MIT
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A root vegetable is so-called because the part that is commonly eaten is the geophyte, which grows under the surface, although technically speaking it is often not the root of the plant. There are two main types of plant root systems:
• Taproot systems
• Fibrous root systems
Taproot systems consist of one large thick root with few side branches, whereas fibrous-rooted plants have many finer roots branching out in a big subterranean bad hairstyle.
"Root vegetables" of are of the former type, having one large edible root, for instance carrots. If you pull up a dandelion by the roots, you will see that it looks much like a scrawny, wiry carrot or parsnip (though I would imagine they taste disgusting).
Other root vegetables are actually such entities as bulbs and tubers. The bulbs are mainly (solely?) members of the onion family, and the large majority of root vegetables are tubers. A tuber is a swollen part of the stem, and is where the plant stores its energy. The stem of the plant protrudes from the top of the tuber, and the root protrudes from the bottom. Hence the tuber is not actually the root. Examples of tuber vegetables are turnips, and of course, potatoes.
Such plants as carrots, with taproot systems, may be said to have tuberous roots, the word tuber coming from the word tumere, to swell.
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"url": "https://everything2.com/user/Jhonbus/writeups/root+vegetable"
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Physeter macrocephalus, commonly known as the sperm whale is currently the largest toothed whale as well as largest toothed predator we know of today. They are the only known living member of their genus and one out of three species in the sperm whale family, including pygmy and dwarf sperm whales. The sperm whale is a pelagic marine mammal with a worldwide distribution migrating seasonally for feeding and breeding. Mature adults can grow to approximately 16.5 metres but have been know to reach 25 metres in length. Throughout history these gentle giants have been famous for one special trait they possess, the ability to dive to extreme depths.
Source:, Author: Gabriel Barathieu, Adult sperm whale swimming with calf
Over the years, sperm whale diving behaviours have been extensively researched. With this knowledge we now know they can physically dive for hours at a time to depths of 1,200 metres but regularly dive for 45 minutes at a time to depths of between 600-900 metres with 9 minute surface intervals. The max recorded depth of 2,035 metres has placed these creatures second only to the Cuvier’s beaked whale in their diving capabilities.
Pressure’s of the deep
Diving to such depths as the sperm whale is no easy task, many Limiting factors arise for any organism that dives to these deep depths for example, pressure change. As depth increases pressure increases in the form of atmosphere’s, for every ten metres the pressure increases by one atmosphere. For example, 20 metres would equal 3 atmospheres worth of pressure, each level of atmospheric pressure equates to approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Due to this change in pressure the average sperm whale diving to approximately 900 metres would experience a pressure change of around 90 times stronger than that of surface atmospheric pressure levels. Times 90 by 14.7 and you get 1323 pounds per square inch of pressure. If humans attempted depths of this range, we would be crushed under the enormous weight. However, sperm whales can achieve this due to their flexibility. The rib cage of a sperm whale is capable of collapsing due to being bound by cartilage. Therefore, rather than crushing its rib cage every time they dove to such extreme depths it would collapse leaving the sperm whale unharmed when it returns to the surface.
Taking a deep breath
Sperm whales being air breathing mammals must be able to store a large amount of oxygen for long periods of time. The lungs of a sperm whale are capable of collapsing when deep diving as too allow the creature to dive deeper, this is because the inflated lungs would act as a buoyancy aid. Oxygen is stored and transported through the body via red blood cells in haemoglobin. In whales 60% of their blood is haemoglobin, this is double our haemoglobin concentration. This allows them to store twice as much oxygen as we can. Whales also have a higher percentage of blood taking up approximately 10-20% of their overall body volume allowing for even more oxygen storage. Oxygen is also stored in muscle tissue through myoglobin, whale myoglobin levels can be up to 30% higher than terrestrial mammals. This is due to marine mammal myoglobin being positively charged, as this allows marine mammals such as whales to contain a larger quantity of myoglobin in the muscle tissue without the particles sticking together as they repel each other resulting in higher oxygen stores. Myoglobin is distributed through the muscles of the whale and can hold approximately 35% of the oxygen stores. This allows oxygen stores to last and constantly feed the brain with oxygen whilst submerged.
The video below from YouTube describes how marine mammals supply themselves with oxygen
Sperm whales can do several things to help conserve oxygen stores on long dives. One major aspect being the conscious control of their heart rate, greatly reducing their cardiac output halving its heart rate. This in turn reduces blood flow to non-essential organs and some muscles. Certain blood pathways will also be shunted and or blocked to certain areas of the body unimportant to the animal during its dive periods, this can include digestive areas such as the stomach all while keeping a steady blood flow to the brain. Unfortunately, this can be harmful to the animal during prolonged cases, therefore rest periods are very common and important.
Feeding in the dark deep
Taken from commons.wikimedia, Author: Kurzon. Spermaceti organ used for echolocation in sperm whales, Sound produced by bony structures and spermaceti organ and received by acoustic fat connected to the ear bone.
Beyond 200 metres light barely penetrates the ocean. Under the right circumstances light can penetrate up to 1000 metres although this is very rare, because of this the sperm whale has adapted to hunt in these dark conditions allowing for full exploitation of this expansive resource. Echolocation is an adaptation sperm whales have developed allowing them to find their prey and locate any obstacles. A series of clicks are emitted using the spermaceti organ located in the head, here air is blown across structures like our own vocal cords lying within the head. These structures generate sound waves which researchers believe are focused by the oil-filled spermaceti organ. Acting like an acoustic lens this organ alters its shape focusing the sound on different points, acting like an auditory imaging system for the whale. When this sound reaches an obstacle or animal (potential prey) it bounces off and returns to the whale. As water has a consistent pressure the sound will travel at the same speed, therefore the whale can calculate how far the sound wave travelled when it is bounced back. This provides the whale an accurate measurement of how far away another animal or obstacle is. As whales has two ears they can also confirm which direction the sound is coming from pinpointing the exact location of potential prey, making sperm whales masters of deep sea hunting.
The mixture of developments in echolocation and specialised anatomy have made sperm whales brilliant deep-sea hunters. With these attributes they are capable of taking full advantage of deep ocean environments, providing them with an extensive food source rarely available to other organisms. This combined with the lack of competitors have allowed the sperm whale to become a formidable deep-sea predator. Although we may know a lot on the diving habits of sperm whales and other deep-sea diving air breathers much is still unknown to us. With the improvement in technology we may be able to learn more about them in the future.
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"url": "http://extrememarine.org.uk/2017/11/sperm-whales-divers-of-the-deep/"
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Heart and Vascular Center
Complex (Tetralogy-of-Fallot)
Another type of heart defect is congenital cyanotic heart defects. In these defects, blood pumped to the body contains less oxygen than normal. This causes a condition called cyanosis, a blue discoloration of the skin. Infants with cyanosis are often called "blue babies." An example of cyanotic defects is Tetralogy of Fallot.
Tetralogy of Fallot has four components. The two major ones are a large hole, or ventricular septal defect, that lets blood pass from the right to the left ventricle without going through the lungs; and a narrowing (stenosis) at or just beneath the pulmonary valve. This narrowing partially blocks the blood flow from the heart's right side to the lungs. The other two components are: the right ventricle is more muscular than normal, and the aorta lies directly over the ventricular septal defect.
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"language_score": 0.9406366348266602,
"url": "https://www.sjo.org/our-services/heart-and-vascular-center/heart-and-vascular-diseases/congenital-heart-disease/complex-tetralogy-of-fallot-/"
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Phylum Chordata Class Aves-Birds, Biology tutorial
General Characteristics and Adaptations of Class Aves-Birds:
Skin of birds bear feathers and the legs have scales. Skeletons are bony. There are 2 pairs of pentadactyl limbs, front pair of which make wings. Their visceral clefts never grow gills. They do not have external ear. Fertilized yolky eggs are placed on land, and enclosed with calcareous shells. Fertilization is interior. They are worm blooded. Like reptile described as fish-like vertebrates adapted to life on land, so birds can be explained as reptile-like adapted to flight. Flying involves energy and freedom of movement. Despite flight there are 2 other things which of equivalent significance to birds in the adaptations to environmental changes are the steady temperature and large brain. The bird's skill to fly allow it to keep its internal steadiness by flying to appropriate surroundings and food, and it demands use of the lot of energy. Those that stay as birds on land, are structurally like the reptile, running on 2 legs, with head erect, and front limbs set free for other uses. It is supposed that they developed from walking reptiles; that their wing that should have developed before skill to fly was required by need to keep the constant body temperature.
1) Feather:
The feathers are of 3 basic kinds:
a) Down feathers:
These are plain in structure. They like feathers are made of keratin that is made by skin and are restricted in patterns on skin like scales of reptiles are. Several young birds and few adults have this body cover. They contain short shaft and barbs which don't join.
b) The Quill Feathers:
These composed of central rod (shaft) that bears the flat expanded part known as vane. Lower part of central rod is hollow, and forms quill. At the base of shaft is the hole at base of which tuft of papilla or tissue fits into the pit-like follicle. Vane is composed of several processes known as barbs arranged on either side of rachis like teeth of a comb. Every barb has 2 rows of small branches known as barbules that are also prearranged obliquely so that adjacent barb overlaps. Barbules hold barbs together. There are small hooks on the barbules on lower surface of feather, while upper barbules contain ridges. These can only be seen under microscope. Barbule hooks of on lower barb fits into ridge of upper one. This binds whole vane together to give the surface capable of beating air.
c) The Covert Feathers:
They are alike structurally to quill feathers except that they are minor. They cover body. There are filoplumes all over body between covert feathers. They comprise of the slender thread-like shaft with the tuft of barbs at end.
2) Wings:
Forelimbs of birds serve as wings. They function like wings and propeller at same time. There are 3 parts that match with upper arm, forearm and hand of mammal. When not in flight whole arm is folded in the Z shape. This way they are folded neatly to body so that they don't impede with other movements like walking or hopping. 3 parts of arm are kept by 2 fold of skin, one from upper arm to wrist and other across armpit. Wings are enclosed with feathers in most parts. This gives large surface area for bird to bit wind. Whole structure is light as nature of feathers.
They are composed of keratin. Muscles and bones of forearm give base to which feathers are joined. There are only 3 digits, thumb that remains dividing, whereas second and third are tightly fixed together by the web of skin.
Uses of Feather:
Feathers are given with muscles at base. When these contract or relax, they bring about the control of flight, body temperature, or shows feather in connection to observe and so on. They are supplied with nerve fibres so that they are sensitive to touch. They provide shape to the body.
a) Flight:
Birds are able to fly as they have developed feathers. It though can also run and walk on 2 legs, and maintain itself balanced. They are capable to fly also as feathers have been formed in wings, there are hollow bones, they are warm blooded and have astonishing effective respiratory system and strong breast muscles. All these make for high power and little weight. Bird skeleton is light and strong as bones are hollow and thin and some parts have been fused together. Lower vertebra are made tip of hip, sacrum are combined into the tube like structure. Hollow finger bones are combined together. Tail is decreased to the small plate at end of vertebral column. Ribs are flat and thin and with their overlapping joints form the strong flexible basket. Skeleton of bird helps it to fly and walk on two legs when essential. It is comprised of breast bone for attachment of huge muscles which move wings. It is the adaptation of sternum that has become the big keel that has elongated for below ribs. Wing is lifted or lowered by another muscle that is also joined to sternum but passed over shoulder to other side of humerus. They rotate humerus. Other muscles within wing serve to fold and extend it. Much of bulk of body has been pushed back. The edge of every wing bends upward in down stroke due to its flexibility. So every stroke causes bird to move upwards and forwards. When bird is to land or take off, wing beats causes quill feathers at tip to spread out to form the wing slot that stops bird from stalling. Legs are folded in under body in flight but extended for landing.
Oxygen Supply and Energy:
With such apparatus for flying, there is requirement for the effective machinery for energy supply. This is plain in totally divided heart. Right part pumps blood solely to lungs whilst left pumps to oxygenated blood from lungs to body. Big arteries provide muscles. Oxygen is delivered to tissues at high artenal pressure and red blood cells carry extremely large amount of oxygen that they can provide suddenly at fairly high oxygen tension. Body is high 420C - 450C (bird maintain the high body metabolism). To maintain this, birds require the efficient respiratory system. The air sacs assist make bird light. They extent into all parts of bird, comprising hollow bones and toe bones. The air sacs are filled when bird inspires with oxygen to rinse out utilized air from tissues and this rising respiratory efficiency. Air also assists to cool overheat body of bird. For flight the great amount of food which can be rapidly digested is needed. For this cause, birds eat high calorie food such as, seeds, insects, fish, worms, rodents and fruits. Daily food ingestion can reach 30% of body weight, compare to 10% of that of mammals. Beak is structure with which bird takes in food. It is the horny structure covering small toothless jaws. It is utilized for getting all kinds of food. Its special shape and adaptations rely on kind of food particular species requires.
Birds go through the period of courtship that is generally long and complex. Colors of male bird become very bright and he show himself to female. At times displays are performed to fright other males from recognized mate. After mating, nest is made. Well grown eggs are fertilized in ovary of bird. It is only after fertilization that shell glands secretion is obtained as egg moves down oviduct. The average of egg is laid a day. It is only when eggs are laid that is clutch is finish that bird starts to sit on them and utilize body heat to hatch them. Eggs are comparable in structure with reptilian egg. Dissimilar to reptiles birds hatch their eggs. At times both male and female share incubation in other cases it is only hen.
The good number of birds migrates yearly along routes which turn out to be extremely customary for them. In migration, they can cover extremely huge lands across continents like Swallow departs Europe for Africa in September just to return to Europe in April the next year.
Expand your confidence, grow study skills and improve your grades.
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"url": "http://www.tutorsglobe.com/homework-help/biology/phylum-chordata-class-aves-birds-74790.aspx"
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侠盗罗宾汉英文读后感 Robin Hood was a legendary English outlaw. Some people believe he was a real person but most do not. In the story, Robin Hood lived with his band of merry followers in Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire. They wore green suits and pointed caps, and they were gay and bold. Robin Hood and his men had many exciting adventures. The Merry Men robbed the rich and gave money to the poor. Robin Hood fought the sheriff of Nottingham, a corrupt official who treated the poor badly. So he became a hero of the common people. Robin Hood was a great archer. He never missed his target. He travelled around the country in many different disguises so that no one knew who he was. Whenever Robin Hood got into trouble he would blow his horn and his men would come to help him. Friar Tuck, Little John, and Maid Marian were the best-known members of his band. Friar Tuck was a fat, jolly priest. Little John stood more than 7 feet tall and was known for his great skill with a bow and arrow. Maid Marian was Robin Hood’s sweetheart. Although Robin fought and robbed landowners, church leaders and government officials, he and his band respected the ruling king, RichardⅠ。 In many stories, the king disguised himself and joined the Merry Men, in order to capture Robin. But the king then discovered that Robin Hood and his fellows were honourable people and pardoned them.
1. 百年孤独读后感
2. 茶花女读后感
3. 边城读后感
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"url": "http://logogaga.net/duhougan/50080.html"
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Background reading material by Professor Omar Hasan Kasule for Year 3 Semester 1 PPSD session on November 2008
Negotiations are pervasive: Leaders spend a lot of their time in negotiations. Daily life, public or private, revolves around negotiating with others. You may not even be conscious of being involved in negotiations. Most major decisions, private and public, are not unilateral. They involve negotiations with others to reach an acceptable consensus.
Negotiation is necessary to protect your interests, and get as much advantage as possible without entering into costly and bruising confrontations. Most conflicts can be resolved through negotiation. Good negotiation turns confrontation into cooperation. Physicians must be able to negotiate with their patients and relative to agree on a treatment plan otherwise a lot of conflicts and misunderstandings will occur.
Learning negotiation skills: Negotiation skills can be learned. They can be improved by experience and discussions with experienced negotiators.
What is win-win negotiation?: Negotiations can be win-win in which each party leaves satisfied or win-lose in which one party leaves with a feeling of winning and the other leaves with a feeling of having lost. A win-win outcome is the best in a negotiation. It ensures that each party gets the maximum it can from the transaction, part as friends who can work together again. Both objectives and relations have to be considered. Future relationships may be lost by aggressive pursuit of objectives.
Win-win negotiation requires avoiding stereotyping the other party. Such stereotypes confuse your judgment. Win-win negotiation requires avoiding extremes. The just equilibrium is the way to negotiate. Win-win negotiation is joint problem-solving; the alternative is power negotiation using threats, intimidation, and other power tactics that will end in deadlock. Win-win negotiation focuses on positive solutions. It aims at reaching an agreement satisfactory to both sides by a process that is as painless as possible. Satisfaction could be achieved even if one party has through miscalculation compromised its interests. It is all well as long as they are not aware of their mistake.
Elements of win-win negotiation: Win-win negotiation has the following elements: separating people from the problem, looking at interests and not positions, creating options for mutual gain, getting all parties to use objective criteria, enough time to prepare for and carry out negotiations. and optimum circumstances under which negotiation is carried. The focus should be on solving problems and not on personalities. Interests and not positions should be defended. A negotiating position can be given up or changed without giving up your interests. Options for mutual gains should be vigorously explored. Win-win negotiators concentrate on objective criteria. A win-win outcome in negotiations requires enough time to prepare so that decisions and moves are well-studied and are not emotional reactions.
Alternative to win-win: If you are not interested in a win-win outcome, you have the liberty not to negotiate at all and to use other approaches to solving the problem.
Writings of Professor Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr
This section provides thoughts in Islamic Epistemology and Curriculum Reform.
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"url": "http://omarkasule-ilm.blogspot.com/2012/03/0811l-nature-and-purpose-of.html"
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How to Identify the Cause of Plant Problems:
1. Identify the symptoms (spots on leaves, wilting, etc.).
2. Determine if there is a pattern. (Just the lower leaves? All plants? Certain plants in a certain area?)
3. Trace the history (weather conditions, use of fertilizers, when conditions appeared).
4. Examine for insects or disease (in roots, fruits, etc).
5. Consider what environmental factors other than pests or disease might be the issue (soil, nutrients, pesticides, weather).
6. Then, consult resources for specific pests and diseases; compare symptoms. Note: Bacterial disease and viruses can only be confirmed by lab tests; call or send a sample to UConn Home and Garden Center (see their Web site for instructions).
Boxwood Blight Found in Connecticut
In October 2011, boxwood blight (Cylindrocladium pseudonaviculatum) was positively identified in Connecticut. This is the first confirmed incidence of boxwood blight in the United States.
For information on this emerging issue, including identification and management, click on this fact sheet provided by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8631273508071899,
"url": "http://ctmga.org/plant-pathology/4541030612"
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CPI vs. Inflation
Understanding the difference between CPI and inflation
CPI (consumer price index) and inflation are two commonly used and important terms related to the economy of a country. The difference between the two terms is confusing because they have such a close relationship. The CPI is a way of measuring the rate of inflation when the prices of goods and services have been rising over a period of time. It is not perfect and is only an estimated calculation of the effect that rising prices have on the overall economy. Other tools are also used to measure inflation and the results sometimes are not the same as those of the CPI. As a result some people are less inclined to depend on the CPI for this purpose.
What is CPI?
A basket of goods that consumers buy on a regular basis is compared over a specific period to time to measure the rise that occurs in prices. This average increase is called the CPI or the consumer price index. The price of the list of products or goods is checked every month and the annual percentage change that occurs is called inflation. It is a statistic that economists all over the watch very carefully in addition to population and salaries.
What is inflation?
When the price of goods and services rise over a specific period of time the increase is called inflation. If you pay $105 for the same products this year for which you paid $100 last year, the increase of $5 is a 5% increase in inflation. However, inflation is more complicated than this, which is why CPI is used as one of the calculations.
The fact is that CPI is not always correct and people have become very disenchanted with the statistics and feel cheated. This is because sometimes governments deliberately exclude some products from the analysis resulting in a deceptively low CPI.
You have to start with a base year when you calculate CPI. Governments keep changing the base year so this also deceives the population. If the base year remained the same inflation would be 100% more than what the actual reports say that it is.
CPI is used to inform people how inflation affects them from day to day. It cannot explain why the price of something jumps suddenly and it is never able to accurately describe the ground position so that people will understand the balance of rising prices.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9715824723243713,
"url": "http://vspages.com/cpi-vs-inflation-2205/"
}
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Topic D1 Flashcards Preview
BMS 2021 > Topic D1 > Flashcards
Flashcards in Topic D1 Deck (13):
What are the phases of the cell cycle?
- G1 phase: the cell has come out of mitosis and must grow, synthesise its mRNA and proteins to carry out its function and provide the means for DNA replication (1/3 of cell cycle)
-Synthesis (S) phase: replication of the DNA occurs (~1/2 of cell cycle)
-G2 phase: pre-mitotic phase in which there is rapid cell growth and protein synthesis and the cell “gears up” for mitosis (~1/6 of cell cycle)
M phase:
- Mitosis: nuclear division of the cell divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
- Cytokinesis: cytoplasmic division of the two replicated cells
- G0: a cell cycle arrest phase in which the cell ceases the replicative cycle; some cells are permanently arrested in this phase, others can move into the cell cycle once more based on signals. Most cells spend the majority of their lifespan in the G0 phase
What is prophase?
- Step 1 of mitosis:
Early Prophase:
- DNA begins to condense into chromosomes
- Mitotic spindle (structure of microtubules) begins to form
- The nucleol(us/i) degrade
Late Prophase/Prometaphase:
- The chromosomes finish compacting are very compact
- The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes
- The mitotic spindle grows more and some of these microtubules (called kinetochore microtubules) attach to a patch of protein on the centromere of each sister chromatid called the kinetochore
- Some microtubules extend from each centromere to the edge of the cell forming the aster
What is metaphase?
-The spindle fibres have captured all of the chromosomes and has lined them up in the middle of the cell at the metaphase plate
- The two kinetochores of each sister chromosome are attached to microtubules from opposite spindle poles
- Spindle assembly checkpoint: the cell will check that all the chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules before the cell will move into anaphase
- The sister chromatids separate from each other are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell
- Microtubules from each pole push against each other and elongate the cell
- An actin myosin ring forms in the middle of the cell
- The mitotic spindle is broken down
- Two new nuclei form
- The chromosomes begin to de-condense
- The actin myosin ring pinches and creates a cleavage furrow
What are the 2 mechanisms by which proteins needed for mitotic events are "switched on/off" during different phases of mitotis?
1. Phosphorylation:
- When proteins with hydroxyl groups on Serine or Threonine residues are phosphorylated by protein phosphatase or dephosphorylated by protein kinases it changes their structure (overall charge and shape) and can make them into an active or inactive form.
- Generally achieved via the activity of a family of enzymes: cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs)
2. Degradation:
the process of ubiquitin-proteasome mediated protein degradation
How does the process of ubiquitination of a target protein occur?
1. Adding the polyubiquitin chain to the target protein:
- An activated E1 enzyme has a ubiquitin molecule added to it via its –SH group
- E1 and the bound ubiquitin molecule bind to E2 and E3.The E2 and E3 enzymes form a complex called ubiquitin ligase. E2 is the part of the complex that accepts the ubiquitin molecule with its –SH group and transfers the ubiquitin onto the target protein and E3 is the part of the complex that recognises and binds the target protein
- Ubiquitin attached to E1 is transferred to ubiquitin ligase (E2+E3 complex) and E1 is discarded
- Ubiquitin ligase will bind the target protein which is displaying a degradation signal (such as poor folding or merely being a present substrate for an active E3) via E3 and E2 will transfer the ubiquitin molecule onto the amino group of a lysine side chain on the target protein
- E1 follows this initial ubiquination of the target protein by ubiquitin ligase by adding more ubiquitin molecules creating a multiubiquitin chain on the target protein
How does the proteosome degrade the ubiquinated protein/
- The proteosome is an ATP dependent protease
- Only proteins with a polyubiquitin chain attatched can enter the active site in which the protease activity takes place and the peptide is degraded the amino acids are recycled.
Why are CDKs despite always being present in the cell only active during certain periods of the cell cycle?
- These Cdks are only active during certain periods of the cell cycle because they must bind to another protein called cyclin in order to function. Cyclin proteins are only synthesised at certain points in the cell cycle; therefore despite the constant presence of Cdks they will only be active when their specific cyclin has been synthesised and is present.
e.g. G1/S-cyclin is only synthesised during the G1 phase and therefore the G1/S-Cdk is active at this time
How does cyclin activate CDK?
1. Binding of the cyclin molecule causes a confirmation change in Cdk meaning the T loop of inactive Cdk moves out and opens the ATP pocket making it available to be used to phosphorylate serine/threonine residues in proteins thus making the Cdk partly active
2. The shift in the T loop due to cyclin binding means that a Cdk-activating kinase (CAK) is able to phosphorylate the T loop which makes it bind substrate more readily and strongly thus increasing the Cdks activity
How does Mitotic Cyclin- CDK (M-CDK) drive mitosis?
M-CDK drives:
1. Degradation of the nuclear membrane by phosphorylating nuclear lamin proteins and nuclear pore complexes
2. Facilitating the condensatation of DNA into chromosomes- because M-CDK degrades the nuclear membrane the cytosolic protein condensin is able to contact DNA and induce its condensation into chromatins
3. Assists in the formation of mitotic spindle poles and activation of motor proteins- M-CDK phosphorylated micro-tubule associated proteins (MAPs) so they are no longer able to function and stabilise interphase microtubules. M-CDK phosphorylates and activates motor proteins.
4. Activates anaphase promoting complex
What is the function of anaphase promoting complex (APC)?
- Anaphase promoting complex has ubiquitin ligase activity which unbiquitilates the protein securin (which is bound to inactive seperase) causing it to be degraded by the proteasome
- Degradation of securin frees and actives seperase which cleaves the cohesin molecules holding sister chromatids togethers driving the division of chromosomes.
- The APC also inactivates M-Cdk
How does the anaphase promoting complex inactivate M-CDK at the end of metaphase?
- APC has ubiquitin ligase activity and ubiquitylates M-cyclin at the end of metaphase
- This ubiquitylation causes the M-cyclin molecule to be degraded by the proteosome
- Without M-cyclin bound to M-CDK; M-CDK is no longer active and all the proteins it phosphorylated can be desphorylated by phosphatases allowing the new cells to reform their nuclear membranes and interphase microtubule structures.
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Keeping you current
Mapping the history of racial terror
(Monroe Work Today/Auut Studio)
The map is part of a website created by a group called Monroe Work Today, which takes its name from an early 20th century sociologist named Monroe Nathan Work, who spent decades compiling data and statistics on lynchings. While working at Alabama’s Tuskegee Institute, Work founded the school’s Department of Records and Research—the archives of which form the bones of the map’s information, Laura Bliss reports for CityLab.
By scrolling around a slider included on the map, users can see the earliest-known lynchings in the U.S. across the country. The data points can be viewed by year as well as by the victim’s ethnicity, allowing users to approach the sobering subject from a variety of perspectives.
The website also explains how lynching as term evolved in meaning throughout different regions and time periods. As the creators write on the website
"There is no single way to describe all lynchings. Often a mob in western states (like California) staged a mock trial at the gallows, in order to pronounce the person ‘guilty’ before hanging. The spectacles of public mutilation happened most often in the South, but sometimes in West Virginia, Delaware and Maryland too. People in Northern states perpetrated lynchings as well: sometimes as a brutal execution, and sometimes more swiftly. Finally, the accusations levelled against Mexican- or dark skinned Sicilian-Americans to justify their murder were typically different than the charges made against black Americans."
It’s unlikely historians will ever know just how many lynchings happened throughout the history of the U.S., as many likely went unreported, or were not classified as lynchings in documentation at the time. However, the sheer number of those that are on the books is staggering—according to the Equal Justice Initiative’s (EJI) 2015 report, Lynching in America, more than 4,000 black people were publicly murdered in the U.S. between 1877 and 1950. Tools like this site serves as an important endeavor to help mark these dark parts of American history and make it more visible and accessible for all.
About Danny Lewis
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Kinds Of Traps
The traps of carnivorous plants are modified leaves that in some cases are so changed and adapted to their function that they resemble only remotely leaves as most people picture them. For example, the tall, often decorative tubular pitcher leaves of species of Sarracenia are frequently thought by the uninitiated to be flowers, and in most cases the trap leaves are far more striking than the plants' true flowers. This case of mistaken identity is somewhat ironic since it is accepted that most true flowers are decoratively structured in order to attract insects or other animals as pollinators. The trap leaves are also attractive to insects, but for a different end.
There are four types of traps in seed-bearing carnivorous plants of our region, and I have further divided these into two main groups, active and passive. I would reiterate that "active" is used in a restricted sense, not as it might be used in connection with animals of prey. A classification of these trap forms along with examples is in outline form below and can be correlated with the accompanying photographs and drawings. Active traps. —Those in which some rapid plant movement takes place as an integral part of the trapping process.
1. Closing traps. —These are often referred to erroneously as of the beartrap type. The trap is bivalved; that is, it has two similar halves connected by a midrib. The two halves close on each other and thus trap the prey. This type is represented in the western hemisphere by only one species, Dionaea muscipula (the Venus' flytrap).
2. Trapdoors. — These are aquatic traps, relatively minute, and are represented by the genus Utricularia (the bladderworts). The trap is somewhat bulbous, with a flaplike door over a small entrance at one end. The stimulation of sensitive external trigger hairs near the trap entrance results in the opening of the door and an inrush of water with the prey. Afterwards, the door closes again.
Passive traps. —Those in which rapid plant movement is not an integral part of the trapping process.
3. Pitfalls. — These are characteristic of the familiar pitcher plants of the genera Sarracenia and Darling-tonia. The leaves are tubular with various other modi-
Fig. 1-1. Dionaea muscipula, the Venus' flytrap, with a trap of the closing type.
Fig. 1-2. Utricularia gibba, a bladderwort, with a trap of the trapdoor type. The plant is aquatic and the bulblike trap is only 2-3 mm.
fications. The prey is lured to the pitcher opening, enters or falls in, is unable to escape, and is digested. 4. "Flypaper" or adhesive traps. —These occur in Drosera (sundews), and Pinguicula (butterworts). Numerous sticky glands cover the upper leaf surfaces, and the small prey is immobilized by becoming mired down. After entrapment, the stalked glands of Drosera do often move slowly and there frequently is some slow leaf folding in some species, but this is part of the digestive rather than the entrapment process.
This brief outline is for orientation; details of various traps and their activities will be discussed in the ensuing chapters.
+3 0
• Weronika
What are two main traps that carnivorous plants can have?
9 months ago
What ispassive traps carnivorous plants?
7 months ago
• Marko
Which plants leaves have traps?
5 months ago
• jai
What are the main 2 kinds of traps that carnivores plants can have?
4 days ago
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Community Resilience
Community Health Resilience (CHR) is the ability of a community to use its assets to strengthen public health and healthcare systems and to improve the community’s physical, behavioral, and social health to withstand, adapt to, and recover from adversity.
Why is community resilience important?
Communities are increasingly complex, and so are the challenges they face. Human-caused and natural disasters are more frequent and costly. Factors like climate change, globalization, and increased urbanization can bring disaster related risks to greater numbers of people.
Addressing these threats calls for an approach that combines what we know about preparing for disasters with what we know about actions that strengthen communities every day. Community resilience focuses on enhancing the day-to-day health and wellbeing of communities to reduce the negative impacts of disasters.
How are community resilience and disaster preparedness related?
Developing community resilience benefits disaster planners and community members alike. Community resilience expands the traditional preparedness approach by encouraging actions that build preparedness while also promoting strong community systems and addressing the many factors that contribute to health.
Key preparedness activities—such as continuity of operations plans for organizations, reunification plans for families, and compiling disaster kits and resources—continue to be essential, recommended steps to take. A resilience approach adds features like building social connectedness and improving everyday health, wellness, and community systems.
How does health fit into community resilience?
Health—meaning physical, behavioral, social, and environmental health and wellbeing—is a big part of overall resilience. In many ways, health is a key foundation of resilience because almost everything we do to prepare for disaster and protect infrastructure is ultimately in the interest of preserving human health and welfare. The part of overall community resilience that involves health is called Community Health Resilience.
What makes a community healthy and resilient?
A resilient community is socially connected and has accessible health systems that are able to withstand disaster and foster community recovery. The community can take collective action after an adverse event because it has developed resources that reduce the impact of major disturbances and help protect people’s health. Resilient communities promote individual and community physical, behavioral, and social health to strengthen their communities for daily, as well as extreme, challenges.
Strategies to build resilient communities:
Some considerations, adapted from the National Preparedness and Response Science Board’s Community Health Resilience Recommendations1 are:
• Strengthen—and promote access to—public health, healthcare, and social services: Strong day-to-day systems can be better leveraged to support health resilience during disasters and emergencies. In capable systems people know how to access care and are not limited by real or perceived barriers to services.
• Promote health and wellness alongside disaster preparedness: Information and education that involve public health, behavioral health, emergency preparedness, and community health resilience interventions can help people face everyday challenges as well as major disruptions or disasters. Optimal levels of physical and psychological health and well-being within the population facilitate the community’s rapid recovery.
• Expand communication and collaboration: Build networks that include social services, behavioral health, community organizations, businesses, academia, at-risk individuals, and faith-based stakeholders in addition to traditional public health, healthcare, and emergency management partners.
• Engage at-risk individuals and the programs that serve them: Engaging individuals with potential vulnerabilities to take an active part in protecting their health and aiding their community’s resilience strengthens the community as a whole. Assist programs that serve at-risk individuals to develop robust disaster and continuity of operations plans.
• Build social connectedness: People are more empowered to help one another after a major disturbance in communities in which members are regularly involved in each other’s lives. Building social connectedness can be an important emergency preparedness action.
In what ways can I strengthen my individual health and resilience?
Individual health and resilience is important for community resilience because healthy, socially connected, prepared people make for stronger communities that are better able to withstand, manage, and recover from disasters. People should try to:
• Live a healthy lifestyle and learn skills to manage stress.
• Maintain connections to meaningful groups like families, places of worship and volunteer organizations.
• Be informed, educated, and able to help neighbors, family, and friends.
• Engage in community or neighborhood preparedness activities.
• Create evacuation and family reunification plans.
• Have a disaster kit and be able to shelter in place for 72 hours.
• Take trainings like CPR, first aid, CERT, or psychological first aid.
Additional Resources:
1National Preparedness and Response Science Board (NPRSB) 2014. Community Health Resilience Recommendations
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Skip to main content
Citizen science, youth engagement and authentic inquiry
Pamela-Nippolt.jpgWhat are the best ways to engage youth and adults in authentic scientific inquiry? We are exploring this question with our Driven to Discover: Citizen Science project.
Public participation in science, known as citizen science, is when citizens collect and report data, using specified methods, to contribute to scientific research. In our Driven to Discover project, research teams made up of youth and adult citizen scientists are monitoring Monarch butterfly larvae, birds, and water quality, then conducting investigations.
This five-year project is now entering its fourth summer. Through it, we are designing a model and curriculum to prepare and support adults - content experts, youth leaders, parents. Their reasons for participation vary -- to volunteer, to extend their teaching, to deepen youth programs in nature settings, to learn through inquiry with youth.
Spring is a busy time for this project. A new group of adults has just completed a three-day workshop, and middle school-age youth are signing up to be citizen scientists through 4-H, Girl Scouts, their local nature centers, and through summer programs at their schools. Our main goals are to engage youth in citizen science, and to encourage them to do authentic inquiry. Along with those big goals, the youth in the programs can build their environmental and service ethic.
You may ask, "What does citizen science have to do with authentic inquiry?" youth-holding-Monarch.jpg As we work with a dozen or more teams from four states each year, and with the financial support of the National Science Foundation, our surveys of participants tell us that citizen science is a great "on ramp" for engaging youth to investigate their own questions about the world.
A teacher who leads a summer program noted the benefits for youth when they experience "real world" research outside of the classroom:
"That's very exciting, one of my groups really modeled so well how the inquiry process isn't linear because they ... started their observation and then they noticed something and then they went back and they wanted to tweak their question, which was of course OK, and then they got a little farther, and these are fifth graders, and so each time they would clarify their question more... We're learning it a lot of times as linear - you come up with these questions, you do your hypothesis, you do your procedure and you ... follow steps. But I think because I'm not working with 120 (students) right now I'm just working with the 12 (youth), I had that chance to be able to say "No you can go back and do that and it can be kind of messy, that's ok and so that was what was good."
One young person offered an insight about how her learning in the program transferred back to the classroom:
"And you really can learn a lot like I did something I was doing an experiment that showed which part of or which milkweed plant part was ... the most nutritious. And I raised so many Monarchs that I will feed them that food now, cause I know that they will grow and have a high survival rate. So it's just really helpful too to know, and you can teach so many other people. And there's so much stuff that you get from this experience that you don't even realize that you have learned until later when ... you'll be in class and we'll be learning about something else and the whole class will be... confused and I'll be like oh I know this cause it's like even when you weren't studying it that specifically you remember it cause it's something you just happened to learn while you were outside."
There is no question that youth are doing "real" science. Stay tuned for results from our ongoing research of the project. We will be sharing lessons about the model and what we learn about how it prepares adults and promotes learning for youth. In the meantime, I would like to know what you are doing. What are some of the ways that we can expand how we engage youth as citizen scientists in youth programs?
-- Pamela Larson Nippolt, evaluation and research specialist
1. Pam Larson NippoltJune 5, 2013 at 9:37 AM
Trudy - thank you so much for mentioning the work at Cornell to connect 4-H and Citizen Science. The webinar next week should give us a good idea about the opportunities and possibilities in the near future to involve youth in scientific research - research being done by others and research that comes from the youth. I'm glad you are involved in helping us to think about this at a national level. What are you seeing nationally? Pam
2. Pam - the full scale inquiry process I think is rare, but well worth doing. What I am seeing nationally is the opportunity for the "micro" citizen scientist, and "crowd sourcing". Opportunities to do something that can take just a little bit of time -- from a few minutes to a weekend. The other trend is crowd sourcing - where your and my efforts are pooled with that of others to do the science. Some of these interesting projects include Fold It, a project promoted as an online game enabling you to contribute to important scientific research around protein folding, and Ancient Lives, a social science project where you get a bit of ancient papyri and transcribe it. Phenology projects are some of the most popular, but increasingly we are tying these into current issues, such as the Backyard Bee Count.
3. Pam Larson NippoltJune 6, 2013 at 3:30 AM
Trudy - Your perspective on the types of citizen science is really helpful. I am interested in digging deeper into the benefits for young people when they take more time to do authentic inquiry in nonformal settings through Citizen Science as compared to (perhaps more highly accessible) types of Citizen Science that offer more touch points across more settings to more youth.
I wonder if the types of outcomes we can expect for youth across Citizen Science types have been considered? Pam
4. Karen OberhauserJune 6, 2013 at 3:16 PM
The differences between obtaining valuable citizen science data and engaging participants in the process of inquiry sometimes cause tension. Inquiry takes participants all the way from asking questions to sharing their own findings with others, and we've really learned that combining this whole process with citizen science takes a lot of very deliberate nurturing. If the main goal is "crowd-sourcing", or getting work done efficiently by a lot of people, participants don't engage in the whole process. I liked Trudy's use of the term "micro citizen scientist" to refer to this smaller level of engagement. Rob Blair, on the UM FWCE team, once use the term "citizen technicians" to refer to the same thing. Certainly, people will have a lot of different goals when they engage in citizen science, and it's important to recognize (and celebrate) these. It's been exciting (and not 100% easy) to work on trying to "marry" fields of citizen science and inquiry learning.
5. Pam Larson NippoltJune 7, 2013 at 2:47 AM
Karen, you are so right. Integrating authentic inquiry as a goal through Citizen Science is multi-layered and not a straight forward proposition in the context of a youth program but the benefits are worth it, in my estimation! Trudy's observations about the overall landscape of CS in youth programs remind me that choices in how we design youth programs are guided by the benefits that youth (and the adults who care about them and partner with them) want and need.
I can also see, for example, that the connections to a global community that could result from "crowd sourcing" would be a worthy outcome goal for youth. Pam
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LCBO Surveillance Technologies
Punch Cards, IBM & Statistical Analysis
Why Surveillance?
The LCBO was not simply established as a business administration for the sale of liquor. It was from the start an institution entrusted with a serious moral mandate and social control function based on political necessity, corporate methodologies, extralegal power, and prejudices. It was inspired by temperance discourses but transformed into a bureaucratic entity. Specifically, LCBO policy was shaped to address moral issues surrounding temperance by adopting arguments regarding moderation and strict control.
In light of the lingering strength of temperance morality in the 1920s, as well as the centrality of moderation/control arguments within the government, the formation of the LCBO and the regulation of the government’s sale of liquor was pressed to address two key points. First, “if the Government was expected to be returned at the next and succeeding elections they had to make their law effective,” that is they specifically needed to show that their regulations were effective in controlling sales and intemperate behaviour. Second, the government could not permit “it to be shown that revenue [was being generated] from the ruination of families or creating drunkards” (Willison 1924). As the new Liquor Control Board was formed, the government took these points as a virtual blueprint of action to develop the LCBO around the firm concepts of strict control of sales and, more importantly, control over the morality and visibility of liquor consumption (Ferguson 1926, 1927).
Prohibition and Temperance
– Historically Ontario passed through a period of prohibition between 1916 and 1927. Facing the lingering presence of the particular morality of the temperance movement which depicted drinking as a necessary evil, corrupter of morals and the exploitation of weak willed individuals, the government was forced to address temperance values when creating the LCBO. (Read More)
Moderation – Moderation was the name given to a set of arguments that were adopted to counter temperance arguments. Specifically, moderation accepted some of the foundations of temperance arguments but rejected that liquor corrupted all people equally. They argued that alcohol in moderation would not result necessarily in social corruption but that certain types of people who were more susceptible to the social problems of alcohol needed an enforced prohibition. (Read More)
Politics of the Liquor Control Act 1927 – When the Ferguson government sought to end prohibition in Ontario and form the LCBO there was significant opposition. For the most part people questioned the power allocated to the LCBO and its status to develop regulations that were above the law. (Read More)
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Subtypes of Schizophrenia
As schizophrenia progresses, its symptoms can change. Its course is categorized clinically by whatever type of behavior is prominent during an episode. The following five main subtypes are used to classify schizophrenia:
• Catatonic
• Paranoid
• Disorganized
• Undifferentiated
• Residual
Catatonic Schizophrenia
People with catatonic type assume peculiar postures and are usually speechless. They may be both rigid and motionless, or they may seem agitated and move around excessively, but always without external stimulus.
Catatonic people may also have strange facial expressions, may mimic the behavior of others, and may repeat words that others say. Catatonic behavior is also seen in mood disorders, like bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder, and occasionally in diseases of the central nervous system, like Parkinson's disease.
Paranoid Schizophrenia
Paranoid schizophrenia is marked primarily by delusions that follow a theme, like persecution or grandeur. Auditory hallucinations may accompany a delusion and are, therefore, usually related to its theme.
Symptoms common to other subtypes, like disorganized speech and flattened affect, are not usually prominent in episodes of paranoia, but anger, irritability, and extreme anxiety are. People suffering from paranoid delusions become particularly preoccupied with them and may be especially prone to violence.
Interestingly, people with paranoid schizophrenia may experience less dysfunction than people with other subtypes. They are often able to live, work, and care for themselves. The onset of paranoid schizophrenia is often later in life, and, with time, it may characterize most or all episodes.
Disorganized Schizophrenia
Disorganized type, which is marked by disorganized speech, behavior, and flattened affect is particularly disruptive. The disorganized episode (also known as hebephrenic schizophrenia) often features fragmented speech and inappropriate or unexpected behavior that does not reflect ideas expressed verbally. Strange mannerisms, gestures, and surprising behavior are common.
This type of schizophrenia typically causes significant dysfunction in daily life, self-care, and interaction with others, as well as notable thought disturbance and loss of goal-directed behavior. People in the midst of a disorganized episode show no catatonic signs.
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
Undifferentiated schizophrenia is the type given to a lack of catatonia, paranoia, or disorganized speech. Undifferentiated schizophrenia might resemble other illnesses, including neurological disorders. However, people suffering from non-psychiatric diseases typically have insight into their condition and they understand the medical basis for its presence.
Residual Schizophrenia
Finally, the residual type of schizophrenia is diagnosed when positive symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and grossly disorganized behavior have disappeared. Negative symptoms remain and may be interrupted only briefly by mildly disorganized speech or strange behavior.
When delusions or hallucinations occur, even if infrequently, they are not serious enough to cause severe dysfunction. The residual evidence of schizophrenia is apparent by the presence of a flattened affect, loose speech, and a general loss of goal-directed interests. Residual symptoms can last indefinitely, or they can lead to complete recovery, though this is rare.
Generally, 20 percent of people experience significantly improved function, 40 percent improve with intermittent periods of impairment, and 40 percent remain severely affected or incapacitated. Variation depends on adherence to treatment and the factors that seem to prefigure the course of the disease.
Published: 31 Jan 2001
Last Modified: 02 Oct 2015
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Skip to Content
The Arts
The Arts banner
Wayang puppet playsBookmark
Learning area: The Arts
Year level: Year 3, Year 4
Country: Indonesia
In this learning sequence, students will learn about Javanese wayang shadow puppet theatre, its cultural importance, production and performance elements, as well as how the puppets are made and operated. Students will gain knowledge, understanding and skills about the different types of Indonesian puppets such as wayang kulit, wayang golek and wayang klitik.
Key inquiry questions
• What are the origins of wayang and how culturally important is the theatre form in Indonesia?
• What are the performance elements of wayang theatre?
• How are the puppets constructed and operated?
Puppet master manipulating wayang kulit puppets during a shadow-play performance in JakartaWayang kulit puppets being manipulated in a shadow-play in Jakarta
Image: Wayang kulit puppets by flydime (CC BY 2.0)
Related resources
Activity 1: Wayang puppets and performance
In this activity, students will:
• view images of wayang puppets
• investigate the performance and design of the puppet theatre
• create a physical or digital poster of wayang puppets.
Key inquiry question: What are the various elements of wayang puppet theatre?
About wayang shadow puppet theatre
1. Read the notes to the class about the wayang shadow puppet theatre (below).
2. Ask students make notes about what they already knew and what information was new and interesting. Ask students share their notes with another student.
3. Ask students to examine the images of different wayang puppets.
4. Ask students develop a physical or digital journal or poster with the names of the puppets.
5. Show the video, The Wayang Puppet Theatre:
6. Ask students to describe what they found out about the puppet theatre.
7. Have the whole class design 12 questions that explore aspects of wayang puppet theatre, including puppets, performance and design.
8. Divide students into groups of four and find the answers to three of the questions.
9. Students share their group's answers with the rest of the class and discuss what they liked best about the puppet theatre.
About wayang puppetry
Wayang kulit
Kulit means skin or leather. A wayang kulit puppet made of skin or leather is the most popular form for wayang puppet theatre. The performance combines music and drama and is a celebratory ritual involving complex elements of Hindu, Islamic and Indigenous Javanese religions.
Puppet design
Wayang kulit puppets are made from finely carved and decorated wooden rods and buffalo hide. The face and the feet of the puppet provide a side-on view while the body is viewed front-on. The puppets are posed with the bodies held rigidly upright. The only moving parts are the arms, shoulders and elbows.
Puppet features
The features of the puppets display good traits that are valued by the Indonesian people such as loyalty, courage, purity, wisdom, compassion and emotional control. The characters face certain trials in which these traits are tested. The colours of the puppets have symbolic meanings. The colours indicate an emotion or attitude: gold for dignity and calmness, red for tempestuousness, black for anger and white for innocence.
Varieties of wayang
Each region of Indonesia represents their puppet forms quite differently. These include:
• wayang klitik – flat, wooden, carved and painted puppets that perform on a stage
• wayang golek – three-dimensional, costumed, wooden rod puppets that perform on an open stage
• wayang beber – illustrations on long scrolls that are unrolled by the puppet master, dalang, as he recites the story and chants
• wayang wong/orang – dance and drama performances that involve live actors who dance and sing, and talk
• wayang topeng – dance and drama performances that involve live actors who wear masks.
Wayang stories
Wayang originated as a way of telling religious stories using elongated and stylised figures that did not represent human form. These stories originate from the Ramayana, an ancient epic Hindu poem dating back 2,000 to 3,500 years ago in India. The main character is Rama, who is an ideal reincarnation of the God Vishnu. The stories of the Ramayana celebrate the triumph of good over evil and each character is tested to make moral choices.
Favourite stories include:
• Rama's marriage to Sinta
• their banishment to the forest together with Rama's brother, Laksmana
• Sinta's abduction by the monster king Rahwana and her rescue, with the help of the monkey king, Hanuman
• escaping from the kingdom of Sri Lanka.
Wayang stories have a strong influence on people and are said to protect them from evil power and offer moral and spiritual strength.
Music played during wayang performances
The gamelan is the traditional music of Indonesia and is used for traditional dances, shadow plays and sacred temple ceremonies.
The gamelan orchestra accompanies dalang, who manipulates the puppets from behind the screen. The orchestra is on the same side of the screen providing continuous music appropriate to each scene.
Gamelan means 'to hammer'. It is a form of percussive music. The musicians use wooden and padded mallets to hit bronze key instruments to make different levels of sound for two different tunings, quite different in character, named slendro and pelog.
The instruments also include double-headed drums and bamboo flutes. The drummer and the 'gender' player have unspoken communication with the dalang to coordinate the visual and musical elements of the performance. Gender refers to an instrument that accompanies wayang performances.
Changes in tempo and volume accompany the events in the performances to build the drama of the story and hold the attention of the audience.
Activity 2: Performing and producing a wayang play
In this activity, students will:
• learn how to develop characters
• write and perform a play.
Key inquiry question: How do you create and perform a wayang play using the appropriate dramatic conventions and design elements?
Create and perform a play
1. In groups, have students read the wayang play (below), Cicakand Kancil. Cicak is a lizard and Kancil is a smart, sly mouse deer.
2. Follow this by having them explore the interactive digital object Indonesian Online: Wayang kulit. You need to login to Scootle to access this resource.
3. A puppet master, dalang, is then nominated. The dalang will conduct the puppet show and designate other jobs to the group members. This could include characters, musicians, prop makers, a storywriter or light controller.
4. In groups, students decide what their play is going to be about. This could be a story from the Ramayana. In this case students will have to write their own script. Or they could choose the traditional tale Cicak and Kancil. Each member of the group and their character should have a speaking part.
5. Developing characters:
• Guide students in developing an appropriate voice for their character that is recognisable by the audience.
• 'Bad' characters should speak slowly in a deep voice and should be accompanied by deep, slow music whenever they appear in the production.
• 'Good' characters have a higher pitched voice and are accompanied by music that is faster and lighter.
• Both characters are exaggerations or stereotypes of 'good' and 'bad'.
• A single voice or a chorus of voices can be used to produce the accompanying music.
6. Rehearse the production repeatedly so that the group can acquaint themselves with the script, timing of their entrances and exits, the interactions with other characters and their movements and gestures.
7. Rehearse the music accompaniment and how it can make the story more impactful for the audience.
8. As a group, students should share their ideas with the rest of the class and explain the decisions they made to create a dramatic puppet production. Have the class suggest ideas for improvement.
9. Develop a design for the theatre stage, props and audience area. The most important area is the screen and the light that shines behind the screen. The size of the puppets is controlled by how close and far they are from the light. The further away they are, the less detail the audience will see.
10. Construct the props, stage, lighting, audience areas and music.
Script for Cicak and Kancil
Below is a scripted version of the Indonesian folktale Cicak and Kancil.
Characters: Narrator, Kancil, Cicak, Cicak Number Two, Cicak Number Three
Props: percussion instruments, cut-out palm trees and houses, camera flash bulb
In the play three asterisks (***) indicate a good place for music or sound effects.
Note: A bemo is a three-wheeled vehicle used for transporting people.
Narrator: This is the story of Cicak and Kancil. Cicak is a gecko. A gecko is a type of lizard with sticky pads on its toes. *** Cicak can walk or hang upside down on ceilings and walls.
Kancil is a smart and sly mouse deer.
One day Kancil was resting in his house. He was fast asleep when Cicak, the gecko, tried to catch a spider on the wall. Cicak jumped. *** Cicak missed the spider *** and knocked a picture down. The picture hit Kancil on the head. ***
Kancil: Ow! You stupid Cicak! Look what you have done!
Cicak: Oh, Kancil, I'm sorry to disturb you. If you hadn't been so big and slow you could have moved out of the way in time.
Kancil: Slow! Me! I'll have you know I'm much faster than you Cicak. Your silly legs couldn't run fast at all.
Cicak: I'm not slow! I'm sure I'm much faster than you could ever be.
Kancil: All right then. I challenge you to a race to prove who is the fastest. We will race to the big mango tree and back here at sunrise tomorrow. The winner will have the right to do anything he likes to the loser, even kill him!
*** (drumroll)
Kancil: Do you agree?
Cicak: Oh, Oh, Um. Yes, yes I do.
Narrator: Kancil went off to rub coconut oil into his legs and to rest for the night. But Cicak was in a state of panic. ***
Cicak: Oh dear. What have I done? Kancil is much faster than me. If he wins he will probably kill me. *** I must think.
(He walks up and down.)
Cicak: I've an idea! *** I'll get my friends to help me.
Narrator: First Cicak called one friend, *** then another. *** They decided to trick Kancil by hiding along the track of the race so that instead of one Cicak, three Cicaks would run parts of the race like a relay. But Kancil would think it was one gecko. ***
(Geckos leave.)
Narrator: The following morning when the sun rose, *** Kancil and Cicak lined up next to Kancil's house.
Kancil: Are you ready? Are you steady? Go.
Narrator: The both started running and Kancil sped off ahead. *** (Cicak and the house drop back.)
Kancil: Ha, ha. I'm going to beat Cicak easily. Then I might not kill him, but I'll make him my slave forever. ***
(During this time several coconut palms go past.)
Narrator: Kancil ran along and passed a tourist who wanted to take his picture. ***
(Kancil skids to a halt and there is the flash of a camera.)
Narrator: Then he saw Cicak run around a corner ahead of him. It was really Cicak Number Two.
Cicak Number Two: You'd better hurry if you want to beat me, Kancil. ***
Kancil: I'd better run faster. *** There goes Cicak.
(He runs faster – more coconut palms go past.)
Narrator: Kancil runs faster. *** He passed a bemo full of people going to the market. ***
Kancil: I'm going to beat Cicak now.
Narrator: But as Kancil sped onto the mango tree at the halfway point in the race he saw Cicak – Cicak Number Three – running back from the tree. ***
Cicak Number Three: You're pretty slow today, Kancil. *** (He runs off.)
Kancil: Cicak is really fast! I'd better speed up. ***
Narrator: So Kancil raced as fast as he could.
*** (Trees and buildings go past.)
Narrator: His little house was in sight!
Kancil: I will win now for sure! Puff! Puff!
Oh no! There is Cicak just running to my house. ***
Oh no! He has won.
Narrator: Cicak had decided not to be nasty to Kancil, because if anyone found out how the cicaks had tricked Kancil they would be in big trouble. So he said …
Cicak: Kancil, I don't want anybody to know that we cicaks can run so fast or all the animals would be challenging us to races all the time. So my reward for winning will be that you let us cicaks live inside your house to catch insects there, and you mustn't tell anyone about the race.
Narrator: So from that day to this, cicaks live inside the houses in Bali and catch insects, while kancils are very shy and don't like to talk to the animals.
Activity 3: Designing a wayang puppet
In this activity, students will:
• learn about the design and decoration of wayang puppets
• make their own puppets
• perform a play.
Key inquiry question: How are wayang kulit and wayang golek puppets made and used in a performance?
Make a puppet
Students make wayang puppets according to the instructions below. Ask them to decide whether they will make a wayang kulit or wayang golek puppet and choose the appropriate instructions.
Wayang kulit puppets
• heavy duty cardboard
• gold, black, white, red paint
• scissors and/or paper knives
• textas for outlining
• something to punch holes through the card, for example, hammer and nail on a block of wood if supervised, or a large eye blunted needle, or a sewing machine with a large needle
• wayang kulit templates.
1. Trace puppet outline using the template.
2. Use it as a stencil on a piece of cardboard to cut out a sturdy version.
3. Mark in major lines using a felt pen.
4. Punch holes along all lines to create dimension within the shadow.
5. Colour both sides of the puppet. Pay attention to the face colour.
6. Make arm segments and join using wing clips.
7. Attach arm segments to the body using wing clips.
8. Attach pieces of dowling rod or other stick-like objects to the hands to manipulate the arms.
9. Attach a thicker piece of dowling rod or long ruler to the length of the puppet body with sufficient length at the bottom to hold the puppet comfortably so the hand is out of sight during the performance.
Wayang golek puppet
• 1 litre milk cartoons
• good paint
• black felt
• sequins, braid
• fringing, string
• A4 paper
• two pencils
• string, cardboard
• white cotton cloth
• edicol dye
• foam blocks for printing patterns
• foam ball
• papier mâché materials and glue
• white and black paint
• black felt-tip pens
• foam ball
• sticky tape and elastic bands
• sticks
• strips of cardboard as a crown to fit around foam ball head
• coloured paper
Body: Paint the milk cartons gold, ensuring complete coverage.
1. Paint sheet of A4 paper gold, ensuring complete coverage.
2. When the sheet is dry, cut it in half and roll diagonally round each pencil. Glue the paper and remove the pencil.
3. Cut hand shapes out of cardboard.
4. Attach string to hand, thread the string through the two arm rolls and attach the string near the top of the milk carton.
5. Repeat with the other arm.
1. Make papier mâché nose and glue to the foam ball.
2. Paint the head, using white paint for the face and black paint for the hair.
3. Use fine black felt-tip pens to draw on the eyes, nose, eyebrows, mouth and ears.
4. Other decorations may be added such as a moustache or curls.
1. Paint strips of cardboard and leave to dry.
2. Cut out triangle shapes from coloured paper: two small and one large.
3. Measure the head of the puppet and glue the strip of cardboard to make a crown.
4. Glue the triangles onto the crown.
5. Glue headpiece to head.
Yoke: Cut yokes from black felt and decorate with sequins, fringing and braid. These should be decorated in symmetrical patterns rather than randomly placed.
1. Dye cotton cloth earthy colours. Tea or edicol dye can be used.
2. Cut rectangles of cloth large enough to dress the puppet.
3. Cut foam blocks into a number of different shapes and, using gold and black paint, print patterns onto pieces of cloth.
1. Assemble all parts of the puppet using sticky tape and glue.
2. Push a stick through the milk carton and head.
3. Wind an elastic band around the neck to prevent it from pushing though.
4. Tape sticks to the hands.
Create a performance
1. Prior to creating a performance, students design an aerial view of the performance space and include labels where the audience sits, props are stored, the orchestra performs, and the light is distanced from the screen.
2. Students may wish to advertise their performance for others classes to come and see it.
3. Students could design an advertisement, either for the internet or as a poster or handout.
4. Students rehearse their play a number of times to perfect and refine the performance.
5. Perform the play for an audience.
6. Following the performance, students reflect on and evaluate their parts and how they played it.
Image and text: Illustrations by Xiangyi Mo from Access Asia Primary teaching and learning units – Wayang plays: Variation on a theme, pp. 53-55. © Commonwealth of Australia
Activity 4: Reflection
In this activity, the class develops a blog where all students can upload their designs for the performance and photographs or film of the production.
The blog provides an opportunity for other students to question the performers on the intended representation of their puppet character and how they interpreted voice, expression and other production elements.
The blog will reveal students' assumptions about the activity and how others agreed or disagreed with the way they addressed the task.
Students write their own reflection about the performance within the group and their success in designing an authentic puppet and other production elements.
This learning sequence examines the Javanese forms of wayang golek and wayang klitik, and the Balinese and Javanese forms of wayang kulit. Wayang is a Javanese shadow puppet theatre integrating elements of religion, social customs, visual and performing arts, and storytelling.
Students will write a wayang play, make a shadow puppet that reflects an understanding of wayang characterisation and perform the play. They will develop the skills to effectively search the internet, using appropriate phrases, for websites that provide information on the different types of Indonesian puppets.
As an arts learning sequence for Drama and Visual Arts, these integrated activities incorporate knowledge, understanding and skills integrated so that students can explore the subject matter through questioning and acquiring knowledge about the subject.
Students use this knowledge to develop designs and options for creating and constructing both the puppet and the theatre performance. Their designs and performance should be creative, either emulating traditional designs or developing their own. Teachers should explain to students about being respectful of the stories, symbols and traditions of other cultures.
Activity 1: Wayang puppets and performance
In this activity students should be introduced to the traditional forms of puppet theatre: wayang kulit and wayang golek. Refer to information contained within the resource. Through questioning, establish what the students already know and can do.
Activity 2: Performing and producing a wayang play
Introduce contextual information about wayang puppetry and have students use the activity resources. Refer to information about wayang plays to explore their options for designs of the puppets and the performance elements.
Activity 3: Designing a wayang puppet
Prepare students with information about drama and visual arts skills needed to complete the task. For example, the elements of drama to be considered for this task include story script, theatre construction, voice (or voices), role, movement and positioning of puppets, interactions between the characters and the audience, sound, lighting, props, timing.
In the design refer to the information contained within the resource about making puppets so that students can consider creative ideas, materials, techniques, technologies and visual elements. Have students work in small groups and assign particular tasks for the group to be responsible for the construction and performance of the play.
Activity 4: Reflection
It is important that students are provided the opportunity to reflect on what they have learned about wayang theatre through their participation and give evaluative feedback through a blog.
Useful websites
The three websites listed will assist teachers to explore the history, culture and arts forms of Indonesian wayang shadow puppets. These websites can be used for reference material, in accessing information about the performance and how to build a wayang puppet. The interactive games are great for students to sequence and storyboard their ideas.
• Asian Art Museum: Making Indonesian Rod Puppets (lesson) – This site provides a summary of the Ramayana or a scene from this Hindu epic, identifies the different puppet character types, and shows how to analyse the role of the puppet master in Indonesian rod puppet theatre and how to construct a rod puppet of a character from the Ramayana or the Mahabharata.
• Scootle: Indonesian Online – Wayang Kulit – This interactive learning object provides instructions about how to create a puppet performance. You need to login to Scootle to access this resource.
It is recommended that teachers preview websites to ensure they are suitable for their students prior to use in class. Content accessed via these links is not owned or controlled by Asia Education Foundation and is subject to the terms of use of the associated website.
The full resource can not be displayed on a mobile device.
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Practice without theory is blind, theory without practice is useless. Edison.
Inicio Design
LED biasing.
It is certainly one of the most simple circuit to implement, but there are several questions that arise for newbies.
Normal LEDs work with 1.5V and a current of 10mA. Therefore we must calculate a resistance wich will be conected in series with the LED so that it takes the voltage exceeding the 1.5V that LED needs.
For instance, to drive a LED with a 5V power supply, the voltage drop across the resistor will be:
VRs = 5 – 1,5 = 3,5V
and to obtain the resistance value we must divide this voltage drop by the current of 10mA that LED uses:
Rs = 3,5/10e-3 = 350 Ohm.
In the case of IR diodes and high brite white LEDs, is wise to choose one with a known part number, to see its features in a NTE manual or on their datasheets because their biasing current values differ greatly from common LEDs.
Typical values for infrared LEDs are:
Vf Foward Voltaje 1,3V/100mA
If Continuos foward current 100mA
Typical values for high brite white LEDs are:
Vf Foward Voltaje 3,2V
If Continuos foward current 20mA
Is common in remote control transmitters the use of two IR diodes, this is done to increase the brightness of the transmitter and the angle of the IR beam. To polarize two diodes they can be connected in series. In this case we consider a resulting voltage:
1,3x2 = 2,6V
and the same current for a single 100mA diode, since they are connected in series.
See the link to the white paper 5mm IR Diode IR333.
See data sheets
Rythmic lights isolation.
A popular project among electronics enthusiasts, is the rhytmic lights. It is a very engaging and entertaining device, but we have to think about a very important consideration to design and build: the isolation of audio equipment. So we avoid a lethal risk.
Unlike a sequential light, the rhytmic lights box is connected to an external sound source and turn on lights with a small control voltage, the most suitable device for this purpose is the TRIAC. This component has no isolated control circuit from the "force" circuit. It has three pins: one of which, the Gate is to fire the TRIAC, another pin, the MT2, is one of the terminals of "force" and the third terminal, the MT1 is common for small trigger voltage and high voltage of "force" circuit. This terminal is normally connected to circuit ground terminal and to one of the electric home network. So depending on how you connect the mains plug, the earth can be connected to the phase (live) or neutral. In the first case the circuit ground is energized and through it the external audio source and any other device that is connected. Therefore there is a risk of electric shock when touching the ground line of our rhymic lights, the device housing, knobs and housing amplifier, equalizer, etc.
To eliminate this risk, we need to isolate electrically the rythmic lights from the audio source. There are several ways to do it:
1. Use an audio transformer.
2. Use a microphone to capture the audio from the environment for the rythmic lights.
3. Using optical isolation with optocoupler or optotriac.
1. Audio Transformer: connect one of its windings to the rythmic lights and the other to the audio source, so it provides galvanic isolation.
It is hard to find it and not worth manufacture, as other solutions are inexpensive and simple. If transformer is connected as amplifier the audio signal is distorted, as a voltage reducer could be so small that it would not be enough to trigger the triacs. You can also burn the transformer if the power of the audio is very high. These problems can be solved by connecting a power resistor in the winding which is connected to the sound source and using operational amplifiers to amplify the signal in the winding that connects to the rythmic lights.
2. Microphone: you can use a small electret microphone, they are very economical, but as the sign of a microphone is very small it must be amplified subsequently with operational amplifiers.
It has some practical drawbacks: it must obviously be in the ballroom, where the audio volume level is more than enough to work and can also be activated with the cries of the public. In addition, for some DJs is more convenient to install the equipment in a separate room from the ballroom where the audio level is not enough for the rythmic lights to work.
3. Optical isolation: it is the choice that seems to me more efficient. The optical components are inexpensive and easy to get. We can use an optocoupler like 4N36 or even better an optotriac like MOC family.
With the optocoupler we are not isolatoing the audio from the rythmic lights board rather we are isolating the control stage from the power stage (force), typically implemented with TRIAC's. The optocoupler LED is part of the control stage and illuminates the phototransistor which is part of the power stage. To maintain isolation, of course, we must use separate voltage transformers and power supplies. However it is easier to get voltage transformers than audio transformers.
Electronic components stores in Santiago.(Chile)
Whenever we develop a medium or large project, most likely you need to resort to more than one store, because no any cover the entire spectrum of components that exist.
The stores are named next are wich I have visited personally and regularly for years.
Victronics, they has the largest stock of components . All semiconductors normally used by students in laboratory experiences and most used in the industrial area. You can also shop online. They have parking.
Olimexhas few components, but has more modules and development boards, especially the popular Arduino. The Internet sales system works perfectly automatically reporting by email the state of the process.
Casa Royal has few components for design, also few to repair. They do have many devices and instruments at a good price.
RS is a global company that works with a supplier in England. There is everything. Components are requested by catalog and brought in 6-9 business days.
Casa Keim no great assortment of components for design, but they are the only ones with great range in power resistors and large printed circuit boards.
In the case of needing repair parts and schematic circuits for consumer equipment I prefer buying them from "Powerpuff Girls" at Digitel (phone 26324511), due to I'm not devoted to repair in this area, take the opportunity to ask them to guide me. They know all the typical failures of each model.
CM2 also specializes in components for repair. It's in "Galería Sur" of San Diego street (Santiago de Chile), but unlike the other premises of the gallery, is a big store, modern with a very complete stock.
In this gallery there are also several places to repair speakers.
Kowka specializes in electronic components to build electric guitar effects .
Digicom stock has not really updated, so they still keep old components that are already scarce.
Metacomhas all kinds of cables, sell by detail, audio, video, networking, etc. They have parking.
Fullalarms has control panels and sensors for home alarms at a good price. They have parking.
There is a store of industrial surpluses in Ñuble: Loetter. there are many transformers, motors, fans, radiators, contactors, variacs, instruments, etc. A good alternative for high-power components. There are also consumer line equipments in disarmament in the patio of the South Gallery.
And for those ingenuous who still believe that there is an electronic junk yard at "Carrascal" street, I regret to inform them that years ago a supermarket was installed.
If you need spares for electrical appliance, the best choice is to serch thru "Tenderinni" street with the original spare sample.
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Elmer and Wilbur
2 teachers like this lesson
Print Lesson
SWBAT ask and answer questions about key details about the story.
Big Idea
We will draw a picture using the key details from the story.
Warm Up
10 minutes
Today's lesson is aligned to the common core concerning key details and new vocabulary in the story. It is important that I lay the foundation in kindergarten for many ELA skills. It will be important for my students in future grades to be able to identify key details in a text for testing or writing from difficult texts. Today I can use the standards to identify the key details with a fun text.
I am reading another book from the Elmer series, Elmer and Wilbur. I love the Elmer books. I have written many lessons using different Elmer books. There are a few new words that will be challenging for my ELL students to understand.
I gather my students on the carpet for whole group reading block and announce the today's book.
"We are going to read another Elmer book today. The title is Elmer and Wilbur. Let's look at the cover. Hmmm, This elephant is patchwork, so he is Elmer. Who do you think this elephant is? You are right he is Wilbur. Wilbur is his cousin.
Say cousin. This may be a new word. Tell your partner "cousin". Tell your shoe "cousin". Tell your elbow, "cousin". What was the new word? Cousin, right. How many of you have a cousin at this school? WOW! Lots of you have cousins here. So you know that a cousin is your aunt or uncles child. Sometimes they are older than you and sometimes they are younger than you. Sometimes, LOL, they are in your class. How did that happen? Do cousins always look the same? Or do they look different? You are right, some of your cousins look the same as you and some cousins look different than you. Well, what do you think about Wilbur. He is Elmer's cousin, does he look the same or different? He looks different. What? Oh, I see what you mean. Did you hear what Naomi said. They look the same because they both have squares.
Elmer's are all different colors and we call that, what? Patchwork. Patchwork was a new word for us when we first began to read the Elmer books. What is the word? Patchwork. Tell your knee, "patchwork". Tell the floor, "patchwork. Now tell me, "patchwork. Great.
Here is another new word, checkered. Can you say, "checkered"? Something is checkered when it has squares that are two colors. Wilbur is checkered. Tell your right hand, "checkered". Tell your partner, "checkered". Tell the door, "checkered". What do we call the squares that are black and white? We call them checkered. Hmmm, what is Wilbur? CHECKERED! That's right. This story is so funny.
Before we read the story I want to tell you that Wilbur likes to trick everyone. This is another new word. He is a ventriloquist. Everyone turn to your friend and say ventriloquist. Look up at the lights and say ventriloquist. Tell your shoe the word ventriloquist. A ventriloquist can make his voice sound like it is coming from someplace different. Let me show you this video about a ventriloquist."
"We are done watching this video, who is the ventriloquist? Where did she make her voice go? Did her voice sound the same for Lambchop as it did for her? No it did not. And that is what Wilbur can do. What is Wilbur? A ventriloquist."
It is important for me to introduce new vocabulary and have the students use the new word. I defined the word, had them repeat the words several times and showed them a video of a ventriloquist to help them understand what a ventriloquist is.
Reading of the Story
10 minutes
"Now that you know that Wilbur is checkered and is Elmer's cousin, I have to tell you one more thing. Wilbur like to play jokes on everyone. Listen to the story and see if you can figure out how he tricks Elmer."
I begin to read the story and then I have to stop to remind them of what a ventriloquist is.
"Here is that new word, ventriloquist. What does it mean to be a ventriloquist? Yes, they make their voices sound like it is coming from some where else. That is how Wilbur tricks Elmer."
I continue to read.
"Oh, no. They can't find Wilbur. They can hear him but they can't find him. What should they do? Listen and follow his voice. Wow, that was good thinking. Let's see what happens."
I continue to read.
"That was so funny, silly Wilbur got stuck in the tree."
Writing Activity
10 minutes
"We spent so much time on new vocabulary that we will just draw our favorite part of the story. The paper passers will pass out blank paper and you will draw and color a picture with lots of details. I can hardly wait to see your pictures. This story was so funny."
I am only expecting a drawing as a response to the story today. I will use their drawings as an assessment to see if they understood the story. I am expecting their pictures to include a patchwork elephant and a checkered elephant. This will be tricky for their fine motor skills to produce a sample of patchwork and checkered. Drawings can tell me if they understood the story.
I send the students one row at a time to get their pencil boxes and go to their tables. I walk around and prompt them to use lots of details from the story in their pictures. When they are finished they sit on the carpet and read books.
Elmer and Wilbur student work
students working
Wrap Up
10 minutes
We gather on the carpet after cleaning up the books.
"It is time to share the drawings of our favorite part of the story, Elmer and Wilbur. We will sit criss cross applesauce with our hands in our laps and our eyes on the person talking. Let's see if we all had the same favorite part."
I will be able to assess my students understanding of the new words; cousin, patchwork and checkered by their use of the words while explaining their drawings. Each student gets the opportunity to tell about their favorite part of the story and show their picture. We applaud and cheer after each presentation.
For Fun
10 minutes
I love to show a video of the book or a reading to help reenforce the vocabulary, story comprehension and the love of Elmer. I show videos at the end of the day when chairs are stacked, backpacks are on we are waiting for dismissal.
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Tokyo, Nov 11 (IANS) Dinosaurs might not have gone extinct had the the asteroid that hit Earth some 66 million years ago and triggered the mass extinction of the giant animals struck somewhere else instead of crashing into the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, says a study.
The impact of the asteroid, also known as the Chicxulub Impactor, caused a crater 180 km wide and heated organic matter in rocks and ejected it into the atmosphere, forming soot in the stratosphere.
Soot is a strong, light-absorbing aerosol that caused global climate changes that triggered the mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonites, and other animals, and led to the macroevolution of mammals and the appearance of humans.
Based on results of the new study, published in the journal Scientific Reports, the researchers said that the probability of the mass-extinction occurring was only 13 per cent.
This is because the catastrophic chain of events could only have occurred if the asteroid had hit the hydrocarbon-rich areas occupying approximately 13 per cent of the Earth's surface.
Led by Professor Kunio Kaiho of Tohoku University in Japan, the researchers calculated the amount of soot in the stratosphere and estimated climate changes caused by soot using a global climate model
If the asteroid had hit a low-medium hydrocarbon area on Earth, mass extinction could not have occurred and the Mesozoic biota could have persisted beyond the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary, said the study.
The site of the asteroid impact, therefore, changed the history of life on Earth.
According to the study, soot from hydrocarbon-rich areas caused global cooling of 8-11 degrees Celsius and cooling on land of 13-17 degrees Celsius.
It also caused a decrease in precipitation by approximately 70-85 per cent on land and a decrease of approximately 5-7 degrees Celsius in seawater temperature at a 50-m water depth, leading to mass extinction of life forms including dinosaurs and ammonites.
At the time, these hydrocarbon-rich areas were marine coastal margins, where the productivity of marine algae was generally high and sedimentary rocks were thickly deposited.
Therefore, these areas contained a high amount of organic matter, part of which became soot from the heat of the asteroid's impact, the study said.
Thus, the researchers concluded that the Chicxulub impact occurred in a hydrocarbon-rich area and is a rare case of mass extinction being caused at such an impact site.
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This video demonstrating the power of superconductivity has been making the rounds this week and is an example of how video is really the best way to capture and share with thousands of viewers the amazing power of science!
You will notice that the video is a demonstration without the science explained live. It was a missed opportunity in my opinion. Thankfully, Tel-Aviv University, who is responsible for the demonstration, has posted an explanation of the Meissner Effect as demonstrated by a liquid nitrogen cooled disc composed of a sapphire wafer coated thinly with yttrium barium copper oxide. Supercondutivity and magnetism are usually in opposition to each other. In this case, where the disc is extremely thin, it's possible for the magnetic field to penetrate the disc via tiny flux tubes which somehow (biologist hand-waving here) are what's responsible for the levitation we see over the track. Jump below the video to read their explanation and catch a Quicktime video of the physics.
The video is courtesy of the Association of Science-Technology Centers (ASTC), representing the science center and museum field worldwide. You can follow them on Twitter at @ScienceCenters.
The explanation from Tel -Aviv University's website:
"Superconductivity and magnetic field do not like each other. When possible, the superconductor will expel all the magnetic field from inside. This is the Meissner effect. In our case, since the superconductor is extremely thin, the magnetic field DOES penetrates. However, it does that in discrete quantities (this is quantum physics after all! ) called flux tubes.
View the Quicktime link to what is happening: Magnetic field expulsion
Inside each magnetic flux tube superconductivity is locally destroyed. The superconductor will try to keep the magnetic tubes pinned in weak areas (e.g. grain boundaries). Any spatial movement of the superconductor will cause the flux tubes to move. In order to prevent that the superconductor remains “trapped” in midair."
Even if the explanation opportunity was missed in the video, the awe inducing wonder of the demonstration will hopefully capture the attention of non-scientific viewers and intrigue them enough to explore further!
Levitation and Field Lines
Image is courtesy of Tel-Aviv Univeristy
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Take Care of the Environment
It is vital for everyone to do this.
Change will continue through this century and beyond
Global climate is projected to continue to change over this century and beyond. The magnitude of climate change beyond the next few decades depends primarily on the amount of heat-trapping gases emitted globally, and how sensitive the Earth’s climate is to those emissions.
According to the IPCC, the extent of climate change effects on individual regions will vary over time and with the ability of different societal and environmental systems to mitigate or adapt to change.
The IPCC predicts that increases in global mean temperature of less than 1.8 to 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius) above 1990 levels will produce beneficial impacts in some regions and harmful ones in others. Net annual costs will increase over time as global temperatures increase.
"Taken as a whole," the IPCC states, "the range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time." 1
The consequences of climate change.
Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment. Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering sooner.
Climate Change: Present and Future
Ten Indicators of a Warming WorldDetails/Download
Hurricanes will become stronger and more intense
The intensity, frequency and duration of North Atlantic hurricanes, as well as the frequency of the strongest (Category 4 and 5) hurricanes, have all increased since the early 1980s. The relative contributions of human and natural causes to these increases are still uncertain. Hurricane-associated storm intensity and rainfall rates are projected to increase as the climate continues to warm.
Global Warming and its Effect on Wildlife
Our Future | Narrated by Morgan Freeman
More droughts and heat waves
Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of abnormally hot weather lasting days to weeks) everywhere are projected to become more intense, and cold waves less intense everywhere.
Summer temperatures are projected to continue rising, and a reduction of soil moisture, which exacerbates heat waves, is projected for much of the western and central U.S. in summer. By the end of this century, what have been once-in-20-year extreme heat days (one-day events) are projected to occur every two or three years over most of the nation.
Big image
During 2011, a total of 820 natural catastrophes were documented, a decrease of 15 percent from the 970 events registered in 2010.
But the 2011 figure is in line with the average of 790 events during 2001–10 and is considerably above the average of 630 events during 1981–2010
Save Our World
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The Full Wiki
Group velocity: Wikis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Frequency dispersion in groups of gravity waves on the surface of deep water. The red dot moves with the phase velocity, and the green dots propagate with the group velocity. In this deep-water case, the phase velocity is twice the group velocity. The red dot overtakes two green dots, when moving from the left to the right of the figure.
New waves seem to emerge at the back of a wave group, grow in amplitude until they are at the center of the group, and vanish at the wave group front.
For surface gravity waves, the water particle velocities are much smaller than the phase velocity, in most cases.
The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall shape of the wave's amplitudes — known as the modulation or envelope of the wave — propagates through space.
Definition and interpretation
The group velocity vg is defined by the equation
v_g \ \equiv\ \frac{\partial \omega}{\partial k}\,
ω is the wave's angular frequency;
k is the wave number.
The function ω(k), which gives ω as a function of k, is known as the dispersion relation. If ω is directly proportional to k, then the group velocity is exactly equal to the phase velocity. Otherwise, the envelope of the wave will become distorted as it propagates. This "group velocity dispersion" is an important effect in the propagation of signals through optical fibers and in the design of high-power, short-pulse lasers.
Note: The above definition of group velocity is only useful for wavepackets, which is a pulse that is localized in both real space and frequency space. Because waves at different frequencies propagate at differing phase velocities in dispersive media, for a large frequency range (a narrow envelope in space) the observed pulse would change shape while traveling, making group velocity an unclear or useless quantity.
Physical interpretation
The group velocity is often thought of as the velocity at which energy or information is conveyed along a wave. In most cases this is accurate, and the group velocity can be thought of as the signal velocity of the waveform. However, if the wave is travelling through an absorptive medium, this does not always hold. Since the 1980s, various experiments have verified that it is possible for the group velocity of laser light pulses sent through specially prepared materials to significantly exceed the speed of light in vacuum. However, superluminal communication is not possible in this case, since the signal velocity remains less than the speed of light. It is also possible to reduce the group velocity to zero, stopping the pulse, or have negative group velocity, making the pulse appear to propagate backwards. However, in all these cases, photons continue to propagate at the expected speed of light in the medium.[1][2][3][4]
Anomalous dispersion happens in areas of rapid spectral variation with respect to the refractive index. Therefore, negative values of the group velocity will occur in these areas. Anomalous dispersion plays a fundamental role in achieving backward propagating and superluminal light. Anomalous dispersion can also be used to produce group and phase velocities that are in different directions.[2] Materials that exhibit large anomalous dispersion allow the group velocity of the light to exceed c and/or become negative.[4]
The idea of a group velocity distinct from a wave's phase velocity was first proposed by W.R. Hamilton in 1839, and the first full treatment was by Rayleigh in his "Theory of Sound" in 1877.[5]
Matter-wave group velocity
Albert Einstein first explained the wave–particle duality of light in 1905. Louis de Broglie hypothesized that any particle should also exhibit such a duality. The velocity of a particle, he concluded then (but may be questioned today, see above), should always equal the group velocity of the corresponding wave. De Broglie deduced that if the duality equations already known for light were the same for any particle, then his hypothesis would hold. This means that
v_g = \frac{\partial \omega}{\partial k} = \frac{\partial (E/\hbar)}{\partial (p/\hbar)} = \frac{\partial E}{\partial p}
E is the total energy of the particle,
p is its momentum,
\hbar is the reduced Planck constant.
For a free non-relativistic particle it follows that
\begin{align} v_g &= \frac{\partial E}{\partial p} = \frac{\partial}{\partial p} \left( \frac{1}{2}\frac{p^2}{m} \right)\ &= \frac{p}{m}\ &= v. \end{align}
m is the mass of the particle and
v its velocity.
Also in special relativity we find that
\begin{align} v_g &= \frac{\partial E}{\partial p} = \frac{\partial}{\partial p} \left( \sqrt{p^2c^2+m^2c^4} \right)\ &= \frac{pc^2}{\sqrt{p^2c^2 + m^2c^4}}\ &= \frac{p}{m\sqrt{(p/(mc))^2+1}}\ &= \frac{p}{m\gamma}\ &= \frac{mv\gamma}{m\gamma}\ &= v. \end{align}
m is the rest mass of the particle,
c is the speed of light in a vacuum,
γ is the Lorentz factor.
and v is the velocity of the particle regardless of wave behavior.
Group velocity (equal to an electron's speed) should not be confused with phase velocity (equal to the product of the electron's frequency multiplied by its wavelength).
Both in relativistic and non-relativistic quantum physics, we can identify the group velocity of a particle's wave function with the particle velocity. Quantum mechanics has very accurately demonstrated this hypothesis, and the relation has been shown explicitly for particles as large as molecules.[citation needed]
See also
1. ^ George M. Gehring, Aaron Schweinsberg, Christopher Barsi, Natalie Kostinski, Robert W. Boyd, “Observation of a Backward Pulse Propagation Through a Medium with a Negative Group Velocity”, Science. 312, 895-897 (2006).
2. ^ a b Gunnar Dolling, Christian Enkrich, Martin Wegener, Costas M. Soukoulis, Stefan Linden, “Simultaneous Negative Phase and Group Velocity of Light in a Metamaterial”, Science. 312, 892-894 (2006).
3. ^ A. Schweinsberg, N. N. Lepeshkin, M.S. Bigelow, R.W. Boyd, S. Jarabo, “Observation of superluminal and slow light propagation in erbium-doped optical fiber”, Europhysics Letters. 73, 218-224 (2005).
4. ^ a b Matthew S Bigelow, Nick N Lepeshkin, Heedeuk Shin, Robert W Boyd, “Propagation of a smooth and discontinuous pulses through materials with very large or very small group velocities”, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter. 18, 3117-3126 (2006)
5. ^ Brillouin, Léon. Wave Propagation and Group Velocity. Academic Press Inc., New York (1960)
• Tipler, Paul A. and Ralph A. Llewellyn (2003). Modern Physics. 4th ed. New York; W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0. 223 p.
External links
Velocities of Waves 2006-01-14 Surface waves.jpg
Phase velocity | Group velocity | Front velocity | Signal velocity
Simple English
Group velocity is often considered to be the wave velocity at which information travels. Often, this can be seen as the speed at which the envelope of the wave travels.
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logo image
American History Questions
What caused a need for political and social reform in the late 1800s?
rapid industrialization
What was a major goal of Progressives during the Progressive Era?
regulating business practices
During the Progressive Era, what did new business regulations focus on?
What group of people worked to inform the public about injustices of the Progressive Era?
How did muckrakers influence the Progressive movement at the turn of the century?
by bringing important social issues to light
What was one main goal of Progressives in the late 1800s and early 1900s?
enact reforms in social policy
What describes muckraker Lincoln Steffens’s goal?
to expose and reform corruption in politics
What describes why Progressives worked to reform the meat-packing industry in the early 1900s?
the industry used unsafe manufacturing practices
What describes the Progressives’ view on conservation?
they supported conservation to preserve the environment’s beauty
How did Progressives want to reform education during the Progressive Era?
by requiring children to attend school
What was a common goal of the Populists and the Progressives during the Progressive Era?
government regulation of business
What is one reason that Progressives tried to eliminate child labor in the United States?
children worked long hours in unsafe conditions
What was a success of the Progressive movement?
passing laws that protected child workers
What was a result of the Progressive Party’s focus on protecting consumers?
the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906
What was an important labor reform during the Progressive Era?
securing workers’ compensation
What legislation discouraged businesses from using child labor during the Progressive Era?
the Keating-Owen Act
In which area were the Progressives unsuccessful?
eliminating child labor
How did the Supreme Court limit the success of reform during the Progressive Era?
the court sometimes repealed laws or parts of laws that concerned reform
What was the effect of the Supreme Court’s decision in the case of Lochner v. New York?
the progressive movement suffered a setback because a state law that limited the workday to ten hours was struck down
What describes the Supreme Court’s decision in the case of Lochner v. New York?
the supreme court found that states could not intervene in limiting the length of a workday
In the case Lochner v. New York, who did the Supreme Court rule could determine the length of the workday?
the employers and employees
Who was a muckraker?
a reporter who wrote about corruption and crime in industry and governent
Who first applied the term muckraker to journalism?
President Theodore Roosevelt
In How the Other Half Lives, what does Jacob Riis expose?
the harsh living conditions in New York City slums
What describes a major effect of Upton Sinclair’s book The Jungle?
it created a controversy that influenced President Roosevelt to take action
How did Ida Tarbell help end the Standard Oil monopoly?
she wrote a series of articles exposing the corruption of standard oil
What did Ida B. Well’s book The Red Record expose?
exposed the horrors of lynching in America
What did Ida B. Wells work to end through her muckraking articles?
lynching of and discrimination against African Americans
Read the quotation by Theodore Roosevelt: “There is filth on the floor, and it must be scraped up with the muck rake; and there are times and places where this service is the most needed of all the services that can be performed…The men with the muck rakes are often indispensable to the well-being of society.”
According to this quotation, what describes Roosevelt’s view on journalism?
writers who expose corruption perform a vital service to America
How did Jacob Rii’s How the Other Half Lives shock the American public?
powerful photographs depicting conditions in city slums
What is an example of muckraking disguised as a work of fiction?
The Octopus by Frank Norris
What was a corrupt business practice that Frank Norris exposed in The Octopus?
railroad companies selling land to farmers and secretly keeping legal ownership of the land
Read the quotation from Lincoln Steffens’s The Shame of the Cities: “My purpose was…to see if the shameful facts, spread out in all their shame, would not burn through our civic shamelessness and set fire to American pride.”
According to Steffens, what was the purpose of muckraking journalism?
to encourage people to take action against widespread corruption
What describes Upton Sinclair, Ida Tarbell, and Frank Norris’s impact on journalism?
they were among the first to publicize immoral, corrupt practices of large industries
What describes how muckrakers brought about reform in the Progressive Era?
muckrakers presented Americans with facts about corruption in industry and government that promted them to demand change
What was an unintended result of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle?
laws were passed to ensure food and drug safety
What describes the main way that Upon Sinclair gathered research for The Jungle?
he went undercover as a worker in a meat packing plant
Read the quotation from Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle: “There would be meat that had tumbled out on the floor, in the dirt and sawdust, where the workers had tramped and spit uncounted billions of consumptive germs.”
What describes the American public’s reaction to reading The Jungle?
the public was outraged and demanded legislative reform from the government
What was President Roosevelt’s first reaction to Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle?
disbelief and distrust of Sinclair’s claims
When government inspectors investigated the claims made by Upton Sinclair in The Jungle, what did they find?
slaughterhouse conditions were even worse than Sinclair had reported
What aspect of Upton Sinclair’s life explains his reasons for writing The Jungle?
his socialist politics
What impact did Sinclair’s book have on the era of Progressive reform?
the jungle showed that if the public was informed about a certain issue, it had the power to demand reform from the government
Starting in the 1800s, what did members of the suffragist movement in the United States focused on?
women’s right to vote
In the early 1800s, why did society consider temperance to be a “respectable” cause for female reformers?
because this issue related to community welfare and family
What government action prompted the organization of two women’s suffrage groups in 1869?
the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment
What marked the achievement of a long-held suffragist goal in the early 1900s?
the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution
What describes Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony?
two women who formed the National Woman Suffrage Association
How did the role of women during World War 1 affect the suffragist movement?
women served as nurses and ambulance drivers during the war, convincing people to support their right to vote
What was the main difference between the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA)?
the NWSA worked for a constitutional amendment granting suffrage; the AWSA fought for suffrage at the state level
What describes Carrie Chapman Catt’s “Winning Plan” to achieve national women’s suffrage?
to win women’s suffrage in as many states as possible while campaigning Congress to pass a constitutional amendment
What describes the causes women reformers and activists focused on before the suffragist movement?
temperance, abolition of slavery, and education for women and girls
Why did the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1869 prompt the formation of two major suffrage organizations?
it granted formerly enslaved people the right to vote, while women were still denied this right
What is considered to be the first major event of the women’s movement?
the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention
What was the goal of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s National Woman suffrage Association?
the passage of a constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote
In the early 1800s, what issues did female reformers focus on?
temperance, abolition, and women’s access for education
What shows the correct order of events in women’s suffrage?
suffrage in some Eastern states, Catt’s “Winning Plan,” the Nineteenth Amendment
How did the 1840 World’s Anti-Slavery Convention affect the women’s suffrage movement?
women were not allowed to fully participate in the convention; this led several key female activists to shift their focus to women’s right
What did Margaret Sanger’s appeal of her 1916 arrest result in?
legalization of doctors prescribing contraceptives and discussing family planning with patients
What did Ukrainian immigrant Clara Lemlich accomplish in 1909?
better working conditions for female garment workers in New York City
What describes the result of the Uprising of the Twenty Thousand?
factory owners agreed to increase worker’s wages and shorten the work week
What did Emma Hart Willard accomplish in 1826?
she founded the first all-girls high school in the US
What describes Margaret Sanger?
she advocated for women’s health and helped educate women about birth control and family planning
What is Elizabeth Cady Stanton most noted for?
helping draft the Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments
In 1833, what did Oberlin College become the first US college to do?
admit women on equal terms with men
Who was the woman who opened the first birth-control clinic in the United States?
Margaret Sanger
What describes the relationship between Jim Crow laws and the “separate but equal” doctrine?
Jim Crow laws were designed to enforce this doctrine by requiring racial segregation for public facilities
Despite the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, southern states implemented Jim Crow laws, what were they designed to do?
prevent African Americans from gaining equality
What directly violated the intent of the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution?
poll taxes
Read the quotation from Booker T. Washington’s 1895 Atlanta Compromise Speech: “Progress in the enjoyment of all the privileges that will come to us must be the result of severe and constant struggle rather than of artificial forcing.”
In this quotation, what view is Washington is expressing?
the government cannot legislate equality
Plessy v. Ferguson was overturned in 1954, what was decided by the Supreme Court?
racial segregation was unconstitutional
During the Jim Crow era, why did southern states impose poll taxes and literacy tests?
prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote
Read the quotation from Dr. Oswald P. Bronson, recalling his childhood under Jim Crow: “Even on our way to school some days, men would come by and throw oranges at us, sometimes rock perhaps. We [also] were very much aware of police brutality in that city at that time. We were conscious of the Ku Klux Klan riding around the town to keep everybody in check.”
In this quotation, what is Dr. Bronson describing?
intimidation, scare tactics, and violence perpetrated by both the police and the Ku Klux Klan against African American citizens
Jim Crow laws, a set of racist and discriminatory rules and regulations against African Americans, where were they enacted?
in the South starting in the mid- to late 1800s
What did the court case Plessy v. Ferguson challenge the legality of?
racially segregated train cars
In upholding Louisiana’s Separate Car Act, what did the Supreme Court claim?
segregation did not constitute discriminaion
In 1892, why was Homer Plessy arrested?
sitting in a “whites only” rail car
In the Plessy v. Ferguson decision, what did Supreme Court justices claim that the Fourteenth Amendment did not protect?
social rights
Read the quotation from Justice John Marshall Harlan in his Plessy v. Ferguson dissent in 1896: “Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens.”
How were the views Harlan expressed in this quotation used later in the Supreme Court?
later adopted by the Supreme Court in the Brown v. Board of Education decision
What would supporters of the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling most likely have agreed with?
that “separate but equal” was a valid legal doctrine
What did the Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision rule about Louisiana’s Separate Car Act?
helped maintain public peace and good order
What did Booker T. Washington believe that the best strategy to end racial segregation?
adapt to it as they worked to gain equality
Read the quotation from Booker T. Washington’s Up From Slavery: An Autobiography; “Every persecuted individual and race should get much consolation out of the great human law, which is universal and eternal, that merit, no matter under what skin found, is, in the long run, recognized and rewarded.”
How does this quotation relate to Washington’s theory of accommodation?
he believed that in a merit-based society, hard work and patience would lead to racial equality
What did Booker T. Washington’s Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute eventually grow into?
grew from a small school into a university
Read the quotation from Booker T. Washington’s 1895 Atlanta Compromise Speech:”In all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.”
What describes the view Washington is expressing in this quotation?
maintaining an individual and racial identity does not mean all people cannot work together
What did Booker T. Washington believe that African American accommodation to segregation should be accompanied by?
hard work, self-improvement, and patience
What describes Booker T. Washington?
a civil rights leader who was born into slavery and later worked to achieve racial equality
What describes how muckrakers brought about reform in the Porgressive Era?
Muckrakers presented Americans with facts about corruption in industry and government that prompted them to demand change
What was a major goal of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People when it was formed in 1909?
to end segregation
In the early 1900s, what federal legislation did the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People strongly push for?
ban the practice of lynching
Following the Springfield race riots of 1908, journalist William English Walling called on his fellow Americans to “revive the abolitionist spirit,” what did it lead to the development of?
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
What man’s belief was The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People founded on?
W.E.B. Du Bois
What leader helped to form the Niagra movement?
W.E.B. Du Bois
W.E.B. Du Bois was a sociologist and activist who:
fought for the political and social rights of African Americans
What describes a major problem faced by the Niagra movement?
lack of organizational structure
What describes W.E.B. Du Bois’s opinion of Booker T. Washington’s accommodationist approach?
it reinforced segregation and discrimination
What describes a similarity between W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington?
both supported full racial equality
While Booker T. Washington believed in an accommodationist approach to racial equality, what did W.E.B. Du Bois believe in?
actively working to achieve civil rights for all
What leader in the early 1900s supported the idea that African Americans should temporarily accept inequality while working to gain job skills and obtain economic independence?
Booker T. Washington
Read the quotation by W.E.B. Du Bois: “We refuse to allow the impression to remain that the Negro-American assents to inferiority, is submissive under oppression and apologetic before insults.”
In this quotation, Du Bois disagrees with Booker T. Washington’s accommodationist approach because Du Bois is expressing what?
temporarily accepting discrimination will not lead to equality
Read the quotation from Booker T. Washington’s Up From Slavery: “No One section of our country was wholly responsible for its introduction, and, besides, it was recognized and protected for years by the General Government. Having once got its tentacles fastened on to the economic and social life of the Republic, it was no easy matter for the country to relieve itself of the institution.”
On what point would Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois agree?
slavery has lasting and extensive effects on every aspect of American society
What did Marcus Garvey advocate for?
Pan Africanism, which was a movement to unify all people of African descent
Read the quotation by Marcus Garvey: “The only wise thing for us ambitious Negroes to do, is to…build up for the race a mighty nation of our own in Africa. And this race of ours that cannot get recognition and respect in the country where we were slaves, by using our own ability, power and genius, would develop for ourselves in another country in our habitat a nation of our own.”
Based on the quotation, what describes Garvey’s view on the best way for African Americans to gain “respect and recognition?”
to return to Africa and form a new country
When Marcus Garvey was in his twenties, he toured Central America and witnessed the oppression of migrant workers, how did the experience inspire him?
inspired his support of Pan Africanism and his political activism
How did Marcus Garvey define self-reliance?
economic independence
Why did W.E.B. Du Bois call Marcus Garvey “the most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America?”
Garvey’s views promoted racial separation
In order to help African Americans in the US gain economic independence, what was founded by Marcus Garvey?
Black Star Line and the Negro Factories Association
What describes the outcome of the 1913 case Guinn v U.S.?
the case was a victory for the NAACP because it overturned a law that would have limited African American voting rights
What describes the purpose of the Niagra movement?
to support social and political rights for African Americans
Who served as president of the United States from 1901 to 1909?
Theodore Roosevelt
How did Theodore Roosevelt earn the Congressional Medal of Honor?
by leading a successful cavalry charge against the Spanish
What summarizes the achievements or career of Theodore Roosevelt?
he was elected many different positions and had a broad range of interests
What early experiences led Theodore Roosevelt appreciate the natural world?
as a young boy, he read books about natural history
What job did Theodore Roosevelt compare the role of a president to?
What did Theodore Roosevelt believe that the only checks on presidential power were?
the Constitution and Congress
What was the name of Theodore Roosevelt’s solution for dealing with different groups called?
the Square Deal
What was the guiding principle of Roosevelt’s Square Deal?
Roosevelt would treat Americans with fairness and respect
During the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, how did the US government protect businesses?
by breaking up a railroad trust
How did Theodore Roosevelt’s Square Deal help the environment?
by preserving the nation’s forests
What was a result of Theodore Roosevelt’s philosophy about conservation?
the creation of national parks
What did President Roosevelt create to help end the Coal Strike of 1902?
a commission
What was a reason that Roosevelt sued the Northern Securities Company?
Northern Securities controlled all rail service between Chicago and the Pacific Northwest
How did the Elkins Act and the Hepburn Act regulate railroads?
outlawing rebates to the largest customers and setting railroad rates
What were two of Theodore Roosevelt’s major successes in protecting consumers?
the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act
In what area did Theodore Roosevelt fail to enact reforms?
child labor
In regard to regulating companies, what did Roosevelt want them to serve?
the public in the best way possible
What issues caused Roosevelt to seek a “square deal” for the environment in 1900?
What was an important environmental debate in the United States in 1900?
whether to use wilderness resources
What was a direct result of the Newlands Reclamation Act?
creation of suitable areas for farming or ranching
Roosevelt’s positions on conservation and the environment are best characterized as what?
What is a legacy of Roosevelt’s environmental policies?
national parks and forests
What did Conservative Republicans want to use tariffs to protect American industry from?
foreign competition
Progressive and conservative republicans disagreed on what in the early 1900s?
the role of the US governemnt
Why did many conservative Republicans oppose conservation efforts in the early 1900s?
they wanted to use natural resources for business purposes
To which post did Theodore Roosevelt appoint William Howard Taft in 1904?
secretary of war
What position did Taft hold after his presidency?
Supreme Court justice
Why did Taft’s opponent in the 1908 presidential race claim that Taft was running two campaigns?
Taft campaigned as a progressive Republican in the West and a conservative Republican in the East
Why were Theodore Roosevelt and his supporters disappointed in Taft’s presidency?
Taft was less progressive than they had hoped
What was a major progressive business reform that President Taft enacted?
breaking up large monopolies
What reform was advocated by Theodore Roosevelt and later established by Taft?
the Children’s Bureau
How did President Taft’s passage of the Mann-Elkins Act in 1910 continue Roosevelt’s legacy of railroad reform?
strengthening the Interstate Commerce Commission
What progressive political reform did Taft support during his presidency?
the passage of the Sixteenth Amendment
What was President Taft’s creation of the Children’s Bureau an example of?
a progressive Republican social reform
What describes how President Taft affected conservation efforts?
Taft appointed a secretary of the interior who undid some of Roosevelt’s conservation work
Why did Taft’s passage of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act create a problem for Roosevelt progressives?
it did little to lower taxes
In what areas was Taft less progressive than Roosevelt?
supporting labor unions
What Republican challenged Taft during his run for a second term?
Theodore Roosevelt
How did Theodore Roosevelt become a party nominee in the presidential election of 1912?
Roosevelt split from the Republicans formed the Progressive Part
How did the Progressive Party set itself apart from the Democratic and Republican parties?
the Progressive Party strongly supported women’s suffrage
Why did Roosevelt choose a bull moose as a symbol for his new Progressive Party?
he fought like one for things he believed in
What is an effect of third-party candidates, such as Theodore Roosevelt, on presidential elections?
they change outcomes of elections
What explains why the political climate was ripe for a third-party candidate during 1912 presidential election
the Republican Party was unsatisfied with its candidate
How did Woodrow Wilson’s presidential win in 1912 set a precedent?
Wilson won the electoral college but less that fifty percent of the popular vote
What was a way in which Woodrow Wilson wanted to help average Americans?
promoting free enterprise for the middle class
What was a similarity between Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt?
both believed monopolies were bad for the country
According to Wilson, what group had too much power over the US economy and government?
big business
What group did Wilson want to help during the first half of his term?
What group did Wilson want to help during the second half of his term?
everyday workers
What did Wilson believe about high tariffs?
prevented the US economy from growing
What states the purpose of Wilson’s anti-trust legislation?
to encourage free enterprise
Progressive reforms that sought to break up monopolies and limit their power were known as?
The Adamson Act, which legislated working hours and pay in the railroad industry, why was it significant?
it blazed a trail for similar policies in other industries
Where was Wilson unsuccessful in making lasting changes?
the hours and age at which children worked
What did he Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act, which was passed in 1912, do to tariffs?
reduced tariffs on all imported goods
What defines a graduated income tax?
a tax which higher earners pay more than lower earners
Why was the Federal Trade Commission established in 1914?
prevent unfair business practices
What is the central bank of the United States called?
Federal Reserve System
What was the main purpose of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913?
oversee and regulate commercial banks
What states how World War 1 affected President Wilson’s position on women’s suffrage?
Wilson started to champion women’s suffrage after the war began
Read the quote from President Wilson’s letter to the National Child Labor committee: “As the labor situation created by the war develops I am more interested than ever, if that were possible, in throwing all the safeguards possible around the labor of women and children.”
The “labor situation” Wilson refers to most likely concerned him because:
women and children had to do the jobs of male workers who became soldiers
How did Congress affect Wilson’s efforts to protect working women and children during the war?
Congress stopping working on Wilson’s progressive legislation
What piece of Progressive legislation did the Supreme Court declare unconstitutional?
the Keating-Owen Child Labor Act
What Progressive cause was helped by US involvement in World War 1?
women’s suffrage
What explains which Progressive reforms were most successful?
the financial reforms were most successful because they established lasting methods to protect free enterprise
What was a way in which Progressives were successful in reforming the federal government?
reforming taxes
Progressives, such as Woodrow Wilson, supported financial reforms because thy believed the nation’s financial system was overly controlled by what group of people?
big business
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European Sections
Videos, pictures and texts in English and from the English speaking world to implement your history and geography lessons and presentations!
History of the Americas
The Spanish Conquest
Find out what Mesoamerican codices tell us about the Spanish conquest of the Americas on the website of the University of Arizona Library.
Discover Spanish conquest through the architecture of the biggest cathedral in the Americas. Read the Wikipedia articles about the Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City (in English and in Spanish) and learn about baroque architecture.
Visit the website of the Templo Mayor Museum (in English or in Spanish).
Read the article in Wikipedia about Montezuma's palace (also called Casas Nuevas) and learn about the latest archeological discoveries from NBC News.
Coastal Geography
Zeebruge, a Leading Hyper-modern Port in Europe
Ancient History
Ancient Mesopotamia: the City of Ur.
The Ziggurat of Ur.
By M. Lubinski, Août 2010 (Flickr) [CC BY-SA-2.0
The Royal Tombs of Ur, on the website of the British Museum. Learn about Leonard Woolley's trip to Irak and his archeological works on the ancient site of IVth and IIIrd m. B-C Ur. Visit the royal tombs and play the Ur royal game.
Ancient Athens. The Parthenon Sculptures.
By M. Chohan (2005)/Wikimedia [CC BY-SA 3.0]
Why are the Parthenon sculptures displayed in the Brtisih Museum instead of Athens? Visit the website of the British Museum to find the answer.
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<urn:uuid:61204232-0107-4e72-b772-b68715cb1bb0>
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"fasttext_score": 0.22606462240219116,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7652199864387512,
"url": "https://histoirgeo.jimdo.com/sections-europ%C3%A9ennes/"
}
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The Bremont Endurance
Posted on June 10 2018
The Bremont Endurance
Ernest Shackleton, HMS Endurance and Ben Saunders:
Ben Saunders (UK) planned a mission to follow Sir Ernest Shackleton’s expedition to save the stranded crew members of the Endurance. He commenced the solo, west to east expedition, from Berkner Island to the Ross Ice shelf in November 2017. He reached the South Pole in 52 days (1086Km). However due to ferocious conditions, he had consumed more food than planned, and was left with only 13 days of supplies for a continued 17 day 576 Km journey in order to complete the solo unassisted trans-antarctic expedition. He could have taken on more supplies at the south pole but chose not to, subsequently halting the expedition. Re-supply would have rendered the solo unassisted mission a failure. He remains only the third person in the world to have skied expeditions to both poles, and the first to ski solo (unsupported and unassisted) missions to both poles.
Wikipedia Shackleton excerpt:
The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914–17), also known as the Endurance Expedition, is considered the last major expedition of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. Conceived by Sir Ernest Shackleton, the expedition was an attempt to make the first land crossing of the Antarctic continent. After the conquest of the South Pole by Roald Amundsen in 1911, this crossing remained, in Shackleton's words, the "one great main object of Antarctic journeyings".[1] The expedition failed to accomplish this objective, but became recognised instead as an epic feat of endurance.
Shackleton had served in the Antarctic in Captain Scott's Discovery Expedition, 1901–04, and had led the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907–09. In this new venture he proposed to sail to the Weddell Sea and to land a shore party near Vahsel Bay, in preparation for a transcontinental march via the South Pole to the Ross Sea. A supporting group, the Ross Sea party, would meanwhile establish camp in McMurdo Sound, and from there lay a series of supply depots across the Ross Ice Shelf to the foot of the Beardmore Glacier. These depots would be essential for the transcontinental party's survival, as the group would not be able to carry enough provisions for the entire crossing. The expedition required two ships: Endurance under Shackleton for the Weddell Sea party, and Aurora, under Aeneas Mackintosh, for the Ross Sea party.
Endurance became beset in the ice of the Weddell Sea before reaching Vahsel Bay, and drifted northward, held in the pack ice, throughout the Antarctic winter of 1915. Eventually the ship was crushed and sunk, stranding its 28-man complement on the ice. After months spent in makeshift camps as the ice continued its northwards drift, the party took to the lifeboats to reach the inhospitable, uninhabited Elephant Island. Shackleton and five others then made an 800-mile (1,300 km) open-boat journey in the James Caird to reach South Georgia. From there, Shackleton was eventually able to mount a rescue of the men waiting on Elephant Island and bring them home without loss of life.
Ben wore his Bremont expedition watch on the outside of his jacket to serve as a navigational aid with its GMT Hand and Bi-directional rotating compass bezel. The watch was made from titanium ( so save weight) and assembled using very specialized lubricants that could withstand the punishingly frigid weather.
The GMT Hand is made with the letter “N” to denote North. When the GMT hand is set to the local time ( corresponding to the time indicated on the watch) and the hour hand is pointing in the direction of the sun, the GMT hand points to the North. The compass bezel, when adjusted to suit, will then act as a directional guide.
How to navigate using your watch:
It seems that using your watch to navigate has become a bit of a lost art, like many things in the mechanical watch knowledge base. Yet it's really quite easy.
If your watch has a GMT hand:
1. Ensure the GMT hand is set to local time ( as displayed by the hour and min hands)
2. Remove your watch and hold it flat / horizontal
3. Point the hour hand in the direction of the sun ( as if it were on the horizon)
4. View the GMT hand as it will be pointing North.
5. If your watch has a compass bezel , rotate it so that "N" lines up with the GMT hand
6. Re-establish your direction ( #3) often as the sun is moving across the sky
If your watch has three hands:
1. Remove your watch and hold it flat / horizontal
3. South will be located in between where the hour hand is ( pointing in the direction of the sun) and 12
4. If your watch has a compass bezel , rotate it so that "S" lies is between 12 and the hour hand
5. Re-establish your direction ( #2) ]often as the sun is moving across the sky
Recent Posts
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"url": "https://shop.roldorf.co/blogs/the-roldorf-times/the-bremont-endurance"
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X-rays show why van Gogh paintings lose their luster | Science| In-depth reporting on science and technology | DW | 16.02.2011
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X-rays show why van Gogh paintings lose their luster
Scientists have identified the chemical reaction responsible for the degradation of the bright yellow used in several of Vincent van Gogh's paintings. But there is little that can be done to restore the vibrant color.
A woman looks at the painting by van Gogh
Paintings like van Gogh's 'The Mower' are turning browner
Van Gogh is famous for his daring use of bright color and the emotional impact of his paintings. But some of his brighter work has lost its sheen, with yellows becoming more of a dull, dirty brown.
The pigment van Gogh used, called chrome yellow, has been known to be unstable since the 19th century, but it took X-ray analysis to be able to identify the problem of fading yellows, because the reaction takes place only in a painting's top micrometer (1,000th of a millimeter).
Research published in the journal Analytical Chemistry showed the chromate in the paint used in works such as "The Banks of the River Seine" loses an oxygen molecule, and becomes green, creating a brownish hue when mixed with the yellow. But with this kind of reaction, a reduction reaction, there always is always an accompanying oxidation reaction. The scientists are still mystified as to where the fugitive oxygen molecule has gone.
"If anything around is likely to get oxidized by the chromate it's the oil," said Koen Janssens, the research leader and a chemistry professor at the University of Antwerp. "We're looking further to see clues."
You get what you pay for
One clue the researchers are examining is the presence of lead sulphate and barium sulphate. Their work suggests that the chrome yellow only reduces with oxygen when one of those materials is also present.
View of Arles with Irises
The chemical reaction continues the researchers say
These sulphates were cheap chemicals added to paints to lighten the color and to save artists money. It makes yellow more straw-colored rather than the intense orange of pure chrome yellow.
But with the lower price tag of the pigment, came the unforeseen chemical reaction diminishing the longevity of the color.
"What is happening is the opposite of what van Gogh intended," Janssens said. "It's an inverse situation - as if nature doesn't want to make it lighter."
Janssens' team collected samples from three left-over historic paint tubes and artificially aged them 500 years using an UV lamp. Of the three samples, only one, from a paint tube belonging to the Flemish Fauvist Rik Wouters, showed significant darkening. After examining this sample with X-ray analysis, the research team found that UV light could produce the darkening effect found in van Gogh's work.
But even after clearing up the chemistry, the Janssens said he's wary of reversing the reaction with more chemistry. While he said it could be done in a laboratory, he has doubts about doing experiments on a masterpiece.
"It's a bit of a scary operation, a bit like burning," he said. "All kinds of other things might oxidize. Collateral damage has not been investigated."
Ongoing chemical reaction
The other possibility would be scraping off the micrometer where the reaction has taken place, but that runs against modern curation practices.
Banks of the Seine at the Pont de Clichy in the spring, Paris, June 1887
Van Gogh started using chrome yellow in the 1880s
"Current ethics mean that you would not remove any original material even if it's deteriorated," said Ella Hendriks, head curator at the van Gogh Museum in the Netherlands, "You might over-paint certain areas to return them to the way they looked before the discoloration took place, but we don't know how the painting looked before the process started so that has other ethical problems."
The best hope is to slow down the process as much as possible, scientists and curators have said.
"It's a very, very thin layer that has formed," Janssens said. "We cannot just say it's happened, it's irreversible. I call this slow chemistry. It's still going on. I'm not pessimistic that by making the reaction slower we can help preserve the paintings."
He said he has a hunch that cooling the paintings by 5 to 10 degrees Celsius may help, but he has not confirmed this yet. But Hendriks sounded a note of caution, pointing out that cooling the paintings could affect them in other ways.
"Chrome yellow is just one example of the many fugitive pigments we have to deal with," she said.
The paintings are already exhibited in micro-climate cases which filter out the UV light and keep the temperature and the humidity stable. The van Gogh Museum is working with the scientists to find out if there is more to be done, and Hendriks said the discovery is useful when it comes to cleaning and preserving the paintings, too.
"It's very useful to know that the brown surface of the paint is an effect of natural ageing and it's not necessarily due to residues of old dirt and varnish left in the paint surface," she said. "It makes you look in an increasingly informed way when you're judging and treating paintings."
Author: Molly Guinness
Editor: Sean Sinico
DW recommends
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"url": "https://www.dw.com/en/x-rays-show-why-van-gogh-paintings-lose-their-luster/a-14845607"
}
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How humans develop echolocation skills is revealed in new research
Published Sep 07, 2017
Ongoing research at KTH reveals that when navigating by echolocation, as blind people do, our powers of hearing can be used in ways we never realized.
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Like our fellow mammals, dolphins and bats, humans can find their way through an environment by making sounds and listening for the echoes. With practice, we can learn to use the volume, pitch and timbre of echoes from a tapping cane, or one’s own voice, to navigate an environment without relying on sight, says Bo Schenkman, an associate professor at KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm.
Unlike with dolphins and bats, echolocation is a byproduct of human hearing, not a sense in itself. However, people who are blind from an early age are better at echolocation, says Schenkman, who is doing research that explores how people can be trained to use this ability even later in life.
While the ability to detect volume and pitch shifts is known, Schenkman reports that preliminary research shows people are able to also detect the timbre of an echo, that is, the characteristics that give a sound its distinctness. Timbre, for example, is the quality that enables us to tell a violin from a cymbal, even if they are in the same volume and pitch.
Schenkman’s research shows that visually impaired people are on average better at perceiving the quality of two sounds that are close together in time. He also finds that blind people can more easily counteract the "precedence effect," a phenomenon that occurs when sounds overlap, and a person judges the location of the sounds to be from the location of the first arriving sound, rather than from the ones that arrive later.
Previously a lecturer in the subjects of human-computer interaction and psychology, Schenkman works in the Department of . He presented his findings recently at the Acoustical Society of America and the European Acoustics Association, in Boston, Massachusetts.
David Callahan
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9457366466522217,
"url": "https://www.kth.se/en/forskning/artiklar/how-humans-develop-echolocation-skills-is-revealed-in-new-research-1.751984"
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Jul 14, 2015
Multiplexing: What You Need to Know
What is a MUX?
In electronics, a multiplexer (MUX) is a device that selects one of N inputs to be representative of the output. The output is connected to one of the N inputs to the device, and the selection of the input is typically handled by log2(N) select lines:
In the optical space, unlike the electrical space, the MUX is a device that acts similar to a combiner. For the purposes of this blog, we will focus on passive multiplexers; these devices do not require a power source or electronics to operate. Passive multiplexers take N separate optical signals and combine them from separate fibers to a single fiber. This method relies upon the principle of superposition; it requires that all signals are orthogonal and that their adjacent channel does not interfere. CWDM and DWDM signals meet this criterion but multiplexer specifications will differ.
In addition to a wavelength combiner, the multiplexer serves as a device that increases fiber efficiency. For example, we can take N lower bit rate signals and combine them into a single higher bit rate stream. This allows more efficient use of the single fiber.
The generation of acceptable orthogonal wavelengths is typically executed by utilizing carefully selected CWDM or DWDM transceivers. The transceivers selected will generate optical signals that are not only independent, but also matched with the multiplexers input channels. Because the multiplexer is a passive device, the input ports are fixed wavelengths and will be labeled with the expected channel.
In the Mux shown above, each input signal is marked as a fixed wavelength. The combined output is provided on “COM”
Power and Compatibility
Multiplexers have a limit to the input power that they can handle. When this limit is exceeded, product nonlinearities in the combined signal may occur. Nonlinearities result in distortion, performance loss, and can even damage the inner MUX workings.
Passive multiplexers are highly reliable devices as there are no electronic parts to fail or drift. This passive nature allows them to be protocol agnostic. Any given passive MUX will combine SONET, SDH, GigE, 10GigE, and other protocols without bias. These multiplexers are also signal rate independent, and will combine any signal up to the specification limit of the device. As with any device that is connected in an optical network, some loss of signal power should be expected. Typical values of insertion loss are on the order of 2dB to 3dB on each port. Multiplexers are available in multiple port configurations. Examples of port configurations include: 4,8,16,32 and 40.
Grating Technologies
There are 4 competing technologies by which multiplexers are built on. These include:
1) Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG)
2) Array Waveguide Grating (AWG)
3) Thin Film Filter (TFF)
4) Diffraction Grating Filter (DG)
To Be Continued...
Stay tuned for Part II of our three series Mux/Demux Blog!
For more information on Precision's extensive line of Mux/DeMux products, contact sales@precisionot.com
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<urn:uuid:c3b3bfa4-8831-4df2-bb9d-3e0f1b320a24>
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"url": "http://www.precisionot.com/multiplexing-what-you-need-know/"
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QS Study
Nucleotide: A nucleotide is formed when one molecule of nucleoside unites with one molecule of phosphate.
Adenosine monophosphatc is united with a phosphate to form an adenosine diphosphate.
Again, an adenosine diphosphate being united with one molecule phosphate to form one molecule of adesine triphosphate.
Guanosine tri phosphate (GMP, GNIP+P- GDP, GDP+P- GTP)
Cytidine tri-phosphate (CMP, CMP+P- CDP, CDP+P- CTP)
Functions of Nucleotide:
1. it creates the main frame work of DNA and RNA.
2. It plays the key role in protein synthesis, intermediate metabolism, respiration and phospholipids synthesis.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.858115553855896,
"url": "https://www.qsstudy.com/biology/define-nucleotide-functions"
}
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Body Mass Index (BMI): A Guide for Parents
Young women's version of this guide
Body Mass Index (BMI), concept acronymWhat is Body Mass Index (BMI)?
BMI, short for Body Mass Index, is a ratio of a person’s height and weight. It does not measure body fat, but can be an indicator of body fatness. Although having some body fat is healthy and normal, having too much or too little body fat isn’t. Having a high BMI has been linked to certain health problems such as high blood pressure and Type 2 diabetes. Similarly, having a low BMI is also unhealthy.
How is BMI measured?
To figure out a teen’s BMI, an accurate weight and height is needed. BMI is then measured using a mathematical formula shown here:
You child’s weight (in pounds) times 703 divided by his height (in inches) squared.
You can also use this link to determine a teen’s BMI.
CDC Boys BMI ChartHow is BMI interpreted?
Once a teen’s BMI has been calculated, it can be interpreted using growth charts designed by the Center for Disease Control (CDC). These charts (one for boys and one for girls, aged 2-20) are used to convert a teen’s BMI into a percentile. This percentile tells us how a teen’s weight and height compares to other teens of the same age and gender.
The best way to interpret a teen’s BMI is to track it over time on his growth chart. Teens should stay at about the same BMI percentile during their teen years. If a teen’s BMI percentile goes up or down quickly, he should talk with her health care provider to talk about the possible reasons for the change.
BMI percentileCategory
less than 5th percentileUnderweight
between 5th and 85th percentileNormal weight
between 85th and 95th percentileOverweight
greater than 95th percentileObese
Example: A 13 year old male has a BMI of 18.5. Using the boys’ 2-20 years BMI growth chart, his BMI plots on the 50th percentile, which classifies him as normal weight.
What is BMI used for?
BMI is used to identify teens who may be at higher risk for weight-related health problems. A teen who classifies as underweight, overweight, or obese should be seen by her health care provider for further evaluation. A health care provider can screen for health problems and then help develop a personalized weight management plan if it is needed. A referral to a dietitian may be suggested.
What are BMI report cards?
Some schools in the United States are checking weights and heights of students at school, calculating BMI, and sending this information home to parents as a BMI report card. The controversial report cards are used to identify teens who are underweight, overweight, or obese. Teens who fall in any of these groups may be at a higher risk for weight-related health problems such as eating disorders, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and Type 2 diabetes.
What are the limitations of BMI?
BMI is just an estimate of body fat. Most teens that have a BMI in the overweight or obese category also have a high amount of body fat, but there are some that don’t. This may be true for very muscular teens since they may have a higher weight because of their muscle mass but still have a healthy amount of body fat. Additionally, BMI should be cautiously interpreted in teens that are growing or going through puberty. During these times, weight, height, and body fat change at different times and rates, which can affect BMI.
If a teen classifies as underweight, overweight or obese, he needs to be examined by his health care provider who can evaluate potential health risks and offer personalized resources.
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"url": "https://youngmenshealthsite.org/parents/body-mass-index/"
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Amber Flea Fossil May Contain Ancient Black Death Ancestor
Posted on October 1, 2015
Flea trapped in amber 20 million years ago
Researchers have discovered a 20-million-year-old fossil of a flea entombed in amber. The flea contained bacteria that may be an ancestor of the Black Death. Researchers believe it may be the oldest known strain of the bubonic plague.
Researchers still need to conduct more tests to see if the bacteria is definitely related to the plague bacteria, Yersinia pestis. If it is related it means the deadly bacteria predates the human race. The image below contains an arrow pointing at bacteria on the proboscis of the ancient flea preserved in amber
Bacteria on a flea trapped in amber 20 million years ago
The researchers say the size, shape and characteristics of the bacteria are consistent with modern form of the bacteria. The findings conflict with modern genomic studies that indicate the flea-plague-vertebrate cycle evolved in the past 20,000 years, rather than 20 million years ago.
George Poinar, Jr., the study author and entomology researcher in the College of Science at Oregon State University, says in a statement, "Aside from physical characteristics of the fossil bacteria that are similar to plague bacteria, their location in the rectum of the flea is known to occur in modern plague bacteria. And in this fossil, the presence of similar bacteria in a dried droplet on the proboscis of the flea is consistent with the method of transmission of plague bacteria by modern fleas."
Poinar also says, "If this is an ancient strain of Yersinia, it would be extraordinary. It would show that plague is actually an ancient disease that no doubt was infecting and possibly causing some extinction of animals long before any humans existed. Plague may have played a larger role in the past than we imagined."
A research paper on the findings were published in the Journal of Medical Entomology.
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Open main menu
Automated planning and scheduling
Automated planning and scheduling, sometimes denoted as simply AI Planning,[1] is a branch of artificial intelligence that concerns the realization of strategies or action sequences, typically for execution by intelligent agents, autonomous robots and unmanned vehicles. Unlike classical control and classification problems, the solutions are complex and must be discovered and optimized in multidimensional space. Planning is also related to decision theory.
In known environments with available models, planning can be done offline. Solutions can be found and evaluated prior to execution. In dynamically unknown environments, the strategy often needs to be revised online. Models and policies must be adapted. Solutions usually resort to iterative trial and error processes commonly seen in artificial intelligence. These include dynamic programming, reinforcement learning and combinatorial optimization. Languages used to describe planning and scheduling are often called action languages.
Given a description of the possible initial states of the world, a description of the desired goals, and a description of a set of possible actions, the planning problem is to synthesise a plan that is guaranteed (when applied to any of the initial states) to generate a state which contains the desired goals (such a state is called a goal state).
The difficulty of planning is dependent on the simplifying assumptions employed. Several classes of planning problems can be identified depending on the properties the problems have in several dimensions.
• Are the actions deterministic or nondeterministic? For nondeterministic actions, are the associated probabilities available?
• Are the state variables discrete or continuous? If they are discrete, do they have only a finite number of possible values?
• Can the current state be observed unambiguously? There can be full observability and partial observability.
• How many initial states are there, finite or arbitrarily many?
• Do actions have a duration?
• Can several actions be taken concurrently, or is only one action possible at a time?
• Is the objective of a plan to reach a designated goal state, or to maximize a reward function?
• Is there only one agent or are there several agents? Are the agents cooperative or selfish? Do all of the agents construct their own plans separately, or are the plans constructed centrally for all agents?
The simplest possible planning problem, known as the Classical Planning Problem, is determined by:
• a unique known initial state,
• durationless actions,
• deterministic actions,
• which can be taken only one at a time,
• and a single agent.
Since the initial state is known unambiguously, and all actions are deterministic, the state of the world after any sequence of actions can be accurately predicted, and the question of observability is irrelevant for classical planning.
Further, plans can be defined as sequences of actions, because it is always known in advance which actions will be needed.
With nondeterministic actions or other events outside the control of the agent, the possible executions form a tree, and plans have to determine the appropriate actions for every node of the tree.
Discrete-time Markov decision processes (MDP) are planning problems with:
• durationless actions,
• nondeterministic actions with probabilities,
• full observability,
• maximization of a reward function,
• and a single agent.
When full observability is replaced by partial observability, planning corresponds to partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP).
If there are more than one agent, we have multi-agent planning, which is closely related to game theory.
Domain Independent PlanningEdit
In AI Planning, planners typically input a domain model (a description of a set of possible actions which model the domain) as well as the specific problem to be solved specified by the initial state and goal, in contrast to those in which there is no input domain specified. Such planners are called "Domain Independent" to emphasis the fact that they can solve planning problems from a wide range of domains. Typical examples of domains are block stacking, logistics, workflow management, and robot task planning. Hence a single domain independent planner can be used to solve planning problems in all these various domains. On the other hand, a route planner is typical of a domain specific planner.
Planning Domain Modelling LanguagesEdit
The most commonly used languages for representing planning domains and specific planning problems, such as STRIPS and PDDL for Classical Planning, are based on state variables. Each possible state of the world is an assignment of values to the state variables, and actions determine how the values of the state variables change when that action is taken. Since a set of state variables induce a state space that has a size that is exponential in the set, planning, similarly to many other computational problems, suffers from the curse of dimensionality and the combinatorial explosion.
An alternative language for describing planning problems is that of hierarchical task networks, in which a set of tasks is given, and each task can be either realized by a primitive action or decomposed into a set of other tasks. This does not necessarily involve state variables, although in more realistic applications state variables simplify the description of task networks.
Algorithms for planningEdit
Classical planningEdit
Reduction to other problemsEdit
Temporal planningEdit
Temporal planning can be solved with methods similar to classical planning. The main difference is, because of the possibility of several, temporally overlapping actions with a duration being taken concurrently, that the definition of a state has to include information about the current absolute time and how far the execution of each active action has proceeded. Further, in planning with rational or real time, the state space may be infinite, unlike in classical planning or planning with integer time. Temporal planning is closely related to scheduling problems. Temporal planning can also be understood in terms of timed automata.
Probabilistic planningEdit
Probabilistic planning can be solved with iterative methods such as value iteration and policy iteration, when the state space is sufficiently small. With partial observability, probabilistic planning is similarly solved with iterative methods, but using a representation of the value functions defined for the space of beliefs instead of states.
Preference-based planningEdit
In preference-based planning, the objective is not only to produce a plan but also to satisfy user-specified preferences. A difference to the more common reward-based planning, for example corresponding to MDPs, preferences don't necessarily have a precise numerical value.
Conditional planningEdit
Deterministic planning was introduced with the STRIPS planning system, which is a hierarchical planner. Action names are ordered in a sequence and this is a plan for the robot. Hierarchical planning can be compared with an automatic generated behavior tree.[2] The disadvantage is, that a normal behavior tree is not so expressive like a computer program. That means, the notation of a behavior graph contains action commands, but no loops or if-then-statements. Conditional planning overcomes the bottleneck and introduces an elaborated notation which is similar to a control flow, known from other programming languages like Pascal. It is very similar to program synthesis, that means a planner generates sourcecode which can be executed by an interpreter.[3]
An early example of a conditional planner is “Warplan-C” which was introduced in the mid 1970s.[4] Until now, the question was not answered what the difference is between a normal sequence and a complicated plan, which contains if-then-statements. It has to do with uncertainty at runtime of a plan. The idea is, that a plan can react to sensor signals which are unknown for the planner. The planner generates two choices in advance. For example, if an object was detected, then action A is executed, if an object is missing, then action B is executed.[5] A major advantage of conditional planning is the ability to handle partial plans.[6] An agent is not forced to plan everything from start to finish but can divide the problem into chunks. This helps to reduce the state space and solves much more complex problems.
Deployment of planning systemsEdit
See alsoEdit
1. ^ Ghallab, Malik; Nau, Dana S.; Traverso, Paolo (2004), Automated Planning: Theory and Practice, Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 1-55860-856-7
2. ^ Neufeld, Xenija and Mostaghim, Sanaz and Sancho-Pradel, Dario and Brand, Sandy (2017). "Building a Planner: A Survey of Planning Systems Used in Commercial Video Games". IEEE Transactions on Games. IEEE.
3. ^ Sanelli, Valerio and Cashmore, Michael and Magazzeni, Daniele and Iocchi, Luca (2017). Short-term human robot interaction through conditional planning and execution. Proc. of International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling (ICAPS).
4. ^ Peot, Mark A and Smith, David E (1992). Conditional nonlinear planning. Artificial Intelligence Planning Systems. Elsevier. pp. 189--197.
5. ^ Karlsson, Lars (2001). Conditional progressive planning under uncertainty. IJCAI. pp. 431--438.
6. ^ Liu, Daphne Hao (2008). A survey of planning in intelligent agents: from externally motivated to internally motivated systems (Technical report). Technical Report TR-2008-936, Department of Computer Science, University of Rochester.
Further readingEdit
External linksEdit
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Basics of the .NET Framework
Using the .NET Framework, Microsoft Visual Basic developers can build robust applications that were very difficult to write in previous versions of Visual Basic. The .NET Framework is Microsoft's latest offering in the world of cross-platform development. In doing so, there have been many changes to the VB language and even the philosophy of developing applications in VB .NET has been forever altered. Although the changes are very positive for VB programmers, they can be a little difficult to become accustomed to.
The .NET Framework is essentially a combination of the common language runtime (CLR) and the standard classes that are available to .NET programmers. The CLR is the execution environment for all programs in the .NET Framework. It is similar in nature to the Java™ virtual machine (VM). The Runtime classes provide hundreds of prewritten services that clients can use as the basic building blocks for an application. We look at these key concepts in a little more detail in the following sections.
Common Language Runtime
The CLR is the new runtime environment shared by every .NET application. Its purpose is to manage code execution along with all of the services that .NET provides.
The CLR is very similar to the concepts used in other languages, such as the VB6 runtime library, a Java virtual machine, or even the Microsoft Foundation Class (MFC) library for C++.
One of the nice features of .NET is that there are many languages that can take advantage of this same runtime (currently C# ['C-Sharp'], VB, and C++). It is the purpose of this runtime to execute the code for any language that was developed for it. Code that was developed for this is called managed code, which can be simply thought of as a relationship between the language and the runtime itself. Because all .NET languages use this same runtime, there is no longer a need for language-specific runtimes. Further enhancing this is the ability of C# programmers and VB programmers to share their code with no extra work.
With the shared runtime, there is a common file format for .NET executable code, which is called the Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL, or just IL). IL is a semicompiled language that is compiled into native code by .NET when the program is executed. This is similar to what all versions of Visual Basic did prior to version 5. This previous method for compiling was known as pseudocode or p-code. With the CLR, the best features of pseudocode and compiled languages are available.
The following list details some of the benefits of using the CLR:
Consistent programming model: All application services are offered via a common object-oriented programming model. This differs from past programming models in which some functions are accessed via DLLs, whereas others are accessed via the COM object.
Simplified programming model: By removing archaic requirements of the Win32 API, .NET seeks to greatly simplify the development process. More specifically, a developer is no longer required to delve into GUIDs, HRESULTS, and so on.
DLL problems: When programmers are using DLLs, they are always concerned with installing components for a new application that can overwrite components of an old application. The old application often exhibits strange behavior or stops functioning altogether because the DLL has changed the way it works. The .NET architecture removes this common problem, and if the application runs after its installation, then the application should always run without the headaches caused by DLL versions.
Platforms: Today, there are many different flavors of Windows, including the three Windows XX variations (Windows® 95, Windows® 98, and Windows® Me), Windows NT® 4.0, Windows® 2000, Windows XP, and Windows® CE. Most of these systems run on x86 CPUs, with the exception of Windows CE devices, which work with Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) and StrongARM processors. A .NET application that consists of managed code can execute on any platform that supports the .NET common language runtime. This opens some interesting possibilities for the Windows platform and could further be enhanced if the .NET platform is ever ported to platforms such as Linux or the Mac OS.
Reuse of code/language integration: .NET allows languages to be integrated with one another. For example, it is now entirely possible to create a class in C++ that derives from a class first implemented in Visual Basic. The Microsoft Common Language Specification ensures that all .NET languages are implemented in a manner that allows this. Although there are currently the three .NET languages (C#, VB, and C++), there are sure to be many more available in the near future with companies other than Microsoft producing compilers that also target the .NET common language runtime.
Resource management: A common error among applications occurs when a developer forgets to free up resources once they are no longer needed. This can cause a great deal of inconsistency in an application and is sometimes one of the most difficult bugs to track down. Again, the .NET CLR comes to our rescue by automatically tracking resource usage.
Types: The .NET common language runtime can verify that all your code is type safe, which simply means that allocated objects are always accessed in compatible ways. This actually helps in eliminating many common programming errors, but is also advantageous because of the protection of exploitation of buffer overruns used by many hackers.
Error handling: One of the most difficult aspects of programming in Windows is the various ways in which error messages can be reported. For example, some return an HRESULT, whereas others may return a Win32 error code. In .NET, all errors are reported via exceptions, which greatly simplifies maintaining code.
Deployment: This could go side by side with the DLL problems mentioned previously. Past Windows-based applications were incredibly difficult to install and deploy. There can be many files, including data, several DLL files, and Registry settings to deal with-to name a few of the more common examples. .NET components are no longer referenced in the Registry and installing most .NET components can be as simple as copying the files to a directory. Uninstalling can sometimes be an even more difficult task in past Windows-based applications, but with .NET, you can simply delete those same files you installed.
Common type system: The CLR greatly simplifies cross-language communication through the introduction of the common type system (CTS). The CTS defines all of the basic types that can be used in the .NET Framework and the operations that can be performed on those types. Although an application can create a more complex type, it must be built from one of the CTS defined types, which are classes that derive from a base class called System.Object. We look at the CTS in more detail in Chapter 5, Introduction to the VB .NET Language.
The Foundation for NET Development
As was previously mentioned, you can think of the .NET Framework as a foundation on which you build and run applications. Having such a foundation makes it easier to build applications while using a consistent, simplified programming model. In earlier versions of VB, we spent a great deal of time using the Win32 API to do things that we could not natively access in the standard VB functions-things such as accessing Registry keys or creating irregularly shaped forms. Another option was third-party ActiveX controls that are actually very easy to use, but are often expensive for a single project.
This flexibility offered in the Win32 API was a blessing for VB programmers, allowing access to a variety of functions that were otherwise unavailable. Unfortunately, with this power also came a great deal of problems and confusion. Learning the API can be difficult because the calls are complex and, many times, the available examples were written for C++. This made calling the API very error-prone, often resulting in crashed computers and lost hours of coding.
Another problem was the deployment of these applications. After you finally managed to get the API calls working, you then had to deploy the appropriate DLL files with the correct version numbers. You can quickly see why this common framework makes sense from a development standpoint. You still have access to most of the powerful features of the API, without actually knowing how to implement them. In addition, deployment is now very simple because you don't need to concern yourself with how to handle the various DLL files.
Although the API has not become obsolete, you need to have a quick way to access the various classes that implement the functions you have used in the past. The following BitBlt API call details a portion of a common .NET equivalent:
BitBlt performs a bit-block transfer of the color data corresponding to a rectangle of pixels from the specified source device context into a destination device context. Here is a sample API call and a .NET equivalent:
Listing 4.1 WinAPI.
Declare Function BitBlt Lib "gdi32" Alias "BitBlt" ( _
ByVal hDestDC As Long, _
ByVal x As Long, _
ByVal y As Long, _
ByVal nWidth As Long, _
ByVal nHeight As Long, _
ByVal hSrcDC As Long, _
ByVal xSrc As Long, _
ByVal ySrc As Long, _
ByVal dwRop As Long _
) As Long
Listing 4.2 .NET.
In this chapter, we looked at some of the basics of the CLR, CST, and the overall .NET Framework, a topic that encompasses so much information that we could devote an entire volume to its study. In Chapter 5, Introduction to the VB .NET Language, we look at some of the syntax of the VB .NET programming language and take an even greater look at the differences between VB6 and .NET.
Developing Tablet PC Applications
Developing Tablet PC Applications (Charles River Media Programming)
ISBN: 1584502525
EAN: 2147483647
Year: 2003
Pages: 191
Similar book on Amazon
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06:55pm Saturday 20 October 2018
Waikato researchers create billion-year-old bacteria and trace its evolution
Jo Hobbs
Evolution: University of Waikato research scientist Dr Jo Hobbs holds the one billion year old Bacillus bacterial enzyme.
Associate Professor Vic Arcus and postdoctoral research scientist Dr Jo Hobbs have used new computational techniques to make accurate predictions about the size, shape and composition of proteins from ancient bacteria.
They then coaxed modern bacteria into making these ancient proteins for them, creating a billion-year-old Bacillus bacteria enzyme.
“We’ve been able to make a billion-year-old protein enzyme that actually works in the lab,” says researcher Jo Hobbs.
“The billion-year-old enzyme is from a Precambrian ancestor of a modern bacterium called Bacillus,” explains Dr Arcus.
“To our surprise, the ancient enzyme is very stable at high temperatures and very, very active – seven times more active than a comparable modern enzyme.”
“This means that the Bacillus ancestor most probably lived in a hot, inhospitable environment a billion years ago.”
Tracing Evolution
Along with the billion-year-old enzyme, the team created enzymes that trace the evolution of the organisms from one billion-years-ago to the present day.
They tested the optimal operating temperature of each enzyme to get an insight into the changing temperate of the environment of the bacteria over time.
“The optimum temperature of the billion year old organism is 70 degrees. But during the evolution of these bacteria, they have adapted to cooling temperatures. Today we find Bacillus bacteria in nearly every possible environment – hot pools, garden soil, cool lakes, even in Antarctica,” says Dr Arcus.
“They are the weeds of the bacterial world. Their ability to adapt to a great range of different environments over such long periods of time has been their success on planet Earth.”
The team have had their findings published in the Journal of Molecular Biology and Evolution.
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How Do Male Amphipods Get Partners? It's All In The Claw
A left clawed Dulichiella appendiculata. Believe it or not, when the right claw is dominant it is even larger. Bernardo J. O'Connor, University of Adelaide
Dulichiella appendiculata, a type of small amphipod crustacean, has evolved two different strategies when it comes to males winning mates. Which strategy a male adopts depends on whether he is right or left clawed, creating personality differences that are unusually easy to study. One researcher has taken advantage of this opportunity, and shed light on the way competing strategies replicate.
Male appendiculata have a single large claw, which they use to fight off rivals for mates. Females deposit their eggs in a pouch, rather like that of marsupials, where the males fertilize them. Males will guard a female when she is approaching this phase to make sure he is the one who gets to do the fertilizing, but a stronger-clawed competitor can displace him.
“While it’s common for males to have large structures of various kinds to attract females – think elk horns or peacock tails – there are very few species in nature with such asymmetry. The only other species are also crustaceans, such as male fiddler crabs, which also have one large claw,” said Dr. Pablo Munguia of the University of Adelaide in a statement
Among appendiculata equal numbers of males are right-clawed and left-clawed, but the right-clawed individuals take things to much greater extremes, wielding weapons that can be 20 percent of their body weight. Munguia told IFLScience that this can represent a considerable hindrance to free movement. Left claws tend to be smaller, although Mungia added that there is some overlap in size.
As a result, males behave very differently depending on which side their claw is on. When Mungia created a set of artificial reefs for the 5 to 6-milimeter-long crustaceans to live in, he found that right-clawed males were “more gregarious, hanging out with other males as well as attracting more females.”
Lefties, knowing they could not compete with their better-endowed rivals, are more entrepreneurial, boldly going where no amphipod has gone before, in the hope of finding not just a new reef, but females without a guarding male. Right-clawed males stay at home, possibly, Munguia told IFLScience, because it is too hard to lug that giant appendage to a new reef, but also possibly because, “If you're doing well, why shift?”
It may not look like much, but this reef is one of those that many Dulichiella appendiculata called home in the experiment. Pablo Munguia
The fact that the population remains roughly evenly balanced suggests each strategy works approximately equally well.
Munguia has published his findings in the Journal of Crustacean Biology.
Munguia doubts that there is much to learn about handedness in humans from appendiculata, but he told IFLScience that his work “helps us understand how different mating strategies and behavior preferences are formed.” Munguia plans to expand his studies from appendiculata, a species native to Florida, and examine Australian relatives to see how they manage the whole matter of getting dates.
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Power Up!
Power Up!
In this activity you'll learn more about different sources of energy, how we use them in our everyday lives, and the pros and cons of each type.
To start, go to and read Renewable Energy and then Nonrenewable Energy on the Energy Information Administration's Energy Kid's Page.
As you read, take notes so that you can answer these questions:
• Which energy sources are renewable?
• What does renewable mean?
• Which energy sources are nonrenewable?
• What does nonrenewable mean?
• Is one type of energy better than the other?
In this next activity, you will "Power Up" a city using an online interactive. In the interactive, you will buy different energy sources, some renewable and some nonrenewable. You will have to keep an eye on your budget and how the energy sources you are buying have an impact on the environment.
Before you go power up your city, read Renewable Energy vs. Fossil Fuels to prepare for the task ahead. Fill in your Pros and Cons of Powering Up student sheet as you read.
Now, you’re ready to Power Up! your city. Go to the Power Up! interactive.
1. Click the “?” button on the top left of the screen to learn how to play. Hit the “Back” button when you are finished.
2. Now click the "!" button to read more about energy. Add to your pros and cons list from the reading you just did. Hit “Back” when you are done reading.
3. To begin playing, pick one of the three plants at the top of the screen.
4. You can scroll your mouse over each one to take a look at how much power you would be buying, the cost, and the environmental impact your purchase will have. On your student sheet, there is a place to keep track of these three things for each type of power plant.
Try playing the first game by always picking the choice with the lowest environmental impact. For another game, always select cheaper choices. What happens?
5. The game will automatically stop when you have negatively harmed the environment, run out of money, or powered up your city without doing either of these things.
6. When you have powered up your city, you can try again by clicking on "Play Again" if you have time. Be sure to glance at the discussion points on your student sheet either before or during the interactive.
Knowledge Check
Now that you have tried powering a city with various types of power plants, you will need to decide on a combination that is best for the city. You will write a proposal intended to be read to the citizens of the city, which explains how their city will be powered. It’s important that the proposal explains why you made the power plant choices you did. Use your student sheet to gather information for your proposal.
This esheet is a part of the Power Up! lesson.
Did you find this resource helpful?
Esheet Details
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"url": "http://sciencenetlinks.com/esheets/power-up/"
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Return to MAIN (index) page Return to ASPECTS of LEARNING page
Colons are not greatly used in punctuating English these days, other than in LISTS and for purposes of clear PRESENTATION.
Colons can be used to introduce items in a list.
All participants should carry the following items: a compass, OS map of the area, waterproof clothing, a whistle and a first aid kit.
The colon should be preceded by the title of the list; in this instance, "the following items". In the following example, the title is "ingredients".
Gather together all the ingredients: diced chicken, ginger, pineapple chunks and fresh peppers.
Colons may also be used as a presentation device to ensure that there is no confusion over what is meant. (See the paragraphs headed IF / THEN / SO in the POSSESSIVE APOSTROPHES section.)
Introduction - Capital letters - Full stops - Question Marks - Exclamation marks - Abbreviations - Contractions - Commas - Speech marks (Quotation marks - Inverted comas) - Possessive apostrophes - Colons - Semi-colons - Brackets - Hyphens - Dashes - Obliques (slashes)
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"url": "http://brainboxx.co.uk/A3_ASPECTS/pages/punct_colon.htm"
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