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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauopathy
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Tauopathy belongs to a class of neurodegenerative diseases involving the aggregation of tau protein into neurofibrillary or gliofibrillary tangles in the human brain. Tangles are formed by hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule protein known as tau, causing the protein to dissociate from microtubules and form insoluble aggregates. (These aggregations are also called paired helical filaments.) The mechanism of tangle formation is not well understood, and whether tangles are a primary cause of Alzheimer's disease or play a peripheral role is unknown.
Detection and imaging
Post-mortem Tau tangles are seen microscopically in stained brain samples.
Pre-mortem In living patients tau tangle locations can be imaged with a PET scan using a suitable radio-emissive agent.
Alzheimer's disease
Neurofibrillary tangles were first described by Alois Alzheimer in one of his patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The tangles are considered a secondary tauopathy. AD is also classified as an amyloidosis because of the presence of senile plaques.
When tau becomes hyperphosphorylated, the protein dissociates from the microtubules in axons. Then, tau becomes misfolded and the protein begins to aggregate, which eventually forms the neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) seen in Alzheimer's patients. Microtubules also destabilize when tau is dissociated. The combination of the neurofibrillary tangles and destabilized microtubules result in disruption of processes such as axonal transport and neural
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Dual%20Auroral%20Radar%20Network
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The Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) is an international scientific radar network
consisting of 35
high frequency (HF) radars located in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. SuperDARN radars are primarily used to map high-latitude plasma convection in the F region of the ionosphere, but the radars are also used to study a wider range of geospace phenomena including field aligned currents, magnetic reconnection, geomagnetic storms and substorms, magnetospheric MHD waves, mesospheric winds via meteor ionization trails, and interhemispheric plasma convection asymmetries. The SuperDARN collaboration is composed of radars operated by JHU/APL, Virginia Tech, Dartmouth College, the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, the Institute of Space and Atmospheric Studies at the University of Saskatchewan, the University of Leicester, Lancaster University, La Trobe University, the Solar-Terrestrial Environment Laboratory at Nagoya University, and the Institute for Space Astrophysics and Planetology (INAF-IAPS Italy).
History
In the 1970s and 1980s, the Scandinavian Twin Auroral Radar Experiment (STARE) very high frequency (VHF) coherent scatter radars were used to study field aligned E region ionospheric irregularities. Using two radars with overlapping fields of view, it was possible to determine the 2D velocity vector of E region ionospheric plasma flow. However, irregularities were only observed when the radar wavevector was perpendicular to
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus%20upgrade%20zone
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Bus upgrade zones, commonly abbreviated to BUZ, are a feature of Brisbane's public transport system. The name is given to high-frequency bus routes operated by Transport for Brisbane, the Brisbane City Council agency that operates the city's public bus services for Translink. All BUZ services run at least every fifteen minutes from around 6:00am to 11:30pm seven days a week and at least every ten minutes during peak hours from Monday to Friday.
Nearly all BUZ routes are express services which provide quick and frequent access to places along major trunk roads, with the exception of routes 196 and 199, which are the only all-stops BUZ service with bus stops within short walking distances of each other between the inner suburbs of Fairfield, West End, New Farm and Teneriffe. Most BUZ routes are radial, and commence in or near the Brisbane CBD. However, routes 196 and 199 are again an exception, in that they are cross-town routes that passes through the CBD.
History
Route 111 was upgraded to become the first BUZ service in December 2003. Other BUZ services have been progressively added since then. The Cultural Centre busway station on the South East Busway is the common interchange point for all BUZ services, with the exception of routes 340 and 412.
In 2007, BUZ services carried over 346,000 passengers a week, accounting for around 30% of all Brisbane Transport patronage. Route 199 being the busiest BUZ service, carrying over 53,000 passengers per week.
Routes
All BUZ servi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin%2013
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The Kinesin-13 Family are a subfamily of motor proteins known as kinesins. Most kinesins transport materials or cargo around the cell while traversing along microtubule polymer tracks with the help of ATP-hydrolysis-created energy.
Structure
They are easily identified by their three typical structural components including a highly conserved structural domain, catalytic core, and microtubule binding sites. The kinesin-13 family, unlike other kinesins, has an internally positioned motor domain. They were initially named KIF-M because of the unique location of their catalytic core in the middle of the polypeptide between the N-terminal globular domain and the C-terminal stalk but they are truly special due to their versatile nature. The Kinesin-13 family's molecular mechanism is less understood than other classes of kinesins which have their motor domains at one end of the molecule or the other. They are capable of traveling to both the minus and plus ends of microtubules whereas most motors are unidirectional. Thus they can catalytically depolymerize a microtubule from both ends making it a very efficient process.
The exact mechanism of Kinesin-13 activated microtubule depolymerization remains unclear, however, recent biochemical and structural studies revealed some more detailed class specific features enabling researchers to formulate a model.) The protein first contacts the side wall of a microtubule. This is not a stable interaction because the convex surface of the catal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Wowk
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Brian G. Wowk is a Canadian medical physicist and cryobiologist known for the discovery and development of synthetic molecules that mimic the activity of natural antifreeze proteins in cryopreservation applications, sometimes called "ice blockers". As a senior scientist at 21st Century Medicine, Inc., he was a co-developer with Greg Fahy of key technologies enabling cryopreservation of large and complex tissues, including the first successful vitrification and transplantation of a mammalian organ (kidney). Wowk is also known for early theoretical work on future applications of molecular nanotechnology, especially cryonics, nanomedicine, and optics. In the early 1990s he wrote that nanotechnology would revolutionize optics, making possible virtual reality display systems optically indistinguishable from real scenery as in the fictitious Holodeck of Star Trek. These systems were described by Wowk in the chapter "Phased Array Optics" in the 1996 anthology Nanotechnology: Molecular Speculations on Global Abundance , and highlighted in the September 1998 Technology Watch section of Popular Mechanics magazine.
Early life and education
He obtained his undergraduate and graduate degrees from the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. Dr. Wowk obtained his PhD in physics in 1997. His graduate studies included work in online portal imaging for radiotherapy at the Manitoba Cancer Treatment and Research Foundation (now Cancer Care Manitoba), and work on artifact reduction for f
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary%20exhalative%20deposits
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Sedimentary exhalative deposits (SEDEX or SedEx deposits) are zinc-lead deposits originally interpreted to have been formed by discharge of metal-bearing basinal fluids onto the seafloor resulting in the precipitation of mainly stratiform ore, often with thin laminations of sulphide minerals. SEDEX deposits are hosted largely by clastic rocks deposited in intracontinental rifts or failed rift basins and passive continental margins. Since these ore deposits frequently form massive sulfide lenses, they are also named sediment-hosted massive sulfide (SHMS) deposits, as opposed to volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) deposits. The sedimentary appearance of the thin laminations led to early interpretations that the deposits formed exclusively or mainly by exhalative processes onto the seafloor, hence the term SEDEX. However, recent study of numerous deposits indicates that shallow subsurface replacement is also an important process, in several deposits the predominant one, with only local if any exhalations onto the seafloor. For this reason, some authors prefer the term "Clastic-dominated zinc-lead deposits". As used today, therefore, the term SEDEX is not to be taken to mean that hydrothermal fluids actually vented into the overlying water column, although this may have occurred in some cases.
Main ore minerals in SEDEX deposits are fine-grained sphalerite and galena, chalcopyrite is significant in some deposits; silver-bearing sulfosalts are frequent minor constituen
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Kakalios
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James Kakalios (born December 27, 1958) is a physics professor at the University of Minnesota. Known within the scientific community for his work with amorphous semiconductors, granular materials, and 1/f noise, he is known to the general public as the author of the book The Physics of Superheroes, which considers comic book superheroes from the standpoint of fundamental physics.
Biography
Kakalios earned his B.S. degree from City College of New York in 1979 and his M.S. and PhD degrees from the University of Chicago in 1982 and 1985. He began his comic book collection as a graduate student as a way to relieve stress. At Minnesota, he taught a freshman seminar that focused on the physics of superheroes as a way to motivate students to think about physics. This course gained great popularity as an enticing alternative to the typical inclined planes and pulleys of physics.The seminar was a great success, leading to articles in popular magazines including People, lectures on the subject, and publication of The Physics of Superheroes. In his talks, favorite examples are the death of Gwen Stacy (Spider-Man's girlfriend), "can Superman jump over tall buildings and what does this tell us about Krypton?", the high-velocity actions of The Flash, and the shrinking problem of the Atom. His analysis of Gwen Stacy's death eventually became integral to the plot of a new Spider-Man comic.
Kakalios is of the opinion that the most unrealistic aspect of the comic-book universe is often the
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTAC-TV
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WTAC-TV was a television station broadcasting on ultra high frequency (UHF) channel 16 in Flint, Michigan, United States. It was owned by the Trendle-Campbell Broadcasting Company alongside radio station WTAC (600 AM) and was affiliated with ABC. The station began broadcasting on November 26, 1953, as Flint's first television station and the second in the region, but it ceased operation five months later on April 30, 1954. Early economic difficulties with UHF television in the United States and competition from the very high frequency (VHF) stations in Detroit, whose signals reached Flint, largely precipitated its demise.
Construction and sign-on
After the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) lifted its four-year freeze on television station construction grants in 1952, it left three commercial channels for use in Flint; very high frequency (VHF) channel 12 and ultra high frequency (UHF) channels 16 and 28. The first group to file for channel 16 was W.S. Butterfield Theatres, which had done so by early July. That month, a second group filed for the channel: the Trendle-Campbell Broadcasting Company, a partnership of George W. Trendle and H. Allen Campbell and owners of Flint radio station WTAC (600 AM). Butterfield amended its application to seek channel 12 instead of channel 16 in October; this left WTAC unopposed and led to the FCC giving Trendle-Campbell a construction permit for channel 16 on November 20, 1952.
Construction began on the station site at 2302 Lapeer in
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector%20Map
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The Vector Map (VMAP), also called Vector Smart Map, is a vector-based collection of geographic information system (GIS) data about Earth at various levels of detail. Level 0 (low resolution) coverage is global and entirely in the public domain. Level 1 (global coverage at medium resolution) is only partly in the public domain.
There are ongoing discussions about making most of the information available in the public domain.
Description
Coordinate reference system: Geographic coordinates stored in decimal degrees with southern and western hemispheres using negative values for latitude and longitude, respectively.
Horizontal Datum: World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84).
Vertical Datum: Mean Sea Level.
Thematic data layers
Features and data attributes are tagged utilizing the international Feature and Attribute Coding Catalogue (FACC).
major road networks
railroad networks
hydrologic drainage systems
utility networks (cross-country pipelines and communication lines)
major airports
elevation contours
coastlines
international boundaries
populated places
index of geographical names
Levels of resolution
The vector map product are usually seen as being of three different types: low resolution (level 0), medium resolution (level 1) and high resolution (level 2).
Level Zero (VMAP0)
Level 0 provides worldwide coverage of geo-spatial data and is equivalent to a small scale (1:1,000,000). The data are offered either on CD-ROM or as direct download, as they have been moved to the publi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20hydrogen%20phthalate
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Potassium hydrogen phthalate, often called simply KHP, is an acidic salt compound. It forms white powder, colorless crystals, a colorless solution, and an ionic solid that is the monopotassium salt of phthalic acid. KHP is slightly acidic, and it is often used as a primary standard for acid–base titrations because it is solid and air-stable, making it easy to weigh accurately. It is not hygroscopic. It is also used as a primary standard for calibrating pH meters because, besides the properties just mentioned, its pH in solution is very stable. It also serves as a thermal standard in thermogravimetric analysis.
KHP dissociates completely in water, giving the potassium cation (K+) and hydrogen phthalate anion (HP− or Hphthalate−)
KHP + H2O → K+ + HP−
and then, acting as a weak acid, hydrogen phthalate reacts reversibly with water to give hydronium (H3O+) and phthalate ions.
HP− + H2O P2− + H3O+
KHP can be used as a buffering agent in combination with hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The buffering region is dependent upon the pKa, and is typically +/- 1.0 pH units of the pKa. The pKa of KHP is 5.4, so its pH buffering range would be 4.4 to 6.4; however, due to the presence of the second acidic group that bears the potassium ion, the first pKa also contributes to the buffering range well below pH 4.0, which is why KHP is a good choice for use as a reference standard for pH 4.00.
KHP is also a useful standard for total organic carbon (TOC) testing. M
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat%27s%20theorem%20%28stationary%20points%29
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In mathematics, Fermat's theorem (also known as interior extremum theorem) is a method to find local maxima and minima of differentiable functions on open sets by showing that every local extremum of the function is a stationary point (the function's derivative is zero at that point). Fermat's theorem is a theorem in real analysis, named after Pierre de Fermat.
By using Fermat's theorem, the potential extrema of a function , with derivative , are found by solving an equation in . Fermat's theorem gives only a necessary condition for extreme function values, as some stationary points are inflection points (not a maximum or minimum). The function's second derivative, if it exists, can sometimes be used to determine whether a stationary point is a maximum or minimum.
Statement
One way to state Fermat's theorem is that, if a function has a local extremum at some point and is differentiable there, then the function's derivative at that point must be zero. In precise mathematical language:
Let be a function and suppose that is a point where has a local extremum. If is differentiable at , then .
Another way to understand the theorem is via the contrapositive statement: if the derivative of a function at any point is not zero, then there is not a local extremum at that point. Formally:
If is differentiable at , and , then is not a local extremum of .
Corollary
The global extrema of a function f on a domain A occur only at boundaries, non-differentiable points, and station
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-Foes
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The U-Foes is a supervillain team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, usually as enemies of the Hulk. The group consists of four members: Vector, the group's leader, who can repel matter telekinetically; Vapor, who can transform into any form of gaseous matter; X-Ray, who can generate and project radiation and fly; and Ironclad, who has a metallic body and can control his density.
Publication history
The U-Foes first appeared in The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #254 (Dec. 1980) and were created by Bill Mantlo and Sal Buscema. Per The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #254's credits, editor Al Milgrom designed the costumes of the U-Foes while editor-in-chief Jim Shooter helped with the names of the U-Foes.
As noted on the first page of that issue, the group's name was inspired by the 1979 Graham Parker song "Waiting for the UFOs".
Fictional team biography
Simon Utrecht, a former politician and multi-millionaire, funds an operation to gain superpowers the same way the Fantastic Four had, by flying into space and being exposed to cosmic rays. He chooses three other members to join him: Ann Darnell, Ann's younger brother Jimmy Darnell, and Mike Steel. What the group did not know was that they would be exposed to much higher amount than the Fantastic Four and that it would most likely kill them. The Hulk, in his Bruce Banner form, brings the ship down by reprogramming their computer before the group was exposed to the terminal levels of cosmic rays. The group did m
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20Ukrainian%20census
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The 2001 Ukrainian census is to date the only census of the population of independent Ukraine. It was conducted by the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine on 5 December 2001, twelve years after the last Soviet Union census in 1989. The next Ukrainian census was planned to be held in 2011 but has been repeatedly postponed.
The total population recorded in 2001 was 48,457,100 persons, of which the urban population was 32,574,500 (67.2%), rural: 15,882,600 (32.8%), male: 22,441,400 (46.3%), female: 26,015,700 (53.7%). The total permanent population recorded was 48,241,000 persons.
Settlements
There were 454 cities: Nine had a population over 500,000. The census recorded over 130 nationalities.
Actual population by regions
Source: Total number of actual population. 2001 Ukrainian Population Census. State Statistics Committee of Ukraine
Urban and rural population by regions
Source: Urban and rural population. 2001 Ukrainian Population Census. State Statistics Committee of Ukraine'''
Gender structure by regionsSource: Gender structure of the population. 2001 Ukrainian Population Census. State Statistics Committee of UkraineNational structure
Source: National composition of the population. 2001 Ukrainian Population Census. State Statistics Committee of Ukraine'''
National structure by regionsNote: listed are those nationalities which comprise more than 0.1% of regional population. Numbers are given in thousands.
Autonomous Republic of Crimea - 2,024.0 (100%)
Russians -
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20K%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup K, formerly Haplogroup UK, is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. It is defined by the HVR1 mutations 16224C and 16311C. It is now known that K is a subclade of U8.
Origin
Haplogroup K is believed to have originated in the mid-Upper Paleolithic, between about 30,000 and 22,000 years ago. It is the most common subclade of haplogroup U8b.
Distribution
Haplogroup K appears in Central Europe, Southern Europe, Northern Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, South Asia and West Asia and in populations with such an ancestry. Overall the mtDNA haplogroup K is found in about 6% of the population of Europe and the Near East, but it is more common in certain populations.
In Europe, K appears to be most common in the Morbihan (17.5%) and Périgord-Limousin (15.3%) regions of France, and in Norway and Bulgaria (13.3%). The level is 12.5% in Belgium, 11% in Georgia and 10% in Austria and Great Britain. Some specific subclades of K among Europeans are K1a1b2b in Finland, K1a3a1 in Sardinia, K1a19 in Hungary, K1b1b1a in Greeks, K1b1c in Serbia, Slovakia, and Poland, K1c2 in Irish and Germans and in Hungary, and K2a9a in Sardinia. A 2013 study had suggested that K1a1b1a, K1a9, and K2a2a1 could have originated from Western Europe.
Approximately 16% of the Druze of Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan, belong to haplogroup K. Examples of Druze branches of K are K1a5a and K1a17a. It is also found among 8% of Palestinians. Additionally, K reaches a level of 17% in Kur
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunsen%20cell
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The Bunsen cell is a zinc-carbon primary cell (colloquially called a "battery") composed of a zinc anode in dilute sulfuric acid separated by a porous pot from a carbon cathode in nitric or chromic acid.
Cell details
The Bunsen cell is about 1.9 volts and arises from the following reaction:
Zn + H2SO4 + 2 HNO3 ZnSO4 + 2 H2O + 2 NO2(g)
According to the reaction above, when 1 mole (or part) each of zinc and sulfuric acid react with 2 moles (or parts) of nitric acid, the resultant products formed are, 1 mole (or part) of zinc sulfate and 2 moles (or parts) each of water and nitrogen dioxide (gaseous, in the form of bubbles).
The cell is named after its inventor, German chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, who improved upon the Grove cell by replacing Grove's expensive platinum cathode with carbon in the form of pulverized coal and coke. Like Grove's battery, Bunsen's emitted noxious fumes of nitrogen dioxide.
Bunsen used this cell to extract metals. Henri Moissan used a stack of 90 cells for the electrolysis of hydrogen fluoride to obtain fluorine for the first time.
See also
History of the battery
List of battery types
Battery nomenclature
References
Further reading
External links
Bunsen "Battery"
Battery types
fr:Pile électrique#Piles à dépolarisation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20J%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup J is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. The clade derives from the haplogroup JT, which also gave rise to haplogroup T. Within the field of medical genetics, certain polymorphisms specific to haplogroup J have been associated with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy.
Origin
Around 45,000 years before present, a mutation took place in the DNA of a woman who lived in the Near East or Caucasus. Further mutations occurred in the J line, which can be identified as the subclades J1a1, J1c1 (27,000 yrs ago), J2a (19,000 yrs ago), J2b2 (16,000 years ago), and J2b3 (5,800 yrs ago). Haplogroup J bearers along with persons carrying the T mtDNA clade settled in Europe from the Near East during the late Paleolithic and Mesolithic.
*Typographical error, was 161,600 years from original source material as per time table describing the spread of populations given in the same study.
However, any statements concerning the geographic origin of this or any other haplogroup are highly speculative and considered by most population geneticists to be 'story telling' and outside the domain of science. Furthermore, inferring close associations between a haplogroup and a specific archaeological culture can be equally problematic.
Distribution
Basal haplogroup J* is found among the Soqotri (9.2%).
The average frequency of haplogroup J as a whole is today highest in the Near East (12%), followed by Europe (11%), the Caucasus (8%) and Northeast Africa (6%). Of the two main sub-g
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20T%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup T is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. It is believed to have originated around 25,100 years ago in the Near East.
Origins
Mitochondrial clade T derives from the haplogroup JT, which also gave rise to the mtDNA haplogroup J. The T maternal clade is thought to have emanated from the Near East.
Distribution
The basal haplogroup T* is found among Algerians in Oran (1.67%) and Reguibate Sahrawi (0.93%). It is also distributed among the Soqotri (1.2%).
Haplogroup T is present at low frequencies throughout Western and Central Asia and Europe, with varying degrees of prevalence and certainly might have been present in other groups from the surrounding areas. T is found in approximately 10% of native Europeans. It is also common among modern day Iranians. Based on a sample of over 400 modern day Iranians, the T haplogroup represents roughly 8.3% of the population (about 1 out of 12 individuals), with the more specific T1 subtype constituting roughly half of those. Furthermore, the specific subtype T1 tends to be found further east and is common in Central Asian and modern Turkic populations , who inhabit much of the same territory as the ancient Saka, Sarmatian, Andronovo, and other putative Iranian peoples of the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. Lalueza-Fox et al. (2004) also found several T and T1 sequences in ancient burials, including Kurgans, in the Kazakh steppe between the 14th-10th centuries BC, as well as later into the 1st millennia BC. These coincide wi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20V%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup V is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. The clade is believed to have originated over 14,000 years ago in Southern Europe.
Origin
Haplogroup V derives from the HV0a subclade of haplogroup HV. In 1998 it was argued that V spread over Europe from an Ice Age refuge in Iberia. However more recent estimates of the date of V would place it in the Neolithic.
Distribution
Haplogroup V is a relatively rare mtDNA haplogroup, occurring in around 4% of native Europeans. Its highest concentration is among the Saami people of northern Fennoscandia (~59%). It has been found at a frequency of approximately 10% among the Maris of the Volga-Ural region, leading to the suggestion that this region might be the source of the V among the Saami. Haplogroup V has been observed at higher than average levels among Cantabrian people (15%) of northern Iberia, and among the adjacent Basque (10.4%).
Haplogroup V is also found in parts of Northwest Africa. It is mainly concentrated among the Tuareg inhabiting the Gorom-Gorom area in Burkina Faso (21%), Sahrawi in the Western Sahara (17.9%), and Berbers of Matmata, Tunisia (16.3%). The rare V7a subclade occurs among Algerians in Oran (1.08%) and Reguibate Sahrawi (1.85%).
Ancient DNA
MtDNA haplogroup V has been reported in Neolithic remains of the Linear Pottery culture at Halberstadt, Germany c. 5000 BC and Derenburg Meerenstieg, Germany c. 4910 BC. Haplogroup V7 was found in representative Maykop culture samples in the excavatio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20HV
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Haplogroup HV is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup HV derives from the haplogroup R0, which in turn descends from haplogroup R. HV is also the ancestral clade to the haplogroups H and V. A possible origin of HV haplogroup is in the region of Western Iran, Mesopotamia, and the South Caucasus, where the highest prevalence of HV has been found.
Distribution
Haplogroup HV is found mainly in Western Asia, Central Asia, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and North Africa.
In Africa, the clade peaks among Egyptians inhabiting El-Hayez oasis (14.3%). with the HV0 subclade occurring among Mozabite Berbers (8.24%), Libyans (7.4%), Reguibate Sahrawi (6.48%), Zenata Berbers (5.48%), and Algerians (4.84% total; 2.15%-3.75% in Oran).
In a study published in 2013, haplogroup HV(xHV0, H) was found in great percentages of populations in Afghanistan: 11.0% (14/127) Uzbek (including 1/127 HV2 and 1/127 HV6), 8.2% (12/146) Tajik (including 3/146 HV6 and 1/146 HV2), 8.0% (6/75) Turkmen (including 1/75 HV2), 6.4% (5/78) Hazara, and 5.6% (5/90) Pashtun. Furthermore, haplogroup HV0 was found in 1.4% (2/146) of the sample of Afghanistani Tajiks, but it is unclear whether these belong to the haplogroup V subclade. The subclade HV1a1a has been found in 1.8% (3/169) of Yakuts in one study and 1.2% (5/423) of Yakuts in another study published in 2013.
A 2003 study was published reporting on the mtDNA sequencing of the bones of two 24,000-year-old anatomically modern huma
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20U
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Haplogroup U is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup (mtDNA). The clade arose from haplogroup R, likely during the early Upper Paleolithic. Its various subclades (labelled U1–U9, diverging over the course of the Upper Paleolithic) are found widely distributed across Northern and Eastern Europe, Central, Western and South Asia, as well as North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and the Canary Islands.
Origins
Haplogroup U descends from the haplogroup R mtDNA branch of the phylogenetic tree. The defining mutations (A11467G, A12308G, G12372A) are estimated to have arisen between 43,000 and 50,000 years ago, in the early Upper Paleolithic (around 46,530 ± 3,290 years before present, with a 95% confidence interval per Behar et al., 2012).
Ancient DNA classified as belonging to the U* mitochondrial haplogroup has been recovered from human skeletal remains found in Western Siberia, which have been dated to c. 45,000 years ago. The mitogenome (33-fold coverage) of the Peştera Muierii 1 individual (PM1) from Romania (35 ky cal BP) has been identified as the basal haplogroup U6* not previously found in any ancient or present-day humans.
Haplogroup U has been found among Iberomaurusian specimens dating from the Epipaleolithic at the Taforalt and Afalou prehistoric sites. Among the Taforalt individuals, around 13% of the observed haplotypes belonged to various U subclades, including U4a2b (1/24; 4%), U4c1 (1/24; 4%), and U6d3 (1/24; 4%). A further 41% of the analysed haplotypes could be ass
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibroblast%20growth%20factor
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Fibroblast growth factors (FGF) are a family of cell signalling proteins produced by macrophages; they are involved in a wide variety of processes, most notably as crucial elements for normal development in animal cells. Any irregularities in their function lead to a range of developmental defects. These growth factors typically act as systemic or locally circulating molecules of extracellular origin that activate cell surface receptors. A defining property of FGFs is that they bind to heparin and to heparan sulfate. Thus, some are sequestered in the extracellular matrix of tissues that contains heparan sulfate proteoglycans and are released locally upon injury or tissue remodeling.
Families
In humans, 23 members of the FGF family have been identified, all of which are structurally related signaling molecules:
Members FGF1 through FGF10 all bind fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs). FGF1 is also known as acidic fibroblast growth factor, and FGF2 is also known as basic fibroblast growth factor.
Members FGF11, FGF12, FGF13, and FGF14, also known as FGF homologous factors 1-4 (FHF1-FHF4), have been shown to have distinct functions compared to the FGFs. Although these factors possess remarkably similar sequence homology, they do not bind FGFRs and are involved in intracellular processes unrelated to the FGFs. This group is also known as "iFGF".
Human FGF18 is involved in cell development and morphogenesis in various tissues including cartilage.
Human FGF20 was identif
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FGF1
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Fibroblast growth factor 1, (FGF-1) also known as acidic fibroblast growth factor (aFGF), is a growth factor and signaling protein encoded by the FGF1 gene. It is synthesized as a 155 amino acid polypeptide, whose mature form is a non-glycosylated 17-18 kDa protein. Fibroblast growth factor protein was first purified in 1975, but soon afterwards others using different conditions isolated acidic FGF, Heparin-binding growth factor-1, and Endothelial cell growth factor-1. Gene sequencing revealed that this group was actually the same growth factor and that FGF1 was a member of a family of FGF proteins.
FGF-1 has no definitive signal sequence and thus is not secreted through classical pathways, but it does appear to form a disulfide linked dimer inside cells that associate with a complex of proteins at the cell membrane (including S100A13 and Syt1) which then help flip it through the membrane to the exterior of the cell. Once in the reducing conditions of the surrounding tissue, the dimer dissociates into monomeric FGF1 that can enter systemic circulation or be sequestered in tissues binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycans of the extracellular matrix. FGF1 can then bind to and exert its effects via specific fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) proteins which themselves constitute a family of closely related molecules.
In addition to its extracellular activity, FGF1 can also function intracellularly. The protein has a nuclear localization sequence (NLS) but the route t
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FGF3
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INT-2 proto-oncogene protein also known as FGF-3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FGF3 gene.
Function
FGF-3 is a member of the fibroblast growth factor family. FGF3 binds to Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 3 (FGFR3) to serve as a negative regulator of bone growth during ossification. Effectively, FGF-3 inhibits proliferation of chondrocytes within growth plate.
FGF family members possess broad mitogenic and cell survival activities and are involved in a variety of biological processes including embryonic development, cell growth, morphogenesis, tissue repair, tumor growth and invasion.
Clinical significance
The FGF3 gene was identified by its similarity with mouse fgf3/int-2, a proto-oncogene activated in virally induced mammary tumors in the mouse. Frequent amplification of this gene has been found in human tumors, which may be important for neoplastic transformation and tumor progression. Studies of the similar genes in mouse and chicken suggested the role in inner ear formation. Also, haploinsufficiency in the FGF3 gene is thought to cause otodental syndrome.
Interactions
FGF3 (gene) has been shown to interact with EBNA1BP2.
References
Further reading
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20R%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup R is a widely distributed human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. Haplogroup R
is associated with the peopling of Eurasia after about 70,000 years ago, and is distributed in modern populations throughout the world outside of sub-Saharan Africa.
Haplogroup R is a descendant of the macro-haplogroup N. Among the R clade's descendant haplogroups are B, U (and thus K), F, R0 (and thus HV, H, and V), and JT (the ancestral haplogroup of J and T).
Origin
Soares et al. (2009) estimate the age of haplogroup R at roughly 50,000 to 70,000 years ago.
This is consistent with an emergence in the course of the Coastal Migration out of East Africa to West, South and Southeast Asia.
It has been suggested that the early lineage of haplogroups M, N and R along the coastal route during the period of roughly 70,000 to 60,000 years ago. The northern route out of Africa is another possibility, where the expansion of haplogroup R may originate from South East Asia
Haplogroup R has wide diversity and antiquity in the indigenous population of South Asia. Tribes and castes of Western and Southern India
show higher diversity than the other regions, possibly suggesting their autochthonous status. Larruga et al. (2017) found mtDNA R spread out to Eurasia and Australia from a core area along the Southeast Asian coast.
The Ust'-Ishim man fossil of Siberia, dated ca. 45,000 years old, belongs to haplogroup R* (formerly classified as U*).
Distribution
Haplogroup R and its descendants ar
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-bodies
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In cellular biology, P-bodies, or processing bodies, are distinct foci formed by phase separation within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell consisting of many enzymes involved in mRNA turnover. P-bodies are highly conserved structures and have been observed in somatic cells originating from vertebrates and invertebrates, plants and yeast. To date, P-bodies have been demonstrated to play fundamental roles in general mRNA decay, nonsense-mediated mRNA decay, adenylate-uridylate-rich element mediated mRNA decay, and microRNA (miRNA) induced mRNA silencing. Not all mRNAs which enter P-bodies are degraded, as it has been demonstrated that some mRNAs can exit P-bodies and re-initiate translation. Purification and sequencing of the mRNA from purified processing bodies showed that these mRNAs are largely translationally repressed upstream of translation initiation and are protected from 5' mRNA decay.
P-bodies were originally proposed to be the sites of mRNA degradation in the cell and involved in decapping and digestion of mRNAs earmarked for destruction. Later work called this into question suggesting P bodies store mRNA until needed for translation.
In neurons, P-bodies are moved by motor proteins in response to stimulation. This is likely tied to local translation in dendrites.
History
P-bodies were first described in the scientific literature by Bashkirov et al. in 1997, in which they describe "small granules… discrete, prominent foci" as the cytoplasmic location of the
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20B%20%28mtDNA%29
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In human mitochondrial genetics, haplogroup B is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup B is believed to have arisen in Asia some 50,000 years before present. Its ancestral haplogroup was Eurasian haplogroup R.
The greatest variety of haplogroup B is in China. It is therefore likely that it underwent its earliest diversification in mainland East or South East Asia.
Distribution
Basal B was found in Upper Paleolithic Tianyuan man.
Haplogroup B is now most common among populations native to Southeast Asia, as well as speakers of Sino-Tibetan languages and Austronesian languages.
A subclade of B4b (which is sometimes labeled B2) is one of five haplogroups found among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the others being A, C, D, and X.
Because the migration to the Americas by the ancestors of indigenous Americans is generally believed to have been from northeastern Siberia via Beringia, it is surprising that Haplogroup B and Haplogroup X have not been found in Paleo-Siberian tribes of northeastern Siberia. However, Haplogroup B has been found among Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic populations of Siberia, such as Tuvans, Altays, Shors, Khakassians, Yakuts, Buryats, Mongols, Negidals, and Evenks. This haplogroup is also found among populations in China, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Korea, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Mongolia, the Philippines, Polynesia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Although haplogroup B in general has been found i
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20F%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup F is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. The clade is most common in East Asia and Southeast Asia. It has not been found among Native Americans.
It is a primary branch of haplogroup R9.
Distribution
The F haplogroup is fairly common in East Asia. High frequencies of the clade are found among the Lahu from Yunnan (33% - 77%, average 52%), Nicobar Islands (50%), Shors from Kemerovo Oblast of Siberia (41%), and Arunachal Pradesh, India (31%). There is also an important frequency in Taiwanese aborigines, Khakas, Kets, Han Chinese (and, thus, nearly all of China), Lombok, Sumba, Thailand, and Vietnam. Its distribution extends with low frequency to the Tharu of southern Nepal and the Bashkirs of the southern Urals.
Haplogroup F also occurs at low frequencies on the Comoros Islands (<10%).
It is also found at low frequencies on The Hvar island in Croatia (8.3%).
Table of Frequencies of MtDNA Haplogroup F
Subclades
F1a clearly predominates among the representatives of haplogroup F in Southeast Asia, but subclades of this haplogroup have been found in populations as far north as the Buryats and Ulchi of Siberia.
F1b tends to become more frequent as a fraction of total F in populations of the northern parts of East Asia and Central Asia, such as Mongols, Kazakhs, Uyghurs, and Japanese. It also has been found among the Yi people. There are odd exclaves of F1b in Gaininsk Bashkirs of Perm Oblast and Croats of Hvar Island.
F1d is the second most frequent sub-c
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20N%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup N is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) clade. A macrohaplogroup, its descendant lineages are distributed across many continents. Like its sibling macrohaplogroup M, macrohaplogroup N is a descendant of the haplogroup L3.
All mtDNA haplogroups found outside of Africa are descendants of either haplogroup N or its sibling haplogroup M. M and N are the signature maternal haplogroups that define the theory of the recent African origin of modern humans and subsequent early human migrations around the world. The global distribution of haplogroups N and M indicates that there was likely at least one major prehistoric migration of humans out of Africa, with both N and M later evolving outside the continent.
Origins
There is widespread agreement in the scientific community concerning the African ancestry of haplogroup L3 (haplogroup N's parent clade). However, whether or not the mutations which define haplogroup N itself first occurred within Asia or Africa has been a subject for ongoing discussion and study.
Torroni et al. 2006 state that Haplogroups M, N and R occurred somewhere between East Africa and the Persian Gulf.
Also related to the origins of haplogroup N is whether ancestral haplogroups M, N and R were part of the same migration out of Africa, or whether Haplogroup N left Africa via the Northern route through the Levant, and M left Africa via Horn of Africa. This theory was suggested because haplogroup N is by far the predominant haplogroup in Western Eurasia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme%20Records
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Enzyme Records is a Netherlands-based hardcore record label. Founded in 2001 by Patrick van Kerckhoven as a continuation of Kerckhoven's previous labels, Gangsta Audiovisuals and Supreme Intelligence Records, to 'restart' his labels and continue in a new style of hardcore without being drowned in pointless criticism". All artists that were on the Gangsta Audiovisuals and Supreme Intelligence roster also moved to Enzyme. Releases on Enzyme have been described as gabber, darkcore and industrial hardcore among other genre names.
See also
List of record labels
External links
Enzyme Records homepage
Post relating to the creation of Enzyme Records
Enzyme Records at Discogs.com
Record labels established in 2001
Dutch record labels
Techno record labels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland%20Route%20282
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Maryland Route 282 (MD 282) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. The highway runs from Crystal Beach east to the Delaware state line in Warwick, where the highway continues east as Delaware Route 299 (DE 299). MD 282 is the primary east–west highway of the Sassafras Neck between the Sassafras River and Bohemia River, connecting Crystal Beach, Earleville, and Warwick with MD 213 in Cecilton in southern Cecil County. The state highway was paved in Warwick by 1910 and constructed from Warwick to Cecilton in the late 1910s. West of Cecilton, what is today MD 282 consists of part of former MD 283, which ran from Crystal Beach to Earleville. MD 282 was constructed to Earleville in the early 1920s and extended a short distance west of Earleville in the late 1920s. MD 283 was constructed in the late 1920s and early 1930s. MD 282 was extended west to Crystal Beach along MD 283 in 1959. The highway from Cecilton to Crystal Beach was reconstructed in the late 1960s.
Route description
MD 282 begins at the intersection of Crystal Beach Road and White Crystal Beach Road in Crystal Beach near the Elk River. The state highway starts heading north but curves southeast as two-lane undivided Crystal Beach Road along Pearce Neck. MD 282 curves south and passes southwest of St. Stephen's Episcopal Church while being paralleled by Old Crystal Beach Road. In Earleville, MD 282 makes a sweeping curve to the east, passing the intersection of Grove Neck Road, which leads to the histori
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etizolam
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Etizolam (marketed under many brand names) is a thienodiazepine derivative which is a benzodiazepine analog. The etizolam molecule differs from a benzodiazepine in that the benzene ring has been replaced by a thiophene ring and triazole ring has been fused, making the drug a thienotriazolodiazepine.
Although a thienodiazepine, etizolam is clinically regarded as a benzodiazepine because of its mode of action via the benzodiazepine receptor and directly targeting GABAA allosteric modulator receptors.
It possesses anxiolytic, amnesic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.
It was patented in 1972 and approved for medical use in 1983.
As of April 2021, the export of Etizolam has been banned in India.
Medical uses
Short-term treatment of insomnia.
Anxiety disorders such as OCD and general anxiety disorder, mostly as a short-term medication to be used purely on an at-need basis
Side effects
Long term use may result in blepharospasms, especially in women. Doses of 4 mg or more may cause anterograde amnesia.
In rare cases, erythema annulare centrifugum skin lesions have resulted.
Tolerance, dependence and withdrawal
Abrupt or rapid discontinuation from etizolam, as with benzodiazepines, may result in the appearance of the benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, including rebound insomnia. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a rare event in benzodiazepine withdrawal, has been documented in a case of abrupt withdrawal from etizolam. This is partic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloxazolam
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Cloxazolam is a benzodiazepine derivative that has anxiolytic, sedative, and anticonvulsant properties. It is not widely used; as of August 2018 it was marketed in Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Brazil, and Japan. In 2019, it has been retired from the Belgian market.
See also
Cinazepam
Gidazepam
References
External links
Inchem.org - Cloxazolam
Anxiolytics
Chloroarenes
Lactams
Oxazolobenzodiazepines
Prodrugs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lormetazepam
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Lormetazepam, sold under the brand name Noctamid among others, is a drug which is a short to intermediate acting 3-hydroxy benzodiazepine derivative and temazepam analogue. It possesses hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.
It was patented in 1961 and came into medical use in 1980. Lormetazepam is not approved for sale in the United States or Canada. It is licensed in the UK as 0.5 and 1mg tablets for short-term treatment (2–4 weeks) of moderately severe insomnia. It is licensed in the Netherlands as 1 and 2mg tablets, under the brand names Loramet and Noctamid and as generic, available from several manufacturers. It is sold in Poland as Noctofer. A Dutch analysis stated that lormetazepam could be suitable to be included in drug prescribing formularies, although zolpidem, zopiclone, and temazepam appear better.
Medical uses
Lormetazepam is considered a hypnotic benzodiazepine and is officially indicated for moderate-to-severe insomnia. Lormetazepam is a short-acting benzodiazepine and is sometimes used in patients who have difficulty in maintaining sleep or falling asleep. Hypnotics should only be used on a short-term basis or, in those with chronic insomnia, on an occasional basis.
Side effects
Side effects of lormetazepam are similar to those of other hypnotic benzodiazepines and can for the most part be regarded as a class effect. In a sleep study, 1mg lormetazepam increased total sleep time, reduced wakefulness, but di
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20A%20%28mtDNA%29
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In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup A is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup A is believed to have arisen in Asia some 30,000–50,000 years BC. Its ancestral haplogroup was Haplogroup N. However, the extant diversity of mitochondrial genomes that belong to Haplogroup A is low relative to the degree of divergence from its nearest outgroups in haplogroup N, which suggests that extant members of Haplogroup A might be descended from a population that has emerged from a bottleneck approximately 20,000 years ago.
Its highest frequencies are among Native Americans, its largest overall population is in East Asia, and its greatest variety (which suggests its origin point) is in East Asia. Thus, it might have originated in and spread from the Far East.
Distribution
Its subclade A2 shares a T16362C mutation with subclades A1 (found in Japan, Tashkurgan, Veliky Novgorod, Mongols, and Altaians), A6 (found in Tibet and in the Yangtze River basin), A12'23 (found in Siberia and among Uralic and Turkic peoples), A13'14 (found in southern Siberia, Xinjiang, Ladakh, China, Yunnan, Thailand, and Vietnam), A15 (found in China, Naxi, Uyghur, Japan, and among the Sherpa of Tibet and Nepal), A16 (found in Uyghur, Buryat, Turkey), A17 (found in China, Miao, Yi, Tibet, Ladakh, Kyrgyz, Thailand, and Vietnam), A18 (found in China), A19 (found in China), A20 (found among Han Chinese and in Japan), A21 (found in Tibet and in Jammu and Kashmir), A22 (found in China),
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20C%20%28mtDNA%29
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In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup C is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup C is believed to have arisen somewhere between the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal some 24,000 years before present. It is a descendant of the haplogroup M. Haplogroup C shares six mutations downstream of the MRCA of haplogroup M with haplogroup Z and five mutations downstream of the MRCA of haplogroup M with other members of haplogroup M8. This macro-haplogroup is known as haplogroup M8'CZ or simply as haplogroup M8.
Distribution
Haplogroup C is found in Northeast Asia (including Siberia) and the Americas. In Eurasia, Haplogroup C is especially frequent among populations of arctic Siberia, such as Nganasans, Dolgans, Yakuts, Evenks, Evens, Yukaghirs, and Koryaks. Haplogroup C is one of five mtDNA haplogroups found in the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the others being A, B, D, and X. The subclades C1b, C1c, C1d, and C4c are found in the first people of the Americas. C1a is found only in Asia.
In 2010, Icelandic researchers discovered C1e lineage in their home country, estimating an introduction date of year 1700 AD or earlier, indicating a possible introduction during the Viking expeditions to the Americas. A Native American origin for this C1e lineage is likely, but the researchers note that a European or Asian one cannot be ruled out.
In 2014, a study discovered a new mtDNA subclade C1f from the remains of 3 people found in north-western Russia and dated
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinolazepam
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Cinolazepam (marketed under the brand name Gerodorm) is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.
Due to its strong sedative properties, it is primarily used as a hypnotic.
It was patented in 1978 and came into medical use in 1992. Cinolazepam is not approved for sale in the United States or Canada.
References
External links
Inchem.org - Cinolazepam
Secondary alcohols
Benzodiazepines
Chloroarenes
Fluoroarenes
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Hypnotics
Lactams
Nitriles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20D%20%28mtDNA%29
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In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup D is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
It is a descendant haplogroup of haplogroup M, thought to have arisen somewhere in Asia, between roughly 60,000 and 35,000 years ago (in the Late Pleistocene, before the Last Glacial Maximum and the settlement of the Americas).
In contemporary populations, it is found especially in Central and Northeast Asia.
Haplogroup D (more specifically, subclade D4) is one of five main haplogroups found in the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the others being A, B, C, and X. Among the Nepalese population, haplogroup D is the most dominant maternal lineage in Tamang (26.1%) and Magar (24.3%).
Subclades
There are two principal branches, D4 and D5'6.
D1, D2 and D3 are subclades of D4.
D4
D1 is a basal branch of D4 that is widespread and diverse in the Americas.
Subclades D4b1, D4e1, and D4h are found both in Asia and in the Americas and are thus of special interest for the settlement of the Americas.
D2, which occurs with high frequency in some arctic and subarctic populations (especially Aleuts), is a subclade of D4e1 parallel to D4e1a and D4e1c, so it properly should be termed D4e1b.
D3, which has been found mainly in some Siberian populations and in Inuit of Canada and Greenland, is a branch of D4b1c.
D4 (3010, 8414, 14668): The subclade D4 is the most frequently occurring mtDNA haplogroup among modern populations of northern East Asia, such as Japanese, Okinawans, Koreans, northern
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20L3
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Haplogroup L3 is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. The clade has played a pivotal role in the early dispersal of anatomically modern humans.
It is strongly associated with the out-of-Africa migration of modern humans of about 70–50,000 years ago.
It is inherited by all modern non-African populations, as well as by some populations in Africa.
Origin
Haplogroup L3 arose close to 70,000 years ago, near the time of the recent out-of-Africa event. This dispersal originated in East Africa and expanded to West Asia, and further to South and Southeast Asia in the course of a few millennia, and some research suggests that L3 participated in this migration out of Africa. L3 is also common amongst African Americans and Afro-Brazilians.
A 2007 estimate for the age of L3 suggested a range of 104–84,000 years ago.
More recent analyses, including Soares et al. (2012) arrive at a more recent date, of roughly 70–60,000 years ago. Soares et al. also suggest that L3 most likely expanded from East Africa into Eurasia sometime around 65–55,000 years ago as part of the recent out-of-Africa event, as well as from East Africa into Central Africa from 60 to 35,000 years ago.
In 2016, Soares et al. again suggested that haplogroup L3 emerged in East Africa, leading to the Out-of-Africa migration, around 70–60,000 years ago.
Haplogroups L6 and L4 form sister clades of L3 which arose in East Africa at roughly the same time but which did not participate in the out-of-Africa migration.
The
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%20of%20observation
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In statistics, a unit of observation is the unit described by the data that one analyzes. A study may treat groups as a unit of observation with a country as the unit of analysis, drawing conclusions on group characteristics from data collected at the national level. For example, in a study of the demand for money, the unit of observation might be chosen as the individual, with different observations (data points) for a given point in time differing as to which individual they refer to; or the unit of observation might be the country, with different observations differing only in regard to the country they refer to.
Unit of observation vs unit of analysis
The unit of observation should not be confused with the unit of analysis. A study may have a differing unit of observation and unit of analysis: for example, in community research, the research design may collect data at the individual level of observation but the level of analysis might be at the neighborhood level, drawing conclusions on neighborhood characteristics from data collected from individuals. Together, the unit of observation and the level of analysis define the population of a research enterprise.
Data point
A data point or observation is a set of one or more measurements on a single member of the unit of observation. For example, in a study of the determinants of money demand with the unit of observation being the individual, a data point might be the values of income, wealth, age of individual, and number
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20L2
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Haplogroup L2 is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup with a widespread modern distribution, particularly in Subequatorial Africa. Its L2a subclade is a somewhat frequent and widely distributed mtDNA cluster on the continent, as well as among those in the Americas.
Origin
L2 is a common lineage in Africa. It is believed to have evolved between 87,000 and 107,000 years ago or approx. 90,000 YBP. Its age and widespread distribution and diversity across the continent makes its exact origin point within Africa difficult to trace with any confidence. Several L2 haplotypes observed in Guineans and other West Africa populations shared genetic matches with East Africa and North Africa. An origin for L2b, L2c, L2d and L2e in West or Central Africa seems likely. The early diversity of L2 can be observed all over the African Continent, but as we can see in Subclades section below, the highest diversity is found in West Africa. Most of subclades are largely confined to West and western-Central Africa.
According to a 2015 study, "results show that lineages in Southern Africa cluster with Western/Central African lineages at a recent time scale, whereas, eastern lineages seem to be substantially more ancient. Three moments of expansion from a Central African source are associated to L2: one migration at 70–50 ka into Eastern or Southern Africa, postglacial movements 15–10 ka into Eastern Africa; and the southward Bantu Expansion in the last 5 ka. The complementary population and L
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20L1
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Haplogroup L1 is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. It is most common in Central Africa and West Africa.
It diverged from L1-6 at about 140,000 years ago ( 95% CI).
Its emergence is associated with the early peopling of Africa by anatomically modern humans during the Eemian, and it is now mostly found in African pygmies.
Distribution
Haplogroup L1 is found most commonly in Central Africa and West Africa. It reaches its highest frequency among the Mbenga Pygmies.
It is likely that it was formerly more widespread, and was constrained to its current area as a result of the Bantu migration (which is largely associated with haplogroup L2).
Haplogroup L1 has been observed in specimens from the island cemetery in Kulubnarti, Sudan, which date from the Early Christian period (AD 550–800).
An ancient Beaker culture individual at the Camino de las Yeseras in Spain (San Fernando de Henares, Madrid; [I4245 / RISE695] F) has also been found to carry the L1b1a mitochondrial haplogroup.
Phylogeny
L1 has two branches, L1c and L1b (the formerly named haplogroups L1d, L1k, L1a, L1f have been re-classified into haplogroup L0, as L0d, L0k, L0a, L0f; L1e as L5).
L1c
Haplogroup L1c emerged at about 85 kya. It reaches its highest frequencies in West and Central Africa, notably among the Mbenga Pygmy peoples. (see map). Among the Mbenga, it is carried by 100% of Ba-Kola, 97% of Ba-Benzélé, and 77% of Biaka. Other populations in which L1c is particularly prevalent include the Bedzan (T
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20Z
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In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup Z is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup Z is believed to have arisen in Central Asia, and is a descendant of haplogroup CZ.
Distribution
The greatest clade diversity of haplogroup Z is found in East Asia and Central Asia. However, its greatest frequency appears in some peoples of Russia, such as Evens from Kamchatka (8/39 Z1a2a, 3/39 Z1a3, 11/39 = 28.2% Z total) and from Berezovka, Srednekolymsky District, Sakha Republic (3/15 Z1a3, 1/15 Z1a2a, 4/15 = 26.7% Z total), and among the Saami people of northern Scandinavia. With the exception of three Khakasses who belong to Z4, two Yakut who belong to Z3a1, two Yakut, a Yakutian Evenk, a Buryat, and an Altai Kizhi who belong to Z3(xZ3a, Z3c), and the presence of the Z3c clade among populations of Altai Republic, nearly all members of haplogroup Z in North Asia and Europe belong to subclades of Z1. The TMRCA of Z1 is 20,400 [95% CI 7,400 <-> 34,000] ybp according to Sukernik et al. 2012, 20,400 [95% CI 7,800 <-> 33,800] ybp according to Fedorova et al. 2013, or 19,600 [95% CI 12,500 <-> 29,300] ybp according to YFull. Among the members (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, and Z7) of haplogroup Z, Nepalese populations were characterized by rare clades Z3a1a and Z7, of which Z3a1a was the most frequent sub-clade in Newar, with a frequency of 16.5%. Z3, found in East Asia, North Asia, and MSEA, is the oldest member of haplogroup Z with an estimated age of ~ 25.4 Kya. Haplogroup
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinylbital
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Vinylbital, also known as butylvinal, is a sedative hypnotic drug which is a barbiturate derivative. It was developed by Aktiebolaget Pharmacia in the 1950s.
References
Barbiturates
Sedatives
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Vinyl compounds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20regression
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Local regression or local polynomial regression, also known as moving regression, is a generalization of the moving average and polynomial regression.
Its most common methods, initially developed for scatterplot smoothing, are LOESS (locally estimated scatterplot smoothing) and LOWESS (locally weighted scatterplot smoothing), both pronounced . They are two strongly related non-parametric regression methods that combine multiple regression models in a k-nearest-neighbor-based meta-model.
In some fields, LOESS is known and commonly referred to as Savitzky–Golay filter (proposed 15 years before LOESS).
LOESS and LOWESS thus build on "classical" methods, such as linear and nonlinear least squares regression. They address situations in which the classical procedures do not perform well or cannot be effectively applied without undue labor. LOESS combines much of the simplicity of linear least squares regression with the flexibility of nonlinear regression. It does this by fitting simple models to localized subsets of the data to build up a function that describes the deterministic part of the variation in the data, point by point. In fact, one of the chief attractions of this method is that the data analyst is not required to specify a global function of any form to fit a model to the data, only to fit segments of the data.
The trade-off for these features is increased computation. Because it is so computationally intensive, LOESS would have been practically impossible to use in
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20W
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Haplogroup W is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup W is believed to have originated around 23,900 years ago in Western Asia. It is descended from the haplogroup N2.
Distribution
Haplogroup W is found in Europe, Western Asia, and South Asia. It is widely distributed at low frequencies, with a high concentration in Northern Pakistan. Haplogroup W is also found in the Maghreb among Algerians (1.08%-3.23%) and in Siberia among Yakuts (6/423 = 1.42%).
Additionally, the clade has been observed among ancient Egyptian mummies excavated at the Abusir el-Meleq archaeological site in Middle Egypt, which date from the Ptolemaic Kingdom.
The W5 subclade has been found in a fossil associated with the Starčevo culture (Lánycsók site; 1/1 or 100%).
Ancient DNA analysis found that the medieval individual Sungir 6 (730-850 cal BP) belonged to the W3a1 subclade.
Subclades
Tree
This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup W subclades is based on the paper by Mannis van Oven and Manfred Kayser Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation and subsequent published research.
W
W1 – Italy, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Finland, Spain, Qashqai people of Iran
W1a – Finns
W1b
W1b1 – Finns
W1-T119C
W1c – Poland, Persians from Iran
W1c1
W1d
W1e
W1e1
W1e1a
W1f – Italy
W1g – England, Belgium, Portugal, Gitanos (Roma people of Spain)
W1h – Nordic countries, England, Croatia, Ashkenazi Jews
W1h1 – Italians
W-C194T
W3 - Turkey, Azerbaija
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butobarbital
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Butobarbital, also called butobarbitone or butethal, Soneryl, and Neonal, is a hypnotic drug which is a barbiturate derivative. It was developed by Poulenc Brothers (now part of Sanofi) in 1921.
References
Barbiturates
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Butyl compounds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20I%20%28mtDNA%29
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Haplogroup I is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. It is believed to have originated about 21,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) period in West Asia (; ; ). The haplogroup is unusual in that it is now widely distributed geographically, but is common in only a few small areas of East Africa, West Asia and Europe. It is especially common among the El Molo and Rendille peoples of Kenya, various regions of Iran, the Lemko people of Slovakia, Poland and Ukraine, the island of Krk in Croatia, the department of Finistère in France and some parts of Scotland and Ireland.
Origin
Haplogroup I is a descendant (subclade) of haplogroup N1a1b and sibling of haplogroup N1a1b1 . It is believed to have arisen somewhere in West Asia between 17,263 and 24,451 years before present (BP) , with coalescence age of 20.1 thousand years ago . It has been suggested that its origin may be in Iran or more generally the Near East . It has diverged to at least seven distinct clades i.e. branches I1–I7, dated between 16–6.8 thousand years . The hypothesis about its Near Eastern origin is based on the fact that all haplogroup I clades, especially those from Late Glacial period (I1, I4, I5, and I6), include mitogenomes from the Near East . The age estimates and dispersal of some subclades (I1, I2’3, I5) are similar to those of major subclades of the mtDNA haplogroups J and T, indicating possible dispersal of the I haplogroup into Europe during the Late Glacial period (c. 18–12 ky
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirigent%20protein
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Dirigent proteins are members of a class of proteins which dictate the stereochemistry of a compound synthesized by other enzymes. The first dirigent protein was discovered in Forsythia intermedia. This protein has been found to direct the stereoselective biosynthesis of (+)-pinoresinol from coniferyl alcohol monomers:
Lignan biosynthesis is catalysed by oxidative enzymes. In the test tube the reaction results in a heteregenous mixture of dimeric compounds. When a dirigent protein is present during the reaction, one stereoisomer of one compound is highly enriched. Dirigent proteins appear to possess no oxidative radical forming activity of their own; in the absence of oxidative enzyme, no reaction will occur.
Recently, a second, enantiocomplementary dirigent protein was identified in Arabidopsis thaliana, which directs enantioselective synthesis of (-)-pinoresinol.
Activity
In lignan biosynthesis, oxidative enzymes perform proton coupled electron transfer to remove a hydrogen atom from monolignols, forming a radical intermediate. These intermediates then couple in a radical termination reaction to form one of a variety of dimers, known as lignans. In vitro reactions of coniferyl alcohol (a common monolignol) in the presence of oxidative enzymes produce a wide variety of different dimers at varying concentrations. When dirigent protein from "Forsythia intermedia" is present, production of (+)-pinoresinol is greatly enriched, and other products are far less abundant. Becaus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20A%20%28Y-DNA%29
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Haplogroup A is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup, which includes all living human Y chromosomes. Bearers of extant sub-clades of haplogroup A are almost exclusively found in Africa (or among the African diaspora), in contrast with haplogroup BT, bearers of which participated in the Out of Africa migration of early modern humans. The known branches of haplogroup A are A00, A0, A1a, and A1b1; these branches are only very distantly related, and are not more closely related to each other than they are to haplogroup BT.
Origin
Though there are terminological challenges to define it as a haplogroup, haplogroup A has come to mean "the foundational haplogroup" (viz. of contemporary human populations); it is not defined by any mutation, but refers to any haplogroup which is not descended from the haplogroup BT; in other words, it is defined by the absence of the defining mutation of that group (M91). By this definition, haplogroup A includes all mutations that took place between the Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (estimated at some 270 kya) and the mutation defining haplogroup BT (estimated at some 140–150 kya, including any extant subclades that may yet to be discovered.
Bearers of haplogroup A (i.e. absence of the defining mutation of haplogroup BT) have been found in Southern Africa's hunter-gatherer inhabited areas, especially among the San people. In addition, the most basal mitochondrial DNA L0 lineages are also largely restricted to the San. However, the A line
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20B-M60
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Haplogroup B (M60) is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup common to paternal lineages in Africa. It is a primary branch of the haplogroup BT.
B (M60) is common in parts of Africa, especially the tropical forests of West-Central Africa. It was the ancestral haplogroup of not only modern Pygmies like the Baka and Mbuti, but also Hadzabe from Tanzania, who often have been considered, in large part because of some typological features of their language, to be a remnant of Khoisan people in East Africa.
Distribution
According to one study of the Y-DNA of populations in Sudan, haplogroup B-M60 is found in approximately 30% (16/53) of Southern Sudanese, 16% (5/32) of local Hausa people, 14% (4/28) of the Nuba of central Sudan, 3.7% (8/216) of Northern Sudanese (but only among Copts and Nubians), and 2.2% (2/90) of Western Sudanese. According to another study, haplogroup B is found in approximately 15% of Sudanese males, including 12.5% (5/40) B2a1a1a1 (M109/M152) and 2.5% (1/40) B-M60(xM146, M150, M112).
In Madagascar, haplogroup B-M60 has been found in approximately 9% of Malagasy males, including 6% (2/35) B-M60(xB2b-50f2(P)) and 3% (1/35) B2b-50f2(P).
Family Tree DNA shows a significant number of persons of Haplogroup B-M60 (B-M181) claiming origins from the Arabian Peninsula (dominantly Saudi Arabia, but also in Kuwait, Bahrain, Yemen, Qatar, Iraq, United Arab Emirates, and Oman). Sampling bias does not allow for meaningful percentages, but the presence of the haplogroup i
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminar%20flow%20cabinet
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A laminar flow cabinet or tissue culture hood is a carefully enclosed bench designed to prevent contamination of semiconductor wafers, biological samples, or any particle sensitive materials. Air is drawn through a HEPA filter and blown in a very smooth, laminar flow towards the user. Due to the direction of air flow, the sample is protected from the user but the user is not protected from the sample. The cabinet is usually made of stainless steel with no gaps or joints where spores might collect.
Such hoods exist in both horizontal and vertical configurations, and there are many different types of cabinets with a variety of airflow patterns and acceptable uses.
Laminar flow cabinets may have a UV-C germicidal lamp to sterilize the interior and contents before usage to prevent contamination of the experiment. Germicidal lamps are usually kept on for fifteen minutes to sterilize the interior before the cabinet is used. The light must be switched off when the cabinet is being used, to limit exposure to skin and eyes as stray ultraviolet light emissions can cause cancer and cataracts.
See also
Asepsis
Biosafety cabinet
Fume hood
References
External links
NSF/ANSI Standard 49
Laboratory equipment
Microbiology equipment
Ventilation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative%20enzyme
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An oxidative enzyme is an enzyme that catalyses an oxidation reaction. Two most common types of oxidative enzymes are peroxidases, which use hydrogen peroxide, and oxidases, which use molecular oxygen. They increase the rate at which ATP is produced aerobically.
Oxidative enzymes are responsible for the browning of fruits like apples. When the surface of apples are exposed to the oxygen in the air, the oxidative enzymes like polyphenol oxidase and catechol oxidase oxidize the fruit (electrons are lost to the air). Such browning can be prevented by cooking the fruit or lowering the pH (which destroys, inactivates, or denatures the enzyme) or by preventing oxygen from getting to the surface (such as by covering the fruit).
See also
Oxidoreductase
References
Enzymes
EC 1.1.3
EC 1.11.1
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20E-M96
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Haplogroup E-M96 is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is one of the two main branches of the older and ancestral haplogroup DE, the other main branch being haplogroup D. The E-M96 clade is divided into two main subclades: the more common E-P147, and the less common E-M75.
Origins
Underhill (2001) proposed that haplogroup E may have arisen in East Africa. Some authors as Chandrasekar (2007), accept the earlier position of Hammer (1997) that Haplogroup E may have originated in West Asia, given that:
E is a clade of haplogroup DE, with the other major clade, haplogroup D, being exclusively distributed in Asia.
DE is a clade within M168 with the other two major clades, C and F, considered to have already a Eurasian origin.
However, several discoveries made since the Hammer articles are thought to make an Asian origin less likely:
Underhill and Kivisild (2007) demonstrated that C and F have a common ancestor meaning that DE has only one sibling which is non-African.
DE* is found in both Asia and Africa, meaning that not only one, but several siblings of D are found in Asia and Africa.
Karafet (2008), in which Hammer is a co-author, significantly rearranged time estimates leading to "new interpretations on the geographical origin of ancient sub-clades". Amongst other things this article proposed a much older age for haplogroup E-M96 than had been considered previously, giving it a similar age to Haplogroup D, and DE itself, meaning that there is no longer any strong
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20E-V38
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Haplogroup E-V38, also known as E1b1a-V38, is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. E-V38 is primarily distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. E-V38 has two basal branches, E-M329 and E-M2. E-M329 is a subclade mostly found in East Africa. E-M2 is the predominant subclade in West Africa, Central Africa, Southern Africa, and the region of African Great Lakes; it also occurs at moderate frequencies in some parts of North Africa, West Asia, and Southern Europe.
Origins
The discovery of two SNPs (V38 and V100) by Trombetta et al. (2011) significantly redefined the E-V38 phylogenetic tree. This led the authors to suggest that E-V38 may have originated in East Africa. V38 joins the West African-affiliated E-M2 and the Northeast African-affiliated E-M329 with an earlier common ancestor who, like E-P2, may have also originated in East Africa. The downstream SNP E-M180 may have originated in the humid south-central Saharan savanna/grassland of North Africa between 14,000 BP and 10,000 BP. According to Wood et al. (2005) and Rosa et al. (2007), such population movements changed the pre-existing population Y chromosomal diversity in Central, Southern, and Southeastern Africa, replacing the previous haplogroup frequencies (haplogroups A and B-M60) in these areas with the now dominant E1b1a1 lineages. Traces of earlier inhabitants, however, can be observed today in these regions via the presence of the Y DNA haplogroups A1a, A1b, A2, A3, and B-M60 that are common in certain populations, such
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20K-M9
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Haplogroup K or K-M9 is a genetic lineage within human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. A sublineage of haplogroup IJK, K-M9, and its descendant clades represent a geographically widespread and diverse haplogroup. The lineages have long been found among males on every continent except Antarctica.
The direct descendants of K-M9 are Haplogroup K2 (formerly KxLT; K-M526) and Haplogroup K1 (L298 = P326, also known as LT).
Origins and distribution
Y-DNA haplogroup K-M9 is an old lineage that arose approximately 47,000-50,000 years ago. According to geneticist Spencer Wells, haplogroup K or the Eurasian clan, originated in the Middle East (perhaps Iran) or Central Asia. It is likely that its descendant haplogroup P diverged somewhere in South Asia into P1, which expanded into Siberia and Northern Eurasia, and into P2, which expanded into Oceania and Southeast Asia.
Basal K* is exceptionally rare and under-researched; while it has been reported at very low frequencies on many continents it is not always clear if the examples concerned have been screened for subclades. Confirmed examples of K-M9* now appear to be most common amongst some populations in Island South East Asia and Melanesia.
Primary descendants of haplogroup LT are L (M20), also known as K1a, and T (M184), also known as K1b.
The descendants of haplogroup K2 include:
K2a (detected in paleolithic specimens Oase1 and Ust'-Ishim), the subclades of which include the major haplogroups N and O, and;
K2b – the ancestor of
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20M-P256
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Haplogroup M, also known as M-P256 and Haplogroup K2b1b (previously K2b1d) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. M-P256 is a descendant haplogroup of Haplogroup K2b1, and is believed to have first appeared between 32,000 and 47,000 years ago .
M-P256 is the most frequently occurring Y-chromosome haplogroup in West Papua and western Papua New Guinea . It is also found in neighbouring parts of Melanesia, Indonesia and among indigenous Australians.
It and Haplogroup S (B254) are the only primary subclades of K2b1, also known as haplogroup MS.
Phylogenetic structure
This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup subclades is based primarily on the trees published by ISOGG in 2016 and YCC in 2008.
M* (P256)
M1 (M4, M5/P73, M106, M186, M189, M296, P35)
M1a(P34_1, P34_2, P34_3, P34_4, P34_5)
M1a1 (P51)
M1a2 (P94)
M1b (P87)
M1b1 (M104_1/P22_1, M104_2/P22_2)
M1b1a (M16)
M1b1b (M83)
M2 (M353, M387)
M2a (M177/SRY9138)
M3 (P117, P118)
Distribution
M* (M-P256*)
The paragroup M-P256* is found at low incidences in New Guinea (6.3%) and Flores (2.5%).
M1 (M-M4)
Found frequently in New Guinea and Melanesia, with a moderate distribution in neighboring parts of Indonesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
Una 100%
Ketengban 100%
Awyu 100%
Citak 86%
Asmat 75%
West Papua
lowlands/coast 77.5%
highlands 74.5%
Kombai/Korowai 46%
Papua New Guinea
coast 29%
highlands 35.5%
Tolai (New Britain) 31%
Trobriand Islands 30%
Maluku (Moluccas) 21%
Torres Strait Islanders (Australia)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20N-M231
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Haplogroup N (M231) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup defined by the presence of the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) marker M231.
It is most commonly found in males originating from northern Eurasia. It also has been observed at lower frequencies in populations native to other regions, including parts of the Balkans, Central Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia.
Origins
Haplogroup NO-M214 – its most recent common ancestor with its sibling, haplogroup O-M175 – is estimated to have existed about 36,800–44,700 years ago.
It is generally considered that N-M231 arose in East Asia approximately 19,400 (±4,800) years ago and populated northern Eurasia after the Last Glacial Maximum. Males carrying the marker apparently moved northwards as the climate warmed in the Holocene, migrating in a counter-clockwise path, to eventually become concentrated in areas as far away as Fennoscandia and the Baltic . The apparent dearth of haplogroup N-M231 amongst Native American peoples indicates that it spread after Beringia was submerged , about 11,000 years ago.
Distribution
Haplogroup N has a wide geographic distribution throughout northern Eurasia, and it also has been observed occasionally in other areas, including Central Asia and the Balkans.
It has been found with greatest frequency among indigenous peoples of Russia, including Finnic peoples, Mari, Udmurt, Komi, Khanty, Mansi, Nenets, Nganasans, Turkic peoples (Yakuts, Dolgans, Khakasses, Tuvans, Tatars, Chuvashes, etc.), Buryats
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20O-M175
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Haplogroup O, also known as O-M175, is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is primarily found among populations in Southeast Asia and East Asia. It also is found in various percentages of populations of the Russian Far East, South Asia, Central Asia, Caucasus, Crimea, Ukraine, Iran, Oceania, Madagascar and the Comoros. Haplogroup O is a primary descendant of haplogroup NO-M214.
The O-M175 haplogroup is very common amongst males from East and Southeast Asia. It has two primary branches: O1 (O-F265) and O2 (O-M122). O1 is found at high frequencies amongst males native to Southeast Asia, Taiwan, the Japanese Archipelago, the Korean Peninsula, Madagascar and some populations in southern China and Austroasiatic speakers of India. O2 is found at high levels amongst Han Chinese, Tibeto-Burman populations (including many of those in Yunnan, Tibet, Burma, Northeast India, and Nepal), Manchu, Mongols (especially those who are citizens of the PRC), Koreans, Vietnamese, Filipinos, Thais, Polynesians, Miao people, Hmong, the Naiman tribe of Kazakhs in Kazakhstan, Kazakhs in the southeast of Altai Republic, and Kazakhs in the Ili area of Xinjiang.
Origins
Haplogroup O-M175 is a descendant haplogroup of Haplogroup NO-M214, and first appeared according to different theories either in Southeast Asia (see , , , and ) or East Asia (see ) approximately 40,000 years ago (or between 31,294 and 51,202 years ago according to Karmin et al. 2015).
Haplogroup O-M175 is one of NO-M214's two branc
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20P%20%28Y-DNA%29
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Haplogroup P also known as P-F5850 or K2b2 is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup in human genetics. P-F5850 is a branch of K2b (previously Haplogroup MPS; P331), which is a branch of Haplogroup K2 (K-M526).
The haplogroup K2b splits into K2b1 (haplogroup MS*) and K2b2 (haplogroup P-F580, Y-DNA P*). Basal P* (P-PF5850*) is found in Southeast Asia. The primary branches (clades) of P-F580 are P-P295 (P1a, formerly P*) which is found among South and Southeast Asians as well as Oceanians, P-FT292000 (P1b, formerly P3) with unknown distribution, and P-M45 (P1c, formerly P1) commonly found among Siberians and Central Asians. P-M45 (P1c) is, in turn, the parent node of Haplogroup Q (Q-M242) and Haplogroup R (R-M207).
The major subclades of Haplogroups P-M45, Q and R now include most males among Europeans, Native Americans, South Asians and Central Asians.
Origin and dispersal
Karafet et al. 2015 suggests an origin and dispersal of haplogroup P from either South Asia or Southeast Asia as part of the early human dispersal, based on the distribution of subclades now classified as P-P295 (now P1a), and more ancient clades such as K1 and K2. However, Karafet, et al. mentions that this hypothesis is "parsimonius" and it is just as likely that it originated elsewhere in Eurasia and later went extinct there. Hallast, Agdzhoyan, et al. concluded that the ancestral Eurasian haplogroups C, D, and F, either expanded from the Middle East or from Southeast Asia. Based on the modern distribution o
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20Q-M242
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Haplogroup Q or Q-M242 is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It has one primary subclade, Haplogroup Q1 (L232/S432), which includes numerous subclades that have been sampled and identified in males among modern populations.
Q-M242 is the predominant Y-DNA haplogroup among Native Americans and several peoples of Central Asia and Northern Siberia.
Origins
Haplogroup Q-M242 is one of the two branches of P1-M45, the other being R-M207. P1, as well as R* and Q* were observed among Ancient North Eurasians, a Paleolithic Siberian population.
Q-M242 is believed to have arisen around the Altai Mountains area (or South Central Siberia), approximately 17,000 to 31,700 years ago. However, the matter remains unclear due to limited sample sizes and changing definitions of Haplogroup Q: early definitions used a combination of the SNPs M242, P36.2, and MEH2 as defining mutations.
Technical specification of mutation
The polymorphism, “M242”, is a C→T transition residing in intron 1 (IVS-866) of the DBY gene and was discovered by Mark Seielstad et al. in 2003.
The technical details of M242 are:
Nucleotide change: C to T
Position (base pair): 180
Total size (base pairs): 366
Forward 5′→ 3′:
Reverse 5′→ 3′:
Subclades
In Y chromosome phylogenetics, subclades are the branches of a haplogroup. These subclades are also defined by single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or unique-event polymorphisms (UEPs). Haplogroup Q-M242, according to the most recent available phylogenetics has between 15 and
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akuji%20the%20Heartless
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Akuji the Heartless is an action-adventure video game developed by Crystal Dynamics and published by Eidos Interactive exclusively for the PlayStation.
Gameplay
Akurji the Heartless is a free-roaming 3D action game. The player character, Akuji, can attack enemies with retractable claws or use spells to light enemies on fire, summon demons, and possess the bodies of enemies.
Plot
The game centres on the voodoo priest and warrior Akuji, who had his heart ripped out on his wedding day, and through the use of voodoo magic is now cursed to wander the Underworld. Kesho, his would-be bride, finds him in hell and speaks to him in soul form: she informs him that it was Orad, Akuji's own brother, who orchestrated his murder. She begs Akuji to escape and stop him, as their families are preparing for war, and Orad is preparing to sacrifice her to the gods.
Upon traveling through the first level of the Underworld and consulting loa Baron Samedi, Akuji discovers he has a chance for redemption: if he traverses hell and collects the souls of his ancestors, which the Baron despises for their evil, then he will grant Akuji safe passage out of the underworld. On his way through, he must also defeat the wardens of each of the vestibules of hell, which will enable him to advance on his quest for the souls.
After Akuji retrieves the Seal of Sadiki on the Baron's request, the Baron steals it from him and reveals he tricked Akuji into purging the souls of his ancestors so it would allow him to b
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20Q-M3
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Haplogroup Q-M3 (Y-DNA) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Haplogroup Q-M3 is a subclade of Haplogroup Q-L54. Haplogroup Q-M3 was previously known as Haplogroup Q3; currently Q-M3 is Q1b1a1a below Q1b-M346.
In 1996 the research group at Stanford University headed by Dr. Peter Underhill first discovered the SNP that was to become known as M3. At the time, it was called DYS191. Later studies completed the genetic bridge by determining that Q-M3 was related to Q-M242-bearing populations who traveled through Central Asia to East Asia.
Origin and distribution
Haplogroup Q-M3 is one of the Y-Chromosome haplogroups linked to the indigenous peoples of the Americas (over 90% of indigenous people in Meso & South America). Today, such lineages also include other Q-M242 branches (Q-M346, Q-L54, Q-P89.1, Q-NWT01, and Q-Z780), haplogroup C-M130 branches (C-M217 and C-P39), and R-M207, which are almost exclusively found in the North America. Haplogroup Q-M3 is defined by the presence of the (M3) single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). Q-M3 occurred on the Q-L54 lineage roughly 10-15 thousand years ago as the migration into the Americas was underway. There is some debate as to on which side of the Bering Strait this mutation occurred, but it definitely happened in the ancestors of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
The Americas
Populations carrying Q-M3 are widespread throughout the Americas. Since the discovery of Q-M3, several subclades of Q-M3 bearing populations have been discover
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20R1
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Haplogroup R1, or R-M173, is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. A primary subclade of Haplogroup R (R-M207), it is defined by the SNP M173. The other primary subclade of Haplogroup R is Haplogroup R2 (R-M479).
Males carrying R-M173 in modern populations appear to comprise two subclades: R1a and R1b, which are found mainly in populations native to Eurasia (except East and Southeast Asia). R-M173 contains the majority of representatives of haplogroup R in the form of its subclades, R1a and R1b (, ).
Structure
Origins
R1a and its sibling clade R2 (R-M79) are the only immediate descendants of Haplogroup R (R-M207). R is a direct descendant of Haplogroup P1 (P-M45), and a sibling clade, therefore, of Haplogroup Q (Q-M242). The origins of haplogroup R1 cannot currently be proved. According to the SNP-Tracker (, as of may 2023) it evolved around 25 000 BP/23 000 BC in western Siberia between the southern Urals and Lake Balkhash.
No examples of the basal subclade, R1* have yet been identified in living individuals or ancient remains. However, the parent clade, R* was evidently present in upper paleolithic-era individuals (24,000 years BP), from the Mal'ta-Buret' culture, in Siberia. The autosomal DNA of the Mal'ta-Buret' people is a part of a group known to scholars of population genetics as Ancient North Eurasians (ANE). The first major descendant haplogroups of R1*, R1a and R1b, appeared subsequently in mesolithic Central Asia and Eastern Europe, with genotypes derived, to varying
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTB
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HTB may refer to:
Havic: The Bothering, a parody card game
Heat loss due to linear thermal bridging (HTB)
Hierarchical token bucket, a computer networking algorithm
Hizb ut-Tahrir Britain, the UK branch of Islamist organisation Hizb ut-Tahrir
Holy Trinity Brompton, a church in London, England
Hokkaido Television Broadcasting, in Japan
Household Troops Band of the Salvation Army
See also
NTV (disambiguation) (Cyrillic: HTB)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapter%20%28genetics%29
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An adapter or adaptor, or a linker in genetic engineering is a short, chemically synthesized, single-stranded or double-stranded oligonucleotide that can be ligated to the ends of other DNA or RNA molecules. Double stranded adapters can be synthesized to have blunt ends to both terminals or to have sticky end at one end and blunt end at the other. For instance, a double stranded DNA adapter can be used to link the ends of two other DNA molecules (i.e., ends that do not have "sticky ends", that is complementary protruding single strands by themselves). It may be used to add sticky ends to cDNA allowing it to be ligated into the plasmid much more efficiently. Two adapters could base pair to each other to form dimers.
A conversion adapter is used to join a DNA insert cut with one restriction enzyme, say EcoRl, with a vector opened with another enzyme, Bam Hl. This adapter can be used to convert the cohesive end produced by Bam Hl to one produced by Eco Rl or vice versa.
One of its applications is ligating cDNA into a plasmid or other vectors instead of using Terminal deoxynucleotide Transferase enzyme to add poly A to the cDNA fragment.
References
Genetic engineering
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal%20of%20Multimedia
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The Journal of Multimedia was a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Academy Publisher. It covered the study of multimedia algorithms and applications, information retrieval, artificial intelligence, multimedia compression, statistical inference, network theory, and other related topics. The editor-in-chief was Jiebo Luo (University of Rochester).
Indexing and abstracting
The journal was abstracted and indexed in EBSCO databases, Scopus, EI Compendex, INSPEC, PASCAL, and ProQuest.
External links
Computer science journals
Monthly journals
English-language journals
Academic journals established in 2006
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach%20Soccer%20Worldwide
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Beach Soccer Worldwide (BSWW) is the organisation responsible for the founding and growth of association football's derivative sport of beach soccer. The founding partners of BSWW codified the rules of beach soccer in 1992, with BSWW as it is known today having been officially founded in late 2000 as a singular institution to develop the sport and organise international beach soccer competitions across the globe, primarily between national teams. The company is recognised as playing the biggest role in helping to establish the rules of beach soccer, to spread and evolve the sport around the world as cited by FIFA who took on governing body status of the sport from BSWW in 2005. Having established the sport's key regulations, FIFA acknowledged BSWW's framework, making their rules the official laws of beach soccer and now controls them and any modifications.
Today, under the recognition of FIFA, BSWW continues to be main organisation that organises beach soccer tournaments and development (with FIFA's assistance) around the world, mainly in Europe, including the Euro Beach Soccer League, BSWW exhibition tour events and others, having involved over 110 national teams in the sport, as well as newly founded club competitions. Its founders also established the Beach Soccer World Championships; BSWW created a partnership with FIFA, FIFA Beach Soccer S.L., in 2005 to manage the tournament as the newly named FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, the only major international beach soccer tourn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schofield%20equation
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The Schofield Equation is a method of estimating the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of adult men and women published in 1985.
This is the equation used by the WHO in their technical report series. The equation that is recommended to estimate BMR by the US Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics is the Mifflin-St. Jeor equation.
The equations for estimating BMR in kJ/day (kilojoules per day) from body mass (kg) are:
Men:
Women:
The equations for estimating BMR in kcal/day (kilocalories per day) from body mass (kg) are:
Men:
Women:
Key:
W = Body weight in kilograms
SEE = Standard error of estimation
The raw figure obtained by the equation should be adjusted up or downwards, within the confidence limit suggested by the quoted estimation errors, and according to the following principles:
Subjects leaner and more muscular than usual require more energy than the average.
Obese subjects require less.
Patients at the young end of the age range for a given equation require more energy.
Patients at the high end of the age range for a given equation require less energy.
Effects of age and body mass may cancel out: an obese 30-year-old or an athletic 60-year-old may need no adjustment from the raw figure.
To find actual energy needed per day (Estimated Energy Requirement), the base metabolism must then be multiplied by an activity factor.
These are as follows:
Sedentary people of both genders should multiply by 1.3. Sedentary is very physically inactive, inactive in both work and
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television%20House
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Television House is the former name of a building on Kingsway in London. From 1918, it was the base of the Air Ministry, and later from 1955, was the headquarters of Associated-Rediffusion/Rediffusion London, Independent Television News (ITN), TV Times magazine, the Independent Television Companies Association and, at first, Associated Television. Later, it was the initial base for Rediffusion's successor, Thames Television. After Thames moved out, it was the headquarters of the General Register Office for England and Wales and subsequently of ExxonMobil. It is now known as 61 Aldwych.
History
Adastral House
The Kingsway area had been redeveloped at the start of the 20th century from slums and tenement housing into a broad avenue with grand office buildings and expensive townhouses.
After the formation of the Air Ministry in 1918, its headquarters was on Kingsway; one of two identical buildings opposite Bush House became Adastral House, the name being derived from the RAF motto. This remained the home of the Air Ministry through World War II, and the roof of the building in 1940 during The Blitz is where, while fire-watching, Arthur Harris, made the remark about the bombing to a companion, "Well, they are sowing the wind...". The building became known to the public after the war as it was announced during BBC weather forecasts that the Met Office had measured the temperatures and wind speeds in central London from its roof.
During WWII, a Jamaican teenager called Billy St
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VDW
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VDW can refer to one of the following:
Van der Waals:
Johannes Diderik van der Waals, a Dutch physicist and thermodynamicist
the van der Waals force
the van der Waals equation
the van der Waals radius
Van der Waals (crater)
Federation of German Scientists (Vereinigung Deutscher Wissenschaftler)
Verbond tot Democratisering der Weermacht, a Dutch political party
VDW (TV station), a digital television station in Western Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health%20ecology
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Health ecology (also known as eco-health) is an emerging field that studies the impact of ecosystems on human health. It examines alterations in the biological, physical, social, and economic environments to understand how these changes affect mental and physical human health. Health ecology focuses on a transdisciplinary approach to understanding all the factors which influence an individual's physiological, social, and emotional well-being.
Eco-health studies often involve environmental pollution. Some examples include an increase in asthma rates due to air pollution, or PCB contamination of game fish in the Great Lakes of the United States. However, health ecology is not necessarily tied to environmental pollution. For example, research has shown that habitat fragmentation is the main factor that contributes to increased rates of Lyme disease in human populations.
History
Ecosystem approaches to public health emerged as a defined field of inquiry and application in the 1990s, primarily through global research supported by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) in Ottawa, Canada (Lebel, 2003). However, this was a resurrection of an approach to health and ecology traced back to Hippocrates in Western societies. It can also be traced back to earlier eras in Eastern societies. The approach was also popular among scientists in the centuries. However, it fell out of common practice in the twentieth century, when technical professionalism and expertise were assu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mung%20bean%20nuclease
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Mung bean nuclease (Nuclease MB) is a nuclease derived from sprouts of the mung bean (Vigna radiata) that removes nucleotides in a step-wise manner from single-stranded DNA molecules (ssDNA) and is used in biotechnological applications to remove such ssDNA from a mixture also containing double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). This enzyme is useful for transcript mapping, removal of single-stranded regions in DNA hybrids or single-stranded overhangs produced by restriction enzymes, etc. It has an activity similar to Nuclease S1 (both are EC 3.1.30.1), but it has higher specificity for single-stranded molecules.
The enzyme degrades single-stranded DNA or RNA to nucleoside 5’-monophosphates, but does not digest double-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA, or DNA / RNA hybrids. Mung Bean Nuclease catalyzes the specific degradation of single-stranded DNA or RNA, and produces mono and oligonucleotides carrying a 5′-P terminus. Mung bean nuclease has a stringent single-stranded specificity for DNA or RNA.
Mung bean nuclease has an estimated molecular weight of 39 kDa by SDS-PAGE. A glycoprotein, 29% of this mass is sugars. , the specific gene encoding for this protein is unknown, and all production relies on a purification process on bean sprouts from 1980. Some is known about its structure, with one exposed Cysteine residue and 3 pairs of disulfide bonds. Some is known about its amino acid composition.
Requirements
Mung bean nuclease requires Zn2+. The addition of EDTA or SDS causes irrevers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytropic%20process
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A polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that obeys the relation:
where p is the pressure, V is volume, n is the polytropic index, and C is a constant. The polytropic process equation describes expansion and compression processes which include heat transfer.
Particular cases
Some specific values of n correspond to particular cases:
for an isobaric process,
for an isochoric process.
In addition, when the ideal gas law applies:
for an isothermal process,
for an isentropic process.
Where is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure () to heat capacity at constant volume ().
Equivalence between the polytropic coefficient and the ratio of energy transfers
For an ideal gas in a closed system undergoing a slow process with negligible changes in kinetic and potential energy the process is polytropic, such that
where C is a constant, , , and with the polytropic coefficient .
Relationship to ideal processes
For certain values of the polytropic index, the process will be synonymous with other common processes. Some examples of the effects of varying index values are given in the following table.
When the index n is between any two of the former values (0, 1, γ, or ∞), it means that the polytropic curve will cut through (be bounded by) the curves of the two bounding indices.
For an ideal gas, 1 < γ < 5/3, since by Mayer's relation
Other
A solution to the Lane–Emden equation using a polytropic fluid is known as a polytrope.
See also
Adiabatic process
Compr
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20mitochondrial%20DNA%20haplogroup
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In human genetics, a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup is a haplogroup defined by differences in human mitochondrial DNA. Haplogroups are used to represent the major branch points on the mitochondrial phylogenetic tree. Understanding the evolutionary path of the female lineage has helped population geneticists trace the matrilineal inheritance of modern humans back to human origins in Africa and the subsequent spread around the globe.
The letter names of the haplogroups (not just mitochondrial DNA haplogroups) run from A to Z. As haplogroups were named in the order of their discovery, the alphabetical ordering does not have any meaning in terms of actual genetic relationships.
The hypothetical woman at the root of all these groups (meaning just the mitochondrial DNA haplogroups) is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) for all currently living humans. She is commonly called Mitochondrial Eve.
The rate at which mitochondrial DNA mutates is known as the mitochondrial molecular clock. It is an area of ongoing research with one study reporting one mutation per 8000 years.
Phylogeny
This phylogenetic tree is based Van Oven (2009). In June 2022, an alternative phylogeny for haplogroup L was suggested
L (Mitochondrial Eve)
L0
L1-6
L1
L2-6
L5
L2'3'4'6
L2
L3'4'6
L6
L3'4
L4
L3
N
N1: I
N2: W
N9: Y
A
S
X
R
R0 (FMKA pre-HV)
HV: (H, V)
pre-JT or R2'JT
JT: (J, T)
R9: F
R11'B: B
P
U (formerly UK)
U8: K
O
M
M9: E
M12'G: G
M29'Q: Q
D
M
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20JT
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Haplogroup JT is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup JT is descended from the macro-haplogroup R. It is the ancestral clade to the mitochondrial haplogroups J and T.
JT (predominantly J) was found among the ancient Etruscans. The haplogroup has also been found among Iberomaurusian specimens dating from the Epipaleolithic at the Taforalt prehistoric site. One ancient individual carried a haplotype, which correlates with either the JT clade or the haplogroup H subclade H14b1 (1/9; 11%).
Subclades
Tree
This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup JT subclades is based on the paper by Mannis van Oven and Manfred Kayser Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation and subsequent published research.
R2'JT
JT
J
T
Health
Maternally inherited ancient mtDNA variants have clear impact on the presentation of disease in a modern society. Superhaplogroup JT is an example of reduced risk of Parkinson's disease And mitochondrial and mtDNa alterations continue to be promising disease biomarkers.
See also
Genealogical DNA test
Genetic genealogy
Human mitochondrial genetics
Population genetics
References
External links
General
Ian Logan's Mitochondrial DNA Site
Mannis van Oven's Phylotree
JT
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic%20asset%20allocation
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Dynamic asset allocation is a strategy used by investment products such as hedge funds, mutual funds, credit derivatives, index funds, principal protected notes (also known as guaranteed linked notes) and other structured investment products to achieve exposure to various investment opportunities and provide 100% principal protection.
Dynamic asset allocation includes CPPI, which consists of a guarantee, notionally related to a zero-coupon bond and an underlying investment. Assets are dynamically shifted (or allocated) between these two components depending largely on the performance of the underlying investments.
In some cases, certain products can use a borrowing facility to enhance exposure if the underlying investments experience strong returns. If the underlying investments decline in value, CPPI automatically deleverages, reducing exposure in falling markets.
The term 'Dynamic Asset Allocation' (DAA) can also refer to an investment strategy that seeks to produce high total returns irrespective of the performance of market indices using the tools of Tactical asset allocation/Global tactical asset allocation (TAA/GTAA) around a strategic benchmark.
Indeed, many investment firms and commentators use the terms TAA, DAA, and GTAA interchangeably.
In the arena of institutional asset management DAA mandates tend to have absolute return targets that are not related to market index returns (e.g. USD LIBOR + 500), while TAA mandates will tend to have performance targets that
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin-binding%20proteins
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Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are a group of proteins that are characterized by their affinity for and binding of penicillin. They are a normal constituent of many bacteria; the name just reflects the way by which the protein was discovered. All β-lactam antibiotics (except for tabtoxinine-β-lactam, which inhibits glutamine synthetase) bind to PBPs, which are essential for bacterial cell wall synthesis. PBPs are members of a subgroup of enzymes called transpeptidases. Specifically, PBPs are DD-transpeptidases.
Diversity
There are a large number of PBPs, usually several in each organism, and they are found as both membrane-bound and cytoplasmic proteins. For example, Spratt (1977) reports that six different PBPs are routinely detected in all strains of E. coli ranging in molecular weight from 40,000 to 91,000. The different PBPs occur in different numbers per cell and have varied affinities for penicillin. The PBPs are usually broadly classified into high-molecular-weight (HMW) and low-molecular-weight (LMW) categories. Proteins that have evolved from PBPs occur in many higher organisms and include the mammalian LACTB protein.
Function
PBPs are all involved in the final stages of the synthesis of peptidoglycan, which is the major component of bacterial cell walls. Bacterial cell wall synthesis is essential to growth, cell division (thus reproduction) and maintaining the cellular structure in bacteria. Inhibition of PBPs leads to defects in cell wall structure and irregu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid%20oxygenase
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Carotenoid oxygenases are a family of enzymes involved in the cleavage of carotenoids to produce, for example, retinol, commonly known as vitamin A. This family includes an enzyme known as RPE65 which is abundantly expressed in the retinal pigment epithelium where it catalyzed the formation of 11-cis-retinol from all-trans-retinyl esters.
Carotenoids such as beta-carotene, lycopene, lutein and beta-cryptoxanthin are produced in plants and certain bacteria, algae and fungi, where they function as accessory photosynthetic pigments and as scavengers of oxygen radicals for photoprotection. They are also essential dietary nutrients in animals. Carotenoid oxygenases cleave a variety of carotenoids into a range of biologically important products, including apocarotenoids in plants that function as hormones, pigments, flavours, floral scents and defence compounds, and retinoids in animals that function as vitamins, chromophores for opsins and signalling molecules. Examples of carotenoid oxygenases include:
Beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase (BCO1; ) from animals, which cleaves beta-carotene symmetrically at the central double bond to yield two molecules of retinal.
Beta-carotene-9',10'-dioxygenase (BCO2) from animals, which cleaves beta-carotene asymmetrically to apo-10'-beta-carotenal and beta-ionone, the latter being converted to retinoic acid. Lycopene is also oxidatively cleaved.
9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase from plants, which cleaves 9-cis xanthophylls to xanthoxin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NlaIII
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NlaIII is a type II restriction enzyme isolated from Neisseria lactamica. As part of the restriction modification system, NlaIII is able to prevent foreign DNA from integrating into the host genome by cutting double stranded DNA into fragments at specific sequences. This results in further degradation of the fragmented foreign DNA and prevents it from infecting the host genome.
NlaIII recognizes the palindromic and complementary DNA sequence of CATG/GTAC and cuts outside of the G-C base pairs. This cutting pattern results in sticky ends with GTAC overhangs at the 3' end.
Characteristics
NlaIII from N. lactamica contains two key components: a methylase and an endonuclease. The methylase is critical to recognition, while the endonuclease is used for cutting. The gene (NlaIIIR) is 693 bp long and creates the specific 5’-CATG-3’ endonuclease. A homolog of NlaIIIR is iceA1 from Helicobacter pylori. In H. pylori, there exists a similar methylase gene called hpyIM which is downstream of iceA1. ICEA1 is an endonuclease that also recognizes the 5’-CATG-3’ sequence. IceA1 in H. pylori is similar to that of NlaIII in N. lactamica.
NlaIII contains an ICEA protein that encompasses the 4 to 225 amino acid region. H. pylori also contains the same protein. H. pylori infection often leads to gastrointestinal issues such as peptic ulcers, gastric adenocarcinoma and lymphoma. Researchers speculate that ICEA proteins serve as potential markers for gastric cancer
Isoschizomers
NlaIII isosch
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%20arm
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The T-arm or T-loop is a specialized region on the tRNA molecule which acts as a special recognition site for the ribosome to form a tRNA-ribosome complex during protein biosynthesis or translation (biology).
The T-arm has two components to it; the T-stems and the T-loop.
There are two T-stems of five base pairs each. T-stem 1 is from 49-53 and T-stem 2 is from 61-65.
The T-loop is also often known as the TΨC arm due to the presence of ribothymidine (T/m5U), pseudouridine and cytidine residues. It folds into a unique structual element consisting of 5 stacked bases in a U-turn, now termed the "T-loop motif".
In archaea, the m5U is replaced with N1-methylpseudouridine (m1Ψ). The m5U/m1Ψ modification at position 54 is thought to increase structual stability.
Organisms with T-loop lacking tRNA exhibit a much lower level of aminoacylation and EF-Tu-binding than in organisms which have the native tRNA.
The T-loop motif has been identified as a ubiquitous structual element in a number of noncoding RNAs. At least one other instance of the T-loop, found in rRNA, also carries the m5U modifictaion.
References
RNA
Protein biosynthesis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptoregiochemistry
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Cryptoregiochemistry refers to the site of initial oxidative attack in double bond formation by enzymes such as fatty acid desaturases. This is a mechanistic parameter that is usually determined through the use of kinetic isotope effect experiments, based on the premise that the initial C-H bond cleavage step should be energetically more difficult and therefore more sensitive to isotopic substitution than the second C-H bond breaking step.
References
Chemical kinetics
Stereochemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleukin%207
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Interleukin 7 (IL-7) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL7 gene.
IL-7 is a hematopoietic growth factor secreted by stromal cells in the bone marrow and thymus. It is also produced by keratinocytes, dendritic cells, hepatocytes, neurons, and epithelial cells, but is not produced by normal lymphocytes. A study also demonstrated how the autocrine production of the IL-7 cytokine mediated by T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) can be involved in the oncogenic development of T-ALL and offer novel insights into T-ALL spreading.
Structure
The three-dimensional structure of IL-7 in complex with the ectodomain of IL-7 receptor has been determined using X-ray diffraction.
Function
Lymphocyte maturation
IL-7 stimulates the differentiation of multipotent (pluripotent) hematopoietic stem cells into lymphoid progenitor cells (as opposed to myeloid progenitor cells where differentiation is stimulated by IL-3). It also stimulates proliferation of all cells in the lymphoid lineage (B cells, T cells and NK cells). It is important for proliferation during certain stages of B-cell maturation, T and NK cell survival, development and homeostasis.
IL-7 is a cytokine important for B and T cell development. This cytokine and the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) form a heterodimer that functions as a pre-pro-B cell growth-stimulating factor. This cytokine is found to be a cofactor for V(D)J rearrangement of the T cell receptor beta (TCRß) during early T cell development. This
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeoviscous%20adaptation
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Homeoviscous adaptation is the adaptation of the cell membrane lipid composition to keep the adequate membrane fluidity.
The maintenance of proper cell membrane fluidity is of critical importance for the function and integrity of the cell, essential for the mobility and function of embedded proteins and lipids, diffusion of proteins and other molecules laterally across the membrane for signaling reactions, and proper separation of membranes during cell division.
A fundamental biophysical determinant of membrane fluidity is the balance between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Regulating membrane fluidity is especially important in poikilothermic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protists, plants, fish and other ectothermic animals. The general trend is an increase in unsaturated fatty acids at lower growth temperatures and an increase in saturated fatty acids at higher temperatures.
A recent work has explored the importance of the homeoviscous adaptation of the cell membrane for a psychrotolerant bacteria living in the cold biosphere of earth.
References
Membrane biology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%20arm
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The D arm is a feature in the tertiary structure of transfer RNA (tRNA). It is composed of the two D stems and the D loop. The D loop contains the base dihydrouridine, for which the arm is named. The D loop's main function is that of recognition. It is widely believed that it acts as a recognition site for aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, an enzyme involved in the aminoacylation of the tRNA molecule. The D stem is also believed to have a recognition role although this has yet to be verified.
It is a highly variable region and is notable for its unusual conformation due to the over-crowding on one of the guanosine residues. It appears to play a large role in the stabilization of the tRNA's tertiary structure.
References
RNA
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20cluster
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Urban cluster may refer to:
Urban cluster (UC) in the US census. See List of United States urban areas
Urban cluster (France), a statistical area defined by France's national statistics office
City cluster, mainly in Chinese English, synonymous with megalopolis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Y-chromosome%20DNA%20haplogroup
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thumb|500 Y-DNA phylogeny and haplogroup distribution.
(a) Phylogenetic tree. 'kya' means 'thousand years ago'.
(b) Geographical distributions of haplogroups are shown in color.
(c) Geographical color legend.
In genetics, a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup is a haplogroup defined by mutations in the non-recombining portions of DNA from the male-specific Y chromosome (called Y-DNA). Many people within a haplogroup share similar numbers of short tandem repeats (STRs) and types of mutations called single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).
The Y-chromosome accumulates roughly two mutations per generation. Y-DNA haplogroups represent major branches of the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree that share hundreds or even thousands of mutations unique to each haplogroup.
The Y-chromosomal most recent common ancestor (Y-MRCA, informally known as Y-chromosomal Adam) is the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all currently living humans are descended patrilineally. Y-chromosomal Adam is estimated to have lived roughly 236,000 years ago in Africa. By examining other bottlenecks most Eurasian men (men from populations outside of Africa) are descended from a man who lived in Africa 69,000 years ago (Haplogroup CT). Other major bottlenecks occurred about 50,000 and 5,000 years ago and subsequently the ancestry of most Eurasian men can be traced back to four ancestors who lived 50,000 years ago, who were descendants of African (E-M168).
Naming convention
Y-DNA haplogroups are defined by
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%27s%20equation
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John's equation is an ultrahyperbolic partial differential equation satisfied by the X-ray transform of a function. It is named after Fritz John.
Given a function with compact support the X-ray transform is the integral over all lines in . We will parameterise the lines by pairs of points , on each line and define as the ray transform where
Such functions are characterized by John's equations
which is proved by Fritz John for dimension three and by Kurusa for higher dimensions.
In three-dimensional x-ray computerized tomography John's equation can be solved to fill in missing data, for example where the data is obtained from a point source traversing a curve, typically a helix.
More generally an ultrahyperbolic partial differential equation (a term coined by Richard Courant) is a second order partial differential equation of the form
where , such that the quadratic form
can be reduced by a linear change of variables to the form
It is not possible to arbitrarily specify the value of the solution on a non-characteristic hypersurface. John's paper however does give examples of manifolds on which an arbitrary specification of u can be extended to a solution.
References
Á. Kurusa, A characterization of the Radon transform's range by a system of PDEs, J. Math. Anal. Appl., 161(1991), 218--226.
S K Patch, Consistency conditions upon 3D CT data and the wave equation, Phys. Med. Biol. 47 No 15 (7 August 2002) 2637-2650
Partial differential equations
X-ray compute
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral%20theory
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Neutral theory may refer to one of these two related theories:
Neutral theory of molecular evolution
Unified neutral theory of biodiversity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothing
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In statistics and image processing, to smooth a data set is to create an approximating function that attempts to capture important patterns in the data, while leaving out noise or other fine-scale structures/rapid phenomena. In smoothing, the data points of a signal are modified so individual points higher than the adjacent points (presumably because of noise) are reduced, and points that are lower than the adjacent points are increased leading to a smoother signal. Smoothing may be used in two important ways that can aid in data analysis (1) by being able to extract more information from the data as long as the assumption of smoothing is reasonable and (2) by being able to provide analyses that are both flexible and robust. Many different algorithms are used in smoothing.
Smoothing may be distinguished from the related and partially overlapping concept of curve fitting in the following ways:
curve fitting often involves the use of an explicit function form for the result, whereas the immediate results from smoothing are the "smoothed" values with no later use made of a functional form if there is one;
the aim of smoothing is to give a general idea of relatively slow changes of value with little attention paid to the close matching of data values, while curve fitting concentrates on achieving as close a match as possible.
smoothing methods often have an associated tuning parameter which is used to control the extent of smoothing. Curve fitting will adjust any number of pa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annubar
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The Annubar primary element is an averaging Pitot tube manufactured by Rosemount Inc. used to measure the flow of fluid in a pipe.
A Pitot tube measures the difference between the static pressure and the flowing pressure of the media in the pipe. The volumetric flow is calculated from that difference using Bernoulli's principle, taking into account the pipe's inside diameter. An Annubar, as an averaging Pitot tube, takes multiple samples across a section of a pipe or duct, averaging the differential pressures encountered accounting for variations in flow across the section.
References
Measuring instruments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alglucerase
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Alglucerase was a biopharmaceutical drug for the treatment of Gaucher's disease. It was a modified form of human β-glucocerebrosidase enzyme, where the non-reducing ends of the oligosaccharide chains have been terminated with mannose residues.
Ceredase is the trade name of a citrate buffered solution of alglucerase that was manufactured by Genzyme Corporation from human placental tissue. It is given intravenously in the treatment of Type 1 Gaucher's disease. This was the first drug approved as an enzyme replacement therapy.
It was approved by the FDA in 1991. It has been withdrawn from the market due to the approval of similar drugs made with recombinant DNA technology instead of being harvested from tissue; drugs made recombinantly, since there is no concern about diseases being transmitted from the tissue used in harvesting, and are less expensive to manufacture (see imiglucerase).
References
External links
Ceredase page at Harvard's Gaucher Treatment Program
Hydrolases
Sanofi
Withdrawn drugs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imiglucerase
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Imiglucerase is a medication used in the treatment of Gaucher's disease.
It is a recombinant DNA-produced analogue of the human enzyme β-glucocerebrosidase.
Cerezyme is a freeze-dried medicine containing imiglucerase, manufactured by Genzyme Corporation. It is given intravenously after reconstitution as a treatment for Type 1 and Type 3 Gaucher's disease. It is available in formulations containing 200 or 400 units per vial. The specific activity of highly purified human enzyme is 890,000 units/mg, meanwhile the enzyme activity produced by recombinant DNA technology is approximately 40 units/mg. A typical dose is 2.5U/kg every two weeks, up to a maximum of 60 U/kg once every two weeks, and safety has been established from ages 2 and up. It is one of more expensive medications, with an annual cost of $200,000 per person in the United States. Imiglucerase has been granted orphan drug status in the United States, Australia, and Japan.
Cerezyme was one of the drugs manufactured at Genzyme's Allston, Massachusetts plant, for which production was disrupted in 2009 after contamination with Vesivirus 2017.
Side effects
The most common side effect is hypersensitivity, which occurs in about 3% of patients. It is associated with symptoms such as cough, shortness of breath, rashes, itching, and angiooedema. Less common side effects include dizziness, headache, nausea, diarrhoea, and reactions at the injection site; they are found in less than 1% of patients.
Interactions
No clinic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinbarbital
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Vinbarbital is a hypnotic drug which is a barbiturate derivative. It was developed by Sharp and Dohme in 1939.
References
Barbiturates
Sedatives
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Alkene derivatives
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succinyl%20coenzyme%20A%20synthetase
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Succinyl coenzyme A synthetase (SCS, also known as succinyl-CoA synthetase or succinate thiokinase or succinate-CoA ligase) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reversible reaction of succinyl-CoA to succinate. The enzyme facilitates the coupling of this reaction to the formation of a nucleoside triphosphate molecule (either GTP or ATP) from an inorganic phosphate molecule and a nucleoside diphosphate molecule (either GDP or ADP). It plays a key role as one of the catalysts involved in the citric acid cycle, a central pathway in cellular metabolism, and it is located within the mitochondrial matrix of a cell.
Chemical reaction and enzyme mechanism
Succinyl CoA synthetase catalyzes the following reversible reaction:
Succinyl CoA + Pi + NDP ↔ Succinate + CoA + NTP
where Pi denotes inorganic phosphate, NDP denotes nucleotide diphosphate (either GDP or ADP), and NTP denotes nucleotide triphosphate (either GTP or ATP). As mentioned, the enzyme facilitates coupling of the conversion of succinyl CoA to succinate with the formation of NTP from NDP and Pi. The reaction has a biochemical standard state free energy change of -3.4 kJ/mol. The reaction takes place by a three-step mechanism which is depicted in the image below. The first step involves displacement of CoA from succinyl CoA by a nucleophilic inorganic phosphate molecule to form succinyl phosphate. The enzyme then utilizes a histidine residue to remove the phosphate group from succinyl phosphate and generate succinate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remineralization%20%28disambiguation%29
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Remineralisation (UK spelling; US remineralization) is the transformation of organic molecules to inorganic forms.
Remineralisation may also refer to:
Bone remodeling (bone metabolism)
Remineralisation of teeth
Rockdust, also known as soil remineralization when applied as a nonsynthetic organic fertilizer
See also John D. Hamaker § Remineralization benefits
See also
Demineralisation
Mineralization (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland%20Railway%20700%20Class
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The Midland Railway 700 Class was a large class of double framed 0-6-0 freight steam locomotives designed by Matthew Kirtley for the Midland Railway. They were in the power classification 1F.
Early withdrawals
Six locomotives - nos. 271/9, 1007/31/52/3 - were withdrawn from service between 1903 and 1905.
Fifty more were sold in 1906 to the Italian State Railway, Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane (FS), where they formed FS Class 380; they had been ordered by one of the constituents of the FS, the Rete Mediterranea. They were meant to fill a gap of usable locomotives after the nationalization of the Italian railways. They were intended to remain in service for a few years; however, some of them remained active into the 1920s.
Numbering
After the Midland Railway's 1907 renumbering scheme, the numbers were:
2592–2671, 2674–2711 and 2713–2867
Numbers 2672/3 were members of the 480 Class; no. 2712 was a member of the 240 Class, which had been given a number in the wrong series as the result of a clerk's error.
Accidents and incidents
On 3 December 1892, locomotive No. 871 was hauling a freight train that crashed at Wymondham Junction, Leicestershire, severely damaging the signal box.
Military service
78 locomotives of the class were loaned to the War Department during the First World War and were used by the Railway Operating Division of the Royal Engineers for military duties in France. A further three were selected to go but instead were loaned to the London and South Western
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W18
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W18 may refer to:
W-18 (drug), a designer drug
British NVC community W18, a woodland community in the British National Vegetation Classification system
Hansa-Brandenburg W.18, a German flying boat fighter
, a tug of the Royal Navy
Malgana language
Mercedes-Benz W18, an automobile
Snub dodecahedron
Suburban Airport, in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, United States
W18 engine, an eighteen-cylinder engine
Water-jugs-in-stand (hieroglyph), an Egyptian hieroglyph
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W16
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W16 may refer to:
British NVC community W16, a woodland community in the British National Vegetation Classification system
Hansa-Brandenburg W.16, a floatplane fighter aircraft
London Buses route W16
Truncated icosidodecahedron
W16 engine, an engine with sixteen cylinders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full%20custom
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In integrated circuit design, full-custom is a design methodology in which the layout of each individual transistor on the integrated circuit (IC), and the interconnections between them, are specified. Alternatives to full-custom design include various forms of semi-custom design, such as the repetition of small transistor subcircuits; one such methodology is the use of standard cell libraries (which are themselves designed full-custom).
Full-custom design potentially maximizes the performance of the chip, and minimizes its area, but is extremely labor-intensive to implement. Full-custom design is limited to ICs that are to be fabricated in extremely high volumes, notably certain microprocessors and a small number of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
As of 2008 the main factor affecting the design and production of ASICs was the high cost of mask sets (number of which is depending on the number of IC layers) and the requisite EDA design tools. The mask sets are required in order to transfer the ASIC designs onto the wafer.
See also
Electronics design flow
References
Integrated circuits
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algarheim
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Algarheim is a village in the municipality of Ullensaker, Norway. Its population (2005) is 371. Algarheim was from 2008 to 2013 and again from 2020 in Statistics Norway's settlement statistics counted as part of Jessheim. In the past there has been both a school, a camp, a post office, and a couple of larger farms connected to Algarheim.
The name Algarheim itself originally comes from a large farm in the area. Algarheim had its own general store and post office until the end of the 1990s. The place also has its own public kindergarten and primary school Algarheim School.
The place was heavily developed from the mid-1970s with new housing estates consisting of villas, as well as a new primary school.
References
Villages in Akershus
Ullensaker
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