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Little Havra is a small island off the west of South Mainland in Shetland. It is at its highest point, upon which there is a cairn. It is located west of South Havra.
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Shetlopedia
Uninhabited islands of Shetland
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In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior (e.g., pulling a lever more frequently), longer duration (e.g., pulling a lever for longer periods of time), greater magnitude (e.g., pulling a lever with greater force), or shorter latency (e.g., pulling a lever more quickly following the antecedent stimulus).
The model of self-regulation has three main aspects of human behavior, which are self-awareness, self-reflection, and self-regulation. Reinforcements traditionally align with self-regulation. The behavior can be influenced by the consequence but behavior also needs antecedents. There are four types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment. Positive reinforcement is the application of a positive reinforcer. Negative reinforcement is the practice of removing something negative from the space of the subject as a way to encourage the antecedent behavior from that subject.
Extinction involves a behavior that requires no contingent consequence. If something (good or bad) is not reinforced, it should in theory disappear. Lastly, punishment is an imposition of aversive consequence upon undesired behavior. Punishment by removal is a common example or removing a benefit following poor performance. While reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus, it still requires conscious effort to work towards a desired goal.
Rewarding stimuli, which are associated with "wanting" and "liking" (desire and pleasure, respectively) and appetitive behavior, function as positive reinforcers; the converse statement is also true: positive reinforcers provide a desirable stimulus. Reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior. However, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. Changing someone's job might serve as a negative reinforcer to someone who has back problems, (e.g. changing from a laborer's job to an office position).
In most cases, the term "reinforcement" refers to an enhancement of behavior, but this term is also sometimes used to denote an enhancement of memory; for example, "post-training reinforcement" refers to the provision of a stimulus (such as food) after a learning session in an attempt to increase the retained breadth, detail, and duration of the individual memories or overall memory just formed. The memory-enhancing stimulus can also be one whose effects are directly rather than only indirectly emotional, as with the phenomenon of "flashbulb memory," in which an emotionally highly intense stimulus can incentivize memory of a set of a situation's circumstances well beyond the subset of those circumstances that caused the emotionally significant stimulus, as when people of appropriate age are able to remember where they were and what they were doing when they learned of the assassination of John F. Kennedy or September 11 terrorist attacks.
Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning.
Terminology
In the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and "negative" refer when used in their strict technical sense to the nature of the action performed by the conditioner rather than to the responding operant's evaluation of that action and its consequence(s). "Positive" actions are those that add a factor, be it pleasant or unpleasant, to the environment, whereas "negative" actions are those that remove or withhold from the environment a factor of either type. In turn, the strict sense of "reinforcement" refers only to reward-based conditioning; the introduction of unpleasant factors and the removal or withholding of pleasant factors are instead referred to as "punishment", which when used in its strict sense thus stands in contradistinction to "reinforcement". Thus, "positive reinforcement" refers to the addition of a pleasant factor, "positive punishment" refers to the addition of an unpleasant factor, "negative reinforcement" refers to the removal or withholding of an unpleasant factor, and "negative punishment" refers to the removal or withholding of a pleasant factor.
This usage is at odds with some non-technical usages of the four term combinations, especially in the case of the term "negative reinforcement", which is often used to denote what technical parlance would describe as "positive punishment" in that the non-technical usage interprets "reinforcement" as subsuming both reward and punishment and "negative" as referring to the responding operant's evaluation of the factor being introduced. By contrast, technical parlance would use the term "negative reinforcement" to describe encouragement of a given behavior by creating a scenario in which an unpleasant factor is or will be present but engaging in the behavior results in either escaping from that factor or preventing its occurrence, as in Martin Seligman's experiments involving dogs' learning processes regarding the avoidance of electric shock.
Introduction
B.F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and behaviorism. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength (response rate) rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them). Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the definition of reinforcers if the behavior that immediately precedes the potential reinforcer increases in similar situations in the future; for example, a child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of "cookie-requesting behavior" increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing "cookie-requesting behavior". If however, "cookie-requesting behavior" does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing.
The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. Other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected a behavior to produce a given outcome, but in the behavioral theory, reinforcement is defined by an increased probability of a response.
The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in special education, applied behavior analysis, and the experimental analysis of behavior and is a core concept in some medical and psychopharmacology models, particularly addiction, dependence, and compulsion.
Brief history
Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, known for his experiments with cats escaping from puzzle boxes. A number of others continued this research, notably B.F. Skinner, who published his seminal work on the topic in The Behavior of Organisms, in 1938, and elaborated this research in many subsequent publications. Notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. Though punishment may seem just the opposite of reinforcement, Skinner claimed that they differ immensely, saying that positive reinforcement results in lasting behavioral modification (long-term) whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily (short-term) and has many detrimental side-effects.
A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinner's conclusions. For example, Azrin and Holz defined punishment as a “consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior,” and some studies have shown that positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior. Research on the effects of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment continue today as those concepts are fundamental to learning theory and apply to many practical applications of that theory.
Operant conditioning
The term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm, the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm, the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response; the experimenter waits for the response to occur (to be emitted by the organism) and then a potential reinforcer is delivered. In the classical conditioning paradigm, the experimenter triggers (elicits) the desirable response by presenting a reflex eliciting stimulus, the Unconditional Stimulus (UCS), which he pairs (precedes) with a neutral stimulus, the Conditional Stimulus (CS).
Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning, see punishment (psychology).
Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the chance that this behavior will manifest in similar environments increases.
Example: Whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat. If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior.
Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when she tidies up her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).
Example: A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold. The prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales.
Example: A teacher praises his student when he receives a good grade. The praise the student receives is the positive reinforcement in case the student's grades improve.
Example: A supervisor attaches a monetary reward for the employee who exceeds expectations the most. The monetary reward is the positive reinforcement of the good behavior: exceeding expectations.
The high probability instruction (HPI) treatment is a behaviorist psychological treatment based on the idea of positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or stimulus is removed or prevented from happening. Negative reinforcement occurs out of a negative feedback loop. The manager wants the ineffective behaviors to stop. This involves threatening punishment if individuals fail to meet the goal. Thorndike’s Law of Effect says behavior followed by a negative consequence will tend to decrease in frequency.
Example: A child cleans their room, and this behavior is followed by the parent stopping "nagging" or asking the child repeatedly to do so. Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce the behavior of cleaning because the child wants to remove that aversive stimulus of nagging.
Example: A company has a policy that if an employee completes their assigned work by Friday, they can have Saturday off. Working Saturday is the aversive stimulus; the employees have incentive to increase productivity to avoid the aversive stimulus.
Example: An individual leaves early for work to beat traffic and avoid arriving late. The behavior is leaving early for work, and the aversive stimulus the individual wishes to remove is being late to work.
Extinction
Extinction can be intentional or unintentional and happens when an undesired behavior is ignored, hoping it will go away overtime if there is no reaction. Behavior after extinction spikes first and then declines over time.
Example (Intended): A young child ignores bullies making fun of them. The bullies do not get a reaction from the child and lose interest in bullying them.
Example (Unintended): A worker has not received any recognition for their above and beyond hard work. They then stop working as hard.
Example (Intended): A cat kept meowing for food in the night. The owners would not feed the cat so the cat stopped meowing through the night.
Reinforcement versus punishment
Reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end. The table below illustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli (pleasant or aversive) in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment.
For example, offering a child candy if he cleans his room is positive reinforcement. Spanking a child if he breaks a window is positive punishment. Taking away a child's toys for misbehaving is negative punishment. Giving a child a break from his chores if he performs well on a test is negative reinforcement. "Positive and negative" do not carry the meaning of "good and bad" in this usage.
Further ideas and concepts
Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may not always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added and how it is being removed or added will determine the nature of the reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is not punishment. The two, as explained above, differ in the increase (negative reinforcement) or decrease (punishment) of the future probability of a response. In negative reinforcement, the stimulus removed following a response is an aversive stimulus; if this stimulus were presented contingent on a response, it may also function as a positive punisher.
The form of a stimulus is separate from its function in terms of whether it will reinforce or punish behavior. An event that may punish behavior for some may serve to reinforce behavior for others. Example: A child is repeatedly given detention for acting up in school, but the frequency of the bad behavior increases. Thus, the detention may be a reinforcer (could be positive or negative); perhaps the child now gets one-on-one attention from a teacher or perhaps they now avoid going home where they are often abused.
Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria (a positive feeling) and eliminating withdrawal symptoms (which would be a negative feeling). Or, in a warm room, a current of external air serves as positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool and as negative reinforcement because it removes uncomfortable hot air.
Reinforcement in the business world is essential in driving productivity. Employees are constantly motivated by the ability to receive a positive stimulus, such as a promotion or a bonus. Employees are also driven by negative reinforcement. This can be seen when employees are offered Saturdays off if they complete the weekly workload by Friday.
Though negative reinforcement has a positive effect in the short term for a workplace (i.e. encourages a financially beneficial action), over-reliance on a negative reinforcement hinders the ability of workers to act in a creative, engaged way creating growth in the long term.
Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior. Most people, especially children, will learn to follow instruction by a mix of positive and negative reinforcement.
Limited resources can cause a person to not be able to provide constant reinforcement.
Primary and secondary reinforcers
A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing with a different stimulus in order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers. While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another avoids it. Or one person may eat much food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.
A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. Another common example is the sound of people clapping – there is nothing inherently positive about hearing that sound, but we have learned that it is associated with praise and rewards.
When trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers in human examples, use the "caveman test." If the stimulus is something that a caveman would naturally find desirable (e.g., candy) then it is a primary reinforcer. If, on the other hand, the caveman would not react to it (e.g., a dollar bill), it is a secondary reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satisfaction and deprivation with secondary reinforcers.
Other reinforcement terms
A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide-variety of motivating operations. (One example of this is money because it is paired with many other reinforcers).
In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism without regard to any prior behavior.
Socially-mediated reinforcement (direct reinforcement) involves the delivery of reinforcement that requires the behavior of another organism.
The Premack principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by David Premack, which states that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.
Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the Premack principle.
Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly linked to a causal behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are not necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency may increase learning.
Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior.
Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior. As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".
Natural and artificial
In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement, Charles Ferster proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase frequency of an operant as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that are presumed to affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a token economy where subjects are "rewarded" for certain behavior with an arbitrary token of a negotiable value.
In 1970, Baer and Wolf created a name for the use of natural reinforcers called "behavior traps". A behavior trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavior traps have four characteristics:
They are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforcers that "lure" the student to the trap
Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap
Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic/social skills
They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation effects
As can be seen from the above, artificial reinforcement is in fact created to build or develop skills, and to generalize, it is important that either a behavior trap is introduced to "capture" the skill and utilize naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase it. This behavior trap may simply be a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain criterion (e.g., if you use edible reinforcers to train a person to say hello and smile at people when they meet them, after that skill has been built up, the natural reinforcer of other people smiling, and having more friendly interactions will naturally reinforce the skill and the edibles can be faded).
Intermittent reinforcement schedules
Much behavior is not reinforced every time it is emitted, and the pattern of intermittent reinforcement strongly affects how fast an operant response is learned, what its rate is at any given time, and how long it continues when reinforcement ceases. The simplest rules controlling reinforcement are continuous reinforcement, where every response is reinforced, and extinction, where no response is reinforced. Between these extremes, more complex "schedules of reinforcement" specify the rules that determine how and when a response will be followed by a reinforcer.
Specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, irrespective of the species being investigated (including humans in some conditions). However, the quantitative properties of behavior under a given schedule depend on the parameters of the schedule, and sometimes on other, non-schedule factors. The orderliness and predictability of behavior under schedules of reinforcement was evidence for B.F. Skinner's claim that by using operant conditioning he could obtain "control over behavior", in a way that rendered the theoretical disputes of contemporary comparative psychology obsolete. The reliability of schedule control supported the idea that a radical behaviorist experimental analysis of behavior could be the foundation for a psychology that did not refer to mental or cognitive processes. The reliability of schedules also led to the development of applied behavior analysis as a means of controlling or altering behavior.
Many of the simpler possibilities, and some of the more complex ones, were investigated at great length by Skinner using pigeons, but new schedules continue to be defined and investigated.
Simple schedules
Ratio schedule – the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed.
Continuous reinforcement (CRF) – a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer.
Lab example: each time a rat presses a bar it gets a pellet of food.
Real-world example: each time a dog defecates outside its owner gives it a treat; each time a person puts $1 in a candy machine and presses the buttons they receive a candy bar.
Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for a specific response.
Fixed ratio (FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every nth response. An FR 1 schedule is synonymous with a CRF schedule.
Example: FR 2 = every second desired response the subject makes is reinforced.
Lab example: FR 5 = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced with food after every 5 bar-presses in a Skinner box.
Real-world example: FR 10 = Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot.
Variable ratio schedule (VR) – reinforced on average every nth response, but not always on the nth response.
Lab example: VR 4 = first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses, second pellet delivered on 6 bar presses, third pellet 4 bar presses (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12 / 3= 4 bar presses to receive pellet).
Real-world example: slot machines (because, though the probability of hitting the jackpot is constant, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable).
Fixed interval (FI) – reinforced after n amount of time.
Example: FI 1-s = reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second.
Lab example: FI 15-s = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
Real-world example: FI 30-min = a 30-minute washing machine cycle.
Variable interval (VI) – reinforced on an average of n amount of time, but not always exactly n amount of time.
Example: VI 4-min = first pellet delivered after 2 minutes, second delivered after 6 minutes, third is delivered after 4 minutes (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12 / 3 = 4). Reinforcement is delivered on the average after 4 minutes.
Lab example: VI 10-s = a rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
Real-world example: VI 30-min = Going fishing—you might catch a fish after 10 minutes, then have to wait an hour, then have to wait 20 minutes.
Fixed time (FT) – Provides a reinforcing stimulus at a fixed time since the last reinforcement delivery, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule.
Lab example: FT 5-s = rat gets food every 5 seconds regardless of the behavior.
Real-world example: FT 30-d = a person gets an annuity check every month regardless of behavior between checks
Variable time (VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not.
Simple schedules are utilized in many differential reinforcement procedures:
Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) - A conditioning procedure in which an undesired response is decreased by placing it on extinction or, less commonly, providing contingent punishment, while simultaneously providing reinforcement contingent on a desirable response. An example would be a teacher attending to a student only when they raise their hand, while ignoring the student when he or she calls out.
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking.
Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) – Used to reduce a frequent behavior without punishing it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking
Differential reinforcement of low response rate (DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior.
Lab example: DRL 10-s = a rat is reinforced for the first response after 10 seconds, but if the rat responds earlier than 10 seconds there is no reinforcement and the rat has to wait 10 seconds from that premature response without another response before bar pressing will lead to reinforcement.
Real-world example: "If you ask me for a potato chip no more than once every 10 minutes, I will give it to you. If you ask more often, I will give you none."
Differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement.
Lab example: DRH 10-s/FR 15 = a rat must press a bar 15 times within a 10-second increment to get reinforced.
Real-world example: "If Lance Armstrong is going to win the Tour de France he has to pedal x number of times during the y-hour race."
Effects of different types of simple schedules
Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer is delivered, then response rates increase until the next reinforcer delivery (post-reinforcement pause).
Variable ratio: rapid, steady rate of responding; most resistant to extinction.
Fixed interval: responding increases towards the end of the interval; poor resistance to extinction.
Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.
Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar.
Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE).
The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of gamblers at slot machines).
Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.
The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.
fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time.
Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction.
Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly.
Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur.
Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules.
Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones.
Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.
Compound schedules
Compound schedules combine two or more different simple schedules in some way using the same reinforcer for the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among those most often used are:
Alternative schedules – A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement.
Conjunctive schedules – A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met for reinforcement.
Multiple schedules – Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.
Example: FR4 when given a whistle and FI6 when given a bell ring.
Mixed schedules – Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.
Example: FI6 and then VR3 without any stimulus warning of the change in schedule.
Concurrent schedules – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant can choose any one of two or more simple reinforcement schedules that are available simultaneously. Organisms are free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time.
Real-world example: changing channels on a television.
Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become unavailable until the start of the next trial.
Interlocking schedules – A single schedule with two components where progress in one component affects progress in the other component. In an interlocking FR 60 FI 120-s schedule, for example, each response subtracts time from the interval component such that each response is "equal" to removing two seconds from the FI schedule.
Chained schedules – Reinforcement occurs after two or more successive schedules have been completed, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule has been completed and the next has started
Example: On an FR 10 schedule in the presence a red light, a pigeon pecks a green disc 10 times; then, a yellow light indicates an FR 3 schedule is active; after the pigeon pecks a yellow disc 3 times, a green light to indicates a VI 6-s schedule is in effect; if this were the final schedule in the chain, the pigeon would be reinforced for pecking a green disc on a VI 6-s schedule; however, all schedule requirements in the chain must be met before a reinforcer is provided.
Tandem schedules – Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has started.
Example: VR 10, after it is completed the schedule is changed without warning to FR 10, after that it is changed without warning to FR 16, etc. At the end of the series of schedules, a reinforcer is finally given.
Higher-order schedules – completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule; e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is reinforced.
Superimposed schedules
The psychology term superimposed schedules of reinforcement refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. An example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. The behavior of opening the front door is rewarded by a big kiss on the lips by the person's spouse and a rip in the pants from the family dog jumping enthusiastically. Another example of superimposed schedules of reinforcement is a pigeon in an experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every 20th peck, and access to water after every 200 pecks.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on simple schedules of reinforcement by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957). They demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of some behavior, a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of the behavior. For example, a pigeon may be required to peck a button switch ten times before food appears. This is a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a target behavior. An example is a rat that is given a food pellet immediately following the first response that occurs after two minutes has elapsed since the last lever press. This is called an "interval schedule".
In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors tend to generate response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers.
If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of reinforcement". Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed schedules of reinforcement in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of social traps, such as when humans overharvest their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and" schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how superimposed schedules and the social trap analogy could be used to analyze the way energy flows through systems.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social traps. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That is a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approach–approach conflict, approach–avoidance conflict, and avoidance–avoidance conflict) described by Kurt Lewin (1935) and can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by his force field analysis. Other examples of the use of superimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical tool are its application to the contingencies of rent control (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in the Los Angeles County storm drain system (Brechner, 2010).
Concurrent schedules
In operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. For example, in a two-alternative forced choice task, a pigeon in a Skinner box is faced with two pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, and food reinforcement might follow a peck on either. The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the two keys can be different. They may be independent, or they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects the likelihood of reinforcement on the other.
It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between the schedules. In such a "Findley concurrent" procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule is in effect.
Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a "changeover delay" is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it.
When both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals, a quantitative relationship known as the matching law is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by R.J. Herrnstein in 1961. Matching law is a rule for instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals and humans have a tendency to prefer choice in schedules.
Shaping
Shaping is reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. In training a rat to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping toward it is reinforced. The outcomes of one set of behaviours starts the shaping process for the next set of behaviours, and the outcomes of that set prepares the shaping process for the next set, and so on. As training progresses, the response reinforced becomes progressively more like the desired behavior; each subsequent behaviour becomes a closer approximation of the final behaviour.
Shaping is used as an intervention for various desired behaviors for individuals with Autism as well as other developmental disabilities. When shaping is combined with other evidence-based practices such as complex functional communication training (FCT), can yield a positive outcomes for the individual. When shaping is paired with a schedule of reinforcements with efficiency, the target behavior is increased.
Shaping is also used for food refusal. Food refusal is when an individual has a partial or total aversion to food items. This can be as minimal as a picky eater to severe and can affect the individuals' health. Shaping has been used to have a higher success rate for food acceptance.
Chaining
Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that each result of each behavior is both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (in which the entire behavior is taught from beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps). An example is opening a locked door. First the key is inserted, then turned, then the door opened.
Forward chaining would teach the subject first to insert the key. Once that task is mastered, they are told to insert the key, and taught to turn it. Once that task is mastered, they are told to perform the first two, then taught to open the door. Backwards chaining would involve the teacher first inserting and turning the key, and the subject then being taught to open the door. Once that is learned, the teacher inserts the key, and the subject is taught to turn it, then opens the door as the next step. Finally, the subject is taught to insert the key, and they turn and open the door. Once the first step is mastered, the entire task has been taught. Total task chaining would involve teaching the entire task as a single series, prompting through all steps. Prompts are faded (reduced) at each step as they are mastered.
Challenging behaviors seen in individuals with Autism and other related disabilities have successfully managed and maintained by previous studies using a scheduled of chained reinforcements. Functional communication training is an intervention that often uses chained schedules of reinforcement to effectively promote the appropriate and desired functional communication response. The purpose of the chaining procedures when using it paired with functional communication training are to decrease challenging or inappropriate behaviors with functional or more appropriate ways to express the individual.
Persuasive communication and the reinforcement theory
Persuasive communication
Persuasion influences any person the way they think, act and feel. Persuasive skill tells about how people understand the concern, position and needs of the people. Persuasion can be classified into informal persuasion and formal persuasion.
Informal persuasion
This tells about the way in which a person interacts with colleagues and customers. The informal persuasion can be used in team, memos as well as e-mails.
Example: "I noticed that you helped out Joe while your equipment was being serviced by the maintenance crew." OR
"I overheard your explanation to that last customer about how to obtain, use, and the advantages of having a credit card. I think we may be adding her to our business."
Formal persuasion
This type of persuasion is used in writing customer letter, proposal and also for formal presentation to any customer or colleagues.
Process of persuasion
Persuasion relates how you influence people with your skills, experience, knowledge, leadership, qualities and team capabilities. Persuasion is an interactive process while getting the work done by others. Here are examples for which you can use persuasion skills in real time. Interview: you can prove your best talents, skills and expertise. Clients: to guide your clients for the achievement of the goals or targets. Memos: to express your ideas and views to coworkers for the improvement in the operations. Resistance identification and positive attitude are the vital roles of persuasion.
Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place when one individual expects some particular response from one or more other individuals and deliberately sets out to secure the response through the use of communication. The communicator must realize that different groups have different values.
In instrumental learning situations, which involve operant behavior, the persuasive communicator will present his message and then wait for the receiver to make a correct response. As soon as the receiver makes the response, the communicator will attempt to fix the response by some appropriate reward or reinforcement.
In conditional learning situations, where there is respondent behavior, the communicator presents his message so as to elicit the response he wants from the receiver, and the stimulus that originally served to elicit the response then becomes the reinforcing or rewarding element in conditioning.
Mathematical models
A lot of work has been done in building a mathematical model of reinforcement. This model is known as MPR, short for mathematical principles of reinforcement. Peter Killeen has made key discoveries in the field with his research on pigeons.
Criticisms
The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as circular, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e., response strength is increased by things that increase response strength). However, the correct usage of reinforcement is that something is a reinforcer because of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D. Sheffield's "consummatory behavior contingent on a response", but these are not broadly used in psychology.
Increasingly, understanding of the role reinforcers play is moving away from a "strengthening" effect to a "signalling" effect. That is, the view that reinforcers increase responding because they signal the behaviours that are likely to result in reinforcement. While in most practical applications, the effect of any given reinforcer will be the same regardless of whether the reinforcer is signalling or strengthening, this approach helps to explain a number of behavioural phenomenon including patterns of responding on intermittent reinforcement schedules (fixed interval scallops) and the differential outcomes effect.
History of the terms
In the 1920s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov may have been the first to use the word reinforcement with respect to behavior, but (according to Dinsmoor) he used its approximate Russian cognate sparingly, and even then it referred to strengthening an already-learned but weakening response. He did not use it, as it is today, for selecting and strengthening new behaviors. Pavlov's introduction of the word extinction (in Russian) approximates today's psychological use.
In popular use, positive reinforcement is often used as a synonym for reward, with people (not behavior) thus being "reinforced", but this is contrary to the term's consistent technical usage, as it is a dimension of behavior, and not the person, which is strengthened. Negative reinforcement is often used by laypeople and even social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his 1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of aversive stimuli.
There are some within the field of behavior analysis who have suggested that the terms "positive" and "negative" constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented. For example, Iwata poses the question: "... is a change in temperature more accurately characterized by the presentation of cold (heat) or the removal of heat (cold)?" Thus, reinforcement could be conceptualized as a pre-change condition replaced by a post-change condition that reinforces the behavior that followed the change in stimulus conditions.
Applications
Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.
Addiction and dependence
Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.
In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal.
Animal training
Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are: availability of immediate reinforcement (e.g. the ever-present bag of dog yummies); contingency, assuring that reinforcement follows the desired behavior and not something else; the use of secondary reinforcement, as in sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response; shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; intermittent reinforcement, reducing the frequency of those yummies to induce persistent behavior without satiation; chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually put together.
Child behaviour – parent management training
Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations"). They may also use indirect rewards such through progress charts. Providing positive reinforcement in the classroom can be beneficial to student success. When applying positive reinforcement to students, it's crucial to make it individualized to that student's needs. This way, the student understands why they are receiving the praise, they can accept it, and eventually learn to continue the action that was earned by positive reinforcement. For example, using rewards or extra recess time might apply to some students more, whereas others might accept the enforcement by receiving stickers or check marks indicating praise.
Economics
Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example
is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.
Gambling – variable ratio scheduling
As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. Because the machines are programmed to pay out less money than they take in, the persistent slot-machine user invariably loses in the long run. Slots machines, and thus variable ratio reinforcement, have often been blamed as a factor underlying gambling addiction.
Managing behavior in organizations
An alternative to traditional pay for performance incentive schemes that is rooted in reinforcement theory, known as the O.B. Mod Approach, has been proposed as a practical approach to managing the performance-related behaviors of an organization's members. . O.B. Mod. and its "reinforce-for-performance" basis has been shown empirically to yield performance improvements in both manufacturing and service organizations, though improvements varied by type of reinforcer in both contexts.
Nudge theory
Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.
Praise
The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.
Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols. The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management and parenting training interventions, though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.
Manipulation
Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:
Positive reinforcement: includes praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition.
Negative reinforcement: may involve removing one from a negative situation
Intermittent or partial reinforcement: Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist – for example in most forms of gambling, the gambler is likely to win now and again but still lose money overall.
Punishment: includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim.
Traumatic one-trial learning: using verbal abuse, explosive anger, or other intimidating behavior to establish dominance or superiority; even one incident of such behavior can condition or train victims to avoid upsetting, confronting or contradicting the manipulator.
Traumatic bonding
Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.
The other source indicated that
'The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from the dominant person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the victim's options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim's ability to receive countervailing self-referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency ... The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the victim's capacity for accurate self-appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression.
Video games
Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to video game addiction.
As part of a trend in the monetization of video games in the 2010s, some games offered "loot boxes" as rewards or purchasable by real-world funds that offered a random selection of in-game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real-world money has created a skin gambling market that is under legal evaluation.
Workplace culture of fear
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.
Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
An On-Line Positive Reinforcement Tutorial
Scholarpedia Reinforcement
scienceofbehavior.com
Behavior therapy
Behavioral concepts
Behaviorism
Addiction
et:Sarrus
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Oh Darling may refer to:
Music
Oh Darling (band)
Songs
"Oh Darlin'", by the O'Kanes
"Oh Darling" (song), by Alisa Mizuki
"Oh! Darling", by the Beatles
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9-slice scaling (also known as Scale 9 grid, 9-slicing or 9-patch) is a 2D image resizing technique to proportionally scale an image by splitting it in a grid of nine parts.
The key idea is to prevent image scaling distortion by protecting the pixels defined in 4 parts (corners) of the image and scaling or repeating the pixels in the other 5 parts.
A variation of the concept, the 3-slice scaling, consists in a grid of 3 parts in which only the pixels in 2 parts (the edges) are protected and the pixels on the middle part are repeated.
History and use
The concept was first introduced in a consumer application by Macromedia in Flash 8 (2005). and it was available as feature to scale symbols. Later on, in 2007 Adobe introduced it as a feature in Adobe Fireworks CS3, Adobe Illustrator, and Adobe Flash. Today it is also present as a feature of game development software like Unreal engine, Urho3D, and Unity 3D.
The technique can be used to manipulate both bitmap/raster graphics and vector graphics. A current implementation of the 9-slice technique is present on the CSS 3 Backgrounds and Borders spec by using the border-image property.
References
Computer graphics
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Yaw's Top Notch was a restaurant in Portland, Oregon.
The original restaurant operated from 1926 to 1985. The business once employed 180 people.
The restaurant was revived by owner Stephen Yaw in 2012, but closed eight months later.
References
1926 establishments in Oregon
Defunct restaurants in Portland, Oregon
Restaurants established in 1926
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Diathesis (from the Greek διάθεσις "grammatical voice, disposition") may refer to:
Grammatical voice
Diathesis (medical), a hereditary or constitutional predisposition to a disease or other disorder
Predisposition (psychology)
The diathesis–stress model
Bleeding diathesis, an abnormal propensity toward bleeding
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A drop-down list (abbreviated drop-down, or DDL; also known as a drop-down menu, drop menu, pull-down list, picklist) is a graphical control element, similar to a list box, that allows the user to choose one value from a list. When a drop-down list is inactive, it displays a single value. When activated, it displays (drops down) a list of values, from which the user may select one. When the user selects a new value, the control reverts to its inactive state, displaying the selected value. It is often used in the design of graphical user interfaces, including web design.
Terminology
This type of control is called a "pop-up menu" on the Macintosh platform; however, the term "popup menu" is used to refer to context menus in other GUI systems. The Macintosh also has the notion of "pull-down menus". The distinction is that, when the menu is closed, a pop-up menu's title shows the last-selected item while a pull-down menu shows a static title like a menu in the menu bar. Thus, the uses are different—popup menus are used to select a single option from a list while pull-down menus are used to issue commands or in cases where multiple options can be selected.
HTML
In web forms, the HTML elements and are used to display a drop-down menu:
<select>
<option>option1</option>
<option>option2</option>
<option>option3</option>
</select>
See also
Combo box
List box
References
Graphical control elements
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JLL may refer to:
JLL Partners, a private equity firm, formerly Joseph Littlejohn & Levy
JLL (company), global real estate company, formerly Jones Lang LaSalle, with NYSE ticker "JLL"
Jangan Lupa Lirik!, a Malaysian quiz show
JetKonnect, Indian airline with ICAO designator "JLL"
Jerry Lee Lewis (1935–2022), American musician
New York University Journal of Law & Liberty, an American Law journal
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Codes
References
G
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Codes
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References
F
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MDCalc is a free online medical reference for healthcare professionals that provides point-of-care clinical decision-support tools, including medical calculators, scoring systems, and algorithms. MDCalc is also a mobile and web app. The decision-support tools are based on published clinical research, and MDCalc’s content is written by physician authors.
History
MDCalc was founded by two emergency physicians, Graham Walker, MD, and Joseph Habboushe, MD, MBA, and provides over 500 medical calculators and other clinical decision-support tools.
The MDCalc.com website was launched in 2005. In 2016, MDCalc launched an iOS app, followed by an Android app in 2017. A 2017 survey estimated 65% of U.S. attending physicians and 79% of U.S. resident physicians use MDCalc regularly.
References
External links
Official Website
Medical websites
Health information technology companies
American medical websites
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Magic publications are books and periodicals which are created on the subject of magic. They include reviews of new equipment and techniques, announcements of upcoming events, interviews with prominent magicians, announcements of awards, and columns on such subjects as the history and ethics of the art of magic. Most also feature various explanations and ideas pertaining to magic tricks/effects. Additionally you can commonly advertise for businesses and events with little charge.
List of magic periodicals
List of notable books on magic
Modern Magic
Discoverie of Witchcraft
The Royal Road to Card Magic
The Expert at the Card Table
Bobo's Modern Coin Magic
Sach's Sleight of Hand
Master Index to Magic in Print
Abbott's Encyclopedia of Rope Tricks
Tarbell Course in Magic
Thirteen Steps To Mentalism
The Amateur Magician's Handbook by Henry Hay
Mark Wilson's Complete Course in Magic
Further reading
References
Entertainment lists
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References
L
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Dimetamine may refer to:
A brand name of propylhexedrine
A slang name for the synthetic opioid 4-dimethylamino-4-(p-tolyl)cyclohexanone
Dimetamine (alkaloid), an alkaloid isolated from Thermopsis alterniflora
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HR 178 is a probable binary star in the constellation Andromeda. Located approximately distant, it is an evolved Am star with a combined apparent magnitude of 6.06, meaning that it can only be seen with the naked eye on dark, clear nights. The star is suspected of variability, possibly varying between magnitudes 6.04 and 6.06. The variable magnitude period of HD 3883 is about 9.17 min.
The spectrum of HR 178 has been extensively studied for establishing element abundances in the evolved Am stars. It is given a spectral class of kA5hF1mF2, meaning its spectral type is A5, F1, or F2, depending on the particular spectral lines examined. The evolutionary stage of the star, and its mass determined from comparison with theoretical evolutionary tracks, is not precisely determined. However, it is very close to the end of its main sequence evolution and the margin of error in its mass is only about .
HR 178 has been suspected of being a binary star since 1938 when its spectrum was interpreted as being composite. The pair were resolved using speckle interferometry in 1983. The companion is modelled to be between 1.5 and 3 magnitudes fainter than the primary star. Although there have since been several failed attempts to resolve the pair, a tentative orbit has been calculated with a period of 21.26 years and an eccentricity of 0.5.
References
Andromeda (constellation)
003883
Am stars
0178
Suspected variables
003269
Durchmusterung objects
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Algebraic enumeration is a subfield of enumeration that deals with finding exact formulas for the number of combinatorial objects of a given type, rather than estimating this number asymptotically. Methods of finding these formulas include generating functions and the solution of recurrence relations.
References
Enumerative combinatorics
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The following highways are numbered 11C:
United States
New Hampshire Route 11C
New York State Route 11C
See also
List of highways numbered 11
11C (disambiguation)
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Skylight is a means of daylighting.
Skylight may also refer to:
Skylight (play), by David Hare
Skylight of a lava tube, a hole in the ceiling of the tube
Skylight, Arkansas
Skylight, Kentucky
Skylight, a short film by David Clayton Rogers
Skylight Pictures, a film company
Skylight Music Theatre, a light opera and musical theatre company in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Skylight 1A, a photographic filter factor that absorbs ultraviolet radiation
Lenovo Skylight, a cancelled project for a small portable computer with mobile telephone
Mount Skylight, in the Adirondack Mountains of New York
Skylight (band), a South African pop rock band
Skylight (novel), a 2011 novel by José Saramago
Skylight (Art Lande, Dave Samuels and Paul McCandless album), 1981
Skylight (Pinegrove album), 2018
See also
Diffuse sky radiation
Light pollution
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Rockit may refer to:
Rockit (album), a 1979 album by Chuck Berry.
Rockit (instrumental), a 1983 composition by Herbie Hancock.
"Rockit", a 2004 song by Gorillaz.
Rockit Hong Kong Music Festival, a 2000s music festival.
See also
Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit, a steel roller coaster at Universal Studios Florida in Orlando
Rockit Mountain, a version of the indoor roller coaster Space Mountain at Disneyland in Anaheim, California
Rock It (disambiguation)
Rocket (disambiguation)
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Uszka or vushka (Polish: Uszka, Ukrainian: Вушка, Belarusian: Вушкі) (meaning "little ears") are small dumplings (a very small and twisted version of pierogi) usually filled with flavoursome wild forest mushrooms and/or minced meat. They are usually served with barszcz, though they can be eaten simply with melted butter and herbs (usually chives) sprinkled over. When vegetarian (filled only with mushrooms or onion) they are a part of traditional Christmas Eve dishes in Poland and Ukraine, and are either added to the soup, or eaten as a side dish.
In various languages, they are called:
(vúški)
(vúška)
See also
Pelmeni
Pierogi
Vareniki
Kreplekh
Maultasche
References
External links
Recipe: Uszka
Recipe: Vushka (Ukrainian Little Ear Dumplings)
The original recipe for uszka
Polish cuisine
Ukrainian cuisine
Dumplings
Christmas food
Belarusian cuisine
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Bulbophyllum fusciflorum é uma espécie de orquídea (família Orchidaceae) pertencente ao gênero Bulbophyllum. Foi descrita por Schltr. em 1913.
Ligações externas
The Bulbophyllum-Checklist
The internet Orchid species Photo Encyclopedia
Plantas descritas em 1913
Bulbophyllum
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The Solo Angeles Club de Motociclistas () are an outlaw motorcycle club that was formed in Tijuana, Mexico in 1959. The club's insignia is simply a chopper-style motorcycle. The club does an annual charity run where they deliver toys to poor children in Tijuana.
References
Additional sources
External links
1959 establishments in Mexico
Outlaw motorcycle clubs
Tijuana
Clubs and societies in Mexico
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Maria Luisa of Savoy may refer to:
Maria Luisa of Savoy (1688–1714), daughter of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia and Anne Marie d'Orléans; queen of Spain as first consort of Philip V of Spain
Princess Maria Luisa of Savoy (1729–1767) (1729–1767), daughter of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg
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The following highways are numbered 12D:
United States
Nebraska Spur 12D
New York State Route 12D
Secondary State Highway 12-D (Washington) (former)
See also
List of highways numbered 12
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Abel's binomial theorem, named after Niels Henrik Abel, is a mathematical identity involving sums of binomial coefficients. It states the following:
Example
The case m = 2
See also
Binomial theorem
Binomial type
References
Factorial and binomial topics
Theorems in algebra
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Cursing stone may refer to:
Bullaun, Irish or Scottish hollowed stone
Cursing Stone and Reiver Pavement, public art work in Carlisle, Cumbria, England by Gordon Young
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The Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople was an office established as a result of the Fourth Crusade and its conquest of Constantinople in 1204. It was a Roman Catholic replacement for the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, and remained in the city until the reconquest of Constantinople by the Byzantines in 1261, whereupon it became a titular see. The office was abolished in 1964.
History
Before the East–West Schism in 1054, the Christian Church within the borders of the ancient Roman Empire was effectively ruled by five patriarchs (the "Pentarchy"): In descending order of precedence: Rome by the Bishop of Rome (who rarely used the title "Patriarch") and those of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
In the West the Bishop of Rome was recognized as having superiority over the other Patriarchs, while in the East, the Patriarch of Constantinople gradually came to occupy a leading position. The sees of Rome and Constantinople were often at odds with one another, just as the Greek and Latin Churches as a whole were often at odds both politically and in things ecclesiastical. There were complex cultural currents underlying these difficulties. The tensions led in 1054 to a serious rupture between the Greek East and Latin West called the East–West Schism, which while not in many places absolute, still dominates the ecclesiastical landscape.
In 1204, the Fourth Crusade invaded, seized and sacked Constantinople, and established the Latin Empire. The Pope, who was not involved, initially spoke out against the Crusade, writing in a letter to his legate, "How, indeed, is the Greek church to be brought back into ecclesiastical union and to a devotion for the Apostolic See when she has been beset with so many afflictions and persecutions that she sees in the Latins only an example of perdition and the works of darkness, so that she now, and with reason, detests the Latins more than dogs?" However the popes accepted the Latin patriarchate established by Catholic clergy that accompanied the Crusade, similar to Latin patriarchates previously established in the Crusader states of the Holy Land. The pope recognised these "Latin" sees at the Fourth Council of the Lateran. Furthermore, those Orthodox bishops left in their place were made to swear an oath of allegiance to the pope.
However, the Latin Empire in Constantinople was eventually defeated and dispossessed by a resurgent Byzantium in 1261. Since that time Latin Patriarch Pantaleonе Giustinian (d. 1286) resided in the West, though continuing to oversee the remaining Latin Catholic dioceses in various parts of Latin Greece. The continuing threat of a Catholic Crusade to restore the Latin Empire, championed by the ambitious Charles I of Anjou, led to the first attempts, on the Byzantine side, to effect a Union of the Churches. After the Union of Lyon (1274), John Bekkos was installed as a Greek Catholic Patriarch of Constantinople in 1275, but that did not affect the position of Pantaleonе Giustinian. His Greek Catholic counterpart was deposed in 1282 by Eastern Orthodox hierarchy, thus ending a short-lived union. in 1286, Latin Patriarch Pantaleonе Giustinian was succeeded by Pietro Correr who was the first holder of that office in a new form of a titular see.
On 8 February 1314, Pope Clement V united the Patriarchate with the episcopal see of Negroponte (Chalcis), hitherto a suffragan of the Latin Archbishopric of Athens, so that the patriarchs could once more have a territorial diocese on Greek soil and exercise a direct role as the head of the Latin clergy in what remained of Latin Greece.
For a time, like many ecclesiastical offices in the West, it had rival contenders who were supporters or protégés of the rival popes. As to the title Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, this was the case at least from 1378 to 1423. Thereafter the office continued as an honorific title, during the later centuries attributed to a leading clergyman in Rome, until it ceased to be assigned after 1948 and was suppressed in January 1964, along with the titles of Latin Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch.
A Vicariate Apostolic of Istanbul (until 1990, Constantinople) has existed from 1742 into the present day.
List of Latin Patriarchs of Constantinople
Tommaso Morosini (1204–1211)
Vacant (1211–1215)
Gervasio (1215–1219)
Vacant (1219–1221)
Matteo (1221–1226)
Jean Halgrin (1226), declined office
Simon of Maugastel (1227–1233)
Vacant (1233–1234)
Niccolò Visconti da Castro Arquato (1234–1251)
Vacant (1251–1253)
Pantaleonе Giustinian (1253–1286); After 1261, resided in the West
Pietro Correr (1286–1302)
Leonardo Faliero (1302–c. 1305)
Nicholas of Thebes (c. 1308–c. 1335), later cardinal (1332–1335)
(1335–1339)
Rolando d'Asti (1339) (died immediately)
Enrico d'Asti (1339–1345), bishop of Negroponte
Stephen of Pinu (1346)
William (1346–1364)
Pierre Thomas (1364–1366)
Paul (1366–1370)
Ugolino Malabranca de Orvieto (1371–c. 1375), bishop of Rimini
(1376–1378), archbishop of Otranto
Paul Palaiologos Tagaris (1379/80–1384)
Vacant (1384–1390)
Angelo Correr (1390–1405), later Pope Gregory XII
Louis of Mytilene (Ludovico? Luiz?) (1406–1408)
Antonio Correr (1408)
Alfonso of Seville (1408)
Francesco Lando (1409), patriarch of Grado
Giovanni Contarini (1409–c. 1412)
Jean de la Rochetaillée (1412–1423)
Giovanni Contarini (1424–1430?), restored
François de Conzié (1430–1432)
Vacant (1432–1438)
Francesco Condulmer (1438–1453)
Gregory Mammas (1453–1458), formerly Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople as Gregory III
Isidore of Kiev (1458–1462)
Bessarion (1463–1472)
Pietro Riario (1472–1474)
Girolamo Lando (1474–c. 1496), Archbishop of Crete
Giovanni Michiel (1497–1503) Bishop of Verona, later Cardinal
Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el mayor (1503)
Francisco Galcerán de Lloris y de Borja (1503–1506)
Marco Cornaro (1506–1507)
Tamás Bakócz (1507–1521)
Marco Cornaro (1521–1524), restored
Giles of Viterbo (1524–1530), Cardinal bishop of Viterbo
Francesco Pesaro (1530–1545) Archbishop of Zadar
Marino Grimani (1545–1546)
Ranuccio Farnese (1546–1550)
Fabio Colonna (1550–1554), bishop of Aversa
Ranuccio Farnese (1554–1565) restored
Scipione Rebiba (1565–1573) Cardinal bishop of Albano
Prospero Rebiba (1573–1593) Bishop of Troia
Silvio Savelli (cardinal) (1594–1596)
Ercole Tassoni (1596–1597)
Bonifazio Bevilacqua Aldobrandini (1598–1627?)
Bonaventura Secusio (1599–1618)
Ascanio Gesualdo (1618–1638)
Francesco Maria Macchiavelli (1640–1641)
Giovanni Giacomo Panciroli (1641–1643)
Giovanni Battista Spada (1643–1675?)
Volumnio Bandinelli (1658–1660), later Cardinal
Stefano Ugolini (1667–1681)
Odoardo Cibo (Cybo) (1689–1706?), titular archbishop of Seleucia in Isauria
Luigi Pico della Mirandola (1706–1712)
Andrea Riggio (1716–1717)
Camillo Cibo (Cybo) (1718–1729)
Mondillo Orsini (1729–1751)
Ferdinando Maria de Rossi (1751–1759)
Filippo Caucci (1760–1771)
Juan Portugal de la Puebla (1771–1781), later cardinal
Francesco Antonio Marcucci (1781–1798)
Benedetto Fenaja (1805–1823)
Giuseppe della Porta Rodiani (1823–1835)
Cardinal Giovanni Soglia Ceroni (1835–1839)
Antonio Maria Traversi (1839–1842)
Giovanni Giacomo Sinibaldi (1843)
Cardinal Fabio Maria Asquini (1844–1845)
Giovanni Giuseppe Canali (1845–1851)
Domenico Lucciardi (1851–1860)
Giuseppe Melchiade Ferlisi (1860–1865)
Ruggero Luigi Emidio Antici Mattei (1866–1878)
Giacomo Gallo (1878–1881)
Vacant (1881–1887)
Giulio Lenti (1887–1895)
Cardinal Giovanni Battista Casali del Drago (1895–1899)
Cardinal Alessandro Sanminiatelli Zabarella (1899–1901)
Cardinal Carlo Nocella (1901–1903), died 1908, former Latin Patriarch of Antioch
Giuseppe Ceppetelli (1903–1917)
Vacant (1917–1923)
Michele Zezza di Zapponeta (1923–1927)
Antonio Anastasio Rossi (1927–1948)
Vacancy from 1948 until the Latin titular patriarchate was abolished in 1964.
See also
List of Popes
Latin Patriarch of Alexandria
Latin Patriarch of Antioch
Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem
Latin Archbishop of Athens
Latin Archbishop of Corinth
Latin Archbishop of Crete
Latin Archbishop of Neopatras
Latin Archbishop of Patras
Latin Archbishop of Thebes
References
Sources and external links
Giorgio Fedalto, La Chiesa latina in Oriente, Mazziana, Verona, 2nd ed. 1981, e vol.
List of Latin Patriarchs of Constantinople by GCatholic.org
Catholic Hierarchy
Frankokratia
Former Roman Catholic dioceses in Asia
Former Roman Catholic dioceses in Europe
Latin Empire
East–West Schism
Lists of Roman Catholics
Turkey religion-related lists
1204 establishments in Europe
1964 disestablishments in Italy
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The 7-bone roast (also known as the center-cut pot roast) or 7-bone steak is from the chuck section of the steer or heifer and it includes a cross cut of the shoulder blade. The bone is shaped like the numeral "7", which gives these cuts their name. The steak differs from the 7-bone roast only in thickness: 7-bone steaks are cut - to -inch thick.
Like most of the chuck, the 7-bone roast or "steak" is generally considered a rather tough cut of meat and is most suitable for a long cooking in liquid at a low heat, such as braising.
Butchering
According to the USDA Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications (IMPS) the "Blade Portion, Boneless" of a beef chuck butchers to 22–25 lbs in a smaller animal (Range A) and in excess of 34 lbs in a large animal (Range D).
See also
References
Cuts of beef
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The Scribbler's Retreat Writer's Conference is a writers' conference held four times a year in St. Simons Island, Georgia. Scribblers' Retreat encourages, educates, and promotes new and published authors of all ages to continue to write and publish their works.
History
Scribblers' Retreat Writers' Conference is a non-profit organization and was founded in January 2009
The organization that supports the advancement of writers, published and non-published. They offer four sessions of specifically chosen genres throughout the year to provide conference attendees a symposium of experienced teachers, writers, editors, and others from the publishing world.
Authors
Noted authors who have been speakers at the conferences include:
Diana Gabaldon
Karen White
Adam Davies
Steve Berry
Jack McDevitt
Lois Ruby
See also
List of writers' conferences
External links
Scribblers' Retreat Writers' Conference
Georgia Writers Association
Newspages.com Writers Conferences
References
American writers' organizations
Recurring events established in 2009
Writers' conferences
Literary festivals in the United States
Events in Georgia (U.S. state)
St. Simons, Georgia
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An online community, also called an internet community or web community, is a community whose members interact with each other primarily via the Internet. Members of the community usually share common interests. For many, online communities may feel like home, consisting of a "family of invisible friends". Additionally, these "friends" can be connected through gaming communities and gaming companies. Those who wish to be a part of an online community usually have to become a member via a specific site and thereby gain access to specific content or links.
An online community can act as an information system where members can post, comment on discussions, give advice or collaborate, and includes medical advice or specific health care research as well. Commonly, people communicate through social networking sites, chat rooms, forums, email lists, and discussion boards, and have advanced into daily social media platforms as well. This includes Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Discord, etc. People may also join online communities through video games, blogs, and virtual worlds, and could potentially meet new significant others in dating sites or dating virtual worlds.
The rise in popularity of Web 2.0 websites has allowed for easier real-time communication and connection to others and facilitated the introduction of new ways for information to be exchanged. Yet, these interactions may also lead to a downfall of social interactions or deposit more negative and derogatory forms of speaking to others, in connection, surfaced forms of racism, bullying, sexist comments, etc. may also be investigated and linked to online communities.
One scholarly definition of an online community is this: "a virtual and community is defined as an aggregation of individuals or business partners who interact around a shared interest, where the interaction is at least partially supported or mediated by technology (or both) and guided by some protocols or norms".
Purpose
Digital communities (web communities but also communities that are formed over, e.g., Xbox and PlayStation) provide a platform for a range of services to users. It has been argued that they can fulfill Maslow's hierarchy of needs. They allow for social interaction across the world between people of different cultures who might not otherwise have met with offline meetings also becoming more common. Another key use of web communities is access to and the exchange of information. With communities for even very small niches it is possible to find people also interested in a topic and to seek and share information on a subject where there are not such people available in the immediate area offline. This has led to a range of popular sites based on areas such as health, employment, finances and education. Online communities can be vital for companies for marketing and outreach.
Unexpected and innovative uses of web communities have also emerged with social networks being used in conflicts to alert citizens of impending attacks. The UN sees the web and specifically social networks as an important tool in conflicts and emergencies.
Web communities have grown in popularity; as of 2014, 6 of the 20 most-trafficked websites were community-based sites. The amount of traffic to such websites is expected to increase as a growing proportion of the world's population attains Internet access.
Categorization
The idea of a community is not a new concept. On the telephone, in ham radio and in the online world, social interactions no longer have to be based on proximity; instead they can literally be with anyone anywhere. The study of communities has had to adapt along with the new technologies. Many researchers have used ethnography to attempt to understand what people do in online spaces, how they express themselves, what motivates them, how they govern themselves, what attracts them, and why some people prefer to observe rather than participate. Online communities can congregate around a shared interest and can be spread across multiple websites.
Some features of online communities include:
Content: articles, information, and news about a topic of interest to a group of people.
Forums or newsgroups and email: so that community members can communicate in delayed fashion.
Chat and instant messaging: so that community members can communicate more immediately.
Development
Online communities typically establish a set of values, sometimes known collectively as netiquette or Internet etiquette, as they grow. These values may include: opportunity, education, culture, democracy, human services, equality within the economy, information, sustainability, and communication. An online community's purpose is to serve as a common ground for people who share the same interests.
Online communities may be used as calendars to keep up with events such as upcoming gatherings or sporting events. They also form around activities and hobbies. Many online communities relating to health care help inform, advise, and support patients and their families. Students can take classes online and they may communicate with their professors and peers online. Businesses have also started using online communities to communicate with their customers about their products and services as well as to share information about the business. Other online communities allow a wide variety of professionals to come together to share thoughts, ideas and theories.
Fandom is an example of what online communities can evolve into. Online communities have grown in influence in "shaping the phenomena around which they organize" according to Nancy K. Baym's work. She says that: "More than any other commercial sector, the popular culture industry relies on online communities to publicize and provide testimonials for their products." The strength of the online community's power is displayed through the season 3 premiere of BBC's Sherlock. Online activity by fans seem to have had a noticeable influence on the plot and direction of the season opening episode. Mark Lawson of The Guardian recounts how fans have, to a degree, directed the outcome of the events of the episode. He says that "Sherlock has always been one of the most web-aware shows, among the first to find a satisfying way of representing electronic chatter on-screen." Fan communities in platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and Reddit around sports, actors, and musicians have become powerful communities both culturally and politically.
Discussions where members may post their feedback are essential in the development of an online community. Online communities may encourage individuals to come together to teach and learn from one another. They may encourage learners to discuss and learn about real-world problems and situations, as well as to focus on such things as teamwork, collaborative thinking and personal experiences.
Blogs
Blogs are among the major platforms on which online communities form. Blogging practices include microblogging, where the amount of information in a single element is smaller, and liveblogging, in which an ongoing event is blogged about in real time.
The ease and convenience of blogging has allowed for its growth. Major blogging platforms include Twitter and Tumblr, which combine social media and blogging, as well as platforms such as WordPress, which allow content to be hosted on their own servers but also permit users to download, install, and modify the software on their own servers. As of October 2014, 23.1% of the top 10 million websites are either hosted on or run WordPress.
Forums
Internet forums, sometimes called bulletin boards, are websites which allow users to post topics also known as threads for discussion with other users able to reply creating a conversation. Forums follow a hierarchical structure of categories, with many popular forum software platforms categorising forums depending on their purpose, and allowing forum administrators to create subforums within their platform. With time more advanced features have been added into forums; the ability to attach files, embed YouTube videos, and send private messages is now commonplace. As of 2014, the largest forum Gaia Online contained over 2 billion posts.
Members are commonly assigned into user groups which control their access rights and permissions. Common access levels include the following:
User: A standard account with the ability to create topics and reply.
Moderator: Moderators are typically tasked with the daily administration tasks such as answering user queries, dealing with rule-breaking posts, and the moving, editing or deletion of topics or posts.
Administrator: Administrators deal with the forum strategy including the implementation of new features alongside more technical tasks such as server maintenance.
Social networks
Social networks are platforms allowing users to set up their own profile and build connections with like minded people who pursue similar interests through interaction. The first traceable example of such a site is SixDegrees.com, set up in 1997, which included a friends list and the ability to send messages to members linked to friends and see other users associations. For much of the 21st century, the popularity of such networks has been growing. Friendster was the first social network to gain mass media attention; however, by 2004 it had been overtaken in popularity by Myspace, which in turn was later overtaken by Facebook. In 2013, Facebook attracted 1.23 billion monthly users, rising from 145 million in 2008. Facebook was the first social network to surpass 1 billion registered accounts, and by 2020, had more than 2.7 billion active users. Meta Platforms, the owner of Facebook, also owns three other leading platforms for online communities: Instagram, WhatsApp, and Facebook Messenger.
Most top-ranked social networks originate in the United States, but European services like VK, Japanese platform LINE, or Chinese social networks WeChat, QQ or video-sharing app Douyin (internationally known as TikTok) have also garnered appeal in their respective regions.
Current trends focus around the increased use of mobile devices when using social networks. Statistics from Statista show that, in 2013, 97.9 million users accessed social networks from a mobile device in the United States.
Classification
Researchers and organizations have worked to classify types of online community and to characterise their structure. For example, it is important to know the security, access, and technology requirements of a given type of community as it may evolve from an open to a private and regulated forum. It has been argued that the technical aspects of online communities, such as whether pages can be created and edited by the general user base (as is the case with wikis) or only certain users (as is the case with most blogs), can place online communities into stylistic categories. Another approach argues that "online community" is a metaphor and that contributors actively negotiate the meaning of the term, including values and social norms.
Some research has looked at the users of online communities. Amy Jo Kim has classified the rituals and stages of online community interaction and called it the "membership life cycle". Clay Shirky talks about communities of practice, whose members collaborate and help each other in order to make something better or improve a certain skill. What makes these communities bond is "love" of something, as demonstrated by members who go out of their way to help without any financial interest. Campbell et al. developed a character theory for analyzing online communities, based on tribal typologies. In the communities they investigated they identified three character types:
The Big Man (offer a form of order and stability to the community by absorbing many conflictual situations personally)
The Sorcerer (will not engage in reciprocity with others in the community)
The Trickster (generally a comical yet complex figure that is found in most of the world's culture)
Online communities have also forced retail firms to change their business strategies. Companies have to network more, adjust computations, and alter their organizational structures. This leads to changes in a company's communications with their manufacturers including the information shared and made accessible for further productivity and profits. Because consumers and customers in all fields are becoming accustomed to more interaction and engagement online, adjustments must be considered made in order to keep audiences intrigued.
Online communities have been characterized as "virtual settlements" that have the following four requirements: interactivity, a variety of communicators, a common public place where members can meet and interact, and sustained membership over time. Based on these considerations, it can be said that microblogs such as Twitter can be classified as online communities.
Building communities
Dorine C. Andrews argues, in the article "Audience-Specific Online Community Design", that there are three parts to building an online community: starting the online community, encouraging early online interaction, and moving to a self-sustaining interactive environment. When starting an online community, it may be effective to create webpages that appeal to specific interests. Online communities with clear topics and easy access tend to be most effective. In order to gain early interaction by members, privacy guarantees and content discussions are very important. Successful online communities tend to be able to function self-sufficiently.
Participation
There are two major types of participation in online communities: public participation and non-public participation, also called lurking. Lurkers are participants who join a virtual community but do not contribute. In contrast, public participants, or posters, are those who join virtual communities and openly express their beliefs and opinions. Both lurkers and posters frequently enter communities to find answers and to gather general information. For example, there are several online communities dedicated to technology. In these communities, posters are generally experts in the field who can offer technological insight and answer questions, while lurkers tend to be technological novices who use the communities to find answers and to learn.
In general, virtual community participation is influenced by how participants view themselves in society as well as by norms, both of society and of the online community. Participants also join online communities for friendship and support. In a sense, virtual communities may fill social voids in participants' offline lives.
Sociologist Barry Wellman presents the idea of "globalization" – the Internet's ability to extend participants' social connections to people around the world while also aiding them in further engagement with their local communities.
Roles in an online community
Although online societies differ in content from real society, the roles people assume in their online communities are quite similar. Elliot Volkman points out several categories of people that play a role in the cycle of social networking, such as:
Community architect – Creates the online community, sets goals and decides the purpose of the site.
Community manager – Oversees the progress of the society. Enforces rules, encourages social norms, assists new members, and spreads awareness about the community.
Professional member – This is a member who is paid to contribute to the site. The purpose of this role is to keep the community active.
Free members – These members visit sites most often and represent the majority of the contributors. Their contributions are crucial to the sites' progress.
Passive lurker – These people do not contribute to the site but rather absorb the content, discussion, and advice.
Active lurker – Consumes the content and shares that content with personal networks and other communities.
Power users – These people push for new discussion, provide positive feedback to community managers, and sometimes even act as community managers themselves. They have a major influence on the site and make up only a small percentage of the users.
Aspects of successful online communities
An article entitled "The real value of on-line communities," written by A. Armstrong and John Hagel of the Harvard Business Review, addresses a handful of elements that are key to the growth of an online community and its success in drawing in members. In this example, the article focuses specifically on online communities related to business, but its points can be transferred and can apply to any online community. The article addresses four main categories of business-based online communities, but states that a truly successful one will combine qualities of each of them: communities of transaction, communities of interest, communities of fantasy, and communities of relationship. Anubhav Choudhury describes the four types of community as follows:
Communities of transaction emphasize the importance of buying and selling products in a social online manner where people must interact in order to complete the transaction.
Communities of interest involve the online interaction of people with specific knowledge on a certain topic.
Communities of fantasy encourage people to participate in online alternative forms of reality, such as games where they are represented by avatars.
Communities of relationship often reveal or at least partially protect someone's identity while allowing them to communicate with others, such as in online dating services.
Membership lifecycle
Amy Jo Kim's membership lifecycle theory states that members of online communities begin their life in a community as visitors, or lurkers. After breaking through a barrier, people become novices and participate in community life. After contributing for a sustained period of time, they become regulars. If they break through another barrier they become leaders, and once they have contributed to the community for some time they become elders. This life cycle can be applied to many virtual communities, such as bulletin board systems, blogs, mailing lists, and wiki-based communities like Wikipedia.
A similar model can be found in the works of Lave and Wenger, who illustrate a cycle of how users become incorporated into virtual communities using the principles of legitimate peripheral participation. They suggest five types of trajectories amongst a learning community:
Peripheral (i.e. Lurker) – An outside, unstructured participation
Inbound (i.e. Novice) – Newcomer is invested in the community and heading towards full participation
Insider (i.e. Regular) – Full committed community participant
Boundary (i.e. Leader) – A leader, sustains membership participation and brokers interactions
Outbound (i.e. Elder) – Process of leaving the community due to new relationships, new positions, new outlooks
The following shows the correlation between the learning trajectories and Web 2.0 community participation by using the example of YouTube:
Peripheral (Lurker) – Observing the community and viewing content. Does not add to the community content or discussion. The user occasionally goes onto YouTube.com to check out a video that someone has directed them to.
Inbound (Novice) – Just beginning to engage with the community. Starts to provide content. Tentatively interacts in a few discussions. The user comments on other users' videos. Potentially posts a video of their own.
Insider (Regular) – Consistently adds to the community discussion and content. Interacts with other users. Regularly posts videos. Makes a concerted effort to comment and rate other users' videos.
Boundary (Leader) – Recognized as a veteran participant, their opinions are granted greater consideration by the community. Connects with regulars to make higher-concept ideas. The user has become recognized as a contributor to watch. Their videos may be podcasts commenting on the state of YouTube and its community. The user would not consider watching another user's videos without commenting on them. Will often correct a user in behavior the community considers inappropriate. Will reference other users' videos in their comments as a way to cross link content.
Outbound (Elders) – Leave the community. Their interests may have changed, the community may have moved in a direction that they disagree with, or they may no longer have time to maintain a constant presence in the community.
Newcomers
Newcomers are important for online communities. Online communities rely on volunteers' contribution, and most online communities face high turnover rate as one of their main challenges. For example, only a minority of Wikipedia users contribute regularly, and only a minority of those contributors participate in community discussions. In one study conducted by Carnegie Mellon University, they found that "more than two-thirds (68%) of newcomers to Usenet groups were never seen again after their first post". Above facts reflect a point that recruiting and remaining new members have become a very crucial problem for online communities: the communities will eventually wither away without replacing members who leave.
Newcomers are new members of the online communities and thus often face many barriers when contributing to a project, and those barriers they face might lead them to give up the project or even leave the community. By conducting a systematic literature review over 20 primary studies regarding to the barriers faced by newcomers when contributing to the open source software projects, Steinmacher et al. identified 15 different barriers and they classified those barriers into five categories as described below:
Social Interaction: this category describes the barriers when newcomers interact with existing members of the community. The three barriers that they found have main influence on newcomers are: "lack of social interaction with project members",'"not receiving a timely response", and "receiving an improper response".
Newcomers' Previous Knowledge: this category describes the barriers which is regarding to the newcomers' previous experience related to this project. The three barriers they found classified into this part are: "lack of domain expertise", "lack of technical expertise", and "lack of knowledge of project practices".
Finding a Way to Start: this category describes the issues when newcomers try to start contributing. The two barriers they found are: "Difficulty to find an appropriate task to start with", and "Difficulty to find a mentor".
Documentation: documentation of the project also shown to be barriers for newcomers especially in the Open Source Software projects. The three barriers they found are: "Outdated documentation", "Too much documentation", and "Unclear code comments".
Technical Hurdles: technical barriers are also one of the major issue when newcomers start contributing. This category includes barriers: "Issues setting up a local workspace", "Code complexity" and "Software architecture complexity".
Because of the barriers described above, it is very necessary that online communities engage newcomers and help them to adjust to the new environment. From online communities' side, newcomers can be both beneficial and harmful to online communities. On the one side, newcomers can bring online communities innovative ideas and resources. On the other side, they can also harm communities with misbehavior caused by their unfamiliarity with community norms. Kraut et al. defined five basic issues faced by online communities when dealing with newcomers, and proposed several design claims for each problem in their book Building Successful Online Communities.
Recruitment. Online communities need to keep recruiting new members in the face of high turnover rate of their existing members. Three suggestions are made in the book:
Interpersonal recruitment: recruit new members by old members' personal relationship
Word of mouth recruitment: new members will join in the community because of the word-of-mouth influence from existing member
Impersonal advertisement: although the direct effect is weaker than previous two strategies, impersonal advertising can effectively increase number of people joining among potential members with little prior knowledge of the community.
Selection. Another challenge for online communities is to select the members who are a good fit. Unlike the offline organizations, the problem of selecting right candidates is more problematic for online communities since the anonymity of the users and the ease of creating new identities online. Two approaches are suggested in the book:
Self-selection: make sure that only good fit members will choose to join.
Screen: make sure that only good fit members will allow to join.
Keeping Newcomers Around. Before new members start feel the commitment and do major contribution, they must be around long enough in online communities to learn the norms and form the community attachment. However, the majority of them tend to leave the communities at this period of time. At this period of time, new members are usually very sensitive to either positive or negative evidence they received from group, which may largely impact the users' decision on whether they quit or stay. Authors suggested two approaches:
Entry Barriers: Higher entry barriers will be more likely to drive away new members, but those members who survived from this severe initiation process should have stronger commitment than those members with lower entry barriers.
Interactions with existing members: communicating with existing members and receiving friendly responses from them will encourage the new members' commitment. The existing members are encouraged to treat the newcomers gently. One study by Halfaker et al. suggested that reverting new members' work in Wikipedia will likely to make them leave the communities. Thus, new members are more likely to stay and develop commitment if the interaction between existing member and new members are friendly and gentle. The book suggested different ways, including "introduction threads" in the communities, "assign the responsibilities of having friendly interactions with newcomers to designated older-timers", and "discouraging hostility towards newcomers who make mistakes".
Socialization. Different online communities have their own norms and regulations, and new members need to learn to participate in an appropriate way. Thus, socialization is a process through which new members acquire the behaviors and attitude essential to playing their roles in a group or organization. Previous research in organizational socialization demonstrated that newcomers' active information seeking and organizational socialization tactics are associated with better performance, higher job satisfaction, more committed to the organization, more likely to stay and thus lower turnover rate. However, this institutionalized socialization tactics are not popular used in online setting, and most online communities are still using the individualized socialization tactics where newcomers being socialized individually and in a more informal way in their training process. Thus, in order to keep new members, the design suggestions given by this book are: "using formal, sequential and collective socialization tactics" and "old-timers can provide formal mentorship to newcomers."
Protection. Newcomers are different from the existing members, and thus the influx of newcomers might change the environment or the culture developed by existing members. New members might also behave inappropriately, and thus be potentially harmful to online communities, as a result of their lack of experience. Different communities might also have different level of damage tolerance, some might be more fragile to newcomers' inappropriate behavior (such as open source group collaboration software project) while others are not (such as some discussion forums). So the speed of integrating new members with existing communities really depends on community types and its goals, and groups need to have protection mechanisms that serve to multiple purposes.
Motivations and barriers to participation
Successful online communities motivate online participation. Methods of motivating participation in these communities have been investigated in several studies.
There are many persuasive factors that draw users into online communities. Peer-to-peer systems and social networking sites rely heavily on member contribution. Users' underlying motivations to involve themselves in these communities have been linked to some persuasion theories of sociology.
According to the reciprocation theory, a successful online community must provide its users with benefits that compensate for the costs of time, effort and materials members provide. People often join these communities expecting some sort of reward.
The consistency theory says that once people make a public commitment to a virtual society, they will often feel obligated to stay consistent with their commitment by continuing contributions.
The social validation theory explains how people are more likely to join and participate in an online community if it is socially acceptable and popular.
One of the greatest attractions towards online communities is the sense of connection users build among members. Participation and contribution are influenced when members of an online community are aware of their global audience.
The majority of people learn by example and often follow others, especially when it comes to participation. Individuals are reserved about contributing to an online community for many reasons including but not limited to a fear of criticism or inaccuracy. Users may withhold information that they don't believe is particularly interesting, relevant, or truthful. In order to challenge these contribution barriers, producers of these sites are responsible for developing knowledge-based and foundation-based trust among the community.
Users' perception of audience is another reason that makes users participate in online communities. Results showed that users usually underestimate their amount of audiences in online communities. Social media users guess that their audience is 27% of its real size. Regardless of this underestimation, it is shown that amount of audience affects users' self-presentation and also content production which means a higher level of participation.
There are two types of virtual online communities (VOC): dependent and self-sustained VOCs. The dependent VOCs are those who use the virtual community as extensions of themselves, they interact with people they know. Self-sustained VOCs are communities where relationships between participating members is formed and maintained through encounters in the online community. For all VOCs, there is the issue of creating identity and reputation in the community. People can create whatever identity they would like to through their interactions with other members. The username is what members identify each other by but it says very little about the person behind it. The main features in online communities that attract people are a shared communication environment, relationships formed and nurtured, a sense of belonging to a group, the internal structure of the group, common space shared by people with similar ideas and interests. The three most critical issues are belonging, identity, and interest. For an online community to flourish there needs to be consistent participation, interest, and motivation.
Research conducted by Helen Wang applied the Technology Acceptance Model to online community participation. Internet self-efficacy positively predicted perceived ease of use. Research found that participants' beliefs in their abilities to use the internet and web-based tools determined how much effort was expected. Community environment positively predicted perceived ease of use and usefulness. Intrinsic motivation positively predicted perceived ease of use, usefulness, and actual use. The technology acceptance model positively predicts how likely it is that an individual will participate in an online community.
Consumer-vendor interaction
Establishing a relationship between the consumer and a seller has become a new science with the emergence of online communities. It is a new market to be tapped by companies and to do so, requires an understanding of the relationships built on online communities. Online communities gather people around common interests and these common interests can include brands, products, and services. Companies not only have a chance to reach a new group of consumers in online communities, but to also tap into information about the consumers. Companies have a chance to learn about the consumers in an environment that they feel a certain amount of anonymity and are thus, more open to allowing a company to see what they really want or are looking for.
In order to establish a relationship with the consumer a company must seek a way to identify with how individuals interact with the community. This is done by understanding the relationships an individual has with an online community. There are six identifiable relationship statuses: considered status, committed status, inactive status, faded status, recognized status, and unrecognized status. Unrecognized status means the consumer is unaware of the online community or has not decided the community to be useful. The recognized status is where a person is aware of the community, but is not entirely involved. A considered status is when a person begins their involvement with the site. The usage at this stage is still very sporadic. The committed status is when a relationship between a person and an online community is established and the person gets fully involved with the community. The inactive status is when an online community has not relevance to a person. The faded status is when a person has begun to fade away from a site. It is important to be able to recognize which group or status the consumer holds, because it might help determine which approach to use.
Companies not only need to understand how a consumer functions within an online community, but also a company "should understand the communality of an online community" This means a company must understand the dynamic and structure of the online community to be able to establish a relationship with the consumer. Online communities have cultures of their own, and to be able to establish a commercial relationship or even engage at all, one must understand the community values and proprieties. It has even been proved beneficial to treat online commercial relationships more as friendships rather than business transactions.
Through online engagement, because of the smoke screen of anonymity, it allows a person to be able to socially interact with strangers in a much more personal way. This personal connection the consumer feels translates to how they want to establish relationships online. They separate what is commercial or spam and what is relational. Relational becomes what they associate with human interaction while commercial is what they associate with digital or non-human interaction. Thus the online community should not be viewed as "merely a sales channel". Instead it should be viewed as a network for establishing interpersonal communications with the consumer.
Growth cycle
Most online communities grow slowly at first, due in part to the fact that the strength of motivation for contributing is usually proportional to the size of the community. As the size of the potential audience increases, so does the attraction of writing and contributing. This, coupled with the fact that organizational culture does not change overnight, means creators can expect slow progress at first with a new virtual community. As more people begin to participate, however, the aforementioned motivations will increase, creating a virtuous cycle in which more participation begets more participation.
Community adoption can be forecast with the Bass diffusion model, originally conceived by Frank Bass to describe the process by which new products get adopted as an interaction between innovative early adopters and those who follow them.
Online learning community
Online learning is a form of online community. The sites are designed to educate. Colleges and universities may offer many of their classes online to their students; this allows each student to take the class at his or her own pace.
According to an article published in volume 21, issue 5 of the European Management Journal titled "Learning in Online Forums", researchers conducted a series of studies about online learning. They found that while good online learning is difficult to plan, it is quite conducive to educational learning. Online learning can bring together a diverse group of people, and although it is asynchronous learning, if the forum is set up using all the best tools and strategies, it can be very effective.
Another study was published in volume 55, issue 1 of Computers and Education and found results supporting the findings of the article mentioned above. The researchers found that motivation, enjoyment, and team contributions on learning outcomes enhanced students learning and that the students felt they learned well with it. A study published in the same journal looks at how social networking can foster individual well-being and develop skills which can improve the learning experience.
These articles look at a variety of different types of online learning. They suggest that online learning can be quite productive and educational if created and maintained properly.
One feature of online communities is that they are not constrained by time thereby giving members the ability to move through periods of high to low activity over a period of time. This dynamic nature maintains a freshness and variety that traditional methods of learning might not have been able to provide.
It appears that online communities such as Wikipedia have become a source of professional learning. They are an active learning environment in which learners converse and inquire.
In a study exclusive to teachers in online communities, results showed that membership in online communities provided teachers with a rich source of professional learning that satisfied each member of the community.
Saurabh Tyagi describes benefits of online community learning which include:
No physical boundaries: Online communities do not limit their membership nor exclude based on where one lives.
Supports in-class learning: Due to time constraints, discussion boards are more efficient for question & answer sessions than allowing time after lectures to ask questions.
Build a social and collaborative learning experience: People are best able to learn when they engage, communicate, and collaborate with each other. Online communities create an environment where users can collaborate through social interaction and shared experiences.
Self-governance: Anyone who can access the internet is self-empowered. The immediate access to information allows users to educate themselves.
These terms are taken from Edudemic, a site about teaching and learning. The article "How to Build Effective Online Learning Communities" provides background information about online communities as well as how to incorporate learning within an online community.
Video "Gaming" and Online Interactions
One of the greatest attractions towards online communities and the role assigned to an online community, is the sense of connection in which users are able to build among other members and associates. Thus, it is typical to reference online communities when regarding the 'gaming' universe. The online video game industry has embraced the concepts of cooperative and diverse gaming in order to provide players with a sense of community or togetherness. Video games have long been seen as a solo endeavor – as a way to escape reality and leave social interaction at the door. Yet, online community networks or talk pages have now allowed forms of connection with other users. These connections offer forms of aid in the games themselves, as well as an overall collaboration and interaction in the network space. For example, a study conducted by Pontus Strimling and Seth Frey found that players would generate their own models of fair "loot" distribution through community interaction if they felt that the model provided by the game itself was insufficient.
The popularity of competitive the online multiplayer games has now even promoted informal social interaction through the use of the recognized communities.
Problems With Online Gaming Communities
As with other online communities, problems do arise when approaching the usages of online communities in the gaming culture, as well as those who are utilizing the spaces for their own agendas. "Gaming Culture" offers individuals personal experiences, development of creativity, as well an assemblance of togetherness that potentially resembles formalized social communication techniques. On the other hand, these communities could also include toxicity, online disinhibition, and cyberbullying.
Toxicity: Toxicity in games usually takes the form of abusive or negative language or behavior.
Online Disinhibition: The utilization in gaming communities to say things that normally wouldn't have been said in an in-person scenario. Offers the individual the access to less restraint ion culturally appropriated interactions, and is typically through the form of aggressiveness. This action is also typically offered through the form of anonymity.
Dissociative Anonymity
Invisibility
Power of Status and Authority
Cyberbullying: Cyberbullying stems from various levels of degree, but inevitably is cast as abuse and harassment in nature.
Online health community
Online health communities is one example of online communities which is heavily used by internet users. A key benefit of online health communities is providing user access to other users with similar problems or experiences which has a significant impact on the lives of their members. Through people participation, online health communities will be able to offer patients opportunities for emotional support and also will provide them access to experience-based information about particular problem or possible treatment strategies. Even in some studies, it is shown that users find experienced-based information more relevant than information which was prescribed by professionals. Moreover, allowing patients to collaborate anonymously in some of online health communities suggests users a non-judgmental environment to share their problems, knowledge, and experiences. However, recent research has indicated that socioeconomic differences between patients may result in feelings of alienation or exclusion within these communities, even despite attempts to make the environments inclusive.
Problems
Online communities are relatively new and unexplored areas. They promote a whole new community that prior to the Internet was not available. Although they can promote a vast array of positive qualities, such as relationships without regard to race, religion, gender, or geography, they can also lead to multiple problems.
The theory of risk perception, an uncertainty in participating in an online community, is quite common, particularly when in the following online circumstances:
performances,
financial,
opportunity/time,
safety,
social,
psychological loss.
Clay Shirky explains one of these problems like two hoola-hoops. With the emersion of online communities there is a "real life" hoola-hoop and the other and "online life". These two hoops used to be completely separate but now they have swung together and overlap. The problem with this overlap is that there is no distinction anymore between face-to-face interactions and virtual ones; they are one and the same. Shirky illustrates this by explaining a meeting. A group of people will sit in a meeting but they will all be connected into a virtual world also, using online communities such as wiki.
A further problem is identity formation with the ambiguous real-virtual life mix. Identity formation in the real world consisted of "one body, one identity", but the online communities allow you to create "as many electronic personae" as you please. This can lead to identity deception. Claiming to be someone you're not can be problematic with other online community users and for yourself. Creating a false identity can cause confusion and ambivalence about which identity is true.
A lack of trust regarding personal or professional information is problematic with questions of identity or information reciprocity. Often, if information is given to another user of an online community, one expects equal information shared back. However, this may not be the case or the other user may use the information given in harmful ways. The construction of an individual's identity within an online community requires self-presentation. Self-presentation is the act of "writing the self into being", in which a person's identity is formed by what that person says, does, or shows. This also poses a potential problem as such self-representation is open for interpretation as well as misinterpretation. While an individual's online identity can be entirely constructed with a few of his/her own sentences, perceptions of this identity can be entirely misguided and incorrect.
Online communities present the problems of preoccupation, distraction, detachment, and desensitization to an individual, although online support groups exist now. Online communities do present potential risks, and users must remember to be careful and remember that just because an online community feels safe does not mean it necessarily is.
Trolling and harassment
Cyber bullying, the "use of long-term aggressive, intentional, repetitive acts by one or more individuals, using electronic means, against an almost powerless victim" which has increased in frequency alongside the continued growth of web communities with an Open University study finding 38% of young people had experienced or witnessed cyber bullying. It has received significant media attention due to high-profile incidents such as the death of Amanda Todd who before her death detailed her ordeal on YouTube.
A key feature of such bullying is that it allows victims to be harassed at all times, something not possible typically with physical bullying. This has forced Governments and other organisations to change their typical approach to bullying with the UK Department for Education now issuing advice to schools on how to deal with cyber bullying cases.
The most common problem with online communities tend to be online harassment, meaning threatening or offensive content aimed at known friends or strangers through ways of online technology. Where such posting is done "for the lulz" (that is, for the fun of it), then it is known as trolling. Sometimes trolling is done in order to harm others for the gratification of the person posting. The primary motivation for such posters, known in character theory as "snerts", is the sense of power and exposure it gives them.
Online harassment tends to affect adolescents the most due to their risk-taking behavior and decision-making processes. One notable example is that of Natasha MacBryde who was tormented by Sean Duffy, who was later prosecuted. In 2010, Alexis Pilkington, a 17-year-old New Yorker committed suicide. Trolls pounced on her tribute page posting insensitive and hurtful images of nooses and other suicidal symbolism. Four years prior to that an 18-year-old died in a car crash in California. Trolls took images of her disfigured body they found on the internet and used them to torture the girl's grieving parents.
Psychological research has shown that anonymity increases unethical behavior through what is called the online disinhibition effect. Many website and online communities have attempted to combat trolling. There has not been a single effective method to discourage anonymity, and arguments exist claiming that removing Internet users' anonymity is an intrusion of their privacy and violates their right to free speech. Julie Zhou, writing for the New York Times, comments that "There's no way to truly rid the Internet of anonymity. After all, names and email addresses can be faked. And in any case many commenters write things that are rude or inflammatory under their real names". Thus, some trolls don't even bother to hide their actions and take pride in their behavior. The rate of reported online harassment has been increasing as there has been a 50% increase in accounts of youth online harassment from the years 2000–2005.
Another form of harassment prevalent online is called flaming. According to a study conducted by Peter J. Moor, flaming is defined as displaying hostility by insulting, swearing or using otherwise offensive language. Flaming can be done in either a group style format (the comments section on YouTube) or in a one-on-one format (private messaging on Facebook). Several studies have shown that flaming is more apparent in computer mediated conversation than in face to face interaction. For example, a study conducted by Kiesler et al. found that people who met online judged each other more harshly than those who met face to face. The study goes on to say that the people who communicated by computer "felt and acted as though the setting was more impersonal, and their behavior was more uninhibited. These findings suggest that computer-mediated communication ... elicits asocial or unregulated behavior".
Unregulated communities are established when online users communicate on a site although there are no mutual terms of usage. There is no regulator. Online interest groups or anonymous blogs are examples of unregulated communities.
Cyberbullying is also prominent online. Cyberbullying is defined as willful and repeated harm inflicted towards another through information technology mediums. Cyberbullying victimization has ascended to the forefront of the public agenda after a number of news stories came out on the topic. For example, Rutgers freshman Tyler Clementi committed suicide in 2010 after his roommate secretly filmed him in an intimate encounter and then streamed the video over the Internet. Numerous states, such as New Jersey, have created and passed laws that do not allow any sort of harassment on, near, or off school grounds that disrupts or interferes with the operation of the school or the rights of other students. In general, sexual and gender-based harassment online has been deemed a significant problem.
Trolling and cyber bullying in online communities are very difficult to stop for several reasons:
Community members don't wish to violate libertarian ideologies that state everyone has the right to speak.
The distributed nature of online communities make it difficult for members to come to an agreement.
Deciding who should moderate and how create difficulty of community management.
An online community is a group of people with common interests who use the Internet (web sites, email, instant messaging, etc.) to communicate, work together and pursue their interests over time.
Hazing
A lesser known problem is hazing within online communities. Members of an elite online community use hazing to display their power, produce inequality, and instill loyalty into newcomers. While online hazing doesn't inflict physical duress, "the status values of domination and subordination are just as effectively transmitted". Elite members of the in-group may haze by employing derogatory terms to refer to newcomers, using deception or playing mind games, or participating in intimidation, among other activities.
"[T]hrough hazing, established members tell newcomers that they must be able to tolerate a certain level of aggressiveness, grossness, and obnoxiousness in order to fit in and be accepted by the BlueSky community".
Privacy
Online communities like social networking websites have a very unclear distinction between private and public information. For most social networks, users have to give personal information to add to their profiles. Usually, users can control what type of information other people in the online community can access based on the users familiarity with the people or the users level of comfort. These limitations are known as "privacy settings". Privacy settings bring up the question of how privacy settings and terms of service affect the expectation of privacy in social media. After all, the purpose of an online community is to share a common space with one another. Furthermore, it is hard to take legal action when a user feels that his or her privacy has been invaded because he or she technically knew what the online community entailed. Creator of the social networking site Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg, noticed a change in users' behavior from when he first initiated Facebook. It seemed that "society's willingness to share has created an environment where privacy concerns are less important to users of social networks today than they were when social networking began". However even though a user might keep his or her personal information private, his or her activity is open to the whole web to access. When a user posts information to a site or comments or responds to information posted by others, social networking sites create a tracking record of the user's activity. Platforms such as Google and Facebook collect massive amounts of this user data through their surveillance infrastructures.
Internet privacy relates to the transmission and storage of a persons data and their right to anonymity whilst online with the UN in 2013 adopting online privacy as a human right by a unanimous vote. Many websites allow users to sign up with a username which needn't be their actual name which allows a level of anonymity, in some cases such as the infamous imageboard 4chan users of the site do not need an account to engage with discussions. However, in these cases depending on the detail of information about a person posted it can still be possible to work out a users identity.
Even when a person takes measures to protect their anonymity and privacy revelations by Edward Snowden a former contractor at the Central Intelligence Agency about mass surveillance programs conducted by the US intelligence services involving the mass collection of data on both domestic and international users of popular websites including Facebook and YouTube as well as the collection of information straight from fiber cables without consent appear to show individuals privacy is not always respected. Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg publicly stated that the company had not been informed of any such programs and only handed over individual users data when required by law implying that if the allegations are true that the data harvested had been done so without the company's consent.
The growing popularity of social networks where a user using their real name is the norm also brings a new challenge with one survey of 2,303 managers finding 37% investigated candidates social media activity during the hiring process with a study showing 1 in 10 job application rejections for those aged 16 to 34 could be due to social media checks.
Reliability of information
Web communities can be an easy and useful tool to access information. However, the information contained as well as the users' credentials cannot always be trusted, with the internet giving a relatively anonymous medium for some to fraudulently claim anything from their qualifications or where they live to, in rare cases, pretending to be a specific person. Malicious fake accounts created with the aim of defrauding victims out of money has become more high-profile with four men sentenced to between 8 years and 46 weeks for defrauding 12 women out of £250,000 using fake accounts on a dating website. In relation to accuracy one survey based on Wikipedia that evaluated 50 articles found that 24% contained inaccuracies, while in most cases the consequence might just be the spread of misinformation in areas such as health the consequences can be far more damaging leading to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration providing help on evaluating health information on the web.
Imbalance
The 1% rule states that within an online community as a rule of thumb only 1% of users actively contribute to creating content. Other variations also exist such as the 1-9-90 rule when taking editing into account. This raises problems for online communities with most users only interested in the information such a community might contain rather than having an interest in actively contributing which can lead to staleness in information and community decline. This has led such communities which rely on user editing of content to promote users into becoming active contributors as well as retention of such existing members through projects such as the Wikimedia Account Creation Improvement Project.
Legal issues
In the US, two of the most important laws dealing with legal issues of online communities, especially social networking sites are Section 512c of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act.
Section 512c removes liability for copyright infringement from sites that let users post content, so long as there is a way by which the copyright owner can request the removal of infringing content. The website may not receive any financial benefit from the infringing activities.
Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act gives protection from any liability as a result from the publication provided by another party. Common issues include defamation, but many courts have expanded it to include other claims as well.
Online communities of various kinds (social networking sites, blogs, media sharing sites, etc.) are posing new challenges for all levels of law enforcement in combating many kinds of crimes including harassment, identity theft, copyright infringement, etc.
Copyright law is being challenged and debated with the shift in how individuals now disseminate their intellectual property. Individuals come together via online communities in collaborative efforts to create. Many describe current copyright law as being ill-equipped to manage the interests of individuals or groups involved in these collaborative efforts. Some say that these laws may even discourage this kind of production.
Laws governing online behavior pose another challenge to lawmakers in that they must work to enact laws that protect the public without infringing upon their rights to free speech. Perhaps the most talked about issue of this sort is that of cyberbullying. Some scholars call for collaborative efforts between parents, schools, lawmakers, and law enforcement to curtail cyberbullying.
Laws must continually adapt to the ever-changing landscape of social media in all its forms; some legal scholars contend that lawmakers need to take an interdisciplinary approach to creating effective policy whether it is regulatory, for public safety, or otherwise. Experts in the social sciences can shed light on new trends that emerge in the usage of social media by different segments of society (including youths). Armed with this data, lawmakers can write and pass legislation that protect and empower various online community members.
See also
Clan (computer gaming)
Commons-based peer production
Digital altruism
Immersion (virtual reality)
Internet activism
Internet influences on communities
Internet trolling
Learner generated context
Mass collaboration
Network of practice
Online community manager
Online deliberation
Online ethnography
Online research community
Professional network service
Social media
Social web
Support groups
Tribe (internet)
Video game culture
References
Shuie, Yih-Chearng. "Exploring and Mitigating Social Loafing in Online Communities". Computers and Behavior. v.26.4, July 2010. pp. 768–777
Matzat, Uwe. "Reducing Problems of Sociability in Online Communities: Integrating Online Communication with Offline Interaction". American Behavioral Scientist. 2010. pp. 1170–1193
Lwin, May O. "Stop Bugging Me: An Examination of Adolescents' Protection Behavior Against Online Harassment" Journal of Adolescence. 2011. pp. 1–11
Strutin, Ken. "Social Media and the Vanishing Points of Ethical and Constitutional Boundaries." Pace Law Review 31.1 (2011): 228–90. Wilson Web. Web. 20 October 2011
Lothian, A. "Archival anarchies: Online fandom, subcultural conservation, and the transformative work of digital ephemera", 541-556
Notes
Further reading
Barzilai, G. (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Ebner, W.; Leimeister, J. M.; Krcmar, H. (2009): Community Engineering for Innovations -The Ideas Competition as a method to nurture a Virtual Community for Innovations. In: R&D Management, 39 (4), pp. 342–356
Else, Liz & Turkle, Sherry. "Living online: I'll have to ask my friends", New Scientist, issue 2569, 20 September 2006. (interview)
Hafner, K. 2001. The WELL: A Story of Love, Death and Real Life in the Seminal Online Community Carroll & Graf Publishers ()
Gurak, Laura J. 1997. Persuasion and Privacy in Cyberspace: the Online Protests over Lotus Marketplace and the Clipper Chip. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Hagel, J. & Armstrong, A. (1997). Net Gain: Expanding Markets through Virtual Communities. Boston: Harvard Business School Press ()
Kim, A.J. (2000). Community Building on the Web: Secret Strategies for Successful Online Communities. London: Addison Wesley ()
Kim, A.J. (2004). "Emergent Purpose." Musings of a Social Architect. 24 January 2004. Retrieved 4 April 2006 .
Leimeister, J. M.; Sidiras, P.; Krcmar, H. (2006): Exploring Success Factors of Virtual Communities: The Perspectives of Members and Operators. In: Journal of Organizational Computing & Electronic Commerce (JoCEC), 16 (3&4), 277–298
Leimeister, J.M.; Krcmar, H. (2005): Evaluation of a Systematic Design for a Virtual Patient Community. In: Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10 (4) .
Preece, J. (2000). Online Communities: Supporting Sociability, Designing Usability. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. ()
Davis Powell, Connie. "Iou Already Have Zero Privacy. Getoverit!"1WouldWarrenand Brandeis Argue for Privacy for Social Networking?" Pace Law Review 31.1 (2011): 146–81.
Salkin, Patricia E. "Social Networking and Land Use Planning and Regulation: Practical Benefits, Pitfalls, and Ethical Considerations." Pace Law Review 31.1 (2011): 54–94.
External links
Virtual reality
Community building
Social information processing
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The Golden Reel Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Sound Effects, Foley, Music, Dialogue and ADR for Short Form Animation Broadcast Media is an annual award given by the Motion Picture Sound Editors. It honors sound editors whose work has warranted merit in the field of television; in this case, their work in the field of sound effects and foley work in short form animated broadcast media.
Three categories once were presented to reward sound editing in short form animated broadcast media, in 1997, Best Sound Editing - Television Animated Specials was presented, the same year, Best Sound Editing - Television Animation - Music and Best Sound Editing - Television Animation - Sound became stables categories with the former being presented until 2003 and the latter becoming the current category, being renamed in 2007.
Winners and nominees
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
References
Golden Reel Awards (Motion Picture Sound Editors)
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Cash is a card game published in 1990 by Ravensburger.
Contents
Cash is a game in which seven different cards representing safes each require a particular combination of four keys to open the safe.
Reception
Brian Walker reviewed Cash for Games International magazine, and gave it a rating of 7 out of 10, and stated that "Cash? That will do nicely, thank you."
References
Card games introduced in 1990
Ravensburger games
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In United States railroading, the term national rail network, sometimes termed "U.S. rail network", refers to the entire network of interconnected standard gauge rail lines in North America. It does not include most subway or light rail lines. Federal Railroad Administration regulations require passenger cars used on the national rail network to be heavy and strong enough to protect riders in case of collision with freight trains.
References
Rail transportation in the United States
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A wedding is a formal ceremony which unites people in marriage.
Wedding may also refer to:
Film and TV
Wedding (TV series), a Korean drama broadcast by KBS in 2005
"Wedding", an episode of the British sitcom Men Behaving Badly
A Wedding (1978 film), an American comedy directed by Robert Altman
A Wedding (2016 film), a drama directed by Stephan Streker also known as Noces
"A Wedding" (Glee), an episode of the U.S. television series Glee
Other
Wedding (Berlin), a locality
Wedding (album), by Shinhwa
"Wedding" (song), by Hep Stars
"Wedding", a song by Angels of Light from Everything Is Good Here/Please Come Home
A Wedding (opera), a 2004 comic opera based on Robert Altman's 1978 film A Wedding
See also
or
The Wedding (disambiguation)
Destination Wedding, a 2018 film starring Winona Ryder and Keanu Reeves
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Fares is the plural of fare, a fee paid by a passenger allowing them to take a mode of transportation. It may also refer to:
Places
Fares (village), a village in Greece
Aïn Fares (disambiguation), several places in Algeria
Fares-Maathodaa, an island in the Maldives
People
Fares (name)
See also
Faires (disambiguation)
Fairs (disambiguation)
Fare (disambiguation)
Faris (disambiguation)
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The following is the list of complete accolades received by American stand-up comedian, actor, writer, producer, and film director Chris Rock.
Main awards
Golden Globe Awards
Grammy Awards
Primetime Emmy Awards
Miscellaneous awards
American Comedy Awards
AFI Awards
BET Awards
Black Reel Awards
Blockbuster Entertainment Awards
British Comedy Awards
CableACE Awards
Critics' Choice Movie Awards
Critics' Choice Television Awards
Directors Guild of America Awards
Drama League Awards
Environmental Media Awards
Golden Raspberry Awards
Gotham Awards
Hollywood Critics Association TV Awards
Hollywood Film Awards
Hollywood Walk of Fame
MTV Movie Awards
NAACP Image Awards
National Board of Review Awards
Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Palm Springs International Film Festival
People's Choice Awards
Satellite Awards
St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Awards
TCA Awards
Teen Choice Awards
Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Awards
Writers Guild of America Awards
Young Artist Awards
References
External links
Rock, Chris
Awards
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Freybug is a monstrous Black Dog that is stated to come from medieval English folklore, specifically from Norfolk. Like most supernatural black dogs, it was roughly the size of a calf, and wandered country roads terrifying travelers.
The English martyr Laurence Saunders mentioned Fray-bugs in his letters to his wife in 1555. The word Fray-bug is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “an object of fear; a bogy, spectre.” The similar word “fray-boggart” was a word for a scarecrow. Popular Antiquities of Great Britain, by John Brand, referenced Saunders' letters and suggested that the Fray-bug was a Black Dog similar to the Barghest. Carol Rose seems to have drawn on Brand’s work for her description of the Freybug.
Resources
References
Mythological dogs
English legendary creatures
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The following is a list of all team-to-team transactions that have occurred in the National Hockey League (NHL) during the 1958–59 NHL season. It lists which team each player has been traded to and for which player(s) or other consideration(s), if applicable.
Transactions
Notes
Trade completed on February 20, 1959.
References
Transactions
National Hockey League transactions
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LinuxConsole est une distribution Linux qui peut être utilisée en mode live CD et live USB.
Elle peut aussi être installée sur un disque dur
en utilisant un programme à lancer depuis Windows (utile pour les novices)
en utilisant l'outil présent sur le live CD et live USB
La version 2.4 () permet d'installer facilement des logiciels tiers tels que Skype ou Chrome
Notes et références
Liens externes
Site officiel
Distribution Linux
Live CD
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The Preacher and the Cross is a 1990 role-playing game adventure for Call of Cthulhu published by ADP Systems.
Plot summary
The Preacher and the Cross is an adventure in which a wealthy woman has been experiencing recurring dreams foretelling the murder of a priest.
Reception
Mike Jarvis reviewed The Preacher and the Cross for Games International magazine, and gave it a rating of 5 out of 10, and stated that "this is a reasonable adventure for more cerebral players, but by no means an essential purchase."
References
Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game) adventures
Role-playing game supplements introduced in 1990
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Padre nuestro is a 1985 Spanish drama film directed by Francisco Regueiro. It was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival.
Cast
Victoria Abril - Cardenala
Rafaela Aparicio
Luis Barbero
Lina Canalejas
Yolanda Cardama
Diana Peñalver
Emma Penella - María
Francisco Rabal - Abel
Fernando Rey - Cardinal
Amelia de la Torre
Francisco Vidal
José Vivó
References
External links
1985 films
1980s Spanish-language films
1985 drama films
Films directed by Francisco Regueiro
Spanish drama films
1980s Spanish films
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VPNBook is a VPN service offering servers in multiple countries.
Description
The service connects to a VPN via OpenVPN client or a PPTP connection. There are minimal variety of geographic locations. Available servers include the United States, Canada and Romania. VPNBook can be used to bypass some governmental restrictions. The service can be connected to by two ways, by connection via a third-party OpenVPN client or through PPTP. The Mac OS X, iOS, Android, Ubuntu, and Windows operating systems all have PPTP support built in.
The software (OpenVPN clients) can be used also, that provides the protocol stack, file system, and process scheduling. OpenVPN uses SSL protocol which is generally more secure than Layer 2 Tunnel Protocol's PPTP.
Reception
In a review done by PC Magazine, it was concluded that the service is a good choice among free VPN services, even though it has certain functionality flaws. TechRadar reviewed VPNBook negatively, criticizing its poor performance and lack of desktop and mobile apps.
See also
Comparison of virtual private network services
References
External links
Free security software
Computer network security
Virtual private network services
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A lye is an alkali metal hydroxide traditionally obtained by leaching wood ashes, or a strong alkali which is highly soluble in water producing caustic basic solutions. "Lye" most commonly refers to sodium hydroxide (NaOH), but historically has been used for potassium hydroxide (KOH).
Today, lye is commercially manufactured using a membrane cell chloralkali process. It is supplied in various forms such as flakes, pellets, microbeads, coarse powder or a solution. Lye has traditionally been used as a major ingredient in soapmaking.
Etymology
The English word has cognates in all Germanic languages, and originally designated a bath or hot spring.
Uses
Food
Lyes are used to cure many types of food, including the traditional Nordic lutefisk, olives (making them less bitter), canned mandarin oranges, hominy, lye rolls, century eggs, pretzels, and bagels. They are also used as a tenderizer in the crust of baked Cantonese moon cakes, in "zongzi" (glutinous rice dumplings wrapped in bamboo leaves), in chewy southern Chinese noodles popular in Hong Kong and southern China, and in Japanese ramen noodles. They are also used in kutsinta, a type of rice cake from the Philippines together with pitsi-pitsî. In Assam, north east India, extensive use is made of a type of lye called khar in Assamese and karwi in Boro which is obtained by filtering the ashes of various banana stems, roots and skin in their cooking and also for curing, as medicine and as a substitute for soap. Lye made out of wood ashes is also used in the nixtamalization process of hominy corn by the tribes of the Eastern Woodlands in North America.
In the United States, food-grade lye must meet the requirements outlined in the Food Chemicals Codex (FCC), as prescribed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Lower grades of lye that are unsuitable for use in food preparation are commonly used as drain de-cloggers and oven cleaners.
Soap
Lye in the form of both sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide is used in making soap. Potassium hydroxide soaps are softer and more easily dissolved in water than sodium hydroxide soaps. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are not interchangeable in either the proportions required or the properties produced in making soaps.
"Hot process" soap making also uses lye as the main ingredient. Lye is added to water, cooled for a few minutes and then added to oils and butters. The mixture is then cooked over a period of time (1–2 hours), typically in a slow cooker, and then placed into a mold.
Household
Lyes are also valued for their cleaning effects. Sodium hydroxide is commonly the major constituent in commercial and industrial oven cleaners and clogged drain openers, due to its grease-dissolving abilities. Lyes decompose greases via alkaline ester hydrolysis, yielding water-soluble residues that are easily removed by rinsing.
Tissue digestion
Sodium or potassium hydroxide can be used to digest tissues of animal carcasses. Often referred to as alkaline hydrolysis, the process involves placing the animal carcass into a sealed chamber, adding a mixture of lye and water and the application of heat to accelerate the process. After several hours the chamber will contain a liquid with coffee-like appearance, and the only solids that remain are very fragile bone hulls of mostly calcium phosphate, which can be mechanically crushed to a fine powder with very little force. Sodium hydroxide is frequently used in the process of decomposing roadkill dumped in landfills by animal disposal contractors. Due to its low cost and easy availability, it has also been used to dispose of corpses by criminals. Italian serial killer Leonarda Cianciulli used this chemical to turn dead bodies into soap. In Mexico, a man who worked for drug cartels admitted to having disposed of more than 300 bodies with it.
Fungus identification
A 3–10% solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) gives a color change in some species of mushrooms:
In Agaricus, some species such as A. xanthodermus turn yellow with KOH, many have no reaction, and A. subrutilescens turns green.
Distinctive change occurs for some species of Cortinarius and boletes
Safety
First aid
Sources recommend immediate removal of contaminated clothing/materials, gently brushing/wiping excess off of skin, and then flushing the area of exposure with running water for 15–60 minutes while contacting emergency services.
Protection
Personal protective equipment including safety glasses, chemical-resistant gloves, and adequate ventilation are required for the safe handling of lyes. When in proximity to a lye that is dissolving in an open container of water, the use of a vapor-resistant face mask is recommended. Adding lye to water too quickly can cause the solution to boil.
Storage
Solid lyes are deliquescents and have a strong affinity for air moisture. Solid lyes will deliquesce or dissolve when exposed to open air, absorbing a relatively large amount of water vapour. Accordingly, lyes are stored in air-tight plastic containers. Glass is not a good material to be used for storage as lyes are mildly corrosive to it. Similar to the case of other corrosives, the containers should be labeled to indicate the potential danger of the contents and stored away from children, pets, heat, and moisture.
Hazardous reactions
The majority of safety concerns with lye are also common with most corrosives, such as their potentially destructive effects on living tissues; examples are the skin, flesh, and the cornea. Solutions containing lyes can cause chemical burns, permanent injuries, scarring and blindness, immediately upon contact. Lyes may be harmful or even fatal if swallowed; ingestion can cause esophageal stricture. Moreover, the solvation of dry solid lyes is highly exothermic; the resulting heat may cause additional burns or ignite flammables.
The reaction between sodium hydroxide and a few metals is also hazardous. Aluminium reacts with lyes to produce hydrogen gas. Since hydrogen is flammable, mixing a large quantity of a lye such as sodium hydroxide with aluminium in a closed container is dangerous—especially when the system is at a high temperature, which speeds up the reaction. In addition to aluminium, lyes may also react with magnesium, zinc, tin, chromium, brass or bronze—producing hydrogen gas. Both the potassium and sodium forms are able to dissolve copper.
See also
Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
References
Further reading
External links
Hydroxides
Household chemicals
Deliquescent substances
Desiccants
Soaps
Sodium compounds
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Padre nuestro (Spanish for "Our Father") can refer to:
Padre nuestro (2007 film), a 2007 American–Argentine film
Padre nuestro (1925 film), a 1925 Argentine film
Our Father (1953 film), a 1953 Mexican film
Padre nuestro (1985 film), a 1985 Spanish film
Padre nuestro (2005 film), a 2005 Chilean film
"Padre Nuestro," a song by E Nomine
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Anklets (pronounced ) are a type of sock. They are not long, typically reaching just below or above the ankle. Anklets are sometimes folded or cuffed over.
See also
Toe socks
Dress socks
Sock
Anklet
References
Socks
Clothing
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There have been few documented and undocumented wolf attacks on humans in North America in comparison to wolf attacks in Eurasia, and few relative to attacks by other larger carnivores.
Fatal attacks
Below is an amalgamated list of verified, questionable and unverified attacks.
Non-fatal attacks
Because of the relative rarity of documented wolf attacks on humans in North America, some non-fatal attacks have been of interest to experts.
See also
List of wolf attacks
Species:
Coyote attacks on humans
Fatal dog attacks in the United States
List of fatal bear attacks in North America
List of fatal cougar attacks in North America
References
Bibliography
Canid attacks
North America-related lists
Death-related lists
Deaths due to animal attacks in the United States
wolf attacks in North America
Animal attacks by geographic location
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Coxford is an Electoral Ward in the Unitary Authority of Southampton, England. It had a population of 14,232 at the 2001 census.
References
Wards of Southampton
Housing estates in Hampshire
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The bronzewing pigeons are a group of pigeons native to Australia which have distinctive iridescent wing patches that appear bronze or green-brown in dull light, but flash in many bright colours in the sun as the bird moves.
Three species are always known as "bronzewings" in the genus Phaps, and several broadly similar birds also have the trademark wing patch to a more or less obvious degree. Bronzewings are ground feeders, but are capable of very fast flight. They tend to browse quietly until disturbed, then remain still, their earthy browns blending into the earth and leaf litter until the intruder approaches too closely, when the bronzewings take off with an explosive burst of sudden wing clapping and feather noise, and disappear from sight within moments.
The dividing line between the bronzewings and the rock pigeons is arbitrary; essentially, rock pigeons are bronzewings without bronze on their wings. Members of the group include:
The common bronzewing (Phaps chalcoptera) is a large, bulky pigeon with a small head, found in all parts of Australia bar some of the deep desert, Cape York Peninsula, and urban areas. Its advertising call is an extraordinary mournful repeated at metronomic intervals for an interminable length of time. Although rather wary by nature, birds in the urban fringes become quite used to humans.
The brush bronzewing (P. elegans) is uncommon, probably threatened. It is marginally smaller than the common bronzewing and rather secretive, except for its call, which is slightly faster and higher-pitched, but maintained through the hottest days with equally monotonous determination. Brush bronzewings nest low down, often on the ground, so are vulnerable to feral cats and foxes.
Flock bronzewings (P. histrionica) roams the grasslands of the northern half of the continent. Once found in enormous flocks, they are still to be seen in their thousands. Pizzey's description of their habits is memorable: "When locally abundant, at end of day, undulating, shearwater-like flocks fly to water, settle short distance away, and walk in. Thirsty latecomers may drop directly into water and drink while spreadeagled, before springing off."
Crested pigeons (Ocyphaps lophotes) are distinctive, common, and widespread. Usually seen in small flocks in open woodlands or grasslands, they are always close to water. With the clearing of much forest and the provision of water in arid regions for cattle, crested pigeons have increased in number.
The spinifex pigeon (Geophaps plumifera) is an unmistakable ground-dwelling small pigeon, reddish-bronze in colour and prominently crested, with a unique upright, military stance. When disturbed, it prefers to run erratically, breaking into rapid, noisy flight only if pressed. A desert specialist, it is found in the arid and semiarid zones of the northern half of the continent.
The partridge pigeon (G. smithii) is a dull brown bird about 26 cm long found only in pairs or small flocks in the grasslands of northern Northern Territory and northern Western Australia.
The squatter pigeon (G. scripta), like the very similar partridge pigeon, feeds, roosts, and nests on the ground, and prefers infertile sandy soils and gravel where the grass grows only thinly, allowing easy movement. Squatter pigeons are restricted to the eastern half of Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.
References
Graham Pizzey & Frank Knight; Field guide to the birds of Australia. Angus & Roberson, 1977,
Columbinae
Bird common names
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Riders of the Storm is a 1929 American silent Western film directed by J.P. McGowan and starring Yakima Canutt, Bobby Dunn and Ione Reed.
Cast
Yakima Canutt
Bobby Dunn
Ione Reed
Dorothy Vernon
Slim Whitaker
References
Bibliography
McGowan, John J. J.P. McGowan: Biography of a Hollywood Pioneer. McFarland, 2005.
External links
1929 films
1929 Western (genre) films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by J. P. McGowan
Silent American Western (genre) films
1920s English-language films
1920s American films
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Battle Hill may mean:
Places
Battle Hill (Brooklyn), New York City
Battle Hill Farm Forest Park, New Zealand
Battle Hill, Georgia, now the Westview neighborhood of Atlanta
Battle Hill, White Plains, New York
Battle Hill Township, McPherson County, Kansas
Gitwangak Battle Hill National Historic Site in Canada
Battle Hill, an area of North Tyneside in England
Events
Battle of Battle Hill, New Zealand
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The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System (as well as other planetary systems). It suggests the Solar System is formed from gas and dust orbiting the Sun which clumped up together to form the planets. The theory was developed by Immanuel Kant and published in his Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755) and then modified in 1796 by Pierre Laplace. Originally applied to the Solar System, the process of planetary system formation is now thought to be at work throughout the universe. The widely accepted modern variant of the nebular theory is the solar nebular disk model (SNDM) or solar nebular model. It offered explanations for a variety of properties of the Solar System, including the nearly circular and coplanar orbits of the planets, and their motion in the same direction as the Sun's rotation. Some elements of the original nebular theory are echoed in modern theories of planetary formation, but most elements have been superseded.
According to the nebular theory, stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds (GMC). These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex process, which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk (proplyd) around the young star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10–100 million years.
The protoplanetary disk is an accretion disk that feeds the central star. Initially very hot, the disk later cools in what is known as the T Tauri star stage; here, formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ice is possible. The grains eventually may coagulate into kilometer-sized planetesimals. If the disk is massive enough, the runaway accretions begin, resulting in the rapid—100,000 to 300,000 years—formation of Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos. Near the star, the planetary embryos go through a stage of violent mergers, producing a few terrestrial planets. The last stage takes approximately 100 million to a billion years.
The formation of giant planets is a more complicated process. It is thought to occur beyond the frost line, where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice. As a result, they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk. What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear. Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5–10 Earth masses—the threshold value, which is necessary to begin accretion of the hydrogen–helium gas from the disk. The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process, which continues for several million years, but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses () it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner. Jupiter- and Saturn-like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10,000 years. The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted. The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation. Ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune are thought to be failed cores, which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared.
History
There is evidence that Emanuel Swedenborg first proposed parts of the nebular theory in 1734. Immanuel Kant, familiar with Swedenborg's work, developed the theory further in 1755, publishing his own Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, wherein he argued that gaseous clouds (nebulae) slowly rotate, gradually collapse and flatten due to gravity, eventually forming stars and planets.
Pierre-Simon Laplace independently developed and proposed a similar model in 1796 in his Exposition du systeme du monde. He envisioned that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the volume of the Solar System. His theory featured a contracting and cooling protosolar cloud—the protosolar nebula. As this cooled and contracted, it flattened and spun more rapidly, throwing off (or shedding) a series of gaseous rings of material; and according to him, the planets condensed from this material. His model was similar to Kant's, except more detailed and on a smaller scale. While the Laplacian nebular model dominated in the 19th century, it encountered a number of difficulties. The main problem involved angular momentum distribution between the Sun and planets. The planets have 99% of the angular momentum, and this fact could not be explained by the nebular model. As a result, astronomers largely abandoned this theory of planet formation at the beginning of the 20th century.
A major critique came during the 19th century from James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), who maintained that different rotation between the inner and outer parts of a ring could not allow condensation of material. Astronomer Sir David Brewster also rejected Laplace, writing in 1876 that "those who believe in the Nebular Theory consider it as certain that our Earth derived its solid matter and its atmosphere from a ring thrown from the Solar atmosphere, which afterwards contracted into a solid terraqueous sphere, from which the Moon was thrown off by the same process". He argued that under such view, "the Moon must necessarily have carried off water and air from the watery and aerial parts of the Earth and must have an atmosphere". Brewster claimed that Sir Isaac Newton's religious beliefs had previously considered nebular ideas as tending to atheism, and quoted him as saying that "the growth of new systems out of old ones, without the mediation of a Divine power, seemed to him apparently absurd".
The perceived deficiencies of the Laplacian model stimulated scientists to find a replacement for it. During the 20th century many theories addressed the issue, including the planetesimal theory of Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton (1901), the tidal model of James Jeans (1917), the accretion model of Otto Schmidt (1944), the protoplanet theory of William McCrea (1960) and finally the capture theory of Michael Woolfson. In 1978 Andrew Prentice resurrected the initial Laplacian ideas about planet formation and developed the modern Laplacian theory. None of these attempts proved completely successful, and many of the proposed theories were descriptive.
The birth of the modern widely accepted theory of planetary formation—the solar nebular disk model (SNDM)—can be traced to the Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov. His 1969 book Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets, which was translated to English in 1972, had a long-lasting effect on the way scientists think about the formation of the planets. In this book almost all major problems of the planetary formation process were formulated and some of them solved. Safronov's ideas were further developed in the works of George Wetherill, who discovered runaway accretion. While originally applied only to the Solar System, the SNDM was subsequently thought by theorists to be at work throughout the Universe; as of astronomers have discovered extrasolar planets in our galaxy.
Solar nebular model: achievements and problems
Achievements
The star formation process naturally results in the appearance of accretion disks around young stellar objects. At the age of about 1 million years, 100% of stars may have such disks. This conclusion is supported by the discovery of the gaseous and dusty disks around protostars and T Tauri stars as well as by theoretical considerations. Observations of these disks show that the dust grains inside them grow in size on short (thousand-year) time scales, producing 1 centimeter sized particles.
The accretion process, by which 1 km planetesimals grow into 1,000 km sized bodies, is well understood now. This process develops inside any disk where the number density of planetesimals is sufficiently high, and proceeds in a runaway manner. Growth later slows and continues as oligarchic accretion. The end result is formation of planetary embryos of varying sizes, which depend on the distance from the star. Various simulations have demonstrated that the merger of embryos in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk leads to the formation of a few Earth-sized bodies. Thus the origin of terrestrial planets is now considered to be an almost solved problem.
Current issues
The physics of accretion disks encounters some problems. The most important one is how the material, which is accreted by the protostar, loses its angular momentum. One possible explanation suggested by Hannes Alfvén was that angular momentum was shed by the solar wind during its T Tauri star phase. The momentum is transported to the outer parts of the disk by viscous stresses. Viscosity is generated by macroscopic turbulence, but the precise mechanism that produces this turbulence is not well understood. Another possible process for shedding angular momentum is magnetic braking, where the spin of the star is transferred into the surrounding disk via that star's magnetic field. The main processes responsible for the disappearance of the gas in disks are viscous diffusion and photo-evaporation.
The formation of planetesimals is the biggest unsolved problem in the nebular disk model. How 1 cm sized particles coalesce into 1 km planetesimals is a mystery. This mechanism appears to be the key to the question as to why some stars have planets, while others have nothing around them, not even dust belts.
The formation timescale of giant planets is also an important problem. Old theories were unable to explain how their cores could form fast enough to accumulate significant amounts of gas from the quickly disappearing protoplanetary disk. The mean lifetime of the disks, which is less than ten million (107) years, appeared to be shorter than the time necessary for the core formation. Much progress has been done to solve this problem and current models of giant planet formation are now capable of forming Jupiter (or more massive planets) in about 4 million years or less, well within the average lifetime of gaseous disks.
Another potential problem of giant planet formation is their orbital migration. Some calculations show that interaction with the disk can cause rapid inward migration, which, if not stopped, results in the planet reaching the "central regions still as a sub-Jovian object." More recent calculations indicate that disk evolution during migration can mitigate this problem.
Formation of stars and protoplanetary disks
Protostars
Stars are thought to form inside giant clouds of cold molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds roughly 300,000 times the mass of the Sun () and 20 parsecs in diameter. Over millions of years, giant molecular clouds are prone to collapse and fragmentation. These fragments then form small, dense cores, which in turn collapse into stars. The cores range in mass from a fraction to several times that of the Sun and are called protostellar (protosolar) nebulae. They possess diameters of 0.01–0.1 pc (2,000–20,000 AU) and a particle number density of roughly 10,000 to 100,000 cm−3.
The initial collapse of a solar-mass protostellar nebula takes around 100,000 years. Every nebula begins with a certain amount of angular momentum. Gas in the central part of the nebula, with relatively low angular momentum, undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic (not contracting) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula. This core forms the seed of what will become a star. As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum means that the rotation of the infalling envelope accelerates, which largely prevents the gas from directly accreting onto the central core. The gas is instead forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane, forming a disk, which in turn accretes onto the core. The core gradually grows in mass until it becomes a young hot protostar. At this stage, the protostar and its disk are heavily obscured by the infalling envelope and are not directly observable. In fact the remaining envelope's opacity is so high that even millimeter-wave radiation has trouble escaping from inside it. Such objects are observed as very bright condensations, which emit mainly millimeter-wave and submillimeter-wave radiation. They are classified as spectral Class 0 protostars. The collapse is often accompanied by bipolar outflows—jets—that emanate along the rotational axis of the inferred disk. The jets are frequently observed in star-forming regions (see Herbig–Haro (HH) objects). The luminosity of the Class 0 protostars is high — a solar-mass protostar may radiate at up to 100 solar luminosities. The source of this energy is gravitational collapse, as their cores are not yet hot enough to begin nuclear fusion.
As the infall of its material onto the disk continues, the envelope eventually becomes thin and transparent and the young stellar object (YSO) becomes observable, initially in far-infrared light and later in the visible. Around this time the protostar begins to fuse deuterium. If the protostar is sufficiently massive (above 80 Jupiter masses ()), hydrogen fusion follows. Otherwise, if its mass is too low, the object becomes a brown dwarf. This birth of a new star occurs approximately 100,000 years after the collapse begins. Objects at this stage are known as Class I protostars, which are also called young T Tauri stars, evolved protostars, or young stellar objects. By this time the forming star has already accreted much of its mass: the total mass of the disk and remaining envelope does not exceed 10–20% of the mass of the central YSO.
At the next stage the envelope completely disappears, having been gathered up by the disk, and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star. This happens after about 1 million years. The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1–3% of the stellar mass, and it is accreted at a rate of 10−7 to per year. A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well. The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars: strong flux in the emission lines (up to 100% of the intrinsic luminosity of the star), magnetic activity, photometric variability and jets. The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the "surface" of the star, which happens around its magnetic poles. The jets are byproducts of accretion: they carry away excessive angular momentum. The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years. The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star, planet formation, ejection by jets and photoevaporation by UV-radiation from the central star and nearby stars. As a result, the young star becomes a weakly lined T Tauri star, which slowly, over hundreds of millions of years, evolves into an ordinary Sun-like star.
Protoplanetary disks
Under certain circumstances the disk, which can now be called protoplanetary, may give birth to a planetary system. Protoplanetary disks have been observed around a very high fraction of stars in young star clusters. They exist from the beginning of a star's formation, but at the earliest stages are unobservable due to the opacity of the surrounding envelope. The disk of a Class 0 protostar is thought to be massive and hot. It is an accretion disk, which feeds the central protostar. The temperature can easily exceed 400 K inside 5 AU and 1,000 K inside 1 AU. The heating of the disk is primarily caused by the viscous dissipation of turbulence in it and by the infall of the gas from the nebula. The high temperature in the inner disk causes most of the volatile material—water, organics, and some rocks—to evaporate, leaving only the most refractory elements like iron. The ice can survive only in the outer part of the disk.
The main problem in the physics of accretion disks is the generation of turbulence and the mechanism responsible for the high effective viscosity. The turbulent viscosity is thought to be responsible for the transport of the mass to the central protostar and momentum to the periphery of the disk. This is vital for accretion, because the gas can be accreted by the central protostar only if it loses most of its angular momentum, which must be carried away by the small part of the gas drifting outwards. The result of this process is the growth of both the protostar and of the disk radius, which can reach 1,000 AU if the initial angular momentum of the nebula is large enough. Large disks are routinely observed in many star-forming regions such as the Orion nebula.
The lifespan of the accretion disks is about 10 million years. By the time the star reaches the classical T-Tauri stage, the disk becomes thinner and cools. Less volatile materials start to condense close to its center, forming 0.1–1 μm dust grains that contain crystalline silicates. The transport of the material from the outer disk can mix these newly formed dust grains with primordial ones, which contain organic matter and other volatiles. This mixing can explain some peculiarities in the composition of Solar System bodies such as the presence of interstellar grains in primitive meteorites and refractory inclusions in comets.
Dust particles tend to stick to each other in the dense disk environment, leading to the formation of larger particles up to several centimeters in size. The signatures of the dust processing and coagulation are observed in the infrared spectra of the young disks. Further aggregation can lead to the formation of planetesimals measuring 1 km across or larger, which are the building blocks of planets. Planetesimal formation is another unsolved problem of disk physics, as simple sticking becomes ineffective as dust particles grow larger.
One hypothesis is formation by gravitational instability. Particles several centimeters in size or larger slowly settle near the middle plane of the disk, forming a very thin—less than 100 km—and dense layer. This layer is gravitationally unstable and may fragment into numerous clumps, which in turn collapse into planetesimals. However, the differing velocities of the gas disk and the solids near the mid-plane can generate turbulence which prevents the layer from becoming thin enough to fragment due to gravitational instability. This may limit the formation of planetesimals via gravitational instabilities to specific locations in the disk where the concentration of solids is enhanced.
Another possible mechanism for the formation of planetesimals is the streaming instability in which the drag felt by particles orbiting through gas creates a feedback effect causing the growth of local concentrations. These local concentrations push back on the gas creating a region where the headwind felt by the particles is smaller. The concentration is thus able to orbit faster and undergoes less radial drift. Isolated particles join these concentrations as they are overtaken or as they drift inward causing it to grow in mass. Eventually these concentrations form massive filaments which fragment and undergo gravitational collapse forming planetesimals the size of the larger asteroids.
Planetary formation can also be triggered by gravitational instability within the disk itself, which leads to its fragmentation into clumps. Some of them, if they are dense enough, will collapse, which can lead to rapid formation of gas giant planets and even brown dwarfs on the timescale of 1,000 years. If these clumps migrate inward as the collapse proceeds tidal forces from the star can result in a significant mass loss leaving behind a smaller body. However it is only possible in massive disks—more massive than . In comparison, typical disk masses are . Because the massive disks are rare, this mechanism of planet formation is thought to be infrequent. On the other hand, it may play a major role in the formation of brown dwarfs.
The ultimate dissipation of protoplanetary disks is triggered by a number of different mechanisms. The inner part of the disk is either accreted by the star or ejected by the bipolar jets, whereas the outer part can evaporate under the star's powerful UV radiation during the T Tauri stage or by nearby stars. The gas in the central part can either be accreted or ejected by the growing planets, while the small dust particles are ejected by the radiation pressure of the central star. What is finally left is either a planetary system, a remnant disk of dust without planets, or nothing, if planetesimals failed to form.
Because planetesimals are so numerous, and spread throughout the protoplanetary disk, some survive the formation of a planetary system. Asteroids are understood to be left-over planetesimals, gradually grinding each other down into smaller and smaller bits, while comets are typically planetesimals from the farther reaches of a planetary system. Meteorites are samples of planetesimals that reach a planetary surface, and provide a great deal of information about the formation of the Solar System. Primitive-type meteorites are chunks of shattered low-mass planetesimals, where no thermal differentiation took place, while processed-type meteorites are chunks from shattered massive planetesimals. Interstellar objects could have been captured, and become part of the young Solar system.
Formation of planets
Rocky planets
According to the solar nebular disk model, rocky planets form in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk, within the frost line, where the temperature is high enough to prevent condensation of water ice and other substances into grains. This results in coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in the formation of rocky planetesimals. Such conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3–4 AU part of the disk of a Sun-like star.
After small planetesimals—about 1 km in diameter—have formed by one way or another, runaway accretion begins. It is called runaway because the mass growth rate is proportional to , where R and M are the radius and mass of the growing body, respectively. The specific (divided by mass) growth accelerates as the mass increases. This leads to the preferential growth of larger bodies at the expense of smaller ones. The runaway accretion lasts between 10,000 and 100,000 years and ends when the largest bodies exceed approximately 1,000 km in diameter. Slowing of the accretion is caused by gravitational perturbations by large bodies on the remaining planetesimals. In addition, the influence of larger bodies stops further growth of smaller bodies.
The next stage is called oligarchic accretion. It is characterized by the dominance of several hundred of the largest bodies—oligarchs, which continue to slowly accrete planetesimals. No body other than the oligarchs can grow. At this stage the rate of accretion is proportional to R2, which is derived from the geometrical cross-section of an oligarch. The specific accretion rate is proportional to ; and it declines with the mass of the body. This allows smaller oligarchs to catch up to larger ones. The oligarchs are kept at the distance of about (= is the Hill radius, where a is the semimajor axis, e is the orbital eccentricity, and Ms is the mass of the central star) from each other by the influence of the remaining planetesimals. Their orbital eccentricities and inclinations remain small. The oligarchs continue to accrete until planetesimals are exhausted in the disk around them. Sometimes nearby oligarchs merge. The final mass of an oligarch depends on the distance from the star and surface density of planetesimals and is called the isolation mass. For the rocky planets it is up to , or one Mars mass. The final result of the oligarchic stage is the formation of about 100 Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos uniformly spaced at about . They are thought to reside inside gaps in the disk and to be separated by rings of remaining planetesimals. This stage is thought to last a few hundred thousand years.
The last stage of rocky planet formation is the merger stage. It begins when only a small number of planetesimals remains and embryos become massive enough to perturb each other, which causes their orbits to become chaotic. During this stage embryos expel remaining planetesimals, and collide with each other. The result of this process, which lasts for 10 to 100 million years, is the formation of a limited number of Earth-sized bodies. Simulations show that the number of surviving planets is on average from 2 to 5. In the Solar System they may be represented by Earth and Venus. Formation of both planets required merging of approximately 10–20 embryos, while an equal number of them were thrown out of the Solar System. Some of the embryos, which originated in the asteroid belt, are thought to have brought water to Earth. Mars and Mercury may be regarded as remaining embryos that survived that rivalry. Rocky planets, which have managed to coalesce, settle eventually into more or less stable orbits, explaining why planetary systems are generally packed to the limit; or, in other words, why they always appear to be at the brink of instability.
Giant planets
The formation of giant planets is an outstanding problem in the planetary sciences. In the framework of the solar nebular model two theories for their formation exist. The first one is the disk instability model, where giant planets form in the massive protoplanetary disks as a result of its gravitational fragmentation (see above). The second possibility is the core accretion model, which is also known as the nucleated instability model. The latter scenario is thought to be the most promising one, because it can explain the formation of the giant planets in relatively low-mass disks (less than ). In this model giant planet formation is divided into two stages: a) accretion of a core of approximately and b) accretion of gas from the protoplanetary disk. Either method may also lead to the creation of brown dwarfs. Searches as of 2011 have found that core accretion is likely the dominant formation mechanism.
Giant planet core formation is thought to proceed roughly along the lines of the terrestrial planet formation. It starts with planetesimals that undergo runaway growth, followed by the slower oligarchic stage. Hypotheses do not predict a merger stage, due to the low probability of collisions between planetary embryos in the outer part of planetary systems. An additional difference is the composition of the planetesimals, which in the case of giant planets form beyond the so-called frost line and consist mainly of ice—the ice to rock ratio is about 4 to 1. This enhances the mass of planetesimals fourfold. However, the minimum mass nebula capable of terrestrial planet formation can only form cores at the distance of Jupiter (5 AU) within 10 million years. The latter number represents the average lifetime of gaseous disks around Sun-like stars. The proposed solutions include enhanced mass of the disk—a tenfold increase would suffice; protoplanet migration, which allows the embryo to accrete more planetesimals; and finally accretion enhancement due to gas drag in the gaseous envelopes of the embryos. Some combination of the above-mentioned ideas may explain the formation of the cores of gas giant planets such as Jupiter and perhaps even Saturn. The formation of planets like Uranus and Neptune is more problematic, since no theory has been capable of providing for the in situ formation of their cores at the distance of 20–30 AU from the central star. One hypothesis is that they initially accreted in the Jupiter-Saturn region, then were scattered and migrated to their present location. Another possible solution is the growth of the cores of the giant planets via pebble accretion. In pebble accretion objects between a cm and a meter in diameter falling toward a massive body are slowed enough by gas drag for them to spiral toward it and be accreted. Growth via pebble accretion may be as much as 1000 times faster than by the accretion of planetesimals.
Once the cores are of sufficient mass (), they begin to gather gas from the surrounding disk. Initially it is a slow process, increasing the core masses up to in a few million years. After that, the accretion rates increase dramatically and the remaining 90% of the mass is accumulated in approximately 10,000 years. The accretion of gas stops when the supply from the disk is exhausted. This happens gradually, due to the formation of a density gap in the protoplanetary disk and to disk dispersal. In this model ice giants—Uranus and Neptune—are failed cores that began gas accretion too late, when almost all gas had already disappeared. The post-runaway-gas-accretion stage is characterized by migration of the newly formed giant planets and continued slow gas accretion. Migration is caused by the interaction of the planet sitting in the gap with the remaining disk. It stops when the protoplanetary disk disappears or when the end of the disk is attained. The latter case corresponds to the so-called hot Jupiters, which are likely to have stopped their migration when they reached the inner hole in the protoplanetary disk.
Giant planets can significantly influence terrestrial planet formation. The presence of giants tends to increase eccentricities and inclinations (see Kozai mechanism) of planetesimals and embryos in the terrestrial planet region (inside 4 AU in the Solar System). If giant planets form too early, they can slow or prevent inner planet accretion. If they form near the end of the oligarchic stage, as is thought to have happened in the Solar System, they will influence the merges of planetary embryos, making them more violent. As a result, the number of terrestrial planets will decrease and they will be more massive. In addition, the size of the system will shrink, because terrestrial planets will form closer to the central star. The influence of giant planets in the Solar System, particularly that of Jupiter, is thought to have been limited because they are relatively remote from the terrestrial planets.
The region of a planetary system adjacent to the giant planets will be influenced in a different way. In such a region, eccentricities of embryos may become so large that the embryos pass close to a giant planet, which may cause them to be ejected from the system. If all embryos are removed, then no planets will form in this region. An additional consequence is that a huge number of small planetesimals will remain, because giant planets are incapable of clearing them all out without the help of embryos. The total mass of remaining planetesimals will be small, because cumulative action of the embryos before their ejection and giant planets is still strong enough to remove 99% of the small bodies. Such a region will eventually evolve into an asteroid belt, which is a full analog of the asteroid belt in the Solar System, located from 2 to 4 AU from the Sun.
Exoplanets
Thousands of exoplanets have been identified in the last twenty years, with, at the very least, billions more, within our observable universe, yet to be discovered. The orbits of many of these planets and systems of planets differ significantly from the planets in the Solar System. The exoplanets discovered include hot-Jupiters, warm-Jupiters, super-Earths, and systems of tightly packed inner planets.
The hot-Jupiters and warm-Jupiters are thought to have migrated to their current orbits during or following their formation. A number of possible mechanisms for this migration have been proposed. Type I or Type II migration could smoothly decrease the semimajor axis of the planet's orbit resulting in a warm- or hot-Jupiter. Gravitational scattering by other planets onto eccentric orbits with a perihelion near the star followed by the circularization of its orbit due to tidal interactions with the star can leave a planet on a close orbit. If a massive companion planet or star on an inclined orbit was present an exchange of inclination for eccentricity via the Kozai mechanism raising eccentricities and lowering perihelion followed by circularization can also result in a close orbit. Many of the Jupiter-sized planets have eccentric orbits which may indicate that gravitational encounters occurred between the planets, although migration while in resonance can also excite eccentricities. The in situ growth of hot Jupiters from closely orbiting super Earths has also been proposed. The cores in this hypothesis could have formed locally or at a greater distance and migrated close to the star.
Super-Earths and other closely orbiting planets are thought to have either formed in situ or ex situ, that is, to have migrated inward from their initial locations. The in situ formation of closely orbiting super-Earths would require a massive disk, the migration of planetary embryos followed by collisions and mergers, or the radial drift of small solids from farther out in the disk. The migration of the super-Earths, or the embryos that collided to form them, is likely to have been Type I due to their smaller mass. The resonant orbits of some of the exoplanet systems indicates that some migration occurred in these systems, while the spacing of the orbits in many of the other systems not in resonance indicates that an instability likely occurred in those systems after the dissipation of the gas disk. The absence of Super-Earths and closely orbiting planets in the Solar System may be due to the previous formation of Jupiter blocking their inward migration.
The amount of gas a super-Earth that formed in situ acquires may depend on when the planetary embryos merged due to giant impacts relative to the dissipation of the gas disk. If the mergers happen after the gas disk dissipates terrestrial planets can form, if in a transition disk a super-Earth with a gas envelope containing a few percent of its mass may form. If the mergers happen too early runaway gas accretion may occur leading to the formation of a gas giant. The mergers begin when the dynamical friction due to the gas disk becomes insufficient to prevent collisions, a process that will begin earlier in a higher metallicity disk. Alternatively gas accretion may be limited due to the envelopes not being in hydrostatic equilibrium, instead gas may flow through the envelope slowing its growth and delaying the onset of runaway gas accretion until the mass of the core reaches 15 Earth masses.
Meaning of accretion
Use of the term "accretion disk" for the protoplanetary disk leads to confusion over the planetary accretion process.
The protoplanetary disk is sometimes referred to as an accretion disk, because while the young T Tauri-like protostar is still contracting, gaseous material may still be falling onto it, accreting on its surface from the disk's inner edge. In an accretion disk, there is a net flux of mass from larger radii toward smaller radii.
However, that meaning should not be confused with the process of accretion forming the planets. In this context, accretion refers to the process of cooled, solidified grains of dust and ice orbiting the protostar in the protoplanetary disk, colliding and sticking together and gradually growing, up to and including the high-energy collisions between sizable planetesimals.
In addition, the giant planets probably had accretion disks of their own, in the first meaning of the word. The clouds of captured hydrogen and helium gas contracted, spun up, flattened, and deposited gas onto the surface of each giant protoplanet, while solid bodies within that disk accreted into the giant planet's regular moons.
See also
Asteroid belt
Bok globule
Comet
Exocomet
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Herbig–Haro object
History of Earth
Kuiper belt
Oort cloud
T Tauri star
Notes
References
External links
Solar System
Circumstellar disks
Planetary systems
Planets
Pre-stellar nebulae
Concepts in astronomy
History of astronomy
Cosmogony
Articles containing video clips
1755 in science
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Truth, Justice, and the American Way may refer to:
Truth, Justice, and the American Way, a catch-phrase of the comic-book character Superman.
What's So Funny About Truth, Justice & the American Way?, a comic book published by DC Comics in 2001
Truth, Justice, and the American Way, the original title of the 2006 feature film Hollywoodland
"Truth, Justice and the American Way" (Supergirl), an episode of the TV series Supergirl (2016)
"What's So Funny About Truth, Justice, and the American Way?", an episode of the TV series Supergirl (2019)
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Violin Concerto in D major may refer to:
Violin Concerto (Beethoven)
Violin Concerto (Brahms)
Violin Concerto (Tchaikovsky)
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Mood may refer to:
Mood (psychology), a relatively long lasting emotional state
Music
The Mood, a British pop band from 1981 to 1984
Mood (band), hip hop artists
Mood (Jacquees album), 2016
Moods (Barbara Mandrell album), 1978
Moods (Mal Waldron album), 1978
Moods (Neil Diamond album), 1972
Moods (The Three Sounds album), 1960
Moods (Monday Michiru album), 2003
The Mood (EP), a 2013 EP by F.T. Island
"Mood", a song by Lil Uzi Vert, 2018
"Mood", a song by Rita Ora featuring Khea from Bang, 2021
"Mood" (song), a song by 24kGoldn featuring Iann Dior, 2020
Mood, an album by Nayt, 2020
Places
Mood (city), a city in Iran
Mood, Leh, a village in Ladakh, India
Mood District, a district in Iran
MOOD Designer Fabrics, a store in New York City frequented by contestants of Project Runway
Other uses
Mood (TV series), 2022 British drama
Grammatical mood, one of a set of morphologically distinctive forms that are used to signal modality
Mood (literature), the affective setting of a piece of literature
Robert Mood (born 1958), a Norwegian general
See also
Mood Indigo (disambiguation)
Mood music (disambiguation)
Mood Muzik (disambiguation)
Mood Ring (disambiguation)
Mood Swings (disambiguation)
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Parviturboides is een geslacht van weekdieren uit de klasse van de Gastropoda (slakken).
Soorten
Parviturboides clausus (Pilsbry & Olsson, 1945)
Parviturboides copiosus (Pilsbry & Olsson, 1945)
Parviturboides decussatus (Carpenter, 1857)
Parviturboides germanus (Pilsbry & Olsson, 1945)
Parviturboides habrotima Kilburn, 1977
Parviturboides interruptus (C. B. Adams, 1850)
Parviturboides monile (Carpenter, 1857)
Parviturboides monilifer (Carpenter, 1857)
Tornidae
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Kathleen may refer to:
People
Kathleen (given name)
Kathleen (singer), Canadian pop singer
Places
Kathleen, Alberta, Canada
Kathleen, Georgia, United States
Kathleen, Florida, United States
Kathleen High School (Lakeland, Florida), United States
Kathleen, Western Australia, Western Australia
Kathleen Island, Tasmania, Australia
Kathleen Lumley College, South Australia
Mary Kathleen, Queensland, former mining settlement in Australia
Other
Kathleen (film), a 1941 American film directed by Harold S. Bucquet
The Countess Kathleen and Various Legends and Lyrics (1892), second poetry collection of William Butler Yeats
Kathleen Ferrier Award, competition for opera singers
Kathleen Mitchell Award, Australian literature prize for young authors
Plan Kathleen, plan for a German invasion of Northern Ireland sanctioned by the IRA Chief of Staff in 1940
Tropical Storm Kathleen (disambiguation)
"Kathleen" (song), a song by Catfish and the Bottlemen
"Kathleen", song by Wally Lewis
Typhoon Kathleen, hit Japan in 1947
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Libido usually refers to sexual drive.
Libido may also refer to:
Music
Líbido (band), a Peruvian rock group
Libido (Brigitte Fontaine album), 2006
Libido (Buck-O-Nine album), 1999
Libido (Líbido album), 1998
Livid (Nightmare album), 2004, sometimes incorrectly called Libido
"libidO", 2021 song by the South Korean K-Pop group OnlyOneOf
Film
Libido (1965 film), a 1965 Italian thriller directed by Ernesto Gastaldi
, a 1967 film directed by Kaneto Shindō
Libido (1973 film), a 1973 Australian drama film
Libido (2013 film), a 2013 Egyptian short documentary film
Other uses
Libido language, a Cushitic language
Libido (journal), an academic publication that won the 1999 Sexual Freedom Award for Publications
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Witoscha () steht für:
Witoscha, Gebirge in Bulgarien
Witoscha, Bezirk der bulgarischen Hauptstadt Sofia, siehe Verwaltungsgliederung von Sofia
Witoscha (Käse)
Witoscha (Zeitung), bulgarische Zeitung
Radio Witoscha, bulgarischer Radiosender
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Anklet is an ornament worn around the ankle.
Anklet may also refer to:
Anklet (sock)
Operation Anklet
Short gaiters
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Appraisal may refer to:
Decision-making
Appraisal (decision analysis), a decision method
Archival appraisal, process for determining which records need to be kept, and for how long
Project appraisal, comparing options to deliver an objective
Economic appraisal, an appraisal based on comparison of monetary equivalents
Property valuation
Real estate appraisal, the practice of determining the value of real property
Business valuation, the process of determining the value of businesses
Art valuation, the process of determining the value of works of art
Domain appraisal, the act of evaluating the worth of a specific domain name
Archival appraisal, the appraisal of archival collections in libraries
Appraisal value, the value of a company based on a projection of future cash flow
Other uses
Appraisal (discourse analysis), the ways that writers or speakers express approval or disapproval for things or ideas
Appraisal theory, a psychological theory of emotion and cognition
Appraisal Institute, an international association of professional real estate appraisers
Performance appraisal, a method to evaluate employee performance
See also
Appraiser
Evaluation (disambiguation)
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Hot Shit may refer to:
"Hot Shit" (song), by Cardi B, Kanye West and Lil Durk
Hot Shit!, album by Quasi
"Country Grammar (Hot Shit)", song by Nelly
See also
"Thot Shit", song by Megan Thee Stallion
Hotshot (disambiguation)
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Bensville is a suburb of the Central Coast region of New South Wales, Australia. It is part of the local government area.
The main section of Bensville is centred on Kallaroo Road, and consists of a small park, video store, cafe, general store and hairdressers. A small combination of shops have recently been added in 2005. There is a small wharf located at the end of Kallaroo Road, which is a popular local fishing spot.
History
Bensville is named after a pioneer of the area, Benjamin Davis. His father had been a school teacher at Kincumber and Davistown is named after his family. Benjamin started a shipbuilding business around 1850 and also owned of land there. When a post office was opened, it was named Bensville, in honour of the pioneer.
References
Suburbs of the Central Coast (New South Wales)
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Sensorization is a modern technology trend to insert many similar sensors in any device or application. Some scientists believe that sensorization is one of main requirements for third technological revolution.
As a result of significant prices drop in recent years there is a trend to include large number of sensors with the same or different function in one device. An example is the evolution of the iPhone.
See also
Acsensorize
References
Sensorization
Technology forecasting
Measuring instruments
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2019 Statistics
2018 Statistics
Notes
1.The results had been converted from a report generated in Persian Solar Hijri calendar
2.The reports of the airports in Iranian islands had not been published since 2017; All the existing reports are estimates.
2017 Statistics
2016 Statistics
2015 Statistics
2014 Statistics
2013 Statistics
2012 Statistics
2011 Statistics
See also
List of airports in Iran
List of airlines of Iran
Iran Civil Aviation Organization
Transport in Iran
Iran
References
(PDF) ماهنامه آمار عملکرد شرکت فرودگاههای کشور – شماره بیست و هشتم (in Persian). Iranian Airports Holding Company. September 2015
(PDF) پروازی \ آمار میلادی (in Persian). Iranian Airports Holding Company. February 2016
External links
Ministry of Road and Urban Development Of Iran Official Website
Civil Aviation Organization of Iran
Iran Airports Company
Iran
Airports, busiest
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A celery vase is type of glass tableware. Developed during the Victorian era, celery vases displayed celery as centerpieces during meals.
Celery was introduced to England from the Mediterranean region in the early 19th century. Farmers began cultivating celery in eastern England. It was hard to grow, making it a luxury food item. As a result, upper and middle class Victorian households would display their raw celery in special vases. The vases were available in ceramic and silver, however, glass was preferred so the celery could be seen in the vase by diners. They were often displayed as dining table centerpieces, either as a stand alone display or to complement a celery dish or dip.
Celery vases were advertised in the United States as early as 1801 and continued to be promoted by retailers, women's journalism, and etiquette manuals. The latter promoted celery to be displayed in the vases and consumed during the salad course.
The vases were common wedding gifts and often were engraved with the newlyweds names on the bottom. The vases began to decline in popularity by 1900. Eventually, the mass production of celery vases and the increasingly easier process of growing celery caused a decline in the vases' popularity. A 1916 cookbook featured a "Celery in Glass" recipe.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art has a collection of celery vases.
References
External links
"Bring Back the Celery Vase" - Eater
Serving vessels
Victorian cuisine
Celery
Vases
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Cod liver oil is a dietary supplement derived from liver of cod fish (Gadidae). As with most fish oils, it contains the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and also vitamin A and vitamin D. Historically, it was given to children because vitamin D had been shown to prevent rickets, a consequence of vitamin D deficiency.
Manufacture
Cod liver oil has traditionally come in many grades. Cod liver oil for human consumption is pale and straw colored, with a mild flavor. Scandinavian Vikings produced cod liver oil by laying birch tree branches over a kettle of water, and fresh livers were laid over the branches. The water was brought to a boil and as the steam rose, the oil from the liver dripped into the water and was skimmed off. There was also a method for producing fresh raw cod liver oil.
In the Industrial Revolution, cod liver oil became popular for industrial purposes. Livers placed in barrels to rot, with the oil skimmed off over the season, was the main method for producing this oil. The resulting oil was brown and foul tasting. In the 1800s cod liver oil became popular as a medicine and both pale and brown oils were used. Brown oils were common because they were cheaper to produce. Some doctors believed in only using the fresh pale oil, while others believed the brown oil was better. The rancid brown oils tended to cause intestinal upset.
The Möller Process was invented by Peter Möller in 1850. The livers are ground with water into a slurry, then this is gently simmered until the oil rises to the top. The oil is skimmed off and purified. Other methods used in modern times include the Cold Flotation Process, pressure extraction, and pressure cooking. These all require further purification steps to get a pure oil.
Therapeutic uses
Though similar in fatty acid composition to other fish oils, cod liver oil has higher concentrations of vitamins A and D. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, a tablespoon (13.6 grams or 14.8 mL) of cod liver oil contains 4,080 μg of retinol (vitamin A) and 34 μg (1360 IU) of vitamin D. The Dietary Reference Intake of vitamin A is 900 μg per day for adult men and 700 μg per day for women, while that for vitamin D is 15 μg per day. The Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) are 3000 μg/day and 100 μg/day, respectively. People consuming cod liver oil as a source of omega-3 fatty acids should pay attention to how much vitamin A and vitamin D this adds to their diet.
Cod liver oil is approximately 20% omega-3 fatty acids. For this reason cod liver oil may be beneficial in secondary prophylaxis after a heart attack. Diets supplemented with cod liver oil have also been demonstrated to have beneficial effects on psoriasis and depression.
Potential adverse effects
A tablespoon (13.6 g) of cod liver oil contains 136% of the UL for preformed vitamin A (retinol). Vitamin A accumulates in the liver, and can reach harmful levels sufficient to cause hypervitaminosis A. Pregnant women may want to consider consulting a doctor when taking cod liver oil because of the high amount of retinol.
Fatty acid oxidation and environmental toxins content are reduced when purification processes are applied to produce refined fish oil products.
Other uses
In Newfoundland, cod liver oil was sometimes used as the liquid base for traditional red ochre paint, the coating of choice for use on outbuildings and work buildings associated with the cod fishery.
In Tübingen, Germany, drinking a glass of cod liver oil is the punishment for the loser at the traditional Stocherkahnrennen, a punting boat race by University of Tübingen groups.
See also
Dan Dale Alexander
Shark liver oil
References
External links
Animal fats
Dietary supplements
Fish products
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Grozdovo (în ) este un sat în comuna Dolni Ciflik, regiunea Varna, Bulgaria.
Demografie
La recensământul din 2011, populația satului Grozdovo era de locuitori. Nu există o etnie majoritară, locuitorii fiind bulgari (%), turci (%) și romi (%). Pentru % din locuitori nu este cunoscută apartenența etnică.
Note
Sate din regiunea Varna
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Kinsey may refer to:
Kinsey (surname)
Alfred Kinsey
the Kinsey Reports, a pair of books on sexuality by Alfred Kinsey.
the Kinsey scale of sexual orientation, invented by Alfred Kinsey, or person's orientation as measured on that scale, as in "Kinsey 6"
the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction, founded by Alfred Kinsey
Kinsey (documentary), a 2005 film aired on the PBS series American Experience
Kinsey (film), a 2004 biographical film about Alfred Kinsey, written and directed by Bill Condon
Kinsey Millhone, the heroine in Sue Grafton's "alphabet mysteries" of books
Kinsey (TV series), a former British TV programme
Kinsey, Alabama, a town in the United States
Kinsey, Indiana, an unincorporated community in the United States
Kinsey, Montana, an unincorporated community in the United States
Kinsey, Ohio, an unincorporated community in the United States
The Kinsey Sicks, a comic a cappella quartet
See also
Kinsley (disambiguation)
McKinsey (disambiguation)
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Sizang or Sizang Chin may be,
Sizang people
Sizang language
Language and nationality disambiguation pages
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Candice Nelson may refer to:
Candice Nelson (political scientist), academic at the Center for Congressional and Presidential Studies
Candice Nelson (songwriter), member of music producers The Clutch
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Obstetric medicine, similar to maternal medicine, is a sub-specialty of general internal medicine and obstetrics that specializes in process of prevention, diagnosing, and treating medical disorders in with pregnant women. It is closely related to the specialty of maternal-fetal medicine, although obstetric medicine does not directly care for the fetus. The practice of obstetric medicine, or previously known as "obstetric intervention," primarily consisted of the extraction of the baby during instances of duress, such as obstructed labor or if the baby was positioned in breech.
Obstetric physicians may provide care for chronic medical conditions that precede the pregnancy (such as epilepsy, asthma or heart disease), or for new medical problems that develop while the pregnancy is already in progress (such as gestational diabetes, and hypertension). By the 19th century, obstetrics had become recognized as a medical discipline in Europe and the United States. Formal training in obstetric medicine is currently offered in Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada.
History and current status
Obstetrics gains its origins from the observation that, throughout historical record, women have accompanied other women during the birthing stage of their pregnancy. Similar findings can be observed in Anthropological research of tribal birthing practices, ancient Egyptian depictions, and even scriptures in the Old Testament illustrate the presence of a woman figure, be it doctor or relative, present among the birthing of a baby.
During the 17th century, doctors were weary about the connection between midwifery and medicine, and thus failed to acknowledge its credibility. The practice of women assisting women through labor was viewed as uneducated. However, as time progressed, a new perspective among pregnant patients grew, where by they sought for mid-wives to deliver their babies. For example, in Wales and England, under 1% of people delivered their babies at home, which was a testament to the rise of midwives, that led to the present day professional field of Obstetrics. The roles of physicians in the process in delivering babies expanded as 17th century aristocrats utilized the best medical practitioners they could find.
Obstetrics in the 1900s
During this period, the medical field was still grappling with the idea of obstetrics and midwifery, which were activities thought to be practiced by uneducated females, as they were unable to form a connection between medicine and midwifery. These circumstances led to the mistreatment of pregnant women, who were often made to partake in experimental procedures and untested treatments, which led to harm on mothers and the fetus.
Midwife Act 1902
The purpose of the act was to improve training for midwives as well as regulating their practice. This meant that women who wanted to identify as "midwives" had to do so under the certification and verification of the Act. Penalties would incur on women who fraudulently claimed certification, with imprisonment possibly going up to 12 months. The caveat to this act was that a woman could practically engage in midwife duties, however they could not give them self the title of midwife or imply that they were affiliated with the title. However, the basis of the act was the acknowledgement of the field, creating an environment for people to gain professional knowledge about the field. This act was significant in leading to the present practice of obstetric medicine as it created a pathway for women to begin practicing with pre/post natal care, leading to the discovery of numerous methods in obstetric medicine.
Lack of access
Maternal mortality is an ongoing issue that is rising among pregnant women. A challenge facing many pregnant women is the lack of access to specialized obstetric care, often resulting in untimely deaths and an increasing rate of maternal morbidity. This lack of access offered to women has resulted in an outreach programs attempted by clinicians to reach women who are currently suffering from the consequences of reduced accessibility. This increased awareness is emerging during a time of "obstetric transition", where research is noticing a notable shift in patterns from instances of high maternal mortality to patterns of lower maternal mortality. These patterns depict instances of high maternal mortality associated with implicit obstetric cause, while instances of low maternal mortality are related to factors such as maternal age, non-communicable disease (NCD) and indirect causes of maternal death (not directly linked to obstetric care).
The total cost of having a child in a hospital is can total several thousand dollars, which can be an expensive hurdle depending on an individual's socioeconomic status. Many countries lack the funding required to provide women from low-income households with prenatal care needs. This poses a problem for many women who are uninsured, or do not have access to adequate insurance. For women who are completely uninsured, their only source of prenatal care can be from charities and programs run by public funds, which is not a reliable source of prenatal care that has to be done regularly. When considering couples who have children in their early 20s, with an annual income of $19,800, having a child that on average costs $4,800, is a financial burden. Numerous insurance companies do not cover maternity care, which indicates that possessing insurance does not immediately clear couples of debt.
Medicine and tools
Early obstetrics
During the 18th century, common methods of resolving obstructed labor often resulted in high mortality of the infant. These methods included pulling on the legs of the baby or using breeching hooks. William Smellie revolutionized child birth by writing works on how to use forceps in the assistance if childbirth. The practice of using forceps proved to be much more effective and less damaging to the baby.
Medication
By the 20th century, medicinal drugs were used to treat pregnant women, or to provide them with prenatal care. By the 1950s, women were having given contraceptive pills to begin regulating their hormones and fertility, which effectively allowed couples to have planned pregnancies. By the 21st century, women were being given medication for the induction and augmentation of labor.
Common ailments
Treating the ailments of pregnant mothers requires a unique approach, since medicines commonly used may have an adverse effect on the fetus. Some common ailments include, but are not limited to :
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Pulmonary disease
Gestational diabetes
Lupus
Blood clots
Heart disease
Kidney disease
Seizures
Thyroid problems
Bleeding disorders
Asthma
Obesity in pregnancy
Depression
Ectopic pregnancy
Anemia
Preeclampsia (related to hypertension)
Postpartum depression
A common ailment of pregnant women is postpartum depression. Depression can cause pregnant women to have poor nutrition or inadequate strength to nurture herself and her baby. The result of this can be problems in development and health of the fetus. The use of medicine to treat postpartum depression is a subject for debate, since some research indicates that the use of antidepressants during pregnancy can lead to physical malformations and long-term health problems of the baby Other forms of treatment include support groups and psychotherapy.
Gestational diabetes
Gestational diabetes is observed by elevated glucose levels in pregnant women who have never had diabetes. This form of diabetes occurs when placental hormones interfere with insulin produced by the mother, resulting in an excess of glucose in the blood. The excess glucose will cross the placenta and cause the baby's pancreas to produce extra insulin and store the excess glucose as fat. Gestational diabetes is treated by a diet and exercise regiment the goal of maintaining lower levels of glucose in the body.
Hypertension
Gestational hypertension is characterized by high blood pressure during pregnancy. Chronic hypertension can lead to a severe condition called preeclampsia, which can result in damage to organs. Hypertension can cause the placenta to not receive enough blood and starving the fetus of oxygen. Hypertension is treated in pregnant mothers by adjusting their diet to contain less fat and salt, consuming enough water, and getting regular exercise.
Obesity during pregnancy
Maternal obesity is a rising epidemic among pregnant women, that is detrimental to both the health of the baby and the mother. Obesity leads pregnant women to develop gestational diabetes and preeclampsia, and increase the risk of stillbirth and numerous congenital anomalies. Beyond the immediate risks during pregnancy, the obesity of the mother tends to create a predisposition for the baby to have the inclination to develop conditions like heart disease and diabetes. During pregnancy, the rate at which nutrition is absorbed and conveyed to the fetus affects its physiology and metabolic regularity. Nutrition available in either abundance, or scarcity, both affect the overall outcome of the fetus, thus creating a precursor for future health developments. Typical treatment includes monitored consumption of food, as well as moderate exercise.
Historically significant ailments in the 1900s
Puerperal sepsis
Puerperal Sepsis is a bacterial infection that affects the genital tract, commonly occurring after the birth of a baby. The symptoms typically appear one day after pregnancy, however symptoms may appear earlier if the woman has had prolonged damage to the membranes in the vaginal tract. This was a leading factor in maternal mortality, as 80%-90% of women in some hospitals did not survive after receiving their diagnosis due to the rapidly spreading nature of the infection. Malnourished women, or with women with anaemia were susceptible to the infection. Some common symptoms included, but were not limited to: fever (temperature of 38 °C or more), chills and general malaise, lower abdominal pain, tender uterus, sub involution of the uterus purulent, and foul-smelling lochia.
Special cases
Pregnancy and HIV
HIV positive women who become pregnant require special types of treatment in order to prevent transmission from mother to fetus. Antiretrovirals are medications that reduce the viral load of the HIV virus in the mother's fluids and blood. Reduction of the viral load reduces the chance of the baby to become infected.
Ethics
Many ethical issues arise around whether the mothers right to autonomy may have adverse effects on the fetus. These types of situations have been described as maternal autonomy vs. fetal rights. In the case of Angela Carter, In re A.C., a court order to perform an emergency cesarean section resulted in the death of the severely premature fetus and the terminally ill mother. In addition, obstetricians and pediatricians face challenges when a pregnant HIV positive woman refuses treatment to prevent transmission from mother to baby. In these cases, mothers have the right to refuse treatments during pregnancy, but may subsequently face custody battles from the government to prevent the transmission of HIV via breastfeeding.
Another important field of discussion is what types of clinical trials are ethically appropriate for pregnant mothers. When a drug designed to benefit the health of the mother is being tested, the potential benefits of the drug may only be explored if the risk to the fetus is minimal. However, the concern is how severe must a health condition must be to justify exposing the fetus to any sort of risk. Clinical trials on pregnant women are forbidden if the drug is not designed for the benefit of the mother or fetus.
References
External links
Obstetric Medicine, medical journal
International Society of Obstetric Medicine
Macdonald Obstetric Medicine Society (UK)
North American Society for Obstetric Medicine (NASOM)
Society of Obstetric Medicine of Australia and New Zealand (Australia/New Zealand)
Brown University Fellowship in Obstetric & Consultative Medicine (US)
Obstetrics
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Statue of Christopher Columbus (Boston) may refer to:
Statue of Christopher Columbus (Beacon Hill, Boston)
Statue of Christopher Columbus (North End, Boston)
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A linga, or lingam, is a symbol of the Hindu deity Shiva.
Linga may also refer to:
People
Praveen Linga (born 1979), Indian chemical engineer
Places
Linga, Victoria, Australia
Linga, Madhya Pradesh, India
List of islands called Linga, in Scotland
Other uses
Linga language, a language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Linga (cookie), a sesame seed cookie from the Philippines
Linga (spider), a genus of spiders
, a Latvian Navy ship
See also
Linga Sound (disambiguation)
Lingaa, a 2014 Indian Tamil-language action drama film
Lingga (disambiguation)
Lingua (disambiguation)
Lingas (disambiguation)
Ling (disambiguation)
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Nutty Buddy was an ice cream cone topped with vanilla ice cream, chocolate ice cream, chocolate and peanuts, manufactured in the United States.
The "Nutty Buddy" was originally created and produced by Seymour Ice Cream Company, which was located in the Port Norfolk section of Dorchester, Massachusetts and named after its owner, Buddy Seymourian. Seymour Ice Cream ceased operations in the 1980s.
The official Nutty Buddy is no longer produced commercially in large numbers across the United States. Its former manufacturer was the Sweetheart Cup Company, which was also the manufacturer of the machines that produced the cones; Sweetheart went out of business in 1998. One of the last manufacturers of the original Nutty Buddy is Purity Dairies in Nashville, Tennessee.
References
External links
Nutty Buddy on the Purity Dairies site (Wayback Machine archive)
Ice cream brands
American brands
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Mood lighting is igniting or illumination, designed to create a temporary state of mind or feeling.
Effects of lighting on humans
Field studies have shown in office settings that blue-enriched lighting over the course of several weeks can lead to improved alertness, performance, and sleep quality in comparison to lighting with a lower color temperature.
Effects of indoor lighting
Indoor lighting can have a variety of effects on human subjects living within an artificial indoor environment. A study with ninety-six subjects, ages ranging from 18 to 55, were examined on how a variety of lighting could impact their mood and cognition. Subjects showed higher problem-solving abilities for females in a warm vs. cool white light source. The opposite result was shown for the male subjects.
Types of mood lighting
Mood lighting can come in several variations ranging from ambient, natural, or artificial lighting.
References
Further reading
Kuijsters, Andre, et al. “Lighting to Make You Feel Better: Improving the Mood of Elderly People with Affective Ambiences.” PLoS ONE, vol. 10, no. 7, 2015, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132732.
Ohio State University. (2013, August 6). What color is your night light? It may affect your mood. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 8, 2017 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/08/130806203150.htm
Shin, Yu-Bin, et al. “The effect on emotions and brain activity by the direct/Indirect lighting in the residential environment.” Neuroscience Letters, vol. 584, 1 Jan. 2015, pp. 28–32., doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2014.09.046.
Lighting
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Brad Turner (1968) kanadai profi jégkorongozó
Brad Turner (?) kanadai rendező, producer
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No htamin (; , also known in English as milk rice) is a festive rice dish in Burmese cuisine, typically associated with celebratory occasions and generally regarded for its restorative properties.
Buttered rice uses long-grained paw hsan hmwe or basmati rice, and is cooked with milk, shallots, butter, salt, and optionally with spices such as garam masala, cumin and aniseed. It is typically eaten with Burmese curries.
See also
List of rice dishes
References
Burmese cuisine
Foods featuring butter
Rice dishes
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The thick-billed raven (Corvus crassirostris), a corvid from the Horn of Africa, shares with the common raven the distinction of being the largest bird in the corvid family, and indeed the largest of the passerines. The thick-billed raven averages in length, with a range of and weighs approximately in females and in males on average. Its size is about the same as the largest subspecies of common raven (i.e. those from the Himalayas and Greenland/Canadian Northwest Atlantic) but some common raven subspecies are rather smaller and, going on average weights, the thick-billed raven is likely the heaviest extant passerine. The thick-billed raven is about 25% heavier on average than the Australasian superb lyrebird, which is sometimes erroneously titled the largest passerine.
It has a very large bill that is laterally compressed and is deeply curved in profile giving the bird a very distinctive appearance. This bill, the largest of any passerine at in length, is black with a white tip and has deep nasal grooves with only light nasal bristle covers. This raven has very short feathers on the head, throat and neck. The throat and upper breast have an oily brown gloss, while the rest of the bird is glossy black except for a distinctive white patch of feathers on the nape and onto the neck.
Distribution and habitat
Its range covers Eritrea, Somalia and Ethiopia; its habitat includes mountains and high plateau between elevations of 1,500 to 3,400 metres. It is one of several avian species endemic to northeastern tropical Africa.
Behaviour
Diet
The thick-billed raven is omnivorous, feeding on grubs, beetle larvae from animal dung, carrion, scraps of meat and human food. It has been seen taking standing wheat. When seeking food from dung, it has been seen using a distinct scything movement to scatter the dung and extract the grubs.
Nesting
It nests in trees and on cliffs, apparently building a stick nest like the similar and much more widely distributed and studied white-necked raven. It lays three to five eggs. In one case, thick-billed ravens were observed to vigorously displace predatory Verreaux's eagle owls from their nest area.
Voice
Its calls include a harsh nasal croak, a low wheezy croak, a "raven-raven", and sometimes a "dink, dink, dink" sound. Like many corvids, the thick-billed raven is capable of vocal mimicry; however, this behavior is rare in the wild, and is normally recorded only in captivity.
References
External links
Thick-billed Raven videos, photos & sounds on the Macaulay Library
thick-billed raven
thick-billed raven
Birds of the Horn of Africa
thick-billed raven
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This is a list of late night talk show hosts in America.
See also
List of late-night American network TV programs
References
American late-night television shows
American television talk show hosts
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The White Flag Case is a court case in which the former Sri Lankan Army chief Sarath Fonseka was prosecuted for an interview which he gave to Frederica Jansz, editor of the Sunday Leader, in which he is stated to have said that surrendering Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) cadres were executed and not allowed to surrender on the orders of Gotabaya Rajapaksa. He was convicted and jailed for 3 years imprisonment for that interview. A three bench court, in which Deepali Wijesundera was one of three judges of Colombo High Court trial-at-bar, delivered the verdict.
References
Sri Lankan case law
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To be scared is to have fear.
Scared may also refer to:
Film and television
Scared!, a paranormal reality TV series
Scared (film), a 2005 Thai horror film
Music
Scared Records, an American record label
"Scared" (The Tragically Hip song), 1995
"Scared", a song by Ashanti from Ashanti, 2002
"Scared", a song by John Lennon from Walls and Bridges, 1974
"Scared", a song by Paul McCartney from New, 2013
"Scared", a song by Three Days Grace from Three Days Grace, 2003
"Scared", a song by Zendaya from Zendaya, 2013
Scared, an EP by Swingin' Utters, 1992
Acronyms
Screen for child anxiety related disorders, a screening measure for anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents
See also
Scary (disambiguation)
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South Asians are part of the Hong Kong society. As of the 2021 by-census, there were at least 101,969 persons of South Asian descent in Hong Kong. Many trace their roots in Hong Kong as far back as when India was still under British colonial rule and as a legacy of the British Empire, their nationality issues remain largely unsettled. However, recently an increasing number of them have acquired Chinese nationality.
Nationality and right of abode
Indians in Hong Kong include citizens of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and a small number of stateless persons and naturalised citizens of the People's Republic of China. As a result, many of them also become British National (Overseas) or British citizens.
British nationality
According to the statistics of the Republic of India's High Level Committee on Indian Diaspora, among Hong Kong residents there are 22,000 Indian citizens and 28,500 non-citizen Persons of Indian Origin (people with origins in British India, including places which lie outside today's Republic of India, and having citizenships of countries other than the Republic of India. Note that this number may include people who consider themselves as Pakistanis, Nepalis, or other South Asian nationalities). The citizenship of Hong Kong residents of Indian descent who lacked Republic of India citizenship was a major point of contention in the years leading up to the handover. Many Indians had settled in Hong Kong, taking it as their only home and naturalising as Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs). This status initially made no distinctions between residents of the United Kingdom and elsewhere, but from the 1960s onwards a number of nationality acts successively scraped away the privileges it offered, creating a class of CUKCs who had no right of abode in the United Kingdom itself. Eventually in 1981, these restrictions were codified in a new class of British citizenship, the British Dependent Territories Citizenship (BDTC). Furthermore, as this status would cease to be effective after the 1997 handover, the British government created the new status of British National, a restricted form of British nationality which also did not grant right of abode in the United Kingdom. By 1985, out of about 14,000 Indians settled in Hong Kong, 6,000 were BDTCs.
Unlike the majority people of Chinese descent, who were seen by the incoming Chinese administration as always having been Chinese citizens, the ethnic minorities, including South Asians, would be left only with BN(O) status, which amounted to effective statelessness due to the lack of guarantee of returnability to the United Kingdom or anywhere else and the lack of ability to pass the status on to descendants beyond one generation. With their citizenship in limbo, by the 1990s many Indians in Hong Kong reportedly would not even marry among themselves, preferring to look overseas for potential spouses with foreign passports. Some rich South Asians were granted full British citizenship under the British Nationality Selection Scheme, but the Home Office opposed a blanket grant for fears of the precedent it might set. Younger Indians formed lobbying groups such as the Indian Resources Group to press their case with the British government. They emphasised that their members had not applied for emigration to other countries such as Canada or the United States, and would be unlikely to settle in Britain were they granted citizenship; instead, they intended to remain in Hong Kong and believed that British citizenship would facilitate this aim.
In the end, the British government formally agreed to grant citizenship to any BN(O), BDTC, or other British subject who had no other citizenship on 4 February 1997. Thus, most stateless people of Indian origin were able to obtain British citizen passports. However, confusion over the interaction of British and Indian nationality laws effectively rendered this promise useless in roughly 200 cases, all minors who had acquired Indian citizenship at birth and later became BN(O)s by registration. Indian nationality law provides that any Indian citizen acquiring foreign citizenship by naturalisation or registration loses his citizenship of India; only Indians who acquired foreign citizenship by reason of birth could hold dual citizenship. The Indian government stated that people who had acquired BN(O) status by birth remained Indian citizens until age 18. However, BN(O) status is not acquired by birth, meaning that every single Indian adult or minor who registered as a BN(O) lost his Indian citizenship. Notwithstanding that, the British Home Office used the Indian government's statement as a basis for denying full British citizenship to people who were minors on 4 February 1997; the Home Office misunderstood India's dual citizenship provisions to mean that they were still entitled to Indian citizenship on that date, when in fact they were not. More than a decade after the handover, they have not naturalised as Chinese citizens; instead, they continue to hold only BN(O) passports in hopes of being able to attain the full British citizenship that was promised to them.
Chinese nationality
A small proportion of Indians have availed themselves of naturalisation as Chinese citizens, which according to law can be requested by any Hong Kong permanent resident who has Chinese relatives, who has settled there, or who has other legitimate reasons, and who is willing to renounce all foreign citizenships.
The Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China began to apply in the HKSAR when it was established on 1 July 1997 in accord with Hong Kong Basic Law Article 18 and Annex III, with some differences from the application of the same law in mainland China, due to explanations of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. That put the Immigration Department in charge of administering the Nationality Law within the SAR.
Although China did not agree to a blanket grant of citizenship to South Asians settled in Hong Kong, it empowered the Hong Kong Immigration Department to naturalise Hong Kong residents as Chinese citizens. Prior to 2002, the Hong Kong Immigration Department discouraged South Asians and other ethnic minorities from taking this course, with immigration officers reportedly refusing to even give them the forms to fill in (thus they would not show up in rejection statistics). It took until December 2002 to see the first case of successful naturalisation application by an ethnic minority resident with no Chinese relatives, an Indian girl, followed by a Pakistani man.
Other high-profile South Asians such as aspiring politician Abdull Ghafar Khan and the wife of Gill Mohindepaul Singh have continued to experience rejections of their naturalisation applications as well, leading to an August 2012 letter of concern from then-Equal Opportunities Commissioner Eden Lam to the Immigration Department. Several affected South Asian residents contacted their legislators seeking relief, leading to a Legislative Council question later that year by Claudia Mo of the Civic Party to Secretary for Security Lai Tung-kwok. Lai's response revealed that from July 1997 to November 2012, Pakistanis and Indians formed more than half of the applicants for naturalisation and had an approval rate higher than Vietnamese or Filipinos, but far lower than the applicant pool excluding those four groups.
Immigration Department statistics provided to the Legislative Council at various times show that from July 1997 to April 2005, only 552 Indian citizens applied for naturalisation as Chinese citizens, while from May 2005 to November 2012, nearly five times as many (2,672) applied. In total, among the 3,224 Indians who applied for naturalisation from July 1997 to November 2012, 2,487 (77.1%) had their applications accepted. Persons of Indian origin who are citizens of China, or any of whose ancestors were ever citizens of China, are not eligible to obtain a Persons of Indian Origin Card.
Those who are born in Hong Kong to stateless parents are entitled to Chinese nationality at birth under Article 6 of the Chinese nationality law.
Languages
The South Asians of Hong Kong are usually multilingual, with many attaining trilingual fluency or more. Most are fluent in both English and a mother tongue (such as Sindhi, Gujarati or Punjabi) and many are fluent in Hindi, Pashto and/or Urdu as well. In addition, some may also study Sanskrit, Arabic or (for the Parsis) Avestan for religious reasons. The command of Cantonese is more variable; one 2006 survey of South Asian parents with children attending school in Hong Kong showed that more than 80% were illiterate in Chinese, while 60% could not speak Cantonese at all.
Among respondents to the 2011 Census who self-identified as Indian, 37.2% stated that they spoke English as their usual language, 4.6% Cantonese, and 57.9% some other language. With regards to additional spoken languages other than their usual language, 52.0% stated that they spoke English, 30.7% Cantonese, and 7.0% Mandarin. (Multiple responses were permitted to the latter question, hence the responses are non-exclusive.) 10.8% did not speak English as either their usual language nor an additional language, while the respective figures for Cantonese and Mandarin were 64.7% and 93.0%.
Occupational history
Some famous Indians are Hormusjee Naorojee Mody, Dorabjee Naorojee Mithaiwala, Hari Harilela and Jehangir Hormusjee Ruttonjee who arrived independently in the course of trade from Bombay, Gujarat and Karachi (Sindh).
In the pre-war period, most of the Indians took part in the army. Before the Second World War, nearly 60% of the police forces were Sikhs. Also, some Indians have established businesses in Hong Kong. The Harilela family runs one of the best-known business groups.
After the war, the number of Indians taking up positions at government sections had declined as most of the Indians were no longer citizens of the British colony after India gained independence in 1947. A large number of Sikh policemen left Hong Kong and about 150 Punjabi Muslim and Pathan worked in the police force in 1952. Meanwhile, other Indian communities such as Marwaris and Tamil Muslims came to Hong Kong for trading.
More Indians stepped into the fields like international companies, banking, airlines, travel agents, medical, media and insurance sector. The banking and financial sector had the strongest presence of Indian professionals. Information technology and telecommunications have also interested highly qualified Indians. In the 1950s, tailoring had become an industry that was popular with Indians and around 200 tailoring shops were owned by them at that time. After 2005, there have been a growing number of diamond merchants from Gujarat who have settled in Hong Kong and have formed groups like Tamil Cultural Association (TCAHK), Hong Kong Indian Diamond Association (HKIDA), Sarjan Group, GGHK group and Gujarati Samaj for sports and cultural activities. After 2019 Hong Kong banks closed many business accounts of Gujarati diamond merchants due to fraud and money laundering. It has been difficult for new diamonds merchants to open business bank account due to money laundering ex: nirav modi case: Nirav Modi group's exposure was not limited to only PNB's Brady House branch in Mumbai, as the firms had availed loan facility from its Hong Kong and Dubai branches too, according to an internal report of the bank submitted to investigative agencies. As per the report, Nirav Modi group companies Firestar Diamond Ltd Hong Kong and Firestar Diamond FZE Dubai availed some credit facilities from the Hong Kong and Dubai branches of Punjab National Bank (PNB) as well. Hong Kong banks has been closely monitoring there diamonds business after these cases.
Life in Hong Kong
The Indians scattered and worked in different areas of Hong Kong. Some of them are permanent citizens. They are one of the ethnic minorities in Hong Kong with diverse cultures, languages and religions.
Diversity of work
For most Indians in Hong Kong, occupations vary according to their education level and family status. The majority of them are managers, administrative officers, and specialists in technological fields like engineers.
(Source: “香港南亞裔概況”, the Census and Statistics Department, 2001)
The percentage of Indians earning less than $4,000 per month or more than $30,000 per month is higher than that in the total working force of Hong Kong, or other South Asian nationalities. This reveals a bimodal income distribution.
(Source: “香港南亞裔概況”, the Census and Statistics Department, 2001)
Labour legislation in Hong Kong
The Employment Agencies Administration of the Labour Department is responsible for administering Part XII of the Employment Ordinance and the Employment Agency Regulations. They co-operate with some Individual Consulate Generals in Hong Kong to process contracts for workers while the absence of the participation of India may make it more difficult for the Indians to get a job in Hong Kong through the institutions.
Local Indians have integrated well in Hong Kong. They are not only physically rooted in Hong Kong, but also a part of Hong Kong society. They engage in talk shows, dramas, art exhibitions or TV programs. Also, there is a group of Sikhs who set up the Sahib Sri Guru Gobind Singh Ji Educational Trust for the local Indians.
History
Historic links between the India and Hong Kong can be traced back to the founding days of British Hong Kong.
Sikhs soldiers participated at the flag raising ceremony at Possession Point, Hong Kong in 1841 when the Captain Elliot declared Hong Kong a British possession. Sikhs, Parsis and other South Asians made many contributions to the well-being of Hong Kong. The earliest policemen in Hong Kong were Indians (Sikhs) and the present police force still have some few South Asians, as well as Europeans. The top Hong Kong civil servant was once an Indian, Harnam Singh Grewal (a Sikh), whose family history in Hong Kong dates back to the late 1800s, was the Secretary for Transport and the Secretary for Civil Service in the 1980s.
Many of Hong Kong's century old institutions have been founded with considerable South Asian participation, as the following examples suggest. The University of Hong Kong was founded on funds partially provided by an Indian, Sir H.N. Mody, a close friend of the then governor. The 100-year-old Star Ferry was founded by Dorabji Naorojee. South Asians also founded the Ruttonjee Hospital, Emmanuel Belilos (a Baghdadi Jew) was one of the founders of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, while Sir Lawrence Kadoorie owned the China Light and Power Company. Hari Harilela (a Sindhi) owned the Holiday Inn Golden Mile, while the Chellaram family is in the shipping industry.
Early history
Indian traders and the British East India Company had already commenced commercial activities in Macau (1654) and Canton (1771) long before Hong Kong became a British colony in 1841. At the time when the Union Jack flag was hoisted in January 1841 there were around 2,700 soldiers and 4 merchants from the Indian subcontinent. Indian troops and traders played an important role in the early development of Hong Kong. In the early years of British Hong Kong, the Indian gold mohur and the rupee were legal tender. Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) was created in 1864 with 2 Parsees and 1 Indian Jew among the 13 founding committee members. In 1877, 43.24% of goods imported into Hong Kong were from India and 17.62% of exports from Hong Kong went to India. By 1913, trade with India had effectively collapsed with Hong Kong importing just 13.78% from India while exports from Hong Kong were reduced to 2.30%. Indian businessmen were engaged in society building in Hong Kong through significant philanthropic contributions: Hormusjee Nowrojee Mody figured prominently in the founding of University of Hong Kong (HKU). Star Ferry was founded by Abdoolally Ebrahim in 1842 and developed by Dorabjee Naorojee from 1888. Staff for the engineering services of the Kowloon–Canton Railway were recruited from India. Prior to World War II, 60% of the police force were Sikhs from Punjab. In 1949, Jehangir Hormusjee Ruttonjee founded Ruttonjee Sanatorium. Large number of Indians served in the military, police and prison services of British Hong Kong till India gained independence from Britain on 15 August 1947. In 1952 business leaders of the Indian community founded the Indian Chamber of Commerce Hong Kong (ICCHK). It aims to promote and improve the image of Indian trade in Hong Kong and Southern China. As early as 1955, India was asked by Governor Alexander Grantham to weigh-in on China as to the well-being of Hong Kong residents when the colony would revert to China.
Indian Army in Hong Kong
Soldiers of the East-India Company, British Raj and Princely States in the Indian subcontinent were crucial in securing and defending Hong Kong as a crown colony for Britain. Examples of troops from the Indian sub-continent include the 1st Travancore Nair Infantry, 59th Madras Native Infantry, 26th Bengal Native Infantry, 5th Light Infantry, 40th Pathans, 6th Rajputana Rifles, 11th Rajputs, 10th Jats, 72nd Punjabis, 12th Madras Native Infantry, 38th Madras Native Infantry, Indian Medical Service, Indian Hospital Corps, Royal Indian Army Service Corps, etc. Large contingents of troops from India were garrisoned in Hong Kong right from the start of British Hong Kong and until after World War II. Contributions by the Indian military services in Hong Kong suffer from the physical decay of battle-sites, destruction of documentary archives and sources of information, questionable historiography, conveniently lopsided narratives, unchallenged confabulation of urban myths and incomplete research within academic circles in Hong Kong, Britain and India. Despite high casualties among troops from the British Raj during the Battle of Hong Kong, their contributions are either minimised or ignored. One exception to this is an article by Chandar S. Sundaram, which details the December 1940 mutiny of Sikh gunners of the Hong Kong and Singapore Royal Artillery (HKSRA). This mutiny was caused by Major-General A.E. Grassett, the officer Commanding British Forces in China ordering all troops under his command to carry and possibly wear steel helmets. At this, Sikhs, whose martial identity was predicated on unshorn hair tied up in a turban, mutinied peacefully. Although the tense situation was defused, anti-British disaffection was found to be present amongst Sikh policemen in Hong Kong. Two of the Sikh "troublemakers" rounded-up by the authorities escaped. Making their way to Japanese-occupied Canton, they asked for transport to Bangkok, where they could join their colleagues in the Indian Independent League, an organization, mainly of expatriate Sikhs, who were dedicated to the expulsion of the British from India, by violent means if need be. This connection eventually led to the formation of the Japanese-sponsored Indian National Army. The use of generic words such as "Allied", "British", "Commonwealth" fails to highlight that a significant number of soldiers who defended Hong Kong were from India. Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) Sai Wan War Cemetery references the graves of Indian troops as "Commonwealth" soldiers. War office records about the Battle of Hong Kong are yet to be fully released online. Transcripts of proceedings from war tribunals held in Hong Kong from 1946 to 1948 by British Military Courts remain mostly confined to archives and specialised museums.
Hong Kong Happy Valley Hindu and Sikh Cremation Memorial
Located on the hillside behind the Hindu Temple at 1B Wong Nei Chong Road (opposite side from the Happy Valley Racecourse) there exists a Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) memorial to 8 Hindu and Sikh soldiers whose mortal remains were cremated at the cremation ground behind the Hindu temple. A large white granite obelisk bearing the names of eight Indian soldiers who served in Hong Kong to assist with colonial defence of the Hong Kong garrison during the First World War. As with Commonwealth War Graves Commissions (CWGC) memorials all over the world, the military memorial is open to the general public and access is through the staircase at the rear of the Hindu Temple.
Hong Kong Happy Valley Muslim Cemetery
The Happy Valley Muslim Cemetery contains 24 graves of South Asians from the Indian sub-continent who died during World War I and World War II. Section 1 of the cemetery at Happy Valley contains a special memorial to Muslims who died during both World Wars.
World War II
During World War II, soldiers of the Indian Army were involved in the Battle of Hong Kong. Indian troops were also incorporated within several overseas regiments as for example the Hong Kong Singapore Royal Artillery Regiment which had Sikh gunners.
US Consul Robert Ward, the highest ranking US official posted to Hong Kong at the outbreak of hostilities, bluntly evaluated the performance of Hong Kong Garrison in December 1941: "when the real fighting came it was the British soldiery that broke and ran. The Eurasians fought well and so did the Indians but the Kowloon line broke when the Royal Scots gave way. The same thing happened on the mainland".
Political context
Public sentiment in the Indian subcontinent, solely preoccupied with gaining independence from Britain, made it impossible for the Viceroy of India to obtain political consensus for entry into World War II by British India thereafter; the Indians were reluctant to be drawn into war in Europe and elsewhere for the defence of Britain's colonial territories. The unilateral declaration of India's entry into the war by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, without consultation with elected leaders of the provincial assemblies in India, led to civil disobedience campaigns and calls for immediate independence from Britain. Some Indians, including soldiers serving overseas as personnel of the British Indian Army, were receptive to calls by Congress President Subhas Chandra Bose to join the Indian National Army of the Indian Independence League. Sikhs serving with the British Indian Army had customarily been permitted to retain their turbans in accordance to their religious traditions. Orders to wear steel helmets issued to Sikh soldiers of the British Indian Army sent to serve in Hong Kong with the 12th heavy regiment of the Royal Artillery Hong Kong Battery - ended in revolt in 1941 with many troops being charged with mutiny. British India participated in the war effort both at the planning stages (Eastern Group Supply Council) and in combat operations throughout Asia.
Battle of Hong Kong
The 5th Battalion of the 7th Rajput Regiment and 2nd Battalion of the 14th Punjab Regiment suffered the heaviest combat losses amongst all troop formations of the British Empire when the Imperial Japanese Army overran Hong Kong. Imperial Japanese Army committed atrocities against Indian civilians and soldiers during the Battle of Hong Kong.
Internment camps in Hong Kong for Indian POWs
Japanese occupation of Hong Kong saw Indians interred in significant numbers at Sham Shui Po Barracks, Argyle Street Camp, Ma Tau Chung, Stanley Internment Camp, North Point Camp and Gun Club Hill Barracks. Indian civilians sent food parcels to POWs interred at Stanley Internment Camp. Indians were posted on guard duty as sentries at internment camps. At the end of February 1942, the Japanese government stated that it held 3829 Indian prisoners of war in Hong Kong out of a total of 10947. Noteworthy Indian POWs who distinguished themselves during internment include Captain Mateen Ahmed Ansari of 5/7 Rajput Regiment and Subedar-Major Haider Rehinan Khan of 2/14 Punjab Regiment. The stories of Indian survivors of the Battle of Hong Kong are yet to be published.
Hongkongers of South Asian origin
Hari Harilela, chairman of the Harilela Group
Vivek Mahbubani, stand-up comedian and TV presenter
Anjali Rao - journalist & TV news program host
Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody (12 October 1838 – 16 June 1911), businessman; donated a large sum of money to help establish the University of Hong Kong
Dorabjee Naorojee Mithaiwala, founder of the Star Ferry
Gill Mohindepaul Singh, actor
Paul Chater, businessman and philanthropist
Bhavna Rai, author of Fate Fraud and a Friday Wedding
Nabela Qoser, first non-ethnic Chinese reporter and presenter of Chinese-language news
Rejena Simkhada, singer
See also
Hinduism in Hong Kong
Khalsa Diwan Sikh Temple
Pakistanis in China
Sindhi diaspora
Battle of Hong Kong (Contribution of troops from the Indian subcontinent to the defence of Hong Kong)
Ruttonjee Hospital
References
Further reading
Kwok S. T., Narain, K. (2003). Co-Prosperity in Cross-Culturalism: Indians in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: The Commercial Press (H.K.) Ltd.
香港明愛青少年及社區服務九龍社區中心. (2006). 香港南亞裔概況. 香港: 香港明愛青少年及社區服務九龍社區中心.
Rubinoff, Janet A. "Indians in Hong Kong: Citizenship After 1997?" Canada and Hong Kong Update (加港研究通訊 P: Jiā Gǎng Yánjiū Tōngxùn) 4 (Spring 1991). p. 9–10 (PDF document: p. 59-60/224). PDF version (Archive), txt file (Archive).
External links
HK marchers demand more English
'Top Chinese comedian in Hong Kong is an Indian', by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily News & Analysis, 27 February 2008.
'An Indian show-biz star in Hong Kong', by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily News & Analysis, 23 October 2007.
Shailesh DABHI, Sahajanand diam limited.
Hong Kong society
Asian diaspora in Hong Kong
South Asian diaspora
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The 2005–06 CEV Women's Champions League was the highest level of European club volleyball in the 2005–06 season.
Group stage
Pool A
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Pool B
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Play-off 6
1st leg 14–15 February 2006
2nd leg 21–23 February 2006
Final four
venue: Cannes, France
dates: 18–19 March 2006
Semi-finals
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Third place match
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Final
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Final standing
Awards
MVP: Victoria Ravva, RC Cannes
Best Scorer: Neslihan Darnel, Vakıfbank Günes Istanbul
Best Spiker: Mirka Francia, Sirio Perugia
Best Server: Angelina Grün, Foppapedretti Bergamo
Best Blocker: Angelica Ljungqvist, RC Cannes
Best Setter: Hélia Souza, Sirio Perugia
Best Libero: Yuko Sano, RC Cannes
See also
2005–06 CEV Champions League
External links
Official website
CEV Women's Champions League
CEV Women's Champions League
CEV Women's Champions League
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Open space may refer to:
In architecture, urban planning and conservation ethics:
Open plan, a generic term used in interior design for any floor plan, especially in workspaces, which makes use of large, open spaces and minimizes the use of small, enclosed rooms
Landscape, areas of land without human-built structures
Open space reserve, areas of protected or conserved land on which development is indefinitely set aside
Urban open space, urban areas of protected or conserved land on which development is indefinitely set aside
Greenway (landscape), a linear chain of open space reserves or a recreational corridor through the same
Public space, areas left open for the use of the public, such as a piazza, plaza, park, and courtyard
In business:
Open Space Technology, a procedure for conducting a business conference
In other uses:
Open Space (band), an indie rock band from Minsk, Belarus
Open Space (Italy), a faction within the Italian political party The People of Freedom
Open Space (magazine), magazine of the Open Spaces Society in the UK
Open Space (TV programme), a BBC TV programme produced by their Community Programme Unit
Open Space (publications), a music publishing collective
Open Space Theatre, a defunct London theatre run by Charles Marowitz
Open Space Technology, a method for organizing a participant-driven conference
See also
Outer space
Floor area ratio
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Sellia is een geslacht van weekdieren uit de klasse van de Gastropoda (slakken).
Soort
Sellia miocaenica Kókay, 2006 †
Hydrobiidae
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The Bayer designation Pi Columbae (π Col / π Columbae) may refer to either the star or star system in the constellation Columba:
Pi1 Columbae (star)
Pi2 Columbae (star system)
Columbae, Pi
Columba (constellation)
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A takedown gun (typically a takedown rifle or takedown shotgun) is a long gun designed to be taken apart significantly reducing its length, making it easier to store, pack, transport and conceal. A variety of barrel, stock, and receiver designs have been invented to facilitate takedown. For example, the hinged design of many break-action firearms allows takedown. Some regular firearms can be modified to allow takedown after custom gunsmithing.
Rifles
American gun manufacturers including Marlin, Ruger, Savage, and Winchester have made takedown rifles since the late 1800s. Some early examples include the Browning 22 Semi-Auto rifle, Remington Model 24 and Remington Model 8 made by Fabrique Nationale and Remington Arms. Many militaries in the early 20th century also experimented with takedown systems, particularly for the use by paratroopers. An example of this being the Japanese experimental TERA Rifles.
Shotguns
Most single barrel and double barrel shotguns readily break down into separate buttstock, barrel and forestock and are often transported cased as takedown guns. Among repeating shotguns, the Winchester Model 97 and Model 12 shotguns were factory made as takedown guns. Savage also makes a series of takedown over/under rifle/shotgun combination guns.
Survival guns
Survival guns such as the ArmaLite AR-7 may be disassembled and its barrel, action and magazines stored within its plastic butt-stock. This lightweight , .22 caliber (5.6 mm), semi-automatic rifle measures overall when assembled, when disassembled and can even float. Although the AR-7 was designed as a pilot and aircrew survival weapon, it is commonly used by target shooters and backpackers, and is frequently stowed away in vehicles and boats.
See also
Poacher's gun, the 18th century precursor to the takedown rifle
References
Carmichel, Jim. . Outdoor Life. Feb 1, 2004. Accessed 2008-06-16.
Firearm construction
Rifles
Shotguns
Takedown gun
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Eric Battle (né en à Philadelphie) est un dessinateur de bande dessinée afro-américain qui a travaillé pour DC Comics et Marvel Comics.
Notes et références
Annexes
Bibliographie
.
Liens externes
Naissance en 1967
Naissance à Philadelphie
Dessinateur américain de bande dessinée
Dessinateur de comic book
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The Chinese Crested Dog is a hairless breed of dog. Like most hairless dog breeds, the Chinese Crested Dog comes in three varieties, without hair, with hair and a combination of the two, which can be born in the same litter: the Hairless, the Powderpuff and the Hairy Hairless.
Description
The Chinese Crested is considered a small breed, weighing on average .
At first look, the Hairless and Powderpuff varieties of Chinese Crested Dogs appear to be two different breeds, but hairlessness is an incomplete dominant trait within a single breed. The Hairless has soft, humanlike skin, as well as tufts of hair on its paws ("socks") and tail ("plume") and long, flowing hair on its head ("crest"). In addition to being an incomplete dominant gene, the "hairless" gene has a prenatal lethal effect when homozygous. Zygotes affected with double hairless genes never develop into puppies, and are reabsorbed in the womb. All Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs are therefore heterozygous.
The Hairless variety can vary in amount of body hair. Hair on the muzzle, known as a beard, is not uncommon. A true Hairless often does not have as much furnishings (hair on the head, tail, and paws). The difference between a very hairy Hairless and a Powderpuff is that the Hairless has a single coat with hairless parts on the body, while the Powderpuff has a thick double coat. The skin of the Hairless comes in a variety of colors, ranging from a pale flesh to black. Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs often lack a full set of premolar teeth, but this is not considered a fault.
A Powderpuff has a long, soft coat. Both Hairless and Powderpuff varieties can appear in the same litter. The look of the Powderpuff varies according to how it is groomed. When its hair is completely grown out on its face, it strongly resembles a terrier; however, the Powderpuff is usually shaved around the snout as a standard cut. The Powderpuff Chinese Crested Dog is an elegant and graceful dog who makes a loving companion, playful and entertaining. The Powderpuff's coat is long and silky soft. Ears are large and erect.
The amount of body hair on the Hairless variety varies quite extensively, from the true hairless which has very little or no body hair and furnishings, to what is called a "Hairy Hairless" dog, which, if left ungroomed, often grows a near-full coat of hair. These Hairy Hairless dogs are not a mix between Powderpuffs and Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs, but are merely a result of a weaker expression of the variable Hairless gene. The mutation responsible for the hairless trait was identified in 2008.
Care
Both varieties require certain amounts of grooming. The Powderpuff is entirely covered with a double, very soft, straight coat. Although a Powderpuff's coat does not continuously grow, it can grow to be quite long at full length; a weekly bath and frequent brushing typically helps to prevent matting. For an optimal coat, it is recommended not to brush the dog's coat when dry or dirty, as a light spray of water or grooming spray to their coat is recommended before brushing. Many choose to shave their Powderpuff in a "Pony Cut" leaving long hair on the bottom of legs, tail, head and crest for an easy care coat. Powderpuffs are very clean and have no odor. The breed has "little to no shedding".
Maintenance of the Hairless variety's skin is similar to maintaining human skin and as such it can be susceptible to acne, dryness, and sunburn. Hypoallergenic or oil-free moisturizing cream can keep the skin from becoming too dry when applied every other day or after bathing. Burning can occur in regions that are subject to strong UV radiation, especially in lighter-skinned dogs. Many owners apply baby sunscreen to their pets before spending time in strong sun. Some Chinese Crested Dogs have skin allergies to lanolin.
Unless the dog is a "true" Hairless (one with virtually no hair growth on non-extremities), trimming and/or shaving is often performed to remove excess hair growth.
The Chinese Crested Dog is further distinguished by its hare foot (having more elongated toes), as opposed to the cat foot common to most other dogs. Because of this, the quicks of Cresteds run deeper into their nails, so care must be taken not to trim the nails too short to avoid pain and bleeding.
Powderpuffs enjoy getting outdoors for daily exercise, although they are not a high energy breed. Being a very intelligent breed, this dog does well in obedience type sports. Consistency is a must; however, this breed can be relatively sensitive and should have a gentle trainer. The Powderpuff is great at learning and performing tricks.
Health
The Powderpuff is not affected by many of the congenital diseases found in other toy breeds. They are, however, prone to some of these conditions listed. Eye problems such as lens luxation, glaucoma, and PRA (Progressive Retinal Atrophy), luxating patellas, and Legg-Perthes disease. The Powderpuff should have full dentition, not missing or crooked teeth, as is accepted in their sibling the Hairless variety.
Chinese Crested Dogs have what is called a "primitive mouth". This means that most of their teeth are pointy, like their canines. Hairless varieties of the Cresteds can be prone to poor dentition. Poor dentition may include missing or crowded teeth and teeth prone to decay when not properly cared for. Most dogs of the Powderpuff variety have few, if any, dental defects.
Eyes are a concern within the breed, with many suffering from a painful and blinding inherited eye disease called Primary Lens Luxation (PLL). The Chinese Crested Dog can also have at least two forms of progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) which can eventually lead to blindness as well. For PLL and also one of the forms of PRA, there exists a genetic test, to determine if a dog is a "carrier, clear, or affected." prcd-PRA. Since the test for prcd-PRA can only reveal the existence of affected or carrier status of this one form of PRA, breeders and owners of the breed should still have regular eye exams by veterinary ophthalmologists. The breed also suffers from another eye disease called Keratoconjunctivitis sicca or dry eye syndrome (DES).
Along with Kerry Blue Terriers, Chinese Crested Dogs can develop canine multiple system degeneration (CMSD) also called progressive neuronal abiotrophy (PNA) in Kerry Blue Terriers. This is a progressive movement disorder that begins with cerebellar ataxia between 10 and 14 weeks of age. After 6 months of age, affected dogs develop difficulty initiating movements and fall frequently. The gene responsible has been mapped to canine chromosome 1.
As with all other toy breeds, the Chinese Crested Dog can be prone to patellar luxation. This inheritable condition is caused by shallow knee joints (stifles) and results in kneecaps that pop out of place. Its onset is often at a young age, and can cause temporary to permanent lameness based on the severity. Breeders should have their stock certified free of patellar luxation. Many countries' kennel clubs maintain a centralised registry for health results.
Allergy and autoimmune diseases have been observed in the breed. Some food allergies can also cause skin breakouts, like excess blackheads, pimples and dryness. It has been observed that this breed has an allergy to chicken and many owners opt for a chicken free diet or a homemade one. The severity of these ailments, which can lead to the premature death of the dog, means this is something breeders need to take seriously in order to avoid it becoming a problem for the breed.
Healthy dogs have the following statistics:
Lifespan: 12–14 years, although many have been known to live much longer
Weight: 7–12 lbs/4–5 kg
Height: 10–13 inches/30 cm
Color: Any color or combination of colors
History
Although hairless dogs have been found in many places in the world, it is unlikely that the origins of the modern Chinese Crested Dog are in China. The same genetic mutation shared with the Xoloitzcuintli leads to the theory that they have a shared origin.
It is thought the origins of the modern Chinese Crested dog are either Africa or, more likely, Mexico.
Spanish explorers found Chinese Crested dogs in Mexico and other parts of Central and South America as early as the 1500s. British, French, and Portuguese explorers likewise found the breed in various parts of Africa and Asia during the 1700s and 1800s.
In the 1950s, Debora Wood created the "Crest Haven" kennel and began to purposefully breed and record the lineages of her Chinese Crested Dogs. The famous burlesque dancer Gypsy Rose Lee also bred Chinese Crested Dogs, and upon her death her dogs were incorporated into Crest Haven. These two lines are the true foundation of every Chinese Crested Dog alive today. Ms. Wood also founded the American Hairless Dog Club in 1959, which was eventually incorporated into the American Chinese Crested Club (ACCC) in 1978. The ACCC became the US parent club for the breed when the Chinese Crested Dog was recognized by the American Kennel Club 13 years later, in 1991.
The Chinese Crested Dog was officially recognised by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in 1987 and by the American Kennel Club in 1991.
Breeding
The Hairless allele (the wild type) is a dominant (and homozygous prenatal lethal) trait, while the Powderpuff allele acts as a simple recessive trait in its presence. Zygotes that receive two copies of the Hairless allele will never develop into puppies. Thus, all Chinese Crested Dogs carry at least one copy of the Powderpuff allele.
The Powderpuff trait cannot be bred out because it is carried by all Chinese Crested Dogs (even the hairless ones). All Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs have the ability to produce Powderpuff puppies, even when they are bred to another Hairless. On the other hand, a Powderpuff bred to another Powderpuff can never produce hairless puppies, since they do not carry the Hairless gene.
In popular culture
One famous Chinese Crested Dog was the Hairless purebred named Sam. He was the winner of the World's Ugliest Dog Contest from 2003 to 2005; he died before he could compete in 2006. Other Chinese Crested Dogs, either purebreds or mixes, have finished high in the event as well.
Some Chinese Crested Dogs have also appeared as characters in movies and TV shows such as,
Peek from Cats & Dogs and Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore
Fluffy from 102 Dalmatians
Romeo from Hotel for Dogs
Halston from Ugly Betty
Reinaldo from New York Minute
Krull the Warrior King from How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days
Otis from Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure
Lackey from Good Boy!
Bobby from The Young and the Restless
Zelda from Spooky Buddies
Dr. Kozak from The Shaggy Dog
Iris from Mighty Mike
See also
Companion dog
Dogs portal
Lap dog
List of dog breeds
Toy Group
References
External links
FCI breeds
Companion dogs
Toy dogs
Hairless dogs
Dog breeds originating in China
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La Parva is a town and ski resort located about northeast of the Chilean capital of Santiago. It is in the middle ridge of the "3 Valleys" resorts that also includes El Colorado and Valle Nevado.
References
External links
official site
Ski areas and resorts in Chile
Sports venues in Santiago Metropolitan Region
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Odin Valley () is an ice free valley immediately east of Mount Odin in the Asgard Range, Victoria Land. Named by New Zealand Antarctic Place-Names Committee (NZ-APC) in association with Mount Odin.
Valleys of Victoria Land
McMurdo Dry Valleys
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A sideboard, side deck, or side is a set of cards in a collectible card game that are separate from a player's primary deck. It is used to customize a match strategy against an opponent by enabling a player to change the composition of the playing deck.
Magic: The Gathering
In Magic: The Gathering, a player may have a playing deck and an optional sideboard or "side". In a constructed deck format, a sideboard may have up to 15 cards, and the playing deck and sideboard combined may have no more than four copies of one card excepting basic lands. Previous versions of the rules required the optional sideboard to contain exactly 15 cards, and for players to agree to their use before a match. This rule was changed with the prerelease of the Magic 2014 core set, and became standard effective 13 July 2013.
In a limited deck format, all cards not in the playing deck are part of the sideboard, and the playing deck must have at least 40 cards. Constructed Tournaments require a minimum 60 cards in the playing deck, and up to 15 cards in the sideboard. In tournaments, use of the sideboard is the only permitted form of deck alteration, and the list of cards in the sideboard must be registered.
A player may exchange cards between the playing deck and sideboard after any game in a match,
but the "deck and sideboard must each be returned to their original composition" before a new match. This exchange is referred to as sideboarding. The number of cards removed from the playing deck need not be the same as the number of cards added to it from the sideboard, but the changes must satisfy the conditions for minimum playing deck size and maximum sideboard size. A player may inspect any sideboard under their control at any time during a game.
Players must present their sideboard face down to the opponent before a match, and allow the opponent to count the number of cards in the sideboard upon request. The sideboard must be set aside before the playing deck is shuffled, and those cards are considered to be outside the game.
The set of cards to include in a sideboard typically supplement a deck's weakness against certain opponent decks, and can affect the gameplay dynamics of a deck. A sideboard can lack versatility because of the limited number of cards it can contain and the diversity of decks that can be constructed. In a sealed deck or booster draft tournament, one strategy is to "pull the questionable" cards from the deck and place them in the sideboard. Cards typically chosen for a sideboard include those that "fulfill multiple purposes or deal with more than one threat".
A small number of cards allow players to interact with their sideboard. Cards that let the player select cards from "outside the game" are limited to the sideboard in sanctioned tournaments. One famous example is the "wish" cycle.
The expansion set Unglued, cards from which are not sanctioned for tournaments, also contains the cards Jester's Sombrero and Look at Me, I'm the DCI to manipulate cards in the sideboard.
Yu-Gi-Oh!
In the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game, a player may have a playing deck, an "extra deck" consisting of Fusion Monsters, Synchro Monsters, Xyz Monsters, and Link Monsters and an optional side deck of up to 15 cards. A player may exchange any number of cards between the side deck and the playing or extra deck after each duel, but the number of cards in the side deck after the exchange must be the same as the number of cards before the exchange. Versions of the rules before November 2009 did not allow exchanges between the side deck and the extra deck.
Players must show each other their side decks after shuffling and cutting their playing deck, and record the number of cards in the side deck. If a player exchanges cards after a duel during a multi-duel match (such as in tournament play), the player must demonstrate that the number of cards in the side deck has not changed.
A player may have no more than three copies of "a card that has the same name" (such as different versions of the same card) between the playing deck, extra deck, and side deck, two if the card is included in the semi-limited list, one if the card is included in the limited list, and none if the card is in the banned list.
The exchange enables a player to modify the playing deck to suit a game strategy against the opponent.
Defunct card games
Dragon Ball Z
Dragon Ball Z Collectible Card Game allows players to construct a sensei deck in addition to the main playing deck (known as a life deck), which requires the use of a sensei card. The sensei card counts toward the life deck minimum and maximum size, but cards in the sensei deck do not. The sensei card specifies the maximum size of the sensei deck.
When cards are exchanged between the two decks, the player must show the sensei cards to all opponents for confirmation, but need not show the cards removed from the life deck. The cards removed must be taken from the top of the life deck, then the sensei cards must be shuffled into the life deck. If the player fails to remove the sensei cards from the life deck before the subsequent game begins, that game is forfeited to the opponent.
World of Warcraft
The World of Warcraft Trading Card Game allows players to use an optional side deck of up to ten cards in some Constructed deck tournaments, and exactly ten cards in Classic Constructed tournament play. The side deck may contain any card allowed in the playing deck for the tournament, and may be used to exchange cards with the main deck. A maximum of four copies of a card having the same name may be included between the playing deck and side deck except for those that are "unlimited".
In a Limited tournament, the side deck consists of all cards "in a player’s card pool that are not being played in the main deck". If a player's deck consists of fewer than 30 cards in Sealed or Draft formats, that player may not use a side deck. Most competitive World of Warcraft tournaments require players to register the list of cards in the side deck with the organizers. Side decks are not used in Contemporary, Core, and Block tournaments.
There are penalties assigned for an illegal side deck list or an illegal side deck. The former results in a warning from tournament organizers, and the latter in a warning or game loss, depending on the tournament. Failure to remove side deck cards from the playing deck before the next game in a tournament results in a game loss, but may be downgraded to a warning in some circumstances.
Once a game begins, players may not inspect their side decks. Some cards or effects enable interaction with the side deck. The hearthing effect of the Hearthstone card is a modifier affecting all players by which players choose equipment cards from the playing or side deck. In tournaments, the card Through the Dark Portal removes all cards from the game except for those in the side deck, which becomes the new playing deck. The card Arcanist Atikan prevents an opponent from exchanging cards between the playing deck and side deck for all remaining games in the match.
See also
The Sideboard
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Collectible card games
Card game terminology
Magic: The Gathering
Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game
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The 2008 Open Championship was a men's major golf championship and the 137th Open Championship, played from 17 to 20 July at Royal Birkdale Golf Club in Southport, England. Pádraig Harrington successfully defended his Open Championship title, his second; he shot four under par over the final nine holes and was four strokes ahead of runner-up Ian Poulter. Harrington was the last golfer to win the same major back-to-back for a decade until Brooks Koepka won consecutive U.S. Opens in 2017 and 2018.
Television coverage was provided as usual by the BBC in the UK, and by ABC and TNT in the United States.
Field
World Number One Tiger Woods was the most notable absentee, as he was recovering from knee surgery following his victory at the U.S. Open.
About two-thirds of the field each year consists of players that are fully exempt from qualifying for the Open. Below is the list of the exemption categories and the players who are exempt. Each player is classified according to the first category by which he qualified, but other categories are shown in parentheses. Some categories are not shown as all players in that category had already qualified from an earlier category:
1. First 10 and anyone tying for 10th place in the 2007 Open Championship
K. J. Choi (7,15,19), Stewart Cink (7,19), Ben Curtis (3,4), Ernie Els (3,4,5,7,15,19), Sergio García (5,7,14,15), Richard Green, Pádraig Harrington (3,4,5,7), Hunter Mahan (7,15,19), Andrés Romero (5,7), Steve Stricker (7,15,19), Mike Weir (7,19)
2. Past Open Champions born between 20 July 1942 and 19 July 1948
(Eligible but not competing: Tony Jacklin, Johnny Miller, Tom Weiskopf)
3. Past Open Champions aged 60 or under on 20 July 2008
Mark Calcavecchia (15), John Daly, David Duval (4), Todd Hamilton (4), Paul Lawrie (4), Tom Lehman, Justin Leonard (7), Sandy Lyle, Greg Norman, Mark O'Meara (4), Tom Watson (28)
(Eligible but not competing: Ian Baker-Finch, Seve Ballesteros, Nick Faldo, Nick Price, Bill Rogers, Tiger Woods)
4. The Open Champions for 1998-2007
5. First 20 in the PGA European Tour Final Order of Merit for 2007
Ángel Cabrera (7,11,19), Paul Casey (7), Nick Dougherty, Niclas Fasth (7), Retief Goosen (7,11,19), Anders Hansen (6), Søren Hansen (7), Peter Hanson, Grégory Havret, Søren Kjeldsen, Colin Montgomerie, Justin Rose (7,15), Henrik Stenson (7), Richard Sterne (7), Graeme Storm, Lee Westwood (7)
6. The BMW PGA Championship winners for 2006-2008
David Howell, Miguel Ángel Jiménez (7)
7. The first 50 players on the Official World Golf Rankings for Week 21, 2008
Robert Allenby, Stephen Ames (14), Stuart Appleby (19), Woody Austin (15,19), Aaron Baddeley (15), Tim Clark, Jim Furyk (15,19,23), J. B. Holmes, Trevor Immelman (12,19), Zach Johnson (12,15,19), Robert Karlsson, Martin Kaymer, Anthony Kim, Phil Mickelson (12,13,14,15,19), Geoff Ogilvy (11,15,19), Sean O'Hair, Rod Pampling, Ian Poulter, Jeff Quinney, Rory Sabbatini (15,19), Adam Scott (15,19), Vijay Singh (13,15,19), Brandt Snedeker (15), Scott Verplank (15,19), Boo Weekley, Oliver Wilson
(Eligible but not competing: Shingo Katayama, Luke Donald withdrew prior to start of tournament with a wrist injury, Toru Taniguchi withdrew prior to start of tournament with a back injury)
8. First 3 and anyone tying for 3rd place, not exempt having applied above, in the top 20 of the 2008 PGA European Tour Order of Merit on completion of the 2008 BMW PGA Championship
Richard Finch, Graeme McDowell, Damien McGrane
9. First 2 European Tour members and any European Tour members tying for 2nd place, not exempt, in a cumulative money list taken from all official PGA European Tour events from OWGR Week 19 up to and including the Open de France and including the U.S. Open
Pablo Larrazábal, Scott Strange
10. The leading player, not exempt having applied above, in the first 5 and ties of each of the 2008 European Open and the 2008 Barclays Scottish Open.
David Frost, Simon Khan
11. The U.S. Open Champions for 2004-2008
Michael Campbell
12. The U.S. Masters Champions for 2004-2008
13. The U.S. PGA Champions for 2003-2007
(Eligible but not competing: Shaun Micheel)
14. The U.S. PGA Tour Players Champions for 2006-2008
15. Top 20 on the Official Money List of the 2007 PGA Tour
Charles Howell III (19)
16. First 3 and anyone tying for 3rd place, not exempt having applied above, in the top 20 of the Official Money List of the 2008 PGA Tour on completion of the Crowne Plaza Invitational at Colonial
Bart Bryant, Ryuji Imada
17. First 2 PGA Tour members and any PGA Tour members tying for 2nd place, not exempt, in a cumulative money list taken from The Players Championship and the five PGA Tour events leading up to and including the 2008 AT&T National
Rocco Mediate
(Eligible but not competing: Kenny Perry)
18. The leading player, not exempt having applied above, in the first 5 and ties of each of the 2008 AT&T National and the 2008 John Deere Classic
Freddie Jacobson, Jay Williamson
19. Playing members of the 2007 Presidents Cup teams
Lucas Glover, Nick O'Hern (David Toms withdrew prior to start of tournament)
20. First place on the 2007 Asian Tour Order of Merit
Liang Wenchong
21. First 2 on the Order of Merit of the PGA Tour of Australasia for 2007
Craig Parry, David Smail
22. First place on the Order of Merit of the Southern Africa Sunshine Tour for 2007
James Kingston
23. The RBC Canadian Open Champion for 2007
24. The Japan Open Champion for 2007
25. First 2 on the Official Money List of the Japan Golf Tour for 2007
Brendan Jones, Hideto Tanihara
26. The leading 4 players, not exempt, in the 2008 Mizuno Open Yomiuri Classic
Michio Matsumura, Prayad Marksaeng, Yoshinobu Tsukada, Azuma Yano
27. First 2 and anyone tying for 2nd place, not exempt having applied (26) above, in a cumulative money list taken from all official Japan Golf Tour events from the 2008 Japan PGA Championship up to and including the 2008 Mizuno Open Yomiuri Classic
Hiroshi Iwata, Shintaro Kai
28. The Senior British Open Champion for 2007
29. The 2008 Amateur Champion
Reinier Saxton (a)
30. The U.S. Amateur Champion for 2007
(Colt Knost turned professional and forfeited his invitation.)
31. The European Individual Amateur Champion for 2007
Benjamin Hébert (a)
International Final Qualifying
Africa: Josh Cunliffe, Darren Fichardt, Doug McGuigan, Hennie Otto
Australasia: Peter Fowler, Brad Lamb, Ewan Porter, Andrew Tampion
Asia: Adam Blyth, Danny Chia, Lam Chih Bing, Angelo Que
America: Craig Barlow, Rich Beem, Alex Čejka, Tom Gillis, Paul Goydos, Matt Kuchar, Doug LaBelle II, Michael Letzig, Davis Love III, Scott McCarron, Jeff Overton, Tim Petrovic, John Rollins, Kevin Stadler
Europe: Thomas Aiken, Phillip Archer, Peter Baker, Grégory Bourdy, Ariel Cañete, Simon Dyson, Pelle Edberg, Johan Edfors, Ross Fisher, Jean-Baptiste Gonnet, David Horsey, José-Filipe Lima, Alex Norén, Simon Wakefield, Anthony Wall, Paul Waring, Steve Webster, Martin Wiegele
Local Final Qualifying (Monday 7 July and Tuesday 8 July)
Hillside: Rohan Blizard (a), Jamie Elson, Jean van de Velde, Chris Wood (a)
Southport and Ainsdale: Jon Bevan, Gary Boyd, Jamie Howarth, Tom Sherreard (a)
West Lancashire: Peter Appleyard, Barry Hume, Jonathan Lomas, Philip Walton
Alternates
Camilo Villegas - took spot not taken by Kenny Perry
Pat Perez - replaced Luke Donald
Jerry Kelly - replaced David Toms
Heath Slocum - replaced Toru Taniguchi
Venue
Course layout
Source:
Lengths of the course for previous Opens:
1998: , par 70
1991: , par 70
1983: , par 71
1976: , par 72
1971: , par 73
1965: , par 73
1961: , par 72
1954:
Round summaries
First round
Thursday, 17 July 2008
Rocco Mediate, 2008 U.S. Open runner-up, shot a one-under par round of 69 to take the 18-hole lead alongside Graeme McDowell and Robert Allenby. One shot back at even-par was 53-year old two-time champion Greg Norman with fellow countryman Adam Scott.
Second round
Friday, 18 July 2008
The cut was at 149 (+9) and 83 advanced, including Ernie Els and Phil Mickelson, who played in the terrible morning conditions in the first round.
Amateurs: Wood (+5), Sherreard (+6), Hébert (+12), Blizard (+15), Saxton (+17).
Third round
Saturday, 19 July 2008
Greg Norman, age 53, became the oldest to hold at least a share of the 54-hole lead (it lasted just one year, as Tom Watson led after three rounds in 2009 at age 59). Due to extremely high winds, there were no under-par rounds, and it was first time since 1986 when the 54-hole leader was not under par.
Final round
Sunday, 20 July 2008
Despite a wrist injury that almost forced him to withdraw prior to the tournament, Pádraig Harrington successfully defended his Open Championship title. Harrington pulled away from the field with a tremendous back nine and became only the fifth to repeat at the Open in the last fifty years. Runner-up Ian Poulter matched Harrington's 69 and was four strokes back, while Greg Norman faltered with eight bogeys for 77 and tied for third place with Henrik Stenson.
Source:
Amateurs: Wood (+10), Sherreard (+14).
(a) denotes amateur
Scorecard
Final round
Cumulative tournament scores, relative to par
Source:
References
External links
Royal Birkdale 2008 (Official site)
137th Open Championship- Royal Birkdale (European Tour)
2008 Open Championship (PGA of America)
The Open Championship
Golf tournaments in England
Open Championship
Open Championship
Open Championship
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A sideboard is an item of furniture.
Sideboard may also refer to:
Sideboard (Edward William Godwin), a sideboard designed by Edward William Godwin
Sideboard (cards), a deck of cards in a collectible card game
The Sideboard, a magazine about the Magic card game
The Sideboard, a painting by Antonio López García
"The Sideboard Song", a song by Chas & Dave
Sideburns, a style of facial hair
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Booze bus may refer to:
A sobriety checkpoint in Australia and New Zealand
A mobile drunk tank in the UK
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In retail systems, the cost price represents the specific value that represents unit price purchased. This value is used as a key factor in determining profitability, and in some stock market theories it is used in establishing the value of stock holding.
Forms
Cost prices appear in several forms, such as actual cost, last cost, average cost, and net realizable value.
Cost price
Cost price is also known as CP. cost price is the original price of an item. The cost is the total outlay required to produce a product or carry out a service. Cost price is used in establishing profitability in the following ways:
Selling price (excluding tax) less cost results in the profit in money terms.
Profit / selling price (excluding tax) when expressed as a percentage produces (gross profit) or GP%.
Expense / net sales yields a percentage that when used as the target margin will produce gross profit.
Actual cost
In calculating actual or landed cost, all expenses incurred in acquiring an item are added to the cost of items in order to establish what the goods actually cost. Additions usually include freight, duty, etc.
Last cost
This is the actual value of the item when last purchased, normally expressed in units.
Average cost
When new stock is combined with old stock, the new price often overstates the value of stock holding. The better method is to combine the total value of investment in stock, old and new, and divide by the total number of units to calculate the average cost. This is a very accurate method of establishing stock holding.
Moving average cost
Moving average cost (MAC) is a slight permutation of the above, with the average being calculated from the previous average and new price.
Net realizable value
The net realizable value normally indicates the average value of an item in the marketplace. Often this cost is interchangeable with replacement cost.
Costs
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A tour puzzle is a puzzle in which the player travels around a board (usually but not necessarily two-dimensional) using a token which represents a character. Maze puzzles are often of this type.
Sometimes the player has more than one token with which to travel. Sometimes certain objects have to be found or retrieved on the way. In the case of large hedge mazes, the player makes the trip themselves instead of a token.
Often there is a given start and finish position for the player's token. Some tour puzzles demand that certain points on the board have to be visited on the way.
Examples of tour puzzles
knight's tour
mazes and labyrinths
mizmazes
logic mazes
Hiroimono
References
Puzzles
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The following is a list of coaches who have coached the Sydney Swans at a game of Australian rules football in the Australian Football League (AFL), formally the VFL. They were known as South Melbourne prior to their relocation to Sydney in 1982.
Key:
P = Played
W = Won
L = Lost
D = Drew
See also
References
External links
Allthestats.com
Lists of Australian Football League coaches by club
Sydney-sport-related lists
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Substance Abuse may mean:
Substance abuse, such as drug abuse
Substance Abuse (band), a hip-hop group
Substance Abuse, a 2009 mixtape by Smoke DZA, re-issued in 2012
"Substance Abuse", the 20th episode of the anime Eureka Seven
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General Carlson may refer to:
Bruce A. Carlson (born 1949), U.S. Air Force four-star general
Evans Carlson (1896–1947), U.S. Marine Corps brigadier general
John Carlson (sportscaster) (1933–2016), Massachusetts Army National Guard brigadier general
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