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Event horizon
Event horizon - wikipedia Event horizon Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Event horizon ( disambiguation ) and Horizon ( general relativity ) . Part of a series of articles about General relativity G μ ν + Λ g μ ν = 8 π G c 4 T μ ν ( \ displaystyle G_ ( \ mu \ nu ) + \ Lambda g_ ( \ mu \ nu ) = ( 8 \ pi G \ over c ^ ( 4 ) ) T_ ( \ mu \ nu ) ) Introduction History Mathematical formulation Tests Fundamental concepts ( show ) Equivalence principle Special relativity World line Riemannian geometry Phenomena ( hide ) Kepler problem Time dilation Gravitational field Gravitational collapse Gravitational lensing Gravitational waves Gravitational redshift Gravitational time delay Gravitational time dilation Gravitational potential Gravitational compression Frame - dragging Geodetic effect Gravity well Event horizon Singularity Naked singularity Black hole White hole Spacetime Space Time Spacetime diagrams Minkowski spacetime Closed timelike curve ( CTC ) Wormhole Ellis wormhole Equations Formalisms ( show ) Equations Linearized gravity Einstein field equations Friedmann Geodesics Mathisson -- Papapetrou -- Dixon Hamilton -- Jacobi -- Einstein Formalisms ADM BSSN Post-Newtonian Advanced theory Kaluza -- Klein theory Quantum gravity Solutions ( show ) Schwarzschild ( interior ) Reissner -- Nordström Gödel Kerr Kerr -- Newman Kasner Lemaître -- Tolman Taub - NUT Milne Robertson -- Walker pp - wave van Stockum dust Weyl − Lewis − Papapetrou Scientists ( show ) Einstein Lorentz Hilbert Poincaré Schwarzschild de Sitter Reissner Nordström Weyl Eddington Friedman Milne Zwicky Lemaître Gödel Wheeler Robertson Bardeen Walker Kerr Chandrasekhar Ehlers Penrose Hawking Raychaudhuri Taylor Hulse van Stockum Taub Newman Yau Thorne others In general relativity , an event horizon is a boundary in spacetime beyond which events can not affect an outside observer . In layman 's terms , it is defined as the shell of `` points of no return '' , i.e. , the points at which the gravitational pull becomes so great as to make escape impossible , even for light . An event horizon is most commonly associated with black holes . Light emitted from inside the event horizon can never reach the outside observer . Likewise , any object approaching the horizon from the observer 's side appears to slow down and never quite pass through the horizon , with its image becoming more and more redshifted as time elapses . This means that the wavelength is getting longer as the object moves away from the observer . The traveling object , however , experiences no strange effects and does , in fact , pass through the horizon in a finite amount of proper time . More specific types of horizon include the related but distinct absolute and apparent horizons found around a black hole . Still other distinct notions include the Cauchy and Killing horizon ; the photon spheres and ergospheres of the Kerr solution ; particle and cosmological horizons relevant to cosmology ; and isolated and dynamical horizons important in current black hole research . Contents ( hide ) 1 Event horizon of a black hole 2 Cosmic event horizon 3 Apparent horizon of an accelerated particle 4 Interacting with an event horizon 5 Beyond general relativity 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading Event horizon of a black hole ( edit ) Main article : Black hole Far away from the black hole a particle can move in any direction . It is only restricted by the speed of light . Closer to the black hole spacetime starts to deform . In some convenient coordinate systems , there are more paths going towards the black hole than paths moving away . Inside the event horizon all paths bring the particle closer to the center of the black hole . It is no longer possible for the particle to escape . One of the best - known examples of an event horizon derives from general relativity 's description of a black hole , a celestial object so massive that no nearby matter or radiation can escape its gravitational field . Often , this is described as the boundary within which the black hole 's escape velocity is greater than the speed of light . However , a more accurate description is that within this horizon , all lightlike paths ( paths that light could take ) and hence all paths in the forward light cones of particles within the horizon , are warped so as to fall farther into the hole . Once a particle is inside the horizon , moving into the hole is as inevitable as moving forward in time , and can actually be thought of as equivalent to doing so , depending on the spacetime coordinate system used . The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body that fits inside this radius ( although a rotating black hole operates slightly differently ) . The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to its mass . Theoretically , any amount of matter will become a black hole if compressed into a space that fits within its corresponding Schwarzschild radius . For the mass of the Sun this radius is approximately 3 kilometers and for the Earth it is about 9 millimeters . In practice , however , neither the Earth nor the Sun has the necessary mass and therefore the necessary gravitational force , to overcome electron and neutron degeneracy pressure . The minimal mass required for a star to be able to collapse beyond these pressures is the Tolman - Oppenheimer - Volkoff limit , which is approximately three solar masses . Black hole event horizons are widely misunderstood . Common , although erroneous , is the notion that black holes `` vacuum up '' material in their neighborhood , where in fact they are no more capable of `` seeking out '' material to consume than any other gravitational attractor . As with any mass in the Universe , matter must come within its gravitational scope for the possibility to exist of capture or consolidation with any other mass . Equally common is the idea that matter can be observed `` falling into '' a black hole . This is not possible . Astronomers can only detect accretion disks around black holes , where material moves with such speed that friction creates high - energy radiation which can be detected ( similarly , some matter from these accretion disks is forced out along the axes of spin of the black hole , creating visible jets when these streams interact with matter such as interstellar gas or when they happen to be aimed directly at Earth ) . Furthermore , a distant observer will never actually see something cross the horizon . Instead , while approaching the hole , the object will seem to go ever more slowly , while any light it emits will be further and further redshifted . Cosmic event horizon ( edit ) Main article : List of cosmological horizons In cosmology , the event horizon of the observable universe is the largest comoving distance from which light emitted now can ever reach the observer in the future . This differs from the concept of particle horizon , which represents the largest comoving distance from which light emitted in the past could have reached the observer at a given time . For events beyond that distance , light has not had time to reach our location , even if it were emitted at the time the Universe began . How the particle horizon changes with time depends on the nature of the expansion of the Universe . If the expansion has certain characteristics , there are parts of the Universe that will never be observable , no matter how long the observer waits for light from those regions to arrive . The boundary past which events can not ever be observed is an event horizon , and it represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon . The criterion for determining whether a particle horizon for the Universe exists is as follows . Define a comoving distance d p ( \ displaystyle d_ ( p ) ) by d p = ∫ 0 t 0 c a ( t ) d t . ( \ displaystyle d_ ( p ) = \ int _ ( 0 ) ^ ( t_ ( 0 ) ) ( \ frac ( c ) ( a ( t ) ) ) dt \ . ) In this equation , a is the scale factor , c is the speed of light , and t is the age of the Universe . If d p → ∞ ( \ displaystyle d_ ( p ) \ rightarrow \ infty ) ( i.e. , points arbitrarily as far away as can be observed ) , then no event horizon exists . If d p ≠ ∞ ( \ displaystyle d_ ( p ) \ neq \ infty ) , a horizon is present . Examples of cosmological models without an event horizon are universes dominated by matter or by radiation . An example of a cosmological model with an event horizon is a universe dominated by the cosmological constant ( a de Sitter universe ) . A calculation of the speeds of the cosmological event and particle horizons was given in a paper on the FLRW cosmological model , approximating the Universe as composed of non-interacting constituents , each one being a perfect fluid . Apparent horizon of an accelerated particle ( edit ) See also : Hyperbolic motion ( relativity ) Space - time diagram showing a uniformly accelerated particle , P , and an event E that is outside the particle 's apparent horizon . The event 's forward light cone never intersects the particle 's world line . If a particle is moving at a constant velocity in a non-expanding universe free of gravitational fields , any event that occurs in that Universe will eventually be observable by the particle , because the forward light cones from these events intersect the particle 's world line . On the other hand , if the particle is accelerating , in some situations light cones from some events never intersect the particle 's world line . Under these conditions , an apparent horizon is present in the particle 's ( accelerating ) reference frame , representing a boundary beyond which events are unobservable . For example , this occurs with a uniformly accelerated particle . A space - time diagram of this situation is shown in the figure to the right . As the particle accelerates , it approaches , but never reaches , the speed of light with respect to its original reference frame . On the space - time diagram , its path is a hyperbola , which asymptotically approaches a 45 degree line ( the path of a light ray ) . An event whose light cone 's edge is this asymptote or is farther away than this asymptote can never be observed by the accelerating particle . In the particle 's reference frame , there appears to be a boundary behind it from which no signals can escape ( an apparent horizon ) . While approximations of this type of situation can occur in the real world ( in particle accelerators , for example ) , a true event horizon is never present , as this requires the particle to be accelerated indefinitely ( requiring arbitrarily large amounts of energy and an arbitrarily large apparatus ) . Interacting with an event horizon ( edit ) A misconception concerning event horizons , especially black hole event horizons , is that they represent an immutable surface that destroys objects that approach them . In practice , all event horizons appear to be some distance away from any observer , and objects sent towards an event horizon never appear to cross it from the sending observer 's point of view ( as the horizon - crossing event 's light cone never intersects the observer 's world line ) . Attempting to make an object near the horizon remain stationary with respect to an observer requires applying a force whose magnitude increases unbounded ( becoming infinite ) the closer it gets . For the case of a horizon perceived by a uniformly accelerating observer in empty space , the horizon seems to remain a fixed distance from the observer no matter how its surroundings move . Varying the observer 's acceleration may cause the horizon to appear to move over time , or may prevent an event horizon from existing , depending on the acceleration function chosen . The observer never touches the horizon and never passes a location where it appeared to be . For the case of a horizon perceived by an occupant of a de Sitter universe , the horizon always appears to be a fixed distance away for a non-accelerating observer . It is never contacted , even by an accelerating observer . For the case of the horizon around a black hole , observers stationary with respect to a distant object will all agree on where the horizon is . While this seems to allow an observer lowered towards the hole on a rope ( or rod ) to contact the horizon , in practice this can not be done . The proper distance to the horizon is finite , so the length of rope needed would be finite as well , but if the rope were lowered slowly ( so that each point on the rope was approximately at rest in Schwarzschild coordinates ) , the proper acceleration ( G - force ) experienced by points on the rope closer and closer to the horizon would approach infinity , so the rope would be torn apart . If the rope is lowered quickly ( perhaps even in freefall ) , then indeed the observer at the bottom of the rope can touch and even cross the event horizon . But once this happens it is impossible to pull the bottom of rope back out of the event horizon , since if the rope is pulled taut , the forces along the rope increase without bound as they approach the event horizon and at some point the rope must break . Furthermore , the break must occur not at the event horizon , but at a point where the second observer can observe it . Observers crossing a black hole event horizon can calculate the moment they have crossed it , but will not actually see or feel anything special happen at that moment . In terms of visual appearance , observers who fall into the hole perceive the black region constituting the horizon as lying at some apparent distance below them , and never experience crossing this visual horizon . Other objects that had entered the horizon along the same radial path but at an earlier time would appear below the observer but still above the visual position of the horizon , and if they had fallen in recently enough the observer could exchange messages with them before either one was destroyed by the gravitational singularity . Increasing tidal forces ( and eventual impact with the hole 's singularity ) are the only locally noticeable effects . Tidal forces are a function of the mass of the black hole . In realistic stellar black holes , spaghettification occurs early : tidal forces tear materials apart well before the event horizon . However , in supermassive black holes , which are found in centers of galaxies , spaghettification occurs inside the event horizon . A human astronaut would survive the fall through an event horizon only in a black hole with a mass of approximately 10,000 solar masses or greater . Beyond general relativity ( edit ) The description of event horizons given by general relativity is thought to be incomplete . When the conditions under which event horizons occur are modeled using a more comprehensive picture of the way the Universe works , that includes both relativity and quantum mechanics , event horizons are expected to have properties that are different from those predicted using general relativity alone . At present , it is expected that the primary impact of quantum effects is for event horizons to possess a temperature and so emit radiation . For black holes , this manifests as Hawking radiation , and the larger question of how the black hole possesses a temperature is part of the topic of black hole thermodynamics . For accelerating particles , this manifests as the Unruh effect , which causes space around the particle to appear to be filled with matter and radiation . According to the controversial black hole firewall hypothesis , matter falling into a black hole would be burned to a crisp by a high energy `` firewall '' at the event horizon . An alternative is provided by the complementarity principle , according to which in the chart of the far observer infalling matter is thermalized at the horizon and reemitted as Hawking radiation , while in the chart of an infalling observer matter continues undisturbed through the inner region and is destroyed at the singularity . This hypothesis does not violate the no - cloning theorem as there is a single copy of the information according to any given observer . Black hole complementarity is actually suggested by the scaling laws of strings approaching the event horizon , suggesting that in the Schwarzschild chart they stretch to cover the horizon and thermalize into a Planck length - thick membrane . A complete description of event horizons is expected to , at minimum , require a theory of quantum gravity . One such candidate theory is M - theory . Another such candidate theory is loop quantum gravity . See also ( edit ) Physics portal Acoustic metric Cosmic censorship hypothesis Dynamical horizon Event Horizon Telescope Hawking radiation Rindler coordinates Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The set of possible paths , or more accurately the future light cone containing all possible world lines ( in this diagram represented by the yellow / blue grid ) , is tilted in this way in Eddington -- Finkelstein coordinates ( the diagram is a `` cartoon '' version of an Eddington -- Finkelstein coordinate diagram ) , but in other coordinates the light cones are not tilted in this way , for example in Schwarzschild coordinates they simply narrow without tilting as one approaches the event horizon , and in Kruskal -- Szekeres coordinates the light cones do n't change shape or orientation at all . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Chaisson , Eric ( 1990 ) . Relatively Speaking : Relativity , Black Holes , and the Fate of the Universe . W.W. Norton & Company . p. 213 . ISBN 978 - 0393306750 . Jump up ^ Bennett , Jeffrey ; Donahue , Megan ; Schneider , Nicholas ; Voit , Mark ( 2014 ) . The Cosmic Perspective . Pearson Education . p. 156 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 134 - 05906 - 8 . Jump up ^ Misner , Thorne & Wheeler 1973 , p. 848 Jump up ^ S.W. Hawking ; G.F.R. Ellis ( 1975 ) . The large scale structure of space - time . Cambridge University Press . Jump up ^ Misner , Charles ; Thorne , Kip S. ; Wheeler , John ( 1973 ) . Gravitation . W.H. Freeman and Company . Jump up ^ Wald , Robert M. ( 1984 ) . General Relativity . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . Jump up ^ J.A. Peacock ( 1999 ) . Cosmological Physics . Cambridge University Press . Jump up ^ Dieter Brill , `` Black Hole Horizons and How They Begin '' , Astronomical Review ( 2012 ) ; Online Article , cited Sept. 2012 . Jump up ^ Berta Margalef - Bentabol ; Juan Margalef - Bentabol ; Jordi Cepa ( 21 December 2012 ) . `` Evolution of the cosmological horizons in a concordance universe '' . Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2012 ( 12 ) : 035 . arXiv : 1302.1609 . Bibcode : 2012JCAP ... 12 ... 035M . doi : 10.1088 / 1475 - 7516 / 2012 / 12 / 035 . Jump up ^ Berta Margalef - Bentabol ; Juan Margalef - Bentabol ; Jordi Cepa ( 8 February 2013 ) . `` Evolution of the cosmological horizons in a universe with countably infinitely many state equations '' . Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 015 . 2013 ( 2 ) : 015 . arXiv : 1302.2186 . Bibcode : 2013JCAP ... 02 ... 015M . doi : 10.1088 / 1475 - 7516 / 2013 / 02 / 015 . Jump up ^ Charles Misner , Kip Thorne , and John Wheeler ( 1973 ) . Gravitation , p. 824 Jump up ^ `` Journey into a Schwarzschild black hole '' . jila.colorado.edu . Jump up ^ `` Dive into the Black Hole '' . casa.colorado.edu . Jump up ^ Hobson , Michael Paul ; Efstathiou , George ; Lasenby , Anthony N. ( 2006 ) . `` 11 . Schwarzschild black holes '' . General relativity : an introduction for physicists . Cambridge University Press . p. 265 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 82951 - 8 . Further reading ( edit ) The Universe in a Nutshell by Stephen Hawking Kip Thorne ( 1994 ) . Black Holes and Time Warps . W.W. Norton . Abhay Ashtekar and Badri Krishnan , `` Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications '' , Living Rev. Relativity , 7 , ( 2004 ) , 10 ; Online Article , cited Feb. 2009 . ( hide ) Relativity Special relativity Background Principle of relativity Special relativity Foundations Frame of reference Speed of light Hyperbolic orthogonality Rapidity Maxwell 's equations Formulation Galilean relativity Galilean transformation Lorentz transformation Consequences Time dilation Relativistic mass Mass -- energy equivalence Length contraction Relativity of simultaneity Relativistic Doppler effect Thomas precession Relativistic disks Spacetime Light cone World line Spacetime diagram Biquaternions Minkowski space General relativity Background Introduction Mathematical formulation Fundamental concepts Special relativity Equivalence principle World line Riemannian geometry Minkowski diagram Penrose diagram Phenomena Black hole Event horizon Frame - dragging Geodetic effect Lenses Singularity Waves Ladder paradox Twin paradox Two - body problem BKL singularity Equations ADM formalism BSSN formalism Einstein field equations Geodesic equation Friedmann equations Linearized gravity Post-Newtonian formalism Raychaudhuri equation Hamilton -- Jacobi -- Einstein equation Ernst equation Tolman -- Oppenheimer -- Volkoff equation Advanced theories Brans -- Dicke theory Kaluza -- Klein Mach 's principle Quantum gravity Solutions Schwarzschild ( interior ) Reissner -- Nordström Gödel Kerr Kerr -- Newman Kasner Friedmann -- Lemaître -- Robertson -- Walker Taub -- NUT Milne pp - wave van Stockum dust Weyl − Lewis − Papapetrou Scientists Einstein Lorentz Hilbert Poincaré Schwarzschild de Sitter Reissner Nordström Weyl Eddington Friedmann Milne Zwicky Lemaître Gödel Wheeler Robertson Bardeen Walker Kerr Chandrasekhar Ehlers Penrose Hawking Taylor Hulse Stockum Taub Newman Yau Thorne Weiss Bondi Misner others Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Event_horizon&oldid=823045797 '' Categories : Astrophysics General relativity Black holes Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2010 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2008 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 January 2018 , at 23 : 43 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
what type of black hole might you be able to approach the event horizon
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The Wild North
The Wild North - wikipedia The Wild North Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the film . For the book , see The Wild North ( book ) . The Wild North Theatrical film poster Directed by Andrew Marton Produced by Stephen Ames Written by Frank Fenton Starring Stewart Granger Wendell Corey Cyd Charisse Music by Bronislau Kaper Cinematography Robert L. Surtees Edited by John D. Dunning George Boemler Production company Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer Distributed by Loew 's Inc . Release date March 28 , 1952 ( 1952 - 03 - 28 ) Running time 97 min . Country United States Language English Budget $1,282,000 Box office $4,007,000 The Wild North ( aka The Big North , Constable Pedley , The Constable Pedley Story , The Wild North Country and North Country ) is a 1952 American western film . It was the first Ansco Color film shot . The Wild North was directed by Andrew Marton and stars Stewart Granger , Wendell Corey and Cyd Charisse . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Reception 5 References 5.1 Notes 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links Plot ( edit ) Jules Vincent , a French - Canadian trapper ( Stewart Granger ) , while in a northern Canadian town , helps an attractive Indian singer ( Cyd Charisse ) , fend off unwanted attentions of a drunken Max Brody ( Howard Petrie ) . The next day , Vincent sets off by canoe into the Canadian wilderness , taking the Indian girl up north to her tribe , now accompanied by a contrite Brody . When the group arrives at her Chippewa village , Vincent tells the chief ( John War Eagle ) , after Brody had acted recklessly on the rapids that he wanted to send him a warning , shooting into the air but accidentally killing Brody when the canoe pitched wildly . Frightened by the prospect of arrest , Vincent heads into the wilderness . After North - West Mounted Police ( NWMP ) Constable Pedley ( Wendell Corey ) arrives at the village on another matter , he learns about Brody 's death . Pedley finds Vincent 's cabin where the Indian girl tells him that Vincent is not a murderer . The NWMP Constable , however , is determined to bring Vincent in , saying running away makes the trapper look guilty . While on his trapline , Vincent finds a half - frozen Father Simon ( Morgan Farley ) who had gone into the wilderness , to try to persuade the trapper to turn himself in . As Father Simon pleads with Vincent and utters his dying words , Pedley arrives to arrest Vincent . Despite Vincent 's warnings that the weather will turn worse , Pedley takes Vincent into custody and starts a long trek back to the NWMP station . The treacherous trip back puts both men in peril as two other trappers , Ruger ( Ray Teal ) and Sloan ( Clancy Cooper ) menace them . Facing harrowing conditions and the attack of wolves , the unlikely bond that forms between the trapper and the constable allows both to survive . Cast ( edit ) Stewart Granger as Jules Vincent Wendell Corey as Constable Pedley Cyd Charisse as Indian Girl Morgan Farley as Father Simon J.M. Kerrigan as Callahan Howard Petrie as Brody Houseley Stevenson as Old Man Lewis Martin as Sergeant John War Eagle as Indian Chief Ray Teal as Ruger Clancy Cooper as Sloan Production ( edit ) The Wild North was known at one stage by the working titles , `` Constable Pedley '' , `` The Wild North Country '' and `` North Country '' . The film was based on the true story of Mountie Constable Arthur Pedley , who in 1904 was assigned to find a lost missionary in northern Alberta . He managed to succeed despite great difficulty . Location filming started in Idaho in March 1951 with Granger and Corey . Filming was then halted to enable Granger to make The Light Touch ( 1951 ) . Filming was scheduled to resume in July in Chipewyan , Alberta , Canada , where the actual events in Pedley 's story had taken place . Due to inclement weather in Canada , filming was completed in the United States . The Wild North was shot in a new colour process . John Arnold , MGM 's executive director of photography , and John Nicholaus , head of the studio 's film laboratory , worked with Ansco for 10 years to develop the new process . It had several advantages , being able to be used in standard black and white cameras and `` ... processed in the studio laboratory with essentially the same facility as black and white film ... ( making ) possible many time - saving steps in the handling , development and screening of daily rushes . An additional advantage noted in American Cinematographer was that the film was particularly good for ' day - for - night ' shooting , which was used significantly in ' The Wild North ' . '' Reception ( edit ) The Wild North was critically reviewed by Bosley Crowther for The New York Times . He said , `` ... the picture is not of a consistent piece , either in its narration nor in its photography . There are high points and dismally low points in its generally pulp - fiction tale of how an amiable French Canadian woodsman brings in a Mountie who was sent to bring him in . The high points are reached in a sequence showing a battle of the two men with wolves and in another recording their transit of a boiling rapids in a bobbing canoe . The low points are touched when they are struggling through the obvious studio snow . '' The Wild North earned an estimated $2 million at the North American box office in 1952 . MGM records puts this figure at $2,111,000 with earnings of $1,896,000 elsewhere , leading to a profit of $806,000 . In France , the film recorded admissions of 1,746,799 . References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` The Eddie Mannix Ledger . '' Margaret Herrick Library , Center for Motion Picture Study , Los Angeles . Jump up ^ Granger 1991 , p. 182 . ^ Jump up to : `` Notes : ' The Wild North ' . '' Turner Classic Movies . RetrievedL July 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Review : ' The Wild North ' ( 1951 ) . '' BFI . Retrieved : July 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Drama : Granger switches to ' Constable Pedley ' . '' Los Angeles Times , February 23 , 1951 , p . B8 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mushing it in the Royal Canadian Mounties : Hollywood location unit battles Idaho blizzard making The North Country ' ; Factual `` mushing '' through below zero . '' The New York Times , April 8 , 1951 , p. 101 . Jump up ^ Schallert , Edwin . `` Drama : Corey star for ' Wings Across Pacific ; ' Marjorie Main aquatic mother . '' Los Angeles Times , March 12 , 1951 , p . B11 . Jump up ^ Brady , Thomas F. `` Remake of comedy listed at Warners ; ' Sons O'Guns , ' 1929 musical by Donahue and Thompson , on Weisbart schedule . '' The New York Times , March 29 , 1951 , p. 41 . Jump up ^ Crowther , Bosley . `` Movie review : The screen in review ; ' Wild North , ' with Stewart Granger , makes its bow . '' The New York Times , May 12 , 1952 . Jump up ^ ' Top Box - Office Hits of 1952 ' , Variety , January 7 , 1953 Jump up ^ `` Box office information for Stewart Granger films in France . '' Box Office Story . Retrieved : July 31 , 2016 . Bibliography ( edit ) Granger , Stewart . Sparks Fly Upward . London : Granada Publishing , 1991 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 2461 - 1403 - 7 . External links ( edit ) The Wild North at the TCM Movie Database The Wild North on IMDb The Wild North at AllMovie The Wild North at the American Film Institute Catalog ( hide ) Films directed by Andrew Marton Two O'Clock in the Morning ( 1929 ) The Night Without Pause ( 1931 ) Johnny Steals Europe ( 1932 ) North Pole , Ahoy ( 1934 ) Demon of the Himalayas ( 1935 ) Wolf 's Clothing ( 1936 ) Secret of Stamboul ( 1936 ) School for Husbands ( 1937 ) A Little Bit of Heaven ( 1940 ) Gentle Annie ( 1944 ) Gallant Bess ( 1946 ) King Solomon 's Mines ( 1950 ) Storm Over Tibet ( 1951 ) The Wild North ( 1952 ) Prisoner of War ( 1954 ) Men of the Fighting Lady ( 1954 ) Green Fire ( 1954 ) Seven Wonders of the World ( 1956 ) Underwater Warrior ( 1958 ) Oh Islam ( 1961 ) It Happened in Athens ( 1962 ) The Longest Day ( 1962 ) 55 Days at Peking ( 1963 ) The Thin Red Line ( 1964 ) Crack in the World ( 1965 ) Clarence , the Cross-Eyed Lion ( 1965 ) Around the World Under the Sea ( 1966 ) Birds Do It ( 1966 ) Africa Texas Style ( 1967 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Wild_North&oldid=826406657 '' Categories : 1952 films English - language films American films Films directed by Andrew Marton 1950s Western ( genre ) films Films set in Canada Royal Canadian Mounted Police in fiction Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer films American Western ( genre ) films Northern films Hidden categories : Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Français Italiano Lëtzebuergesch Edit links This page was last edited on 18 February 2018 , at 23 : 03 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
where was the movie the wild north filmed
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New Federalism
New Federalism - wikipedia New Federalism New Federalism is a political philosophy of devolution , or the transfer of certain powers from the United States federal government back to the states . The primary objective of New Federalism , unlike that of the eighteenth - century political philosophy of Federalism , is the restoration to the states of some of the autonomy and power which they lost to the federal government as a consequence of President Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal . As a policy theme , New Federalism typically involves the federal government providing block grants to the states to resolve a social issue . The federal government then monitors outcomes but provides broad discretion to the states for how the programs are implemented . Advocates of this approach sometimes cite a quotation from a dissent by Louis Brandeis in New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann : It is one of the happy incidents of the federal system that a single courageous state may , if its citizens choose , serve as a laboratory ; and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country . From 1937 to 1995 , the Supreme Court of the United States did not void a single Act of Congress for exceeding Congress 's power under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution , instead holding that anything that could conceivably have even a slight impact on commerce was subject to federal regulation . It was thus seen as a ( narrow ) victory for federalism when the Rehnquist Court reined in federal regulatory power in United States v. Lopez ( 1995 ) and United States v. Morrison ( 2000 ) . The Supreme Court wavered , however , in Gonzales v. Raich ( 2005 ) , holding that the federal government could outlaw the use of marijuana for medical purposes under the Commerce Clause even if the marijuana was never bought or sold , and never crossed state lines . How broad a view of state autonomy the Court will take in future decisions remains unclear . ( See Gonzales v. Oregon ) Justice O'Connor dissented in Gonzalez , beginning her opinion by citing United States v. Lopez , which she followed with a federalist reference to Justice Louis Brandeis 's dissenting opinion in New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann . Contents ( hide ) 1 Education 2 Related legislation 3 See also 4 References 5 Sources Education ( edit ) Education has been controversial under New Federalism , but for different reasons . Almost all groups , state and federal , agree that a controlled education system is absolutely critical . The division , however , is that some believe that the education system should be nationally united ( and therefore controlled by the federal government ) , while opponents believe that education should vary by state ( and therefore be controlled by the state governments ) . Some New Federalists , such as President Ronald Reagan , have flirted with the idea of abolishing the Department of Education , but the effort has been unsuccessful . During the Presidency of George W. Bush , the President and Congress cooperated to pass the No Child Left Behind ( NCLB ) legislation , which required states to meet federal testing standards . Utah was the first state to reject NCLB , and the Attorney General of Connecticut sued the federal government for underfunding NCLB . In April 2017 , President Donald Trump used an Executive order to help lessen Federal influence over Education Related legislation ( edit ) 1971 -- Legacy of parks 1972 -- State and Local Fiscal Assistance Act PL 92 - 512 1995 -- Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 PL 104 - 4 1996 -- Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act PL 104 - 193 See also ( edit ) Anti-Federalism Classical republicanism Compact theory Decentralization Federalism Federalism in the United States Interposition Nullification ( U.S. Constitution ) Old Right ( United States ) States ' rights References ( edit ) Jump up ^ transcript Jump up ^ Gerston 2007 , p. 97 Jump up ^ Gerston 2007 , p. 100 Jump up ^ Donald Trump To Pull Feds Out Of K - 12 Education Sources ( edit ) American Government continuity and change . Connor , Karen O ' and Larry J. Sabato . New York : Pearson Longman. 2008 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Federalism&oldid=839661247 '' Categories : Political systems Federalism in the United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 4 May 2018 , at 21 : 17 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia
which era of federalism aimed to give more control back to the states
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Paris Peace Conference, 1919
Paris Peace Conference , 1919 - wikipedia Paris Peace Conference , 1919 Paris Peace Conference League of Nations ( show ) Covenant of the League of Nations Members Organisation Minority Treaties Little Treaty of Versailles Mandates Treaty of Versailles ( show ) War guilt Reparations Role in the Weimar Republic 's hyperinflation Dawes Plan Young Plan Lausanne Conference Locarno Treaties Possible cause of World War II International Opium Convention Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye ( show ) Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye Treaty of Neuilly - sur - Seine ( show ) Treaty of Neuilly - sur - Seine Treaty of Trianon ( show ) Treaty of Trianon Treaty of Sèvres ( show ) Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire Conference of London ( 1920 ) San Remo conference Turkish National Movement Turkish War of Independence Treaty of Lausanne ( 1923 ) Others ( show ) American Commission to Negotiate Peace Commission of Responsibilities The Inquiry The Paris Peace Conference , also known as Versailles Peace Conference , was the meeting of the victorious Allied Powers following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers . Involving diplomats from 32 countries and nationalities , the major or main decisions were the creation of the League of Nations , as well as the five peace treaties with the defeated states ; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as `` mandates '' , chiefly to Britain and France ; reparations imposed on Germany ; and the drawing of new national boundaries ( sometimes with plebiscites ) to better reflect ethnic boundaries . The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany , which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on `` the aggression of Germany and her allies '' . This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay ( it paid only a small portion before reparations ended in 1931 ) . The five major powers ( France , Britain , Italy , Japan and the United States ) controlled the Conference . And the `` Big Four '' were the Prime Minister of France , Georges Clemenceau ; the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , David Lloyd George ; the President of the United States , Woodrow Wilson ; and the Prime Minister of Italy , Vittorio Emanuele Orlando . They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions , which in turn were ratified by the others . The conference began on January 18 , 1919 , and with respect to its end date Professor Michael Neiberg has noted : Although the senior statesmen stopped working personally on the conference in June 1919 , the formal peace process did not really end until July 1923 , when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed `` . Johannes Bell of Germany is portrayed signing the peace treaties on 28 June 1919 in The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors by Sir William Orpen . Contents 1 Overview and direct results 2 Mandates 3 British approach 3.1 Dominion representation 4 French approach 5 Italian approach 6 American approach 7 Japanese approach 7.1 Racial equality proposal 7.2 Territorial claims 8 Greek approach 9 Chinese approach 10 Questions about independence 10.1 All - Russian Government ( Whites ) 10.2 Ukraine 10.3 Belarus 10.4 Minority rights in Poland and other European countries 10.5 Caucasus 10.6 Korean Delegation 10.7 Palestine 11 Historical assessments 12 Cultural references 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links Overview and direct results ( edit ) Further information : List of participants to Paris Peace Conference , 1919 Versailles St - Germain Neuilly Trianon Sevres The location of the signing of the five principal treaties within the Île de France region The Conference opened on 18 January 1919 . This date was symbolic , as it was the anniversary of the proclamation of William I as German Emperor in 1871 , in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles , shortly before the end of the Siege of Paris - a day itself imbued with significance in its turn in Germany as the anniversary of the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701 . The Delegates from 27 nations ( delegates representing 5 nationalities were for the most part ignored ) were assigned to 52 commissions , which held 1,646 sessions to prepare reports , with the help of many experts , on topics ranging from prisoners of war to undersea cables , to international aviation , to responsibility for the war . Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany , which had 15 chapters and 440 clauses , as well as treaties for the other defeated nations . The five major powers ( France , Britain , Italy , the U.S. , and Japan ) controlled the Conference . Amongst the `` Big Five '' , in practice Japan only sent a former prime minister and played a small role ; and the `` Big Four '' leaders dominated the conference . The four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions , which in turn were ratified by other attendees . The open meetings of all the delegations approved the decisions made by the Big Four . The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations . Map of the world with the participants in World War I . The Allies and their colonial possessions are depicted in green , the Central Powers and their colonial possessions in orange , and neutral countries in grey . Five major peace treaties were prepared at the Paris Peace Conference ( with , in parentheses , the affected countries ) : the Treaty of Versailles , 28 June 1919 , ( Germany ) the Treaty of Saint - Germain , 10 September 1919 , ( Austria ) the Treaty of Neuilly , 27 November 1919 , ( Bulgaria ) the Treaty of Trianon , 4 June 1920 , ( Hungary ) the Treaty of Sèvres , 10 August 1920 ; subsequently revised by the Treaty of Lausanne , 24 July 1923 , ( Ottoman Empire / Republic of Turkey ) . The major decisions were the establishment of the League of Nations ; the five peace treaties with defeated enemies ; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as `` mandates '' , chiefly to members of the British Empire and to France ; reparations imposed on Germany , and the drawing of new national boundaries ( sometimes with plebiscites ) to better reflect the forces of nationalism . The main result was the Treaty of Versailles , with Germany , which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on `` the aggression of Germany and her allies '' . This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay ( it paid only a small portion before reparations ended in 1931 ) . As the conference 's decisions were enacted unilaterally , and largely on the whims of the Big Four , for its duration Paris was effectively the center of a world government , which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe . Most famously , the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany 's military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on Germany 's shoulders -- the humiliation and resentment in Germany is sometimes considered one of the causes of Nazi electoral successes and indirectly a cause of World War II . The League of Nations proved controversial in the United States as critics said it subverted the powers of Congress to declare war ; the U.S. Senate did not ratify any of the peace treaties and the U.S. never joined the League -- instead , the Harding administration of 1921 - 1923 concluded new treaties with Germany , Austria , and Hungary . Republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles . Representatives of White Russia ( but not Communist Russia ) were present . Numerous other nations did send delegations in order to appeal for various unsuccessful additions to the treaties ; parties lobbied for causes ranging from independence for the countries of the South Caucasus to Japan 's unsuccessful demand for racial equality amongst the other Great Powers . Mandates ( edit ) A central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany . ( Austria did not have colonies and the Ottoman Empire presented a separate issue . ) The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice . Australia wanted New Guinea , New Zealand wanted Samoa , and South Africa wanted South West Africa ( modern Namibia ) . Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence . Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions , and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates . Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category ; they would be divided up between Britain and France . The second category , comprising New Guinea , Samoa , and South West Africa , were located so close to responsible supervisors that the mandates could hardly be given to anyone except Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa . Finally , the African colonies would need the careful supervision as `` Class B '' mandates that could only be provided by experienced colonial powers Britain , France , and Belgium ; Italy and Portugal received small bits of territory . Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution . The dominions received `` Class C Mandates '' to the colonies they wanted . Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator . Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States ; his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others . Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands . He and Hughes had some memorable clashes , with the most famous being : Wilson : `` But after all , you speak for only five million people . '' Hughes : `` I represent sixty thousand dead . '' ( While the much larger United States had suffered fewer deaths -- 50,000 . ) British approach ( edit ) The British Air Section at the Conference Maintenance of the British Empire 's unity , holdings and interests were an overarching concern for the British delegates to the conference , but it entered the conference with the more specific goals of : Ensuring the security of France Removing the threat of the German High Seas Fleet Settling territorial contentions Supporting the League of Nations with that order of priority . The Racial Equality Proposal put forth by the Japanese did not directly conflict with any of these core British interests . However , as the conference progressed the full implications of the Racial Equality Proposal , regarding immigration to the British Dominions ( with Australia taking particular exception ) , would become a major point of contention within the delegation . Ultimately , Britain did not see the Racial Equality Proposal as being one of the fundamental aims of the conference . The delegation was therefore willing to sacrifice this proposal in order to placate the Australian delegation and thus help satisfy its overarching aim of preserving the unity of the British Empire . Although Britain reluctantly consented to the attendance of separate Dominion delegations , the British did manage to rebuff attempts by the envoys of the newly proclaimed Irish Republic to put its case to the Conference for self - determination , diplomatic recognition and membership of the proposed League of Nations . The Irish envoys ' final `` Demand for Recognition '' in a letter to Clemenceau , the Chairman , was not answered . Britain had planned to legislate for two Irish Home Rule states ( without Dominion status ) , and did so in 1920 . In 1919 Irish nationalists were unpopular with the Allies because of the Conscription Crisis of 1918 . David Lloyd George commented that he did `` not do badly '' at the peace conference , `` considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon . '' This was a reference to the very idealistic views of Wilson on the one hand and the stark realism of Clemenceau , who was determined to see Germany punished . Dominion representation ( edit ) The Australian delegation . At the center is Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes . The Dominion governments were not originally given separate invitations to the conference , but rather were expected to send representatives as part of the British delegation . Convinced that Canada had become a nation on the battlefields of Europe , its Prime Minister , Sir Robert Borden , demanded that it have a separate seat at the conference . This was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States , which saw a dominion delegation as an extra British vote . Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men , a far larger proportion of its men compared to the 50,000 American losses , at least had the right to the representation of a `` minor '' power . The British Prime Minister , David Lloyd George , eventually relented , and convinced the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada , India , Australia , Newfoundland , New Zealand and South Africa . They also received their own seats in the League of Nations . Canada , although it too had sacrificed nearly 60,000 men in the war , asked for neither reparations nor mandates . The Australian delegation , led by the Australian Prime Minister , Billy Hughes , fought hard for its demands : reparations , the annexation of German New Guinea and rejection of the Japanese Racial Equality Proposal . Hughes said that he had no objection to the equality proposal provided it was stated in unambiguous terms that it did not confer any right to enter Australia . Hughes was concerned by the rise of Japan . Within months of the declaration of the War in 1914 , Japan , Australia and New Zealand had seized all German possessions in the Far East and Pacific . Though Japan occupied German possessions with the blessings of the British , Hughes was alarmed by this policy . French approach ( edit ) Woodrow Wilson , Georges Clemenceau and David Lloyd George confer at the Paris Peace Conference ( Noël Dorville , 1919 ) The French Prime Minister , Georges Clemenceau , controlled his delegation and his chief goal was to weaken Germany militarily , strategically and economically . Having personally witnessed two German attacks on French soil in the last forty years , he was adamant that Germany should not be permitted to attack France again . In particular , Clemenceau sought an American and British guarantee of French security in the event of another German attack . Clemenceau also expressed skepticism and frustration with Wilson 's Fourteen Points : `` Mr. Wilson bores me with his fourteen points '' , complained Clemenceau . `` Why , God Almighty has only ten ! '' Wilson won a few points by signing a mutual defense treaty with France , but back in Washington he did not present it to the Senate for ratification and it never took effect . Another alternative French policy was to seek a rapprochement with Germany . In May 1919 the diplomat René Massigli was sent on several secret missions to Berlin . During his visits Massigli offered on behalf of his government to revise the territorial and economic clauses of the upcoming peace treaty . Massigli spoke of the desirability of `` practical , verbal discussions '' between French and German officials that would lead to a `` collaboration Franco - allemande '' . Furthermore , Massagli told the Germans that the French thought of the `` Anglo - Saxon powers '' , namely the United States and British Empire , to be the major threat to France in the post-war world . He argued that both France and Germany had a joint interest in opposing `` Anglo - Saxon domination '' of the world and warned that the `` deepening of opposition '' between the French and the Germans `` would lead to the ruin of both countries , to the advantage of the Anglo - Saxon powers '' . The Germans rejected the French offers because they considered the French overtures to be a trap to trick them into accepting the Versailles treaty `` as is '' and because the German foreign minister , Count Ulrich von Brockdorff - Rantzau thought that the United States was more likely to reduce the severity of the peace terms than France . In the final event it proved to be Lloyd George who pushed for more favourable terms for Germany . Italian approach ( edit ) From left to right : Marshal Ferdinand Foch , Clemenceau , Lloyd George and the Italians Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and Sidney Sonnino In 1914 Italy remained neutral despite its alliance with Germany and Austria . In 1915 it joined the Allies . It was motivated by gaining the territories promised by the Allies in the secret Treaty of London : the Trentino , the Tyrol as far as Brenner , Trieste and Istria , most of the Dalmatian coast except Fiume , Valona and a protectorate over Albania , Antalya in Turkey and possibly colonies in Africa or Asia . The Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando tried , therefore , to get full implementation of the Treaty of London , as agreed by France and Great Britain before the war . He had popular support , for the loss of 700,000 soldiers and a budget deficit of 12,000,000,000 Lire during the war made the Italian government and people feel entitled to all these territories and even more not mentioned in the Treaty of London , in particular the city of Fiume , which many Italians believed should be annexed to Italy because of the Italian population . In the meetings of the `` Big Four '' , in which Orlando 's powers of diplomacy were inhibited by his lack of English , the others were only willing to offer Trentino to the Brenner , the Dalmatian port of Zara and some of the Dalmatian islands . All other territories were promised to other nations and the great powers were worried about Italy 's imperial ambitions . Even though Italy did get most of its demands , Orlando was refused Fiume , most of Dalmatia and any colonial gain , so he left the conference in a rage . There was a general disappointment in Italy , which the nationalist and fascist parties used to build the idea that Italy was betrayed by the Allies and refused what was due ( Mutilated victory ) . This led to the general rise of Italian fascism . American approach ( edit ) `` The Big Four '' made all the major decisions at the Paris Peace Conference ( from left to right , David Lloyd George of Britain , Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy , Georges Clemenceau of France , Woodrow Wilson of the U.S. ) . Prior to Wilson 's arrival in Europe in December 1918 , no American president had ever visited Europe while in office . Wilson 's Fourteen Points , of a year earlier , had helped win the hearts and minds of many as the war ended ; these included Americans and Europeans generally , as well as Germany , its allies and the former subjects of the Ottoman Empire specifically . Wilson 's diplomacy and his Fourteen Points had essentially established the conditions for the armistices that had brought an end to World War I. Wilson felt it was his duty and obligation to the people of the world to be a prominent figure at the peace negotiations . High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era . In doing so , Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism , a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles . Once Wilson arrived , however , he found `` rivalries , and conflicting claims previously submerged '' . He worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French ( Georges Clemenceau ) and British ( Lloyd George ) delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe , as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East . Wilson 's attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed , after France and Britain refused to adopt some specific points and its core principles . In Europe , several of his Fourteen Points conflicted with the other powers . The United States did not encourage or believe that the responsibility for the war that Article 231 placed on Germany was fair or warranted . It would not be until 1921 that the United States finally signed separate peace treaties with Germany , Austria , and Hungary . In the Middle East , negotiations were complicated by competing aims , claims , and the new mandate system . The United States hoped to establish a more liberal and diplomatic world , as stated in the Fourteen Points , where democracy , sovereignty , liberty and self - determination would be respected . France and Britain , on the other hand , already controlled empires , wielded power over their subjects around the world and still aspired to be dominant colonial powers . In light of the previously secret Sykes -- Picot Agreement , and following the adoption of the mandate system on the Arab province of the former Ottoman lands , the conference heard statements from competing Zionist and Arab claimants . President Woodrow Wilson then recommended an international commission of inquiry to ascertain the wishes of the local inhabitants . The Commission idea , first accepted by Great Britain and France , was later rejected . Eventually it became the purely American King -- Crane Commission , which toured all Syria and Palestine during the summer of 1919 , taking statements and sampling opinion . Its report , presented to President Wilson , was kept secret from the public until The New York Times broke the story in December 1922 . A pro-Zionist joint resolution on Palestine was passed by Congress in September 1922 . France and Britain tried to appease the American President by consenting to the establishment of his League of Nations . However , because isolationist sentiment was strong and some of the articles in the League 's charter conflicted with the United States Constitution , the United States never ratified the Treaty of Versailles nor joined the League of Nations , which President Wilson had helped create , to further peace through diplomacy rather than war and conditions which can breed it . Under President Warren Harding the United States signed separate treaties with Germany , Austria , and Hungary in 1921 . Japanese approach ( edit ) Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference , 1919 Japanese delegation at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference , with ( seated l - to - r ) former Foreign Minister Baron Makino Nobuaki , former Prime Minister Marquis Saionji Kinmochi , and the Japanese Ambassador to Great Britain Viscount Chinda Sutemi Japan sent a large delegation headed by the former Prime Minister , Marquis Saionji Kinmochi . It was originally one of the `` big five '' but relinquished that role because of its slight interest in European affairs . Instead it focused on two demands : the inclusion of their Racial Equality Proposal in the League 's Covenant and Japanese territorial claims with respect to former German colonies , namely Shantung ( including Kiaochow ) and the Pacific islands north of the Equator ( the Marshall Islands , Micronesia , the Mariana Islands , and the Carolines ) . The former Foreign Minister Baron Makino Nobuaki was de facto chief while Saionji 's role was symbolic and limited by his ill health . The Japanese delegation became unhappy after receiving only one - half of the rights of Germany , and walked out of the conference . Racial Equality Proposal ( edit ) Main article : Racial Equality Proposal , 1919 Japan proposed the inclusion of a `` racial equality clause '' in the Covenant of the League of Nations on 13 February as an amendment to Article 21 . It read : The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations , the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states , members of the League , equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction , either in law or in fact , on account of their race or nationality . Because he knew that Great Britain was critical to the decision , President Wilson , as Conference chairman , ruled that a unanimous vote was required . On 11 April 1919 , the commission held a final session and the proposal received a majority of votes , but Great Britain and Australia opposed it . The Australians had lobbied the British to defend Australia 's White Australia policy . The defeat of the proposal influenced Japan 's turn from cooperation with the West toward more nationalistic policies . Territorial claims ( edit ) The Japanese claim to Shantung was disputed by the Chinese . In 1914 at the outset of World War I Japan had seized the territory granted to Germany in 1897 . They also seized the German islands in the Pacific north of the equator . In 1917 , Japan had made secret agreements with Britain , France , and Italy that guaranteed their annexation of these territories . With Britain , there was a mutual agreement , Japan also agreeing to support British annexation of the Pacific islands south of the equator . Despite a generally pro-Chinese view on behalf of the American delegation , Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles transferred German concessions in Jiaozhou Bay , China to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China . The leader of the Chinese delegation , Lou Tseng - Tsiang , demanded that a reservation be inserted before he would sign the treaty . The reservation was denied , and the treaty was signed by all the delegations except that of China . Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations known as the May Fourth Movement . The Pacific islands north of the equator became a class C mandate administered by Japan . Greek approach ( edit ) Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos took part in the Paris Peace Conference as Greece 's chief representative . President Woodrow Wilson was said to have placed Venizelos first in point of personal ability among all delegates gathered in Paris to settle the terms of Peace . Venizelos proposed the Greek expansion on Thrace and Asia Minor ( lands of the defeated Kingdom of Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire ) , Northern Epirus , Imvros and Tenedos , aiming to the realization of the Megali Idea . He also reached an agreement with the Italians on the cession of the Dodecanese ( Venizelos -- Tittoni agreement ) . For the Greeks of Pontus he proposed a common Pontic - Armenian State . As a liberal politician , Venizelos was a strong supporter of the Fourteen Points and of the League of Nations . Chinese approach ( edit ) The Chinese delegation was led by Lou Tseng - Tsiang , accompanied by Wellington Koo and Cao Rulin . Before the Western powers , Koo demanded that Germany 's concessions on Shandong be returned to China . He further called for an end to imperialist institutions such as extraterritoriality , legation guards , and foreign leaseholds . Despite American support and the ostensible spirit of self - determination , the Western powers refused his claims , transferring the German concessions to Japan instead . This sparked widespread student protests in China on 4 May , later known as the May Fourth Movement , eventually pressuring the government into refusing to sign the Treaty of Versailles . Thus the Chinese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference was the only one not to sign the treaty at the signing ceremony . Questions about independence ( edit ) All - Russian government ( whites ) ( edit ) While Russia was formally excluded from the Conference , despite having fought the Central Powers for three years , the Russian Provincial Council ( chaired by Prince Lvov ) , the successor to the Russian Constituent Assembly and the political arm of the Russian White movement attended the conference . It was represented by the former Tsarist minister Sergey Sazonov who , if the Tsar had not been overthrown , would most likely have attended the conference anyway . The Council maintained the position of an indivisible Russia , but some were prepared to negotiate over the loss of Poland and Finland . The Council suggested all matters relating to territorial claims , or demands for autonomy within the former Russian Empire , be referred to a new All - Russian Constituent Assembly . Ukraine ( edit ) Ukraine had its best opportunity to win recognition and support from foreign powers at the Conference of 1919 . At a meeting of the Big Five on 16 January , Lloyd George called Ukrainian leader Symon Petliura ( 1874 -- 1926 ) an adventurer and dismissed Ukraine as an anti-Bolshevik stronghold . Sir Eyre Crowe , British undersecretary of state for foreign affairs , spoke against a union of East Galicia and Poland . The British cabinet never decided whether to support a united or dismembered Russia . The United States was sympathetic to a strong , united Russia as a counterpoise to Japan , but Britain feared a threat to India . Petliura appointed Count Tyshkevich his representative to the Vatican , and Pope Benedict XV recognized Ukrainian independence . Ukraine was effectively ignored . Belarus ( edit ) A Delegation of the Belarusian Democratic Republic under Prime Minister Anton Łuckievič also participated in the conference , attempting to gain international recognition of the independence of Belarus . On the way to the conference , the delegation was received by Czechoslovak president Tomáš Masaryk in Prague . During the conference , Łuckievič had meetings with the exiled Foreign Minister of admiral Kolchak 's Russian government Sergey Sazonov and the Prime Minister of Poland Ignacy Jan Paderewski . Minority rights in Poland and other European countries ( edit ) At the insistence of President Wilson , the Big Four required Poland to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation . Poland signed under protest and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans , Jews , Ukrainians , and other minorities . Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia , Romania , Yugoslavia , Greece , Austria , Hungary , Bulgaria , and later by Latvia , Estonia , and Lithuania . Estonia had already given cultural autonomy to minorities in its declaration of independence . Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a minority rights treaty . In Poland , the key provisions were to become fundamental laws that overrode any national legal codes or legislation . The new country pledged to assure `` full and complete protection of life and liberty to all individuals ... without distinction of birth , nationality , language , race , or religion . '' Freedom of religion was guaranteed to everyone . Most residents were given citizenship , but there was considerable ambiguity on who was covered . The treaty guaranteed basic civil , political , and cultural rights , and required all citizens to be equal before the law and enjoy identical rights of citizens and workers . Polish was of the national language , but the treaty provided that minority languages could be freely used privately , in commerce , religion , the press , at public meetings , and before all courts . Minorities were to be permitted to establish and control at their own expense private charities , churches and social institutions , as well as schools , without interference from the government . The government was required to set up German - language public schools in those districts that had been German territory before the war . All education above the primary level was to be conducted exclusively in the national language . Article 12 was the enforcement clause ; it gave the Council of the League of Nations responsibility for monitoring and enforcing each treaty . Caucasus ( edit ) The three South Caucasian republics of Armenia , Azerbaijan and Georgia as well as the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus each sent a delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 . Their attempts to gain protection from threats posed by the ongoing Russian Civil War largely failed as none of the major powers was interested in taking a mandate over the Caucasian territories . After a series of delays , the three South Caucasian countries ultimately gained de facto recognition from the Supreme Council of the Allied powers , but only when all European troops had been withdrawn from the Caucasus except for a British contingent in Batumi . Georgia was recognized de facto on 12 January 1920 , followed by Azerbaijan on the same day and Armenia on 19 January 1920 . The Allied leaders decided to limit their assistance to the Caucasian republics to arms , munitions , and food supply . The Armenian delegation was represented by Avetis Aharonyan , Hamo Ohanjanyan , Armen Garo and others . Azerbaijan 's mission was headed by Alimardan Topchubashev . The delegation from Georgia included Nikolay Chkheidze , Irakli Tsereteli , Zurab Avalishvili , and others . Korean delegation ( edit ) A delegation of Koreans from China and Hawaii did make it to Paris . Included in this delegation , was a representative from the Korean Provisional Government in Shanghai , Kim Kyu - sik . They were aided by the Chinese , who were eager for the opportunity to embarrass Japan at the international forum . Several top Chinese leaders at the time , including Sun Yat - sen , told U.S. diplomats that the peace conference should take up the question of Korean independence . Beyond that , however , the Chinese , locked in a struggle against the Japanese themselves , could do little for Korea . Apart from China , no nation took the Koreans seriously at the Paris conference because of its status as a Japanese colony . The failure of the Korean nationalists to gain support from the Paris Peace Conference ended the possibility of foreign support . Palestine ( edit ) Following the Conference 's decision to separate the former Arab provinces from the Ottoman Empire and to apply the newly conceived mandate - system to them , the Zionist Organization submitted their draft resolutions for consideration by the Peace Conference on 3 February 1919 . Zionist state as claimed at the Paris Peace Conference British memorandum on Palestine ahead of the Peace Conference The statement included five main points : Recognition of the Jewish people 's historic title to Palestine and their right to reconstitute their National Home there . The boundaries of Palestine were to be declared as set out in the attached Schedule The sovereign possession of Palestine would be vested in the League of Nations and the Government entrusted to Great Britain as Mandatory of the League . Other provisions to be inserted by the High Contracting Parties relating to the application of any general conditions attached to mandates , which are suitable to the case in Palestine . The mandate shall be subject also to several noted special conditions , including promotion of Jewish immigration and close settlement on the land and safeguarding rights of the present non-Jewish population a Jewish Council representative for the development of the Jewish National Home in Palestine , and offer to the Council in priority any concession for public works or for the development of natural resources self - government for localities freedom of religious worship ; no discrimination among the inhabitants with regard to citizenship and civil rights , on the grounds of religion , or of race control of the Holy Places However , despite these attempts to influence the conference , the Zionists were instead constrained by Article 7 of the resulting Palestine Mandate to merely having the right of obtaining Palestinian citizenship : `` The Administration of Palestine shall be responsible for enacting a nationality law . There shall be included in this law provisions framed so as to facilitate the acquisition of Palestinian citizenship by Jews who take up their permanent residence in Palestine . '' Citing the Balfour Declaration , the Zionists suggested that the British had already recognized the historic title of the Jews to Palestine in 1917 . The preamble of the British Mandate of 1922 , in which the Balfour Declaration was incorporated , stated : `` Whereas recognition has thereby been given to the historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine and to the grounds for reconstituting their national home in that country ... '' . Historical assessments ( edit ) Main article : Causes of World War II The remaking of the world map at these conferences gave birth to a number of critical conflict - prone international contradictions , which would become one of the causes of World War II . The British historian Eric Hobsbawm claimed : ( N ) o equally systematic attempt has been made before or since , in Europe or anywhere else , to redraw the political map on national lines . ( ... ) The logical implication of trying to create a continent neatly divided into coherent territorial states each inhabited by separate ethnically and linguistically homogeneous population , was the mass expulsion or extermination of minorities . Such was and is the reductio ad absurdum of nationalism in its territorial version , although this was not fully demonstrated until the 1940s . It has long been argued that Wilson 's Fourteen Points , in particular , the principle of national self - determination , were primarily anti-Left measures , designed to tame the revolutionary fever sweeping across Europe in the wake of the October Revolution and the end of the war by playing the nationalist card . Cultural references ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) World 's End ( 1940 ) , the first novel in Upton Sinclair 's Pulitzer Prize - winning Lanny Budd series , describes the political machinations and consequences of the Paris Peace Conference through much of the book 's second half , with Sinclair 's narrative including many historically accurate characters and events . The first two books of novelist Robert Goddard 's The Wide World trilogy ( The Ways of the World and The Corners of the Globe ) are centered around the diplomatic machinations which form the background to the conference . Paris 1919 ( 1973 ) , the third studio album by Welsh musician John Cale , is named after the Paris Peace Conference , and its title song explores various aspects of early 20th century culture and history in Western Europe . A Dangerous Man : Lawrence After Arabia ( 1992 ) is a British television film starring Ralph Fiennes as T.E. Lawrence and Alexander Siddig as Emir Faisal , depicting their struggles to secure an independent Arab state at the conference . `` Paris , May 1919 '' is a 1993 episode of The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles , written by Jonathan Hales and directed by David Hare , in which Indiana Jones is shown working as a translator with the American delegation at the Paris Peace Conference . See also ( edit ) United Nations portal World War I portal The Inquiry Causes of World War II International relations of the Great Powers ( 1814 -- 1919 ) Minority Treaties Czech Corridor League of Nations mandate Commission of Responsibilities Congress of Vienna References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Rene Albrecht - Carrie , Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna ( 1958 ) p. 363 Jump up ^ Michael S. Neiberg ( 2017 ) . The Treaty of Versailles : A Concise History . Oxford University Press . p. ix . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 065918 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Erik Goldstein The First World War Peace Settlements , 1919 -- 1925 p49 Routledge ( 2013 ) Jump up ^ Goldstein , Erik ( 2013 - 10 - 11 ) . The First World War Peace Settlements , 1919 - 1925 . Routledge . ISBN 9781317883678 . Jump up ^ Ziolkowski , Theodore ( 2007 ) . `` 6 : The God That Failed '' . Modes of Faith : Secular Surrogates for Lost Religious Belief . Accessible Publishing Systems PTY , Ltd ( published 2011 ) . p. 231 . ISBN 9781459627376 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 19 . ( ... ) Ebert persuaded the various councils to set elections for 19 January 1919 ( the day following a date symbolic in Prussian history ever since the Kingdom of Prussia was established on 18 January 1701 ) . Jump up ^ Meehan , John David ( 2005 ) . `` 4 : Failure at Geneva '' . The Dominion and the Rising Sun : Canada Encounters Japan , 1929 - 41 . Vancouver : UBC Press . pp. 76 -- 77 . ISBN 9780774811217 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 19 . As the first non-European nation to achieve great - power status , Japan took its place alongside the other Big Five at Versailles , even if it was often a silent partner . Jump up ^ Antony Lentin , `` Germany : a New Carthage ? '' History Today ( 2012 ) 62 # 1 pp. 22 -- 27 online Jump up ^ Paul Birdsall , Versailles Twenty Years After ( 1941 ) is a convenient history and analysis of the conference . Longer and more recent is Margaret Macmillan , Peacemakers : The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War ( 2002 ) , also published as Paris 1919 : Six Months That Changed the World ( 2003 ) ; a good short overview is Alan Sharp , The Versailles Settlement : Peacemaking after the First World War , 1919 -- 1923 ( 2nd ed. 2008 ) Jump up ^ Alan Sharp , The Versailles Settlement : Peacemaking After the First World War , 1919 -- 1923 ( 2nd ed. 2008 ) ch 7 Jump up ^ Andrew J. Crozier , `` The Establishment of the Mandates System 1919 -- 25 : Some Problems Created by the Paris Peace Conference , '' Journal of Contemporary History ( 1979 ) 14 # 3 pp 483 -- 513 in JSTOR . Jump up ^ Peter Ryland , Lloyd George ( 1975 ) p. 481 Jump up ^ Wm Louis , Roger ( 1966 ) . `` Australia and the German Colonies in the Pacific , 1914 -- 1919 '' . Journal of Modern History . 38 ( 4 ) : 407 -- 421 . doi : 10.1086 / 239953 . JSTOR 1876683 . Jump up ^ Paul Birdsall , Versailles Twenty Years After ( 1941 ) pp. 58 -- 82 Jump up ^ Macmillan , Paris 1919 , pp. 98 -- 106 Jump up ^ Scot David Bruce , Woodrow Wilson 's Colonial Emissary : Edward M. House and the Origins of the Mandate System , 1917 -- 1919 ( University of Nebraska Press , 2013 ) Jump up ^ Mungo MacCallum ( 2013 ) . The Good , the Bad and the Unlikely : Australia 's Prime Ministers . Black Inc. p. 38 . Jump up ^ Zara S. Steiner ( 2007 ) . The Lights that Failed : European International History , 1919 -- 1933 . Oxford UP . pp. 481 -- 82 . Jump up ^ Shimazu ( 1998 ) , pp. 14 -- 15 , 117 . Jump up ^ `` Official Memorandum in support of Ireland 's demand for recognition as a sovereign independent state . Presented to Georges Clemenceau and the members of the Paris Peace Conference by Sean T O'Ceallaigh and George Gavan Duffy from O Ceallaigh Gavan Duffy to George Clemenceau -- June 1919 . -- Documents on IRISH FOREIGN POLICY '' . Jump up ^ John C. Hulsman ( 2009 ) . To Begin the World Over Again : Lawrence of Arabia from Damascus to Baghdad . pp. 119 -- 20 . Jump up ^ Snelling , R.C. ( 1975 ) . `` Peacemaking , 1919 : Australia , New Zealand and the British Empire Delegation at Versailles '' . Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History . 4 ( 1 ) : 15 -- 28 . doi : 10.1080 / 03086537508582446 . Jump up ^ Fitzhardinge , L.F. ( 1968 ) . `` Hughes , Borden , and Dominion Representation at the Paris Peace Conference '' . Canadian Historical Review . 49 ( 2 ) : 160 -- 169 . doi : 10.3138 / chr - 049 - 02 - 03 . Jump up ^ Margaret McMillan , `` Canada and the Peace Settlements , '' in David Mackenzie , ed. , Canada and the First World War ( 2005 ) pp. 379 -- 408 Jump up ^ Snelling , R.C. ( 1975 ) . `` Peacemaking , 1919 : Australia , New Zealand and the British Empire delegation at Versailles '' . Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History . 4 ( 1 ) : 15 -- 28 . doi : 10.1080 / 03086537508582446 . Jump up ^ MacMillan , Paris 1919 pp 26 -- 35 Jump up ^ David Robin Watson , Georges Clemenceau ( 1974 ) pp 338 -- 65 Jump up ^ Ambrosius , Lloyd E. ( 1972 ) . `` Wilson , the Republicans , and French Security after World War I '' . Journal of American History . 59 ( 2 ) : 341 -- 352 . doi : 10.2307 / 1890194 . JSTOR 1890194 . ^ Jump up to : Trachtenberg , Marc ( 1979 ) . `` Reparation at the Paris Peace Conference '' . Journal of Modern History . 51 ( 1 ) : 24 -- 55 ( p. 42 ) . doi : 10.1086 / 241847 . JSTOR 1877867 . ^ Jump up to : Trachtenberg ( 1979 ) , page 43 . Jump up ^ Macmillan , ch 22 Jump up ^ H. James Burgwyn , Legend of the Mutilated Victory : Italy , the Great War and the Paris Peace Conference , 1915 -- 1919 ( 1993 ) Jump up ^ MacMillan ( 2001 ) , p. 3 . ^ Jump up to : US Dept of State ; International Boundary Study , Jordan -- Syria Boundary , No. 94 -- 30 December 1969 , p. 10 Archived 27 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ MacMillan , Paris 1919 ( 2001 ) , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Ellis , William ( 3 December 1922 ) . `` CRANE AND KING 'S LONG - HID REPORT ON THE NEAR EAST - American Mandate Recommended in DocumentSent to Wilson. PEOPLE CALLED FOR USDisliked French , DistrustedBritish and Opposed theZionist Plan. ALLIES AT CROSS PURPOSES Our Control Would Have Hid Its Seat in Constantinople , Dominating New Nations . - Article - NYTimes.com '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ Rubenberg , Cheryl ( 1986 ) . Israel and the American National Interest : A Critical Examination . University of Illinois Press . p. 27 . ISBN 0 - 252 - 06074 - 1 . Jump up ^ MacMillan ( 2001 ) , p. 83 . Jump up ^ Wikisource Jump up ^ `` First World War.com -- Primary Documents -- U.S. Peace Treaty with Austria , 24 August 1921 '' . Retrieved 30 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` First World War.com -- Primary Documents -- U.S. Peace Treaty with Hungary , 29 August 1921 '' . Retrieved 30 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Macmillan , ch 23 Jump up ^ Gordon Lauren , Paul ( 1978 ) . `` Human Rights in History : Diplomacy and Racial Equality at the Paris Peace Conference '' . Diplomatic History . 2 ( 3 ) : 257 -- 278 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 7709.1978. tb00435. x . Jump up ^ Macmillan , Paris 1919 p. 321 Jump up ^ Fifield , Russell . `` Japanese Policy toward the Shantung Question at the Paris Peace Conference , '' Journal of Modern History ( 1951 ) 23 : 3 pp 265 -- 272 . in JSTOR reprint primary Japanese sources Jump up ^ Chester , 1921 , p. 6 Jump up ^ MacMillan , Paris of 1919 pp 322 -- 45 Jump up ^ Seth P. Tillman Anglo - American Relations at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 p136 Princeton University Press ( 1961 ) Jump up ^ John M. Thompson Russia , Bolshevism , and the Versailles Peace p76 Princeton University Press ( 1967 ) Jump up ^ John M. Thompson Russia , Bolshevism , and the Versailles Peace p78 Princeton University Press ( 1967 ) Jump up ^ Laurence J. Orzell , `` A ' Hotly Disputed ' Issue : Eastern Galicia At The Paris Peace Conference , 1919 , '' Polish Review ( 1980 ) : 49 -- 68 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Yakovenko , Natalya ( 2002 ) . `` Ukraine in British Strategies and Concepts of Foreign Policy , 1917 -- 1922 and after '' . East European Quarterly . 36 ( 4 ) : 465 -- 479 . Jump up ^ Моладзь БНФ . `` Чатыры ўрады БНР на міжнароднай арэне ў 1918 -- 1920 г '' . Archived from the original on 3 July 2013 . Retrieved 30 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Fink , Carole ( 1996 ) . `` The Paris Peace Conference and the Question of Minority Rights '' . Peace and Change : A journal of peace research . 21 ( 3 ) : 273 -- 88 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1468 - 0130.1996. tb00272. x . Jump up ^ Fink , `` The Paris Peace Conference and the Question of Minority Rights '' Jump up ^ Edmund Jan Osmańczyk ( 2003 ) . Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements : A to F. Routledge . p. 1812 . Jump up ^ Suny , Ronald Grigor ( 1994 ) . The making of the Georgian nation ( 2 ed . ) . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . p. 154 . ISBN 0253209153 . Jump up ^ Hart - Landsberg , Martin ( 1998 ) . Korea : Division , Reunification , & U.S. Foreign Policy Monthly Review Press . P. 30 . Jump up ^ Manela , Erez ( 2007 ) The Wilsonian Moment pp. 119 -- 135 , 197 -- 213 . Jump up ^ Kim , Seung - Young ( 2009 ) . American Diplomacy and Strategy Toward Korea and Northeast Asia , 1882 -- 1950 and After pp 64 -- 65 . Jump up ^ Baldwin , Frank ( 1972 ) . The March First Movement : Korean Challenge and Japanese Response ^ Jump up to : Statement of the Zionist Organization regarding Palestine Archived 24 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. , 3 February 1919 Jump up ^ `` The Avalon Project : The Palestine Mandate '' . Jump up ^ Avalon Project , The Palestine Mandate Jump up ^ First World War -- Willmott , H.P. , Dorling Kindersley , 2003 , pp. 292 -- 307 . Jump up ^ Hobsbawm 1992 , p. 133 . Jump up ^ Hobsbawm 1994 , p. 67 : `` ( T ) he first Western reaction to the Bolsheviks ' appeal to the peoples to make peace -- and their publication of the secret treaties in which the Allies had carved up Europe among themselves -- had been President Wilson 's Fourteen Points , which played the nationalist card against Lenin 's international appeal . A zone of small nation - states was to form a sort of quarantine belt against the Red virus ... ( T ) he establishment of new small nation - states along Wilsonian lines , though far from eliminating national conflicts in the zone of revolutions , ... diminished the scope for Bolshevik revolution . That , indeed , had been the intention of the Allied peacemakers . '' From the other side of the political spectrum , John Lewis Gaddis likewise writes : `` When Woodrow Wilson made the principle of self - determination one of this Fourteen Points his intent had been to undercut the appeal of Bolshevism '' ( Gaddis 2005 , p. 121 ) . This view has a long history , and can be summarised by Ray Stannard Baker 's famous remark that `` Paris can not be understood without Moscow . '' See McFadden 1993 , p. 191 . Further reading ( edit ) Albrecht - Carrie , Rene . Italy at the Paris Peace Conference ( 1938 ) online edition Ambrosius , Lloyd E. Woodrow Wilson and the American Diplomatic Tradition : The Treaty Fight in Perspective ( 1990 ) Andelman , David A . A Shattered Peace : Versailles 1919 and the Price We Pay Today ( 2007 ) popular history that stresses multiple long - term disasters caused by Treaty . Bailey ; Thomas A. Wilson and the Peacemakers : Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal ( 1947 ) online edition Birdsall , Paul . Versailles twenty years after ( 1941 ) well balanced older account Boemeke , Manfred F. , et al. , eds . The Treaty of Versailles : A Reassessment after 75 Years ( 1998 ) . A major collection of important papers by scholars Bruce , Scot David , Woodrow Wilson 's Colonial Emissary : Edward M. House and the Origins of the Mandate System , 1917 -- 1919 ( University of Nebraska Press , 2013 ) . Clements , Kendrick , A. Woodrow Wilson : World Statesman ( 1999 ) Cooper , John Milton . Woodrow Wilson : A Biography ( 2009 ) , scholarly biography ; pp 439 -- 532 excerpt and text search Dillon , Emile Joseph . The Inside Story of the Peace Conference , ( 1920 ) online Dockrill , Michael , and John Fisher . The Paris Peace Conference , 1919 : Peace Without Victory ? ( Springer , 2016 ) . Ferguson , Niall . The Pity of War : Explaining World War One ( 1999 ) , economics issues at Paris pp 395 -- 432 Doumanis , Nicholas , ed . The Oxford Handbook of European History , 1914 -- 1945 ( 2016 ) ch 9 . Fromkin , David . A Peace to End All Peace , The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East , Macmillan 1989 . Gaddis , John Lewis ( 2005 ) . The Cold War . London : Allen Lane . ISBN 978 - 0 - 713 - 99912 - 9 . Gelfand , Lawrence Emerson . The Inquiry : American Preparations for Peace , 1917 -- 1919 ( Yale UP , 1963 ) . Ginneken , Anique H.M. van . Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations ( 2006 ) Henig , Ruth . Versailles and After : 1919 -- 1933 ( 2nd ed. 1995 ) , 100 pages ; brief introduction by scholar Hobsbawm , E.J. ( 1992 ) . Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : Programme , Myth , Reality . Canto ( 2nd ed . ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 43961 - 9 . Hobsbawm , E.J. ( 1994 ) . The Age of Extremes : The Short Twentieth Century , 1914 -- 1991 . London : Michael Joseph . ISBN 978 - 0718133078 . Keynes , John Maynard , The Economic Consequences of the Peace ( 1920 ) famous criticism by leading economist full text online Dimitri Kitsikis , Le rôle des experts à la Conférence de la Paix de 1919 , Ottawa , éditions de l'université d'Ottawa , 1972 . Dimitri Kitsikis , Propagande et pressions en politique internationale . La Grèce et ses revendications à la Conférence de la Paix , 1919 -- 1920 , Paris , Presses universitaires de France , 1963 . Knock , Thomas J. To End All Wars : Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order ( 1995 ) Lederer , Ivo J. , ed . The Versailles Settlement -- Was It Foredoomed to Failure ? ( 1960 ) short excerpts from scholars online edition Lentin , Antony . Guilt at Versailles : Lloyd George and the Pre-history of Appeasement ( 1985 ) Lentin , Antony . Lloyd George and the Lost Peace : From Versailles to Hitler , 1919 -- 1940 ( 2004 ) Macalister - Smith , Peter , Schwietzke , Joachim : Diplomatic Conferences and Congresses . A Bibliographical Compendium of State Practice 1642 to 1919 , W. Neugebauer , Graz , Feldkirch 2017 , ISBN 978 - 3 - 85376 - 325 - 4 . McFadden , David W. ( 1993 ) . Alternative Paths : Soviets and Americans , 1917 -- 1920 . New York , NY : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 195 - 36115 - 5 . MacMillan , Margaret . Peacemakers : The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War ( 2001 ) , also published as Paris 1919 : Six Months That Changed the World ( 2003 ) ; influential survey Mayer , Arno J. ( 1967 ) . Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking : Containment and Counterrevolution at Versailles , 1918 -- 1919 . New York , NY : Alfred A. Knopf . Nicolson , Harold ( 2009 ) ( 1933 ) . Peacemaking , 1919 . London : Faber and Faber . ISBN 978 - 0 - 571 - 25604 - 4 . Archived from the original on 30 March 2012 . Paxton , Robert O. , and Julie Hessler . Europe in the Twentieth Century ( 2011 ) pp 141 -- 78 Marks , Sally . The Illusion of Peace : International Relations in Europe 1918 -- 1933 ( 2nd ed. 2003 ) Mayer , Arno J. , Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking : Containment and Counter-revolution at Versailles , 1918 -- 1919 ( 1967 ) , leftist Newton , Douglas . British Policy and the Weimar Republic , 1918 -- 1919 ( 1997 ) . 484 pgs . Pellegrino , Anthony ; Dean Lee , Christopher ; Alex ( 2012 ) . `` Historical Thinking through Classroom Simulation : 1919 Paris Peace Conference '' . The Clearing House : A Journal of Educational Strategies , Issues and Ideas. 85 ( 4 ) : 146 -- 152 . Roberts , Priscilla . `` Wilson , Europe 's Colonial Empires , and the Issue of Imperialism , '' in Ross A. Kennedy , ed. , A Companion to Woodrow Wilson ( 2013 ) pp : 492 -- 517 . Schwabe , Klaus . Woodrow Wilson , Revolutionary Germany , and Peacemaking , 1918 -- 1919 : Missionary Diplomacy and the Realities of Power ( 1985 ) online edition Sharp , Alan . The Versailles Settlement : Peacemaking after the First World War , 1919 -- 1923 ( 2nd ed. 2008 ) Sharp , Alan ( 2005 ) . `` The Enforcement Of The Treaty Of Versailles , 1919 -- 1923 '' . Diplomacy and Statecraft. 16 ( 3 ) : 423 -- 438 . doi : 10.1080 / 09592290500207677 . Naoko Shimazu ( 1998 ) , Japan , Race and Equality , Routledge , ISBN 0 - 415 - 17207 - 1 Steiner , Zara . The Lights that Failed : European International History 1919 -- 1933 ( Oxford History of Modern Europe ) ( 2007 ) , pp 15 -- 79 ; major scholarly work online at Questia Trachtenberg , Marc ( 1979 ) . `` Reparations at the Paris Peace Conference '' . The Journal of Modern History . 51 ( 1 ) : 24 -- 55 . doi : 10.1086 / 241847 . JSTOR 1877867 . Walworth , Arthur . Wilson and His Peacemakers : American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference , 1919 ( 1986 ) 618pp online edition Walworth , Arthur ( 1958 ) . Woodrow Wilson , Volume I , Volume II . Longmans , Green . ; 904pp ; full scale scholarly biography ; winner of Pulitzer Prize ; online free ; 2nd ed. 1965 Watson , David Robin . George Clemenceau : A Political Biography ( 1976 ) 463 pgs . online edition External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paris Peace Conference , 1919 . Sharp , Alan : The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences , in : 1914 - 1918 - online . International Encyclopedia of the First World War . Excerpts from the NFB documentary Paris 1919 Sampling of maps used by the American delegates held by the American Geographical Society Library , UW Milwaukee World War I Home fronts Theatres European Balkans Western Front Eastern Front Italian Front Middle Eastern Gallipoli Sinai and Palestine Caucasus Persia Mesopotamia South Arabia African South West East Kamerun Togoland North Asian and Pacific Tsingtao German New Guinea and Samoa At sea North Atlantic U-boat campaign Mediterranean North Sea Baltic Indian , Pacific and South Atlantic Oceans Papeete Madras Penang Cocos Coronel Falkland Islands Más a Tierra Principal participants ( people ) Entente powers Belgium Brazil China France French Empire Greece Italy Japan Montenegro Portuguese Empire Romania Russia Russian Empire Russian Republic Serbia United Kingdom British Empire United States Central Powers Germany Austria - Hungary Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Timeline Pre-War conflicts Scramble for Africa ( 1880 -- 1914 ) Russo - Japanese War ( 1905 ) First Moroccan ( Tangier ) Crisis ( 1905 -- 06 ) Agadir Crisis ( 1911 ) Italo - 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Jean - de-Maurienne French - Armenian Agreement Damascus Protocol Paris Peace Conference Venizelos -- Tittoni agreement Treaties Treaty of Brest - Litovsk Treaty of Lausanne Treaty of London Treaty of Neuilly Treaty of St. Germain Treaty of Sèvres Treaty of Trianon Treaty of Versailles Consequences Aftermath `` Fourteen Points '' League of Nations World War I memorials In popular culture Centenary outbreak Category Portal Woodrow Wilson 28th President of the United States ( 1913 -- 1921 ) 34th Governor of New Jersey ( 1911 -- 1913 ) 13th President of Princeton University ( 1902 -- 1910 ) Presidency 1913 inauguration Suffrage Parade 1917 inauguration The New Freedom Clayton Antitrust Act Farm Loan Act Federal Employees ' Compensation Act Federal Reserve System Federal Reserve Act Federal Income Tax amendment Federal Trade Commission Act Federal Trade Commission Revenue Act of 1913 Flag Day National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Occupation of Haiti Bryan -- Chamorro Treaty Philippine Autonomy Act World War I entry campaigns home front Committee on Public Information Espionage Act of 1917 Selective Service Act of 1917 Four Minute Men Sedition Act of 1918 National War Labor Board The Inquiry American Commission to Negotiate Peace Paris Peace Conference , 1919 Treaty of Versailles The Big Four Fourteen Points League of Nations charter 1919 Nobel Peace Prize Wilsonian Armenia Silent Sentinels Women 's Suffrage amendment Roosevelt desk Judicial appointments Supreme Court Cabinet State of the Union Address 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1920 Life Birthplace and Presidential Library papers and manuscripts Boyhood home in Georgia Boyhood home in South Carolina Princeton University president Summer White House ( Harlakenden Shadow Lawn ) Woodrow Wilson House Gravesite Books Congressional Government When a Man Comes to Himself The New Freedom ( 1913 ) Elections New Jersey gubernatorial election , 1910 1912 Democratic National Convention 1912 U.S. presidential election 1916 Democratic National Convention 1916 U.S. presidential election Legacy Wilsonianism Woodrow Wilson Foundation Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial Woodrow Wilson Bridge Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation U.S. Postage stamps U.S. Currency Popular culture Wilson ( 1944 film ) Profiles in Courage ( 1965 series ) Wilson ( 2013 book ) Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century ( 2002 documentary ) Family Joseph Ruggles Wilson ( father ) Jessie Janet Woodrow ( mother ) Ellen Axson Wilson ( wife , 1885 -- 1914 ; death ) Edith Bolling Wilson ( wife , 1915 -- 1924 ) Margaret Wilson ( daughter ) Jessie Wilson Sayre ( daughter ) Eleanor Wilson McAdoo ( daughter ) William McAdoo ( son - in - law ) Francis Sayre , Jr. ( grandson ) James Woodrow ( maternal uncle ) Related Progressive Era Jefferson Literary and Debating Society ← William Howard Taft Warren G. Harding → Category Paris Peace Conference , 1919 League of Nations Covenant of the League of Nations Members Organisation Minority Treaties Little Treaty of Versailles Mandates Treaty of Versailles War guilt Reparations Role in the Weimar Republic 's hyperinflation Dawes Plan Young Plan Lausanne Conference Locarno Stresa Front Possible cause of the Second World War International Opium Convention Subsequent treaties Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye Treaty of Neuilly - sur - Seine Treaty of Trianon Treaty of Sèvres Partition of the Ottoman Empire Conference of London ( 1920 ) San Remo conference Turkish National Movement Turkish War of Independence Treaty of Lausanne Other American Commission to Negotiate Peace Commission of Responsibilities The Inquiry Related A Peace Conference at the Quai d'Orsay The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors To the Unknown British Soldier in France LCCN : n80008740 NDL : 00569092 VIAF : 279721009 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919&oldid=855151095 '' Categories : Paris Peace Conference , 1919 1919 in international relations 1919 conferences Georges Clemenceau Presidency of Woodrow Wilson Conferences in Paris 1919 in Paris 20th - century diplomatic conferences Diplomatic conferences in France Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from February 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017 Articles needing additional references from January 2018 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from November 2013 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Къарачай - малкъар ქართული Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 粵語 中文 49 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 August 2018 , at 08 : 26 ( UTC ) . 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who headed the american peace delegation sent to paris
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Silk Road
Silk Road - wikipedia Silk Road Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the series of trade routes . For other uses , see Silk Road ( disambiguation ) . Silk Road Main routes of the Silk Road Route information Time period : Around 120 BCE -- 1450s CE UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Silk Roads : the Routes Network of Chang'an - Tianshan Corridor Type Cultural Criteria ii , iii , iv , vi Designated 2014 ( 38th session ) Reference no . 1442 Region Asia - Pacific Silk Road `` Silk Road '' in Traditional ( top ) and Simplified ( bottom ) Chinese characters Chinese name Traditional Chinese 絲綢 之 路 Simplified Chinese 丝绸 之 路 ( show ) Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Sīchóu zhī lù IPA ( sɨ́. ʈʂhǒu ʈʂɨ́ lû ) other Mandarin Xiao'erjing صِ چِوْ جِ لُ ‎ Wu Suzhounese Sy - zǿy tsyu lôu Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Sī - chàuh jī louh Jyutping Si1 - cau4 zi1 lou6 Southern Min Tâi - lô Si - tiû tsi lōo Persian name Persian ( Jâdeye Abrišam ) جاده‌ی ابریشم Arabic name Arabic ( Tarīq al - Ḥarīr ) طريق الحرير Armenian name Armenian Մետաքսի ճանապարհ ( Metaksi chanaparh ) Greek name Greek Δρόμος του μεταξιού ( Drómos tou metaxioú ) Sanskrit name Sanskrit रेशम सड़क ( Resham sadak ) Latin name Latin Via Serica Hebrew name Hebrew דרך המשי Somali name Somali وادادا وادادا ( Waddada Waddada ) Kawi name Kawi Sutra dalan Tamil name Tamil பட்டு வழி ( Paṭṭu vaḻi ) Turkish name Turkish İpek yolu The Silk Road or Silk Route was an ancient network of trade routes that were for centuries central to cultural interaction originally through regions of Eurasia connecting the East and West and stretching from the Korean peninsula and Japan to the Mediterranean Sea . The Silk Road concept refers to both the terrestrial and the maritime routes connecting Asia with Africa , the Middle East and southern Europe . The overland Steppe route stretching through the Eurasian steppe is considered the ancestor to the Silk Road ( s ) . The term refers to a many similar routes taken by traders primarily between Arabia , India and China but also to Tanzania ( Zanzibar ) in the south , Asia Minor and Southern Europe . While the term is of modern coinage , the Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk ( and horses ) carried out along its length , beginning during the Han dynasty ( 207 BCE -- 220 CE ) . The Han dynasty expanded Central Asian sections of the trade routes around 114 BCE , largely through missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy , Zhang Qian . The Chinese took great interest in the safety of their trade products and extended the Great Wall of China to ensure the protection of the trade route . Trade on the Silk Road played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China , the Goguryeo kingdom ( Korea ) , Japan , the Indian subcontinent , Persia , Europe , the Horn of Africa and Arabia , opening long - distance political and economic relations between the civilizations . Though silk was certainly the major trade item exported from China , many other goods were traded , as well as religions , syncretic philosophies , and various technologies . Diseases , most notably plague , also spread along the Silk Routes . In addition to economic trade , the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network . The main traders during antiquity included the Chinese , Arabs , Indian , Somalis , Syrians , Jews , Persians , Greeks , Romans , Georgians , Armenians , Bactrians , Turkmens , and ( from the 5th to the 8th century ) the Sogdians . In June 2014 , UNESCO designated the Chang'an - Tianshan corridor of the Silk Road as a World Heritage Site . The Indian portion is on the tentative site list . Contents ( hide ) 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Precursors 2.1. 1 Chinese and Central Asian contacts 2.1. 2 Persian Royal Road 2.1. 3 Hellenistic era 2.2 Chinese exploration of Central Asia 2.3 Roman Empire 2.4 Byzantine Empire 2.5 Tang dynasty reopens the route 2.6 Medieval 2.7 Islamic era and the Silk Road 2.8 Mongol age 2.9 Decline and disintegration 2.10 New Silk Road 3 Routes 3.1 Northern route 3.2 Southern route 3.3 Southwestern route 3.4 Maritime route 4 Cultural exchanges 4.1 Transmission of Christianity 4.2 Transmission of Buddhism 4.3 Transmission of art 5 Commemoration 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Name ( edit ) Woven silk textile from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui , Changsha , Hunan province , China , dated to the Western Han Era , 2nd century BCE The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative Eurasian silk and horse trade , a major reason for the connection of trade routes into an extensive transcontinental network . The German terms Seidenstraße and Seidenstraßen ( `` the Silk Road ( s ) '' ) were coined by Ferdinand von Richthofen , who made seven expeditions to China from 1868 to 1872 . The term Silk Route is also used . Although the term was coined in the 19th century , it did not gain widespread acceptance in academia or popularity among the public until the 20th century . The first book entitled The Silk Road was by Swedish geographer Sven Hedin in 1938 . The fall of the Soviet Union and ' Iron Curtain ' in 1989 led to a surge of public and academic interest in Silk Road sites and studies in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia . Use of the term ' Silk Road ' is not without its detractors . For instance , Warwick Ball contends that the maritime spice trade with India and Arabia was far more consequential for the economy of the Roman Empire than the silk trade with China , which at sea was conducted mostly through India and on land was handled by numerous intermediaries such as the Sogdians . Going as far as to call the whole thing a `` myth '' of modern academia , Ball argues that there was no coherent overland trade system and no free movement of goods from East Asia to the West until the period of the Mongol Empire . He notes that traditional authors discussing East - West trade such as Marco Polo and Edward Gibbon never labelled any route as a silk one in particular . However , that spice trade route was actually the maritime route of what is now considered the Silk Road ( see below . ) History ( edit ) Precursors ( edit ) Chinese and Central Asian Contacts ( edit ) Central Eurasia has been known from ancient times for its horse riding and horse breeding communities , and the overland Steppe Route across the northern steppes of Central Eurasia was in use long before that of the Silk Road . Archeological sites such as the Berel burial ground in Kazakhstan , confirmed that the nomadic Arimaspians were not only breeding horses for trade but also great craftsmen able to propagate exquisite art pieces along the Silk Road . From the 2nd millennium BCE , nephrite jade was being traded from mines in the region of Yarkand and Khotan to China . Significantly , these mines were not very far from the lapis lazuli and spinel ( `` Balas Ruby '' ) mines in Badakhshan , and , although separated by the formidable Pamir Mountains , routes across them were apparently in use from very early times . Chinese jade and steatite plaques , in the Scythian - style animal art of the steppes . 4th -- 3rd century BCE . British Museum . Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt . The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a crucial role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade . The originating source seems sufficiently reliable , but silk degrades very rapidly , so it can not be verified whether it was cultivated silk ( which would almost certainly have come from China ) or a type of `` wild silk '' , which might have come from the Mediterranean region or the Middle East . Following contacts between Metropolitan China and nomadic western border territories in the 8th century BCE , gold was introduced from Central Asia , and Chinese jade carvers began to make imitation designs of the steppes , adopting the Scythian - style animal art of the steppes ( depictions of animals locked in combat ) . This style is particularly reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze , with other versions in jade and steatite . The tomb of a Scythian prince near Stuttgart , Germany , dated to the 6th century BCE , was excavated and found to have not only Greek bronzes but also Chinese silks . Similar animal - shaped pieces of art and wrestler motifs on belts have been found in Scythian grave sites stretching from the Black Sea region all the way to Warring States era archaeological sites in Inner Mongolia ( at Aluchaideng ) and Shaanxi ( at Keshengzhuang ) in China . The expansion of Scythian cultures , stretching from the Hungarian plain and the Carpathian Mountains to the Chinese Kansu Corridor , and linking the Middle East with Northern India and the Punjab , undoubtedly played an important role in the development of the Silk Road . Scythians accompanied the Assyrian Esarhaddon on his invasion of Egypt , and their distinctive triangular arrowheads have been found as far south as Aswan . These nomadic peoples were dependent upon neighbouring settled populations for a number of important technologies , and in addition to raiding vulnerable settlements for these commodities , they also encouraged long - distance merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs . Sogdians played a major role in facilitating trade between China and Central Asia along the Silk Roads as late as the 10th century , their language serving as a lingua franca for Asian trade as far back as the 4th century . Persian Royal Road ( edit ) Achaemenid Persian Empire at its greatest extent , showing the Royal Road . By the time of Herodotus ( c. 475 BCE ) , the Royal Road of the Persian Empire ran some 2,857 km ( 1,775 mi ) from the city of Susa on the Karun ( 250 km ( 155 mi ) east of the Tigris ) to the port of Smyrna ( modern İzmir in Turkey ) on the Aegean Sea . It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenid Empire ( c. 500 -- 330 BCE ) and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals . By having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay , royal couriers could carry messages and traverse the length of the road in nine days , while normal travellers took about three months . Hellenistic era ( edit ) Probable Greek soldier with a Greek mythological centaur in the Sampul tapestry , woollen wall hanging , 3rd -- 2nd century BCE , Sampul , Urumqi Xinjiang Museum , China . The next major step in the development of the Silk Road was the expansion of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great into Central Asia . In August 329 BCE , at the mouth of the Fergana Valley in Tajikistan across the mountain pass from the modern Chinese province of Xinjiang , Alexander founded the city of Alexandria Eschate or `` Alexandria The Furthest '' . This later became a major staging point on the northern Silk Route . See Dayuan ( Ta - yuan ; Chinese : 大 宛 ; literarily `` Great Ionians '' ) . The Greeks remained in Central Asia for the next three centuries , first through the administration of the Seleucid Empire , and then with the establishment of the Greco - Bactrian Kingdom ( 250 -- 125 BCE ) in Bactria ( modern Afghanistan , Tajikistan , and Pakistan ) and the later Indo - Greek Kingdom ( 180 BCE -- 10 CE ) in modern Northern Pakistan and Afghanistan . They continued to expand eastward , especially during the reign of Euthydemus ( 230 -- 200 BCE ) , who extended his control beyond Alexandria Eschate to Sogdiana . There are indications that he may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar in Chinese Turkestan , leading to the first known contacts between ( China and the West around 200 BCE . The Greek historian Strabo writes , `` they extended their empire even as far as the Seres ( China ) and the Phryni . '' The Hellenistic world and Classical Greek philosophy mixed with Eastern philosophies , leading to syncretisms such as Greco - Buddhism . Chinese exploration of Central Asia ( edit ) Main articles : Sino - Roman relations , Sino - Indian relations , Han -- Xiongnu War , and History of the Han dynasty With the Mediterranean linked to the Fergana Valley , the next step was to open a route across the Tarim Basin and the Hexi Corridor to China Proper . This extension came around 130 BCE , with the embassies of the Han dynasty to Central Asia following the reports of the ambassador Zhang Qian ( who was originally sent to obtain an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu ) . Zhang Qian visited directly the kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana , the territories of the Yuezhi in Transoxiana , the Bactrian country of Daxia with its remnants of Greco - Bactrian rule , and Kangju . He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he did not visit , such as Anxi ( Parthia ) , Tiaozhi ( Mesopotamia ) , Shendu ( Pakistan ) and the Wusun . Zhang Qian 's report suggested the economic reason for Chinese expansion and wall - building westward , and trailblazed the silk road which is one of the most famous trade routes . After the defeat of the Xiongnu , however , Chinese armies established themselves in Central Asia , initiating the Silk Route as a major avenue of international trade . Some say that the Chinese Emperor Wu became interested in developing commercial relationships with the sophisticated urban civilizations of Ferghana , Bactria , and the Parthian Empire : `` The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus : Ferghana ( Dayuan `` Great Ionians '' ) and the possessions of Bactria ( Ta - Hsia ) and Parthian Empire ( Anxi ) are large countries , full of rare things , with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people , but with weak armies , and placing great value on the rich produce of China '' ( Hou Hanshu , Later Han History ) . Others say that Emperor Wu was mainly interested in fighting the Xiongnu and that major trade began only after the Chinese pacified the Hexi Corridor . `` China snatched control of the Silk Road from the Hsiung - nu '' , when the Chinese general Cheng Ki `` installed himself as protector of the Tarim at Wu - lei , situated between Kara Shahr and Kucha . '' `` China 's control of the Silk Road at the time of the later Han , by ensuring the freedom of transcontinental trade along the double chain of oases north and south of the Tarim , favoured the dissemination of Buddhism in the river basin , and with it Indian literature and Hellenistic art . '' A ceramic horse head and neck ( broken from the body ) , from the Chinese Eastern Han dynasty ( 1st -- 2nd century CE ) Bronze coin of Constantius II ( 337 -- 361 ) , found in Karghalik , Xinjiang , China The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses ( named `` Heavenly horses '' ) in the possession of the Dayuan ( literally the `` Great Ionians '' , the Greek kingdoms of Central Asia ) , which were of capital importance in fighting the nomadic Xiongnu . The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies , around ten every year , to these countries and as far as Seleucid Syria . `` Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi ( Parthia ) , Yancai ( who later joined the Alans ) , Lijian ( Syria under the Greek Seleucids ) , Tiaozhi ( Mesopotamia ) , and Tianzhu ( northwestern India ) ... As a rule , rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year , and at the least five or six . '' ( Hou Hanshu , Later Han History ). These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire . The Chinese campaigned in Central Asia on several occasions , and direct encounters between Han troops and Roman legionaries ( probably captured or recruited as mercenaries by the Xiong Nu ) are recorded , particularly in the 36 BCE battle of Sogdiana ( Joseph Needham , Sidney Shapiro ) . It has been suggested that the Chinese crossbow was transmitted to the Roman world on such occasions , although the Greek gastraphetes provides an alternative origin . R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy suggest that in 36 BCE , a `` Han expedition into central Asia , west of Jaxartes River , apparently encountered and defeated a contingent of Roman legionaries . The Romans may have been part of Antony 's army invading Parthia . Sogdiana ( modern Bukhara ) , east of the Oxus River , on the Polytimetus River , was apparently the most easterly penetration ever made by Roman forces in Asia . The margin of Chinese victory appears to have been their crossbows , whose bolts and darts seem easily to have penetrated Roman shields and armour . '' The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys , which included Seres ( China ) , to the first Roman Emperor Augustus , who reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE : Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur , and looked with reverence to the Roman people , the great conqueror of nations . Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome . Nay , the Seres came likewise , and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun , bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants , but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken , and which they said had occupied four years . In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours . -- Henry Yule , Cathay and the Way Thither ( 1866 ) The Han army regularly policed the trade route against nomadic bandit forces generally identified as Xiongnu . Han general Ban Chao led an army of 70,000 mounted infantry and light cavalry troops in the 1st century CE to secure the trade routes , reaching far west to the Tarim basin . Ban Chao expanded his conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea and the borders of Parthia . It was from here that the Han general dispatched envoy Gan Ying to Daqin ( Rome ) . The Silk Road essentially came into being from the 1st century BCE , following these efforts by China to consolidate a road to the Western world and India , both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan , Parthians and Bactrians further west . The Silk Roads were a `` complex network of trade routes '' that gave people the chance to exchange goods and culture . A maritime Silk Route opened up between Chinese - controlled Giao Chỉ ( centred in modern Vietnam , near Hanoi ) , probably by the 1st century . It extended , via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka , all the way to Roman - controlled ports in Roman Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the northeastern coast of the Red Sea . The earliest Roman glassware bowl found in China was unearthed from a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou , dated to the early 1st century BCE , indicating that Roman commercial items were being imported through the South China Sea . According to Chinese dynastic histories , it is from this region that the Roman embassies arrived in China , beginning in 166 CE during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Emperor Huan of Han . Other Roman glasswares have been found in Eastern - Han - era tombs ( 25 -- 220 CE ) more further inland in Nanjing and Luoyang . P.O. Harper asserts that a 2nd or 3rd - century Roman gilt silver plate found in Jingyuan , Gansu , China with a central image of the Greco - Roman god Dionysus resting on a feline creature , most likely came via Greater Iran ( i.e. Sogdiana ) . Valerie Hansen ( 2012 ) believed that earliest Roman coins found in China date to the 4th century , during Late Antiquity and the Dominate period , and come from the Byzantine Empire . However , Warwick Ball ( 2016 ) highlights the recent discovery of sixteen Principate - era Roman coins found in Xi'an ( formerly Chang'an , one of the two Han capitals ) that were minted during the reigns of Roman emperors spanning from Tiberius to Aurelian ( i.e. 1st to 3rd centuries CE ) . It is true that these coins were found in China , but they were deposited there in the twentieth century , not in ancient times , and therefore they do not shed light on historic contacts between China and Rome . Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and quite possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam , which was then part of the Kingdom of Funan bordering the Chinese province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam . Given the archaeological finds of Mediterranean artefacts made by Louis Malleret in the 1940s , Óc Eo may have been the same site as the port city of Kattigara described by Ptolemy in his Geography ( c. 150 CE ) , although Ferdinand von Richthofen had previously believed it was closer to Hanoi . Roman Empire ( edit ) Central Asia during Roman times , with the first Silk Road Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE , regular communications and trade between China , Southeast Asia , India , the Middle East , Africa , and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale . The eastern trade routes from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs that were part of the Silk Road were inherited by the Roman Empire . With control of these trade routes , citizens of the Roman Empire would receive new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole . The Roman - style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju , capital of the Silla kingdom ( Korea ) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula . The Greco - Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase , and according to Strabo ( II. 5.12 ) , by the time of Augustus , up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India . The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza ( known today as Bharuch ) and Barbaricum ( known today as the cities of Karachi , Sindh , and Pakistan ) and continued along the western coast of India . An ancient `` travel guide '' to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE . The travelling party of Maës Titianus penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world , probably with the aim of regularising contacts and reducing the role of middlemen , during one of the lulls in Rome 's intermittent wars with Parthia , which repeatedly obstructed movement along the Silk Road . Intercontinental trade and communication became regular , organised , and protected by the ' Great Powers . ' Intense trade with the Roman Empire soon followed , confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk ( supplied through the Parthians ) , even though the Romans thought silk was obtained from trees . This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics . Notably , Pliny the Elder knew better . Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth , he wrote in his Natural Histories `` They weave webs , like spiders , that become a luxurious clothing material for women , called silk . '' The Romans traded spices , glassware , perfumes , and silk . A Westerner on a camel , Northern Wei dynasty ( 386 -- 534 ) Roman artisans began to replace yarn with valuable plain silk cloths from China and the Silla Kingdom in Gyeongju , Korea . Chinese wealth grew as they delivered silk and other luxury goods to the Roman Empire , whose wealthy Roman women admired their beauty . The Roman Senate issued , in vain , several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk , on economic and moral grounds : the import of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold , and silk clothes were considered to be decadent and immoral . I can see clothes of silk , if materials that do not hide the body , nor even one 's decency , can be called clothes ... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress , so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife 's body . The Roman Empire , and its demand for sophisticated Asian products , crumbled in the West around the 5th century . The unification of Central Asia and Northern India within Kushan Empire in the 1st to 3rd centuries reinforced the role of the powerful merchants from Bactria and Taxila . They fostered multi-cultural interaction as indicated by their 2nd century treasure hoards filled with products from the Greco - Roman world , China , and India , such as in the archeological site of Begram . Byzantine Empire ( edit ) Further information : Byzantine - Mongol alliance Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered the way of how silk was made . From this revelation , monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian ( ruled 527 -- 565 ) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs , resulting in silk production in the Mediterranean , particularly in Thrace in northern Greece , and giving the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe . In 568 the Byzantine ruler Justin II was greeted by a Sogdian embassy representing Istämi , ruler of the Turkic Khaganate , who formed an alliance with the Byzantines against Khosrow I of the Sasanian Empire that allowed the Byzantines to bypass the Sasanian merchants and trade directly with the Sogdians for purchasing Chinese silk . Although the Byzantines had already procured silkworm eggs from China by this point , the quality of Chinese silk was still far greater than anything produced in the West , a fact that is perhaps emphasized by the discovery of coins minted by Justin II found in a Chinese tomb of Shanxi province dated to the Sui dynasty ( 581 -- 618 ) . Coin of Constans II ( r . 641 -- 648 ) , who is named in Chinese sources as the first of several Byzantine emperors to send embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty Both the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang , covering the history of the Chinese Tang dynasty ( 618 -- 907 ) , record that a new state called Fu - lin ( 拂 菻 ; i.e. Byzantine Empire ) was virtually identical to the previous Daqin ( 大秦 ; i.e. Roman Empire ) . Several Fu - lin embassies were recorded for the Tang period , starting in 643 with an alleged embassy by Constans II ( transliterated as Bo duo li , 波多 力 , from his nickname `` Kōnstantinos Pogonatos '' ) to the court of Emperor Taizong of Tang . The History of Song describes the final embassy and its arrival in 1081 , apparently sent by Michael VII Doukas ( transliterated as Mie li sha ling kai sa , 滅 力 沙 靈 改 撒 , from his name and title Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar ) to the court of Emperor Shenzong of the Song dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 ) . However , the History of Yuan claims that a Byzantine man became a leading astronomer and physician in Khanbaliq , at the court of Kublai Khan , Mongol founder of the Yuan dynasty ( 1271 -- 1368 ) and was even granted the noble title ' Prince of Fu lin ' ( Chinese : 拂 菻 王 ; Fú lǐn wáng ) . The Uyghur Nestorian Christian diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma , who set out from his Chinese home in Khanbaliq ( Beijing ) and acted as a representative for Arghun ( a grandnephew of Kublai Khan ) , traveled throughout Europe and attempted to secure military alliances with Edward I of England , Philip IV of France , Pope Nicholas IV , as well as the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II Palaiologos . Andronikos II had two half - sisters who were married to great - grandsons of Genghis Khan , which made him an in - law with the Yuan - dynasty Mongol ruler in Beijing , Kublai Khan . The History of Ming preserves an account where the Hongwu Emperor , after founding the Ming dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) , had a supposed Byzantine merchant named Nieh - ku - lun ( 捏 古 倫 ) deliver his proclamation about the establishment of a new dynasty to the Byzantine court of John V Palaiologos in September 1371 . Friedrich Hirth ( 1885 ) , Emil Bretschneider ( 1888 ) , and more recently Edward Luttwak ( 2009 ) presumed that this was none other than Nicolaus de Bentra , a Roman Catholic bishop of Khanbilaq chosen by Pope John XXII to replace the previous archbishop John of Montecorvino . Tang dynasty reopens the route ( edit ) Further information : Tang campaigns against the Western Turks , Conquest of the Western Turks , Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks , and Tang dynasty § Trade and spread of culture A Chinese sancai statue of a Sogdian man with a wineskin , Tang dynasty ( 618 -- 907 ) Although the Silk Road was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( 141 -- 87 BCE ) , it was reopened by the Tang Empire in 639 when Hou Junji conquered the Western Regions , and remained open for almost four decades . It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678 , but in 699 , during Empress Wu 's period , the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640 , once again connecting China directly to the West for land - based trade . The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722 , lost it to the Tibetans in 737 , and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo - Korean General Gao Xianzhi . While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region ( former territory of the Xiongnu ) , the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe . The Tang dynasty ( along with Turkic allies ) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s . During Emperor Taizong 's reign alone , large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks , but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun , the oasis states , and the Xueyantuo . Under Emperor Taizong , Tang general Li Jing conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate . Under Emperor Gaozong , Tang general Su Dingfang conquered the Western Turkic Khaganate , which was an important ally of Byzantine empire . After these conquests , the Tang dynasty fully controlled the Xiyu , which was the strategic location astride the Silk Road . This led the Tang dynasty to reopen the Silk Road . The Tang dynasty established a second Pax Sinica , and the Silk Road reached its golden age , whereby Persian and Sogdian merchants benefited from the commerce between East and West . At the same time , the Chinese empire welcomed foreign cultures , making it very cosmopolitan in its urban centres . In addition to the land route , the Tang dynasty also developed the maritime Silk Route . Chinese envoys had been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since perhaps the 2nd century BCE , yet it was during the Tang dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea into Persia , Mesopotamia ( sailing up the Euphrates River in modern - day Iraq ) , Arabia , Egypt , Aksum ( Ethiopia ) , and Somalia in the Horn of Africa . Medieval ( edit ) Further information : Europeans in Medieval China Caravan on the Silk Road , 1380 The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade . In its heyday , it sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the Magyars , Armenians , and Chinese . The Silk Road reached its peak in the west during the time of the Byzantine Empire ; in the Nile - Oxus section , from the Sassanid Empire period to the Il Khanate period ; and in the sinitic zone from the Three Kingdoms period to the Yuan dynasty period . Trade between East and West also developed across the Indian Ocean , between Alexandria in Egypt and Guangzhou in China . Persian Sassanid coins emerged as a means of currency , just as valuable as silk yarn and textiles . Under its strong integrating dynamics on the one hand and the impacts of change it transmitted on the other , tribal societies previously living in isolation along the Silk Road , and pastoralists who were of barbarian cultural development , were drawn to the riches and opportunities of the civilisations connected by the routes , taking on the trades of marauders or mercenaries . Many barbarian tribes became skilled warriors able to conquer rich cities and fertile lands and to forge strong military empires . Map of Eurasia and Africa showing trade networks , c. 870 The Sogdians dominated the East - West trade after the 4th century up to the 8th century , with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centres in the north . They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia . Their commercial interests were protected by the resurgent military power of the Göktürks , whose empire has been described as `` the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians '' . A.V. Dybo noted that `` according to historians , the main driving force of the Great Silk Road were not just Sogdians , but the carriers of a mixed Sogdian - Türkic culture that often came from mixed families . '' Their trade , with some interruptions , continued in the 9th century within the framework of the Uighur Empire , which until 840 extended across northern Central Asia and obtained from China enormous deliveries of silk in exchange for horses . At this time caravans of Sogdians travelling to Upper Mongolia are mentioned in Chinese sources . They played an equally important religious and cultural role . Part of the data about eastern Asia provided by Muslim geographers of the 10th century actually goes back to Sogdian data of the period 750 -- 840 and thus shows the survival of links between east and west . However , after the end of the Uighur Empire , Sogdian trade went through a crisis . What mainly issued from Muslim Central Asia was the trade of the Samanids , which resumed the northwestern road leading to the Khazars and the Urals and the northeastern one toward the nearby Turkic tribes . The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China , ushered the Nestorian , Manichaean , Buddhist , and later Islamic religions into Central Asia and China . Islamic era and the Silk Road ( edit ) Further information : History of Islamic economics The Round city of Baghdad between 767 and 912 was the most important urban node along the Silk Road . A lion motif on Sogdian polychrome silk , 8th century , most likely from Bukhara By the Umayyad era , Damascus had overtaken Ctesiphon as a major trade center until the Abbasid dynasty built the city of Baghdad , which became the most important city along the silk road . At the end of its glory , the routes brought about the largest continental empire ever , the Mongol Empire , with its political centres strung along the Silk Road ( Beijing in North China , Karakorum in central Mongolia , Sarmakhand in Transoxiana , Tabriz in Northern Iran , Sarai and Astrakhan in lower Volga , Solkhat in Crimea , Kazan in Central Russia , Erzurum in eastern Anatolia ) , realising the political unification of zones previously loosely and intermittently connected by material and cultural goods . The Islamic world was expanded into Central Asia during the 8th century , under the Umayyad Caliphate , while its successor the Abbasid Caliphate put a halt to Chinese westward expansion at the Battle of Talas in 751 ( near the Talas River in modern - day Kyrgyzstan ) . However , following the disastrous An Lushan Rebellion ( 755 -- 763 ) and the conquest of the Western Regions by the Tibetan Empire , the Tang Empire was unable to reassert its control over Central Asia . Contemporary Tang authors noted how the dynasty had gone into decline after this point . In 848 the Tang Chinese , led by the commander Zhang Yichao , were only able to reclaim the Hexi Corridor and Dunhuang in Gansu from the Tibetans . The Persian Samanid Empire ( 819 -- 999 ) centered in Bukhara ( Uzbekistan ) continued the trade legacy of the Sogdians . The disruptions of trade were curtailed in that part of the world by the end of the 10th century and conquests of Central Asia by the Turkic Islamic Kara - Khanid Khanate , yet Nestorian Christianity , Zoroastrianism , Manichaeism , and Buddhism in Central Asia virtually disappeared . During the early 13th century Khwarezmia was invaded by the early Mongol Empire . The Mongol ruler Genghis Khan had the once vibrant cities of Bukhara and Samarkand burned to the ground after besieging them . However , in 1370 Samarkand saw a revival as the capital of the new Timurid Empire . The Turko - Mongol ruler Timur forcefully moved artisans and intellectuals from across Asia to Samarkand , making it one of the most important trade centers and cultural entrepôts of the Islamic world . Mongol age ( edit ) See also : Mongol Empire , Pax Mongolica , Franco - Mongol alliance , Europeans in Medieval China , and Fonthill Vase Map of Marco Polo 's travels in 1271 -- 1295 The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-established the Silk Road ( via Karakorum ) . It also brought an end to the dominance of the Islamic Caliphate over world trade . Because the Mongols came to control the trade routes , trade circulated throughout the region , though they never abandoned their nomadic lifestyle . The Mongol rulers wanted to establish their capital on the Central Asian steppe , so to accomplish this goal , after every conquest they enlisted local people ( traders , scholars , artisans ) to help them construct and manage their empire . The Mongol diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma visited the courts of Europe in 1287 -- 88 and provided a detailed written report to the Mongols . Around the same time , the Venetian explorer Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China . His tales , documented in The Travels of Marco Polo , opened Western eyes to some of the customs of the Far East . He was not the first to bring back stories , but he was one of the most widely read . He had been preceded by numerous Christian missionaries to the East , such as William of Rubruck , Benedykt Polak , Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , and Andrew of Longjumeau . Later envoys included Odoric of Pordenone , Giovanni de ' Marignolli , John of Montecorvino , Niccolò de ' Conti , and Ibn Battuta , a Moroccan Muslim traveller who passed through the present - day Middle East and across the Silk Road from Tabriz between 1325 -- 54 . In the 13th century efforts were made at forming a Franco - Mongol alliance , with an exchange of ambassadors and ( failed ) attempts at military collaboration in the Holy Land during the later Crusades . Eventually the Mongols in the Ilkhanate , after they had destroyed the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties , converted to Islam and signed the 1323 Treaty of Aleppo with the surviving Muslim power , the Egyptian Mamluks . Some studies indicate that the Black Death , which devastated Europe starting in the late 1340s , may have reached Europe from Central Asia ( or China ) along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire . One theory holds that Genoese traders coming from the entrepot of Trebizond in northern Turkey carried the disease to Western Europe ; like many other outbreaks of plague , there is strong evidence that it originated in marmots in Central Asia and was carried westwards to the Black Sea by Silk Road traders . Decline and disintegration ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Port cities on the maritime silk route featured on the voyages of Zheng He . The fragmentation of the Mongol Empire loosened the political , cultural , and economic unity of the Silk Road . Turkmeni marching lords seized land around the western part of the Silk Road from the decaying Byzantine Empire . After the fall of the Mongol Empire , the great political powers along the Silk Road became economically and culturally separated . Accompanying the crystallisation of regional states was the decline of nomad power , partly due to the devastation of the Black Death and partly due to the encroachment of sedentary civilisations equipped with gunpowder . The consolidation of the Ottoman and Safavid empires in the Middle East led to a revival of overland trade , interrupted sporadically by warfare between them . The silk trade continued to flourish until it was disrupted by the collapse of the Safavid Empire in the 1720s . New Silk Road ( edit ) A silk banner from Mawangdui , Changsha , Hunan province ; it was draped over the coffin of Lady Dai ( d . 168 BCE ) , wife of the Marquess Li Cang ( 利 蒼 ) ( d . 186 BCE ) , chancellor for the Kingdom of Changsha . After an earthquake that hit Tashkent in Central Asia in 1966 , the city had to rebuild itself . Although it took a huge toll on their markets , this commenced a revival of modern silk road cities . The Eurasian Land Bridge ( a railway through China , Kazakhstan , Mongolia and Russia ) is sometimes referred to as the `` New Silk Road '' . The last link in one of these two railway routes was completed in 1990 , when the railway systems of China and Kazakhstan connected at Alataw Pass ( Alashan Kou ) . In 2008 the line was used to connect the cities of Ürümqi in China 's Xinjiang Province to Almaty and Astana in Kazakhstan . In October 2008 the first Trans - Eurasia Logistics train reached Hamburg from Xiangtan . Starting in July 2011 the line has been used by a freight service that connects Chongqing , China with Duisburg , Germany , cutting travel time for cargo from about 36 days by container ship to just 13 days by freight train . In 2013 , Hewlett - Packard began moving large freight trains of laptop computers and monitors along this rail route . In September 2013 , during a visit to Kazakhstan , Chinese President Xi Jinping introduced a plan for creating a New Silk Road from China to Europe . The latest iterations of this plan , dubbed `` One Belt , One Road '' ( OBOR ) , includes a land - based Silk Road Economic Belt and Maritime Silk Road , with primary points in Ürümqi , Dostyk , Astana , Gomel , Brest , and the Polish cities of Małaszewicze and Łódź , which would be hubs of logistics and transshipment to other countries of Europe . On 15 February 2016 , with a change in routing , the first train dispatched under the OBOR scheme arrived from eastern Zhejiang Province to Tehran . Though this section does not complete the Silk Road -- style overland connection between China and Europe , plans are underway to extend the route past Tehran , through Istanbul , into Europe . The actual route went through Almaty , Bishkek , Samarkand , and Dushanbe . In January 2017 , the service sent its first train to London . The network additionally connects to Madrid and Milan . Routes ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see Cities along the Silk Road . The Silk Road consisted of several routes . As it extended westwards from the ancient commercial centres of China , the overland , intercontinental Silk Road divided into northern and southern routes bypassing the Taklamakan Desert and Lop Nur . Northern route ( edit ) Main article : Northern Silk Road The Silk Road in the 1st century The Silk Road The northern route started at Chang'an ( now called Xi'an ) , an ancient capital of China that was moved further east during the Later Han to Luoyang . The route was defined around the 1st century BCE when Han Wudi put an end to harassment by nomadic tribes . The northern route travelled northwest through the Chinese province of Gansu from Shaanxi Province and split into three further routes , two of them following the mountain ranges to the north and south of the Taklamakan Desert to rejoin at Kashgar , and the other going north of the Tian Shan mountains through Turpan , Talgar , and Almaty ( in what is now southeast Kazakhstan ) . The routes split again west of Kashgar , with a southern branch heading down the Alai Valley towards Termez ( in modern Uzbekistan ) and Balkh ( Afghanistan ) , while the other travelled through Kokand in the Fergana Valley ( in present - day eastern Uzbekistan ) and then west across the Karakum Desert . Both routes joined the main southern route before reaching ancient Merv , Turkmenistan . Another branch of the northern route turned northwest past the Aral Sea and north of the Caspian Sea , then and on to the Black Sea . A route for caravans , the northern Silk Road brought to China many goods such as `` dates , saffron powder and pistachio nuts from Persia ; frankincense , aloes and myrrh from Somalia ; sandalwood from India ; glass bottles from Egypt , and other expensive and desirable goods from other parts of the world . '' In exchange , the caravans sent back bolts of silk brocade , lacquer - ware , and porcelain . Southern route ( edit ) The southern route or Karakoram route was mainly a single route running from China through the Karakoram mountains , where it persists in modern times as the international paved road connecting Pakistan and China as the Karakoram Highway . It then set off westwards , but with southward spurs enabling the journey to be completed by sea from various points . Crossing the high mountains , it passed through northern Pakistan , over the Hindu Kush mountains , and into Afghanistan , rejoining the northern route near Merv , Turkmenistan . From Merv , it followed a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern Iran , Mesopotamia , and the northern tip of the Syrian Desert to the Levant , where Mediterranean trading ships plied regular routes to Italy , while land routes went either north through Anatolia or south to North Africa . Another branch road travelled from Herat through Susa to Charax Spasinu at the head of the Persian Gulf and across to Petra and on to Alexandria and other eastern Mediterranean ports from where ships carried the cargoes to Rome . Southwestern route ( edit ) See also : Tea Horse Road Woven silk textiles from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui , Changsha , Hunan province , China , Western Han dynasty period , dated 2nd century BCE The southwestern route is believed to be the Ganges / Brahmaputra Delta , which has been the subject of international interest for over two millennia . Strabo , the 1st - century Roman writer , mentions the deltaic lands : `` Regarding merchants who now sail from Egypt ... as far as the Ganges , they are only private citizens ... '' His comments are interesting as Roman beads and other materials are being found at Wari - Bateshwar ruins , the ancient city with roots from much earlier , before the Bronze Age , presently being slowly excavated beside the Old Brahmaputra in Bangladesh . Ptolemy 's map of the Ganges Delta , a remarkably accurate effort , showed that his informants knew all about the course of the Brahmaputra River , crossing through the Himalayas then bending westward to its source in Tibet . It is doubtless that this delta was a major international trading center , almost certainly from much earlier than the Common Era . Gemstones and other merchandise from Thailand and Java were traded in the delta and through it . Chinese archaeological writer Bin Yang and some earlier writers and archaeologists , such as Janice Stargardt , strongly suggest this route of international trade as Sichuan - Yunnan - Burma - Bangladesh route . According to Bin Yang , especially from the 12th century the route was used to ship bullion from Yunnan ( gold and silver are among the minerals in which Yunnan is rich ) , through northern Burma , into modern Bangladesh , making use of the ancient route , known as the ' Ledo ' route . The emerging evidence of the ancient cities of Bangladesh , in particular Wari - Bateshwar ruins , Mahasthangarh , Bhitagarh , Bikrampur , Egarasindhur , and Sonargaon , are believed to be the international trade centers in this route . Maritime route ( edit ) Main article : Maritime Silk Road Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the maritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia , Indonesian archipelago , Indian subcontinent , Arabian peninsula , all the way to Egypt and finally Europe . The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters ; including South China Sea , Strait of Malacca , Indian Ocean , Gulf of Bengal , Arabian Sea , Persian Gulf and the Red Sea . The maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade , Spice trade , Indian Ocean trade and after 8th century -- the Arabian naval trade network . The network also extend eastward to East China Sea and Yellow Sea to connect China with Korean Peninsula and Japanese archipelago . Cultural Exchanges ( edit ) The Nestorian Stele , created in 781 , describes the introduction of Nestorian Christianity to China Richard Foltz , Xinru Liu , and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture , notably in the area of religions . Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Buddhism , Christianity , Manichaeism , and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions . Notably , established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven , as well as a new religion for foreigners . The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads , according to Jerry H. Bentley , also led to syncretism . One example was the encounter with the Chinese and Xiongnu nomads . These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative . The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques , dress style , and lifestyle , while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques , some dress style , music , and dance . Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu , Chinese soldiers would sometimes defect and convert to the Xiongnu way of life and stay in the steppes for fear of punishment . Transmission of Christianity ( edit ) Further information : Nestorian Christianity and Church of the East The transmission of Christianity was primarily known as Nestorianism on the Silk Road . In 781 , an inscribed stele shows Nestorian Christian missionaries arriving on the Silk Road . Christianity had spread both east and west , simultaneously bringing Syriac language and evolving the forms of worship . Transmission of Buddhism ( edit ) Main articles : Silk Road transmission of Buddhism and Greco - Buddhism A blue - eyed Central Asian monk teaching an East - Asian monk , Bezeklik , Turfan , eastern Tarim Basin , China , 9th century ; the monk on the right is possibly Tocharian , although more likely Sogdian . The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE , according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming ( 58 -- 75 ) . During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast , East , and Central Asia . Mahayana , Theravada , and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road . The Buddhist movement was the first large - scale missionary movement in the history of world religions . Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism , to an extent , to native Chinese Daoists , which would bring the two beliefs together . Buddha 's community of followers , the Sangha , consisted of male and female monks and laity . These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha . As the number of members within the Sangha increased , it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit . It is believed that under the control of the Kushans , Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to the middle of the third century . Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century , probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin , due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands . The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian , Kushan , Sogdian , or Kuchean . Bilingual edict ( Greek and Aramaic ) by Indian Buddhist King Ashoka , 3rd century BCE ; see Edicts of Ashoka , from Kandahar . This edict advocates the adoption of `` godliness '' using the Greek term Eusebeia for Dharma . Kabul Museum . One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict . The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE , and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk . Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first ever Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language . Its main trade centre on the Silk Road , the city of Merv , in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China , became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century . Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty ( 268 -- 239 BCE ) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire . From the 4th century CE onward , Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures , with Fa - hsien 's pilgrimage to India ( 395 -- 414 ) , and later Xuanzang ( 629 -- 644 ) and Hyecho , who traveled from Korea to India . The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel called Journey to the West , which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey . A statue depicting Buddha giving a sermon , from Sarnath , 3,000 km ( 1,864 mi ) southwest of Urumqi , Xinjiang , 8th century There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road . The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools . These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana , also known as `` Great Vehicle '' . This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the Khotan region . The Mahayana , which was more of a `` pan-Buddhist movement '' than a school of Buddhism , appears to have begun in northwestern India or Central Asia . It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at first , and the origins of this `` Greater Vehicle '' are not fully clear . Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan , but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road . These different schools and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road . With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism , the initial direction of Buddhist development changed . This form of Buddhism highlighted , as stated by Xinru Liu , `` the elusiveness of physical reality , including material wealth . '' It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point ; this was often difficult for followers to understand . During the 5th and 6th centuries CE , merchants played a large role in the spread of religion , in particular Buddhism . Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism to be an appealing alternative to previous religions . As a result , merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road , and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city . As a result , merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled . Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the communities they encountered , and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism . As a result , these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well - organized marketplaces , lodging , and storage . The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society . The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia . Transmission of art ( edit ) Main article : Silk Road transmission of art Iconographical evolution of the Wind God . Left : Greek Wind God from Hadda , 2nd century . Middle : Wind God from Kizil , Tarim Basin , 7th century . Right : Japanese Wind God Fujin , 17th century . Many artistic influences were transmitted via the Silk Road , particularly through Central Asia , where Hellenistic , Iranian , Indian and Chinese influences could intermix . Greco - Buddhist art represents one of the most vivid examples of this interaction . Silk was also a representation of art , serving as a religious symbol . Most importantly , silk was used as currency for trade along the silk road . These artistic influences can be seen in the development of Buddhism where , for instance , Buddha was first depicted as human in the Kushan period . Many scholars have attributed this to Greek influence . The mixture of Greek and Indian elements can be found in later Buddhist art in China and throughout countries on the Silk Road . The production of art consisted of many different items that were traded along the Silk Roads from the East to the West . One common product , the lapis lazuli , was a blue stone with golden specks , which was used as paint after it was ground into powder . Commemoration ( edit ) On 22 June 2014 , the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) named the Silk Road a World Heritage Site at the 2014 Conference on World Heritage . The United Nations World Tourism Organization has been working since 1993 to develop sustainable international tourism along the route with the stated goal of fostering peace and understanding . Bishkek and Almaty each have a major east - west street named after the Silk Road ( Kyrgyz : Жибек жолу , Jibek Jolu in Bishkek , and Kazakh : Жібек жолы , Jibek Joly in Almaty ) . Gallery ( edit ) Silk Road and artifacts Caravanserai of Sa 'd al - Saltaneh Caravanserai of Sa 'd al - Saltaneh Sultanhani caravanserai Sultanhani caravanserai 18th century caravanserai in Sheki , Azerbaijan Orbelian 's Caravanserai , Armenia bridge in Ani , capital of medieval Armenia Taldyk pass Dunhuang Zeinodin Caravanserai Sogdian man on a Bactrian camel , sancai ceramic glaze , Chinese Tang dynasty ( 618 - 907 ) Ancient Chinese customs post on Silk Road near Dunhuang The ruins of a Han dynasty ( 206 BCE -- 220 CE ) Chinese watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang , Gansu province A late Zhou or early Han Chinese bronze mirror inlaid with glass , perhaps incorporated Greco - Roman artistic patterns A Chinese Western Han dynasty ( 202 BCE -- 9 CE ) bronze rhinoceros with gold and silver inlay Han dynasty Granary west of Dunhuang on the Silk Road . Ornamented Trakian sword , 6th century , excavated in Gyerim - ro , South Korea Modern woven carpet illustrating camel caravan on Silk Road , from Kashgar Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty ( 25 - 220 CE ) tomb , Guangxi , southern China See also ( edit ) Ancient tea route Dzungarian Gate Godavaya History of silk Hippie trail Incense Route Dvaravati -- Kamboja route Mount Imeon Serica Steppe Route Three hares Pan-American Highway The Silk Roads Global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries One Belt , One Road Silk Road Economic Belt Silk Road Numismatics Silk Road Fund Notes ( edit ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Miho Museum News ( Shiga , Japan ) Volume 23 ( March 2009 ) . `` Eurasian winds toward Silla '' . ^ Jump up to : Gan , Fuxi ( 2009 ) . `` The silk road and ancient Chinese glass '' . Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics , Chinese Academy of Sciences ( Ancient Glass Research along the Silk Road , World Scientific ed . ) . p. 41 . ISBN 9812833560 . Jump up ^ Elisseeff , Vadime ( 2001 ) . The Silk Roads : Highways of Culture and Commerce . UNESCO Publishing / Berghahn Books . ISBN 978 - 92 - 3 - 103652 - 1 . Jump up ^ Boulnois , Luce ( 2005 ) . Silk Road : Monks , Warriors & Merchants . Hong Kong : Odyssey Books . p. 66 . ISBN 962 - 217 - 721 - 2 . Jump up ^ Xinru , Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 11 . ^ Jump up to : `` Republic of Korea Silk Road '' . en.unesco.org . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 23 . Jump up ^ Jerry Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 32 . Jump up ^ Jerry Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 33 . Jump up ^ Compare : Hansen , Valerie ( 2012 - 10 - 11 ) . The Silk Road . OUP US . p. 218 . ISBN 9780195159318 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 22 . Jewish merchants have left only a few traces on the Silk Road . Jump up ^ Miha Museum ( Shiga , Japan ) , Sping Special Exhibition ( 14 March 2009 ) . `` Eurasian winds toward Silla '' . ^ Jump up to : `` The Horses of the Steppe : The Mongolian Horse and the Blood - Sweating Stallions Silk Road in Rare Books '' . dsr.nii.ac.jp . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 23 . Jump up ^ Waugh ( 2007 ) , p. 4 . Jump up ^ `` Approaches Old and New to the Silk Roads '' Eliseeff in : The Silk Roads : Highways of Culture and Commerce . Paris ( 1998 ) UNESCO , Reprint : Berghahn Books ( 2009 ) , pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 92 - 3 - 103652 - 1 ; ISBN 1 - 57181 - 221 - 0 ; ISBN 1 - 57181 - 222 - 9 ( pbk ) Jump up ^ `` Approaches Old and New to the Silk Roads '' Vadime Eliseeff in : The Silk Roads : Highways of Culture and Commerce . Paris ( 1998 ) UNESCO , Reprint : Berghahn Books ( 2000 ) , pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 92 - 3 - 103652 - 1 ; ISBN 1 - 57181 - 221 - 0 ; ISBN 1 - 57181 - 222 - 9 ( pbk ) Jump up ^ Waugh , Daniel . ( 2007 ) . `` Richthofen 's `` Silk Roads '' : Toward the Archaeology of a Concept . '' The Silk Road . Volume 5 , Number 1 , Summer 2007 , p. 4 . ^ Jump up to : Warwick Ball ( 2016 ) , Rome in the East : Transformation of an Empire , 2nd edition , London & New York : Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 72078 - 6 , p. 156 Jump up ^ Warwick Ball ( 2016 ) , Rome in the East : Transformation of an Empire , 2nd edition , London & New York : Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 72078 - 6 , p. 155 . Jump up ^ Warwick Ball ( 2016 ) , Rome in the East : Transformation of an Empire , 2nd edition , London & New York : Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 72078 - 6 , pp. 154 -- 56 . Jump up ^ Warwick Ball ( 2016 ) , Rome in the East : Transformation of an Empire , 2nd edition , London & New York : Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 72078 - 6 , pp. 155 -- 56 . Jump up ^ `` Treasures of Ancient Altai Nomads Revealed '' . The Astana Times . 2012 - 12 - 10 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Additional Berel Burial Sites Excavated -- The Astana Times '' . The Astana Times . 2013 - 08 - 21 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 23 . Jump up ^ Pollard ; Rosenberg ; Tignor , Elizabeth ; Clifford ; Robert ( 2011 ) . Worlds Together Worlds Apart . New York , New York : Norton . p. 278 . ISBN 9780393918472 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Lubec , G. ; J. Holauerghsrthbek ; C. Feldl ; B. Lubec ; E. Strouhal ( 4 March 1993 ) . `` Use of silk in ancient Egypt '' . Nature . 362 ( 6415 ) : 25 . doi : 10.1038 / 362025b0 . ( also available here ( 1 ) ) ^ Jump up to : Christopoulos , Lucas ( August 2012 ) , `` Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China ( 240 BC -- 1398 AD ) , '' in Victor H. Mair ( ed ) , Sino - Platonic Papers , No. 230 , Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations , p. 31 footnote # 56 , ISSN 2157 - 9687 . Jump up ^ Hanks , Reuel R. ( 2010 ) , Global Security Watch : Central Asia , Santa Barbara , Denver , Oxford : Praeger , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Mark J. Dresden ( 2003 ) , `` Sogdian Language and Literature '' , in Ehsan Yarshater , The Cambridge History of Iran , Vol III : The Seleucid , Parthian , and Sasanian Periods , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , p. 1219 , ISBN 0 - 521 - 24699 - 7 . Jump up ^ Please refer to Royal Road . Jump up ^ Christopoulos , Lucas ( August 2012 ) , `` Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China ( 240 BC -- 1398 AD ) , '' in Victor H. Mair ( ed ) , Sino - Platonic Papers , No. 230 , Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations , pp. 15 -- 16 , ISSN 2157 - 9687 . Jump up ^ Prevas , John . ( 2004 ) . Envy of the Gods : Alexander the Great 's Ill - Fated Journey across Asia , p. 121 . De Capo Press , Cambridge , Mass . ISBN 0 - 306 - 81268 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Strabo XI. XI. I '' . Perseus.tufts.edu . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 13 . Jump up ^ Jerry H. Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 54 . Jump up ^ The Megalithic Portal & Megalith Map . `` Silk Road , North China , C.M. Hogan , the Megalithic Portal , ed . A. Burnham '' . Megalithic.co.uk . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 13 . Jump up ^ Yiping Zhang ( 2005 ) . Story of the Silk Road . 五洲 传播 出版 社 . p. 22 . ISBN 7 - 5085 - 0832 - 7 . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ Julia Lovell ( 2007 ) . The Great Wall : China Against the World , 1000 BC -- AD 2000 . Grove Press . p. 73 . ISBN 0 - 8021 - 4297 - 4 . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ Li & Zheng 2001 , p. 254 Jump up ^ Di Cosmo , ' Ancient China and its Enemies ' , 2002 Jump up ^ Grousset , Rene ( 1970 ) . The Empire of the Steppes . Rutgers University Press . pp. 36 -- 37 , 48 . ISBN 0 - 8135 - 1304 - 9 . Jump up ^ Ebrey ( 1999 ) , 70 . Jump up ^ R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy , The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present , Fourth Edition ( New York : HarperCollins Publishers , 1993 ) , 133 , apparently relying on Homer H. Dubs , `` A Roman City in Ancient China '' , in Greece and Rome , Second Series , Vol. 4 , No. 2 ( Oct. , 1957 ) , pp. 139 -- 48 Jump up ^ Ban Chao , Britannica Online Encyclopedia Jump up ^ Frances Wood , The Silk Road : Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia , University of California Press , 2004 , ISBN 0520243404 , p. 46 Jump up ^ Jerry H. Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 32 . Jump up ^ An , Jiayao. ( 2002 ) , `` When Glass Was Treasured in China , '' in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner ( eds ) , Silk Road Studies VII : Nomads , Traders , and Holy Men Along China 's Silk Road , 79 -- 94 , Turnhout : Brepols Publishers , ISBN 2503521789 , p. 83 . ^ Jump up to : Paul Halsall ( 2000 ) ( 1998 ) . Jerome S. Arkenberg , ed . `` East Asian History Sourcebook : Chinese Accounts of Rome , Byzantium and the Middle East , c. 91 B.C.E. -- 1643 C.E '' . Fordham.edu . Fordham University . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 16 . Jump up ^ de Crespigny , Rafe. ( 2007 ) . A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms ( 23 -- 220 AD ) . Leiden : Koninklijke Brill , p. 600 , ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 15605 - 0 . Jump up ^ Yü , Ying - shih. ( 1986 ) . `` Han Foreign Relations , '' in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe ( eds ) , The Cambridge History of China : Volume I : the Ch'in and Han Empires , 221 B.C. -- A.D. 220 , 377 -- 462 , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , pp. 460 -- 461 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 24327 - 8 . Jump up ^ An , Jiayao. ( 2002 ) , `` When Glass Was Treasured in China , '' in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner ( eds ) , Silk Road Studies VII : Nomads , Traders , and Holy Men Along China 's Silk Road , 79 -- 94 , Turnhout : Brepols Publishers , ISBN 2503521789 , pp. 83 -- 84 . Jump up ^ Harper , P.O. ( 2002 ) , `` Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B.C.E. to the Second Half of the First Millennium C.E. , '' in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner ( eds ) , Silk Road Studies VII : Nomads , Traders , and Holy Men Along China 's Silk Road , 95 -- 113 , Turnhout : Brepols Publishers , ISBN 2503521789 , pp. 106 -- 07 . Jump up ^ Hansen , Valerie ( 2012 ) , The Silk Road : A New History , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 97 -- 98 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 993921 - 3 . Jump up ^ Warwick Ball ( 2016 ) , Rome in the East : Transformation of an Empire , 2nd edition , London & New York : Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 72078 - 6 , p. 154 . Jump up ^ Helen Wang ( 2004 ) `` Money on the Silk Road : The evidence from Eastern Central Asia to . c . AD 800 , '' London : The British Museum Press , ISBN 0 7141 1806 0 , p. 34 . ^ Jump up to : Gary K. Young ( 2001 ) , Rome 's Eastern Trade : International Commerce and Imperial Policy , 31 BC -- AD 305 , London & New York : Routledge , ISBN 0 - 415 - 24219 - 3 , p. 29 . ^ Jump up to : For further information on Oc Eo , see Milton Osborne ( 2006 ) , The Mekong : Turbulent Past , Uncertain Future , Crows Nest : Allen & Unwin , revised edition , first published in 2000 , ISBN 1 - 74114 - 893 - 6 , pp. 24 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Ferdinand von Richthofen , China , Berlin , 1877 , Vol. I , pp. 504 -- 510 ; cited in Richard Hennig , Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte , Band I , Altertum bis Ptolemäus , Leiden , Brill , 1944 , pp. 387 , 410 -- 11 ; cited in Zürcher ( 2002 ) , pp. 30 -- 31 . Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 21 . Jump up ^ `` Strabo 's Geography Book II Chapter 5 '' Jump up ^ Bharuch , Bharuch website , retrieved on 19 November 2013 Jump up ^ Barbarikon Karachi , Sindh , Pakistan website , retrieved on 19 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 40 . Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder , Natural Histories 11. xxvi. 76 Jump up ^ Xinru , Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 21 . Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 75 . Jump up ^ Xinru , Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , p. 20 Jump up ^ Seneca the Younger ( c. 3 BCE -- 65 CE ) , Declamations Vol . I ^ Jump up to : Sogdian Trade , Encyclopedia Iranica , ( retrieved 15 June 2007 ) < http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdian-trade > Jump up ^ `` Silk Road '' , LIVIUS Articles of Ancient History . 28 October 2010 . Retrieved on 14 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Howard , Michael C. ( 2012 ) , Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies , the Role of Cross Border Trade and Travel , McFarland & Company , p. 133 . Jump up ^ Mark J. Dresden ( 1981 ) , `` Introductory Note , '' in Guitty Azarpay , Sogdian Painting : the Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art , Berkeley , Los Angeles , London : University of California Press , p. 9 , ISBN 0 - 520 - 03765 - 0 . Jump up ^ Liu , Xinru , `` The Silk Road : Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia '' , in Michael Adas ( ed ) , Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History , American Historical Association , Philadelphia : Temple University Press , 2001 , p. 168 . Jump up ^ Luttwak , Edward N. ( 2009 ) . The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire . Cambridge and London : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03519 - 5 , pp. 168 -- 69 . Jump up ^ Bretschneider , Emil ( 1888 ) , Medieval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources : Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century , Vol. 1 , Abingdon : Routledge , reprinted 2000 , p. 144 . Jump up ^ Moule , A.C. , Christians in China before 1500 , 94 & 103 ; also Pelliot , Paul in T'oung - pao 15 ( 1914 ) , pp. 630 -- 36 . Jump up ^ Peter Jackson ( 2005 ) , The Mongols and the West , 1221 -- 1410 , Pearson Education , p. 169 , ISBN 0 - 582 - 36896 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Kathleen Kuiper & editors of Encyclopædia Britannica ( Aug 31 , 2006 ) . `` Rabban bar Sauma : Mongol Envoy . '' Encyclopædia Britannica ( online source ) . Accessed 16 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Morris Rossabi ( 2014 ) . From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia : The Writings of Morris Rossabi . Leiden & Boston : Brill , pp. 385 -- 86 , ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 28529 - 3 . Jump up ^ Morris Rossabi ( 2014 ) . From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia : The Writings of Morris Rossabi . Leiden & Boston : Brill , pp. 386 -- 421 , ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 28529 - 3 . Jump up ^ Luttwak , Edward N. ( 2009 ) . The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire . Cambridge and London : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03519 - 5 , p. 169 . Jump up ^ Luttwak , Edward N. ( 2009 ) . The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire . Cambridge and London : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03519 - 5 , pp. 169 -- 70 . Jump up ^ E. Bretschneider ( 1871 ) . On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies : And Other Western Countries , Mentioned in Chinese Books . Trübner & Company . pp. 25 -- . Jump up ^ Luttwak , Edward N. ( 2009 ) . The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire . Cambridge and London : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03519 - 5 , p. 170 . Jump up ^ Nishijima , Sadao ( 1986 ) , `` The Economic and Social History of Former Han '' , in Twitchett , Denis ; Loewe , Michael , Cambridge History of China : Volume I : the Ch'in and Han Empires , 221 B.C. -- A.D. 220 , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , pp. 545 -- 607 , ISBN 0 - 521 - 24327 - 0 Jump up ^ Eberhard , Wolfram ( 2005 ) , A History of China , New York : Cosimo , ISBN 1 - 59605 - 566 - 9 Jump up ^ Whitfield , Susan ( 2004 ) , The Silk Road : Trade , Travel , War and Faith , Chicago : Serindia , ISBN 1 - 932476 - 12 - 1 Jump up ^ Ebrey , Patricia Buckley ( 1999 ) , The Cambridge Illustrated History of China , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 - 521 - 66991 - X Jump up ^ Skaff , Jonathan Karem ( 2009 ) . Nicola Di Cosmo , ed . Military Culture in Imperial China . Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03109 - 8 . Jump up ^ Tikhvinskiĭ , Sergeĭ Leonidovich and Leonard Sergeevich Perelomov ( 1981 ) . China and her neighbours , from ancient times to the Middle Ages : a collection of essays . Progress Publishers . p. 124 . Jump up ^ Sun , Guangqi ( 1989 ) , History of Navigation in Ancient China , Beijing : Ocean Press , ISBN 7 - 5027 - 0532 - 5 Jump up ^ Bowman , John S. ( 2000 ) , Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture , New York : Columbia University Press Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 68 . Jump up ^ Wink , André . Al - Hind : The Making of the Indo - Islamic World . Brill Academic Publishers , 2002 . ISBN 0 - 391 - 04173 - 8 . Jump up ^ Dybo A.V. , `` Chronology of Türkic languages and linguistic contacts of early Türks '' , Moskow , 2007 , p. 786 , ( 2 ) ^ Jump up to : Hanks , Reuel R. ( 2010 ) , Global Security Watch : Central Asia , Santa Barbara , Denver , Oxford : Praeger , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Ebrey , Patricia Buckley ; Walthall , Anne ; Palais , James B. ( 2006 ) , East Asia : A Cultural , Social , and Political History , Boston : Houghton Mifflin , ISBN 0 - 618 - 13384 - 4 , p. 100 . Jump up ^ Gascoigne , Bamber ; Gascoigne , Christina ( 2003 ) , The Dynasties of China : A History , New York : Carroll and Graf Publishers , an imprint of Avalon Publishing Group , ISBN 0 - 7867 - 1219 - 8 , p. 97 . Jump up ^ Taenzer , Gertraud ( 2016 ) , `` Changing Relations between Administration , Clergy and Lay People in Eastern Central Asia : a Case Study According to the Dunhuang Manuscripts Referring to the Transition from Tibetan to Local Rule in Dunhuang , 8th -- 11th Centuries '' , in Carmen Meinert , Transfer of Buddhism Across Central Asian Networks ( 7th to 13th Centuries ) , 19 -- 56 , Leiden , Boston : Brill , pp. 35 -- 37 , ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 30741 - 4 . Jump up ^ Hanks , Reuel R. ( 2010 ) , Global Security Watch : Central Asia , Santa Barbara , Denver , Oxford : Praeger , pp. 4 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Sophie Ibbotson and Max Lovell - Hoare ( 2016 ) , Uzbekistan , 2nd edition , Bradt Travel Guides Ltd , pp. 12 -- 13 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 78477 - 017 - 4 . Jump up ^ Sophie Ibbotson and Max Lovell - Hoare ( 2016 ) , Uzbekistan , 2nd edition , Bradt Travel Guides Ltd , pp. 14 -- 15 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 78477 - 017 - 4 . Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 109 . Jump up ^ The Pax Mongolica , by Daniel C. Waugh , University of Washington , Seattle Jump up ^ J.N. Hays ( 2005 ) . `` Epidemics and pandemics : their impacts on human history '' . p. 61 . ISBN 1 - 85109 - 658 - 2 Jump up ^ John Kelly , The Great Mortality : An Intimate History of the Black Death , the Most Devastating Plague of All Time ( Harper : 2005 ) . ISBN 0 - 06000 - 693 - 5 Jump up ^ The Silk Roads : Highways of Commerce and Culture . Vadime Elisseeff ( 1998 ). ( 3 ) Jump up ^ Faroqhi , Suraiya ( 1994 ) . `` Crisis and Change , 1590 -- 1699 '' . In İnalcık , Halil ; Donald Quataert . An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire , 1300 -- 1914 . 2 . Cambridge University Press . pp. 505 -- 07 , 524 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 57455 - 2 . Jump up ^ Hansen , Valerie ( 2000 ) , The Open Empire : A History of China to 1600 , New York & London : W.W. Norton & Company , ISBN 0 - 393 - 97374 - 3 , pp , 117 -- 19 Jump up ^ Kathy Ceceri , The Silk Road : Explore the World 's Most Famous Trade Route ( White River Junction , VT : Nomad Press , 2011 ) , 111 . ^ Jump up to : Bradsher , Keith ( 20 July 2013 ) . `` Hauling New Treasure Along the Silk Road '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Asia - Pacific Asia takes first step on modern ' Silk Route ' '' . BBC News . 22 June 2009 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` A Silk Road for the 21st century : Freight rail linking China and Germany officially begins operations '' . Shanghaiist . Jump up ^ Cooley , Alexander ( July 2015 ) . `` New Silk Route or Classic Developmental Cul - de-Sac ? The Prospects and Challenges of China 's OBOR Initiative '' . PONARS Eurasia . Retrieved 10 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` China plans new Silk Route across Ukraine '' . Russian News Agency TASS. 9 December 2013 . Retrieved 10 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Sahoo , Pravakar ( 22 December 2015 ) . `` India should be part of the new Silk Route '' . The Hindu Business Line . Retrieved 10 February 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` China 's new silk route : The long and winding road '' ( PDF ) . PricewaterhouseCoopers . February 2016 . Retrieved 10 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` First ' Silk Road ' train arrives in Tehran from China '' . Yahoo News . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` ' China freight train ' in first trip to Barking '' . BBC News . 2017 - 01 - 03 . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 05 . Jump up ^ Silk Road route back in business as China train rolls into London , Tracy McVeigh , The Observer , 14 January 2017 Jump up ^ Ulric Killion , A Modern Chinese Journey to the West : Economic Globalisation And Dualism , ( Nova Science Publishers : 2006 ) , p. 66 Jump up ^ Yang , Bin. ( 2008 ) . Between Winds and Clouds : The Making of Yunnan . New York : Columbia University Press Jump up ^ `` History and Legend of Sino - Bangla Contacts '' . Fmprc.gov.cn. 28 September 2010 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Holiday '' . Weeklyholiday.net . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Maritime Silk Road '' . SEAArch . Jump up ^ Richard Foltz , Religions of the Silk Road , New York : Palgrave Macmillan , 2nd edition , 2010 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 230 - 62125 - 1 Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 77 . ^ Jump up to : Jerry H. Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 38 . Jump up ^ `` Belief Systems Along the Silk Road , '' Asia Society website , http://asiasociety.org/education/belief-systems-along-silk-road , retrieved on November 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ von Le Coq , Albert . ( 1913 ) . Chotscho : Facsimile - Wiedergaben der Wichtigeren Funde der Ersten Königlich Preussischen Expedition nach Turfan in Ost - Turkistan . Berlin : Dietrich Reimer ( Ernst Vohsen ) , im Auftrage der Gernalverwaltung der Königlichen Museen aus Mitteln des Baessler - Institutes , Tafel 19 . ( Accessed 3 September 2016 ) . Jump up ^ Ethnic Sogdians have been identified as the Caucasian figures seen in the same cave temple ( No. 9 ) . See the following source : Gasparini , Mariachiara . `` A Mathematic Expression of Art : Sino - Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin , '' in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja ( eds ) , Transcultural Studies , Ruprecht - Karls Universität Heidelberg , No 1 ( 2014 ) , pp. 134 -- 63 . ISSN 2191 - 6411 . See also endnote # 32 . ( Accessed 3 September 2016 . ) Jump up ^ For information on the Sogdians , an Eastern Iranian people , and their inhabitation of Turfan as an ethnic minority community during the phases of Tang Chinese ( 7th -- 8th century ) and Uyghur rule ( 9th -- 13th century ) , see Hansen , Valerie ( 2012 ) , The Silk Road : A New History , Oxford University Press , p. 98 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 993921 - 3 . Jump up ^ Jerry H. Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 69 , 73 . Jump up ^ Anderson , James A. ( 2009 ) . `` China 's Southwestern Silk Road in World History '' . World History Connected . 6 ( 1 ) . Retrieved 2 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Jerry Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 16 . Jump up ^ Foltz , Richard C. ( 1999 ) . Religions of the Silk Road : Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century . New York : St Martin 's Press . p. 37 . Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , `` The Silk Road in World History '' ( New york : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , pp. 51 . Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , `` The Silk Road in World History '' ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , pp. 42 . Jump up ^ Foltz , `` Religions of the Silk Road '' , pp. 37 -- 58 Jump up ^ Foltz , Richard C. ( 1999 ) . Religions of the Silk Road : Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century . New York : St Martin 's Press . p. 47 . ^ Jump up to : Foltz , Richard C. ( 1999 ) . Religions of the Silk Road : Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century . New York : St Martin 's Press . p. 38 . Jump up ^ Silkroad Foundation ; Adela C.Y. Lee . `` Ancient Silk Road Travellers '' . Jump up ^ Foltz , Richard C. ( 1999 ) . Religions of the Silk Road : Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century . New York : St Martin 's Press . p. 41 . Jump up ^ Xinru Liu , `` The Silk Road in World History '' ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Jerry H. Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 43 -- 44 . Jump up ^ Jerry H. Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 48 . Jump up ^ Jerry H. Bentley , Old World Encounters : Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times ( New York : Oxford University Press , 1993 ) , 50 . Jump up ^ Xinru , Liu , The Silk Road in World History ( New York : Oxford University Press , 2010 ) , 21 . Jump up ^ Foltz , Richard C. ( 1999 ) . Religions of the Silk Road : Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century . New York : St Martin 's Press . p. 45 . Jump up ^ `` The Silk Road and Beyond : Travel , Trade , and Transformation , '' Art Institute of Chicago website , http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/silkroad/themes.html , retrieved on 15 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Objectives '' . Sources ( edit ) Baines , John and Málek , Jaromir ( 1984 ) : Atlas of Ancient Egypt . Oxford , Time Life Books . Boulnois , Luce. 2004 . Silk Road : Monks , Warriors & Merchants on the Silk Road . Translated by Helen Loveday with additional material by Bradley Mayhew and Angela Sheng . Airphoto International . ISBN 962 - 217 - 720 - 4 hardback , ISBN 962 - 217 - 721 - 2 softback . Ebrey , Patricia Buckley . ( 1999 ) . The Cambridge Illustrated History of China . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 66991 - X . Foltz , Richard , Religions of the Silk Road , Palgrave Macmillan , 2nd edition , 2010 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 230 - 62125 - 1 Harmatta , János , ed. , 1994 . History of civilizations of Central Asia , Volume II . The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations : 700 BC to 250 . Paris , UNESCO Publishing . Herodotus ( 5th century BCE ) : Histories . Translated with notes by George Rawlinson. 1996 edition . Ware , Hertfordshire , Wordsworth Editions Limited . Hopkirk , Peter : Foreign Devils on the Silk Road : The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia . The University of Massachusetts Press , Amherst , 1980 , 1984 . ISBN 0 - 87023 - 435 - 8 Hill , John E. ( 2009 ) Through the Jade Gate to Rome : A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty , 1st to 2nd Centuries CE . BookSurge , Charleston , South Carolina . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4392 - 2134 - 1 . Hulsewé , A.F.P. and Loewe , M.A.N. 1979 . China in Central Asia : The Early Stage 125 BC -- 23 : an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty . E.J. Brill , Leiden . Huyghe , Edith and Huyghe , François - Bernard : `` La route de la soie ou les empires du mirage '' , Petite bibliothèque Payot , 2006 , ISBN 2 - 228 - 90073 - 7 Juliano , Annette , L. and Lerner , Judith A. , et al. 2002 . Monks and Merchants : Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China : Gansu and Ningxia , 4th -- 7th Century . Harry N. Abrams Inc. , with The Asia Society . ISBN 0 - 8109 - 3478 - 7 ; ISBN 0 - 87848 - 089 - 7 softback . Klimkeit , Hans - Joach , im . 1988 . Die Seidenstrasse : Handelsweg and Kulturbruecke zwischen Morgen - and Abendland . Koeln : DuMont Buchverlag . Klimkeit , Hans - Joachim. 1993 . Gnosis on the Silk Road : Gnostic Texts from Central Asia . Trans . & presented by Hans - Joachim Klimkeit . HarperSanFrancisco . ISBN 0 - 06 - 064586 - 5 . Knight , E.F. 1893 . Where Three Empires Meet : A Narrative of Recent Travel in : Kashmir , Western Tibet , Gilgit , and the adjoining countries . Longmans , Green , and Co. , London . Reprint : Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company , Taipei . 1971 . Li , Rongxi ( translator ) . 1995 . A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty . Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research . Berkeley , California . ISBN 1 - 886439 - 00 - 1 Li , Rongxi ( translator ) . 1995 . The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions . Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research . Berkeley , California . ISBN 1 - 886439 - 02 - 8 Litvinsky , B.A. , ed. , 1996 . History of civilizations of Central Asia , Volume III . The crossroads of civilizations : 250 to 750 . Paris , UNESCO Publishing . Liu , Xinru , 2001 . `` Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi - Kushan : Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies . '' Journal of World History , Volume 12 , No. 2 , Fall 2001 . University of Hawaii Press , pp. 261 -- 92 . ( 4 ) . Liu , Li , 2004 , The Chinese Neolithic , Trajectories to Early States , Cambridge UK , Cambridge University Press . Liu , Xinru ( 2010 ) . The Silk Road in World History . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 516174 - 8 ; ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 533810 - 2 ( pbk ) . McDonald , Angus. 1995 . The Five Foot Road : In Search of a Vanished China . HarperCollinsWest , San Francisco . Malkov , Artemy. 2007 . The Silk Road : A mathematical model . History & Mathematics , ed. by Peter Turchin et al. Moscow : KomKniga . ISBN 978 - 5 - 484 - 01002 - 8 Mallory , J.P. and Mair , Victor H. , 2000 . The Tarim Mummies : Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West . Thames & Hudson , London . Ming Pao . `` Hong Kong proposes Silk Road on the Sea as World Heritage '' , 7 August 2005 , p . A2 . Osborne , Milton , 1975 . River Road to China : The Mekong River Expedition , 1866 -- 73 . George Allen & Unwin Lt . Puri , B. N , 1987 Buddhism in Central Asia , Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited , Delhi . ( 2000 reprint ) . Ray , Himanshu Prabha , 2003 . The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 80455 - 8 ( hardback ) ; ISBN 0 - 521 - 01109 - 4 ( paperback ) . Sarianidi , Viktor , 1985 . The Golden Hoard of Bactria : From the Tillya - tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan . Harry N. Abrams , New York . Schafer , Edward H. 1963 . The Golden Peaches of Samarkand : A study of T'ang Exotics . University of California Press . Berkeley and Los Angeles . 1st paperback edition : 1985 . ISBN 0 - 520 - 05462 - 8 . Stein , Aurel M. 1907 . Ancient Khotan : Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan , 2 vols . Clarendon Press . Oxford. ( 5 ) Stein , Aurel M. , 1912 . Ruins of Desert Cathay : Personal narrative of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China , 2 vols . Reprint : Delhi . Low Price Publications . 1990 . Stein , Aurel M. , 1921 . Serindia : Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China , 5 vols . London & Oxford . Clarendon Press . Reprint : Delhi . Motilal Banarsidass. 1980. ( 6 ) Stein Aurel M. , 1928 . Innermost Asia : Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia , Kan - su and Eastern Iran , 5 vols . Clarendon Press . Reprint : New Delhi . Cosmo Publications . 1981 . Stein Aurel M. , 1932 On Ancient Central Asian Tracks : Brief Narrative of Three Expeditions in Innermost Asia and Northwestern China . Reprinted with Introduction by Jeannette Mirsky . Book Faith India , Delhi . 1999 . Thorsten , Marie. 2006 `` Silk Road Nostalgia and Imagined Global Community '' . Comparative American Studies 3 , no . 3 : 343 -- 59 . Waugh , Daniel . ( 2007 ) . `` Richthofen `` Silk Roads '' : Toward the Archeology of a Concept . '' The Silk Road . Volume 5 , Number 1 , Summer 2007 , pp. 1 -- 10 . ( 7 ) von Le Coq , Albert , 1928 . Buried Treasures of Turkestan . Reprint with Introduction by Peter Hopkirk , Oxford University Press . 1985 . Whitfield , Susan , 1999 . Life Along the Silk Road . London : John Murray . Wimmel , Kenneth , 1996 . The Alluring Target : In Search of the Secrets of Central Asia . Trackless Sands Press , Palo Alto , CA . ISBN 1 - 879434 - 48 - 2 Yan , Chen , 1986 . `` Earliest Silk Route : The Southwest Route . '' Chen Yan . China Reconstructs , Vol . XXXV , No. 10 . October 1986 , pp. 59 -- 62 . Yule ( translator and editor ) , Sir Henry ( 1866 ) . Cathay and the way thither : being a collection of medieval notices of China . Issue 37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society . Printed for the Hakluyt society . Further reading ( edit ) Boulnois , Luce . Silk Road : Monks , Warriors and Merchants on the Silk Road . Odyssey Publications , 2005 . ISBN 962 - 217 - 720 - 4 Bulliet , Richard W. 1975 . The Camel and the Wheel . Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 09130 - 2 . Christian , David ( 2000 ) . `` Silk Roads or Steppe Roads ? The Silk Roads in World History '' . Journal of World History . University of Hawaii Press . 2.1 ( Spring ) : 1 . de la Vaissière , E. , Sogdian Traders . A History , Leiden , Brill , 2005 , Hardback ISBN 90 - 04 - 14252 - 5 Brill Publishers , French version ISBN 2 - 85757 - 064 - 3 on ( 8 ) Elisseeff , Vadime . Editor . 1998 . The Silk Roads : Highways of Culture and Commerce . UNESCO Publishing . Paris . Reprint : 2000 . ISBN 92 - 3 - 103652 - 1 softback ; ISBN 1 - 57181 - 221 - 0 ; ISBN 1 - 57181 - 222 - 9 softback . Forbes , Andrew ; Henley , David ( 2011 ) . China 's Ancient Tea Horse Road . Chiang Mai : Cognoscenti Books . ASIN : B005DQV7Q2 Hansen , Valerie . The Silk Road : A New History ( Oxford University Press ; 2012 ) 304 pages ; Combines archaeology and history in a study of seven oases Hallikainen , Saana : Connections from Europe to Asia and how the trading was affected by the cultural exchange ( 2002 ) Hill , John E. ( 2004 ) . The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏 略 by Yu Huan 魚 豢 : A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 . Draft annotated English translation . ( 9 ) Hopkirk , Peter : The Great Game : The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia ; Kodansha International , New York , 1990 , 1992 . Kuzmina , E.E. The Prehistory of the Silk Road . ( 2008 ) Edited by Victor H. Mair . University of Pennsylvania Press , Philadelphia . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8122 - 4041 - 2 Larsen , Jeanne . Silk Road : A Novel of Eighth - Century China . ( 1989 ; reprinted 2009 ) Levy , Scott C. ( 2012 ) . `` Early Modern Central Asia in World History '' . History Compass. 10 ( 11 ) : 866 -- 78 . doi : 10.1111 / hic3. 12004 . Li et al. `` Evidence that a West - East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age '' . BMC Biology 2010 , 8 : 15 . Liu , Xinru , and Shaffer , Lynda Norene. 2007 . Connections Across Eurasia : Transportation , Communication , and Cultural Exchange on the Silk Roads . McGraw Hill , New York . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 284351 - 4 . Miller , Roy Andrew ( 1959 ) : Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty . University of California Press . Omrani , Bijan ; Tredinnick , Jeremy ( 2010 ) . Asia Overland : Tales of Travel on the Trans - Siberian and Silk Road . Hong Kong New York : Odyssey Distribution in the US by W.W. Norton & Co , Odyssey Publications . ISBN 962 - 217 - 811 - 1 . Polo , Marco , Il Milione . Thubron , C. , The Silk Road to China ( Hamlyn , 1989 ) Tuladhar , Kamal Ratna ( 2011 ) . Caravan to Lhasa : A Merchant of Kathmandu in Traditional Tibet . Kathmandu : Lijala & Tisa . ISBN 99946 - 58 - 91 - 3 Watt , James C.Y. ; Wardwell , Anne E. ( 1997 ) . When silk was gold : Central Asian and Chinese textiles . New York : The Metropolitan Museum of Art . ISBN 0870998250 . Weber , Olivier , Eternal Afghanistan ( photographs of Reza ) , ( Unesco - Le Chêne , 2002 ) Yap , Joseph P. Wars With the Xiongnu -- A Translation From Zizhi Tongjian . AuthorHouse ( 2009 ) ISBN 978 - 1 - 4490 - 0604 - 4 National Institute of Informatics -- Digital Silk Road Project Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books Digital Silk Road > Toyo Bunko Archive > List of Books External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Silk Road . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Silk Road . Silk Road Atlas ( University of Washington ) The Silk Road , a historical overview by Oliver Wild The Silk Road Journal , a freely available scholarly journal run by Daniel Waugh The New Silk Road -- a lecture by Paul Lacourbe at TEDx Danubia 2013 Escobar , Pepe ( February 2015 ) . Year of the Sheep , Century of the Dragon ? New Silk Roads and the Chinese Vision of a Brave New ( Trade ) World , an essay at Tom Dispatch Han dynasty topics History Chu -- Han Contention ( Feast at Hong Gate ) Lü Clan Disturbance Rebellion of the Seven States Han -- Xiongnu War Han conquest of Gojoseon Southward expansion ( Han -- Minyue War Han conquest of Nanyue Han conquest of Dian First Chinese domination of Vietnam Trung sisters ' rebellion Second Chinese domination of Vietnam ) Xin dynasty Red Eyebrows and Lulin Goguryeo -- Han War Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions Way of the Five Pecks of Rice Yellow Turban Rebellion End of the Han dynasty Society and culture Sima Qian Records of the Grand Historian Book of Han Gansu Flying Horse Huainanzi Eight Immortals of Huainan Mawangdui Silk Texts Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals Yiwu Zhi Old Texts Han poetry Fu Government and military Emperor List Family tree Three Lords and Nine Ministers Nine Ministers Three Ducal Ministers Kings Four Commanderies Protectorate of the Western Regions ( Chief Official ) List of government titles Economics Silk Road Ancient Chinese coinage Sino - Roman relations Science and technology Cai Lun Du Shi Hua Tuo Ma Jun Zhang Heng Zhang Zhongjing Zhoubi Suanjing Book on Numbers and Computation The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art Huangdi Neijing Jin Gui Yao Lue Shanghan Lun Silk General History of silk Magnanery Sericulture Silk Road Silk waste Types Ahimsa silk Assam silk Atlas silk Byzantine silk Eri silk Japanese silk Lao silk Mysore silk Rajshahi silk Thai silk Tussar silk Wild silk Industries Silk in the Indian subcontinent Silk industry in China Silk industry of Cheshire Products Saree Tenun Pahang Diraja Part of a series on trade routes Amber Road Hærvejen Incense Route Dvaravati -- Kamboja route King 's Highway Rome - India routes Royal Road Salt road Siberian Route Silk Road Maritime Silk Road Spice Route Tea Horse Road Varangians to the Greeks Via Maris Triangular trade Volga trade route Trans - Saharan trade Old Salt Route Maritime republics Hanseatic League Grand Trunk Road World Heritage Sites in China East Classical Gardens of Suzhou Fujian Tulou Lushan Huangshan Mount Sanqing Mount Tai Wuyi Mountains Temple and Cemetery of Confucius and Kong Family Mansion in Qufu Xidi , and Hongcun West Lake Kulangsu South Central Ancient Building Complex in the Wudang Mountains Historic Centre of Macau Shennongjia Kaiping Diaolou and Villages Longmen Grottoes Historic Monuments of Dengfeng , including the Shaolin Monastery and Gaocheng Observatory Zuojiang Huashan Rock Art Wulingyuan Yinxu Southwest Chengjiang Fossil Site Dazu Rock Carvings Potala Palace , including the Jokhang and Norbulingka Honghe Hani Rice Terraces Huanglong Jiuzhaigou Old Town of Lijiang Mount Emei and Leshan Giant Buddha Mount Qingcheng and Dujiangyan Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries Three Parallel Rivers North Mount Wutai Chengde Mountain Resort , including Putuo Zongcheng Temple , Xumi Fushou Temple and Puning Temple Forbidden City Zhoukoudian Pingyao Summer Palace Temple of Heaven Xanadu Yungang Grottoes Northeast Koguryo sites Mukden Palace Northwest Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor Mogao Caves Xinjiang Tianshan Qinghai Hoh Xil Multiple regions Great Wall China Danxia Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties South China Karst Grand Canal Silk Roads Tusi Sites World Heritage Sites in Kazakhstan Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi Saryarka -- Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan Tamgaly Petroglyphs Silk Roads : the Routes Network of Chang'an - Tianshan Corridor VIAF : 315127655 LCCN : sh85122554 GND : 4054299 - 3 BNF : cb11970767h ( data ) NDL : 00571235 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silk_Road&oldid=816051942 '' Categories : World Heritage Sites in Kazakhstan Silk Road Ancient roads and tracks Roads in Asia Medieval Asia Silk Trade routes Eurasian history History of Central Asia History of Imperial China History of foreign trade in China History of international relations Ancient international relations International road networks Ancient history of Afghanistan Ancient history of Iraq Ancient history of Pakistan Han dynasty Persian history Foreign trade of Pakistan Foreign relations of Ancient Rome History of Khorasan World Heritage Sites in China World Heritage Sites in Tajikistan Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Infobox road temporary tracking category 1 Infobox road articles without wikidata country Articles containing Chinese - 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Witches of East End (TV series)
Witches of East End ( TV series ) - wikipedia Witches of East End ( TV series ) Jump to : navigation , search Witches of East End Genre Supernatural drama Fantasy Comedy - drama Based on Witches of East End by Melissa de la Cruz Developed by Maggie Friedman Starring Julia Ormond Mädchen Amick Jenna Dewan Tatum Rachel Boston Daniel Di Tomasso Eric Winter Christian Cooke Composer ( s ) Lisa Coleman Wendy Melvoin Peter Nashal Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 23 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Maggie Friedman Erwin Stoff Allan Arkush Richard Hatem Josh Reims Jessica Tuchinsky Mark Waters Producer ( s ) Shawn Williamson Kelly A. Manners Location ( s ) Wilmington , North Carolina ( pilot only ) Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada Cinematography Robert Aschmann Mathias Herndl John Lindley Editor ( s ) Bruce Green Randy Jon Morgan Pattye Rogers Sharidan Sotelo Nancy Forner Jacque Elaine Toberen Running time 43 minutes Production company ( s ) 3 Arts Entertainment Curly Girly Productions Fox 21 Distributor 20th Television Release Original network Lifetime Picture format 720p ( HDTV ) Audio format Dolby Digital 5.1 Original release October 6 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 06 ) -- October 5 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 05 ) External links Official website Witches of East End is an American television series based on the book of the same name by Melissa de la Cruz . The series premiered on Lifetime on October 6 , 2013 . Set in the fictional seaside town of East End , it follows the lives of a family of witches -- Joanna Beauchamp ( Julia Ormond ) and her two grown - up daughters , Freya Beauchamp ( Jenna Dewan Tatum ) and Ingrid Beauchamp ( Rachel Boston ) , as well as her sister Wendy Beauchamp ( Mädchen Amick ) . On November 22 , 2013 , Lifetime renewed Witches of East End for a second season to consist of 13 episodes , which premiered on July 6 , 2014 . On November 4 , 2014 , Lifetime cancelled Witches of East End after a decline in ratings during the second season . The series finale aired on October 5 , 2014 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Cast , people , and characters 3 Development and production 3.1 Casting 3.2 Filming 4 Reception 4.1 Critical reception 4.2 Ratings 5 Broadcasts 6 Cancellation and fan campaign 7 References 8 External links Overview ( edit ) The series stars Julia Ormond as lead character Joanna Beauchamp , a witch and mother of Freya Beauchamp ( Jenna Dewan Tatum ) and Ingrid Beauchamp ( Rachel Boston ) , who are part of the next generation of witches . Mädchen Amick co-stars as Joanna 's mischievous witch sister Wendy Beauchamp . The series is loosely based on the book 's plot , with one change being that Freya and Ingrid are initially unaware of their magical powers . Cast , people , and characters ( edit ) Main article : List of Witches of East End characters Julia Ormond as Joanna Beauchamp Mädchen Amick as Wendy Beauchamp Jenna Dewan Tatum as Freya Beauchamp Rachel Boston as Ingrid Beauchamp Daniel Di Tomasso as Killian Gardiner Eric Winter as Dash Gardiner Christian Cooke as Frederick Beauchamp ( season 2 ) Notes : a ^ Guest in pilot , starring from episode 2 onwards . Development and production ( edit ) On July 19 , 2012 , it was announced that Lifetime had ordered a pilot for Witches of East End for its 2013 season , and that the show would be executive - produced by both Maggie Friedman and Erwin Stoff , and produced by Fox 21 . On January 31 , 2013 , it was revealed that Lifetime had picked up Witches of East End with ten episodes and that it was scheduled to premiere later that year . The executive VP of programming for Lifetime Networks , Rob Sharenow , said `` We 've been thrilled about Witches of East End and its powerful premise since the moment we bought the property , and our friends at Fox 21 helped develop it for television . This is one of the most exciting ensemble casts we 've seen and the whole show is fresh , original and just right for Lifetime . '' Casting ( edit ) On August 30 , 2012 , it was announced that Julia Ormond had landed a main role on the show , as Joanna Beauchamp . On September 14 , 2012 , the role of Freya Beauchamp was officially given to Jenna Dewan Tatum , who publicly announced on December 17 , 2012 , that she and husband Channing Tatum were expecting their first child . On September 17 , 2012 , the leading male role of Dash Gardiner was assigned to Patrick Heusinger . And on September 19 , 2012 , Rachel Boston and model Daniel Di Tomasso were announced to have earned the two remaining main roles , respectively Ingrid Beauchamp and Killian Gardiner . Finally , as announced on September 25 , 2012 , Nicholas Gonzalez would portray detective Matt Torcoletti . On October 9 , 2012 , two guest star announcements were made : Mädchen Amick , who then became a part of the permanent main cast , and Glenne Headly - Amick as Wendy ( Joanna 's sister ) and a leading role and Headly as Penelope ( the Gardiner brothers ' mother ) . Tom Lenk was later given the role of Hudson Rafferty , Ingrid 's best friend , as announced on October 16 , 2012 . Casting however underwent a few changes . As revealed by Nicholas Gonzalez himself on his Twitter account , a few days after the pick - up announcement , the actor was dropped from the show , and on June 6 , 2013 , it was announced that Patrick Heusinger 's role as Dash Gardiner would be recast , for creative reasons . On June 26 , TVLine revealed that Eric Winter would replace Patrick Heusinger as Dash Gardiner . On July 9 , the recurring role of the detective Adam ( formerly Matt Torcoletti ) was assigned to Jason George . On July 12 , Virginia Madsen replaced Glenne Headly for a multi-episode arc as Penelope , Dash and Killian 's mother . On August 12 , Freddie Prinze , Jr. booked a guest role on the show , as Leo Wingate , with a possibility that it could become recurring . On August 14 , Anthony Lemke was cast as recurring Harrison Welles . Filming ( edit ) Filming the pilot episode began on October 16 , 2012 in the port town of Wilmington , North Carolina , where several scenes were shot . On October 29 , 2012 , the crew moved for a week to Macon , Georgia , where they filmed the wedding scenes for the pilot at the historical Hay House . When the network Lifetime announced Witches of East End was going to be a series , it was also revealed that filming the rest of the series would happen in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada , instead of continuing in Wilmington , NC . Maggie Friedman announced on Twitter on June 10 that she was scouting locations for the series , trying to `` find Fair Haven '' . Reception ( edit ) Critical reception ( edit ) Critical reaction to Witches of East End has been mixed , with a score of 50 on Metacritic and 70 % for the first season on Rotten Tomatoes with a consensus saying `` Although it 's ridiculously soapy , Witches of East End is often campy fun ; it 's a supernatural spectacle that 's entertaining despite its silliness . '' Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun - Times described the show as a `` Soapy , silly adaptation of Melissa de la Cruz 's best - seller . '' Matthew Gilbert of Boston Globe reviewed the show saying `` ( It ) will remain a missable new supernatural series populated by wooden actors and feeble plotlines . '' Matt Roush of TV Guide summed up his review saying `` Whatever the opposite of spellbinding is , that 's this show . '' Diane Werts of Newsday gave the show a more positive review , saying `` What 's utterly clear is that the starter hour picks up steam whenever loose - cannon Amick bops around -- although Ormond does a nice job of grounding its shenanigans in a semblance of reality . '' She finishes her review giving the pilot a B rating . Allison Keene from The Hollywood Reporter also praised the premiere , claiming `` Witches of East End is up against a number of other supernatural shows , and there becomes a question of saturation . Fortunately or unfortunately , we are n't at that point , yet . It seems there 's plenty more room at the table , and there , Witches of East End currently looks like the most fun . '' Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times also gave the show a glowing review , starting off by negatively reviewing the `` humorless '' witches on shows such as the 2013 debuts of Sleepy Hollow and The Originals , then going on to say Witches of East End is a welcome relief to those series . He further applauds the casting and characters , saying `` thanks to zippy repartee among the stars . Ms. Amick is hilarious , and Ms. Dewan Tatum and Ms. Boston make a pretty amusing pair of mismatched sisters . '' He ends the review with `` there is a lot of heavy fare on television on Sunday nights . If Witches can retain its wry tone , it will be a satisfying alternative for viewers looking for a lighter way to end the weekend . '' Lily Moayeri of Under the Radar compared the show with Charmed saying `` Witch - themed shows work better when both the witches and the target audience are teenagers . The grown - up witches on Witches of East End are just a little too ridiculous - even more so than the witch sister trio of Charmed . '' The show 's second season currently has a 90 % user rating on Rotten Tomatoes . Ratings ( edit ) Witches of East End premiered on a Sunday night to 1.93 million viewers and a 0.7 18 - 49 rating . The premiere rated on par to the June 23 premiere of Lifetime 's other new show Devious Maids , however , Witches of East End faced a lot of tough competition and ended the night being the number two scripted drama on cable , behind Boardwalk Empire on HBO . The following week , Witches of East End pulled a total of 1.93 million viewers and rose to a 0.8 18 - 49 rating , despite the return of The Walking Dead and its talk show Talking Dead breaking records on AMC . The show remained the second highest - rated cable drama of the night again , behind The Walking Dead . Season Timeslot ( EST ) Number of Episodes Premiere Finale Average ( in millions ) Date Viewers ( millions ) 18 - 49 Rating Date Viewers ( millions ) 18 - 49 Rating Sunday 10 : 00 pm 10 October 6 , 2013 ( 2013 - 10 - 06 ) 1.93 0.7 December 15 , 2013 ( 2013 - 12 - 15 ) 1.74 0.6 1.67 Sunday 9 : 00 pm 13 July 6 , 2014 ( 2014 - 07 - 06 ) 1.12 0.5 October 5 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 05 ) 1.03 0.4 1.13 Broadcasts ( edit ) Witches of East End premiered in the United Kingdom on November 5 , 2013 on the second night of the newly formed UK channel , Lifetime UK . The second season premiered on August 25 , 2014 . In Australia , Witches of East End premiered on Eleven on August 4 , 2014 . Cancellation and fan campaign ( edit ) On November 4 , 2014 , it was announced that Lifetime had cancelled Witches of East End after a decline in ratings during the second season . The first season averaged 1.67 million viewers , but dropped in its second season to 1.13 million . After its cancellation , fans launched an online petition campaign to save the show called `` Renew Witches of East End '' . The petition became popular on Twitter , where fans were told to use the hashtag # RenewWitchesofEastEnd and tweet it to Lifetime 's Twitter account . Fans have also campaigned the online streaming service Netflix to pick up the show . The campaign received support from celebrities on Twitter who backed the show to be renewed , including Channing Tatum , William Shatner and Snooki as well as stars from cult television series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's Sarah Michelle Gellar and Charmed 's Shannen Doherty and Holly Marie Combs . As of June 2017 and after 3 years since the finale , the petition has received more than 272,000 signatures . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Lifetime 's ' Witches Of East End ' Picked Up To Series '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved February 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` TCA : Lifetime 's ' Witches Of East End ' Debuts Oct. 6 '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved July 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Witches of East End ' Renewed for Second Season by Lifetime '' . TV By The Numbers . Retrieved November 22 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Roots , Kimberly ( 2014 - 05 - 07 ) . `` ' Witches of East End ' Season 2 Premiere Date '' . TVLine . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : Abrams , Natalie ( November 4 , 2014 ) . `` Lifetime cancels ' Witches of East End ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 5 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Ng , Philiana ( November 4 , 2014 ) . `` ' Witches of East End ' Canceled by Lifetime '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved November 5 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Andreeva , Nellie ( November 4 , 2014 ) . `` Witches of East End Cancelled by Lifetime After Two Seasons '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved November 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( October 16 , 2012 ) . `` ' Buffy 's ' Tom Lenk Joins Lifetime 's ' Witches of East End ' ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved February 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Lifetime Orders ' The Secret Lives Of Wives ' , ' Witches Of East End ' Pilots '' . Deadline. 2012 - 07 - 19 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( 2013 - 01 - 31 ) . `` Lifetime 's ' Witches Of East End ' Picked Up To Series '' . Deadline . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : `` Lifetime TV pilot shoots at Hay House '' . Macon.com . Retrieved November 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Levine , Stuart ( February 1 , 2013 ) . `` Lifetime orders ' Witches of East End ' '' . Variety . Retrieved February 2 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Baysinger , Tim ( 2013 - 01 - 31 ) . `` Lifetime Picks Up Drama ' Witches of East End ' Broadcasting & Cable '' . Broadcastingcable.com . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( 2012 - 08 - 30 ) . `` Julia Ormond To Star In Lifetime Pilot ' Witches Of East End ' '' . Deadline . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberly ( 2012 - 09 - 14 ) . `` Jenna Dewan ' Witches of East End ' -- Lifetime Pilot Casts ' Step Up ' Star '' . TVLine . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Channing Tatum , Jenna Dewan - Tatum Expecting First Child '' . MTV . 2012 - 12 - 17 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Lifetime taps male lead for ' Witches ' : Patrick Heusinger joins Fox 21 pilot from scribe Maggie Friedman - tribunedigital - chicagotribune '' . Articles.chicagotribune.com. 2012 - 09 - 17 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberly ( 2012 - 09 - 19 ) . `` Witches of East End Casts Rachel Boston -- Pilot '' . TVLine . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Nicholas Gonzalez Nabs Series Regular Role On Lifetime 's ' Witches Of East End ' Pilot ; Brooke Lyons To Do Arc On ' Psych ' '' . Deadline. 2012 - 09 - 25 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Lesley Goldberg ( 2012 - 10 - 09 ) . `` Madchen Amick , Glenne Headly Join Lifetime 's ' Witches of East End ' ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Lesley Goldberg ( 2012 - 10 - 16 ) . `` ' Buffy 's ' Tom Lenk Joins Lifetime 's ' Witches of East End ' ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Michael Ausiello ( June 7 , 2013 ) . `` Exclusive : Lifetime 's Witches of East End Recasting Jenna Dewan - Tatum 's On - Screen Beau '' . TV Line . Retrieved June 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( 2013 - 06 - 26 ) . `` ' Witches of East End ' Cast : Eric Winter Replaces Patrick Heusinger '' . TVLine . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Lesley Goldberg ( 2013 - 07 - 09 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Favorite Heads to ' Witches of East End ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( 2013 - 07 - 12 ) . `` ' Witches of East End ' Season 1 : Virginia Madsen Joins Cast '' . TVLine . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Gonzalez , Sandra ( 2013 - 08 - 12 ) . `` ' Witches of East End ' : Freddie Prinze Jr. to guest star as ... EW.com '' . Insidetv.ew.com . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Anthony Lemke Joins Lifetime 's Witches of East End '' . The Televixen. 2013 - 08 - 14 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` '' Witches of East End '' goes to series , but production moves to Vancouver `` . StarNewsOnline.com . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Witches of East End - Season 1 Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Witches of East End : Season 2 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Chicago : News : Politics : Things To Do : Sports '' . Suntimes.com. 2015 - 07 - 29 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` ' Witches ' a bland stew - Television '' . Boston.com. 2013 - 10 - 03 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Roush , Matt ( 2013 - 10 - 04 ) . `` The Weekend Playlist : Simpsons ' Halloween Tradition , PBS 's Paradise , More Witches - Today 's News : Our Take '' . TVGuide.com . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` ' Witches of East End ' review : Shifting tone '' . Newsday. 2013 - 10 - 03 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Keene , Allison ( 2013 - 10 - 04 ) . `` Witches of East End : TV Review '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Genzlinger , Neil ( October 4 , 2013 ) . `` Daughters Inheriting the Practice : ' Witches of East End ' Sweep in on Lifetime '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Moayeri , Lily . `` Witches of East End ( Lifetime , Sundays 10 / 9 Central ) Review Under the Radar - Music Magazine '' . Undertheradarmag.com . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Witches of East End : Season 2 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' Keeping Up With the Kardashians ' & ' Thursday Night Football : Special Edition ' Tie for Lead + ' Real Housewives of New Jersey ' & More - Ratings '' . TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com. 2013 - 10 - 08 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' The Walking Dead ' Wins Night , ' Talking Dead ' , ' Witches of East End ' , ' Homeland , ' Boardwalk Empire ' & More - Ratings '' . TVbytheNumbers.Zap2it.com . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( October 8 , 2013 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' The Walking Dead ' Wins Night , ' Talking Dead ' , ' Witches of East End ' , ' Homeland , ' Boardwalk Empire ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 8 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( December 17 , 2013 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' The Real Housewives of Atlanta ' Tops Night + ' Homeland ' , ' Bar Rescue ' , ' Psych ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( July 9 , 2014 ) . `` Sunday Cable Ratings : ' True Blood ' Wins Night , ' The Last Ship ' , ' Falling Skies ' , ' The Leftovers ' , ' Devious Maids ' , ' Witches of East End ' , & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Lifetime UK Sets Premiere Date For ' Witches Of East End ' '' . TVWise . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ Knox , David ( July 22 , 2014 ) . `` Update : Witches of East End '' . TV Tonight . Retrieved July 22 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Hetherington , Gavin ( November 20 , 2014 ) . `` Witches of East End -- The Ultimate # RenewWitchesofEastEnd Guide '' . SpoilerTV.com . Retrieved November 21 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ang , Alvin ( February 26 , 2015 ) . `` The latest on ' Witches of East End ' renewal efforts ; Witches cast and producers remain optimistic '' . Ecumenical News . Retrieved March 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Machado , Sam ( August 1 , 2015 ) . `` ' Witches Of East End ' Season 3 News : Petition Gains A Good Haul Of More Signatures , But Is It Too Late For A Renewal ? '' . Enstarz.com . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Official website Witches of East End on IMDb Witches of East End at TV.com ( hide ) Lifetime original programming Former Dr. Ruth ( 1984 -- 91 ) Attitudes ( 1985 -- 91 ) The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd ( 1989 -- 91 ) Veronica Clare ( 1991 ) Born Lucky ( 1992 -- 93 ) Debt ( 1996 -- 98 ) Denise Austin 's Daily Workout ( 1997 -- 2008 ) Any Day Now ( 1998 -- 2002 ) Oh Baby ( 1998 -- 2000 ) Maggie ( 1998 ) Strong Medicine ( 2000 -- 06 ) The Division ( 2001 -- 04 ) For the People ( 2002 -- 03 ) 1 - 800 - Missing ( 2003 -- 06 ) Missing ( 2003 -- 06 ) Wild Card ( 2003 -- 05 ) How Clean Is Your House ? 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( 2007 ) Side Order of Life ( 2007 ) State of Mind ( 2007 ) Tim Gunn 's Guide to Style ( 2007 - 2008 ) How to Look Good Naked ( 2008 ) Rita Rocks ( 2008 -- 09 ) DietTribe ( 2009 ) Project Runway : All - Star Challenge ( 2009 ) Drop Dead Diva ( 2009 -- 14 ) Models of the Runway ( 2009 - 2010 ) Sherri ( 2009 ) The Fairy Jobmother ( 2010 ) On the Road with Austin & Santino ( 2010 ) Against the Wall ( 2011 ) America 's Most Wanted ( 2011 -- 12 ) America 's Supernanny ( 2011 -- 12 ) Coming Home ( 2011 -- 12 ) Glamour Belles ( 2011 ) Project Accessory ( 2011 ) The Protector ( 2011 ) Abby 's Ultimate Dance Competition ( 2012 -- 13 ) The Client List ( 2012 -- 13 ) Dance Moms : Miami ( 2012 ) The Houstons : On Our Own ( 2012 -- 13 ) Chasing Nashville ( 2013 ) Devious Maids ( 2013 -- 2016 ) Double Divas ( 2013 ) Supermarket Superstar ( 2013 ) Witches of East End ( 2013 -- 14 ) Betty White 's Off Their Rockers ( 2014 ) The Lottery ( 2014 ) Project Runway : Threads ( 2014 ) Raising Asia ( 2014 ) True Tori ( 2014 ) Under the Gunn ( 2014 ) Fashionably Late with Rachel Zoe ( 2015 ) The Lizzie Borden Chronicles ( 2015 ) Living with the Enemy ( 2015 ) Pitch Slapped ( 2016 ) Project Runway : Fashion Startup ( 2016 ) Current Project Runway ( 2009 -- ) Dance Moms ( 2011 -- ) Project Runway All Stars ( 2012 -- ) Preachers ' Daughters ( 2013 -- ) Bring It ! ( 2014 -- ) Little Women : LA ( 2014 -- ) Little Women : NY ( 2015 -- ) Project Runway : Junior ( 2015 -- ) UnREAL ( 2015 -- ) The Rap Game ( 2016 -- ) Little Women : Atlanta ( 2016 -- ) Little Women : Dallas ( 2016 -- ) Mary Kills People ( 2017 -- ) Married at First Sight ( 2017 - ) Upcoming American Princess ( TBA ) You ( 2018 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Witches_of_East_End_(TV_series)&oldid=826031936 '' Categories : Witches of East End 2010s American comedy - drama television series 2013 American television series debuts 2014 American television series endings American fantasy television series American supernatural television series American horror fiction television series English - language television programs Lifetime ( TV network ) shows Television series by 20th Century Fox Television Television series by 3 Arts Entertainment Television series produced in Vancouver Television shows set in New York ( state ) Television programs based on American novels Magic in television Witchcraft in television Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2015 Pages using infobox television with editor parameter All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Български Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Suomi Українська 中文 10 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 February 2018 , at 20 : 25 . 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will there be a season 3 of witches of east end
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Fake it 'til you make it
Fake it ' til you make it - wikipedia Fake it ' til you make it Jump to : navigation , search `` Act as if '' redirects here . For the band , see Act As If ( band ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) `` Fake it ' til you make it '' is a common English idiom , which suggests that by imitating confidence , competence , and an optimistic mindset , a person can realize those qualities in their real life . It echoes the underlying principles of cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) as a means to enable a change in one 's behavior . The phrase `` fake it ' til you make it '' is similar in meaning to the idiom `` act as if '' , and is also similar to Aristotle 's idea that to be virtuous , one must act as a virtuous person would act . In the 1920s , Alfred Adler , a disciple of Sigmund Freud , developed a therapeutic technique that he called `` acting as if '' . This strategy gave his clients an opportunity to practice alternatives to dysfunctional behaviors . Adler 's method is still used today and is often described as `` role play '' . See also ( edit ) Faking It References ( edit ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fake_it_%27til_you_make_it&oldid=801933089 '' Categories : Catchphrases Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from June 2017 All articles needing additional references Talk About Wikipedia Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 22 September 2017 , at 21 : 24 . About Wikipedia
where did fake it till you make it come from
[ "\"Fake it 'til you make it\" is a common English idiom, which suggests that by imitating confidence, competence, and an optimistic mindset, a person can realize those qualities in their real life. It echoes the underlying principles of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) as a means to enable a change in one's behavior." ]
[ "cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)" ]
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Signage
Signage - wikipedia Signage Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The `` Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas '' sign , just to the south of the Las Vegas Strip Driver location sign used in England to assist drivers when contacting emergency services Signage is the design or use of signs and symbols to communicate a message to a specific group , usually for the purpose of marketing or a kind of advocacy . A signage also means signs collectively or being considered as a group . The term signage is documented to have been popularized in 1975 to 1980 . Signs are any kind of visual graphics created to display information to a particular audience . This is typically manifested in the form of wayfinding information in places such as streets or on the inside and outside buildings . Signs vary in form and size based on location and intent , from more expansive banners , billboards , and murals , to smaller street signs , street name signs , sandwich boards and lawn signs . Newer signs may also use digital or electronic displays . The main purpose of signs is to communicate , to convey information designed to assist the receiver with decision - making based on the information provided . Alternatively , promotional signage may be designed to persuade receivers of the merits of a given product or service . Signage is distinct from labeling , which conveys information about a particular product or service . Contents ( hide ) 1 Definition and etymology 2 History 3 Role and function of signage 4 Signage conventions 4.1 Pictograms 4.2 Sign shape 5 Sign technology 5.1 Materials 5.2 Processes 5.3 Lighting 6 Image gallery 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Definition and etymology ( edit ) The term , ' sign ' comes from the old French signe ( noun ) , signer ( verb ) , meaning a gesture or a motion of the hand . This , in turn , stems from Latin ' signum ' indicating an `` identifying mark , token , indication , symbol ; proof ; military standard , ensign ; a signal , an omen ; sign in the heavens , constellation . '' In the English , the term is also associated with a flag or ensign . In France , a banner not infrequently took the place of signs or sign boards in the Middle Ages . Signs , however , are best known in the form of painted or carved advertisements for shops , inns , cinemas , etc . They are one of various emblematic methods for publicly calling attention to the place to which they refer . The term , ' signage ' appears to have come into use in the 20th century as a collective noun used to describe a class of signs , especially advertising and promotional signs which came to prominence in the first decades of the twentieth century . The Oxford Dictionary defines the term , signage , as `` Signs collectively , especially commercial or public display signs . '' History ( edit ) A coat of arms at Castle Borbeck The use of commercial signage has a very ancient history . Retail signage and promotional signs appear to have developed independently in the East and the West . In antiquity , the ancient Egyptians , Romans and Greeks were known to use signage . In ancient Rome , signboards were usually made from stone or terracotta , and Greeks are known to have used signs also . Many Roman examples are preserved , among them the widely recognized bush to indicate a tavern , from which is derived the proverb `` Good wine needs no bush '' . Apart from the bush , certain identifiable trade signs that survive into modern times include the three balls of pawnbrokers and the red and white barber 's pole . Of the signs identified with specific trades , some of these later evolved into trademarks . This suggests that the early history of commercial signage is intimately tied up with the history of branding and labelling . Some of the earliest signs were used informally to denote the membership of specific groups . Early Christians used the sign or a cross or the Ichthys ( i.e. fish ) to denote their religious affiliations , whereas the sign of the sun or the moon would serve the same purpose for pagans . Recent research suggests that China exhibited a rich history of early retail signage systems . Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song Dynasty ( 960 -- 1127 ) , Chinese society developed a consumerist culture , where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite . The rise of a consumer culture led to the commercial investment in carefully managed company image , retail signage , symbolic brands , trademark protection and sophisticated brand concepts . Whereas the use of signs was generally optional , publicans were on a different footing from other traders . As early as the 14th century there was a law in England compelling innkeepers and landlords to exhibit signs , for in 1393 the prosecution of a publican for not doing so is recorded . In 1389 , King Richard II of England compelled landlords to erect signs outside their premises . The legislation stated `` Whosoever shall brew ale in the town with intention of selling it must hang out a sign , otherwise he shall forfeit his ale . '' This was in order make them easily visible to passing inspectors of the quality of the ale they provided ( during this period , drinking water was not always good to drink and ale was the usual replacement ) . The practice of using signs spread to other types of commercial establishments throughout the Middle Ages . Similar legislation was enacted in Europe . For instance , in France edicts were issued 1567 and 1577 , compelling innkeepers and tavern - keepers to erect signs . The Saracen 's Head : a pub sign in Bath , England Large towns where many premises practiced the same trade , and especially , where these congregated in the same street , a simple trade sign was insufficient to distinguish one house from another . Thus , traders began to employ a variety of devices to differentiate themselves . Sometimes the trader used a rebus on his own name ( e.g. two cocks for the name of Cox ) ; sometimes he adopted a figure of an animal or other object , or portrait of a well - known person , which he considered likely to attract attention . Other signs used the common association of two heterogeneous objects , which ( apart from those representing a rebus ) were in some cases merely a whimsical combination , but in others arose from a popular misconception of the sign itself ( e.g. the combination of the leg and star may have originated in a representation of the insignia of the garter ) , or from corruption in popular speech ( e.g. the combination goat and compasses is said by some to be a corruption of God encompasses ) . Around this time , some manufacturers began to adapt the coats of arms or badges of noble families as a type of endorsement . These would be described by the people without consideration of the language of heraldry , and thus such signs as the Red Lion , the Green Dragon , etc. , have become familiar , especially as pub signs . By the 17th and 18th centuries , the number of commercial houses actively displaying the royal arms on their premises , packaging and labelling had increased , but many claims of royal endorsement were fraudulent . By 1840 , the rules surrounding the display of royal arms were tightened to prevent false claims . By the early 19th century , the number of Royal Warrants granted rose rapidly when Queen Victoria granted some 2,000 royal warrants during her reign of 64 years . The red - light district in Amsterdam Since the object of sign boards was to attract the public , they were often of an elaborate character . Not only were the signs themselves large and sometimes of great artistic merit ( especially in the 16th and 17th centuries , when they reached their greatest vogue ) but the posts or metal supports protruding from the houses over the street , from which the signs were swung , were often elaborately worked , and many beautiful examples of wrought - iron supports survive both in England and continental Europe . Exterior signs were a prominent feature of the streets of London from the 16th century . Large overhanging signs became a danger and a nuisance in the narrow ways as the city streets became more congested with vehicular traffic . Over time , authorities were forced to regulate the size and placement of exterior signage . In 1669 , a French royal order prohibited the excessive size of sign boards and their projection too far over the streets . In Paris in 1761 , and in London , about 1762 - 1773 , laws were introduced which gradually compelled sign boards to be removed or fixed flat against the wall . For the most part , signs only survived in connection with inns , for which some of the greatest artists of the time painted sign boards , usually representing the name of the inn . With the gradual abolition of sign boards , the numbering of houses began to be introduced in the early 18th century in London . It had been attempted in Paris as early as 1512 , and had become almost universal by the close of the 18th century , though not enforced until 1805 . Another important factor was that during the Middle Ages a large percentage of the population was illiterate and so pictures were more useful as a means of identifying a public house . For this reason there was often no reason to write the establishment 's name on the sign and inns opened without a formal written name -- the name being derived later from the illustration on the public house 's sign . In this sense , a pub sign can be thought of as an early example of visual branding . Neon sign During the 19th century , some artists specialized in the painting of signboards , such as the Austro - Hungarian artist Demeter Laccataris . Pending this development , houses which carried on trade at night ( e.g. coffee houses , brothels , etc . ) had various specific arrangements of lights , and these still survive to some extent , as in the case of doctors ' surgeries , and chemists ' dispensaries . Several developments in the early 20th century provided the impetus for widespread commercial adoption of exterior signage . The first , spectaculars , erected in Manhattan in 1892 , became commonplace in the first decade of the 20th century and by 1913 , `` the skies were awash with a blaze of illuminated , animated signs . '' In the 1920s , the newly developed neon sign was introduced to the United States . Its flexibility and visibility led to widespread commercial adoption and by the 1930s , neon signs were a standard feature of modern building around the world . Privilege signs , which employed the manufacturer 's brand as a form of retail endorsement , were common on retail stores during the 20th century , but their use has waned as retailers gained increasing power in the late 20th century . A small number of privilege signs are still present , but most have become abandoned ghost signs . Historic retail sign boards Four Times Night painting by William Hogarth depicting a retail sign c. 1738 Four Times of the Day : Noon by William Hogarth , painting depicting retail signage , 18th century Four Times of the Day : Noon by William Hogarth , ( detail ) , 18th century Painting by William Hogarth , depicting large , overhanging retail sign , 18th century Eugène Atget , Shop Sign , rue Saint - Louis - en - l'Île , c. 1908 Inn sign above historic crossroads , Sutton , Surrey , Greater London Role and function of signage ( edit ) In general , signs perform the following roles or functions : Information - provision : signs conveying information about services and facilities , such as maps , directories , instructional signs or interpretive signage used in museums , galleries , zoos , parks and gardens , exhibitions , tourist and cultural attractions that enhance the customer 's experience . Persuasion : promotional signage designed to persuade users of the relative merits of a company , product or brand . Direction / Navigation : signs showing the location of services , facilities , functional spaces and key areas , such as sign posts or directional arrows . Identification : signs indicating services and facilities , such as room names and numbers , restroom signs , or floor designations . Safety and Regulatory : signs giving warning or safety instructions , such as warning signs , traffic signs , exit signs , signs indicating what to do in an emergency or natural disaster or signs conveying rules and regulations . Navigation -- may be exterior or interior ( e.g. with interactive screens in the floor as with `` informational footsteps '' found in some tourist attractions , museums , and the like or with other means of `` dynamic wayfinding '' . Signs may be used in exterior spaces or on - premise locations . Signs used on the exterior of a building are often designed to encourage people to enter and on the interior to encourage people to explore the environment and participate in all that the space has to offer . Any given sign may perform multiple roles simultaneously . For example , signage may provide information , but may also serve to assist customers navigate their way through a complex service or retail environment . Signage conventions ( edit ) Pictograms ( edit ) A bilingual wet floor sign Pictograms are images commonly used to convey the message of a sign . In statutory signage , pictograms follow specific sets of colour , shape and sizing rules based on the laws of the country in which the signage is being displayed . For example , In UK and EU signage , the width of a sign 's pictogram must be 80 % the height of the area it is printed to . In the US , in order to comply with the ADA Accessibility Guidelines , the same pictogram must be located within its own defined field , with raised characters and braille located beneath the field . For a pictogram to be successful it must be recognizable across cultures and languages , even if there is no text present . Following standard color and shape conventions increases the likelihood that the pictogram and sign will be universally understood . Sign shape ( edit ) The shape of a sign can help to convey its message . Shape can be brand - or design - based , or can be part of a set of signage conventions used to standardize sign meaning . Usage of particular shapes may vary by country and culture . Some common signage shape conventions are as follows : Rectangular signs are often used to portray general information to an audience . Circular signs often represent an instruction that must be followed , either mandatory or prohibitive . Triangular signs are often warning signs , used to convey danger or caution . Sign technology ( edit ) Several types of signs and sign materials in Oregon Materials ( edit ) Below is a list of commonly used materials in signmaking shops . Acrylic Aluminium composite panel Corrugated plastic High - density polyethylene ( HDPE ) High - density polyurethane Medium density overlay panels Modular curved frame technology Oilcloth Polyvinyl chloride ( PVC or vinyl ) Polycarbonate Polypropylene , polystyrene , and other thermoplastics Wood Stainless Steel Plexiglass Channelume Signs Processes ( edit ) Below is a list of commonly used processes in signmaking shops . CNC routing Laser cutting Abrasive blasting Plotter cutting Printmaking , Screen printing , or sign painting Channel lettering Vacuum forming Steam welding / rolling Laminating prints A 40 ft ( 12 m ) neon sign built in 1951 for the Pioneer Club in Las Vegas , Nevada shows the elaborate artistic effects that can be achieved . Lighting ( edit ) Signs frequently use lighting as a means of conveying their information or as a way to increase visibility . Neon signs , introduced in 1910 at the Paris Motor Show , are produced by the craft of bending glass tubing into shapes . A worker skilled in this craft is known as a glass bender , neon or tube bender . Light - emitting diode ( LED ) technology is frequently used in signs . This technology , first used primarily at sporting events , later appeared at businesses , churches , schools , and government buildings . Brightness of LED signs can vary , leading to some municipalities in the United States banning their use due to issues such as light pollution . Today , LED technology is also used in light panels to illuminate advertising graphics in public places including malls , subways , and airports . Image gallery ( edit ) Display sign outside an ice cream parlor , Burgos , Spain A bilingual sign ( Spanish - English ) that indicates a flood hazard zone in Iquique , Chile Sign of the Town Hall Pharmacy in Tallinn , Estonia A trilingual ( Arabic , English , Urdu ) signboard in the UAE . Braille on a sign in Taipei A neon sign See also ( edit ) Barber 's pole Brand implementation Digital signage Georges Claude Ghost sign Information sign Neon sign Neon lighting Privilege sign Signwriter Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( Fourth ed . ) . Houghton Mifflin Company . 2000 . ^ Jump up to : Random House Kernerman Webster 's College Dictionary . K Dictionaries Ltd , Random House , Inc. 2010 . Jump up ^ Collins English Dictionary -- Complete and Unabridged . HarperCollins Publishers . 2003 . Jump up ^ Online Dictionary of Etymology , http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=sign Jump up ^ Collins Dictionary , https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/signage Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary , Online : https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/signage Jump up ^ Corballis , P. , Pub Signs , Lennard / Queen Anne ; 1989 Jump up ^ Van Voorst , R. , RELG : World , Cengage , 2012 , p. 257t Jump up ^ Moore , K. and Reid. , S. , `` The Birth of the Brand : 4000 years of Branding , '' Business History , Vol. 50 , 2008 . pp. 419 -- 32 . Jump up ^ Eckhardt , G.M. and Bengtsson . A . `` A Brief History of Branding in China , '' Journal of Macromarketing , Vol , 30 , no . 3 , 2010 , p. 212 Jump up ^ Eckhardt , G.M. and Bengtsson . A . `` A Brief History of Branding in China , '' Journal of Macromarketing , Vol , 30 , no . 3 , 2010 , p. 219 Jump up ^ Manton , Dafydd ( 2008 ) . Ale and Arty in Sheffield : The Disappearing Art of Pub Signs . Sheffield , England : Arc Publishing and Print . ISBN 978 - 1906722005 . Jump up ^ Stuart , H. , `` Employee Identification with the Corporate Identity , '' International Studies of Management and Organization , Vol. 32 , No. 3 , 2002 Jump up ^ Roth . D. , The History of Retail in 100 Objects , 2014 , Online : http://www.davidroth.com/history-retail-100-objects-signage/ Jump up ^ Barford , V. , `` Royal warrants : What they tell us about the Royal Family , '' BBC News Magazine , 12 July 2013 , Online : http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-23255710 Jump up ^ Martin , J. , Stanley Chew 's Pub Signs : A Celebration of the Art and Heritage of British Pub Signs , Images Booksllers , 1993 Jump up ^ Starr , T. and Hayman , E. , Signs and Wonders : The Spectacular Marketing of America , Doubleday , 1998 Jump up ^ Ribbat , C. and Anthony , M. , Flickering Light : A History of Neon , London , Reakteon Books , 2013 , p. 11 Jump up ^ David W. Dunlap ( 17 October 2013 ) . `` Tracking ' Privilege Signs ' as They Vanish '' . New York Times . Retrieved 17 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Haas , Cynthia Lea ( 1997 ) . Ghost Signs of Arkansas . University of Arkansas Press . p. 19 . ISBN 9781610751698 . Jump up ^ O'Toole , Lawrence ( 2012 ) . Fading Ads of Philadelphia . History Press . p. 103 . ISBN 9781609495435 . Jump up ^ Calori , C. , Signage and Wayfinding Design : A Complete Guide to Graphic Design Systems , Wiley , 2007 , pp 8 - 9 Jump up ^ Taylor , C.R. The Role of Signage in Marketing : Outdoor Advertising , Out - of - Home Media , and On - Premise Signs , ( Part 4 in Advertising and Integrated Communication ) , Wiley , 2010 , DOI : 10.1002 / 9781444316568. wiem04011 Jump up ^ Bitner , M.J. , `` Servicescapes : The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees , '' Journal of Marketing , vol. 56 , no . 2 , 1992 , pp 57 - 71 Jump up ^ Katz , K.L. and Rossiter , J. , `` Store Atmosphere : An Environmental Psychology Approach , '' in Bateson , J.E.G. , Managing Services Marketing : Text , Cases and Readings , Dryden , Orlando , Fl , 1991 , pp 227 - 243 Jump up ^ `` '' Little '' LED billboards , big nuisance `` . Chicago Reader . References ( edit ) Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods : Model Regulations . New York : United Nations . 2005 . ISBN 978 - 92 - 1 - 139106 - 0 . Sutton , James ( 1965 ) . Signs in Action . London : Studio Vista . OCLC 456695324 . Wenzel , Patrick ( 2004 ) . Signage Planning Manual : Planning Aids for the Design of Pedestrian Signage Systems . Hünstetten : P. Wenzel . ISBN 978 - 3000128646 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neon signs and Signage . Look up signage in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Signs . International Sign and Printmakers Guild Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Signage&oldid=816440632 '' Categories : Advertising by medium Signage Infographics Encodings Illustration Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from May 2014 All articles needing additional references Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from February 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2015 Talk Navigation Contents About Wikipedia 한국어 日本 語 Português తెలుగు 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2017 , at 10 : 32 . 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what are the two main parts of forming signs
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Zach Grenier
Zach Grenier - wikipedia Zach Grenier Jump to : navigation , search Zach Grenier ( 1954 - 02 - 12 ) February 12 , 1954 ( age 63 ) Englewood , New Jersey , U.S. Occupation Actor Years active 1987 -- present Zach Grenier ( born February 12 , 1954 ) is an American film , television and stage actor . Contents ( hide ) 1 Life and career 2 Filmography 3 References 4 External links Life and career ( edit ) Grenier was born in Englewood , New Jersey . His mother , who was of Polish descent , met his father when he was working as a sound engineer at WBNX in the Bronx . He attended Pioneer High School in Ann Arbor , Michigan ( class of 1972 ) . He was a regular cast member on C - 16 from 1997 to 1998 . He appeared in the first season of the television show 24 as Carl Webb , played Andy Cramed , the gambler who brought the plague to town , on Deadwood , and appeared in several episodes of Law & Order . On film he played Edward Norton 's boss in Fight Club and Mel Nicolai in Zodiac , both David Fincher films . He appeared in the 1988 movie Talk Radio as finance guru Sid Greenberg , a role that he played in the original stage version of the script . In the movie Twister , he played Eddie , Dr. Jonas Miller 's assistant . He played Mr. Reilly , one of the Callahan Auto Parts associates , in Tommy Boy . He appeared in Donnie Brasco as a marriage therapist . He played a role of Professor Cardiff in an 2006 horror film Pulse . In 2009 , he appeared on Broadway opposite Jane Fonda in 33 Variations , earning him a Tony Award nomination . In 2010 , he was cast on the television series The Good Wife as David Lee , a senior attorney , a role that soon became part of the recurring ensemble . He was promoted to series regular at the start of the fifth season in September 2013 . Filmography ( edit ) Television Year Title Role Notes 1986 -- 89 The Equalizer Kenny Pack / Wirth 2 episodes , portraying 2 different characters 1987 -- 88 Kate & Allie Credited as Zachary Grenier 1987 -- 89 Miami Vice Eric Terry / Internal Affairs Officer 2 episodes , portraying 2 different characters 1988 -- 89 Tattingers Sonny Franks 1989 A Man Called Hawk 1 episode 1991 The Golden Girls Vaczy 1991 -- 2010 Law & Order Various characters 6 episodes 1993 -- 2000 NYPD Blue Det. Lou Simpkins / Rudolf Wentz 2 episodes , portraying 2 different characters 1994 Normandy : The Great Crusade Robert Slaughter Voice only ; TV movie 1994 The Cosby Mysteries 1995 New York News Mike Paretti Gang in Blue Joe Beckstrem TV movie 1997 -- 98 C - 16 : FBI Jack DiRado Main cast 1999 Ally McBeal Attorney Benson 2000 Judging Amy Dr. Norman Golden 2000 The Practice Detective R. Larson 2 episodes 2001 Laughter on the 23rd Floor Brian Doyle TV movie 2001 The Whistle - Blower Louis T. Weitzman TV movie 2001 The X-Files Dr. Herman Stites `` Alone '' 2001 Curb Your Enthusiasm Lane Michaelson 2 episodes 2001 -- 02 24 Carl Webb 9 episodes 2002 JAG Colonel Boyett 2002 Without a Trace Ricardo 2002 Robbery Homicide Division Skip Dayton 2002 The Guardian Henry Thomas 2002 Enterprise Renth `` The Catwalk '' 2003 Veritas : The Quest Hossik Touching Evil Special Agent Hank Enright Main cast Dr. Vegas Det . Rosen Crossing Jordan Norman Farrell 2004 -- 06 Deadwood Andy Cramed 9 episodes 2005 CSI : NY Ross Howell 2005 Medium Professor Leonard Cardwell 2005 -- 07 Boston Legal U.S. Attorney Chris Randolph 2 episodes 2006 CSI : Miami Professor Meyer 2006 Numb3rs Peyton Shoemaker `` Provenance '' 2006 The Nine Sean McDermott 3 episodes 2007 Cold Case Ambrose Stone in 1919 2007 CSI : Crime Scene Investigation Dr. Kachler 2009 The Philanthropist Tyler Timson 2010 -- 11 Law & Order : Special Victims Unit Judge Miranski 2 episodes 2010 -- 16 The Good Wife David Lee Recurring ( seasons 1 -- 4 ) , regular ( season 5 -- 7 ) 62 episodes 2013 Zero Hour Wayne Blanks 3 episodes 2014 The Blacklist Novak Episode : `` Madeline Pratt ( No. 73 ) '' 2014 Turks & Caicos Dido Parsons TV film 2016 BrainDead Dean Healy 8 episodes 2017 Chicago P.D. Father Bill McSorley Episode : `` Sanctuary '' 2017 The Good Fight David Lee Episode : `` Inauguration '' Film Year Title Role Notes 1988 Kenny Jesse 1988 Working Girl Jesse 1989 See No Evil , Hear No Evil Jerk A Shock to the System Executive # 2 1991 Problem Child 2 Voytek 1991 Delirious Mickey 1991 Liebestraum Barnard Ralston IV 1993 The Contenders Transgender 1993 Cliffhanger Davis 1993 The Man Without a Face Dr. Lionel Talbot , Psychiatrist 1995 Tommy Boy Ted Reilly 1995 Cafe Society Milton Macka 1995 Drunks Al 1995 Reckless Anchor Person Trish 1995 The Stars Fell on Henrietta Larry Ligstow Twister Eddie Mother Night Joseph Goebbels Maximum Risk Ivan Dzasokhov 1997 Donnie Brasco Dr. Berger 1997 White Lies Terry Seabrooks 1997 Under The Bridge 1999 Ride With the Devil Mr. Evans Directed by Ang Lee 1999 Fight Club Richard Chesler 2000 Shaft Harrison Loeb 2000 Chasing Sleep Geoffrey 2001 Swordfish Assistant Director Bill Joy 2006 Pulse Professor Cardiff American remake of the 2001 film with same name 2006 Rescue Dawn Squad Leader 2007 Zodiac Mel Nicolai 2007 Fantastic Four : Rise of the Silver Surfer Mr. Sherman / Rafke 2008 The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond Mr. Fenstermaker 2009 Earthwork Mayor 2011 J. Edgar John Condon 2014 RoboCop Senator Hubert Dreyfus 2014 Free the Nipple Jim Black 2015 Manhattan Romance Trevor 2017 Crown Heights Detective Cassel References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Zach Grenier '' . IMDB.com . Retrieved 3 April 2014 . Jump up ^ http://www.broadway.com/buzz/157992/whats-up-zach-grenier-the-man-and-boy-star-on-tv-land-jane-fonda-fandom-and-farming-with-frank-langella/ Jump up ^ Terrace , Vincent . Encyclopedia of Television Shows , 1925 through 2007 ( Jefferson , North Carolina : McFarland & Co. , 2008 ) , p. 331 . Jump up ^ Internet Broadway Database Jump up ^ Stanhope , Kate . `` The Good Wife Promotes Zach Grenier to Series Regular '' . TV Guide . Retrieved 3 April 2014 . External links ( edit ) Zach Grenier on IMDb Zach Grenier at the Internet Broadway Database Zach Grenier at Internet Off - Broadway Database VIAF : 51501870 GND : 1061953955 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zach_Grenier&oldid=786672330 '' Categories : 1954 births Male actors from New Jersey Male actors from Michigan American male film actors American male stage actors American male television actors Living people People from Englewood , New Jersey Actors from Ann Arbor , Michigan Hidden categories : Articles with hCards Internet Broadway Database person ID same as Wikidata Articles with IBDb links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Deutsch Español فارسی Français Italiano Nederlands 日本 語 Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 20 June 2017 , at 21 : 45 . About Wikipedia
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The Catcher in the Rye
The Catcher in the Rye - wikipedia The Catcher in the Rye Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see The Catcher in the Rye ( disambiguation ) . The Catcher in the Rye First edition cover Author J.D. Salinger Cover artist E. Michael Mitchell Country United States Language English Genre Realistic fiction Coming - of - age fiction Published July 16 , 1951 Publisher Little , Brown and Company Media type Print Pages 214 OCLC 287628 Dewey Decimal 813.54 The Catcher in the Rye is a 1951 novel by J.D. Salinger . A classic novel originally published for adults , it has since become popular with adolescent readers for its themes of teenage angst and alienation . It has been translated into almost all of the world 's major languages . Around 1 million copies are sold each year with total sales of more than 65 million books . The novel 's protagonist Holden Caulfield has become an icon for teenage rebellion . The novel also deals with complex issues of innocence , identity , belonging , loss , and connection . The novel was included on Time 's 2005 list of the 100 best English - language novels written since 1923 and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English - language novels of the 20th century . In 2003 , it was listed at # 15 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 History 3 Writing style 4 Interpretations 5 Reception 6 Censorship and use in schools 7 Shooters citing the book as an influence 8 Attempted adaptations 8.1 In film 8.2 Banned fan fiction 9 Cultural influence 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Notes 11.2 Bibliography 11.3 Further reading 12 External links Plot ( edit ) Holden Caulfield , a teenager from New York City , is living in an unspecified institution in southern California near Hollywood in 1951 . Caulfield intends to live with his brother D.B , an author who Holden resents for becoming a screenwriter , after his release in one month . As he waits , Holden recalls the events of the previous Christmas . Holden begins his story at Pencey Preparatory Academy , an exclusive boarding school in Agerstown , Pennsylvania , on the Saturday afternoon of the traditional football game with a rival school . Holden has been expelled from Pencey due to poor work and is n't to return after Christmas break , which begins the following Wednesday . He plans to return home on that day so that he will not be present when his parents receive notice of his expulsion . After forfeiting a fencing match in New York by forgetting the equipment aboard the subway , he is invited to the home of his history teacher , Mr. Spencer . Spencer is a well - meaning but long - winded middle - aged man . Spencer greets him and offers him advice , but embarrasses Holden by further criticizing Holden 's work in his subject in a rude manner . Holden returns to his dorm wearing the new red hunting cap he bought in New York . His dorm neighbor Robert Ackley is one of the few students also missing the game . Ackley , unpopular among his peers , disturbs Holden with his impolite questioning and mannerisms . Holden , who feels sorry for Ackley , tolerates his presence . Later , Holden agrees to write an English composition for his roommate , Ward Stradlater , who is leaving for a date . However , Holden is distressed to learn that Stradlater 's date is an old friend , Jane Gallagher , whom Holden had a crush on and feels protective of . That night , Holden goes to a Cary Grant comedy with his best friend Mal Brossman and Ackley . While Ackley and Mal enjoy the film , Holden becomes uneasy with it . When Stradlater returns hours later , he fails to appreciate the deeply personal composition Holden wrote for him about the baseball glove of Holden 's late brother Allie , and refuses to reveal whether he slept with Jane . Enraged , Holden punches him , and Stradlater easily wins the ensuing fight . When Holden continues insulting him after the fight , Stradlater knocks him unconscious and nearly kills him . After leaving for Ackley 's room , Holden is disappointed when he treats him rudely . Fed up with the so - called `` phonies '' at Pencey Prep , Holden impulsively decides to leave Pencey early , sells his typewriter to earn money , and catches a train to Penn Station in New York . Holden intends stay away from his home in a hotel until Wednesday , when his parents would have received news of his expulsion . Aboard the train , Holden meets the mother of a wealthy , obnoxious Pencey student named Ernest Morrow , and lies to her about himself and her son . In a taxicab , Holden inquires with the driver about whether the ducks in the Central Park lagoon migrate during winter , a subject he brings up often , but the man barely responds . Holden checks into the dilapidated Edmont Hotel . He spends an evening dancing with three tourist women from Seattle in the hotel lounge and enjoys dancing with one , though is disappointed that he is unable to hold a conversation with them . Following an unpromising visit to Ernie 's Nightclub in Greenwich Village , Holden becomes preoccupied with his internal angst and agrees to have a prostitute named Sunny visit his room . His attitude toward the girl changes the minute she enters the room ; she seems about the same age as he . Holden becomes uncomfortable with the situation , and when he tells her all he wants to do is talk , she becomes annoyed and leaves . Even though he still paid her the right amount for her time , she returns with her pimp Maurice and demands more money . Holden insults Maurice , and after Sunny takes the money from Holden 's wallet , Maurice punches him in the stomach and leaves with Sunny . Afterwards , Holden imagines that he has been shot by Maurice , and pictures murdering him with an automatic weapon . The next morning , Holden , becoming increasingly depressed and in need of personal connection , calls Sally Hayes , a familiar date . Although Holden claims that she is `` the queen of all phonies '' , they agree to meet that afternoon to attend a play at the Biltmore Theater . Holden shops for a special record , `` Little Shirley Beans '' , for his 10 - year - old sister Phoebe . He spots a small boy singing `` If a body catch a body coming through the rye '' , which lifts his mood . Although Holden 's date initially goes well , it soon sours after Sally introduces her friend George . After the play , Holden and Sally go ice skating at Rockefeller Center , where Holden suddenly begins ranting against society and frightens Sally . He impulsively invites Sally to run away with him that night to live in the wilderness of New England , but she is uninterested in his hastily generated plan and declines . The conversation turns sour , and the two angrily part ways . Holden decides to meet his old acquaintance , a Columbia student named Carl Luce , for drinks at the Wicker Bar in the Seton Hotel , but alienates him with his fixation on sex . After Luce leaves , Holden gets drunk , awkwardly flirts with several adults , and calls an icy Sally . Exhausted and out of money , Holden wanders to Central Park to investigate the ducks , breaking Phoebe 's record on the way . Nostalgically recalling his experience in elementary school and the unchanging dioramas in the Museum of Natural History that he enjoyed visiting as a child , Holden heads home to see Phoebe . He sneaks into his parents ' apartment while they are out , and wakes up Phoebe -- the only person with whom he seems to be able to communicate his true feelings . Although Phoebe is happy to see Holden , she quickly deduces that he has been expelled , and chastises him for his aimlessness and his apparent hatred for everything . When asked if he cares about anything , Holden shares a selfless fantasy he has been thinking about ( based on a mishearing of Robert Burns 's Comin ' Through the Rye ) : he pictures himself as the sole guardian of thousands of children playing in a huge rye field on the edge of a cliff . His job is to catch the children if , in their abandon , they come close to falling off the brink ; to be , in effect , the `` catcher in the rye '' . Because of this misinterpretation , Holden believes that to be the `` catcher in the rye '' means to save children from losing their innocence . When his mother returns home , Holden slips out and visits his former and much - admired English teacher , Mr. Antolini , who now lives as a New York University professor in Sutton Place . Mr. Antolini offers advice on life along with a place to sleep for the night . Holden is upset when he wakes up in the night to find Mr. Antolini patting his head , which he interprets as a homosexual advance . Confused and uncertain , he leaves as dawn is breaking and spends most of Monday morning wandering the city . Losing hope of finding belonging or companionship in the city , Holden impulsively decides that he will head out West and live as a recluse . When he explains this plan to Phoebe on Monday at lunchtime , she wants to go with him , even though she was looking forward to acting in a play that Friday . Holden refuses to let her come with him , which upsets Phoebe , so Holden decides not to leave after all . He tries to cheer her up by taking her to the Central Park Zoo , and as he watches her ride the zoo 's carousel , he is filled with happiness and joy at the sight of Phoebe riding in the rain . In a short epilogue , Holden briefly alludes to `` getting sick '' and living in an institution in California near his brother D.B. , and mentions he will be attending another school in September . Holden says that he does n't want to tell anything more because , surprisingly , he has found himself missing his former classmates . He warns the reader that telling others about their own experiences will lead them to miss the people who shared them . History ( edit ) Various older stories by Salinger contain characters similar to those in The Catcher in the Rye . While at Columbia University , Salinger wrote a short story called `` The Young Folks '' in Whit Burnett 's class ; one character from this story has been described as a `` thinly penciled prototype of Sally Hayes '' . In November 1941 , he sold the story `` Slight Rebellion off Madison '' , which featured Holden Caulfield , to The New Yorker , but it was n't published until December 21 , 1946 due to World War II . The story `` I 'm Crazy '' , which was published in the December 22 , 1945 , issue of Collier 's , contained material that was later used in The Catcher in the Rye . In 1946 , The New Yorker accepted a 90 - page manuscript about Holden Caulfield for publication , but Salinger later withdrew it . Writing style ( edit ) The Catcher in the Rye is narrated in a subjective style from the point of view of Holden Caulfield , following his exact thought processes . There is flow in the seemingly disjointed ideas and episodes ; for example , as Holden sits in a chair in his dorm , minor events , such as picking up a book or looking at a table , unfold into discussions about experiences . Critical reviews affirm that the novel accurately reflected the teenage colloquial speech of the time . Words and phrases that appear frequently include : `` Old '' -- term of familiarity or endearment . `` Phony '' -- superficially acting a certain way only to change what others think of you `` That killed me '' -- I found that hilarious or astonishing `` Flit '' -- homosexual `` Crumbum '' or `` crumby '' -- inadequate , insufficient , disappointing `` Snowing '' -- sweet - talking `` I got a bang out of that '' -- I found it hilarious or exciting `` Shoot the bull '' -- have a conversation containing false elements `` Give her the time '' -- sexual intercourse `` Chew the fat '' or `` chew the rag '' -- small - talk `` Rubbering '' or `` rubbernecks '' -- idle onlooking / onlookers `` The Can '' -- the bathroom Interpretations ( edit ) Bruce Brooks held that Holden 's attitude remains unchanged at story 's end , implying no maturation , thus differentiating the novel from young adult fiction . In contrast , Louis Menand thought that teachers assign the novel because of the optimistic ending , to teach adolescent readers that `` alienation is just a phase . '' While Brooks maintained that Holden acts his age , Menand claimed that Holden thinks as an adult , given his ability to accurately perceive people and their motives . Others highlight the dilemma of Holden 's state , in between adolescence and adulthood . Holden is quick to become emotional . `` I felt sorry as hell for ... '' is a phrase he often uses . It is often said that Holden changes at the end , when he watches Phoebe on the carousel , and he talks about the golden ring and how it 's good for kids to try and grab it . Freddie Bartholomew in Captains Courageous Peter Beidler , in his A Reader 's Companion to J.D. Salinger 's `` The Catcher in the Rye '' , identifies the movie that the prostitute `` Sunny '' refers to . In chapter 13 she says that in the movie a boy falls off a boat . The movie is Captains Courageous ( 1937 ) , starring Spencer Tracy . Sunny says that Holden looks like the boy who fell off the boat . Beidler shows ( page 28 ) a still of the boy , played by child - actor Freddie Bartholomew . Each Caulfield child has literary talent . D.B. writes screenplays in Hollywood ; Holden also reveres D.B. for his writing skill ( Holden 's own best subject ) , but he also despises Hollywood industry - based movies , considering them the ultimate in `` phony '' as the writer has no space for his own imagination , and describes D.B. 's move to Hollywood to write for films as `` prostituting himself '' ; Allie wrote poetry on his baseball glove ; and Phoebe is a diarist . This `` catcher in the rye '' is an analogy for Holden , who admires in children attributes that he struggles to find in adults , like innocence , kindness , spontaneity , and generosity . Falling off the cliff could be a progression into the adult world that surrounds him and that he strongly criticizes . Later , Phoebe and Holden exchange roles as the `` catcher '' and the `` fallen '' ; he gives her his hunting hat , the catcher 's symbol , and becomes the fallen as Phoebe becomes the catcher . In their biography of Salinger , David Shields and Shane Salerno argue that : `` The Catcher in the Rye can best be understood as a disguised war novel . '' Salinger witnessed the horrors of World War II , but rather than writing a combat novel , Salinger , according to Shields and Salerno , `` took the trauma of war and embedded it within what looked to the naked eye like a coming - of - age novel . '' Reception ( edit ) The Catcher in the Rye has been listed as one of the best novels of the twentieth century . Shortly after its publication , writing for The New York Times , Nash K. Burger called it `` an unusually brilliant novel , '' while James Stern wrote an admiring review of the book in a voice imitating Holden 's . George H.W. Bush called it a `` marvelous book , '' listing it among the books that have inspired him . In June 2009 , the BBC 's Finlo Rohrer wrote that , 58 years since publication , the book is still regarded `` as the defining work on what it is like to be a teenager . Holden is at various times disaffected , disgruntled , alienated , isolated , directionless , and sarcastic . '' Adam Gopnik considers it one of the `` three perfect books '' in American literature , along with Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Great Gatsby , and believes that `` no book has ever captured a city better than Catcher in the Rye captured New York in the fifties . '' Jeff Pruchnic wrote an appraisal of The Catcher in the Rye after the death of J.D. Salinger . In this article , Pruchnic focuses on how the novel continues to be received incredibly well , even after it has aged many generations . Pruchnic describes Holden as a `` teenage protagonist frozen midcentury but destined to be discovered by those of a similar age in every generation to come '' . Bill Gates said that The Catcher in the Rye is one of his favorite books ever . However , not all reception has been positive ; the book has had its share of critics . Rohrer writes , `` Many of these readers are disappointed that the novel fails to meet the expectations generated by the mystique it is shrouded in . J.D. Salinger has done his part to enhance this mystique . That is to say , he has done nothing . '' Rohrer assessed the reasons behind both the popularity and criticism of the book , saying that it `` captures existential teenage angst '' and has a `` complex central character '' and `` accessible conversational style '' ; while at the same time some readers may dislike the `` use of 1940s New York vernacular '' and other things . Censorship and use in schools ( edit ) In 1960 , a teacher in Tulsa , Oklahoma was fired for assigning the novel in class ; however , he was later reinstated . Between 1961 and 1982 , The Catcher in the Rye was the most censored book in high schools and libraries in the United States . The book was banned in the Issaquah , Washington , high schools in 1978 as being part of an `` overall communist plot '' . In 1981 , it was both the most censored book and the second most taught book in public schools in the United States . According to the American Library Association , The Catcher in the Rye was the 10th most frequently challenged book from 1990 to 1999 . It was one of the ten most challenged books of 2005 , and although it had been off the list for three years , it reappeared in the list of most challenged books of 2009 . The challenges generally begin with Holden 's frequent use of vulgar language , with other reasons including sexual references , blasphemy , undermining of family values and moral codes , encouragement of rebellion , and promotion of drinking , smoking , lying , and promiscuity . Often the challengers have been unfamiliar with the plot itself . Shelley Keller - Gage , a high school teacher who faced objections after assigning the novel in her class , noted that `` the challengers are being just like Holden ... They are trying to be catchers in the rye '' . A Streisand effect has been that this incident caused people to put themselves on the waiting list to borrow the novel , when there were none before . Shooters citing the book as an influence ( edit ) Further information : The Catcher in the Rye in popular culture § Shootings Several shootings have been associated with Salinger 's novel , including Robert John Bardo 's murder of Rebecca Schaeffer and John Hinckley , Jr. 's assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan . Additionally , after fatally shooting John Lennon , Mark David Chapman was arrested with a copy of the book that he had purchased that same day , inside of which he had written : `` To Holden Caulfield , From Holden Caulfield , This is my statement '' . Attempted adaptations ( edit ) In film ( edit ) Early in his career , Salinger expressed a willingness to have his work adapted for the screen . In 1949 , a critically panned film version of his short story `` Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut '' was released ; renamed My Foolish Heart , the film took great liberties with Salinger 's plot and is widely considered to be among the reasons that Salinger refused to allow any subsequent film adaptations of his work . The enduring popularity of The Catcher in the Rye , however , has resulted in repeated attempts to secure the novel 's screen rights . When The Catcher in the Rye was first released , many offers were made to adapt it for the screen , including one from Samuel Goldwyn , producer of My Foolish Heart . In a letter written in the early 1950s , Salinger spoke of mounting a play in which he would play the role of Holden Caulfield opposite Margaret O'Brien , and , if he could n't play the part himself , to `` forget about it . '' Almost 50 years later , the writer Joyce Maynard definitively concluded , `` The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J.D. Salinger . '' Salinger told Maynard in the 1970s that Jerry Lewis `` tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden , '' despite Lewis not having read the novel until he was in his thirties . Celebrities ranging from Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson to Tobey Maguire and Leonardo DiCaprio have since tried to make a film adaptation . In an interview with Premiere , John Cusack commented that his one regret about turning 21 was that he had become too old to play Holden Caulfield . Writer - director Billy Wilder recounted his abortive attempts to snare the novel 's rights : Of course I read The Catcher in the Rye ... Wonderful book . I loved it . I pursued it . I wanted to make a picture out of it . And then one day a young man came to the office of Leland Hayward , my agent , in New York , and said , ' Please tell Mr. Leland Hayward to lay off . He 's very , very insensitive . ' And he walked out . That was the entire speech . I never saw him . That was J.D. Salinger and that was Catcher in the Rye . In 1961 , Salinger denied Elia Kazan permission to direct a stage adaptation of Catcher for Broadway . More recently , Salinger 's agents received bids for the Catcher film rights from Harvey Weinstein and Steven Spielberg , neither of which was even passed on to Salinger for consideration . In 2003 , the BBC television program The Big Read featured The Catcher in the Rye , interspersing discussions of the novel with `` a series of short films that featured an actor playing J.D. Salinger 's adolescent antihero , Holden Caulfield . '' The show defended its unlicensed adaptation of the novel by claiming to be a `` literary review '' , and no major charges were filed . After Salinger 's death in 2010 , Phyllis Westberg , who was Salinger 's agent at Harold Ober Associates , stated that nothing has changed in terms of licensing film , television , or stage rights of his works . A letter written by Salinger in 1957 revealed that he was open to an adaptation of The Catcher in the Rye released after his death . He wrote : `` Firstly , it is possible that one day the rights will be sold . Since there 's an ever - looming possibility that I wo n't die rich , I toy very seriously with the idea of leaving the unsold rights to my wife and daughter as a kind of insurance policy . It pleasures me no end , though , I might quickly add , to know that I wo n't have to see the results of the transaction . '' Salinger also wrote that he believed his novel was not suitable for film treatment , and that translating Holden Caulfield 's first - person narrative into voice - over and dialogue would be contrived . Banned fan fiction ( edit ) In 2009 , a year before his death , Salinger successfully sued to stop the U.S. publication of a novel that presents Holden Caulfield as an old man . The novel 's author , Fredrik Colting , commented : `` call me an ignorant Swede , but the last thing I thought possible in the U.S. was that you banned books '' . The issue is complicated by the nature of Colting 's book , 60 Years Later : Coming Through the Rye , which has been compared to fan fiction . Although commonly not authorized by writers , no legal action is usually taken against fan fiction , since it is rarely published commercially and thus involves no profit . Colting , however , has published his book commercially , therefore interfering with copyright law and is not protected . Cultural influence ( edit ) Main article : The Catcher in the Rye in popular culture The Catcher in the Rye has had significant cultural influence , and works inspired by the novel have been said to form their own genre . Sarah Graham assessed works influenced by The Catcher in the Rye to include the novels Less Than Zero by Bret Easton Ellis , The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky , A Complicated Kindness by Miriam Toews , The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath , Ordinary People by Judith Guest , and the film Igby Goes Down by Burr Steers . Fantasy writer Harry Turtledove has written a pastiche - parody `` Catcher in the Rhine '' , based on his daughter 's mishearing of Salinger 's title . In this short story , an unnamed narrator , who is clearly meant to be Holden Caulfield but is unnamed to avoid copyright problems , goes on vacation to Germany and meets characters from the Niebelunglied . This was first published in The Chick is in the Mail , edited by Esther Friesner , Baen 2000 and reprinted in the omnibus Chicks Ahoy ! ( 2010 ) . It was reprinted in Atlantis and Other Places also in 2010 . In `` Catcher In The Wry '' former major league baseball player , Bob Uecker , recounts anecdotes of his years behind the plate and on the road , recalling the antics of his famous teammates , including Hank Aaron , Bob Gibson , Richie Allen , and Warren Spahn . The July 1985 issue of National Lampoon included a parody of the novel , ostensibly written by Holden Caulfield 's son , entitled ' The Son of the Catcher , who Lives in Rye ' . See also ( edit ) Book censorship in the United States Le Monde 's 100 Books of the Century References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` CalArts Remembers Beloved Animation Instructor E. Michael Mitchell '' . Calarts.edu . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` 50 Most Captivating Covers '' . Onlineuniversities.com . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 30 . Jump up ^ Ulin , David L. ( 2010 - 01 - 29 ) . `` J.D. Salinger : a gift of words and silence '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ Costello , Donald P. , and Harold Bloom . `` The Language of `` The Catcher in the Rye ... '' Bloom 's Modern Critical Interpretations : The Catcher in the Rye ( 2000 ) : 11 -- 20 . Literary Reference Center . EBSCO . Web . Dec 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Carte Blanche : Famous Firsts '' . Booklist . November 15 , 2000 . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 20 . Jump up ^ Magill , Frank N. ( 1991 ) . `` J.D. Salinger '' . Magill 's Survey of American Literature . New York : Marshall Cavendish Corporation . p. 1803 . ISBN 1 - 85435 - 437 - X . Jump up ^ According to List of best - selling books . An earlier article says more than 20 million : Yardley , Jonathan ( October 19 , 2004 ) . `` J.D. Salinger 's Holden Caulfield , Aging Gracelessly '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 21 . Jump up ^ Merriam - Webster 's Dictionary of Allusions By Elizabeth Webber , Mike Feinsilber p. 105 Jump up ^ Grossman , Lev ; Lacayo , Richard ( October 16 , 2005 ) . `` All - Time 100 Novels : The Complete List '' . Time . ^ Jump up to : `` The 100 most frequently challenged books : 1990 -- 1999 '' . American Library Association . Retrieved 2009 - 08 - 13 . Jump up ^ List of most commonly challenged books from the list of the one hundred most important books of the 20th century by Radcliffe Publishing Course Jump up ^ Guinn , Jeff ( August 10 , 2001 ) . `` ' Catcher in the Rye ' still influences 50 years later '' ( fee required ) . Erie Times - News . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 18 . Alternate URL Jump up ^ `` The Big Read '' , BBC , April 2003 . Retrieved October 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Salzman , Jack ( 1991 ) . New essays on the Catcher in the Rye . Cambridge University Press . p. 3 . ISBN 9780521377980 . Jump up ^ Costello , Donald P. ( October 1959 ) . `` The Language of ' The Catcher in the Rye ' '' . American Speech. 34 ( 3 ) : 172 -- 182 . JSTOR 454038 . doi : 10.2307 / 454038 . Most critics who glared at The Catcher in the Rye at the time of its publication thought that its language was a true and authentic rendering of teenage colloquial speech . Jump up ^ Brooks , Bruce ( May 1 , 2004 ) . `` Holden at sixteen '' . Horn Book Magazine . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ Menand , Louis ( September 27 , 2001 ) . `` Holden at fifty '' . The New Yorker . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : Onstad , Katrina ( February 22 , 2008 ) . `` Beholden to Holden '' . CBC News . Archived from the original on February 25 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Graham , 33 . Jump up ^ Svogun , Margaret Dumais ( Winter 2003 ) . `` J.D. Salinger 's The catcher in the Rye '' . Explicator. 2 ( 2 ) . pp. 110 -- 113 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 26 . Jump up ^ Yasuhiro Takeuchi ( Fall 2002 ) . `` The Burning Carousel and the Carnivalesque : Subversion and Transcendence at the Close of The Catcher in the Rye '' . Studies in the Novel. 34 ( 3 ) . pp. 320 -- 337 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 26 . Jump up ^ Shields , David ; Salerno , Shane ( 2013 ) . Salinger ( Hardcover ed . ) . Simon & Schuster . p. xvi . Retrieved 23 August 2015 . The Catcher in the Rye can best be understood as a disguised war novel . Salinger emerged from the war incapable of believing in the heroic , noble ideals we like to think our cultural institutions uphold . Instead of producing a combat novel , as Norman Mailer , James Jones , and Joseph Heller did , Salinger took the trauma of war and embedded it within what looked to the naked eye like a coming - of - age novel . Jump up ^ Burger , Nash K. ( July 16 , 1951 ) . `` Books of The Times '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 18 . Jump up ^ Stern , James ( July 15 , 1951 ) . `` Aw , the World 's a Crumby Place '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Academy of Achievement -- George H.W. Bush '' . The American Academy of Achievement . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 05 . ^ Jump up to : Rohrer , Finlo ( June 5 , 2009 ) . `` The why of the Rye '' . BBC News Magazine . BBC . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 05 . Jump up ^ Gopnik , Adam . The New Yorker , February 8 , 2010 , p. 21 Jump up ^ Pruchnic , Jeff . `` Holden at Sixty : Reading Catcher After the Age of Irony . '' Critical Insights : -- -- -- -- -- -- The Catcher in The Rye ( 2011 ) : 49 - 63 . Literary Reference Center . Web . 2 Feb. 2015 . Jump up ^ Gates , Bill . `` The Best Books I Read in 2013 '' . gatesnotes.com . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ Dutra , Fernando ( September 25 , 2006 ) . `` U. Connecticut : Banned Book Week celebrates freedom '' . The America 's Intelligence Wire . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 20 . In 1960 a teacher in Tulsa , Okla. , was fired for assigning `` The Catcher in the Rye '' . After appealing , the teacher was reinstated , but the book was removed from the itinerary in the school . ^ Jump up to : `` In Cold Fear : ' The Catcher in the Rye ' , Censorship , Controversies and Postwar American Character . ( Book Review ) '' . Modern Language Review . April 1 , 2003 . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ Reiff , Raychel Haugrud ( 2008 ) . J.D. Salinger : The Catcher in the Rye and Other Works . Tarrytown , NY : Marshall Cavendish Corporation . p. 80 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7614 - 2594 - 6 . Jump up ^ Andrychuk , Sylvia ( February 17 , 2004 ) . `` A History of J.D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye '' ( PDF ) . p. 6 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2007 - 09 - 28 . During 1981 , The Catcher in the Rye had the unusual distinction of being the most frequently censored book in the United States , and , at the same time , the second-most frequently taught novel in American public schools . Jump up ^ `` '' It 's Perfectly Normal '' tops ALA 's 2005 list of most challenged books `` . American Library Association . Retrieved March 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Top ten most frequently challenged books of 2009 '' . American Library Association . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Art or trash ? It makes for endless , unwinnable debate '' . The Topeka Capital - Journal . October 6 , 1997 . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 20 . Another perennial target , J.D. Salinger 's `` Catcher in the Rye , '' was challenged in Maine because of the `` f '' word . ^ Jump up to : Mydans , Seth ( September 3 , 1989 ) . `` In a Small Town , a Battle Over a Book '' . The New York Times . p. 2 . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 20 . Jump up ^ MacIntyre , Ben ( September 24 , 2005 ) . `` The American banned list reveals a society with serious hang - ups '' . The Times . London . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Frangedis , Helen ( November 1988 ) . `` Dealing with the Controversial Elements in The Catcher in the Rye '' . The English Journal . 77 ( 7 ) : 72 -- 75 . JSTOR 818945 . doi : 10.2307 / 818945 . The foremost allegation made against Catcher is ... that it teaches loose moral codes ; that it glorifies ... drinking , smoking , lying , promiscuity , and more . Jump up ^ Yilu Zhao ( August 31 , 2003 ) . `` Banned , But Not Forgotten '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2007 - 12 - 20 . The Catcher in the Rye , interpreted by some as encouraging rebellion against authority ... ^ Jump up to : Whitfield , Stephen ( December 1997 ) . `` Cherished and Cursed : Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye '' ( PDF ) . The New England Quarterly . 70 ( 4 ) : 567 -- 600 . JSTOR 366646 . doi : 10.2307 / 366646 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ J.D. Salinger . Philadelphia : Chelsea House . 2001 . pp. 77 -- 105 . ISBN 0 - 7910 - 6175 - 2 . Jump up ^ Weeks , Linton ( September 10 , 2000 ) . `` Telling on Dad '' . Amarillo Globe - News . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 12 . Jump up ^ Doyle , Aidan ( December 15 , 2003 ) . `` When books kill '' . Salon.com . Jump up ^ Hamilton , Ian ( 1988 ) . In Search of J.D. Salinger . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 - 394 - 53468 - 9 . p. 75 . ^ Jump up to : Berg , A. Scott . Goldwyn : A Biography . New York : Alfred A. Knopf , 1989 . ISBN 1 - 57322 - 723 - 4 . p. 446 . Jump up ^ See Dr. Peter Beidler 's A Reader 's Companion to J.D. Salinger 's the Catcher in the Rye , Chapter 7 . ^ Jump up to : Maynard , Joyce ( 1998 ) . At Home in the World . New York : Picador . p. 93 . ISBN 0 - 312 - 19556 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` News & Features '' . IFILM : The Internet Movie Guide . 2004 . Archived from the original on 2004 - 09 - 06 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 05 . Jump up ^ Crowe , Cameron , ed . Conversations with Wilder . New York : Alfred A. Knopf , 1999 . ISBN 0 - 375 - 40660 - 3 . p. 299 . ^ Jump up to : McAllister , David ( November 11 , 2003 ) . `` Will J.D. Salinger sue ? '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 12 . Jump up ^ AJ ( 2010 - 01 - 29 ) . `` Why J.D. Salinger Never Wanted A ' Catcher in the Rye ' Movie '' . The Daily Caller . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Slim chance of Catcher in the Rye movie -- ABC News ( Australian Broadcasting Corporation ) '' . ABCnet.au . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 30 . Jump up ^ Connelly , Sherryl ( January 29 , 2010 ) . `` Could ' Catcher in the Rye ' finally make it to the big screen ? Salinger letter suggests yes '' . Daily News . New York . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 30 . Jump up ^ Gross , Doug ( June 3 , 2009 ) . `` Lawsuit targets ' rip - off ' of ' Catcher in the Rye ' '' . CNN . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ Fogel , Karl . Looks like censorship , smells like censorship ... maybe it IS censorship ? . QuestionCopyright.org. 2009 - 07 - 07 . Jump up ^ Sutherland , John . How fanfic took over the web London Evening Standard . Retrieved 2009 - 07 - 22 . Jump up ^ Fan Fiction and a New Common Law ' ( 1997 ) Rebecca Tushnet , Loyola of Los Angeles Entertainment Law Journal ,. vol. 17 . Jump up ^ Rohrer , Finlo ( June 5 , 2009 ) . `` Why does Salinger 's Catcher in the Rye still resonate ? '' . BBC News Magazine . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 12 . Bibliography ( edit ) Graham , Sarah ( 2007 ) . J.D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 34452 - 2 . Rohrer , Finlo ( June 5 , 2009 ) . `` The why of the Rye '' . BBC News Magazine . BBC . Further Reading ( edit ) Steinle , Pamela Hunt ( 2000 ) . In Cold Fear : The Catcher in the Rye Censorship Controversies and Postwar American Character . Ohio State University Press . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : The Catcher in the Rye Book Drum illustrated profile of The Catcher in the Rye Photos of the first edition of Catcher in the Rye Lawsuit targets `` rip - off '' of `` Catcher in the Rye '' -- CNN ( hide ) J.D. Salinger Novel The Catcher in the Rye Short story collections Nine Stories Franny and Zooey Raise High the Roof Beam , Carpenters and Seymour : An Introduction Three Early Stories Short stories `` Blue Melody '' `` Both Parties Concerned '' `` A Boy in France '' `` De Daumier - Smith 's Blue Period '' `` Down at the Dinghy '' `` Elaine '' `` For Esmé -- with Love and Squalor '' `` A Girl I Knew '' `` Go See Eddie '' `` The Hang of It '' `` Hapworth 16 , 1924 '' `` The Heart of a Broken Story '' `` I 'm Crazy '' `` The Inverted Forest '' `` Just Before the War with the Eskimos '' `` Last Day of the Last Furlough '' `` The Laughing Man '' `` The Long Debut of Lois Taggett '' `` The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls '' `` Once a Week Wo n't Kill You '' `` A Perfect Day for Bananafish '' `` Personal Notes of an Infantryman '' `` Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes '' `` Slight Rebellion off Madison '' `` Soft - Boiled Sergeant '' `` The Stranger '' `` Teddy '' `` This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise '' `` Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut '' `` The Varioni Brothers '' `` The Young Folks '' `` A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All '' `` The Last and Best of the Peter Pans '' Related Holden Caulfield My Foolish Heart ( 1949 ) Pari ( 1995 ) Salinger ( 2013 ) ( companion biography ) Rebel in the Rye ( 2017 ) Book GND : 4120008 - 1 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Catcher_in_the_Rye&oldid=807275337 '' Categories : 1949 in fiction 1951 American novels American bildungsromans Coming - of - age fiction Debut novels English - language novels Fiction with unreliable narrators Literary realism Little , Brown and Company books Novels by J.D. 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The Fault in Our Stars
The Fault in Our Stars - wikipedia The Fault in Our Stars Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the 2012 novel . For the film based on the novel , see The Fault in Our Stars ( film ) . For the film 's soundtrack , see The Fault in Our Stars ( soundtrack ) . The Fault in Our Stars Author John Green Cover artist Rodrigo Corral Country United States Language English Genre Young adult novel Realistic fiction Published January 10 , 2012 ( Dutton Books ) Media type Print ( hardcover , paperback ) Pages 317 ISBN 0 - 525 - 47881 - 7 The Fault in Our Stars is the sixth novel by author John Green , published in January 2012 . The title is inspired by Act 1 , Scene 2 of Shakespeare 's play Julius Caesar , in which the nobleman Cassius says to Brutus : `` The fault , dear Brutus , is not in our stars , / But in ourselves , that we are underlings . '' The story is narrated by Hazel Grace Lancaster , a 16 - year - old girl with cancer . Hazel is forced by her parents to attend a support group where she subsequently meets and falls in love with 17 - year - old Augustus Waters , an ex-basketball player and amputee . A feature film adaptation of the novel directed by Josh Boone and starring Shailene Woodley , Ansel Elgort and Nat Wolff was released on June 6 , 2014 . Both the book and its film adaptation were met with strong critical and commercial success . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot summary 2 Publication history 3 Critical reception 4 Film adaptation 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Plot summary ( edit ) Hazel Grace Lancaster -- a 16 - year - old with cancer that has spread to her lungs -- attends a cancer patient support group at her mother 's behest . At first she hesitates because she feels like it has done her nothing . She thinks attending the support group could be the worst part of her life , until a particular support meeting , Hazel meets a 17 - year - old boy named Augustus Waters , whose osteosarcoma caused him to lose his right leg , which was replaced with a prosthetic . On catching Augustus stare at her , Hazel feels weird . They meet after the Support Group and converse on the fact that they were not `` literally '' in the heart of Jesus , but in a basement . When everything seems to go well , Augustus pulls out a cigarette and puts it between his lips . Hazel is disgusted by this and yells at him saying that he 's already got cancer and he wants to pay money for more cancer , `` Not being able to breathe sucks , '' she yells . Augustus calmly explains the metaphor , which is , `` You put the thing that kills you right between your teeth but you do n't give it the power to kill you . '' Hazel , impressed by this , goes to his place to watch a movie . Augustus is at the meeting to support his friend , Isaac , whose only remaining eye is soon to be removed due to cancer . Hazel and Augustus strike a bond immediately and agree to read each other 's favorite novels . Augustus gives Hazel The Price of Dawn , and Hazel recommends An Imperial Affliction ' , '' a novel written by Peter Van Houten , who lives in Amsterdam , about a cancer - stricken girl named Anna that parallels Hazel 's own experience . After Augustus finishes reading her book , he is frustrated upon learning that the novel ends abruptly without a conclusion . Hazel explains the novel 's author had retreated following the novel 's publication and has not been heard from since . A week later , Augustus reveals to Hazel that he has tracked down Van Houten 's assistant , Lidewij , and , through her , has managed to start an e-mail correspondence with Van Houten . The two write to Van Houten with questions regarding the novel 's ending and the fate of the mother of Anna . Van Houten eventually replies , explaining that he can only answer Hazel 's questions in person . At a picnic , Augustus surprises Hazel with tickets to Amsterdam to meet Van Houten . While in Amsterdam , Augustus confesses his love for Hazel . Hazel and Augustus finally meet Van Houten but are shocked to find that he is a mean - spirited drunk . Horrified by Van Houten 's behavior , Lidewij confesses to having arranged the meeting on his behalf , angering Van Houten , who proceeds to insult Hazel 's cancer , starting an argument and causing Hazel and Augustus to flee from the drunken author 's home . Augustus confesses that his cancer has returned . The two affirm their love and support for each other . Upon their return to Indianapolis , Augustus 's health worsens and he ends up in the ICU for a few days . Fearing his death , Augustus invites Isaac and Hazel to his pre-funeral , where they give eulogies . An extremely sick Augustus dies soon after . This leaves Hazel heartbroken and she does n't know what to do with herself . After this traumatic event , Van Houten shows up at Augustus 's funeral to apologize to Hazel . Hazel learns that Augustus was writing a sequel to An Imperial Affliction . Hazel reads Augustus 's words . He says getting hurt in this world is inevitable , but we do get to choose whom we allow to hurt us , and that he is happy with his choice , and hopes she likes her choice too . The book closes with Hazel stating that she is happy with her choice . Publication history ( edit ) On December 21 , 2011 , Barnes & Noble accidentally shipped 1500 copies of The Fault in Our Stars before the release date to people who had pre-ordered the book . Green released a statement saying , `` Mistakes happen . The people who made this error were not bad or incompetent people , and they were not acting maliciously . We all make mistakes , and it is not my wish to see Barnes and Noble or any of their employees vilified . '' Many people who received the book pledged not to read it until its release date , January 10 , 2012 , or discuss it until the next day , January 11 , as per a request of Green 's not to spoil it for other readers . Most kept to this promise leaving the experience untarnished for those who got the book on the intended release date . The book rose to # 84 on the Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble bestseller lists in June 2011 shortly after its title was announced . Green promised that every pre-order would be hand - signed by him , requiring him to sign every copy of the first printing . He proposed that the general public vote on the color Sharpie he would use to sign the books , resulting in him signing the 150,000 books with a variety of Sharpie colors , each in proportion to the amount of votes received for that color . However , some people who ordered from international booksellers received unsigned copies because those bookstores , including Amazon UK , underestimated how many books they needed and ordered more after the signing was complete , but Green agreed to fix this problem , telling people with unsigned pre-orders to email him so they could be sent a signed bookplate . Many fans submitted their book cover designs to various outlets including Tumblr and Twitter , tagging Green in these posts so he could see them . The sizeable number of posts received has prompted Green 's publisher Penguin to seek a fan - designed cover for a reprint of one of Green 's other books , An Abundance of Katherines . The Fault in Our Stars debuted at # 1 on The New York Times Best Seller list for Children 's Chapter Books and remained in that spot for seven consecutive weeks . A Hebrew edition of The Fault in Our Stars was published in Israel in August 2012 and more editions of the novel are forthcoming in Dutch , German , Spanish , French , Swedish , Danish , Icelandic , Chinese , and Portuguese . The Fault in Our Stars has also gained places on several bestseller lists . It was # 1 on The Wall Street Journal bestseller list , # 1 on the Indiebound bestseller list , and # 9 on The Bookseller bestseller list . The novel was also The New York Times Book Review Editor 's Choice . As of January 2013 , there are nearly 1 million copies of the novel in print . In December 2012 , it was announced that a special edition with a silver cover and an expanded Q&A , dubbed the ' Exclusive Collector 's Edition ' , would be available from Barnes and Noble . All or at least most of the copies first available for purchase of this edition of the book contained a printing error wherein several pages of the first chapter were replaced with pages from the Q&A section at the back of the book . Critical reception ( edit ) The Fault in Our Stars received critical acclaim . Critics mostly praised the book for its humor , strong characters , language , themes and new perspective on cancer and romance . The New York Times ' review of the book called it `` a blend of melancholy , sweet , philosophical and funny '' and said that it `` stays the course of tragic realism '' , while noting that the book 's unpleasant plot details `` do nothing to diminish the romance ; in Green 's hands , they only make it more moving . '' NPR 's Rachel Syme noted that `` ( Green 's ) voice is so compulsively readable that it defies categorization , '' saying that the `` elegantly plotted '' book `` may be his best . '' Time called The Fault in Our Stars `` damn near genius . '' Entertainment Weekly wrote , `` ( Augustus and Hazel 's ) love story is as real as it is doomed , and the gut - busting laughs that come early in the novel make the luminous final pages all the more heartbreaking '' , and gave the novel an overall A − grade . Amazon.com calls it `` insightful , bold , irreverent , and raw '' and Green 's `` most ambitious and heartbreaking work yet . '' The Manila Bulletin says that the book is `` a collection of maudlin scenes and trite observations about the fragility of life and the wisdom of dying . And while it does talk about those things and more , the treatment of it is far from being maudlin or trite . '' The Manila Bulletin also added that `` Just two paragraphs into the work , and he immediately wallops the readers with such an insightful observation delivered in such an unsentimental way that its hard not to shake your head in admiration . '' The Manila Bulletin stated that The Fault in Our Stars was a triumph for John Green . USA Today called it a `` elegiac comedy . '' They gave the book a rating of four out of four stars. The School Library Journal stated that it was `` a strong choice for Adult Collections . '' The Fault in Our Stars received a starred review from Kirkus Reviews , who described it as `` a smartly crafted intellectual explosion of a romance . '' Several well - known authors have contributed their own positive reviews for the book . Jodi Picoult , author of My Sister 's Keeper , calls The Fault in Our Stars `` an electric portrait of young people who learn to live life with one foot in the grave . '' She goes on to say that the novel is `` filled with staccato bursts of humor and tragedy . '' Bestselling author of The Book Thief , Markus Zusak , describes it as `` a novel of life and death and the people caught in between '' and `` John Green at his best '' . Pertaining to Green 's writing throughout the book , E. Lockhart , author of The Boyfriend List , says `` He makes me laugh and gasp at the beauty of a sentence or the twist of a tale . He is one of the best writers alive and I am seething with envy of his talent . '' Time named The Fault in Our Stars as the # 1 fiction book of 2012 . Kirkus Reviews listed it among the top 100 children 's books of 2012 . It also made USA Today 's list of the top 10 books of 2012 . In 2013 , the Edmonton Journal named the book one of their `` favourite books of the year . '' One notable unfavorable opinion appeared in the Daily Mail . In the piece , the plot of The Fault in Our Stars was described as `` mawkish at best , exploitative at worst '' and the book was characterized as belonging to the `` sick - lit '' young adult genre , together with other young - adult novels such as Never Eighteen and Before I Die . This entire genre , as well as the genre of young - adult novels dealing with suicide and self - harm ( the piece mentions Thirteen Reasons Why , By the Time You Read This , I 'll Be Dead , The Lovely Bones , and Red Tears ) was criticized as being `` distasteful '' and inappropriate for their target audience of teens . The Guardian criticized the piece , pointing out in particular that The Fault in Our Stars was chosen by The Guardian as that month 's `` teen book club choice '' because `` it 's a gripping read , featuring two compelling characters , that deals sensitively and even humorously with a difficult situation without descending into mawkishness . '' In general , The Guardian faulted the Daily Mail for suggesting that the issues of illness , depression , and sexuality are inappropriate precisely `` in the one place where difficult subjects have traditionally been most sensitively explored for teens : fiction written specifically for them . '' For his part , in an interview for The Guardian , John Green said : `` The thing that bothered me about The Daily Mail piece was that it was a bit condescending to teenagers . I 'm tired of adults telling teenagers that they are n't smart , that they ca n't read critically , that they are n't thoughtful , and I feel like that article made those arguments . '' Film adaptation ( edit ) Main article : The Fault in Our Stars ( film ) In January 2012 , Fox 2000 , a division of 20th Century Fox , optioned the rights to adapt the novel into a feature film . Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber wrote the adapted screenplay . Josh Boone signed on to direct a year later , in February 2013 . Wyck Godfrey and Marty Bowen produced the film . Shailene Woodley stars as Hazel , while Ansel Elgort plays Augustus . Nat Wolff was cast as Isaac , the friend that introduces them , and Laura Dern stars as Hazel 's mother . Sam Trammell was cast as Mr. Lancaster , Hazel 's father . On August 29 , 2013 , John Green announced that Mike Birbiglia would be playing Patrick , and on September 6 , 2013 , Green announced that Willem Dafoe would portray Peter Van Houten . Principal photography began on August 26 , 2013 , in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , which doubled for the novel 's setting of Indianapolis , Indiana , with a few days in Amsterdam , before concluding October 16 , 2013 . The film was released on June 6 , 2014 , in the United States . It was positively received by critics , with praise going to Woodley 's performance as well as the entire film . The film also proved to be commercially successful , retaining the No. 1 spot at the box - office during its opening weekend , and grossed over $307 million worldwide against its budget of $12 million . It was released on Blu - Ray and DVD on September 16 , 2014 . See also ( edit ) United States portal 2010s portal Children 's literature portal Novels portal References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Deahl , Rachel ( January 31 , 2012 ) . `` Fox Options John Green 's ' Fault in Our Stars ' '' . Publishers Weekly . Retrieved July 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Green , John ( 21 December 2011 ) . `` The Leaking of The Fault in Our Stars '' . John Green 's Tumblr . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Green , John ( December 23 , 2011 ) . `` There Will Be NO SPOILERS ! ! ! '' . Vlogbrothers . Retrieved January 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Trachtenberg , Jeffrey A ( 1 July 2011 ) . `` Tweeting from a La - Z - Boy , An Unfinished Book Hits No. 1 '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 24 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Green , John ( 29 June 2011 ) . `` The Fault in Our Stars '' . Vlogbrothers . Retrieved 1 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Green , John ( January 10 , 2012 ) . `` Question Tuesday : The Fault in Our Stars is Here Edition '' . John Green Books . Retrieved February 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Green , John . `` An Abundance of Covers Competition '' . Penguin Group . Retrieved 14 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Best Sellers : January 29 , 2012 '' . The New York Times . January 22 , 2012 . Retrieved January 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Heyman , Marshall ( February 18 , 2012 ) . `` The Young and the Sociable '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved February 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` JohnGreenBooks.com : The Fault in Our Stars '' . Retrieved 27 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Bob Minzesheimer ( 2013 - 01 - 16 ) . `` John and Hank Green rock Carnegie Hall '' . USA Today . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 17 . Jump up ^ Sprague , Rachel ( January 4 , 2013 ) . `` ' The Fault in Our Stars ' collector 's edition publish date pushed back '' . Retrieved 5 January 2013 . Jump up ^ Standiford , Natalie ( January 15 , 2012 ) . `` The Tenacity of Hope '' . Retrieved 17 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Syme , Rachel ( January 17 , 2012 ) . `` ' The Fault In Our Stars ' : Love In A Time Of Cancer '' . NPR . Retrieved 17 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Lev Grossman ( February 6 , 2012 ) . `` The Topic of Cancer '' . Time . Retrieved September 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Stephan Lee ( January 11 , 2012 ) . `` The Fault in Our Stars '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 29 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Amazon.com : The Fault in Our Stars '' . Retrieved 27 February 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Love in The Time Of The Big C '' . Manila Bulletin . 9 March 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Minzesheimer , Bob ( 2012 - 02 - 02 ) . `` ' The Fault in Our Stars '' : not a cancer book `` . USA Today . Retrieved February 26 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Fault in Our Stars '' . School Library Journal . April 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Fault in Our Stars '' . Kirkus Reviews . 10 January 2012 . Retrieved 24 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Lev Grossman ( December 4 , 2012 ) . `` Top 10 Fiction Books '' . Time . Retrieved December 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Smith , Vicky . `` Best Children 's Books of 2012 ( Page 24 ) '' . Kirkus Reviews . Retrieved 24 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Deirdre Donahue , Jocelyn McClurg , Carol Memmott , Bob Minzesheimer and Craig Wilson ( 21 December 2012 ) . `` 10 books we loved in 2012 '' . USA Today . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Le Blanc , Brittney ( 16 December 2013 ) . `` Edmonton Journal staff pick favourite books of the year '' . Edmonton Journal . Archived from the original on 2014 - 03 - 11 . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Tanith , Carey ( 2013 - 01 - 03 ) . `` The ′ sick - lit ′ books aimed at children : It 's a disturbing phenomenon . Tales of teenage cancer , self - harm and suicide ... '' . The Daily Mail . United Kingdom . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : Pauli , Michelle ( 2013 - 01 - 04 ) . `` ′ Sick - lit ′ ? Evidently young adult fiction is too complex for The Daily Mail '' . The Guardian . United Kingdom . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` John Green : ' I 'm tired of adults telling teenagers that they are n't smart ' '' . The Guardian . United Kingdom . 2013 - 02 - 27 . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` The Fault in Our Stars Movie Lands Director '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( July 23 , 2013 ) . `` Laura Dern Joins ' Fault in Our Stars ' '' . Variety . Retrieved July 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sara Vilkomerson ( March 19 , 2013 ) . `` Shailene Woodley offered lead role for ' The Fault in Our Stars ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved March 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sara Vilkomerson ( May 10 , 2013 ) . `` Ansel Elgort offered lead in ' The Fault in Our Stars ' opposite Shailene Woodley -- Exclusive '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved May 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Vilkomerson , Sara ( July 23 , 2013 ) . `` Nat Wolff cast as Isaac in ' The Fault in Our Stars ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved July 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ David , Jesse ( 2013 - 08 - 15 ) . `` True Blood 's Trammell Joins Fault in Our Stars '' . Vulture . Retrieved 2013 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ Schooley , Tim ( July 9 , 2013 ) . `` Fox 2000 shoots for ' Stars ' in Pittsburgh '' . Pittsburgh Business Times . Retrieved July 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Axelrad , Jacob ( July 10 , 2013 ) . `` New film ' Fault in Our Stars ' to be shot in Pittsburgh '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved July 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Deutsch , Lindsay ( 8 October 2013 ) . `` ' The Fault In Our Stars ' movie gets a release date '' . USA Today . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Fault In Our Stars ( 2014 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . IMDB . Retrieved August 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Fault In Our Stars '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved June 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Fault in Our Stars Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved June 6 , 2014 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : The Fault in Our Stars ( hide ) Works by John Green Fiction Looking for Alaska ( 2005 ) An Abundance of Katherines ( 2006 ) Paper Towns ( 2008 ) The Fault in Our Stars ( 2012 ) Turtles All the Way Down ( 2017 ) Co-authored fiction Let It Snow : Three Holiday Romances ( 2008 ) Will Grayson , Will Grayson ( 2010 ) YouTube projects Vlogbrothers ( 2007 -- present ) Crash Course ( 2011 -- present ) The Art Assignment ( 2014 -- present ) Adaptations The Fault in Our Stars ( 2014 film ) Paper Towns ( 2015 film ) Let It Snow ( 2017 film ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Fault_in_Our_Stars&oldid=806887140 '' Categories : 2012 American novels Books about cancer American young adult novels American romance novels Novels set in Amsterdam Novels set in Indianapolis American novels adapted into films Novels by John Green Books by YouTube personalities Books with cover art by Rodrigo Corral Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Pages to import images to Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Кыргызча Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Português Русский Simple English کوردی Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2017 , at 19 : 29 . 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Rakesh Sharma
Rakesh Sharma - Wikipedia Rakesh Sharma For other people named Rakesh Sharma , see Rakesh Sharma ( disambiguation ) . Rakesh Sharma Rakesh Sharma Nationality Indian Status Retired ( 1949 - 01 - 13 ) 13 January 1949 ( age 69 ) Patiala , Punjab , India Other occupation Test pilot at the Indian Air Force Rank Wing Commander , Indian Air Force Time in space 7d 21h 40m Selection 1982 Missions Soyuz T - 11 / Soyuz T - 10 Mission insignia Awards Ashok Chakra Hero of the Soviet Union Rakesh Sharma , AC , Hero of the Soviet Union ( born 13 January 1949 ) , is a former Indian Air Force pilot who flew aboard Soyuz T - 11 , launched on 2 April 1984 , as part of the Intercosmos programme . Sharma is the only Indian citizen to travel in space . Contents 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Awards 3.1 Military Awards and Decorations 4 Personal life 5 Popular culture 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Early life ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Rakesh Sharma was born on 13 January 1949 in Patiala , Punjab , India . He attended one of the top schools in the city - St. Ann 's High School , Secunderabad and later on went to study in St. Georges Grammar School , Hyderabad . He graduated from Nizam College , Hyderabad , Hyderabad , India . He joined the Air Force as a cadet in 1966 at the age of 18 . Thereafter , he was admitted to the National Defence Academy as an Air Force plebe in July 1966 . Rakesh proved to be a focused and dedicated student and by 1970 , he was commissioned into the Indian Air Force to become a pilot . Career ( edit ) An alumnus of the 35th National Defence Academy , Rakesh Sharma joined as a test pilot in the Indian Air Force in 1970 . He flew various aircraft like Mikoyan - Gurevich ( MiG ) aircraft starting from 1971 . Rakesh Sharma swiftly progressed through many levels and in 1984 he was appointed as the Squadron Leader and pilot of the Indian Air Force . He was selected on the twentieth of September in 1982 to become a cosmonaut and go into space as part of a joint program between the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and the Soviet Intercosmos space program . In 1984 , he became the first Indian citizen to enter space when he flew aboard the Soviet rocket Soyuz T - 11 launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic on the second of April 1984 . The Soyuz T - 11 docked and transferred the three member Soviet - Indian international crew which also included the ship 's Commander Yury Malyshev and Flight Engineer Gennadi Strekalov ( USSR ) to the Salyut 7 Orbital Station . Sharma spent 7 days 21 hours and 40 minutes aboard the Salyut 7 during which his team conducted scientific and technical studies which included 43 experimental sessions . His work was mainly in the fields of bio-medicine and remote sensing . The crew held a joint television news conference with officials in Moscow and then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . When Indira Gandhi asked Sharma how India looked from outer space , he replied Saare Jahan Se Achcha ( the best in the world ) . This is the title of a patriotic poem by Iqbal that had been written when India was under British colonial rule , that continues to be popular today . India became the 14th nation to send a man to outer space . He retired with the rank of wing commander . He joined the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited in 1987 and served as Chief Test Pilot in the HAL Nashik Division until 1992 , before moving on to Bangalore to work as the Chief Test Pilot of HAL . He was also associated with the Light Combat Aircraft Tejas . Awards ( edit ) He was conferred with the honour of the Hero of the Soviet Union upon his return from space . The Republic of India conferred its highest peacetime gallantry award , the Ashoka Chakra , on him and the other two Soviet members of his mission , Malyshev and Strekalov . Military Awards and Decorations ( edit ) Ashok Chakra Paschimi Star Sangram Medal Sainya Seva Medal Videsh Seva Service Medal 25th Anniversary of Independence Medal 9 Years Long Service Medal Personal life ( edit ) He and his wife Madhu learned Russian during their stay in Russia in 1982 . His son Kapil is a film director and his daughter Kritika is a media artist . Popular culture ( edit ) A biographical Hindi film titled Saare Jahaan Se Achcha is under pre-production . See also ( edit ) Kalpana Chawla Sunita Williams Neil Armstrong References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Cosmonaut Biography : Rakesh Sharma '' . Spacefacts.de . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Rakesh Sharma '' . Mapsofindia.com . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Rakesh Sharma '' . aerospaceguide.net . Retrieved 4 June 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Srinivasan , Pankaja ( 2010 - 04 - 04 ) . `` The down to earth Rakesh Sharma '' . The Hindu . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 05 . Jump up ^ Hungama , Bollywood ( 18 December 2017 ) . `` SCOOP : Shah Rukh Khan replaces Aamir Khan in the Rakesh Sharma bio-pic - Bollywood Hungama '' . BollywoodHungama.com . Retrieved 18 December 2017 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rakesh Sharma . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soyuz T - 10 . Biography of Rakesh Sharma Interview with Rakesh Sharma in August 2013 Indian space programme Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) Organisations Department of Space ( DoS ) Antrix Corporation Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology ( IIST ) Indian Institute of Remote Sensing ( IIRS ) Laboratory for Electro - Optics Systems ( LEOS ) National Atmospheric Research Laboratory ( NARL ) Physical Research Laboratory ( PRL ) Physical Research Laboratory ( DECU ) Programmes Bhaskara GAGAN GSAT INSAT IRNSS IRS Cartosat RISAT Rohini SROSS Chandrayaan Human Spaceflight Programme Satellites APPLE Aditya - L1 Aryabhata Astrosat AstroSat - 2 HAMSAT IMS - 1 Megha - Tropiques NISAR SARAL South Asia Satellite SRE SRE II Kalpana - 1 CARE Space probes Chandrayaan - 1 Moon Impact Probe Chandrayaan - 2 Mars Orbiter Mission Mars Orbiter Mission 2 Venus orbiter mission ( proposed ) Crewed spacecraft Gaganyaan ( Under development ) Rockets Engine CE - 7.5 CE - 20 Orbital SLV ASLV PSLV GSLV GSLV Mark III Suborbital Rohini ATV Concepts ULV Under development RLV Technology Demonstration Programme RLV - TD Facilities Indian Deep Space Network ( IDSN ) ISRO Satellite Centre ( ISAC ) ISRO Telemetry , Tracking and Command Network ( ISTRAC ) Master Control Facility ( MCF ) Satish Dhawan Space Centre ( SDSC ) Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station ( TERLS ) ISRO Satellite Integration and Testing Establishment ( ISITE ) Vikram Sarabhai Space Center ( VSSC ) Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre ( LPSC ) ISRO Propulsion Complex See also SAGA - 220 ( supercomputer ) List of Indian satellites List of Satish Dhawan Space Centre launches List of ISRO missions Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rakesh_Sharma&oldid=866327877 '' Categories : Indian astronauts Indian aviators Space programme of India Foreign Heroes of the Soviet Union Indian Air Force officers 1949 births Living people People from Hyderabad , India People from Patiala Osmania University alumni Punjabi people Recipients of the Order of Lenin Recipients of the Medal `` For Merit in Space Exploration '' Test pilots Hidden categories : Use Indian English from November 2013 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Use dmy dates from November 2013 Articles needing additional references from March 2017 All articles needing additional references Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia অসমীয়া বাংলা Български Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français ગુજરાતી हिन्दी Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ संस्कृतम् Simple English Slovenčina Suomi தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 26 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 October 2018 , at 18 : 05 ( UTC ) . 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Out of This World (TV series)
Out of This World ( TV series ) - wikipedia Out of This World ( TV series ) Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the U.S. television series . For the British television series of the same name , see Out of This World ( UK TV series ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Out of This World Title screen Genre Fantasy sitcom Created by John Boni Bob Booker Directed by Bob Claver Scott Baio Selig Frank Stan Harris Russ Petranto Jack Regas Renny Temple Starring Maureen Flannigan Donna Pescow Doug McClure Joe Alaskey Steve Burton Christina Nigra Buzz Belmondo Tom Nolan Voices of Burt Reynolds Opening theme `` Swinging on a Star '' Composer ( s ) Kevin Kiner Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 96 Production Executive producer ( s ) Bob Booker Producer ( s ) John Boni Barbara Booker Gail Honigberg Laura Levine Mike Scully Bruce Taylor George Yanok Running time 22 mins . Production company ( s ) Bob Booker Productions Distributor MCA TV Release Original network Syndication Original release September 17 , 1987 ( 1987 - 09 - 17 ) -- May 25 , 1991 ( 1991 - 05 - 25 ) Out of This World is an American fantasy sitcom about a teenage girl who is half alien , which gives her unique superhuman powers . It first aired in syndication from September 17 , 1987 and ended on May 25 , 1991 . During its first season , the series was originally part of NBC 's Prime Time Begins at 7 : 30 campaign , in which the network 's owned - and - operated stations would run first - run sitcoms in the 7 : 30 - 8 pm time slot to counter-program competing stations ' game shows , sitcom reruns and other offerings . Out of This World was rotated with the original series Marblehead Manor and She 's the Sheriff , a syndicated revival of the 1983 sitcom We Got It Made , and a television adaptation of the play You Ca n't Take It with You . NBC ended the experiment after the 1987 - 88 season due to the low ratings put up by three of the series , with Out of This World being one of the two that were renewed ( the other being She 's the Sheriff ) . After its first season the series was largely moved to weekend time slots , where it remained until its cancellation following the fourth season . Contents ( hide ) 1 Show summary 1.1 Characters 1.1. 1 The cube 1.2 Guest stars 2 Episodes 2.1 Season 1 2.2 Season 2 2.3 Season 3 2.4 Season 4 3 Opening credits 4 International airings 5 Critical reception 6 DVD release 7 In other media 8 References 9 External links Show summary ( edit ) The series revolves around Evie Ethel Garland , a young girl who discovers on her thirteenth birthday that her father is an alien named Troy , from the planet Antareus , who married her mother and `` merged lifeforms '' to create Evie . Evie 's half - alien heritage gives her superhuman abilities . Most of the episodes revolve around Evie misusing her powers and causing some trouble , which she spends the rest of the episode trying to fix . Only Evie and her family know about her alien father and her powers , and many episodes depict Evie trying to hide her secret from other characters . The series ended on a cliffhanger in the Season 4 finale , where Troy came to visit and Donna took his place by accident and ended up in Antareus , leaving Troy stranded on Earth . Characters ( edit ) Evie Ethel Garland ( Maureen Flannigan ) -- Evie is a half - human , half - alien girl who lives with her mother in Marlowe , California ( a fictional analogue of Carmel - by - the - Sea ) , in a house overlooking the sea . She is an only child . Evie attends a school for gifted children ( run by her mother ) and achieves good grades there . Her mother had always told Evie that her father was a secret agent , but on her thirteenth birthday Evie began to develop superhuman abilities and it was revealed that her father is an extraterrestrial from the planet Antareus . Evie 's main power is the ability to freeze time on Earth by touching the tips of her index fingers together , allowing her to maneuver herself or objects to alter the course of events on Earth . When she claps her hands together , time resumes as normal . She can also `` unfreeze '' individuals by touching them while time is frozen . She later gains the power to gleep , which allows her to manifest objects by using the power of her mind . Her father describes her as `` the perfect child : loving ; caring ; with the same needs of most teenagers '' . The series follows Evie through her teenage years , from her thirteenth birthday in the first episode to her eighteenth birthday in the final episode . Although she was the leading character , Flannigan was billed last in the credits . In the first season , she received the billing `` And Introducing Maureen Flannigan '' . In the last 3 seasons , she was billed as `` And Maureen Flannigan as Evie '' . Donna Garland ( Donna Pescow ) -- Evie 's mother . Described by her husband as `` an ambitious working mother with a career '' , Donna runs a school for gifted children , which Evie attends . She later founds her own catering company , `` Donna 's Delights '' . Toward the end of season 3 , Donna becomes the mayor of Marlowe . Donna is very protective of her daughter , often to the dismay of Evie , who would like to be more independent . Donna and Evie 's Uncle Beano ( then later Uncle Mick ) are the only regular characters on the show who know Evie 's secret . Troy Garland ( Burt Reynolds , voice only ) -- Evie 's father . Troy is a human - looking extraterrestrial , with many special powers , from the planet Antareus . Troy met Donna when his spacecraft crashed on Earth at some point in the late 1960s or early 1970s . The two fell in love , were married in 1971 , and two years later Donna gave birth to Evie . Shortly after , in 1974 , Troy was called back to Antareus to fight in a war . Since then , Troy occasionally visits Earth , and stays in touch with his daughter via a special communication device known as the `` cube '' ( see below ) . Troy 's powers seem to be almost limitless : though he lives on Antareus , he can control many things on Earth ( from computers to the weather ) ; he can give and take away Evie 's powers at will ; and also seems to be aware of certain events on Earth . While Troy appears in the show 's opening credits , he rarely makes a physical appearance in the series -- and when he does his face is obscured ( for example , via a surgical mask or shadows ) . In the series finale , when Troy arrives on Earth , he is seen in a silhouette with stars from the galaxy . Troy was credited as `` himself '' in the opening credits from Season Two onwards . Beano Froelich ( 1987 -- 1990 ) ( Joe Alaskey ) -- `` Uncle Beano '' is Donna 's brother and Evie 's uncle , who lives next door to them . Beano has a large appetite and runs the diet clinic known originally as `` Waist - a-Weigh '' , and later as `` Beano 's Diet Clinic '' . Beano is one of the two regular characters who know Evie 's secret , along with Donna . He last appears in season 4 , episode 12 . Kyle Applegate ( Doug McClure ) -- Kyle is a former television actor who is now the mayor of Marlowe . Kyle is a good friend of the family , but `` the mayor '' punishes even the smallest offenses . As well as being egocentric and vain , Kyle is dimwitted and gullible , often completely failing to notice Evie 's `` alien '' antics . He clings to his former TV glory as the star of `` Mosquito Man '' and many long forgotten mainly Western movies . Towards the end of season three , Kyle is appointed police chief by Donna , who takes over from him as mayor . Buzz ( Buzz Belmondo ) -- The manager of Beano 's diet clinic , and one of the more eccentric characters in the town . Buzz usually makes one brief appearance per episode , during which he performs a series of jokes which are typically puns or prop - based gags , sometimes relating to the elaborate costume that he is wearing . He speaks with an unknown accent , and is prone to bizarre behavior . Donna sometimes resorts to him for help , more often than not regretting it . Lindsay Selkirk ( Christina Nigra ) -- Evie 's best friend . Evie and Lindsay spend a lot of time together drinking milkshakes at their local diner , the `` Goodie Goodie , '' and she is Evie 's confidante when it comes to boys and her non-Antarian related problems . Chris Fuller ( Steve Burton ) -- Chris is a surfer and high school student who later becomes a student at Marlowe Community College . He is introduced as a new student and good basketball player in the season one episode `` Evie get your Basketball '' . Chris becomes Evie 's boyfriend , and although they sometimes date other people , they always end up together . In an episode of the final season , Chris says Evie was and always will be his girl . Quigley Handlesman ( Carl Steven ) ( 1987 - 1988 ) - One of Evie 's classmates at Donna 's school for the gifted . Phil ( John Roarke ) ( 1987 - 1988 ) - The jovial , funny handyman who works on the Garlands ' house during the first season . He is always snooping around in the family 's business , with Donna , Evie and Beano constantly making sure that Phil does n't suspect the existence of Evie 's powers . Jeffrey Cummings ( Tony Crane ) ( 1990 ) - A high school classmate of Evie and Lindsay 's who transfers in during their senior year . Incredibly handsome and basically taking up the slack that Chris had left after going onto college , Jeffrey quickly begins to date Evie . The two began going out despite Evie 's continued involvement with Chris , forcing her to cover up her activities with either of them , alternately . Peter ( 1990 - 1991 ) ( Peter Pitofsky ) -- A waiter at the Goodie Goodie who is introduced in the first scene of season four . He is a clumsy , goofball Antarean who provides his own brand of comic relief whenever Evie and her friends stop by the restaurant . He was military intelligence for Antareus until he chose to stay on Earth , his memory erased of all Antarean things . He has a penchant for misinterpreting people 's orders , and sometimes even forgetting his own name . Mick ( 1990 -- 1991 ) ( Tom Nolan ) -- Donna 's brother and Evie 's uncle , who was introduced in season 4 , episode 7 , to replace Uncle Beano as a recurring character . He is a former rock musician . The cube ( edit ) Evie is able to communicate with Troy through a special `` genetic '' communication device known as the `` cube '' , which he gave to her when she turned thirteen . The cube effectively functions as a telephone line to Antareus -- it can even be used to leave Troy an `` answerphone '' message , as seen in the episode `` My Little Evie '' . There are no controls on the cube ; Evie simply calls for her father and the cube activates when he answers , deactivating when he `` hangs up '' . Sometimes when Troy uses his powers whilst talking through the cube , a beam of energy is emitted directly from the cube . Evie and Donna normally keep the cube around the house , out of sight ( often in Evie 's bedroom ) , sometimes telling people it is an ornament or a talking clock . When the cube is activated , the top half of it opens up on a hinge , a magenta light pulses inside , and a `` spacey '' sound effect plays . The lights in the room usually dim , although not always . Troy 's voice is heard clearly through the cube with reverberation . Originally , even though everyone was able to hear Troy through the cube , Evie was the only one Troy could hear as the cube was genetic . This rule changes in the first episode of season 2 , `` Evie 's Birthday Wish '' . At the end of the episode , Evie wishes her mother could talk to Troy like she can . As a result , Troy can now hear Donna and they can talk back and forth . It is unknown whether the rest of Evie 's family could also talk to Troy , but there have been other aliens that Troy could hear through the cube , as seen in Season 4 Episode 5 `` Evie 's Guardian Angel '' . An Antaerian is sent to Earth to protect Evie and Donna , and he can speak to Troy . Guest stars ( edit ) The series featured several celebrities who made cameo appearances on the show , occasionally as themselves . In chronological order of appearances : Ann Miller Norman Fell ( as Evie 's psychiatrist Dr. Hauser , `` The Nightmare '' , 1987 ) Scott Carpenter ( as himself , `` Evie and the Young Astronauts '' , 1987 ) Charles Nelson Reilly ( as himself , `` Dueling Mayors '' , 1987 ) Betsy Palmer ( as Donna 's mother , `` Uh , Oh ... Here Comes Mother '' , 1987 ) Tom Bosley ( as Troy 's father , `` Guess Who 's Coming to Earth '' , 1988 and `` Around the World in Eighty Minutes '' , 1989 ) Jamie Farr ( `` Go West , Young Mayor '' , 1988 ) Richard Kiel ( as Norman , `` Go West , Young Mayor '' , 1988 ) Scott Baio ( who also directed several episodes ) made a cameo appearance in `` Princess Evie '' ( 1988 ) and `` Evie Goes For the Gold '' ( 1989 ) Lyle Alzado ( `` Goodbye Mr. Chris '' , 1990 ) Mr. T ( `` New Kid on the Block '' , 1990 ) Susan Anton ( `` Best Friends '' , 1990 ) Pop singer Tiffany ( `` I Want My Evie TV '' , 1990 ) Kathleen Freeman ( as Miss Ogilvy , Evie 's high school teacher , `` Educating Kyle '' , 1991 ) Episodes ( edit ) Season 1 ( edit ) Evie 's Thirteenth Birthday Playing with the Power The Nightmare Till Then Evie , Get Your Basketball Every Beano Has His Day Evie and the Young Astronauts Fifties Mom Dueling Mayors Baby Talk Beano 's New Diet Clinic Uh , Oh ... Here Comes Mother The Anniversary To Tell the Truth Pen Pals Broadway Danny Derek Mosquito Man : The Motion Picture The Russians Are Coming Aka Dad Illness The Box Is Missing Boy Crazy The Three Faces of Evie I 've Got a Secret Season 2 ( edit ) Evie 's Birthday Wish Blast from the Past Career Crunch Should Old Acquaintance Be Forgot ? Evie 's First Kiss Princess Evie Old Flame Guess Who 's Coming to Earth Go West , Young Mayor Close Encounters of the Nerd Kind The Incredible Hunk Pupil 's Court Evie 's Two Dads The Secret of Evie 's Success Honest Evie Evie Goes to Hollywood Two Many Evies Futile Attraction Beano the Kid Queens for a Day The Amazing Evie Whose House Is It , Anyway ? Frisky Business Star Dog Season 3 ( edit ) Evie 's Sweet Sixteen Cinderella Evie Bring Me the Head of Donna Garland A Froggy Day in Marlowe Town Eviegeist Evie 's Driver 's License Evie Goes for the Gold Hair Today , Gone Tomorrow Around the World in 80 Minutes It 's a Cruel World Evie / Stevie The Rocks That Could n't Roll One in a Million Four Men and a Baby Evie 's Double Trouble The Garden of Evie Evie 's Magic Touch Cowboy Kyle , Man of Granite Evie 's Secret Admirer Evie 's Yuppie Love Diamond 's Are Evie 's Best Friend A Kinder , Gentler Mayor My Mother the Con Goodbye , Mr. Chris Season 4 ( edit ) New Kid on the Block My Little Evie Forget Your Troubles A Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Read Evie 's Guardian Angel Best Friends I Want My Evie TV Come Fly with Evie Roomies Evie 's High Anxiety Evie 's False Alarm Marlowe Vice Evie 's Latin Touch My Mom , and Why I Love Her Heck 's Angels Would You Buy a Used Car from This Dude ? Evie Nightingale All About Evie Mayor Evie Stump Your Neighbor Evie 's Three Promises Too Late for Evie Educating Kyle Evie 's Eighteen Opening credits ( edit ) The opening credits for the series incorporated special effects footage from the 1979 - 1981 series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century . The theme song is Swinging on a Star . International airings ( edit ) Out of This World was first broadcast in the UK on the ITV network on April 9 , 1990 , until 1995 . The series was first broadcast in France from 10 September 1988 under the title `` Loin de ce monde '' - Far From This World . In Germany , the series was renamed `` Mein Vater ist ein Außerirdischer '' - My Father is an Alien . In Italy , the series was renamed `` Cose Dell'Altro Mondo '' - Things Belonging To the Other World . In Spain , the series was renamed `` De otro mundo '' - From Another World . In Russia , the series was renamed `` Фантастическая Девушка '' - Fantastic Girl . In Latin America , the series was renamed `` Fuera de este Mundo '' - Out of This World . The show was aired on many TV stations in the Middle East , as well as Saudi TV Channel 2 , with Arabic subtitles . It also aired in Canada on Toronto station CFMT ( now Omni Television ) . It was screened in New Zealand on TVNZ . Critical reception ( edit ) Discussing Out of This World , Roger Fulton stated `` like many juvenile US sitcoms , the series was short on laughs and long on moralizing '' . The book Television Without Pity contained a review of Out of This World that described the show as `` quite possibly the worst sitcom ever made - it 's a complete failure on every level '' . The review went on to criticise the show 's scripts , acting and production , and unfavourably compared Out of This World to Sabrina , the Teenage Witch . The Splitsider website called Out of This World `` perhaps the worst sitcom ever , or at least the most ' 80s sitcom ever '' . DVD release ( edit ) A DVD set with 35 episodes from seasons 1 and 2 was released in Germany on November 8 , 2011 . The 6 - disc set has a runtime of 875 minutes , but does not include all episodes due to music rights . In other media ( edit ) The show was parodied in the Robot Chicken episode , `` Executed by the State '' . In the parody , Evie is asked out by a boy who likes her , she uses her powers to stop time and takes a look down his pants , presumably in order to check out the size of his penis . After seeing the size of his penis , Evie says , `` Uhhh , pass . '' ( This is followed by canned laughter typical of sitcoms of that era . ) Evie then walks off with time still frozen . In the Universal Studios ride Kongfrontation , the news report that plays during the queue is interrupted by an ad for Out of This World , at which the screen crawl at the bottom of the ad is a civil defense message warning that King Kong is in the vicinity and for civilians to stay indoors and not use public transportation until further notice . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` BBC - Comedy Guide - Out Of This World '' . Web.archive.org . Archived from the original on 2004 - 12 - 09 . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ Fulton , Roger ( 1995 ) . Encyclopedia of TV science fiction . London : Boxtree . p. 392 . ISBN 1 - 85283 - 953 - 8 . Jump up ^ Ariano , Tara ; Bunting , Sarah D. ( 2006 ) . Television Without Pity : 752 Things We Love to Hate ( And Hate to Love ) about TV . Quirk Books . p. 192 . ISBN 1 - 59474 - 117 - 4 . Jump up ^ Boone , Brian ( October 18 , 2011 ) . `` Looking Back at the Terrible Syndicated Sitcoms of the Late 1980s '' . Splitsider . Retrieved October 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Mein Vater ist ein Außerirdischer - Vol. 1 ( 6 DVDs ) : Amazon.de : Donna Pescow , Maureen Flannigan , Joe Alaskey , Buzz Belmondo , Doug McClure : Filme & TV '' . Amazon.de. 2012 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` FSK - VV Programmteile '' . Fsk.de . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 03 . External links ( edit ) Television in the United States portal Science fiction portal 1980s portal 1990s portal Out of This World on IMDb Out of This World at TV.com Out of This World at epguides.com ( hide ) NBC 's `` Prime Time Begins at 7 : 30 '' Marblehead Manor ( Monday ) She 's the Sheriff ( Tuesday ) You Ca n't Take It with You ( Wednesday ) Out of This World ( Thursday ) We Got It Made ( Friday ) 1987 -- 88 network television schedule 1987 in television First - run syndicated sitcoms Prime Time Access Rule Financial Interest and Syndication Rules NBC Owned Television Stations Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Out_of_This_World_(TV_series)&oldid=800043251 '' Categories : 1987 American television series debuts 1991 American television series endings 1980s American television series 1990s American television series 1980s American comedy television series 1990s American comedy television series American science fiction television series American television sitcoms Fantasy television series English - language television programs First - run syndicated television programs in the United States Comic science fiction Teen sitcoms Television series by Universal Television Television shows set in California Television shows set in Los Angeles Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from September 2011 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Estremeñu Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Polski Português Edit links This page was last edited on 11 September 2017 , at 07 : 21 . 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Despicable Me 3
Despicable Me 3 - wikipedia Despicable Me 3 Jump to : navigation , search Despicable Me 3 Theatrical release poster Directed by Pierre Coffin Kyle Balda Produced by Chris Meledandri Janet Healy Written by Cinco Paul Ken Daurio Based on Characters created by Sergio Pablos Starring Steve Carell Kristen Wiig Trey Parker Miranda Cosgrove Steve Coogan Jenny Slate Dana Gaier Julie Andrews Music by Heitor Pereira Pharrell Williams Edited by Claire Dodgson Production company Universal Pictures Illumination Entertainment Distributed by Universal Pictures Release date June 14 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 14 ) ( Annecy ) June 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 30 ) ( United States ) Running time 90 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $80 million Box office $1.009 billion Despicable Me 3 is a 2017 American 3D computer - animated comedy film produced by Illumination Entertainment for Universal Pictures . It is the third main installment in the Despicable Me film series , and the sequel to Despicable Me 2 ( 2013 ) . The film is directed by Pierre Coffin and Kyle Balda , co-directed by Eric Guillon , and written by Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio . In the film , Gru teams up with his long lost twin brother Dru in order to defeat a new enemy named Balthazar Bratt , a 1980s child actor who grows up to become a villain . Steve Carell , Miranda Cosgrove and Dana Gaier reprise their roles of Gru , Margo and Edith from the first two films , and Julie Andrews returns as Marlena , Gru 's mother from Despicable Me ( 2010 ) . Kristen Wiig and Steve Coogan return from Despicable Me 2 and Trey Parker , Jenny Slate and Nev Scharrel ( replacing Elsie Fisher as Agnes ) join the cast . Russell Brand does not reprise his role as Dr. Nefario from the first two installments . Despicable Me 3 premiered on June 14 , 2017 at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival , and was released in the United States on June 30 , 2017 by Universal Pictures . The film received mixed reviews from critics and has grossed $1 billion worldwide , making it the third highest - grossing film of 2017 , 6th highest - grossing animated film of all - time and 30th highest grossing overall . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Soundtrack 4.1 Track listing 4.2 Charts 5 Release 5.1 Home media 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.2 Critical response 6.3 Accolades 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Plot ( edit ) Former villain Gru is now an agent for the Anti-Villain League ( AVL ) . He and his partner / wife Lucy are sent to foil the plans of Balthazar Bratt , a former child star turned evil . Gru manages to stop Bratt from stealing the world 's largest diamond , but is unable to capture him . As a result of failing to capture Bratt , Gru and Lucy are fired from the AVL by its unreasonable new director Valerie Da Vinci , following the retirement of Silas Ramsbottom . Gru and Lucy reluctantly tell their children , Margo , Edith , and Agnes , of their termination , but assure them they will find new jobs . Most of Gru 's Minions leave Gru when he refuses to return to villainy despite losing his job . Meanwhile , Lucy struggles to adapt in her new role as the children 's new mom . The next morning , the family is approached by Fritz , the butler of Gru 's cheerful twin brother Dru , who lives in a distant country named Freedonia and longs to meet him . Gru is shocked to learn he has a twin . He confronts his mother , who reveals that when she and her husband divorced , they agreed to keep one child each . The family decides to travel to meet Dru , and they are surprised at his immense wealth , which Fritz attributes to their pig farm business . Meanwhile , the Minions are arrested for trespassing at a talent show set . Bratt manages to steal the diamond again , intending to use it to power a giant robot and destroy Hollywood as revenge for the cancellation of his show . Dru reveals to Gru that their recently deceased father was a legendary supervillain , whose villainous activities are the real source of the family 's wealth . As Dru was dismissed by their father as a disgrace , he asks his brother to teach him how to be a villain . When Gru refuses to revert to his old ways , Dru takes him on a joyride around Freedonia in their father 's technologically advanced car , and the siblings bond . Meanwhile , Lucy tries to balance her tasks as a mom , which she exhibits after turning away a young boy named Niko who had fallen for Margo in the midst of a traditional cheese festival , while Edith and Agnes stumble into a local tavern and learn from the bartender about a mythical unicorn which lurks in a nearby forest . Gru tries to convince Agnes that unicorns are imaginary , but decides against it to avoid hurting her feelings . The next day , Agnes and Edith set out into the woods to track the mythical horse , only to find a one - horned goat whom Agnes adopts and dubs `` Lucky . '' Meanwhile , the Minions ' longing for Gru motivates them to escape from prison . Dru convinces Gru to steal the diamond , with Gru secretly intending to bring it to the AVL , which he hopes will convince Da Vinci to rehire him . Despite several setbacks , they manage to retrieve the diamond , and are rescued by Lucy after narrowly escaping . After finding out Gru 's true motives , Dru confronts his brother about his lie . In return , Gru insults him and decides to leave Freedonia . Bratt , disguised as Lucy , kidnaps the children , and once again acquires the diamond . Gru and Dru resolve their differences and pursue him . With his robot powered by the diamond , Bratt terrorizes Hollywood , intending to send it into space with the use of superpowered gum . Lucy saves the children while Gru and Dru weaken Bratt 's robot with the weapons of their father 's car . Gru is knocked unconscious when the car is destroyed , and Dru manages to destroy the robot 's core from the inside when Bratt threatens to kill Gru . When Gru recovers , he battles Bratt in a dance fight , using it as a distraction to grab his keytar , and defeats him . Having rendezvoused with Gru , the Minions manage to destroy the gum already covering the city , and Gru and Dru reunite . Soon afterward , Gru and Lucy are reinstated in the AVL and the newly united family celebrate in Gru 's home . Lucy is acknowledged by the children as their mother . Lured back to villainy , Dru steals Gru 's ship , accompanied by the Minions . Gru and Lucy decide to give them a five - minute head - start before engaging pursuit . Cast ( edit ) Steve Carell as Felonious Gru , the former villain turned Anti-Villain League agent , Margo , Edith , and Agnes ' adoptive father , and Lucy 's husband . Carell also voices Dru , Gru 's long - lost twin brother and the girls ' adoptive uncle . Kristen Wiig as Lucy Wilde , an Anti-Villain League agent , Gru 's wife and the girls ' adoptive mother . Trey Parker as Balthazar Bratt , a supervillain and former child star who grows up to become obsessed with the character he played in the ' 80s and is bent on world domination . Miranda Cosgrove as Margo , Gru and Lucy 's oldest adoptive daughter . Dana Gaier as Edith , Gru and Lucy 's middle adoptive daughter . Nev Scharrel as Agnes , Gru and Lucy 's youngest adoptive daughter . She was previously voiced by Elsie Fisher in the first two films . Pierre Coffin as Mel and the Minions . Coffin also voices a Museum Director . Steve Coogan as Silas Ramsbottom , the director of the Anti-Villain League . Coogan also voices Fritz , the butler of Dru . Andy Nyman as Clive , a robot who is Bratt 's sidekick . Adrian Ciscato as Niko , a boy from Freedonia who falls in love with Margo . Julie Andrews as Marlena Gru , Gru and Dru 's mother . Jenny Slate as Valerie Da Vinci , a member of the Anti-Villain League who becomes the brand new AVL director . John Cygan as an Additional Voice . Cygan died before the film was released . Production ( edit ) Steve Burke , the NBCUniversal CEO , confirmed in September 2013 that a third film in the Despicable Me series was in development . Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio , the writers of the first two films , announced that they would return to write the screenplay for the film . On April 13 , 2016 , Trey Parker , co-creator of South Park , was cast as the main antagonist for the film , Balthazar Bratt . Soundtrack ( edit ) Despicable Me 3 : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Soundtrack album by Various Artists Released June 23 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 23 ) Genre Pop Length 51 : 14 Label I Am Other Columbia Producer Alan Tarney Andrew Coleman Hart Gunther Heitor Pereira Madonna Manne Praeker Marvin dM . Nitazal Michael Jackson Mike Larson Pharrell Williams Quincy Jones Reinhold Heil Rick Bryant Stephen Bray Toto Gamyar The soundtrack for Despicable Me 3 was released on June 23 , 2017 . Pharrell Williams released the new song `` Yellow Light '' for the soundtrack , which was made available through digital download and streaming . Track listing ( edit ) No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Yellow Light '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams ) Pharrell Williams Pharrell Williams Mike Larson 3 : 37 2 . `` Hug Me '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams and Trey Parker ) Pharrell Williams Trey Parker Pharrell Williams Hart Gunther Rick Bryant Mike Larson 2 : 20 3 . `` Bad '' ( performed by Michael Jackson ) Michael Jackson Quincy Jones Michael Jackson 4 : 07 4 . `` Take on Me '' ( performed by A-ha ) Pål Waaktaar Morten Harket Magne Furuholmen Marvin dM . Nitazal Alan Tarney Toto Gamyar 3 : 46 5 . `` Papa Mama Loca Pipa '' ( performed by The Minions ) W.S. Gilbert Arthur Sullivan Pierre Coffin 1 : 29 6 . `` There 's Something Special '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams ) Pharrell Williams Pharrell Williams Mike Larson 3 : 44 7 . `` Tiki Tiki Babeloo '' ( performed by The Minions ) Pierre Coffin 1 : 13 8 . `` Freedom '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams ) Pharrell Williams Pharrell Williams 2 : 43 9 . `` Doowit '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams ) Pharrell Williams Pharrell Williams Mike Larson 4 : 02 10 . `` 99 Luftballons '' ( performed by Nena ) Carlo Karges Jörn - Uwe Fahrenkrog - Petersen Reinhold Heil Manne Praeker 3 : 52 11 . `` Into the Groove '' ( performed by Madonna ) Madonna Ciccone Stephen Bray Madonna Bray 4 : 44 12 . `` Chuck Berry '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams ) Pharrell Williams Pharrell Williams Andrew Coleman Mike Larson 3 : 15 13 . `` Fun , Fun , Fun '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams ) Pharrell Williams Pharrell Williams 3 : 25 14 . `` Despicable Me '' ( performed by Pharrell Williams ) Pharrell Williams Pharrell Williams 4 : 15 15 . `` Despicable Me 3 Score Suite '' ( performed by Heitor Pereira ) Heitor Pereira Heitor Pereira 4 : 05 16 . `` Malatikalano Polatina '' ( performed by The Minions ) Pierre Coffin 0 : 37 Total length : 51 : 14 Notes signifies a co-producer signifies an additional producer Charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2017 ) Peak position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) 76 US Soundtrack Albums ( Billboard ) 17 Release ( edit ) The film premiered on June 14 , 2017 , at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival . It was released in the United States on June 30 , 2017 . The first official trailer for the film was released on December 14 , 2016 ; with the second released on March 14 , 2017 . A secondary trailer , designed for TV usage was released on April 21 , 2017 . A third trailer was released on May 24 , 2017 . Home media ( edit ) Despicable Me 3 will release on DVD and Blu - ray on October 10 , 2017 in the North America and on November 6 , 2017 in the UK . Reception ( edit ) Box Office ( edit ) As of September 13 , 2017 , Despicable Me 3 has grossed $260.2 million in the United States and Canada and $748.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $1 billion , against a production budget of $80 million . On September 7 , it passed the $1 billion threshold , becoming the second Despicable Me film ( after Minions ) , second non-Disney animated film ( after Minions ) , third film of 2017 ( after Beauty and the Beast and The Fate of the Furious ) , the sixth animated film ( after Toy Story 3 , Frozen , Minions , Zootopia , and Finding Dory ) , and the thirty - first film overall to pass the mark . It became the first film since The Fate of the Furious ( also a Universal property ) in April 2017 to make over a billion dollars . In North America , the film opened alongside The House and Baby Driver , as well as the wide expansion of The Beguiled , and was projected to gross $85 -- 95 million in its opening weekend . It played in 4,529 theaters , setting the record for widest release of all - time , beating the amount set by The Twilight Saga : Eclipse in 2010 . It made $4.1 million from Thursday night previews , down slightly from the $4.7 million of the second film and $6.2 million made by Minions , and $29.2 million on its first day . It went on to debut to $72.4 million , slightly below expectations and the lowest of the series since the first film , but still topped the box office and was the 4th best opening for Illumination . It also opened to more than the next five films did combined ( Baby Driver 's $20.6 million , Transformers : The Last Knight 's $16.9 million , Wonder Woman 's $15.7 million , Cars 3 's $9.7 million and The House 's $8.7 million ) . In its second weekend the film grossed $33.6 million ( a drop of 53.6 % , more than the previous Despicable Me films but similar to Minions ) , finishing second at the box office behind newcomer Spider - Man : Homecoming ( $117 million ) . Internationally the film was released in five markets on June 16 , 2017 and grossed $9.9 million in its opening weekend . In its third week of release the film opened in 46 more markets , grossing $95.6 million . Critical response ( edit ) On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 61 % based on 160 reviews , and an average rating of 5.7 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , `` Despicable Me 3 should keep fans of the franchise consistently entertained with another round of colorful animation and zany -- albeit somewhat scattershot -- humor . '' On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating , the film has a score of 49 out of 100 based on 37 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of `` A − '' on an A+ to F scale . IGN gave the film a score of 6 / 10 , saying , `` It 's not much , but Despicable Me 3 is at least enough for the younger fans of the franchise . '' Peter Debruge of Variety wrote , `` Despicable Me 3 is unwieldy , but it mostly works , as co-directors Pierre Coffin ( who also voices the Minions ) and Kyle Balda never lose sight of the film 's emotional center , packing the rest with as much humor as they can manage . The jokes comes so fast and furious , the movie can hardly find room for Heitor Pereira 's funky score , and though Pharrell Williams has contributed five new songs to sell soundtracks ( including the sweet There 's Something Special ) , the movie hardly needs them . '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap gave the film a mixed review , saying : `` Ultimately , none of these flaws will matter to the throngs of little kids who have made the previous Despicable Me movies ( and the superior Minions spin - off ) into giant global hits . '' Accolades ( edit ) Award Recipient ( s ) Result Golden Trailer Awards 2017 Best Animation / Family Despicable Me 3 Nominated Nickelodeon Mexico Kids ' Choice Awards 2017 Favorite Movie Won Nickelodeon Argentina Kids ' Choice Awards 2017 Favorite Movie Pending Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ ( stylized in marketing and onscreen as Despicable M3 ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Heitor Pereira to Return for ' Despicable Me 3 ' '' . Film Music Reporter . June 24 , 2016 . Retrieved August 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Film releases '' . Variety Insight . Archived from the original on 2017 - 05 - 16 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : Wolfe , Jennifer ( April 3 , 2017 ) . `` Illumination 's ' Despicable Me 3 ' To Premiere at Annecy 2017 '' . Animation World Network . Retrieved April 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Despicable Me 3 '' . AMC Theatres . Retrieved May 31 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Despicable Me 3 ( 2017 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved September 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Donnelly , Matt ( April 13 , 2016 ) . `` Trey Parker Joins Voice Cast of ' Despicable Me 3 ' '' . The Wrap . Retrieved June 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Box Office : Despicable Me 3 Wins the Weekend '' . Rotten Tomatoes . July 2 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Franich , Darren ( April 13 , 2016 ) . `` Trey Parker Will Voice The Villain In Despicable Me 3 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved April 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Calvario , Liz ( 2017 - 03 - 14 ) . `` ' Despicable Me 3 ' Trailer Reunites Gru With His Long - Lost Twin Brother '' . Deadline . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Nequinto , Denise ( 30 September 2016 ) . `` ' Despicable Me 3 ' 2017 Plot : Gru Experiences Sibling Rivalry , Faces New Villain '' . CitizenOracle . Retrieved 9 October 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lesnick , Silas ( December 14 , 2016 ) . `` Gru is Back in the Despicable Me 3 Trailer ! '' . ComingSoon.net . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Nev Scharrel Talks ' Despicable Me 3 ' In Exclusive Q&A ! '' . popstaronline.com . September 26 , 2016 . Retrieved December 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Snetiker , Marc ( May 19 , 2017 ) . `` Despicable Me 3 : Meet the mutinous new Minion '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved May 22 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Despicable Me 3 '' . Universal Pictures . Retrieved December 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Despicable Me 3 Trailer # 2 : Gru Meets Dru '' . Screen Rant. 2017 - 03 - 14 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` When is Despicable Me 3 released in the UK and is there a trailer ? '' . The Sun . 2017 - 06 - 14 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Miranda Cosgrove / Margo - ' Despicable 3 ' : Meet the Voices Behind the Animated Characters '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Comcast 's CEO Presents at Bank of America Merrill Lynch 2013 Media , Communications & Entertainment Conference ( Transcript ) '' . Seeking Alpha . September 11 , 2013 . Retrieved September 12 , 2013 . One of the real gems inside our company is Illumination the animation studio led by Chris Meledandri and Despicable Me 2 , which came out this summer is the most profitable film in the 100 year history of the Universal and there will obviously be another reopening a film called Minions , which are the minions from Despicable Me next Christmas and then there will be Despicable Me 3 . Jump up ^ `` ' Despicable Me ' Screenwriter Discusses Local Honor , Theme Park Attraction '' . Conejo Valley Happening . Retrieved July 24 , 2015 . We just started writing Despicable Me 3 , ... Jump up ^ Reed , Ryan ( June 9 , 2017 ) . `` Hear Pharrell 's Joyous New Song ' Yellow Light ' From ' Despicable Me 3 ' '' . Rolling Stones . Retrieved June 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Chart Watch # 427 '' . auspOp . July 1 , 2017 . Retrieved July 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Soundtrack -- Chart history '' Billboard Soundtrack Albums for Soundtrack . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Despicable Me 3 and Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas Set for 2017 '' . ComingSoon.net . January 15 , 2014 . Retrieved January 16 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Meet Gru 's twin brother in new Despicable Me 3 trailer '' . Comingsoon.net . March 14 , 2017 . Retrieved March 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Despicable Me 3 - In Theaters Jun 30 - TV Spot 3 ( HD ) . Illumination Entertainment . April 21 , 2017 . Retrieved April 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Despicable Me 3 - In Theaters June 30 - Official Trailer # 3 ( YouTube ) . Illumination Entertainment . May 24 , 2017 . Retrieved June 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Despicable Me 3 DVD Release Date Redbox , Netflix , iTunes , Amazon '' . New DVD Release Dates . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 14 . Jump up ^ Despicable Me 3 , Universal Pictures , 2017 - 11 - 06 , retrieved 2017 - 09 - 14 Jump up ^ Despicable Me 3 , Universal Pictures , 2017 - 11 - 06 , retrieved 2017 - 09 - 14 Jump up ^ `` Box Office : ' Despicable Me 3 ' Is Summer 's First And Last $1 Billion Hit '' . Forbes . September 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' Despicable Me 3 ' To Own Crowded Independence Day Weekend Stretch -- Box Office Preview '' . Deadline.com . June 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Despicable Me 3 ' Now At $75 M+ ; ' Baby Driver ' Booms To $30 M As ' The House ' Goes Broke With $9 M -- July 4th Weekend B.O. '' . Deadline.com . July 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( July 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Spider - Man : Homecoming ' Still Swinging In As Sony 's Second Best Domestic Opening Ever With $116 M - $118 M '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on July 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' Mummy ' Leads Overseas ; ' Wonder Woman ' Cuffs $572 M WW ; ' Cars ' , ' Despicable Me ' 3s Hit International Box Office '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved June 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Despicable Me 3 ( 2017 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Despicable Me 3 reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved July 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( 26 June 2017 ) . `` Despicable Me 3 Review '' . IGN . Jump up ^ Debruge , Peter ( 14 June 2017 ) . `` Film Review : ' Despicable Me 3 ' '' . Variety . Retrieved 20 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Duralde , Alonso ( 29 June 2017 ) . `` ' Despicable Me 3 ' Review : This Time , Not Enough Minions and Too Many Subplots '' . TheWrap . Retrieved 20 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Ceron , Ella ( August 19 , 2017 ) . `` Golden Trailer Awards : ' Lego Batman Movie ' Leads With 11 Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved May 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pond , Steve ( July 20 , 2017 ) . `` Nickelodeon Mexico Kids ' Choice Awards 2017 Nominees '' . The Wrap . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pond , Steve ( July 20 , 2017 ) . `` Nickelodeon Argentina Kids ' Choice Awards 2017 Nominees '' . The Wrap . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Despicable Me 3 . Official website Despicable Me 3 on IMDb Despicable Me 3 at Rotten Tomatoes Films directed by Pierre Coffin Despicable Me ( 2010 ) Despicable Me 2 ( 2013 ) Minions ( 2015 ) Despicable Me 3 ( 2017 ) Despicable Me Films Despicable Me ( 2010 ) Despicable Me 2 ( 2013 ) Minions ( 2015 ) Despicable Me 3 ( 2017 ) Minions 2 ( 2020 ) See also Despicable Me Minion Mayhem Minions ( characters ) `` Happy '' Minions Paradise Illumination Entertainment Feature films Released Despicable Me ( 2010 ) Hop ( 2011 ) Dr. Seuss ' The Lorax ( 2012 ) Despicable Me 2 ( 2013 ) Minions ( 2015 ) The Secret Life of Pets ( 2016 ) Sing ( 2016 ) Despicable Me 3 ( 2017 ) Upcoming Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas ( 2018 ) The Secret Life of Pets 2 ( 2019 ) Minions 2 ( 2020 ) Sing 2 ( 2020 ) Franchises Despicable Me ( 2010 -- present ) The Secret Life of Pets ( 2016 - present ) Sing ( 2016 - present ) People Chris Meledandri See also Despicable Me : Minion Mayhem Mac Guff Illumination Mac Guff 2010s portal Cartoon portal Animation portal Film in the United States portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Despicable_Me_3&oldid=800706780 '' Categories : 2017 films English - language films American films 2010s American animated films 2010s comedy films 2010s adventure films 2017 3D films 2017 computer - animated films American adventure comedy films American children 's comedy films American computer - animated films American sequel films Animated adventure films Animated comedy films Despicable Me ( franchise ) Films featuring anthropomorphic characters Illumination Entertainment animated films Universal Pictures animated films Films set in a fictional European country Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from March 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing potentially dated statements from September 2017 All articles containing potentially dated statements Commons category without a link on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Svenska Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 September 2017 , at 05 : 30 . 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The Pride of the Yankees
The Pride of the Yankees - wikipedia The Pride of the Yankees Jump to : navigation , search The Pride of the Yankees : The Life of Lou Gehrig Theatrical release poster Directed by Sam Wood Production designed by William Cameron Menzies Produced by Samuel Goldwyn Screenplay by Jo Swerling and Herman J. Mankiewicz Story by Paul Gallico Starring Gary Cooper Teresa Wright Babe Ruth Walter Brennan Music by Leigh Harline Cinematography Rudolph Maté A.S.C. Edited by Daniel Mandell Production company Samuel Goldwyn Productions Distributed by RKO Radio Pictures Release date July 14 , 1942 ( 1942 - 07 - 14 ) Running time 128 minutes Country United States Language English Box office $2,450,000 ( US rentals ) The Pride of the Yankees is a 1942 American film produced by Samuel Goldwyn , directed by Sam Wood , and starring Gary Cooper , Teresa Wright , and Walter Brennan . It is a tribute to the legendary New York Yankees first baseman Lou Gehrig , who died only one year before its release , at age 37 , from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , which later became known to the lay public as `` Lou Gehrig 's disease '' . Though subtitled `` The Life of Lou Gehrig '' , the film is less a sports biography than an homage to a heroic and widely loved sports figure whose tragic and premature death touched the entire nation . It emphasizes Gehrig 's relationship with his parents ( particularly his strong - willed mother ) , his friendships with players and journalists , and his storybook romance with the woman who became his `` companion for life , '' Eleanor . Details of his baseball career -- which were still fresh in most fans ' minds in 1942 -- are limited to montages of ballparks , pennants , and Cooper swinging bats and running bases , though Gehrig 's best - known major league record -- 2,130 consecutive games played -- is prominently cited . Yankee teammates Babe Ruth , Bob Meusel , Mark Koenig , and Bill Dickey play themselves , as does sportscaster Bill Stern . The film was adapted by Herman J. Mankiewicz , Jo Swerling , and an uncredited Casey Robinson from a story by Paul Gallico , and received 11 Academy Award nominations . Its climax is a re-enactment of Gehrig 's poignant 1939 farewell speech at Yankee Stadium . The film 's iconic closing line -- `` Today , I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the Earth '' -- was voted 38th on the American Film Institute 's list of 100 greatest movie quotes . Contents ( hide ) 1 Synopsis 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Acknowledgment in opening credits 4.1 Foreword 5 Release 6 Reception 6.1 Critical 6.2 Box office 7 Awards and other recognition 8 Inaccuracies / artistic license 8.1 Gehrig 's farewell speech 9 Adaptations to other media 10 References 11 External links Synopsis ( edit ) Lou Gehrig ( Cooper ) is a young Columbia University student whose old - fashioned mother ( Elsa Janssen ) wants him to study hard and become an engineer . But the young man has a gift for baseball . A sportswriter ( Brennan ) befriends Gehrig and persuades a scout to come see him play . Before long Gehrig signs with the team he has always revered , the New York Yankees . With the help of his father ( Ludwig Stössel ) , he endeavors to keep his career change a secret from his mother . Gehrig works his way up through the minor leagues and joins the Yankees . His hero , Babe Ruth , is at first condescending and dismissive of the rookie , but his strong , consistent play wins over Ruth and the rest of the team . Gehrig is soon joining teammates in playing pranks on Ruth on the team train . During a game at Comiskey Park , Gehrig trips over a stack of bats and is teased by a spectator , Eleanor ( Wright ) , who laughingly calls him `` tanglefoot '' . Later , they are properly introduced , leading to a relationship , and then an engagement . Gehrig 's mother , who still has n't accepted the fact that her son will not be an engineer , does not take this news well ; but Gehrig finally stands up to her and marries Eleanor . The Yankees become the most dominant team in baseball , and Gehrig becomes a fan favorite . His father and fully converted mother attend games and cheer for him . In a re-creation of a famous ( and possibly apocryphal ) story , Gehrig visits a crippled boy named Billy ( Gene Collins ) in a hospital . He promises to hit two home runs in a single World Series game in the boy 's honor -- then fulfills his promise . Gehrig is now the `` Iron Horse '' , a national hero at the peak of his career with multitudes of fans , many loyal friends , and an adoring wife . Then he begins to notice , with growing alarm , that his strength is slowly ebbing away . Though he continues to play , and extends his consecutive - game streak to a seemingly insurmountable record , his physical condition continues its inexorable decline . One day , in Detroit , he tells Yankees manager Joe McCarthy ( Harry Harvey ) that he has become a detriment to the team and benches himself . After an examination , a doctor gives him the awful news : Gehrig has a rare , incurable disease , and only a short time to live . A year later , at Lou Gehrig Day at Yankee Stadium , an older Billy ( David Holt ) finds Gehrig and shows him that he has made a full recovery , inspired by his hero 's example and the two - homer fulfilled promise . Then , as Eleanor weeps softly in the stands , Gehrig addresses the fans : `` People all say that I 've had a bad break . But today ... today , I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the Earth . '' Cast ( edit ) ( as per AFI database ) Gary Cooper as Lou Gehrig Teresa Wright as Eleanor Gehrig Babe Ruth as himself Walter Brennan as Sam Blake Dan Duryea as Hank Hanneman Elsa Janssen as Mom Gehrig Ludwig Stössel as Pop Gehrig Virginia Gilmore as Myra Bill Dickey as himself Ernie Adams as Miller Huggins Pierre Watkin as Mr. Twitchell Harry Harvey as Joe McCarthy Robert W. Meusel as himself Mark Koenig as himself Bill Stern as himself Addison Richards as Coach Hardie Albright as Van Tuyl Edward Fielding as Clinic doctor George Lessey as Mayor of New Rochelle Edgar Barrier as Hospital doctor Douglas Croft as Lou Gehrig as a boy Gene Collins as Billy , age 8 David Holt as Billy , age 17 Frank Faylen as Yankees ' 3rd Base Coach Pat Flaherty as Yankee Ball Player Production ( edit ) Samuel Goldwyn displayed little interest in Sam Wood 's initial proposal to make a movie tribute to Gehrig , as he had no knowledge or interest in baseball . In addition , conventional Hollywood wisdom dictated that sports pictures were box - office poison , as women , who made up more than half the audience and made most movie - going decisions , did n't like them . After Wood screened newsreel footage of Gehrig 's famous `` luckiest man '' speech , however , Goldwyn -- with tears in his eyes -- agreed to produce the picture . In a 1941 press campaign publicizing plans for the film , RKO Pictures announced a major talent hunt for Gehrig 's portrayer ; but Goldwyn and Wood reportedly never considered casting anyone but Cooper in the title role . Although he was ideally suited to the part due to his physical resemblance to Gehrig and the quiet strength and masculine appeal that he projected , Cooper was reluctant to accept it because he , like Goldwyn , had no interest in baseball . By one account , he had never watched a game prior to taking the role . Another problem was Cooper 's age ( 41 ) , particularly in scenes involving Gehrig as a young man . Cinematographer Rudolph Maté lighted Cooper from below during those early scenes to conceal lines and wrinkles , then gradually reduced and finally eliminated the lighting effect as the story progressed . Another important ( and problematic ) casting decision was Babe Ruth , as himself . Ruth 's health had been declining steadily since his retirement in 1935 , and by 1942 he weighed nearly 270 pounds . He was put on a strict diet to achieve a presentable weight before filming began . This rapid weight loss , on the heels of a heart attack followed by a car accident , combined with the tough shooting schedule and Ruth 's propensity to keep late hours , weakened him significantly . By the time filming wrapped he had developed pneumonia severe enough to require a period of hospitalization . Multiple published sources have asserted that Cooper , who was right - handed , could not master a convincing left - handed swing . To remedy the problem , the story went , he was filmed wearing a mirror - image uniform and swinging from the right side of the plate , then running to third base instead of first ; technicians then purportedly flopped the print of the film . Tom Shieber , a curator at the National Baseball Hall of Fame , has shown , however , that Cooper did indeed learn to bat left - handed , and never wore a backwards Yankees uniform nor ran to third base after swinging . Film footage was , in fact , flopped only once , during a brief sequence portraying Gehrig 's minor league days at Hartford , in order to make Cooper appear to be throwing left - handed -- a far more difficult task for a right - hander to master . ( `` ( Cooper ) threw the ball like an old woman tossing a hot biscuit , '' said Lefty O'Doul , who tried unsuccessfully to teach him a convincing left - handed throw . ) Scenes requiring Cooper to throw a ball as a Yankee were filmed using his stand - in , the left - handed Babe Herman . Scenes purporting to depict Yankee Stadium , Comiskey Park , and other ballparks were all filmed at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles , home of the Los Angeles Angels of the old Pacific Coast League , and a popular venue for baseball movies of the era , as well as the Home Run Derby television series . Acknowledgment in opening credits ( edit ) `` Appreciation is expressed for the gracious assistance of Mrs. Lou Gehrig and for the cooperation of Mr. Ed Barrow and the New York Yankees arranged by Christy Walsh . '' Foreword ( edit ) `` This is the story of a hero of the peaceful paths of everyday life . It is the story of a gentle young man who , in the full flower of his great fame , was a lesson in simplicity and modesty to the youth of America . He faced death with that same valor and fortitude that has been displayed by thousands of young Americans on far - flung fields of battle . He left behind him a memory of courage and devotion that will ever be an inspiration to all men . This is the story of Lou Gehrig . Damon Runyon Release ( edit ) Gehrig died on June 2 , 1941 . The film premiered on July 14 , 1942 in New York City at the Astor Theatre , and was shown for one night only at `` forty neighborhood theatres . '' Preceding the film was the premiere of an animated short called `` How to Play Baseball , '' produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios at Goldwyn 's request . Reception ( edit ) Critical ( edit ) Variety magazine called the film a `` stirring epitaph '' and a `` sentimental , romantic saga ... well worth seeing . '' Time magazine said the film was a `` grade - A love story '' done with `` taste and distinction '' though it was `` somewhat overlong , repetitive , undramatic . Baseball fans who hope to see much baseball played in Pride of the Yankees will be disappointed . Babe Ruth is there , playing himself with fidelity and considerable humor ; so are Yankees Bill Dickey , Bob Meusel , Mark Koenig . But baseball is only incidental . The hero does not hit a home run and win the girl . He is just a hardworking , unassuming , highly talented professional . The picture tells the model story of his model life in the special world of professional ballplayers . '' Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called it a `` tender , meticulous and explicitly narrative film '' that `` inclines to monotony '' because of its length and devotion to `` genial details . '' Box office ( edit ) The Pride of the Yankees was the 7th - highest grossing film of 1942 , with $8.08 million in box office receipts . Despite its wide popularity , RKO took a loss of $213,000 on the film due to the small distribution fee that Samuel Goldwyn had negotiated with the studio . All of Goldwyn 's pictures produced a loss for RKO no matter how much money they took in ; but the studio considered the arrangement acceptable , because its association with Goldwyn lent prestige to RKO , and enhanced sales of its own movies . Awards and other recognition ( edit ) Cooper with Babe Ruth in a publicity photo for the film Film Editor Daniel Mandell won an Academy Award for his work on The Pride of the Yankees . The film received ten additional Oscar nominations : Best Actor in a Leading Role ( Cooper ) Best Actress in a Leading Role ( Wright ) Best Art Direction - Interior Decoration , Black - and - White Best Cinematography , Black - and - White Best Effects , Special Effects ( Jack Cosgrove , Ray Binger , Thomas T. Moulton ) Best Music , Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture Best Picture Best Sound Recording ( Thomas T. Moulton ) Best Writing , Original Story Best Writing , Adapted Screenplay The American Film Institute ranked The Pride of the Yankees 22nd on its list of the 100 most inspiring films in American cinema . In AFI 's 2008 `` Ten Top Tens '' -- the top ten films in ten `` classic '' American film genres -- The Pride of the Yankees was ranked third in the sports category . Gehrig was named the 25th greatest hero in American cinema by the AFI in 2003 . Inaccuracies / artistic License ( edit ) As the film opens , Gehrig is depicted belting a home run through a window of the Columbia University athletic building . That building is actually located on the north end of campus , well away from the baseball field ; his farthest hits most likely smashed through the windows of a nearby building housing the School of Journalism . In one of the film 's more memorable scenes , a physician matter - of - factly informs Gehrig of his tragic diagnosis , dismal prognosis , and brief life expectancy . In fact , Mayo Clinic doctors painted an unrealistically optimistic picture of Gehrig 's condition and prospects , reportedly at his wife 's request . Among other things he was given `` a 50 -- 50 chance of keeping me as I am '' for the foreseeable future , and was told that he `` ... may need a cane in 10 or 15 years . '' Deliberate concealment of bad news from patients , particularly when cancer or an incurable degenerative disease was involved , was a relatively common practice at the time . Gehrig 's farewell speech ( edit ) There is no known intact film of Gehrig 's actual speech at Yankee Stadium on July 4 , 1939 ; a small portion of the newsreel footage , incorporating his first and last remarks , is all that survives . For the movie , the speech was not reproduced verbatim ; the script condensed and reorganized Gehrig 's actual spontaneous and unprepared remarks , and moved the iconic `` luckiest man '' line from the beginning to the end for heightened dramatic effect . Gehrig 's message remained essentially unchanged . Yankee Stadium Speech `` Fans , for the past two weeks you have been reading about a bad break . Yet today I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the Earth . I have been in ballparks for seventeen years and have never received anything but kindness and encouragement from you fans . `` Look at these grand men . Which of you would n't consider it the highlight of his career just to associate with them for even one day ? Sure , I 'm lucky . Who would n't consider it an honor to have known Jacob Ruppert ? Also , the builder of baseball 's greatest empire , Ed Barrow ? To have spent six years with that wonderful little fellow , Miller Huggins ? Then to have spent the next nine years with that outstanding leader , that smart student of psychology , the best manager in baseball today , Joe McCarthy ? Sure , I 'm lucky . `` When the New York Giants , a team you would give your right arm to beat , and vice versa , sends you a gift - that 's something . When everybody down to the groundskeepers and those boys in white coats remember you with trophies -- that 's something . When you have a wonderful mother - in - law who takes sides with you in squabbles with her own daughter -- that 's something . When you have a father and a mother who work all their lives so you can have an education and build your body -- it 's a blessing . When you have a wife who has been a tower of strength and shown more courage than you dreamed existed - that 's the finest I know . `` So I close in saying that I might have been given a bad break , but I 've got an awful lot to live for . '' Film Speech `` I have been walking onto ball fields for sixteen years , and I 've never received anything but kindness and encouragement from you fans . I have had the great honor to have played with these great veteran ballplayers on my left - Murderers ' Row , our championship team of 1927 . I have had the further honor of living with and playing with these men on my right - the Bronx Bombers , the Yankees of today . `` I have been given fame and undeserved praise by the boys up there behind the wire in the press box , my friends , the sportswriters . I have worked under the two greatest managers of all time , Miller Huggins and Joe McCarthy . `` I have a mother and father who fought to give me health and a solid background in my youth . I have a wife , a companion for life , who has shown me more courage than I ever knew . `` People all say that I 've had a bad break . But today ... today , I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the Earth . '' Adaptations to other media ( edit ) The Pride of the Yankees was adapted as an hour - long radio play on the October 4 , 1943 broadcast of Lux Radio Theater with Gary Cooper and Virginia Bruce and a September 30 , 1949 broadcast of Screen Director 's Playhouse starring Gary Cooper and Lurene Tuttle . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Top Grossers of the Season '' , Variety , 5 January 1944 p 54 Jump up ^ `` 101 Pix Gross in Millions '' Variety 6 Jan 1943 p 58 Jump up ^ The Pride of the Yankees on IMDb Jump up ^ `` The Pride of the Yankees '' . American Film Institute . Retrieved January 6 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : The Pride of the Yankees . TCM.com , retrieved June 2 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Pride of the Yankees , Remembered '' . Columbia Magazine , April / May , 1989 , p. 18 . Jump up ^ Meyers , Jeffrey : Gary Cooper , American Hero . New York , Cooper Square Press , February 27 , 2001 , pp. 88 - 91 . ISBN 0815411405 Jump up ^ Povich , Shirley ( July 13 , 1942 ) . `` Gehrig Tribute to Open Saturday . '' Washington Post , p. C - 1 . Jump up ^ Sandomir , Richard ( 8 February 2013 ) . `` Reversing Course on Reports About a Classic '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 10 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Shieber , Tom ( February 3 , 2013 ) . The Pride of the Yankees / Seeknay . Baseball Researcher . Retrieved February 5 , 2013 ^ Jump up to : Crowther , Bosley . `` Pride of the Yankees '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` The Pride of the Yankees '' . Variety . 1942 . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` The New Pictures , Aug. 3 , 1942 '' . Time . August 3 , 1942 . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 19 . Jump up ^ 1942 Top Grossing Movies . ultimatemovierankings.com , retrieved June 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jewell , RB . Slow Fade to Black : The Decline of RKO Radio Pictures . University of California Press , 2016 , p. 17 . ISBN 0520289668 Jump up ^ `` Daniel Mandell , Won 3 Film Editing Oscars '' . The New York Times . June 13 , 1987 . Retrieved November 22 , 2011 Jump up ^ `` The 15th Academy Awards ( 1943 ) Nominees and Winners '' . oscars.org . Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` The Pride of the Yankees '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 14 . Jump up ^ American Film Institute ( 2008 - 06 - 17 ) . `` AFI Crowns Top 10 Films in 10 Classic Genres '' . ComingSoon.net . Retrieved 2008 - 06 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Top 10 Sports '' . American Film Institute . Retrieved 2008 - 06 - 18 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Ray ( 28 May 2011 ) . `` For the Columbia Class of ' 41 It Is Always the Day After '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 10 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Krieger , T. Eleanor Gehrig . Society for American Baseball Research . Retrieved September 29 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Letter from Eleanor Gehrig to Dr. Paul O'Leary of the Mayo Clinic , April 9 , 1940 . In a postscript , Eleanor requested that O'Leary address his response to her with a pseudonym ( Mrs. E.G. Barrow ) . O'Leary complied . Jump up ^ Kaden , S. ( 2002 ) . `` More About His ALS Battle '' . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 16 . Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_SKyfGK9brs&feature=kp External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Pride of the Yankees . 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who said what does george know about yankee pride when did he ever play for the yankees
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Billy Williams
Billy Williams - wikipedia Billy Williams For other uses , see Billy Williams ( disambiguation ) . Billy Williams Williams in 2013 Left fielder Born : ( 1938 - 06 - 15 ) June 15 , 1938 ( age 80 ) Whistler , Alabama Batted : Left Threw : Right MLB debut August 6 , 1959 , for the Chicago Cubs Last MLB appearance October 2 , 1976 , for the Oakland Athletics MLB statistics Batting average . 290 Hits 2,711 Home runs 426 Runs batted in 1,475 Teams Chicago Cubs ( 1959 -- 1974 ) Oakland Athletics ( 1975 -- 1976 ) Career highlights and awards 6 × All - Star ( 19622 , 1964 , 1965 , 1968 , 1972 , 1973 ) NL Rookie of the Year ( 1961 ) NL batting champion ( 1972 ) Chicago Cubs # 26 retired Member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame Induction Vote 85.71 % ( sixth ballot ) Billy Leo Williams ( born June 15 , 1938 ) is a retired American baseball left fielder who played sixteen seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Chicago Cubs and two seasons for the Oakland Athletics . Williams was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1987 . In 1999 , he was named a finalist for the Major League Baseball All - Century Team . Williams was one of the best Cubs players . He was the 1961 National League ( NL ) Rookie of the Year and was an NL All - Star for six seasons with the Cubs . In 1970 , he had a . 322 batting average with 42 home runs and 129 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , led the NL with 205 hits , and was the NL Most Valuable Player runner - up . In 1972 , he won the NL batting title , hitting . 333 . Williams hit over 400 home runs in his career , including 30 or more in five seasons . He also hit over . 300 in five seasons and had over 100 RBIs in three seasons . Williams was a highly competitive player on Cubs teams that never reached the postseason . When he finally played in the postseason during the second to the last year of his career with the Athletics , the `` A 's '' did not get to the World Series . In 1999 , he was selected as a member of the Cubs All - Century Team . Contents 1 Early life 2 MLB career 2.1 Chicago Cubs 2.2 Oakland Athletics 3 Later years 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Early life ( edit ) Billy Williams was born in Whistler , Alabama . His father Frank was a stevedore who had also played first base for the semipro Whistler Stars . Williams grew up in a segregated neighborhood . He attended Whistler High School . Entering professional baseball in 1956 , Williams started his minor league career with the Ponca City Cubs of the Sooner State League . After returning to Ponca City in 1957 and hitting 17 home runs , Williams split 1958 between the Burlington Bees and Pueblo Bruins . In his autobiography , Williams recalled that had never experienced overt racial discrimination until his 1959 promotion to the Class AA San Antonio Missions in San Antonio , Texas . He was so discouraged that he left the team and went home . Buck O'Neil , the Cubs scout who had originally discovered Williams , was dispatched to Whistler and he persuaded Williams to return to the team . During the 1959 season , he advanced to the Class AAA Fort Worth Cats and even played 18 games for the Cubs . In 1960 , he hit 26 home runs for the Class AAA Houston Buffs and played in 12 major league games . MLB career ( edit ) Chicago Cubs ( edit ) Williams joined a Chicago Cubs team that would feature stars such as Ernie Banks , Ferguson Jenkins , and Ron Santo by the early 1960s . Rogers Hornsby ( seven NL batting titles ) , who by 1960 was serving as a scout and coach in the Cubs organization , predicted Williams would someday win a batting title . Williams debuted with the Cubs late in the 1959 season , and played in a total of 30 games in both the 1959 and 1960 seasons . In 1961 , he played in 146 games and was selected as the NL Rookie of the Year . That year he hit 25 home runs and drove in 86 runs . In 1962 , 1964 and 1965 , he was named an NL All - Star . He won the NL Player of the Month Award in May 1964 with a . 455 average , 8 HR , and 22 RBI . Williams struggled defensively in the first few years of his career , leading NL outfielders in errors as a rookie . By the mid-1960s , his defense was no longer seen as a serious weakness . He would return to the All - Star Game in 1968 , 1972 , and 1973 . Williams in 1961 In each season from 1961 to 1973 , Williams hit at least 20 home runs and drove in 84 or more runs . His batting swing was smooth and efficient , with quick wrist action that allowed him to hit for both average and power despite his slender frame . Early in his career , this earned him the nickname `` Sweet - Swinging Billy Williams '' , sometimes shortened to `` Sweet Williams '' or `` Sweet Billy '' ( perhaps suggested by the flowers known as sweet williams ) . His nickname was later referenced in the subtitle of his autobiography . He was also nicknamed `` Sweet - Swinging Billy from Whistler '' , suggesting his birthplace in Alabama . His home run feats included 3 homers in one game and 5 homers in two consecutive games . Twice in one season , Williams belted 4 extra-base hits in a game . In 1970 , Williams batted . 322 with 42 homers and 129 RBIs and finished second in National League Most Valuable Player voting ; surprisingly , despite batting . 319 with 26 HR and 80 RBI at the All Star break , he was left off the All Star team . Williams set a National League record for consecutive games played with 1,117 from 1963 to 1970 ( eclipsed by Steve Garvey with 1,207 from 1975 to 1983 ) . As his consecutive games streak began to accumulate , he was dubbed `` Iron Man '' by some writers . He co-authored a 1970 book called Iron Man. ( 4 ) In 1972 , he was the National League batting champion and named the major league Player of the Year by The Sporting News . He paced the league in batting average with a . 333 mark , also posting a . 606 slugging percentage while collecting 37 home runs and 122 runs batted in ( RBI ) . In August , he won his second and final NL Player of the Month Award (. 438 BA , 9 HR , 29 RBI ) . For the second time , he was the NL MVP runner - up to Johnny Bench of the Cincinnati Reds ; Williams never won the award . Oakland Athletics ( edit ) Williams was traded to the American League 's Oakland Athletics after the 1974 season for second baseman Manny Trillo and two pitchers . He helped lead Oakland get to the 1975 American League West championship as a designated hitter , hitting 23 homers with 81 RBI . In 1976 , Williams played in 120 games and hit only . 211 . He retired that year . Williams accumulated a lifetime . 290 batting average with 426 home runs and 1475 RBI . Later years ( edit ) Billy Williams 's number 26 was retired by the Chicago Cubs in 1987 . Williams credited a grade school teacher with encouraging him to always try to improve , citing the old saying , `` Good , better , best / Never let it rest / Until the good is better / And the better is best . '' Williams was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1987 . On August 13 , 1987 , Williams ' uniform number 26 was retired at Wrigley Field . His was the second number to be retired by the Cubs , the first being Ernie Banks ' number 14 . Following his departure from the Cubs , the number was reassigned to other players from time to time , most notably Larry Biittner , although Williams reclaimed it during several intervals of coaching with the Cubs after his playing days had ended . In 1999 , he was selected to the Cubs All - Century Team and was named as one of the one hundred finalists to the Major League Baseball All - Century Team . During the 2010 season , the Cubs honored Williams with a statue outside of Wrigley Field in Chicago . The statue was unveiled in a pre-game ceremony before their home game on September 7 against the Houston Astros . Retired number 26 at Wrigley Field In 2011 , Williams was appointed as a member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame 's 16 - member Golden Era Committee ( replaced the Veterans Committee ) which considers ten Golden Era candidates every three years for the Hall of Fame . The ten candidates from the 1947 to 1972 era are first identified by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) appointed Historical Overview Committee ( 10 - 12 BBWAA members ) every three years . Former Cubs third baseman Ron Santo was the only Golden Era candidate elected to the Hall of Fame by `` The Committee '' ( includes 8 members of the Hall of Fame ) during their winter meetings in December 2011 ( and 2014 ) . See also ( edit ) List of Major League Baseball home run records List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders List of Major League Baseball batting champions List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle Major League Baseball consecutive games played streaks Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ National Baseball Hall of Fame ( 1 ) Retrieved May 5 , 2015 ^ Jump up to : Armour , Mark . `` Billy Williams '' . Society for American Baseball Research . Retrieved September 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 1 . ^ Jump up to : `` Billy Williams Statistics '' . Baseball-Reference.com . Retrieved September 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Billy Williams Minor League Statistics & History '' . Baseball-Reference.com . Retrieved March 26 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 8 - 11 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Cooperstown : Where the Legends Live Forever , by Lowell Reidenbaugh , edited by Joe Hoppel , and compiled by the Editors of The Sporting News . New York , Gramercy Books , 1999 . Jump up ^ A 's get Billy Williams in trade with Chicago Jump up ^ Williams , p. 210 . Jump up ^ http://archive.chicagobreakingsports.com/2010/09/billy-williams-statue-unveiled-during-ceremonies.html Jump up ^ National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum , December 5 , 2011 : `` Ron Santo Elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by Golden Era Committee '' ( 3 ) References ( edit ) Williams , Billy ; Mitchell , Fred ( 2008 ) . Billy Williams : My Sweet - swinging Lifetime with the Cubs . Triumph Books . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60078 - 050 - 9 . Retrieved March 26 , 2015 . Further reading ( edit ) Armour , Mark . `` Billy Williams '' . SABR . Treder , Steve ( February 8 , 2005 ) . `` The Williams - Santo Cubs : 1961 - 1965 '' . The Hardball Times . Archived from the original on December 9 , 2005 -- via Wayback Machine . Career highlights at BaseballLibrary.com via Wayback Machine `` Its all about R-e-s-p-e-c-t for ' Sweet Swingin ' Billy Williams External links ( edit ) Billy Williams at the Baseball Hall of Fame Career statistics and player information from Baseball - Reference , or Fangraphs , or The Baseball Cube , or Baseball - Reference ( Minors ) , or Baseball Almanac , or Retrosheet Preceded by Willie Mays César Cedeño Major League Player of the Month May 1964 July 1972 Succeeded by Jim Bunning Ken Henderson Preceded by Carl Yastrzemski Hitting for the cycle July 17 , 1966 Succeeded by Randy Hundley National League Rookie of the Year Award 1947 : J. Robinson 1948 : Dark 1949 : Newcombe 1950 : Jethroe 1951 : Mays 1952 : Black 1953 : Gilliam 1954 : Moon 1955 : Virdon 1956 : F. Robinson 1957 : Sanford 1958 : Cepeda 1959 : McCovey 1960 : F. Howard 1961 : B. Williams 1962 : Hubbs 1963 : Rose 1964 : Allen 1965 : Lefebvre 1966 : Helms 1967 : Seaver 1968 : Bench 1969 : Sizemore 1970 : Morton 1971 : E. Williams 1972 : Matlack 1973 : Matthews 1974 : McBride 1975 : Montefusco 1976 : Metzger & Zachry 1977 : Dawson 1978 : Horner 1979 : Sutcliffe 1980 : Howe 1981 : Valenzuela 1982 : Sax 1983 : Strawberry 1984 : Gooden 1985 : Coleman 1986 : Worrell 1987 : Santiago 1988 : Sabo 1989 : Walton 1990 : Justice 1991 : Bagwell 1992 : Karros 1993 : Piazza 1994 : Mondesi 1995 : Nomo 1996 : Hollandsworth 1997 : Rolen 1998 : Wood 1999 : Williamson 2000 : Furcal 2001 : Pujols 2002 : Jennings 2003 : Willis 2004 : Bay 2005 : R. Howard 2006 : Ramírez 2007 : Braun 2008 : Soto 2009 : Coghlan 2010 : Posey 2011 : Kimbrel 2012 : Harper 2013 : Fernández 2014 : deGrom 2015 : Bryant 2016 : Seager 2017 : Bellinger National League batting champions 1876 : Barnes 1877 : White 1878 : Hines 1879 : Hines 1880 : Gore 1881 : Anson 1882 : Brouthers 1883 : Brouthers 1884 : Kelly 1885 : Connor 1886 : Kelly 1887 : Thompson 1888 : Anson 1889 : Brouthers 1890 : Glasscock 1891 : Hamilton 1892 : Brouthers 1893 : Hamilton 1894 : Duffy 1895 : Burkett 1896 : Burkett 1897 : Keeler 1898 : Keeler 1899 : Delahanty 1900 : Wagner 1901 : Burkett 1902 : Beaumont 1903 : Wagner 1904 : Wagner 1905 : Seymour 1906 : Wagner 1907 : Wagner 1908 : Wagner 1909 : Wagner 1910 : Magee 1911 : Wagner 1912 : Zimmerman 1913 : Daubert 1914 : Daubert 1915 : Doyle 1916 : Chase 1917 : Roush 1918 : Wheat 1919 : Roush 1920 : Hornsby 1921 : Hornsby 1922 : Hornsby 1923 : Hornsby 1924 : Hornsby 1925 : Hornsby 1926 : Hargrave 1927 : Waner 1928 : Hornsby 1929 : O'Doul 1930 : Terry 1931 : Hafey 1932 : O'Doul 1933 : Klein 1934 : Waner 1935 : Vaughan 1936 : Waner 1937 : Medwick 1938 : Lombardi 1939 : Mize 1940 : Garms 1941 : Reiser 1942 : Lombardi 1943 : Musial 1944 : D. Walker 1945 : Cavarretta 1946 : Musial 1947 : H. Walker 1948 : Musial 1949 : Robinson 1950 : Musial 1951 : Musial 1952 : Musial 1953 : Furillo 1954 : Mays 1955 : Ashburn 1956 : Aaron 1957 : Musial 1958 : Ashburn 1959 : Aaron 1960 : Groat 1961 : Clemente 1962 : Davis 1963 : Davis 1964 : Clemente 1965 : Clemente 1966 : Alou 1967 : Clemente 1968 : Rose 1969 : Rose 1970 : Carty 1971 : Torre 1972 : Williams 1973 : Rose 1974 : Garr 1975 : Madlock 1976 : Madlock 1977 : Parker 1978 : Parker 1979 : Hernandez 1980 : Buckner 1981 : Madlock 1982 : Oliver 1983 : Madlock 1984 : Gwynn 1985 : McGee 1986 : Raines 1987 : Gwynn 1988 : Gwynn 1989 : Gwynn 1990 : McGee 1991 : Pendleton 1992 : Sheffield 1993 : Galarraga 1994 : Gwynn 1995 : Gwynn 1996 : Gwynn 1997 : Gwynn 1998 : L. Walker 1999 : L. Walker 2000 : Helton 2001 : L. Walker 2002 : Bonds 2003 : Pujols 2004 : Bonds 2005 : Lee 2006 : Sanchez 2007 : Holliday 2008 : Jones 2009 : Ramírez 2010 : González 2011 : Reyes 2012 : Posey 2013 : Cuddyer 2014 : Morneau 2015 : Gordon 2016 : LeMahieu 2017 : Blackmon Sporting News MLB Player of the Year Award 1936 : Hubbell 1937 : Allen 1938 : Vander Meer 1939 : DiMaggio 1940 : Feller 1941 : T. Williams 1942 : T. Williams 1943 : Chandler 1944 : Marion 1945 : Newhouser 1946 : Musial 1947 : T. Williams 1948 : Boudreau 1949 : T. Williams 1950 : Rizzuto 1951 : Musial 1952 : Roberts 1953 : Rosen 1954 : Mays 1955 : Snider 1956 : Mantle 1957 : T. Williams 1958 : Turley 1959 : Wynn 1960 : Mazeroski 1961 : Maris 1962 : Wills & Drysdale 1963 : Koufax 1964 : Boyer 1965 : Koufax 1966 : Robinson 1967 : Yastrzemski 1968 : McLain 1969 : McCovey 1970 : Bench 1971 : Torre 1972 : B. Williams 1973 : Jackson 1974 : Brock 1975 : Morgan 1976 : Morgan 1977 : Carew 1978 : Guidry 1979 : Stargell 1980 : Brett 1981 : Valenzuela 1982 : Yount 1983 : Ripken Jr . 1984 : Sandberg 1985 : Mattingly 1986 : Clemens 1987 : Bell 1988 : Hershiser 1989 : Mitchell 1990 : Bonds 1991 : Ripken Jr . 1992 : Sheffield 1993 : Thomas 1994 : Bagwell 1995 : Belle 1996 : Rodriguez 1997 : Griffey Jr . 1998 : Sosa 1999 : Palmeiro 2000 : Delgado 2001 : Bonds 2002 : Rodriguez 2003 : Pujols 2004 : Bonds 2005 : Jones 2006 : Howard 2007 : Rodriguez 2008 : Pujols 2009 : Pujols 2010 : Hamilton 2011 : Verlander 2012 : Cabrera 2013 : Cabrera 2014 : Kershaw 2015 : Donaldson 2016 : Altuve 2017 : Altuve Chicago Cubs retired numbers 10 Ron Santo 14 Ernie Banks 23 Ryne Sandberg 26 Billy Williams 31 Ferguson Jenkins & Greg Maddux Baseball Hall of Fame Class of 1987 BBWAA Vote Catfish Hunter ( 76.3 % ) Billy Williams ( 85.7 % ) Veterans Committee Ray Dandridge J.G. Taylor Spink Award Jack Lang Ford C. Frick Award Jack Buck Members of the National Baseball Hall of Fame Pitchers Alexander Bender Blyleven M. Brown R. Brown Bunning Carlton Chesbro Clarkson Cooper Coveleski Cummings Day Dean Dihigo Drysdale Eckersley Faber Feller Fingers Ford B. Foster Galvin B. Gibson Glavine Gomez Gossage Grimes Grove Haines Hoffman Hoyt Hubbell Hunter Jenkins R. Johnson W. Johnson Joss Keefe Koufax Lemon Lyons Maddux Marichal Marquard Martínez Mathewson McGinnity Méndez Morris Newhouser Nichols Niekro Paige Palmer Pennock Perry Plank Radbourn Rixey Roberts Rogan Ruffing Rusie Ryan Seaver H. Smith Smoltz Spahn Sutter Sutton Vance Waddell Walsh Welch Wilhelm J. Williams Willis Wynn Young Catchers Bench Berra Bresnahan Campanella Carter Cochrane Dickey Ewing Ferrell Fisk J. Gibson Hartnett Lombardi Mackey Piazza Rodríguez Santop Schalk First basemen Anson Bagwell Beckley Bottomley Brouthers Cepeda Chance Connor Foxx Gehrig Greenberg G. Kelly Killebrew Leonard McCovey Mize Murray Pérez Sisler Suttles Taylor Terry Thomas Thome Second basemen Alomar Biggio Carew E. Collins Doerr Evers Fox Frisch Gehringer Gordon Grant Herman Hornsby Lajoie Lazzeri Mazeroski McPhee Morgan J. Robinson Sandberg Schoendienst Third basemen Baker Boggs Brett J. Collins Dandridge J. Johnson Jones Kell Lindstrom Mathews Molitor B. Robinson Santo Schmidt Traynor J. Wilson D. White Shortstops Aparicio Appling Bancroft Banks Boudreau Cronin Davis T. Jackson Jennings Larkin Lloyd Maranville Reese Ripken Jr . Rizzuto Sewell O. Smith Tinker Trammell Vaughan Wagner Wallace Ward Wells Yount Outfielders Aaron Ashburn Averill Bell Brock W. Brown Burkett Carey Charleston Clarke Clemente Cobb Combs Crawford Cuyler Dawson Delahanty DiMaggio Doby Duffy Flick Goslin Griffey Jr . Guerrero Gwynn Hafey Hamilton Heilmann Henderson Hill Hooper Irvin R. Jackson Kaline Keeler Kelley K. Kelly Kiner Klein Mantle Manush Mays T. McCarthy Medwick Musial O'Rourke Ott Puckett Raines J. Rice S. Rice F. Robinson Roush Ruth Simmons Slaughter Snider Speaker Stargell Stearnes Thompson Torriente L. Waner P. Waner Wheat B. Williams T. Williams H. Wilson Winfield Yastrzemski Youngs Managers Alston Anderson Cox Durocher Hanlon Harris Herzog Huggins La Russa Lasorda López Mack J. McCarthy McGraw McKechnie W. Robinson Selee Southworth Stengel Torre Weaver D. Williams Executives / pioneers Barrow Bulkeley Cartwright Chadwick Chandler Comiskey Dreyfuss R. Foster Frick Giles Gillick Griffith Harridge Hulbert B. Johnson Kuhn Landis La . MacPhail Le . MacPhail Manley O'Malley Pompez Posey Rickey Ruppert Schuerholz Selig Spalding Veeck Weiss S. White Wilkinson G. Wright H. Wright Yawkey Umpires Barlick Chylak Conlan Connolly Evans Harvey Hubbard Klem McGowan O'Day ISNI : 0000 0000 4582 9075 LCCN : no97067974 SNAC : w61k2h73 VIAF : 24210043 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Billy_Williams&oldid=853584320 '' Categories : National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees Major League Baseball left fielders Chicago Cubs players Oakland Athletics players Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners Major League Baseball players with retired numbers National League batting champions National League All - Stars Major League Baseball bench coaches Major League Baseball first base coaches Major League Baseball hitting coaches Chicago Cubs coaches Oakland Athletics coaches Chicago Cubs executives Ponca City Cubs players Pueblo Bruins players Burlington Bees players San Antonio Missions players Fort Worth Cats players Houston Buffs players Baseball players from Alabama People from Prichard , Alabama Sportspeople from Chicago 1938 births Living people African - American baseball players African - American baseball coaches Seattle Mariners coaches American sportsmen Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2016 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from September 2017 Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia 한국어 日本 語 Polski Português Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 5 August 2018 , at 20 : 03 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
when did billy williams play for the cubs
[ "Billy Williams\nWilliams in 2013\nLeft fielder\nBorn: (1938-06-15) June 15, 1938 (age 80)Whistler, Alabama\n\nBatted: Left\nThrew: Right\nMLB debut\nAugust 6, 1959, for the Chicago CubsLast MLB appearance\nOctober 2, 1976, for the Oakland AthleticsMLB statisticsBatting average\n.290Hits\n2,711Home runs\n426Runs batted in\n1,475\nTeams\nChicago Cubs (1959–1974)\nOakland Athletics (1975–1976)\nCareer highlights and awards\n6× All-Star (1962², 1964, 1965, 1968, 1972, 1973)\nNL Rookie of the Year (1961)\nNL batting champion (1972)\nChicago Cubs #26 retired\nMember of the National Baseball Hall of Fame Induction\n1987Vote\n85.71% (sixth ballot)\n" ]
[ "1959–1974" ]
9180781194931531216
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa - wikipedia Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the musical reality TV show . For the musical notes , see Swara . For the music company , see Saregama . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Sa Re Ga Ma Pa logo Concept = Zee Tv , Atul Date Creative director ( s ) Zee TV , Neeraj Sharma Presented by Sonu Nigam ( 1995 - 2000 ) Amaan Ali Khan and Ayaan Ali Khan ( 2000 - 01 ) Shaan ( 2001 - 06 ) Aditya Narayan ( 2007 - 09 , 2014 - present ) Purab Kohli ( 2010 ) Manish Paul ( 2010 ) Javed Ali ( 2012 - 2013 ) Opening theme `` Sa Re Ga Ma '' by Sonu Nigam and Sadhana Sargam ( 1995 - 2000 ) `` Sa Re Ga Ma Pa '' by Shaan and Sadhana Sargam ( 2000 - 06 ) `` Sa Re Ga Ma Pa '' by Aditya Narayan and Shriram Iyer ( 2007 - 09 ) `` Sa Re Ga Ma Pa '' by Javed Ali ( 2010 - present ) Country of origin India No. of seasons 26 Production Running time approx. 52 minutes Release Original network Zee TV Picture format 480i ( SDTV ) , Original release May 1 , 1995 -- present External links Website Sa Re Ga Ma Pa is an Indian musical reality TV show . It started airing on Zee TV in 1995 as Sa Re Ga Ma . It is the oldest running singing reality show in India . Series history The first episode aired on May 1 , 1995 and was hosted by Sonu Nigam . In the year 1999 , the show was hosted by the Bangash brothers , Amaan Ali Bangash and Ayaan Ali Bangash , sons of legendary sarod - player Amjad Ali Khan . From 2002 , Shaan started hosting the show . Till 2005 , the show used to follow a format wherein experts in the field of music would judge the contestants and score them . The format changed with the advent of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2005 which introduced the judges as mentors of different teams and scoring was primarily dependent on public voting . After Shaan quit hosting the show , the show was hosted by many others like Purab Kohli , Manish Paul , Karan Singh Rathore , Archana Jani , Vipul Roy , Jay Soni and even kids Dhairya Sorecha & Afsha Musani . The most prominent names to host the show in later seasons were Javed Ali and the current host Aditya Narayan . The show has seen multiple variations over the years : Sa Re Ga Ma : Contestants were scored only by the expert judges . There were 8 prelim rounds , each consisting of 2 male singers and 2 female singers . One male winner and one female winner from each show competed in the semifinal rounds ; there were a total of 4 semifinals . In the finals , there was one male winner and another female winner . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa : 2 male singers , 2 female singers . The male and female winner would return the following episode and compete against a new challenger . At the start of this `` roll - over '' series , they had initially announced that anyone with over 10 wins would get an album ; however , that never materialized . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge : Teams were formed , each Gharana ( team ) had a judge who mentored them . Elimination was decided by public voting . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Ek Main Aur Ek Tu : A duet singing competition which featured some new contestants as well as old contestants from earlier seasons . Weekly elimination decided by public voting . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs : A singing competition for young children , which judges the prodigious kids on the basis of their voice quality , singing talent and versatility in performance . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge USA : The first instalment of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge series in USA . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Mega Challenge : A special season in which eight teams representing eight different states and consisting of total 24 talented contestants from past seasons of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa participated . The show was made to celebrate the 1000th episode of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa . Notable Indian singers and musicians were roped in to judge each of the episodes . There have also been multiple regional versions in languages like Gujarati , Marathi , Bengali , Kannada , Punjabi , Tamil , and Telugu . # Season Year Winner Host Judges Sa Re Ga Ma 1995 Sanjeevani Bhelande Sonu Nigam Anu malik , udit narayan , kumar shanu Sa Re Ga Ma Nobina Mirjankar Sonu Nigam Sa Re Ga Ma 1997 Ravi Shanker Singh Sonu Nigam O.P Naiyar Sa Re Ga Ma 1997 Mohammed Vakil Sonu Nigam Sa Re Ga Ma 1998 Bela Shende Sonu Nigam 6 Sa Re Ga Ma 1999 Archana Udupa Sonu Nigam 7 Sa Re Ga Ma 2000 Shreya Ghoshal Sonu Nigam 8 Sa Re Ga Ma Anita Pundit Amaan Ali Khan & Ayaan Ali Khan 9 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa : Golden Voice Hunt 2003 Arpita Mukherjee ( singer ) & Rahul Saxena Shaan 10 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa World Series Hrishikesh Ranade & Ronkini Gupta Shaan 11 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Campus Special 2005 Twinkle Bajpai , Manish Bhatt Shaan 12 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2005 2005 Debojit Saha Shaan Himesh Reshammiya , Jatin - Lalit , Aadesh Shrivastava , Ismail Darbar 13 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Ek Main Aur Ek Tu 2006 Aishwarya Nigam & Ujjaini Mukherjee Shaan , Ishita Arun Hariharan , Lesle Lewis 14 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2006 Sanchita Bhattacharya Shaan Abhijeet Bhattacharya , Alka Yagnik , Bappi Lahiri 15 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2007 2007 Aneek Dhar Aditya Narayan Himesh Reshammiya , Ismail Darbar , Bappi Lahiri , Vishal - Shekhar 16 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs International 2007 Anamika Choudhari Aditya Narayan Suresh Wadkar , Sonu Nigam 17 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge USA 2008 2008 Darshana Menon Aishwarya Nigam Suresh Wadkar , Aadesh Srivastav 18 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009 2009 Vaishali Mhade Aditya Narayan Himesh Reshammiya , Aadesh Srivastav , Shankar Mahadevan , Pritam 19 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2009 2009 Hemant Brijwasi Dhairya Sorecha , Afsha Musani Abhijeet Bhattacharya , Alka Yagnik 20 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Mega Challenge 2009 Team Maharashtra - Vaishali Mhade , Kaushik Deshpande and Rohit Raut Karan Singh Rathore and Archana Jani ( first episode ) Vipul Roy and Manish Paul Sonu Nigam , Pyarelal and Suresh Wadkar ( finale ) 21 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Singing Superstar Kamal Khan Purab Kohli , Manish Paul Daler Mehndi , Vishal - Shekhar , Sajid - Wajid 22 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2011 2011 Azmat Hussain Jay Soni Adnan Sami , Kailash Kher , Javed Ali 23 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2012 2012 Jasraj Jayant Joshi Javed Ali Shankar Mahadevan , Rahul Ram , Sajid - Wajid 24 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2014 2014 Gagan Gopalkrishna Gaonkar Aditya Narayan Alka Yagnik ( Mahaguru ) , Shaan , Monali Thakur 25 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2016 Kushal Paul Aditya Narayan Pritam , Sajid - Wajid , Mika 26 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 2017 Shreyan Bhattacharya and Anjali Gaikwad Aditya Narayan Himesh Reshammiya , Javed Ali , Neha Kakkar External links ZEE TV References Jump up ^ `` Reality shows take centre stage on TV - Livemint '' . www.livemint.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Sonu Nigam back as host on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa - Times of India '' . The Times of India . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Music is inspiration '' . The Hans India . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ Team , Tellychakkar . `` Shaan '' . Tellychakkar.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Purab Kohli bids adieu to Zee TV 's Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Singing Superstar '' . ZEE TV . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ Team , Tellychakkar . `` Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Mega challenge gets its hosts '' . Tellychakkar.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ Team , Tellychakkar . `` Vipul to do some more hosting '' . Tellychakkar.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Jay Soni turns host - Times of India '' . The Times of India . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Dhairya Sonecha & Afsha Musani to Host ' Hero Honda Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs ' '' . ZEE TV . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` ' Hero Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2012 ' finds new host in Javed Ali with top 15 contestants Best Media Info , News and Analysis on Indian Advertising , Marketing and Media Industry '' . www.bestmediainfo.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Aditya Narayan returns to host ' Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Lil ' Champs - Times of India '' . The Times of India . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 17 . Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2005 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Ek Main Aur Ek Tu Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2007 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Mega Challenge Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Singing Superstar Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2012 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs International Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2009 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2011 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2014 Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 Regional shows Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Marathi L'il Champs Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge USA 2008 Zee Tamil Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2009 Challenge Programs currently broadcast by Zee TV Soap operas Aap Ke Aa Jane Se Bhootu Kaliren Kumkum Bhagya Kundali Bhagya Jeet Gayi Toh Piya Morey Piyaa Albela Woh Apna Sa Zindagi Ki Mahek Ishq Subhan Allah Reality shows Dance India Dance Weekend shows Fear Files Reality television shows in India Adventure Fear Factor India ( Fear Factor : Khatron Ke Khiladi ) Survivor India Roadies Comedy Comedy Circus Comedy Nights Bachao Comedy Nights Live Comedy Nights with Kapil Majaa Talkies Comedy Superstars Laugh India Laugh Lunars Comedy Express Mirakkel The Great Indian Laughter Challenge The Kapil Sharma Show Dance D 4 Dance Dance Bangla Dance Dance India Dance Dance Plus Dance Champions Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa Jodi Number One Kings of Dance ( season 2 ) Just Dance Nach Baliye Dating MTV Splitsvilla Power Couple Food Dhe Chef Foodistan MasterChef India Kitchen Champion Game 10 Ka Dum Deal Ya No Deal India Poochega Sabse Shaana Kaun ? Kaiyil Oru Kodi - Are You Ready ? Kannadada Kotyadhipati Kaun Banega Crorepati Minute To Win It Neengalum Vellalam Oru Kodi Ningalkkum Aakaam Kodeeshwaran Music Antakshari Intercollegiate Championship Bol Baby Bol Asianet Super Voice Quiz Bournvita Quiz Contest Dadagiri Unlimited Disney Q Family Mastermind Jabab Kinte Chai Kya Aap Paanchvi Pass Se Tez Hain ? Quizzing in India Sell Me the Answer Thatt Antha Heli Singing Airtel Super Singer Airtel Super Singer Junior Fame Gurukul Idea Star Singer Indian Idol Sa Re Ga Ma Pa ( Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs ) Voice of India Lip Sing Battle Sports Box Cricket League BCL Punjab Zee 20 Cricket League Others Bigg Boss Bigg Boss Bangla Bigg Boss Tamil Bigg Boss Kannada Bigg Boss Telugu Biggest Loser Jeetega India 's Got Talent Lead India Malayalee House National Bingo Night Sacch Ka Saamna Defunct Ad Mad Show Antakshari -- The Great Challenge Baazi Kiski Biggest Loser Jeetega Boogie Woogie Champions of the World Dance Premier League Deal Ya No Deal Fame X Idea Star Singer India 's Magic Star Iss Jungle Se Mujhe Bachao Jo Jeeta Wohi Super Star Junoon Lead India Mastermind India Perfect Bride National Bingo Night Sawaal Dus Crore Ka Swayamwar Titan Antakshari Zee Cinestars Zor Ka Jhatka Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sa_Re_Ga_Ma_Pa&oldid=840397336 '' Categories : Indian reality television series Indian game shows Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Hidden categories : Wikipedia semi-protected pages Talk View source About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 9 May 2018 , at 16 : 41 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
winner list of sa re ga ma pa
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Nobody to Blame
Nobody to Blame - wikipedia Nobody to Blame Jump to : navigation , search `` Nobody to Blame '' Single by Chris Stapleton from the album Traveller Released November 9 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 09 ) Format Digital download Genre Country Length 4 : 04 Label Mercury Nashville Songwriter ( s ) Chris Stapleton Barry Bales Ronnie Bowman Producer ( s ) Dave Cobb Chris Stapleton Chris Stapleton singles chronology `` Traveller '' ( 2015 ) `` Nobody to Blame '' ( 2015 ) `` Parachute '' ( 2016 ) `` Traveller '' ( 2015 ) `` Nobody to Blame '' ( 2015 ) `` Parachute '' ( 2016 ) `` Nobody to Blame '' is a song recorded by American country music artist Chris Stapleton . The song was released in November 2015 as the singer 's third single overall . Stapleton co-wrote the song with Barry Bales and Ronnie Bowman . It became Stapleton 's first top 10 single on the US Country Airplay chart . `` Nobody to Blame '' won Song of the Year at the ACM Awards . Contents ( hide ) 1 Composition 2 Critical reception 3 Commercial performance 4 Charts 4.1 Weekly charts 4.2 Year end charts 5 Certifications 6 References 7 External links Composition ( edit ) The country rock song is a mid-tempo composition about a man looking back on the events following a break - up . His ex has kicked him out of the house and destroyed all of his belongings , often in sadistic fashion ( dumping out his whiskey , breaking his fishing rods , burning his guitar in a bonfire , running his hot rod car into a pond and putting sugar in the gas tank of his lawnmower ) . Despite her behavior , he admits there is `` nobody to blame '' but himself for his situation . Critical reception ( edit ) Billy Dukes of Taste of Country gave the song a favorable review , saying that it `` is a 200 - proof country song that 'd fit neatly into any generation 's best of catalog . The second single from Traveller is full of steel guitar , fiddle and pain . It rambles along like the best from Waylon while providing a de facto education to the 21st century boy . Stapleton does n't deviate from what he does best : simple , honest story songs that lean heavy on his once - in - a-lifetime voice . '' Commercial performance ( edit ) The song first entered the Country Airplay chart at number 46 and the Hot Country Songs chart at number 50 for the chart dated November 21 , 2015 . The song peaked at number 10 on the Country Airplay chart , making it Stapleton 's first single to reach the top 10 . The song has sold 423,000 copies in the US as of November 2016 . Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2015 -- 16 ) Peak position Canada ( Canadian Hot 100 ) 83 Canada Country ( Billboard ) 11 US Billboard Hot 100 68 US Country Airplay ( Billboard ) 10 US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) 13 Year end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2016 ) Position US Country Airplay ( Billboard ) 55 US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) 36 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Canada ( Music Canada ) Gold 40,000 United States ( RIAA ) Gold 500,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Billboard Country Update , November 9 , 2015 '' ( PDF ) . Billboard . November 9 , 2015 . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . Now , with a fresh radio single , Traveller 's `` Nobody to Blame '' -- new at No. 46 on Country Airplay ( with 2.2 million in audience ) -- will Stapleton 's CMA wins translate to significant airplay ? `` I have no doubt that Chris will be on the radio , '' says UMG Nashville president Cindy Mabe . `` Will it be with this single ? That will be determined . But whether it 's this one or the next one or the one after , he will be a factor at country radio . Chris ' CMA performance undoubtedly moved people who will be calling their radio stations now . '' Jump up ^ Greenwald , Morgan ( March 26 , 2016 ) . `` 13 Things to Know About the Billboard Charts This Week : Chris Stapleton Scores First Top 10 Hit & More '' . Billboard . Retrieved March 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Billboard staff ( April 3 , 2016 ) . `` ACM Awards 2016 : See the Full List of Winners '' . Billboard . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Smit , Owen R. ( March 23 , 2017 ) . `` Chris Stapleton brings back introspective , old - school country music '' . The Seattle Times . Retrieved April 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dukes , Billy ( 10 November 2015 ) . `` ToC Critic 's Pick : Chris Stapleton , ' Nobody to Blame ' ( Listen ) '' . Taste of Country . Retrieved 5 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Hot Country Songs '' . Billboard . November 21 , 2015 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Bjorke , Matt ( November 8 , 2016 ) . `` Top 30 Digital Singles Sales Report : November 8 , 2016 '' . Roughstock . Jump up ^ `` Chris Stapleton -- Chart history '' Canadian Hot 100 for Chris Stapleton . Jump up ^ `` Chart Search '' . Billboard Canada Country for Chris Stapleton . Retrieved 5 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Chris Stapleton -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot 100 for Chris Stapleton . Jump up ^ `` Chris Stapleton -- Chart history '' Billboard Country Airplay for Chris Stapleton . Jump up ^ `` Chris Stapleton -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot Country Songs for Chris Stapleton . Jump up ^ `` Country Airplay : Year End 2016 '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved January 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Hot Country Songs : Year End 2016 '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved January 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian single certifications -- Chris Stapleton -- Nobody to Blame '' . Music Canada . Jump up ^ `` American album certifications '' . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Album , then click SEARCH External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics ( hide ) Chris Stapleton Awards and nominations Discography Studio albums and songs Traveller `` Traveller '' `` Fire Away '' `` Tennessee Whiskey '' `` Parachute '' `` Nobody to Blame '' From A Room : Volume 1 `` Broken Halos '' `` Last Thing I Needed , First Thing This Morning '' `` Either Way '' Related articles The SteelDrivers The Jompson Brothers Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nobody_to_Blame&oldid=796042871 '' Categories : 2015 songs 2015 singles Chris Stapleton songs Mercury Nashville singles Songs written by Chris Stapleton Song recordings produced by Dave Cobb Country rock songs Hidden categories : Pages containing links to subscription - only content Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Canada Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardcountryairplay Singlechart usages for Billboardcountrysongs Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 18 August 2017 , at 03 : 17 . 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who sings the song nobody to blame but me
[ "\"Nobody to Blame\" is a song recorded by American country music artist Chris Stapleton. The song was released in November 2015 as the singer's third single overall. Stapleton co-wrote the song with Barry Bales and Ronnie Bowman. It became Stapleton's first top 10 single on the US Country Airplay chart.[2] \"Nobody to Blame\" won Song of the Year at the ACM Awards.[3]" ]
[ "Chris Stapleton" ]
-8549669037586337781
World War II
World War II - wikipedia World War II Jump to : navigation , search `` The Second World War '' , `` WWII '' , and `` WW2 '' redirect here . For other uses , see The Second World War ( disambiguation ) and WWII ( disambiguation ) . World War II ( clockwise from top left ) Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing Australian 25 - pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front in December 1943 American naval force in the Lingayen Gulf Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad Date 1 September 1939 -- 2 September 1945 ( 1939 - 09 - 01 -- 1945 - 09 - 02 ) ( 7003219300000000000 ♠ 6 years and 1 day ) Location Europe , Pacific , Atlantic , South - East Asia , China , Middle East , Mediterranean , North Africa and Horn of Africa , briefly North and South America Result Allied victory Collapse of Nazi Germany Fall of Japanese and Italian Empires Dissolution of the League of Nations Creation of the United Nations Emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers Beginning of the Cold War ( more ... ) Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai - shek Main Axis leaders Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses Military dead : Over 16,000,000 Civilian dead : Over 45,000,000 Total dead : Over 61,000,000 ( 1937 -- 45 ) ... further details Military dead : Over 8,000,000 Civilian dead : Over 4,000,000 Total dead : Over 12,000,000 ( 1937 -- 45 ) ... further details Campaigns of World War II Europe Poland Phoney War Winter War Denmark & Norway France & Benelux Britain Balkans Eastern Front Finland Western Front ( 1944 -- 45 ) Pacific War China Pacific Ocean South - East Asia South West Pacific Japan Manchuria ( 1945 ) Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa Horn of Africa Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Yugoslavia Iraq Syria -- Lebanon Iran Italy Dodecanese Southern France Other campaigns Atlantic Arctic Strategic bombing America French West Africa Madagascar Contemporaneous wars Chinese Civil War USSR -- Japan Border Wars French -- Thai Ecuadorian -- Peruvian War Ili Rebellion Events leading to World War II Pacification of Libya 1923 -- 1932 Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931 Franco - Soviet - Czech Pact 1935 Second Italo - Ethiopian War 1935 -- 36 Remilitarization of the Rhineland 1936 Spanish Civil War 1936 -- 39 Anti-Comintern Pact 1936 Second Sino - Japanese War 1937 Anschluss 1938 Munich crisis 1938 German occupation of Czechoslovakia Mar. 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania Mar. 1939 British guarantee to Poland Mar. 1939 Invasion of Albania Apr. 1939 Pact of Steel May 1939 Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact Aug. 1939 World War II Alphabetical indices N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 0 -- 9 Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Lists Outline Timeline Portal Category Bibliography World War II ( often abbreviated to WWII or WW2 ) , also known as the Second World War , was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945 , although related conflicts began earlier . It involved the vast majority of the world 's countries -- including all of the great powers -- eventually forming two opposing military alliances : the Allies and the Axis . It was the most widespread war in history , and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries . In a state of total war , the major participants threw their entire economic , industrial , and scientific capabilities behind the war effort , erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources . World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history , marked by 50 million to 85 million fatalities , most of which were civilians in the Soviet Union and China . It included massacres , the deliberate genocide of the Holocaust , strategic bombing , starvation , disease and the first use of nuclear weapons in history . The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937 , but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom . Supplied by the Soviet Union , from late 1939 to early 1941 , in a series of campaigns and treaties , Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe , and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan . Under the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours , Poland , Finland , Romania and the Baltic states . The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth , with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns , the aerial Battle of Britain , the Blitz bombing campaign , the Balkan Campaign as well as the long - running Battle of the Atlantic . On 22 June 1941 , the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union , opening the largest land theatre of war in history , which trapped the major part of the Axis military forces into a war of attrition . In December 1941 , Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean , and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific . The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway , and Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and then , decisively , at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union . In 1943 , with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front , the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender , and Allied victories in the Pacific , the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts . In 1944 , the Western Allies invaded German - occupied France , while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies . During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma , while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands . The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union , culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet troops , the suicide of Adolf Hitler and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms , the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively . With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent , the possibility of additional atomic bombings and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria , Japan formally surrendered on 2 September 1945 . Thus ended the war in Asia , cementing the total victory of the Allies . World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world . The United Nations ( UN ) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts . The victorious great powers -- China , France , the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom , and the United States -- became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War , which lasted for the next 46 years . Meanwhile , the influence of European great powers waned , while the decolonisation of Africa and Asia began . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery . Political integration , especially in Europe , emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity . Contents ( hide ) 1 Chronology 2 Background 2.1 Europe 2.2 Asia 3 Pre-war events 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia ( 1935 ) 3.2 Spanish Civil War ( 1936 -- 39 ) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China ( 1937 ) 3.4 Soviet -- Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war 4.1 War breaks out in Europe ( 1939 -- 40 ) 4.2 Western Europe ( 1940 -- 41 ) 4.3 Mediterranean ( 1940 -- 41 ) 4.4 Axis attack on the USSR ( 1941 ) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific ( 1941 ) 4.6 Axis advance stalls ( 1942 -- 43 ) 4.6. 1 Pacific ( 1942 -- 43 ) 4.6. 2 Eastern Front ( 1942 -- 43 ) 4.6. 3 Western Europe / Atlantic & Mediterranean ( 1942 -- 43 ) 4.7 Allies gain momentum ( 1943 -- 44 ) 4.8 Allies close in ( 1944 ) 4.9 Axis collapse , Allied victory ( 1944 -- 45 ) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide , concentration camps , and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and warfare 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Citations 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Chronology See also : Timeline of World War II Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude ( in Asia in Europe ) 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 By topic Diplomacy Engagements Operations Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front The start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939 , beginning with the German invasion of Poland ; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later . The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War on 7 July 1937 , or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931 . Others follow the British historian A.J.P. Taylor , who held that the Sino - Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941 . This article uses the conventional dating . Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935 . The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939 . The exact date of the war 's end is also not universally agreed upon . It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 ( V-J Day ) , rather than the formal surrender of Japan ( 2 September 1945 ) . A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951 . A treaty regarding Germany 's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post-World War II issues . Background Main article : Causes of World War II Europe World War I had radically altered the political European map , with the defeat of the Central Powers -- including Austria - Hungary , Germany , Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire -- and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union . Meanwhile , the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France , Belgium , Italy , Romania and Greece gained territory , and new nation - states were created out of the collapse of Austria - Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires . The League of Nations assembly , held in Geneva , Switzerland , 1930 To prevent a future world war , the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference . The organisation 's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security , military and naval disarmament , and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration . Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states . These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial , colonial , and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty , Germany lost around 13 per cent of its home territory and all of its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited , reparations were imposed , and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country 's armed forces . The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919 , and a democratic government , later known as the Weimar Republic , was created . The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left . Italy , as an Entente ally , had made some post-war territorial gains ; however , Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement . From 1922 to 1925 , the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist , totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist , left - wing and liberal forces , and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power , promising the creation of a `` New Roman Empire '' . Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar , October 1930 Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923 , eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 . He abolished democracy , espousing a radical , racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . Meanwhile , France , to secure its alliance , allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession . The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles , accelerated his rearmament programme , and introduced conscription . To contain Germany , the United Kingdom , France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 ; however , that June , the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany , easing prior restrictions . The Soviet Union , concerned by Germany 's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France . Before taking effect though , the Franco - Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations , which rendered it essentially toothless . The United States , concerned with events in Europe and Asia , passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year . Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936 , encountering little opposition . In October 1936 , Germany and Italy formed the Rome -- Berlin Axis . A month later , Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy would join in the following year . Asia The Kuomintang ( KMT ) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s , but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party allies and new regional warlords . In 1931 , an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country 's right to rule Asia , used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . Too weak to resist Japan , China appealed to the League of Nations for help . Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria . The two nations then fought several battles , in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933 . Thereafter , Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan . Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia ( 1935 ) Main article : Second Italo - Ethiopian War Italian soldiers recruited in 1935 , on their way to fight the Second Italo - Abyssinian War The Second Italo -- Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936 . The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire ( also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ) , which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana , or AOI ) ; in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace . Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations , but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League 's Article X . Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion . Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany 's goal of absorbing Austria . Spanish civil War ( 1936 -- 39 ) Main article : Spanish Civil War The bombing of Guernica in 1937 , during the Spanish Civil War , sparked Europe - wide fears that the next war would be based on bombing of cities with very high civilian casualties When civil war broke out in Spain , Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . The Soviet Union supported the existing government , the Spanish Republic . Over 30,000 foreign volunteers , known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists . Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics . The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939 ; Franco , now dictator , remained officially neutral during Second World War but generally favoured the Axis . His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . Japanese invasion of China ( 1937 ) Main article : Second Sino - Japanese War Japanese Imperial Army soldiers during the Battle of Shanghai , 1937 In July 1937 , Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China . The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support , effectively ending China 's prior co-operation with Germany . From September to November , the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , as well as engaging the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou and Communist forces in Pingxingguan . Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but , after three months of fighting , Shanghai fell . The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back , capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 . After the fall of Nanking , tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese . In March 1938 , Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May . In June 1938 , Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October . Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve ; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war . Soviet -- Japanese border conflicts Red Army artillery unit during the Battle of Lake Khasan , 1938 Main article : Soviet -- Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to - late 1930s , Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and the Mongolian People 's Republic . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin - ron , which emphasised Japan 's expansion northward , was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time . With the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939 , the ongoing Second Sino - Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets , this policy would prove difficult to maintain . Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941 , and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin - ron , promoted by the Navy , which took its focus southward , eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies . European occupations and agreements Further information : Anschluss , Appeasement , Munich Agreement , German occupation of Czechoslovakia , and Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact Chamberlain , Daladier , Hitler , Mussolini , and Ciano pictured just before signing the Munich Agreement , 29 September 1938 In Europe , Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive . In March 1938 , Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers . Encouraged , Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population ; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government , in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands . Soon afterwards , Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland annexed Czechoslovakia 's Zaolzie region . Although all of Germany 's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement , privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation . In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish `` war - mongers '' and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build - up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy . In March 1939 , Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania , forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region . Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939 , the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece . Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland , Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to `` encircle '' Germany and renounced the Anglo - German Naval Agreement and the German -- Polish Non-Aggression Pact . German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop ( right ) and the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , after signing the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact , 23 August 1939 In August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact , a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol . The parties gave each other rights to `` spheres of influence '' ( western Poland and Lithuania for Germany ; eastern Poland , Finland , Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR ) . It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence . The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two - front war , as it had in World War I , after it defeated Poland . The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border . In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister , Count Ciano , Hitler asserted that Poland was a `` doubtful neutral '' that needed to either yield to his demands or be `` liquidated '' to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future `` unavoidable '' war with the Western democracies . He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict . On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August , but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality , he decided to delay it . In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war , Germany made demands on Poland , which only served as a pretext to worsen relations . On 29 August , Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession . The Poles refused to comply with the German demands and on the night of 30 -- 31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected . Course of the War Further information : Diplomatic history of World War II War breaks out in Europe ( 1939 -- 40 ) Main articles : Invasion of Poland , Phoney War , Occupation of Poland ( 1939 -- 45 ) , Nazi crimes against the Polish nation , Soviet invasion of Poland , and Soviet repressions of Polish citizens ( 1939 -- 1946 ) Soldiers of the German Wehrmacht tearing down the border crossing between Poland and the Free City of Danzig , 1 September 1939 On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets near the border . Two days later , on 3 September , after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored , Britain and France , followed by the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth -- Australia ( 3 September ) , Canada ( 10 September ) , New Zealand ( 3 September ) , and South Africa ( 6 September ) -- declared war on Germany . However , initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland , consisting of a cautious , half - hearted French probe into the Saarland . The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country 's economy and war effort . Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships , which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . German tanks near the city of Bydgoszcz , during the Invasion of Poland September , 1939 On 17 September 1939 , after signing a cease - fire with Japan , the Soviets invaded Poland from the east . The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October . Poland 's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union , with Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares . After the defeat of Poland 's armed forces , the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army . About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries ; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war . Poland 's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France . On 6 October , Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France , but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union . Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October , saying `` Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government . '' After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France , but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940 . German and Soviet army officers pictured shaking hands -- after Nazi Germany and Soviet Union annexed new territories in Eastern Europe , 1939 After signing the German -- Soviet Treaty of Friendship , Cooperation and Demarcation , the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries -- Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania -- to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of `` mutual assistance '' . Finland rejected territorial demands , prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939 . The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions . Britain and France , treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans , responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR 's expulsion from the League of Nations . In June 1940 , the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania , and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia , Northern Bukovina and Hertza . Meanwhile , Nazi - Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled , and both states began preparations for war . Western Europe ( 1940 -- 41 ) Main article : Western Front ( World War II ) Map of the French Maginot Line In April 1940 , Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters . Denmark capitulated after a few hours , and despite Allied support , during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans , Norway was conquered within two months . British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister , Neville Chamberlain , with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940 . Germany launched an offensive against France and , adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940 . That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands . The U.S. , in close co-operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C. , agreed to protect Greenland , laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941 . The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks , respectively . The French - fortified Maginot Line and the main body of the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region , mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles . As a result , the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten . The majority were taken prisoner , whilst over 300,000 , mostly British and French , were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June , although abandoning almost all of their equipment . On 10 June , Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom . Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones , and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which , though officially neutral , was generally aligned with Germany . France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it , so on 3 July , the British attacked it . View of London after the German Blitz , 29 December 1940 The Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . On 19 July , Hitler again publicly offered to end the war , saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire . The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum . The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command , and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort . German Luftwaffe , Heinkel He 111 bombers during the Battle of Britain Using newly captured French ports , the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . Perhaps most importantly , during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe 's assault , and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941 . Throughout this period , the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies . In November 1939 , the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow `` cash and carry '' purchases by the Allies . In 1940 , following the German capture of Paris , the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September , the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . Still , a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941 . Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war , he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war . In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless , calling for the US to become an `` arsenal of democracy '' and promoted the passage of Lend - Lease aid to support the British war effort . In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war . They decided on a number of offensive policies , including an air offensive , the `` early elimination '' of Italy , raids , support of resistance groups , and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany . At the end of September 1940 , the Tripartite Pact united Japan , Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country , with the exception of the Soviet Union , not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three . The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact . Romania would make a major contribution ( as did Hungary ) to the Axis war against the USSR , partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR , partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu 's desire to combat communism . Mediterranean ( 1940 -- 41 ) Main article : Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II Soldiers of the British Commonwealth forces from the Australian Army 's 9th Division during the Siege of Tobruk ; North African Campaign , August 1941 Italy began operations in the Mediterranean , initiating a siege of Malta in June , conquering British Somaliland in August , and making an incursion into British - held Egypt in September 1940 . In October 1940 , Italy started the Greco - Italian War because of Mussolini 's jealousy of Hitler 's success but within days was repulsed with few territorial gains and a stalemate soon occurred . The United Kingdom responded to Greek requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and providing air support to Greece . Hitler decided that when the weather improved he would take action against Greece to assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans , to strike against the British naval dominance of the Mediterranean , and to secure his hold on Romanian oil . In December 1940 , British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner . The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats , with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . Captured German Afrika Korps soldiers , December 1941 The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy . Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February , and by the end of March the Axis had launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to support Greece . In under a month , Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk that fell later . The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June , but failed on both occasions . By late March 1941 , following Bulgaria 's signing of the Tripartite Pact , the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece . Plans were changed , however , because of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia . The Yugoslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March , only to be overthrown two days later by a British - encouraged coup . Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it . On 6 April Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and Greece , making rapid progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month . The British were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May . Although the Axis victory was swift , bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war . The Allies did have some successes during this time . In the Middle East , Commonwealth forces first quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy - controlled Syria , then , with the assistance of the Free French , invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences . Axis attack on the USSR ( 1941 ) Main articles : Eastern Front ( World War II ) , Operation Barbarossa , Einsatzgruppen , World War II casualties of the Soviet Union , and German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war European theatre of World War II animation map , 1939 -- 1945 -- Red : Western Allies and Soviet Union after 1941 ; Green : Soviet Union before 1941 ; Blue : Axis Powers With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable , Germany , Japan , and the Soviet Union made preparations . With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource - rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941 . By contrast , the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union , massing forces on the Soviet border . Hitler believed that Britain 's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later . He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany 's relations with the Soviets , or failing that , to attack and eliminate them as a factor . In November 1940 , negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact . The Soviets showed some interest , but asked for concessions from Finland , Bulgaria , Turkey , and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable . On 18 December 1940 , Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union . German soldiers during the invasion of the Soviet Union by the Axis powers , 1941 On 22 June 1941 , Germany , supported by Italy and Romania , invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them . They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary . The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine , with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk - Astrakhan line , from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler 's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power , exterminate Communism , generate Lebensraum ( `` living space '' ) by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany 's remaining rivals . Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war , Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence . During the summer , the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory , inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel . By the middle of August , however , the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad . The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful , resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies , and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine ( the First Battle of Kharkov ) . Soviet civilians in Leningrad leaving destroyed houses , after a German bombardment of the city ; Battle of Leningrad , 10 December 1942 The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy . In July , the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany The British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran 's oil fields . In August , the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter . By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved , with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing . A major offensive against Moscow was renewed ; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow , where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive . Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces , but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives : two key cities remained in Soviet hands , the Soviet capability to resist was not broken , and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential . The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended . By early December , freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops . This , as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100 -- 250 kilometres ( 62 -- 155 mi ) west . War breaks out in the Pacific ( 1941 ) Main article : Pacific War In 1939 , the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan ; and , beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940 , Japan became subject to increasing economic pressure . During this time , Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , a strategically important Chinese city , but was repulsed by late September . Despite several offensives by both sides , the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940 . To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes , and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers , Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina . Afterwards , the United States embargoed iron , steel and mechanical parts against Japan . Other sanctions soon followed . Chinese nationalist forces launched a large - scale counter-offensive in early 1940 . In August , Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; in retaliation , Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists . Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation . In March , the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao . In September , Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces . Mitsubishi A6M2 `` Zero '' fighters on the Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft carrier Shōkaku , just before the attack on Pearl Harbor German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941 . In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina , thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East . The United States , United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . At the same time , Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to capitalize off the German invasion in the west , but abandoned the operation after the sanctions . Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China . During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate . At the same time the US , Britain , and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories , in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them . Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines ( an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946 ) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any `` neighboring countries '' . USS Arizona during the Japanese surprise air attack on the American pacific fleet , 7 December 1941 Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American - British - Dutch sanctions , Japan prepared for war . On 20 November a new government under Hideki Tojo presented an interim proposal as its final offer . It called for the end of American aid to China and for the supply of oil and other resources to Japan . In exchange Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina . The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers . That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China , or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force ; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option , and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war . Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific ; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war . To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset . On 7 December 1941 ( 8 December in Asian time zones ) , Japan attacked British and American holdings with near - simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor , the Philippines , landings in Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong . These attacks led the United States , Britain , China , Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan , whereas the Soviet Union , being heavily involved in large - scale hostilities with European Axis countries , maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan . Germany , followed by the other Axis states , declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan , citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt . Axis advance stalls ( 1942 -- 43 ) Seated at the Casablanca Conference ; US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston Churchill , January 1943 On 1 January 1942 , the Allied Big Four -- the Soviet Union , China , Britain and the United States -- and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter , and agreeing to not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers . During 1942 , Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue . All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective . The Americans favoured a straightforward , large - scale attack on Germany through France . The Soviets were also demanding a second front . The British , on the other hand , argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength , leading to increasing demoralisation , and bolster resistance forces . Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign . An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large - scale armies . Eventually , the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa . At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943 , the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations , and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies . The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes . Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war , in May 1943 , the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944 . Pacific ( 1942 -- 43 ) Map of Japanese military advances , until mid-1942 By the end of April 1942 , Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners . Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942 , forcing its government into exile . On 16 April , in Burma , 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division . Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea and Indian Ocean , and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia . In January 1942 , the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident , as well as overextended . In early May 1942 , Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia . The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force , centred on two American fleet carriers , fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . Japan 's next plan , motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated ; as a diversion , Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska . In mid-May , Japan started the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign in China , with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups . In early June , Japan put its operations into action but the Americans , having broken Japanese naval codes in late May , were fully aware of plans and order of battle , and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . US Marines during the Guadalcanal Campaign , in the Pacific theatre , 1942 With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle , Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia . Both plans started in July , but by mid-September , the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese , and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna - Gona . Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal . By the start of 1943 , the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . In Burma , Commonwealth forces mounted two operations . The first , an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 , went disastrously , forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943 . The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front - lines in February which , by the end of April , had achieved mixed results . Eastern front ( 1942 -- 43 ) Red Army soldiers on the counterattack , during the Battle of Stalingrad , February 1943 Despite considerable losses , in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year . In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov , and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942 , to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front . The Germans split Army Group South into two groups : Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south - east to the Caucasus , while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga . By mid-November , the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive , starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed disastrously . By early February 1943 , the German Army had taken tremendous losses ; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender , and the front - line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive . In mid-February , after the Soviet push had tapered off , the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city of Kursk . Western Europe / Atlantic & Mediterranean ( 1942 -- 43 ) American 8th Air Force Boeing B - 17 Flying Fortress bombing raid on the Focke - Wulf factory in Germany , 9 October 1943 Exploiting poor American naval command decisions , the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . By November 1941 , Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive , Operation Crusader , in North Africa , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made . In North Africa , the Germans launched an offensive in January , pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February , followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives . Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy - held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942 . An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . On the Continent , raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets , culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid , demonstrated the Western Allies ' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation , equipment , and operational security . In August 1942 , the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and , at a high cost , managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . A few months later , the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt , dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya . This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo - American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies . Hitler responded to the French colony 's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice , they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces . The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943 . In early 1943 the British and Americans began the Combined Bomber Offensive , a strategic bombing campaign against Germany . The goals were to disrupt the German war economy , reduce German morale , and `` de-house '' the civilian population . Allies gain momentum ( 1943 -- 44 ) US Navy SBD - 5 scout plane flies patrol over USS Washington and USS Lexington during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign , 1943 After the Guadalcanal Campaign , the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific . In May 1943 , Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . Soon after , the U.S. , with support from Australian and New Zealand forces , began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . By the end of March 1944 , the Allies had completed both of these objectives , and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April , the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . In the Soviet Union , both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 4 July 1943 , Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week , German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets ' deeply echeloned and well - constructed defences and , for the first time in the war , Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success . This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies ' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which , combined with previous Italian failures , resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month . Also , in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people . Red Army troops , in a counter-offensive on German positions , at the Battle of Kursk , 1943 On 12 July 1943 , the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east . The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority , giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front . The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther -- Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives . On 3 September 1943 , the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy 's armistice with the Allies . Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders , seizing military control of Italian areas , and creating a series of defensive lines . German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German - occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November . The Allied leaders of the Asian and Pacific Theatre : Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Winston Churchill meeting at the Cairo Conference , 25 November 1943 German operations in the Atlantic also suffered . By May 1943 , as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign . In November 1943 , Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai - shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory and the military planning for the Burma Campaign , while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany 's defeat . Ruins of the Benedictine monastery , during the Battle of Monte Cassino ; Italian Campaign , May 1944 From November 1943 , during the seven - week Battle of Changde , the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition , while awaiting Allied relief . In January 1944 , the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . By the end of January , a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , ending the longest and most lethal siege in history . The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region . By late May 1944 , the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops . The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and , at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat , on 4 June , Rome was captured . The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia . In March 1944 , the Japanese launched the first of two invasions , an operation against British positions in Assam , India , and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . In May 1944 , British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma , and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China 's main fighting forces , secure railways between Japanese - held territory and capture Allied airfields . By June , the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province . Allies close in ( 1944 ) American troops approaching Omaha Beach , during the Invasion of Normandy on D - Day , 6 June 1944 On 6 June 1944 ( known as D - Day ) , after three years of Soviet pressure , the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy , they also attacked southern France . These landings were successful , and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , on 25 August and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year . An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed . After that , the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany , but failed to cross the Ruhr river in a large offensive . In Italy , Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line . German SS soldiers from the Dirlewanger Brigade , tasked with suppressing the Warsaw Uprising against Nazi occupation , August 1944 On 22 June , the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus ( `` Operation Bagration '' ) that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely . Soon after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland . The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings against the German occupation . However , the largest of these in Warsaw , where German soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians , and a national uprising in Slovakia , did not receive Soviet support and were subsequently suppressed by the Germans . The Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries ' shift to the Allied side . In September 1944 , Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off . By this point , the Communist - led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941 , controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south . In northern Serbia , the Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces , assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October . A few days later , the Soviets launched a massive assault against German - occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945 . Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans , bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet - Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions , although Finland was forced to fight their former allies . General Douglas MacArthur lands at Leyte , during the Battle of Leyte , 20 October 1944 By the start of July 1944 , Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina . In September 1944 , Chinese force captured the Mount Song to reopen the Burma Road . In China , the Japanese had more successes , having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August . Soon after , they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December . In the Pacific , US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter . In mid-June 1944 , they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands , and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister , Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands . In late October , American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after , Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history . Axis collapse , Allied victory ( 1944 -- 45 ) Yalta Conference held in February 1945 , with Winston Churchill , Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin On 16 December 1944 , Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French -- German border to split the Western Allies , encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement . By January , the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled . In Italy , the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line . In mid-January 1945 , the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland , pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany , and overran East Prussia . On 4 February , Soviet , British and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany , and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan . In February , the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river . By March , the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B , while the Soviets advanced to Vienna . In early April , the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg , while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April . On 30 April 1945 , the Reichstag was captured , signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany . Several changes in leadership occurred during this period . On 12 April , President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman . Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April . Two days later , Hitler committed suicide , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz . The German Reichstag after its capture by the Allied forces , 3 June 1945 German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April . Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May . In the Pacific theatre , American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945 . They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins . Fighting continued on Luzon , Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . Meanwhile , the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) were destroying strategic and populated cities and towns in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale . On the night of 9 -- 10 March , USAAF B - 29 bombers struck Tokyo with thousands of incendiary bombs , which killed 100,000 civilians and destroyed 16 square miles ( 41 km ) within a few hours . Over the next five months , the USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65 % of built - up areas . In May 1945 , Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there . British , American , and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March , and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May . Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945 . American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan , taking Iwo Jima by March , and Okinawa by the end of June . At the same time , American submarines cut off Japanese imports , drastically reducing Japan 's ability to supply its overseas forces . Japanese foreign affairs minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on board USS Missouri , 2 September 1945 On 11 July , Allied leaders met in Potsdam , Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany , and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan , specifically stating that `` the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction '' . During this conference , the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister . The Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam Declaration of 27 July , but the Japanese government rejected the call . In early August , the USAAF dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The Allies justified the atomic bombings as a military necessity to avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would cost the lives of between 250,000 and 500,000 Allied servicemen and millions of Japanese troops and civilians . Between the two bombings , the Soviets , pursuant to the Yalta agreement , invaded Japanese - held Manchuria , and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force . The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On 15 August 1945 , Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945 , ending the war . Aftermath Main articles : Aftermath of World War II and Consequences of Nazism Defendants at the Nuremberg trials , where the Allied forces prosecuted prominent members of the political , military , judicial and economic leadership of Nazi Germany for crimes against humanity The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany . The former became a neutral state , non-aligned with any political bloc . The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR , accordingly . A denazification programme in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power , although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society . Ruins of Warsaw in January 1945 , after the deliberate destruction of the city by the occupying German forces Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war ( 1937 ) territory . Among the eastern territories , Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland , East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR , followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces , as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany . By the 1950s , every fifth West German was a refugee from the east . The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line , from which 2 million Poles were expelled ; north - east Romania , parts of eastern Finland , and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR . In an effort to maintain world peace , the Allies formed the United Nations , which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 , and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 , as a common standard for all member nations . The great powers that were the victors of the war -- France , China , Britain , the Soviet Union and the United States -- became the permanent members of the UN 's Security Council . The five permanent members remain so to the present , although there have been two seat changes , between the Republic of China and the People 's Republic of China in 1971 , and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 . The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over . Post-war Soviet territorial expansion resulted in Central and Eastern European border changes , the creation of a Communist Bloc and start of the Cold War Germany had been de facto divided , and two independent states , the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones , accordingly . The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to establishment of Communist - led regimes , with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities . As a result , East Germany , Poland , Hungary , Romania , Czechoslovakia , and Albania became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the USSR . Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances , the United States - led NATO and the Soviet - led Warsaw Pact ; the long period of political tensions and military competition between them , the Cold War , would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars . In Asia , the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan 's former islands in the Western Pacific , while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . Korea , formerly under Japanese rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the US in the South between 1945 and 1948 . Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948 , each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea , which led ultimately to the Korean War . David Ben - Gurion proclaiming the Israeli Declaration of Independence at the Independence Hall , 14 May 1948 In China , nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946 . Communist forces were victorious and established the People 's Republic of China on the mainland , while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949 . In the Middle East , the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab -- Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful , leading to decolonisation . The global economy suffered heavily from the war , although participating nations were affected differently . The US emerged much richer than any other nation ; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy . The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945 -- 1948 . Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years . Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan ( 1948 -- 1951 ) both directly and indirectly caused . The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded . By contrast , the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin , and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance , more than any other European country , continued relative economic decline for decades . The Soviet Union , despite enormous human and material losses , also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era . Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth , becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s . China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952 . Impact Casualties and War Crimes Main articles : World War II casualties , War crimes during World War II , War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II , German war crimes , War crimes of the Wehrmacht , Italian war crimes , Japanese war crimes , Allied war crimes during World War II , and Soviet war crimes World War II deaths Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary , because many deaths went unrecorded . Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war , including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians . Many of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide , massacres , mass - bombings , disease , and starvation . The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war , including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths . The largest portion of military dead were 5.7 million ethnic Russians , followed by 1.3 million ethnic Ukrainians . A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed . Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses , mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany . Of the total number of deaths in World War II , approximately 85 per cent -- mostly Soviet and Chinese -- were on the Allied side and 15 per cent were on the Axis side . Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories . An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians died either as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi racist policies , including the Holocaust of around 6 million Jews , half of whom were Polish citizens , along with a further minimum 1.9 million ethnic Poles . Millions of other Slavs ( including Russians , Ukrainians and Belarusians ) , Roma , homosexuals , and other ethnic and minority groups were also killed . Hundreds of thousands ( varying estimates ) of ethnic Serbs , along with gypsies and Jews , were murdered by the Axis - aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia , and retribution - related killings were committed just after the war ended . Chinese civilians being buried alive by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army , during the Nanking Massacre , December 1937 In Asia and the Pacific , between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians , mostly Chinese ( estimated at 7.5 million ) , were killed by the Japanese occupation forces . The best - known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre , in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered . Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen . General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung . Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) and in early conflicts against the Soviets . Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and , sometimes on prisoners of war . The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers , and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD , in the Baltic states , and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army . The mass - bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime . However , no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II . Genocide , concentration camps , and slave labour Main articles : Genocide , The Holocaust , Nazi concentration camps , Extermination camp , Forced labour under German rule during World War II , Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany , and Nazi human experimentation Schutzstaffel ( SS ) female camp guards remove prisoners ' bodies from lorries and carry them to a mass grave , inside the German Bergen - Belsen concentration camp , 1945 The German government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust , the killing of approximately 6 million Jews , as well as 2.7 million ethnic Poles , and 4 million others who were deemed `` unworthy of life '' ( including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , homosexuals , Freemasons , Jehovah 's Witnesses , and Romani ) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination . About 12 million , most of whom were Eastern Europeans , were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers . In addition to Nazi concentration camps , the Soviet gulags ( labour camps ) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland , Lithuania , Latvia , and Estonia , as well as German prisoners of war ( POWs ) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis . Sixty per cent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war . Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs . Of those , 57 per cent died or were killed , a total of 3.6 million . Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators , and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked by the NKVD . Prisoner identity photograph taken by the German SS of a Polish girl deported as forced labour to Auschwitz , December 1942 Japanese prisoner - of - war camps , many of which were used as labour camps , also had high death rates . The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 per cent ( for American POWs , 37 per cent ) , seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians . While 37,583 prisoners from the UK , 28,500 from the Netherlands , and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56 . According to historian Zhifen Ju , at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries . After 1942 , the number reached 10 million . The US Library of Congress estimates that in Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha ( Japanese : `` manual labourers '' ) , were forced to work by the Japanese military . About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese - held areas in South East Asia , and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java . On 19 February 1942 , Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 , interning about 100,000 Japanese living on the West Coast . Canada had a similar programme . In addition , 14,000 German and Italian citizens who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned . In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour by the Soviet Union . In Hungary 's case , Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955 . Occupation Main articles : German - occupied Europe , Lebensraum , Untermensch , Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II , Resistance during World War II , and Nazi plunder Polish civilians wearing blindfolds photographed just before their execution by German soldiers in Palmiry forest , 1940 In Europe , occupation came under two forms . In Western , Northern , and Central Europe ( France , Norway , Denmark , the Low Countries , and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks ( 27.8 billion US Dollars ) by the end of the war , this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products , military equipment , raw materials and other goods . Thus , the income from occupied nations was over 40 per cent of the income Germany collected from taxation , a figure which increased to nearly 40 per cent of total German income as the war went on . Russian Academy of Sciences reported in 1995 civilian victims in the Soviet Union at German hands totalled 13.7 million dead , twenty percent of the 68 million persons in the occupied USSR In the East , the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front - lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders . Unlike in the West , the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the `` inferior people '' of Slavic descent ; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions . Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories , they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943 . In Asia , Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples . Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories , their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks . During Japan 's initial conquest it captured 4,000,000 barrels ( 640,000 m ) of oil ( ~ 5.5 × 10 tonnes ) left behind by retreating Allied forces , and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels ( ~ 6.8 × 10 ^ t ) , 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate . Home fronts and production Main articles : Military production during World War II and Home front during World War II Allied to Axis GDP ratio In Europe , before the outbreak of the war , the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics . In 1938 , the Western Allies ( United Kingdom , France , Poland and British Dominions ) had a 30 per cent larger population and a 30 per cent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers ( Germany and Italy ) ; if colonies are included , it then gives the Allies more than a 5 : 1 advantage in population and nearly 2 : 1 advantage in GDP . In Asia at the same time , China had roughly six times the population of Japan , but only an 89 per cent higher GDP ; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 per cent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included . The United States provided about two - thirds of all the ordnance used by the Allies in terms of warships , transports , warplanes , artillery , tanks , trucks , and ammunition . Though the Allies ' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan , they became the decisive factor by 1942 , after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies , as the war largely settled into one of attrition . While the Allies ' ability to out - produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources , other factors , such as Germany and Japan 's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , Allied strategic bombing , and Germany 's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly . Additionally , neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war , and were not equipped to do so . To improve their production , Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; Germany used about 12 million people , mostly from Eastern Europe , while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia . Advances in Technology and Warfare Main article : Technology during World War II B - 29 Superfortress strategic bombers on the Boeing assembly line in Wichita , Kansas , 1944 Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground - support , and each role was advanced considerably . Innovation included airlift ( the capability to quickly move limited high - priority supplies , equipment , and personnel ) ; and of strategic bombing ( the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy 's ability to wage war ) . Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced , including defences such as radar and surface - to - air artillery , such as the German 88 mm gun . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and , though late introduction meant it had little impact , it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide . Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war , actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship . In the Atlantic , escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys , increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured . Submarines , which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second . The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics , such as sonar and convoys , while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability , with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics . Gradually , improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light , hedgehog , squid , and homing torpedoes proved victorious . A V - 2 rocket launched from a fixed site in Peenemünde , 21 June 1943 Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War , had evolved into the primary weapon . In the late 1930s , tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I , and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed , armour and firepower . At the start of the war , most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications . This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour , and German doctrine of avoiding tank - versus - tank combat . This , along with Germany 's use of combined arms , were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France . Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns ( both towed and self - propelled ) , mines , short - ranged infantry antitank weapons , and other tanks were utilised . Even with large - scale mechanisation , infantry remained the backbone of all forces , and throughout the war , most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I . Nuclear Gadget being raised to the top of the detonation `` shot tower '' , at Alamogordo Bombing Range ; Trinity nuclear test , New Mexico , July 1945 The portable machine gun spread , a notable example being the German MG34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings . The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun , became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces . Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines , the most well known being the German Enigma machine . Development of SIGINT ( signals intelligence ) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption . Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war . Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception , which the Allies used to great effect , such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard . Other technological and engineering feats achieved during , or as a result of , the war include the world 's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ) , guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel . See also Air warfare of World War II Bibliography of World War II Declarations of war during World War II Historiography of World War II Home front during World War II List of World War II battles List of Allied World War II conferences List of World War II military operations Lists of World War II military equipment Nazis in fiction Women in World War II World War II in popular culture List of World War II films World War III Documentaries See also : List of World War II documentary films The World Wars ( miniseries ) The World Wars is a three - part , six - hour event miniseries by the History Channel that premiered on Monday , 26 May 2014 , ( Memorial Day ) airing for three consecutive nights . An extended version of the series with never before seen footage was subsequently broadcast on H2 and in more than 160 countries on 22 June 2014 Apocalypse : The Second World War ( 2009 ) , a six - part French documentary by Daniel Costelle and Isabelle Clarke about World War II Battlefield , a documentary television series initially issued in 1994 -- 5 , that explores many important World War II battles BBC History of World War II , a television series , initially issued from 1989 to 2005 . The World at War ( 1974 ) , a 26 - part Thames Television series that covers most aspects of World War II from many points of view . It includes interviews with many key figures including Karl Dönitz , Albert Speer , and Anthony Eden . Notes Jump up ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended , this is the time span most frequently cited . Jump up ^ Upon his death in 1989 , Emperor Hirohito was posthumously proclaimed Emperor Shōwa . While either use is considered acceptable , his English name ( Hirohito ) is used here as it is this name by which he was known to most of the West during World War II . Citations Jump up ^ Gilbert 2001 , p. 291 . Jump up ^ James A. Tyner ( 3 March 2009 ) . War , Violence , and Population : Making the Body Count . The Guilford Press ; 1 edition . p. 49 . ISBN 1 - 6062 - 3038 - 7 . Jump up ^ Sommerville 2008 , p. 5 ( 2011 ed . ) . Jump up ^ `` BBC - Tyne - Roots - Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others '' . www.bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Barrett & Shyu 2001 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Axelrod , Alan ( 2007 ) Encyclopedia of World War II , Volume 1 . Infobase Publishing . pp. 659 . ^ Jump up to : The UN Security Council , retrieved 15 May 2012 Jump up ^ Herman Van Rompuy , President of the European Council ; José Manuel Durão Barroso , President of the European Commission ( 10 December 2012 ) . `` From War to Peace : A European Tale '' . Nobel Lecture by the European Union . Retrieved 4 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Wells , Anne Sharp ( 2014 ) Historical Dictionary of World War II : The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield Publishing . pp. 7 . Jump up ^ Ferris , John ; Mawdsley , Evan ( 2015 ) . The Cambridge History of the Second World War , Volume I : Fighting the War . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Jump up ^ Förster & Gessler 2005 , p. 64 . Jump up ^ Ghuhl , Wernar ( 2007 ) Imperial Japan 's World War Two Transaction Publishers pg 7 , pg. 30 Jump up ^ Polmar , Norman ; Thomas B. Allen ( 1991 ) World War II : America at war , 1941 -- 1945 ISBN 978 - 0394585307 Jump up ^ Ben - Horin 1943 , p. 169 ; Taylor 1979 , p. 124 ; Yisreelit , Hevrah Mizrahit ( 1965 ) . Asian and African Studies , p. 191 . For 1941 see Taylor 1961 , p. vii ; Kellogg , William O ( 2003 ) . American History the Easy Way . Barron 's Educational Series . p. 236 ISBN 0 - 7641 - 1973 - 7 . There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same `` European Civil War '' or `` Second Thirty Years War '' : Canfora 2006 , p. 155 ; Prins 2002 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Masaya 1990 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ `` History of German - American Relations '' 1989 -- 1994 -- Reunification '' `` Two - plus - Four - Treaty '' : Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany , September 12 , 1990 `` . usa.usembassy.de . Retrieved 6 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Ingram 2006 , pp. 76 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Kantowicz 1999 , p. 149 . Jump up ^ Shaw 2000 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Brody 1999 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Zalampas 1989 , p. 62 . Jump up ^ Mandelbaum 1988 , p. 96 ; Record 2005 , p. 50 . Jump up ^ Schmitz 2000 , p. 124 . Jump up ^ Adamthwaite 1992 , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Preston 1998 , p. 104 . Jump up ^ Myers & Peattie 1987 , p. 458 . Jump up ^ Smith & Steadman 2004 , p. 28 . Jump up ^ Coogan 1993 : `` Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south , others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders , or surrender . A few commanders submitted , receiving high office in the puppet government , but others took up arms against the invader . The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies . '' Jump up ^ Busky 2002 , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Andrea L. Stanton ; Edward Ramsamy ; Peter J. Seybolt . Cultural Sociology of the Middle East , Asia , and Africa : An Encyclopedia . p. 308 . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ Barker 1971 , pp. 131 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Kitson 2001 , p. 231 . Jump up ^ Payne 2008 , p. 271 . Jump up ^ Payne 2008 , p. 146 . Jump up ^ Eastman 1986 , pp. 547 -- 51 . ^ Jump up to : Guo 2005 ^ Jump up to : Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 195 -- 200 . Jump up ^ Tucker , Spencer C. ( 23 December 2009 ) . `` A Global Chronology of Conflict : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East ( 6 volumes ) : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East '' . ABC - CLIO . Retrieved 27 August 2017 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Yang Kuisong , `` On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan '' Jump up ^ Levene , Mark and Roberts , Penny . The Massacre in History . 1999 , page 223 - 4 Jump up ^ Totten , Samuel . Dictionary of Genocide. 2008 , 298 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 221 -- 230 . Jump up ^ Eastman 1986 , p. 566 . Jump up ^ Taylor 2009 , pp. 150 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Sella 1983 , pp. 651 -- 87 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 342 . Jump up ^ Goldman , Stuart D. ( 28 August 2012 ) . `` The Forgotten Soviet - Japanese War of 1939 '' . The Diplomat . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Timothy Neeno . `` Nomonhan : The Second Russo - Japanese War '' . MilitaryHistoryOnline.com . Retrieved 26 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Collier & Pedley 2000 , p. 144 . Jump up ^ Kershaw 2001 , pp. 121 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 157 . Jump up ^ Davies 2006 , pp. 143 -- 4 ( 2008 ed . ) . Jump up ^ Lowe & Marzari 2002 , p. 330 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 234 . Jump up ^ Shore 2003 , p. 108 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 608 . Jump up ^ Minutes of the conference between the Fuehrer and the Italian Minister for Foreign Affairs , Count Ciano , in the presence of the Reich Foreign Minister of Obersalzberg on 12 August 1939 in Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression Volume IV Document No. 1871 - PS Jump up ^ `` The German Campaign In Poland ( 1939 ) '' . Retrieved 29 October 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Danzig Crisis '' . ww2db.com . ^ Jump up to : `` Major international events of 1939 , with explanation '' . Ibiblio.org . Jump up ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 1 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 58 . Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , pp. 64 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 35 . Cienciala 2010 , p. 128 , observes that , while it is true that Poland was far away , making it difficult for the French and British to provide support , `` ( f ) ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland , but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen . The French , who committed to attack Germany in the west , had no intention of doing so . '' Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 32 ; Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 248 -- 9 ; Roskill 1954 , p. 64 . Jump up ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 80 , 83 . Jump up ^ Hempel 2005 , p. 24 . Jump up ^ Zaloga 2002 , pp. 88 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Budiansky 2001 , pp. 120 -- 1 . Jump up ^ Nuremberg Documents C - 62 / GB86 , a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes : `` The attack ( on France ) is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible . '' Jump up ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , pp. 39 -- 40 . Jump up ^ Bullock 1990 , pp. 563 -- 4 , 566 , 568 -- 9 , 574 -- 5 ( 1983 ed . ) . Jump up ^ Blitzkrieg : From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk , L Deighton , Jonathan Cape , 1993 , p186 - 7 . Deighton states that `` the offensive was postponed twenty - nine times before it finally took place . '' Jump up ^ Smith et al. 2002 , p. 24 . ^ Jump up to : Bilinsky 1999 , p. 9 . ^ Jump up to : Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 55 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Spring 1986 , p. 207 - 226 . Jump up ^ Hanhimäki 1997 , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Ferguson 2006 , pp. 367 , 376 , 379 , 417 . Jump up ^ Snyder 2010 , p. 118ff . Jump up ^ Koch 1983 . Jump up ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 56 . Jump up ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 59 . Jump up ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 57 -- 63 . Jump up ^ Commager 2004 , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Reynolds 2006 , p. 76 . Jump up ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 122 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 436 . The Americans later relieved the British , with marines arriving in Reykjavik on 7 July 1941 ( Schofield 1981 , p. 122 ) . Jump up ^ Shirer 1990 , pp. 721 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 59 -- 60 . Jump up ^ Regan 2004 , p. 152 . Jump up ^ Liddell Hart 1977 , p. 48 . Jump up ^ Keegan 1997 , pp. 66 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 207 . Jump up ^ Umbreit 1991 , p. 311 . Jump up ^ Brown 2004 , p. xxx . Jump up ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 72 . ^ Jump up to : Murray 1983 , The Battle of Britain . ^ Jump up to : `` Major international events of 1940 , with explanation '' . Ibiblio.org . Jump up ^ Goldstein 2004 , p. 35 . Aircraft played a highly important role in defeating the German U-boats ( Schofield 1981 , p. 122 ) . Jump up ^ Steury 1987 , p. 209 ; Zetterling & Tamelander 2009 , p. 282 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 108 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , pp. 328 -- 30 . Jump up ^ Maingot 1994 , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Cantril 1940 , p. 390 . Jump up ^ Skinner Watson , Mark . `` Coordination With Britain '' . US Army in WWII -- Chief of Staff : Prewar Plans and Operations . Jump up ^ Bilhartz & Elliott 2007 , p. 179 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 877 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , pp. 745 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Clogg 2002 , p. 118 . Jump up ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 146 , 152 ; US Army 1986 , pp. 4 -- 6 Jump up ^ Jowett 2001 , pp. 9 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 106 . Jump up ^ Laurier 2001 , pp. 7 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Murray & Millett 2001 , pp. 263 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Macksey 1997 , pp. 61 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 229 . Jump up ^ Watson 2003 , p. 80 . Jump up ^ Jackson 2006 , p. 154 . Jump up ^ Garver 1988 , p. 114 . Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 195 . Jump up ^ Murray 1983 , p. 69 . ^ Jump up to : Klooz , Marle ; Wiley , Evelyn ( 1944 ) , Events leading up to World War II -- Chronological History , 78th Congress , 2d Session -- House Document N. 541 , Director : Humphrey , Richard A. , Washington : US Government Printing Office , pp. 267 -- 312 ( 1941 ) . Jump up ^ Sella 1978 . Jump up ^ Kershaw 2007 , pp. 66 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Steinberg 1995 . Jump up ^ Hauner 1978 . Jump up ^ Roberts 1995 . Jump up ^ Wilt 1981 . Jump up ^ Erickson 2003 , pp. 114 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Farrell 1993 . Jump up ^ Keeble 1990 , p. 29 . Jump up ^ Bueno de Mesquita et al. 2003 , p. 425 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 220 . Jump up ^ Kleinfeld 1983 . Jump up ^ Jukes 2001 , p. 113 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26 : `` By 1 November ( the Wehrmacht ) had lost fully 20 % of its committed strength ( 686,000 men ) , up to 2 / 3 of its 1⁄2 - million motor vehicles , and 65 percent of its tanks . The German Army High Command ( OKH ) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full - strength divisions . '' Jump up ^ Reinhardt 1992 , p. 227 . Jump up ^ Milward 1964 . Jump up ^ Rotundo 1986 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 26 . Jump up ^ Garthoff 1969 . Jump up ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 41 -- 2 ; Evans 2008 , pp. 213 -- 4 , notes that `` Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before ... Only Stalin 's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all - out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse . '' Jump up ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Overy & Wheatcroft 1999 , p. 289 . Jump up ^ Morison 2002 , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Joes 2004 , p. 224 . Jump up ^ Fairbank & Goldman 2006 , p. 320 . Jump up ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 30 . Jump up ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 33 . Jump up ^ `` Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 -- July 1941 '' . US Army in WWII -- Strategy and Command : The First Two Years . pp. 45 -- 66 . Jump up ^ Anderson 1975 , p. 201 . Jump up ^ Evans & Peattie 2012 , p. 456 . Jump up ^ Coox , Alvin ( 1985 ) . Nomonhan : Japan against Russia , 1939 . Stanford , California : Stanford University Press . pp. 1046 -- 1049 . ISBN 0 - 8047 - 1835 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : `` The decision for War '' . US Army in WWII -- Strategy and Command : The First Two Years . pp. 113 -- 27 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Showdown With Japan Aug -- Dec 1941 '' . US Army in WWII -- Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 63 -- 96 . Jump up ^ The United States Replies . Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack . Jump up ^ Painter 2012 , p. 26 : `` The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941 , forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to U.S. pressure . '' Wood 2007 , p. 9 , listing various military and diplomatic developments , observes that `` the threat to Japan was not purely economic . '' Jump up ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 125 . Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 310 ; Dower 1986 , p. 5 , calls attention to the fact that `` the Allied struggle against Japan exposed the racist underpinnings of the European and American colonial structure . Japan did not invade independent countries in southern Asia . It invaded colonial outposts which the Westerners had dominated for generations , taking absolutely for granted their racial and cultural superiority over their Asian subjects . '' Dower goes on to note that , before the horrors of Japanese occupation made themselves felt , many Asians responded favourably to the victories of the Imperial Japanese forces . Jump up ^ Wood 2007 , pp. 11 -- 2 . ^ Jump up to : Wohlstetter 1962 , pp. 341 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Dunn 1998 , p. 157 . According to May 1955 , p. 155 , Churchill stated : `` Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage , provided , but only provided , that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front . '' Jump up ^ Adolf Hitler 's Declaration of War against the United States in Wikisource . Jump up ^ Klooz , Marle ; Wiley , Evelyn ( 1944 ) , Events leading up to World War II -- Chronological History , 78th Congress , 2d Session -- House Document N. 541 , Director : Humphrey , Richard A. , Washington : US Government Printing Office , p. 310 ( 1941 ) . Jump up ^ Bosworth & Maiolo 2015 , pp. 313 -- 314 . Jump up ^ Mingst & Karns 2007 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ `` The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment . Dec 1941 -- Jan 1942 '' . US Army in WWII -- Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 97 -- 119 . Jump up ^ `` The Elimination of the Alternatives . Jul -- Aug 1942 '' . US Army in WWII -- Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 266 -- 92 . Jump up ^ `` Casablanca -- Beginning of an Era : January 1943 '' . US Army in WWII -- Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 18 -- 42 . Jump up ^ `` The Trident Conference -- New Patterns : May 1943 '' . US Army in WWII -- Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare . pp. 126 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 247 -- 267 , 345 . Jump up ^ Lewis 1953 , p. 529 ( Table 11 ) . Jump up ^ Slim 1956 , pp. 71 -- 4 . Jump up ^ Grove 1995 , p. 362 . Jump up ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 158 . Jump up ^ Perez 1998 , p. 145 . Jump up ^ Maddox 1992 , pp. 111 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Salecker 2001 , p. 186 . Jump up ^ Schoppa 2011 , p. 28 . Jump up ^ Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004 , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Ropp 2000 , p. 368 . Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 339 . Jump up ^ Gilbert , Adrian ( 2003 ) . The Encyclopedia of Warfare : From Earliest Times to the Present Day . Globe Pequot . p. 259 . ISBN 1 - 59228 - 027 - 7 . Jump up ^ Swain 2001 , p. 197 . Jump up ^ Hane 2001 , p. 340 . Jump up ^ Marston 2005 , p. 111 . Jump up ^ Brayley 2002 , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 31 . Jump up ^ Read 2004 , p. 764 . Jump up ^ Davies 2006 , p. 100 ( 2008 ed . ) . Jump up ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 239 -- 65 . Jump up ^ Black 2003 , p. 119 . Jump up ^ Beevor 1998 , pp. 383 -- 91 . Jump up ^ Erickson 2001 , p. 142 . Jump up ^ Milner 1990 , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 224 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Molinari 2007 , p. 91 . Jump up ^ Mitcham 2007 , p. 31 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 380 -- 1 . Jump up ^ Rich 1992 , p. 178 . Jump up ^ Gordon 2004 , p. 129 . Jump up ^ Neillands 2005 . Jump up ^ Keegan 1997 , p. 277 . Jump up ^ Smith 2002 . Jump up ^ Thomas & Andrew 1998 , p. 8 . ^ Jump up to : Ross 1997 , p. 38 . Jump up ^ Bonner & Bonner 2001 , p. 24 . Jump up ^ Collier 2003 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ `` The Civilians '' United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report ( European War ) Jump up ^ Thompson & Randall 2008 , p. 164 . Jump up ^ Kennedy 2001 , p. 610 . Jump up ^ Rottman 2002 , p. 228 . Jump up ^ Glantz 1986 ; Glantz 1989 , pp. 149 -- 59 . Jump up ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 592 . Jump up ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 32 . Jump up ^ Overy 1995 , pp. 119 -- 120 . Jump up ^ Bellamy 2007 , p. 595 . Jump up ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Healy 1992 , p. 90 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2001 , pp. 50 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Kolko 1990 , p. 45 : `` On September 3 , as Allied forces landed in Italy , Badoglio agreed to a secret armistice in the hope the Allies would land a major force north of Rome and save his government and the king . But when this did n't happen he desperately attempted to call off his bargain with Eisenhower , who cut short the matter on 8 September by announcing news of its existence . The next day the hero of Abyssinia , his king , and a small retinue deserted Rome for the southeast tip of Italy , leaving most of Italy to the Nazis . '' Jump up ^ Mazower 2008 , p. 362 . Jump up ^ Hart , Hart & Hughes 2000 , p. 151 . Jump up ^ Blinkhorn 2006 , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Read & Fisher 2002 , p. 129 . Jump up ^ Padfield 1998 , pp. 335 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Kolko 1990 , pp. 211 , 235 , 267 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Iriye 1981 , p. 154 . Jump up ^ Mitter 2014 , p. 286 . Jump up ^ Polley 2000 , p. 148 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 268 -- 74 . Jump up ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 161 . Jump up ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 412 -- 416 , Map 38 Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , pp. 660 -- 1 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 327 -- 66 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2002 , pp. 367 -- 414 . Jump up ^ Chubarov 2001 , p. 122 . Jump up ^ Holland 2008 , pp. 169 -- 84 ; Beevor 2012 , pp. 568 -- 73 . The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ( Mazower 2008 , pp. 500 -- 2 ) . The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella ( de Grazia & Paggi 1991 ; Belco 2010 ) , Fosse Ardeatine ( Portelli 2003 ) , and Sant'Anna di Stazzema ( Gordon 2012 , pp. 10 -- 1 ) , and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre . Jump up ^ Lightbody 2004 , p. 224 . ^ Jump up to : Zeiler 2004 , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 555 -- 60 . Jump up ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 163 . Jump up ^ Coble 2003 , p. 85 . Jump up ^ Rees 2008 , pp. 406 -- 7 : `` Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war . '' Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 695 . Jump up ^ Badsey 1990 , p. 91 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 562 . Jump up ^ Forrest , Evans & Gibbons 2012 , p. 191 Jump up ^ Zaloga 1996 , p. 7 : `` It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II . '' Jump up ^ Berend 1996 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ `` Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation '' . US Library of Congress . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . The coup speeded the Red Army 's advance , and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his personal courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania 's war against the Allies . Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup ; postwar Romanian historians , however , ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu 's overthrow Jump up ^ Evans 2008 , p. 653 . Jump up ^ Wiest & Barbier 2002 , pp. 65 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Wiktor , Christian L ( 1998 ) . Multilateral Treaty Calendar -- 1648 -- 1995 . Kluwer Law International . p. 426 . ISBN 90 - 411 - 0584 - 0 . Jump up ^ Newton 2004 . Jump up ^ Marston 2005 , p. 120 . Jump up ^ Article about War of Resistance `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 03 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 16 . Jump up ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Howard 2004 , p. 140 . Jump up ^ Drea 2003 , p. 54 . Jump up ^ Cook & Bewes 1997 , p. 305 . ^ Jump up to : Parker 2004 , pp. xiii -- xiv , 6 -- 8 , 68 -- 70 , 329 -- 330 Jump up ^ Glantz 2001 , p. 85 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , pp. 709 -- 22 . Jump up ^ Buchanan 2006 , p. 21 . Jump up ^ Shepardson 1998 . Jump up ^ O'Reilly 2001 , p. 244 . Jump up ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 823 . Jump up ^ Evans 2008 , p. 737 . Jump up ^ Glantz 1998 , p. 24 . Jump up ^ Chant , Christopher ( 1986 ) . The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II . Routledge & Kegan Paul . p. 118 . ISBN 0 - 7102 - 0718 - 2 . Jump up ^ John Dower ( 2007 ) . `` Lessons from Iwo Jima '' . Perspectives. 45 ( 6 ) : 54 -- 56 . Jump up ^ Drea 2003 , p. 57 . Jump up ^ Jowett & Andrew 2002 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Poirier , Michel Thomas ( 20 October 1999 ) . `` Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II '' . U.S. Navy . Archived from the original on 9 April 2008 . Retrieved 13 April 2008 . Jump up ^ Williams 2006 , p. 90 . Jump up ^ Miscamble 2007 , p. 201 . Jump up ^ Miscamble 2007 , pp. 203 -- 4 . Jump up ^ Charles F. Brower ( 16 October 2012 ) . Defeating Japan : The Joint Chiefs of Staff and Strategy in the Pacific War , 1943 -- 1945 . Palgrave Macmillan . pp. 133 -- 144 . Jump up ^ Glantz 2005 . Jump up ^ Pape 1993 . Jump up ^ Beevor 2012 , p. 776 . Jump up ^ Frei 2002 , pp. 41 -- 66 . Jump up ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 43 . Jump up ^ Roberts 2006 , p. 55 . Jump up ^ Shirer 1990 , p. 794 . Jump up ^ Kennedy - Pipe 1995 . Jump up ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 20 -- 1 . Jump up ^ Senn 2007 , p. ? . Jump up ^ Yoder 1997 , p. 39 . Jump up ^ `` History of the UN '' . United Nations . Archived from the original on 18 February 2010 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Waltz 2002 . The UDHR is viewable here ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ Kantowicz 2000 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Wettig 2008 , pp. 96 -- 100 . Jump up ^ Trachtenberg 1999 , p. 33 . Jump up ^ Applebaum 2012 . Jump up ^ Naimark 2010 . Jump up ^ Swain 1992 . Jump up ^ Borstelmann 2005 , p. 318 . Jump up ^ Leffler & Westad 2010 . Jump up ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 911 . Jump up ^ Stueck 2010 . Jump up ^ Lynch 2010 , pp. 12 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Roberts 1997 , p. 589 . Jump up ^ Darwin 2007 , pp. 441 -- 3 , 464 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 1006 ; Harrison 1998 , pp. 34 -- 5 . Jump up ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 207 . Jump up ^ Petrov 1967 , p. 263 . Jump up ^ Balabkins 1964 , pp. 208 , 209 . Jump up ^ DeLong & Eichengreen 1993 , pp. 190 , 191 Jump up ^ Balabkins 1964 , p. 212 . Jump up ^ Wolf 1993 , pp. 29 , 30 , 32 Jump up ^ Bull & Newell 2005 , pp. 20 , 21 Jump up ^ Ritchie 1992 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Minford 1993 , p. 117 . Jump up ^ Schain 2001 . Jump up ^ Emadi - Coffin 2002 , p. 64 . Jump up ^ Smith 1993 , p. 32 . Jump up ^ Neary 1992 , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Genzberger , Christine ( 1994 ) . China Business : The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China . Petaluma , California : World Trade Press . p. 4 . ISBN 0 - 9631864 - 3 - 4 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Prof. Joseph V. `` World War II : Combatants and Casualties ( 1937 -- 1945 ) '' . Obee 's History Page . John Jay College of Criminal Justice . Archived from the original on 25 December 2010 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . Jump up ^ White , Matthew . `` Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm '' . Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century . Matthew White 's Homepage . Retrieved 20 April 2007 . Jump up ^ `` World War II Fatalities '' . secondworldwar.co.uk . Retrieved 20 April 2007 . Jump up ^ Hosking 2006 , p. 242 Jump up ^ Ellman & Maksudov 1994 . Jump up ^ Smith 1994 , p. 204 . Jump up ^ Herf 2003 . Jump up ^ friedrich , karsten . `` The Cruel Slaughter of Adolf Hitler '' . Lulu.com . Retrieved 27 August 2017 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ Florida Center for Instructional Technology ( 2005 ) . `` Victims '' . A Teacher 's Guide to the Holocaust . University of South Florida . Retrieved 2 February 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Niewyk & Nicosia 2000 , pp. 45 -- 52 . Jump up ^ Snyder , Timothy . `` Holocaust : The Ignored Reality '' . The New York Review of Books . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Polish Victims '' . www.ushmm.org . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others '' . BBC . April 2006 . Retrieved 4 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Evans 2008 , pp. 158 -- 60 , 234 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Dear & Foot 2001 , p. 290 . Jump up ^ Rummell , R.J. `` Statistics '' . Freedom , Democide , War . The University of Hawaii System . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Chang 1997 , p. 102 . Jump up ^ Bix 2000 , p. ? . Jump up ^ Gold , Hal ( 1996 ) . Unit 731 testimony . Tuttle . pp. 75 -- 7 . ISBN 0 - 8048 - 3565 - 9 . Jump up ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 320 . Jump up ^ Harris 2002 , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Lee 2002 , p. 69 . Jump up ^ `` Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW : new evidence '' . The Japan Times Online . 27 July 2004 . Archived from the original on 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 25 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Kużniar - Plota , Małgorzata ( 30 November 2004 ) . `` Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre '' . Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation . Retrieved 4 August 2011 . Jump up ^ Robert Gellately . Lenin , Stalin , and Hitler : The Age of Social Catastrophe . Knopf , 2007 ISBN 1 - 4000 - 4005 - 1 p. 391 Jump up ^ Terror from the Sky : The Bombing of German Cities in World War II . Berghahn Books . 2010 . p. 167 . ISBN 1 - 84545 - 844 - 3 . Jump up ^ Institute of National Remembrance , Polska 1939 -- 1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami . Materski and Szarota. page 9 `` Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000 '' . ^ Jump up to : Marek , Michael ( 27 October 2005 ) . `` Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers '' . dw-world.de . Deutsche Welle . Archived from the original on 19 January 2010 . Retrieved 19 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Applebaum 2003 . Jump up ^ Herbert 1994 , p. 222 Jump up ^ Overy 2004 , pp. 568 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens . Istoriya SSSR. , 1990 , No. 4 , ( in Russian ) . See also ( 2 ) ( online version ) , and Bacon 1992 ; Ellman 2002 . Jump up ^ `` Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines '' . American Experience : the Bataan Rescue . PBS Online . Archived from the original on 19 January 2010 . Retrieved 18 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Tanaka 1996 , pp. 2 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Bix 2000 , p. 360 . ^ Jump up to : Ju , Zhifen ( June 2002 ) . `` Japan 's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draughtees after the outbreak of the Pacific war '' . Joint Study of the Sino - Japanese War : Minutes of the June 2002 Conference . Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on 21 May 2012 . Retrieved 28 December 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Indonesia : World War II and the Struggle For Independence , 1942 -- 50 ; The Japanese Occupation , 1942 -- 45 '' . Library of Congress . 1992 . Retrieved 9 February 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Manzanar National Historic Site '' . U.S. National Park Service . Retrieved 21 February 2012 . Jump up ^ Department of Labour of Canada ( 24 January 1947 ) . Report on the Re-establishment of Japanese in Canada , 1944 -- 1946 . Department of Labour . Office of the Prime Minister . p. 23 . ISBN 0 - 405 - 11266 - 1 . Jump up ^ Kennedy 2001 , pp. 749 -- 50 . Jump up ^ Davidson 1999 , p. 121 . Jump up ^ Stark , Tamás . `` '' Malenki Robot '' -- Hungarian Forced Labourers in the Soviet Union ( 1944 -- 1955 ) '' ( PDF ) . Minorities Research . Retrieved 22 January 2010 . Jump up ^ Liberman 1996 , p. 42 . Jump up ^ Milward 1992 , p. 138 . Jump up ^ Milward 1992 , p. 148 . Jump up ^ Barber & Harrison 2006 , p. 232 . Jump up ^ Hill 2005 , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Christofferson & Christofferson 2006 , p. 156 Jump up ^ Radtke 1997 , p. 107 . ^ Jump up to : Rahn 2001 , p. 266 . ^ Jump up to : Harrison 1998 , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Mark R. Wilson , Destructive Creation : American Business and the Winning of World War II ( 2016 ) p. 2 . Jump up ^ Harrison 1998 , p. 2 . Jump up ^ Bernstein 1991 , p. 267 . Jump up ^ Griffith , Charles ( 1999 ) . The Quest : Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II . DIANE Publishing . p. 203 . ISBN 1 - 58566 - 069 - 8 . Jump up ^ Overy 1994 , p. 26 . Jump up ^ BBSU 1998 , p. 84 ; Lindberg & Todd 2001 , p. 126 ... Jump up ^ Unidas , Naciones ( 2005 ) . World Economic And Social Survey 2004 : International Migration . United Nations Pubns . p. 23 . ISBN 92 - 1 - 109147 - 0 . Jump up ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 76 . Jump up ^ Levine 1992 , p. 227 . Jump up ^ Klavans , Di Benedetto & Prudom 1997 ; Ward 2010 , pp. 247 -- 51 . Jump up ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 163 . Jump up ^ Bishop , Chris ; Chant , Chris ( 2004 ) . Aircraft Carriers : The World 's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft . Wigston , Leics : Silverdale Books . p. 7 . ISBN 1 - 84509 - 079 - 9 . Jump up ^ Chenoweth , H. Avery ; Nihart , Brooke ( 2005 ) . Semper Fi : The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines . New York : Main Street . p. 180 . ISBN 1 - 4027 - 3099 - 3 . Jump up ^ Sumner & Baker 2001 , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Hearn 2007 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Gardiner & Brown 2004 , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Burcher & Rydill 1995 , p. 16 . ^ Jump up to : Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 125 . Jump up ^ Dupuy , Trevor Nevitt ( 1982 ) . The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare . Jane 's Information Group . p. 231 . ISBN 0 - 7106 - 0123 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 108 . Jump up ^ Tucker & Roberts 2004 , p. 734 . ^ Jump up to : Cowley & Parker 2001 , p. 221 . Jump up ^ `` Infantry Weapons Of World War 2 '' . Grey Falcon ( Black Sun ) . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . These all - purpose guns were developed and used by the German army in the 2nd half of World War 2 as a result of studies which showed that the ordinary rifle 's long range is much longer than needed , since the soldiers almost always fired at enemies closer than half of its effective range . The assault rifle is a balanced compromise between the rifle and the sub-machine gun , having sufficient range and accuracy to be used as a rifle , combined with the rapid - rate automatic firepower of the sub machine gun . Thanks to these combined advantages , assault rifles such as the American M - 16 and the Russian AK - 47 are the basic weapon of the modern soldier Jump up ^ Sprague , Oliver ; Griffiths , Hugh ( 2006 ) . `` The AK - 47 : the worlds favourite killing machine '' ( PDF ) . controlarms.org . p. 1 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 14 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Ratcliff 2006 , p. 11 . ^ Jump up to : Schoenherr , Steven ( 2007 ) . `` Code Breaking in World War II '' . History Department at the University of San Diego . Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Macintyre , Ben ( 10 December 2010 ) . `` Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory '' . The Times . London . p. 27 . Jump up ^ Rowe , Neil C. ; Rothstein , Hy . `` Deception for Defense of Information Systems : Analogies from Conventional Warfare '' . Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School . Air University . Retrieved 15 November 2009 . References Adamthwaite , Anthony P. ( 1992 ) . The Making of the Second World War . New York : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 90716 - 0 . Anderson , Irvine H. , Jr. ( 1975 ) . `` The 1941 De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan : A Bureaucratic Reflex '' . The Pacific Historical Review . 44 ( 2 ) . JSTOR 3638003 . Applebaum , Anne ( 2003 ) . Gulag : A History of the Soviet Camps . London : Allen Lane . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7139 - 9322 - 6 . -- -- -- ( 2012 ) . Iron Curtain : The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944 -- 56 . London : Allen Lane . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7139 - 9868 - 9 . Bacon , Edwin ( 1992 ) . `` Glasnost ' and the Gulag : New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II '' . Soviet Studies . 44 ( 6 ) : 1069 -- 1086 . JSTOR 152330 . doi : 10.1080 / 09668139208412066 . Badsey , Stephen ( 1990 ) . Normandy 1944 : Allied Landings and Breakout . Oxford : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85045 - 921 - 0 . Balabkins , Nicholas ( 1964 ) . Germany Under Direct Controls : Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945 -- 1948 . New Brunswick , NJ : Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8135 - 0449 - 0 . Barber , John ; Harrison , Mark ( 2006 ) . `` Patriotic War , 1941 -- 1945 '' . In Ronald Grigor Suny , ed. , ' The Cambridge History of Russia , Volume III : The Twentieth Century ( pp. 217 -- 242 ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 81144 - 6 . Barker , A.J. ( 1971 ) . The Rape of Ethiopia 1936 . New York , NY : Ballantine Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 345 - 02462 - 6 . Barrett , David P. ; Shyu , Lawrence N. ( 2001 ) . China in the Anti-Japanese War , 1937 -- 1945 : Politics , Culture and Society . New York , NY : Peter Lang . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8204 - 4556 - 4 . Beevor , Antony ( 1998 ) . Stalingrad . New York , NY : Viking . ISBN 978 - 0 - 670 - 87095 - 0 . -- -- -- ( 2012 ) . The Second World War . London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978 - 0 - 297 - 84497 - 6 . Belco , Victoria ( 2010 ) . War , Massacre , and Recovery in Central Italy : 1943 -- 1948 . Toronto : University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8020 - 9314 - 1 . Bellamy , Chris T. ( 2007 ) . Absolute War : Soviet Russia in the Second World War . New York , NY : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 - 0 - 375 - 41086 - 4 . Ben - Horin , Eliahu ( 1943 ) . The Middle East : Crossroads of History . New York , NY : W.W. Norton & Company . Berend , Ivan T. ( 1996 ) . Central and Eastern Europe , 1944 -- 1993 : Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 55066 - 6 . Bernstein , Gail Lee ( 1991 ) . Recreating Japanese Women , 1600 -- 1945 . Berkeley & Los Angeles , CA : University of California Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 07017 - 2 . Bilhartz , Terry D. ; Elliott , Alan C. ( 2007 ) . Currents in American History : A Brief History of the United States . Armonk , NY : M.E. Sharpe . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7656 - 1821 - 4 . Bilinsky , Yaroslav ( 1999 ) . Endgame in NATO 's Enlargement : The Baltic States and Ukraine . Westport , CT : Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0 - 275 - 96363 - 7 . Bix , Herbert P. ( 2000 ) . Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan . New York , NY : HarperCollins . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 019314 - 0 . Black , Jeremy ( 2003 ) . World War Two : A Military History . Abingdon and New York , NY : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 30534 - 1 . Blinkhorn , Martin ( 2006 ) ( 1984 ) . Mussolini and Fascist Italy ( 3rd ed . ) . Abingdon and New York , NY : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 26206 - 4 . Bonner , Kit ; Bonner , Carolyn ( 2001 ) . Warship Boneyards . Osceola , WI : MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 0870 - 7 . Borstelmann , Thomas ( 2005 ) . `` The United States , the Cold War , and the color line '' . In Melvyn P. Leffler and David S. Painter , eds. , Origins of the Cold War : An International History ( pp. 317 -- 332 ) ( 2nd ed . ) . Abingdon & New York , NY : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 34109 - 7 . Bosworth , Richard ; Maiolo , Joseph ( 2015 ) . The Cambridge History of the Second World War Volume 2 : Politics and Ideology . The Cambridge History of the Second World War ( 3 vol ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 313 -- 314 . Brayley , Martin J. ( 2002 ) . The British Army 1939 -- 45 , Volume 3 : The Far East . Oxford : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 238 - 8 . British Bombing Survey Unit ( 1998 ) . The Strategic Air War Against Germany , 1939 -- 1945 . London and Portland , OR : Frank Cass Publishers . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7146 - 4722 - 7 . Brody , J. Kenneth ( 1999 ) . The Avoidable War : Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality , 1935 -- 1936 . 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JSTOR 260931 . doi : 10.1177 / 002200948702200202 . Stueck , William ( 2010 ) . `` The Korean War '' . In Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad , eds. , The Cambridge History of the Cold War , Volume I : Origins ( pp. 266 -- 287 ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 83719 - 4 . Sumner , Ian ; Baker , Alix ( 2001 ) . The Royal Navy 1939 -- 45 . Oxford : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 195 - 4 . Swain , Bruce ( 2001 ) . A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939 -- 45 . Crows Nest : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 978 - 1 - 86508 - 352 - 0 . Swain , Geoffrey ( 1992 ) . `` The Cominform : Tito 's International ? '' . The Historical Journal . 35 ( 3 ) : 641 -- 663 . doi : 10.1017 / S0018246X00026017 . Tanaka , Yuki ( 1996 ) . Hidden Horrors : Japanese War Crimes in World War II . Boulder , CO : Westview Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8133 - 2717 - 4 . Taylor , A.J.P. ( 1961 ) . The Origins of the Second World War . London : Hamish Hamilton . -- -- -- ( 1979 ) . How Wars Begin . London : Hamish Hamilton . ISBN 978 - 0 - 241 - 10017 - 2 . Taylor , Jay ( 2009 ) . The Generalissimo : Chiang Kai - shek and the Struggle for Modern China . Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 03338 - 2 . Thomas , Nigel ; Andrew , Stephen ( 1998 ) . German Army 1939 -- 1945 ( 2 ) : North Africa & Balkans . Oxford : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85532 - 640 - 8 . Thompson , John Herd ; Randall , Stephen J. ( 2008 ) . Canada and the United States : Ambivalent Allies ( 4th ed . ) . Athens , GA : University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8203 - 3113 - 3 . Trachtenberg , Marc ( 1999 ) . A Constructed Peace : The Making of the European Settlement , 1945 -- 1963 . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 00273 - 6 . Tucker , Spencer C. ; Roberts , Priscilla Mary ( 2004 ) . Encyclopedia of World War II : A Political , Social , and Military History . ABC - CLIO . ISBN 1 - 57607 - 999 - 6 . Umbreit , Hans ( 1991 ) . `` The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe '' . In P. S. Falla , ed. , Germany and the Second World War , Volume 2 : Germany 's Initial Conquests in Europe ( pp. 227 -- 326 ) . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 822885 - 1 . United States Army ( 1986 ) ( 1953 ) . The German Campaigns in the Balkans ( Spring 1941 ) . Washington , DC : Department of the Army . Waltz , Susan ( 2002 ) . `` Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights '' . Third World Quarterly . 23 ( 3 ) : 437 -- 448 . JSTOR 3993535 . doi : 10.1080 / 01436590220138378 . Ward , Thomas A. ( 2010 ) . Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 82497 - 9 . Watson , William E. ( 2003 ) . Tricolor and Crescent : France and the Islamic World . Westport , CT : Praeger . ISBN 0 - 275 - 97470 - 7 . Weinberg , Gerhard L. ( 2005 ) . A World at Arms : A Global History of World War II ( 2nd ed . ) . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 85316 - 3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig , Gerhard ( 2008 ) . Stalin and the Cold War in Europe : The Emergence and Development of East - West Conflict , 1939 -- 1953 . Lanham , MD : Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7425 - 5542 - 6 . Wiest , Andrew ; Barbier , M.K. ( 2002 ) . Strategy and Tactics : Infantry Warfare . St Paul , MN : MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7603 - 1401 - 2 . Williams , Andrew ( 2006 ) . Liberalism and War : The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York , NY : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 35980 - 1 . Wilt , Alan F. ( 1981 ) . `` Hitler 's Late Summer Pause in 1941 '' . Military Affairs . 45 ( 4 ) : 187 -- 91 . JSTOR 1987464 . doi : 10.2307 / 1987464 . Wohlstetter , Roberta ( 1962 ) . Pearl Harbor : Warning and Decision . Palo Alto , CA : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 0597 - 4 . Wolf , Holger C. ( 1993 ) . `` The Lucky Miracle : Germany 1945 -- 1951 '' . In Rudiger Dornbusch , Wilhelm Nölling and Richard Layard , eds. , Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today ( pp. 29 -- 56 ) . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 262 - 04136 - 2 . Wood , James B. ( 2007 ) . Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War : Was Defeat Inevitable ? . Lanham , MD : Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7425 - 5339 - 2 . Yoder , Amos ( 1997 ) . The Evolution of the United Nations System ( 3rd ed . ) . London & Washington , DC : Taylor & Francis . ISBN 1 - 56032 - 546 - 1 . Zalampas , Michael ( 1989 ) . Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines , 1923 -- 1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press . ISBN 0 - 87972 - 462 - 5 . Zaloga , Steven J. ( 1996 ) . Bagration 1944 : The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85532 - 478 - 7 . -- -- -- ( 2002 ) . Poland 1939 : The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84176 - 408 - 5 . Zeiler , Thomas W. and Daniel M. DuBois , eds . A Companion to World War II ( 2 vol 2013 ) , 1030pp ; comprehensive overview by scholars Zeiler , Thomas W. ( 2004 ) . Unconditional Defeat : Japan , America , and the End of World War II . Wilmington , DE : Scholarly Resources . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8420 - 2991 - 9 . Zetterling , Niklas ; Tamelander , Michael ( 2009 ) . Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany 's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill , PA : Casemate . ISBN 978 - 1 - 935149 - 04 - 0 . Further reading Aksar , Yusuf ( 2004 ) . Implementing Intnl Humanitaria : From the AD Hoc Tribunals to a Permanent International Criminal Court . London and New York , NY : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7146 - 5584 - 0 . Beevor , Antony ( 2006 ) . The Battle for Spain : The Spanish Civil War 1936 -- 1939 . London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 978 - 0 - 297 - 84832 - 5 . Budiansky , Stephen ( 2004 ) . Air Power : The Men , Machines , and Ideas that Revolutionized War , from Kitty Hawk to Gulf War II . London : Viking . ISBN 978 - 0 - 670 - 03285 - 3 . Chaney , Otto Preston ( 1996 ) . Zhukov ( Revised ed . ) . Norman , OK : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8061 - 2807 - 8 . Coox , Alvin D. ( 1990 ) . Nomonhan : Japan Against Russia , 1939 . Palo Alto , CA : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 1160 - 9 . Douglas , R.M. ( 2012 ) . Orderly and Humane : The Expulsion of the Germans After the Second World War . New Haven , CT : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 16660 - 6 . Ferraro , Kathleen J. ( 2008 ) . `` Reviews : Taken by Force : Rape and American GIs in Europe during WWII by J. Robert Lilly '' . Contemporary Sociology. 37 ( 6 ) : 585 -- 586 . JSTOR 20444365 . doi : 10.1177 / 009430610803700640 . Graham , Helen ( 2005 ) . The Spanish Civil War : A Very Short Introduction . Oxford & New York , New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280377 - 8 . Hatfield , Kenneth K. ( 2003 ) . Heartland Heroes : Remembering World War II . Columbia , MO : University of Missouri Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8262 - 1460 - 7 . Judt , Tony ; Snyder , Timothy ( 2012 ) . Thinking the Twentieth Century : Intellectuals and Politics in the Twentieth Century . London : William Heinemann . ISBN 978 - 0 - 434 - 01742 - 3 . Kelly , Nigel ; Rees , Rosemary ; Shuter , Jane ( 1998 ) . Twentieth Century World . London : Heinemann . ISBN 978 - 0 - 435 - 30983 - 1 . Lilly , J. Robert ( 2007 ) . Taken by Force : Rape and American GIs in Europe during World War II . New York , NY : Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 0 - 230 - 50647 - 3 . O'Hara , Vincent ( 2004 ) . The German Fleet at War , 1939 -- 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 9781591146513 . Parker , R.A.C. ( April 1956 ) . `` The First Capitulation : France and the Rhineland Crisis of 1936 '' . World Politics . 8 ( 3 ) : 355 -- 373 . doi : 10.2307 / 2008855 . 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Frankenstein
Frankenstein - wikipedia Frankenstein Jump to : navigation , search This article is about a novel by Mary Shelley . For the characters , see Victor Frankenstein and Frankenstein 's monster . For the historic German castles and other uses , see Frankenstein ( disambiguation ) . Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus Volume I , first edition Author Mary Shelley Country United Kingdom Language English Genre Gothic novel , horror fiction , soft science fiction Published 1 January 1818 ( Lackington , Hughes , Harding , Mavor & Jones ) Pages 280 Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by English author Mary Shelley ( 1797 -- 1851 ) that tells the story of Victor Frankenstein , a young scientist who creates a grotesque but sapient creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment . Shelley started writing the story when she was 18 , and the first edition of the novel was published anonymously in London on 1 January 1818 , when she was 20 . Her name first appeared on the second edition , published in France in 1823 . Shelley travelled through Europe in 1814 , journeying along the river Rhine in Germany with a stop in Gernsheim which is 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) away from Frankenstein Castle , where , two centuries before , an alchemist was engaged in experiments . Later , she travelled in the region of Geneva ( Switzerland ) -- where much of the story takes place -- and the topic of galvanism and other similar occult ideas were themes of conversation among her companions , particularly her lover and future husband , Percy Shelley . Mary , Percy , Lord Byron and John Polidori decided to have a competition to see who could write the best horror story . After thinking for days , Shelley dreamt about a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had made ; her dream later evolved into the novel 's story . Frankenstein is infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement . At the same time , it is an early example of science fiction . Brian Aldiss has argued that it should be considered the first true science fiction story because , in contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later science fiction , the central character `` makes a deliberate decision '' and `` turns to modern experiments in the laboratory '' to achieve fantastic results . It has had a considerable influence in literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories , films and plays . Since the novel 's publication , the name `` Frankenstein '' has often been used to refer to the monster itself . This usage is sometimes considered erroneous , but usage commentators regard it as well - established and acceptable . In the novel , the monster is identified by words such as `` creature '' , `` monster '' , `` demon '' , `` wretch '' , `` abortion '' , `` fiend '' and `` it '' . Speaking to Victor Frankenstein , the wretch refers to himself as `` the Adam of your labours '' , and elsewhere as someone who `` would have ( been ) your Adam '' , but is instead `` your fallen angel '' ( which ties to Lucifer in Paradise Lost , which the monster reads , and which relates to the disobedience of Prometheus in the book 's subtitle ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Summary 1.1 Captain Walton 's introductory frame narrative 1.2 Victor Frankenstein 's narrative 1.3 The Creature 's narrative 1.4 Victor Frankenstein 's narrative resumes 1.5 Captain Walton 's Conclusion 2 Characters 3 Composition 4 Publication 5 Frankenstein and the Monster 5.1 The Creature 5.2 Victor Frankenstein 's name 5.3 Modern Prometheus 6 Shelley 's sources 7 Reception 8 Derivative works 9 Films , plays and television 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 13.1 Editions 13.1. 1 1818 text 13.1. 2 1831 text 14 External links Summary A variety of different editions Frankenstein is written in the form of a frame story that starts with Captain Robert Walton writing letters to his sister . It takes place at an unspecified time in the 18th century , as the letters ' dates are given as `` 17 -- '' . Captain Walton 's introductory frame narrative The novel Frankenstein is written in epistolary form , documenting a fictional correspondence between Captain Robert Walton and his sister , Margaret Walton Saville . Walton is a failed writer and captain who sets out to explore the North Pole and expand his scientific knowledge in hopes of achieving fame . During the voyage , the crew spots a dog sled driven by a gigantic figure . A few hours later , the crew rescues a nearly frozen and emaciated man named Victor Frankenstein . Frankenstein has been in pursuit of the gigantic man observed by Walton 's crew . Frankenstein starts to recover from his exertion ; he sees in Walton the same obsession that has destroyed him , and recounts a story of his life 's miseries to Walton as a warning . The recounted story serves as the frame for Frankenstein 's narrative . Victor Frankenstein 's narrative Victor begins by telling of his childhood . Born in Naples , into a wealthy Genevan family , Victor and his brothers , Ernest and William , all three being sons of Alphonse Frankenstein by the former Caroline Beaufort , are encouraged to seek a greater understanding of the world through chemistry . As a young boy , Victor is obsessed with studying outdated theories that focus on simulating natural wonders . When Victor is five years old , his parents adopt Elizabeth Lavenza , the orphaned daughter of an expropriated Italian nobleman , with whom Victor later falls in love . During this period , Victor 's parents , Alphonse and Caroline , take in yet another orphan , Justine Moritz , who becomes William 's nanny . Weeks before he leaves for the University of Ingolstadt in Germany , his mother dies of scarlet fever ; Victor buries himself in his experiments to deal with the grief . At the university , he excels at chemistry and other sciences , soon developing a secret technique to impart life to non-living matter . Eventually , he undertakes the creation of a humanoid , but due to the difficulty in replicating the minute parts of the human body , Victor makes the Creature tall , about 8 feet ( 2.4 m ) in height and proportionally large . Despite his intentions , the beautiful creation of his dreams is instead hideous , with yellow eyes and skin that barely conceals the muscle tissue and blood vessels underneath . Repulsed by his work , Victor flees and dismisses him when it awakens . While wandering the streets , he meets his childhood friend , Henry Clerval , and takes Henry back to his apartment , fearful of Henry 's reaction if he sees the monster . Victor does not have to deal with that issue , however , because the monster has escaped . Victor falls ill from the experience and is nursed back to health by Henry . After a four - month recovery , he returns home when he learns of the murder of his brother William . Upon arriving in Geneva , Victor sees the Creature near the crime scene and climbing a mountain , leading him to believe his creation is responsible . Justine Moritz , William 's nanny , is convicted of the crime after William 's locket , which had contained a miniature portrait of Caroline , is found in her pocket . Victor is helpless to stop her from being hanged , as he knows no one would believe his story . Ravaged by grief and guilt , Victor retreats into the mountains . The Creature finds him and pleads for Victor to hear his tale . The Creature 's narrative Intelligent and articulate , the Creature relates his first days of life , living alone in the wilderness and finding that people were afraid of and hated him due to his appearance , which led him to fear and hide from them . While living in an abandoned structure connected to a cottage , he grew fond of the poor family living there , and discreetly collected firewood for them . Secretly living among the family for months , the Creature learned to speak by listening to them and he taught himself to read after discovering a lost satchel of books in the woods . When he saw his reflection in a pool , he realized his physical appearance was hideous , and it terrified him as it terrifies normal humans . Nevertheless , he approached the family in hopes of becoming their friend . Initially he was able to befriend the blind father figure of the family , but the rest of them were frightened and they all fled their home , resulting in the Creature burning the cottage in a fit of rage . He then swore revenge on his creator for bringing him into a world that hated him . He traveled to Victor 's family estate using details from Victor 's journal , murdered William , and framed Justine . The Creature demands that Victor create a female companion like himself . He argues that as a living being , he has a right to happiness . The Creature promises that he and his mate will vanish into the South American wilderness , never to reappear , if Victor grants his request . Should Victor refuse his request , The Creature also threatens to kill Victor 's remaining friends and loved ones and not stop until he completely ruins him . Fearing for his family , Victor reluctantly agrees . The Creature says he will watch over Victor 's progress . Victor Frankenstein 's narrative resumes Clerval accompanies him to England , but they separate at Victor 's insistence at Perth , Scotland . Victor suspects that the Creature is following him . Working on the female creature on the Orkney Islands , he is plagued by premonitions of disaster , such as the female hating the Creature or becoming more evil than him , but more particularly the two creatures might lead to the breeding of a race that could plague mankind . He tears apart the unfinished female creature after he sees the Creature , who had indeed followed Victor , watching through a window . The Creature later confronts and tries to threaten Victor into working again , but Victor is convinced that the Creature is evil and that its mate would be evil as well , and the pair would threaten all humanity . Victor destroys his work and the Creature vows that he will `` be with ( him ) on ( his ) wedding night '' . Victor interprets this as a threat upon his life , believing that the Creature will kill him after he finally becomes happy . When Victor lands in Ireland , he is soon imprisoned for Clerval 's murder , as the Creature had strangled Clerval to death and left the corpse to be found where his creator had arrived , causing the latter to suffer another mental breakdown in prison . After being acquitted , Victor returns home with his father , who has restored to Elizabeth some of her father 's fortune . In Geneva , Victor is about to marry Elizabeth and prepares to fight the Creature to the death , arming himself with pistols and a dagger . The night following their wedding , Victor asks Elizabeth to stay in her room while he looks for `` the fiend '' . While Victor searches the house and grounds , the Creature strangles Elizabeth to death . From the window , Victor sees the Creature , who tauntingly points at Elizabeth 's corpse ; Victor tries to shoot him , but the Creature escapes . After Victor gets back to Geneva , Victor 's father , weakened by age and by the death of his precious Elizabeth , dies a few days later . Seeking revenge , Victor pursues the Creature to the North Pole , but collapses from exhaustion and hypothermia before he can find his quarry . Captain Walton 's conclusion At the end of Victor 's narrative , Captain Walton resumes the telling of the story , closing the frame around Victor 's recounting . A few days after the Creature vanished , the ship becomes trapped in pack ice and multiple crewmen die in the cold , before the rest of Walton 's crew insists on returning south once it is freed . Walton sees Victor 's story as a warning , and decides to turn the ship around . Victor dies shortly thereafter , but not before telling Walton to `` avoid ambition '' . Walton discovers the Creature on his ship , mourning over Victor 's body . The Creature tells Walton that Victor 's death has not brought him peace ; rather , his crimes have left him completely alone . The Creature vows to kill himself so that no others will ever know of his existence . Walton watches as the Creature drifts away on an ice raft that is soon lost in darkness and distance , never to be seen again . Characters Victor Frankenstein -- Protagonist and narrator of most of the story . Creates the monster . The creature ( Frankenstein 's monster ) -- The hideous creature created by Victor Frankenstein . Mrs. Margaret Saville -- Resident of England . Sister of Robert Walton . Addressee of letters written by him . Captain Robert Walton -- Captain of the boat which picked up Victor . Brother of Mrs. Margaret Saville , and writer of letters addressed to her . Beaufort -- A Merchant . Caroline Beaufort 's father . One of the most intimate friends of Victor 's father . Caroline Beaufort -- Beaufort 's daughter , Victor 's mother . Ernest -- Victor 's brother . Seven years younger than Victor . Henry Clerval -- Victor 's best friend from childhood . The son of a merchant of Geneva . Justine Moritz -- Daughter of Madame Moritz . Moved in with the Frankenstein family at age of 12 , and hanged for the murder of William . Elizabeth Lavenza -- Daughter of a Milanese nobleman . Her mother was a German and had died on giving birth to her . Raised as Victor 's `` cousin '' in the Frankenstein home . William -- Victor 's youngest brother . M. Krempe -- professor of natural philosophy at university of Ingolstadt . He was an uncouth man , but deeply imbued in the secrets of his science . Influenced Victor . M. Waldman -- A professor , at Ingolstadt . Influenced Victor . Agatha -- Daughter of De Lacey . Felix 's sister . Felix -- Son of De Lacey . De Lacey -- Blind old man descended from a good family in France . Father of Agatha and Felix . His family was observed by the monster , and unbeknownst to them , taught him to speak and read . Safie -- Daughter of a Turkish Merchant and a Christian Arab . Mr. Kirwin -- A magistrate . Daniel Nugent -- A witness against Victor in his murder trial . Composition Draft of Frankenstein ( `` It was on a dreary night of November that I beheld my man completed ... '' ) `` How I , then a young girl , came to think of , and to dilate upon , so very hideous an idea ? '' -- Mary Shelley During the rainy summer of 1816 , the `` Year Without a Summer '' , the world was locked in a long cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815 . Mary Shelley , aged 18 , and her lover ( and later husband ) Percy Bysshe Shelley , visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in Switzerland . The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned , so the group retired indoors until dawn . Sitting around a log fire at Byron 's villa , the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana , then Byron proposed that they `` each write a ghost story '' . Unable to think of a story , young Mary became anxious : `` Have you thought of a story ? I was asked each morning , and each morning I was forced to reply with a mortifying negative . '' During one evening in the middle of summer , the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life . `` Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated '' , Mary noted , `` galvanism had given token of such things '' . It was after midnight before they retired , and unable to sleep , she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the grim terrors of her `` waking dream '' . I saw the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing he had put together . I saw the hideous phantasm of a man stretched out , and then , on the working of some powerful engine , show signs of life , and stir with an uneasy , half vital motion . Frightful must it be ; for supremely frightful would be the effect of any human endeavour to mock the stupendous mechanism of the Creator of the world . In September 2011 , astronomer Donald Olson , after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa the previous year , and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars , concluded that her `` waking dream '' took place `` between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m. '' on 16 June 1816 , several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story . She began writing what she assumed would be a short story . With Percy Shelley 's encouragement , she expanded the tale into a full - fledged novel . She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment `` when I first stepped out from childhood into life '' . Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following the suicide of her half - sister Fanny . This was one of many personal tragedies that impacted Shelley 's work . Shelley 's first child died in infancy , and when she began composing Frankenstein in 1816 , she was likely nursing her second child , who would also be dead at Frankenstein 's publication . Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans , and from this John Polidori created The Vampyre ( 1819 ) , the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre . Thus two legendary horror tales originated from the conclave . The group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well . Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly ; however , she also believed the Romantic ideal that misused power could destroy society ( Bennett 36 -- 42 ) . Mary 's and Percy Bysshe Shelley 's manuscripts for the first three - volume edition in 1818 ( written 1816 -- 1817 ) , as well as Mary Shelley 's fair copy for her publisher , are now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford . The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004 , and they belong now to the Abinger Collection . In 2008 , the Bodleian published a new edition of Frankenstein , edited by Charles E. Robinson , that contains comparisons of Mary Shelley 's original text with Percy Shelley 's additions and interventions alongside . Publication Mary Shelley by Richard Rothwell ( 1840 -- 41 ) Shelley completed her writing in April / May 1817 , and Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus was published on 1 January 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington , Hughes , Harding , Mavor , & Jones . It was issued anonymously , with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin , her father . It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes , the standard `` triple - decker '' format for 19th - century first editions . The second edition of Frankenstein was published on 11 August 1822 in two volumes ( by G. and W.B. Whittaker ) following the success of the stage play Presumption ; or , the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake . This edition credited Mary Shelley as the book 's author on its title page . On 31 October 1831 , the first `` popular '' edition in one - volume appeared , published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley . This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley , partially to make the story less radical . It included a lengthy new preface by the author , presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story . This edition is the one most widely published and read now , although a few editions follow the 1818 text . Some scholars prefer the original version , arguing that it preserves the spirit of Mary Shelley 's vision ( see Anne K. Mellor 's `` Choosing a Text of Frankenstein to Teach '' in the W.W. Norton Critical edition ) . In 2008 , a new edition of the novel , titled The Original Frankenstein , edited by Charles E. Robinson , was published . Robinson examined the original manuscript by Mary Shelley and noted the edits that Percy Bysshe Shelley made to it . Frankenstein and the monster The Creature Main article : Frankenstein 's monster An English editorial cartoonist conceives the Irish Fenian movement as akin to Frankenstein 's creature , in the wake of the Phoenix Park murders in an 1882 issue of Punch . Part of Frankenstein 's rejection of his creation is the fact that he does not give it a name , which causes a lack of identity . Instead it is referred to by words such as `` wretch '' , `` monster '' , `` creature '' , `` demon '' , `` devil '' , `` fiend '' , and `` it '' . When Frankenstein converses with the creature in Chapter 10 , he addresses it as `` vile insect '' , `` abhorred monster '' , `` fiend '' , `` wretched devil '' , and `` abhorred devil '' . During a telling of Frankenstein , Shelley referred to the creature as `` Adam '' . Shelley was referring to the first man in the Garden of Eden , as in her epigraph : Did I request thee , Maker , from my clay To mould Me man ? Did I solicit thee From darkness to promote me ? John Milton , Paradise Lost ( X . 743 -- 5 ) Although the creature would be described in later works as a composite of whole body parts grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity , this description is not entirely consistent with Shelley 's work ; both the use of electricity and the cobbled - together image of Frankenstein 's monster were more the result of James Whale 's popular 1931 film adaptation of the story , and other early motion - picture works based upon the creature . In Shelley 's original work , Dr. Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life , and that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter , though the exact nature of the process is left largely ambiguous . After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power , Frankenstein spends two years painstakingly constructing the creature 's body ( one anatomical feature at a time , from raw materials supplied by `` the dissecting room and the slaughter - house '' ) , which he then brings to life using his unspecified process . The creature has often been mistakenly called `` Frankenstein '' . In 1908 one author said `` It is strange to note how well - nigh universally the term `` Frankenstein '' is misused , even by intelligent people , as describing some hideous monster `` . Edith Wharton 's The Reef ( 1916 ) describes an unruly child as an `` infant Frankenstein . '' David Lindsay 's `` The Bridal Ornament '' , published in The Rover , 12 June 1844 , mentioned `` the maker of poor Frankenstein . '' After the release of Whale 's cinematic Frankenstein , the public at large began speaking of the creature itself as `` Frankenstein '' . This also occurs in Frankenstein films , including Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) and several subsequent films , as well as in film titles such as Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein . Furthermore , future renditions and adaptations of the story include an evil laboratory assistant Igor or Ygor , who does not actually exist within the original narrative . Victor Frankenstein 's name Mary Shelley maintained that she derived the name Frankenstein from a dream - vision . Despite her public claims of originality , however , a number of other sources have been suggested as Shelley 's actual inspiration . The German name Frankenstein means `` stone of the Franks '' , and it is associated with various places in Germany , including Frankenstein Castle ( Burg Frankenstein ) in Darmstadt , Hesse , and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein , a town in the Palatinate . There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad Salzungen , Thuringia , and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony . Until 1945 , Ząbkowice Śląskie , now a city in Lower Silesian Voivodeship , Poland , was mainly populated by Germans and named Frankenstein in German , and was the site of a scandal involving gravediggers in 1606 , which has been suggested as an inspiration to the author . Finally , the name is borne by the aristocratic House of Franckenstein from Franconia . Radu Florescu argues that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814 during their return to England from their elopement to Switzerland . It was at this castle that a notorious alchemist , Conrad Dippel , had experimented with human bodies , and Florescu reasons that Mary suppressed mention of her visit in order to maintain her public claim of originality . A literary essay by A. J. Day supports Florescu 's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her debut novel . Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle that exists in Mary Shelley 's ' lost ' journals . According to Jörg Heléne , the ' lost journals ' , as well as Florescu 's claims , can not be verified . A possible interpretation of the name Victor is derived from Paradise Lost by John Milton , a great influence on Shelley ( a quotation from Paradise Lost is on the opening page of Frankenstein and Shelley even has the monster himself read it ) . Milton frequently refers to God as `` the Victor '' in Paradise Lost , and Shelley sees Victor as playing God by creating life . In addition , Shelley 's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in Paradise Lost ; indeed , the monster says , after reading the epic poem , that he empathizes with Satan 's role in the story . There are many similarities between Victor and Percy Shelley , Mary 's husband . Victor was a pen name of Percy Shelley 's , as in the collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth , Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire . There is speculation that one of Mary Shelley 's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy , who at Eton had `` experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions '' , and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment . Percy Shelley was the first - born son of a wealthy country squire with strong political connections and a descendant of Sir Bysshe Shelley , 1st Baronet of Castle Goring , and Richard Fitzalan , 10th Earl of Arundel . Victor 's family is one of the most distinguished of that republic and his ancestors were counselors and syndics . Percy had a sister named Elizabeth ; Victor had an adopted sister named Elizabeth . On 22 February 1815 , Mary Shelley gave birth to a baby two months prematurely , and the baby died two weeks later . Percy did not care about the condition of this premature infant and left with Claire , Mary 's stepsister , for a lurid affair . When Victor saw the creature come to life he fled the apartment , though the newborn creature approached him , as a child would a parent . The question of Victor 's responsibility to the creature is one of the main themes of the book . Modern Prometheus The Modern Prometheus is the novel 's subtitle ( though some modern editions now drop the subtitle , mentioning it only in an introduction ) . Prometheus , in later versions of Greek mythology , was the Titan who created mankind at the behest of Zeus . He made a being in the image of the gods that could have a spirit breathed into it . Prometheus taught man to hunt , read , and heal their sick , but after he tricked Zeus into accepting poor - quality offerings from humans , Zeus kept fire from mankind . Prometheus , being the creator , took back the fire from Zeus to give to man . When Zeus discovered this , he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus , where each day an eagle would peck out his liver , only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god . He was intended to suffer alone for eternity , but eventually Heracles ( Hercules ) released him . Prometheus was also a myth told in Latin , but was a very different story . In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water , again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein , as Victor rebels against the laws of nature ( how life is naturally made ) and as a result is punished by his creation . In 1910 , Edison Studios released the first motion - picture adaptation of Shelley 's story . The Titan in the Greek mythology of Prometheus parallels Victor Frankenstein . Victor 's work by creating man by new means reflects the same innovative work of the Titan in creating humans . Some have argued that Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as something of a devil , and blamed him for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat ( fire brought cooking which brought hunting and killing ) . Byron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus , and Percy Shelley would soon write his own Prometheus Unbound ( 1820 ) . The term `` Modern Prometheus '' was actually coined by Immanuel Kant in reference to Benjamin Franklin and his experiments with electricity . Shelley 's sources Shelley incorporated a number of different sources into her work , one of which was the Promethean myth from Ovid . The influence of John Milton 's Paradise Lost , and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner , are also clearly evident within the novel . Mary is likely to have acquired some ideas for Frankenstein 's character from Humphry Davy 's book Elements of Chemical Philosophy , in which he had written that `` science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative ; which have enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ... '' . References to the French Revolution run through the novel ; a possible source may lie in François - Félix Nogaret ( fr ) 's Le Miroir des événemens actuels , ou la Belle au plus offrant ( 1790 ) : a political parable about scientific progress featuring an inventor named Frankésteïn who creates a life - sized automaton . Within the past thirty years or so , many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then popular natural philosophers ( now called physical scientists ) with Shelley 's work on account of several notable similarities . Two of the most notable natural philosophers among Shelley 's contemporaries were Giovanni Aldini , who made many public attempts at human reanimation through bio-electric Galvanism in London and Johann Konrad Dippel , who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the life span of humans . While Shelley was obviously aware of both these men and their activities , she makes no mention of or reference to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes . Reception Illustration by Theodor von Holst from the frontispiece of the 1831 edition Frankenstein has been both well received and disregarded since its anonymous publication in 1818 . Critical reviews of that time demonstrate these two views , along with confused speculation as to the identity of the author . The Belle Assemblée described the novel as `` very bold fiction '' ( 139 ) . The Quarterly Review stated that `` the author has the power of both conception and language '' ( 185 ) . Sir Walter Scott , writing in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine , congratulated `` the author 's original genius and happy power of expression '' ( 620 ) , although he is less convinced about the way in which the monster gains knowledge about the world and language . The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany hoped to see `` more productions from this author '' ( 253 ) . On the other hand , the Quarterly Review described it `` a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity '' . In two other reviews where the author is known as the daughter of William Godwin , the criticism of the novel makes reference to the feminine nature of Mary Shelley . The British Critic attacks the novel 's flaws as the fault of the author : `` The writer of it is , we understand , a female ; this is an aggravation of that which is the prevailing fault of the novel ; but if our authoress can forget the gentleness of her sex , it is no reason why we should ; and we shall therefore dismiss the novel without further comment '' ( 438 ) . The Literary Panorama and National Register attacks the novel as a `` feeble imitation of Mr. Godwin 's novels '' produced by the `` daughter of a celebrated living novelist '' ( 414 ) . Despite the reviews , Frankenstein achieved an almost immediate popular success . It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations -- Mary Shelley saw a production of Presumption ; or The Fate of Frankenstein , a play by Richard Brinsley Peake , in 1823 . A French translation appeared as early as 1821 ( Frankenstein : ou le Prométhée Moderne , translated by Jules Saladin ) . Critical reception of Frankenstein has been largely positive since the mid-20th century . Major critics such as M.A. Goldberg and Harold Bloom have praised the `` aesthetic and moral '' relevance of the novel , although there are also critics such as Germaine Greer , who criticized the novel as terrible due to technical and narrative defects ( such as it featuring three narrators that speak in the same way ) . In more recent years the novel has become a popular subject for psychoanalytic and feminist criticism : Lawrence Lipking states : `` ( E ) ven the Lacanian subgroup of psychoanalytic criticism , for instance , has produced at least half a dozen discrete readings of the novel '' . The novel today is generally considered to be a landmark work of romantic and gothic literature , as well as science fiction . Film director Guillermo del Toro describes Frankenstein as `` the quintessential teenage book '' , adding `` You do n't belong . You were brought to this world by people that do n't care for you and you are thrown into a world of pain and suffering , and tears and hunger . It 's an amazing book written by a teenage girl . It 's mind - blowing . '' Professor of philosophy Patricia MacCormack says the creature , brought to life by Victor Frankenstein , addresses the most fundamental human questions : `` It 's the idea of asking your maker what your purpose is . Why are we here , what can we do ? '' Derivative works There are numerous novels retelling or continuing the story of Frankenstein and his monster . Further information on derivative works : Frankenstein in popular culture Films , plays and television This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : List of films featuring Frankenstein 's monster A photo of Charles Ogle as the monster in Frankenstein ( 1910 ) A promotional photo of Boris Karloff , as Frankenstein 's monster , using Jack Pierce 's makeup design 1823 : Richard Brinsley Peake 's adaptation , Presumption ; or , the Fate of Frankenstein , was seen by Mary Shelley and her father William Godwin at the English Opera House . 1826 : Henry M. Milner 's adaptation , The Man and The Monster ; or The Fate of Frankenstein opened on 3 July at the Royal Coburg Theatre , London . 1887 : Frankenstein , or The Vampire 's Victim was a musical burlesque written by Richard Henry ( a pseudonym of Richard Butler and Henry Chance Newton ) . 1910 : Edison Studios produced the first Frankenstein film , directed by J. Searle Dawley . 1915 : Life Without Soul , the second film adaptation of Mary Shelley 's novel , was released . No known print of the film has survived . 1920 : The Monster of Frankenstein , directed by Eugenio Testa , starring Luciano Albertini and Umberto Guarracino . 1931 : Universal Studios ' Frankenstein , directed by James Whale , starring Colin Clive , Mae Clarke , John Boles , Edward Van Sloan , Dwight Frye , and Boris Karloff as the monster . 1935 : James Whale directed the sequel Bride of Frankenstein , starring Colin Clive as Frankenstein , and Boris Karloff as the monster once more . This incorporated the novel 's plot motif of Frankenstein creating a bride for the monster omitted from Whale 's earlier film . There were two more sequels , prior to the Universal `` monster rally '' films combining multiple monsters from various movie series or film franchises . 1939 : Son of Frankenstein was another Universal monster movie with Boris Karloff as the Creature . Also in the film were Basil Rathbone as the title character and Bela Lugosi as the sinister assistant Ygor . Karloff ended playing the Frankenstein monster with this film . 1942 : The Ghost of Frankenstein featured brain transplanting and a new monster , played by Lon Chaney Jr . The film also starred Evelyn Ankers and Bela Lugosi . 1942 -- 1948 : Universal did `` monster rally '' films featuring Frankenstein 's Monster , Dracula and the Wolf Man . Included would be Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man , House of Frankenstein , House of Dracula and Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein . The last three films introduced Glenn Strange as Frankenstein 's monster . 1957 -- 1974 : Hammer Films in England did a string of Frankenstein films starring Peter Cushing , including The Curse of Frankenstein , The Revenge of Frankenstein and Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed . Co-starring in these films were Christopher Lee , Hazel Court , Veronica Carlson and Simon Ward . Another Hammer film , The Horror of Frankenstein , starred Ralph Bates as the main character , Victor Frankenstein . 1965 : Toho Studios created the film Frankenstein Conquers the World or Frankenstein vs. Baragon , followed by The War of the Gargantuas . 1972 : A comedic stage adaptation , Frankenstein 's Monster , was written by Sally Netzel and produced by the Dallas Theater Center . 1973 : The TV film Frankenstein : The True Story appeared on NBC . The movie starred Leonard Whiting , Michael Sarrazin , James Mason , and Jane Seymour . 1981 : A Broadway adaptation by Victor Gialanella played for one performance ( after 29 previews ) and was considered the most expensive flop ever produced to that date . 1984 : The flop Broadway production yielded a TV film starring Robert Powell , Carrie Fisher , David Warner , and John Gielgud . 1992 : Frankenstein became a Turner Network Television film directed by David Wickes , starring Patrick Bergin and Randy Quaid . John Mills played the blind man . 1994 : Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein appeared in theatres , directed by and starring Kenneth Branagh , with Robert De Niro and Helena Bonham Carter . Its all - star cast also included John Cleese , Ian Holm , and Tom Hulce . 2004 : Frankenstein A two - episode mini-series starring Alec Newman , with Luke Goss and Donald Sutherland . This is the only T.V. or movie adaption that is faithful to the novel . 2011 : In March , BBC3 broadcast Colin Teague 's live production from Kirkstall Abbey , Leeds , billed as Frankenstein 's Wedding , Live in Leeds . About the same time , the National Theatre , London presented a stage version of Frankenstein , which ran until 2 May 2011 . The play was written by Nick Dear and directed by Danny Boyle . Jonny Lee Miller and Benedict Cumberbatch alternated the roles of Frankenstein and the Creature . The National Theatre broadcast live performances of the play worldwide on 17 March . 2012 : An interactive ebook app created by Inkle and Profile Books that retells the story with added interactive elements . 2014 : Penny Dreadful is a horror TV series that airs on Showtime , that features Victor Frankenstein as well as his creature . 2015 : Frankenstein , a modern - day adaptation written and directed by Bernard Rose . 2015 : Victor Frankenstein is an American film directed by Paul McGuigan . 2016 : Frankenstein , a full length ballet production by Liam Scarlett . Some performances were also live simulcasts worldwide . 2019 : Bride of Frankenstein , the currently postponed second film in the Dark Universe , a reboot of the Universal series in which Javier Bardem is currently slated to portray Frankenstein 's monster . Loose adaptations 1967 : I 'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out , You 'll Have to Spend the Night and its sequel , Frankenstein Unbound ( Another Monster Musical ) , are a pair of musical comedies written by Bobby Pickett and Sheldon Allman . The casts of both feature several classic horror characters including Dr. Frankenstein and his monster . 1973 : The Rocky Horror Show , is a British horror comedy stage musical written by Richard O'Brian in which Dr. Frank N. Furter has created a creature ( Rocky ) , to satisfy his ( pro ) creative drives . Elements are similar to I 'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out , You 'll Have to Spend the Night . 1973 : Andy Warhol 's Frankenstein . Usually , Frankenstein is a man whose dedication to science takes him too far , but here his interest is to rule the world by creating a new species that will obey him and do his bidding . 1974 : Young Frankenstein . Directed by Mel Brooks , this sequel - spoof has been listed as one of the best movie comedies of any comedy genre ever made , even prompting an American film preservation program to include it on its listings . It reuses many props from James Whale 's 1931 Frankenstein and is shot in black - and - white with 1930s - style credits . Gene Wilder portrayed the descendant of Dr. Frankenstein , with Peter Boyle as the Monster . 1975 : The Rocky Horror Picture Show is the 1975 film adaptation of the British rock musical stageplay , The Rocky Horror Show ( 1973 ) , written by Richard O'Brien . 1984 : Frankenweenie is a parody short film directed by Tim Burton , starring Barrett Oliver , Shelley Duvall and Daniel Stern . 1985 : The Bride starring Sting as Baron Charles Frankenstein and Jennifer Beals as Eva , a woman he creates in the same fashion as his infamous monster . 1986 : Gothic , directed by Ken Russell , is the story of the night that Mary Shelley gave birth to Frankenstein . Starring Gabriel Byrne , Julian Sands , Natasha Richardson . 1988 : Frankenstein ( フランケン シュタイン ) is a manga adaptation of Shelley 's novel by Junji Ito . 1989 : Frankenstein the Panto . A pantomime script by David Swan , combining elements of Frankenstein , Dracula , and traditional British panto . 1990 : Frankenstein Unbound . Combines a time - travel story with the story of Shelley 's novel . Scientist Joe Buchanan accidentally creates a time - rift which takes him back to the events of the novel . Filmed as a low - budget independent film in 1990 , based on a novel published in 1973 by Brian Aldiss . This novel bears no relation to the 1967 stage musical with the same name listed above . 1991 : Khatra ( film ) is a Hindi movie of Bollywood made by director H.N. Singh loosely based on the story , Frankenstein . 1995 : Monster Mash is a film adaptation of I 'm Sorry the Bridge Is Out , You 'll Have to Spend the Night starring Bobby Pickett as Dr. Frankenstein . The film also features Candace Cameron Bure , Anthony Crivello and Mink Stole . 1998 : Billy Frankenstein is a very loose adaptation about a boy who moves into a mansion with his family and brings the Frankenstein monster to life . The film was directed by Fred Olen Ray . 2003 : Reading Frankenstein , a new media performance work in which Mary Shelley is a genetic engineer and artificial life scientist and her Creature a hybrid form of computational a-life . It was co-created by director Annie Loui and artist - writer Antoinette LaFarge for UC Irvine . 2004 : Frankenstein made - for - TV film based on Dean Koontz 's Frankenstein . 2005 : Frankenstein vs. the Creature from Blood Cove , a 90 - minute feature film homage of classic monsters and Atomic Age creature features , shot in black and white , and directed by William Winckler . The Frankenstein Monster design and make - up was based on the character descriptions in Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley 's novel . 2009 : The Diary of Anne Frankenstein , a short film from Chillerrama . 2009 : Anuman Interactive ( French publisher ) launches Frankestein , a hidden objects game freely inspired by Mary Shelley 's book , on iPhone and iPad . 2011 : Frankenstein : Day of the Beast is an independent horror film based loosely on the original book . 2011 : Victor Frankenstein appears in the ABC show Once Upon a Time , a fantasy series on ABC that features multiple characters from fairy tales and classic literature trapped in the real world . 2012 : Frankenweenie , Tim Burton 's feature film remake of his 1984 short film of the same name . 2012 : In the Adventure Time episode `` Princess Monster Wife '' , the Ice King removes body parts from all the princesses that rejected him and creates a jigsaw wife to love him . 2012 : A Nightmare on Lime Street , Fred Lawless 's comedy play starring David Gest staged at the Royal Court Theatre , Liverpool . 2014 : I , Frankenstein is a 2014 fantasy action film . The film stars Aaron Eckhart as Adam Frankenstein and Bill Nighy . The film is based on the graphic novel . 2014 : Frankenstein , MD , A web show by Pemberly Digital starring Victoria , a female adaptation of Victor . 2015 : The Supernatural season 10 episodes Book of the Damned , Dark Dynasty and The Prisoner feature the Styne Family which member Eldon Styne identifies as the descendants of the house of Frankenstein . According to Eldon , Mary Shelley had learned their secrets while on a visit to Castle Frankenstein and wrote a book based on her experiences , forcing the Frankensteins underground as the Stynes . The Stynes , through bioengineering and surgical enhancements , feature many of the superhuman features of Frankenstein 's monster . 2015 : The Frankenstein Chronicles , is a British television drama series - starring Sean Bean as John Marlott and Anna Maxwell Martin as Mary Shelley 2016 : Second Chance , a TV series known at one point as Frankenstein , was inspired by the classic . See also United Kingdom portal Books portal Frankenstein argument Frankenstein complex Frankenstein in Baghdad Frankenstein in popular culture Golem Homunculus Johann Conrad Dippel List of dreams Notes Jump up ^ Staff writer ( 1 January 1818 ) . `` Books Published This Day '' . The Times ( 10342 ) . London , England . p. 4 -- via Newspapers.com . This day is published , in 3 vols. , price 16s . 6d. , a Work of Imagination , to be entitled Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus . Jump up ^ Hobbler , Dorthy and Thomas . The Monsters : Mary Shelley and the Curse of Frankenstein . Back Bay Books ; 20 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Garrett , Martin . Mary Shelley . Oxford University Press , 2002 Jump up ^ Seymour , Miranda . Mary Shelley . Atlanta , GA : Grove Press , 2002 . pg 110 - 111 Jump up ^ The Detached Retina : Aspects of SF and Fantasy by Brian Aldiss ( 1995 ) , page 78 . Jump up ^ Bergen Evans , Comfortable Words , New York : Random House , 1957 Jump up ^ Bryan Garner , A Dictionary of Modern American Usage , New York , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1998 Jump up ^ Merriam - Webster 's Dictionary of American English , Merriam - Webster : 2002 Jump up ^ `` Preface '' , 1831 edition of Frankenstein Jump up ^ Sunstein , 118 . Jump up ^ Dr. John Polidori , `` The Vampyre '' 1819 , The New Monthly Magazine and Universal Register ; London : H. Colburn , 1814 -- 1820 . Vol. 1 , No. 63 . Jump up ^ paragraph 7 , Introduction , Frankenstein 1831 edition Jump up ^ paragraph 8 , Introduction , Frankenstein 1831 edition Jump up ^ paragraph 10 , Introduction , Frankenstein 1831 edition Jump up ^ Shelley , Mary . Paragraphs 11 -- 13 , `` Introduction '' Frankenstein ( 1831 edition ) Gutenberg Jump up ^ Quoted in Spark , 157 , from Mary Shelley 's introduction to the 1831 edition of Frankenstein . Jump up ^ Radford , Tim , Frankenstein 's hour of creation identified by astronomers , The Guardian , Sunday 25 September 2011 ( retrieved 5 January 2014 ) Jump up ^ Bennett , An Introduction , 30 -- 31 ; Sunstein , 124 . Jump up ^ Sunstein , 117 . Jump up ^ Hay , 103 . Jump up ^ Lepore , Jill ( February 5 , 2018 ) . `` The Strange and Twisted Life of ' Frankenstein ' '' . The New Yorker . Jump up ^ Bennett , Betty T. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley : An Introduction . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , 1998 . Jump up ^ `` OX.ac.uk '' . Bodley.ox.ac.uk. 15 December 2009 . Retrieved 28 August 2010 . Jump up ^ Mary Shelley , with Percy Shelley ( 2008 ) . Charles E. Robinson , ed . The Original Frankenstein . Oxford : Bodleian Library . ISBN 978 - 1 - 851 - 24396 - 9 . Archived from the original on 25 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Charles ( 1996 ) . The Frankenstein Notebooks : A Facsimile Edition . 1 . Garland Publishing , Inc. p. xxv . She began that novel as Mary Godwin in June 1816 when she was eighteen years old , she finished it as Mary Shelley in April / May 1817 when she was nineteen ... and she published it anonymously on 1 January 1818 when she was twenty . Jump up ^ Bennett , Betty T. Mary Wollstonecraft . Shelley : An Introduction . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , 1998 Jump up ^ D.L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf , `` A Note on the Text '' , Frankenstein , 2nd ed. , Peterborough : Broadview Press , 1999 . Jump up ^ Wollstonecraft Shelley , Mary ( 2000 ) . Frankenstein . Bedford Publishing . p. 3 . Jump up ^ See forward to Barnes and Noble classic edition . Jump up ^ The edition published by Forgotten Books is the original text , as is the `` Ignatius Critical Edition '' . Vintage Books has an edition presenting both versions . Jump up ^ James Grande ( 2008 - 11 - 25 ) . `` The Original Frankenstein , By Mary Shelley with Percy Shelley ed Charles E Robinson '' . The Independent . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ Frankenstein : Celluloid Monster at the National Library of Medicine website of the ( U.S. ) National Institutes of Health Jump up ^ `` Frankenstein : Penetrating the Secrets of Nature / Exhibit Text '' ( PDF ) . National Library of Medicine and ALA Public Programs Office . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 4 December 2006 . Retrieved 31 December 2007 . from the traveling exhibition Frankenstein : Penetrating the Secrets of Nature Archived 9 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Author 's Digest : The World 's Great Stories in Brief , by Rossiter Johnson , 1908 Jump up ^ The Reef , page 96 . Jump up ^ zapomniana , Historia ( 24 January 2016 ) . `` Afera grabarzy z Frankenstein '' . Jump up ^ Florescu 1996 , pp. 48 -- 92 . Jump up ^ Day , A.J. ( 2005 ) . Fantasmagoriana ( Tales of the Dead ) . Fantasmagoriana Press . pp. 149 -- 151 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4116 - 5291 - 0 . Jump up ^ Helene , Jorge ( 12 September 2016 ) . `` Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , Castle Frankenstein and the alchemist Johann Conrad Dippel '' . Darmstadt . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 23 . Jump up ^ Wade , Phillip . `` Shelley and the Miltonic Element in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein . '' Milton and the Romantics , 2 ( December , 1976 ) , 23 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Jones 1952 , pp. 496 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Sandy , Mark ( 20 September 2002 ) . `` Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire '' . The Literary Encyclopedia . The Literary Dictionary Company . Retrieved 2 January 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Percy Bysshe Shelley ( 1792 -- 1822 ) '' . Romantic Natural History . Department of English , Dickinson College . Retrieved 2 January 2007 . Jump up ^ Percy Shelley # Ancestry Jump up ^ `` Journal 6 December -- Very Unwell . Shelley & Clary walk out , as usual , to heaps of places ... A letter from Hookham to say that Harriet has been brought to bed of a son and heir . Shelley writes a number of circular letters on this event , which ought to be ushered in with ringing of bells , etc. , for it is the son of his wife . '' Quoted in Spark , 39 . Jump up ^ For example , the Longman study edition published in India in 2007 by Pearson Education Jump up ^ In the best - known versions of the Prometheus story , by Hesiod and Aeschylus , Prometheus merely brings fire to mankind . But in other versions , such as several of Aesop 's fables ( See in particular Fable 516 ) , Sappho ( Fragment 207 ) , and Ovid 's Metamorphoses , Prometheus is the actual creator of humanity . Jump up ^ ( Leonard Wolf , p. 20 ) . Jump up ^ RoyalSoc.ac.uk `` Benjamin Franklin in London . '' The Royal Society . Retrieved 8 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Douthwaite , `` The Frankenstein of the French Revolution '' chapter 2 of The Frankenstein of 1790 and other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France ( Frankenstein of 1790 and other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France , 2012 ) . Jump up ^ Ruston , Sharon ( 25 November 2015 ) . `` The Science of Life and Death in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein '' . The Public Domain Review . Jump up ^ This illustration is reprinted in the frontispiece to the 2008 edition of Frankenstein Jump up ^ `` Crossref-it.info '' . Crossref-it.info . Retrieved 28 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Review of Frankenstein , or the Modern Prometheus '' . The Quarterly Review . 18 : 379 -- 385 . January 1818 . Jump up ^ `` Enotes.com '' . Enotes.com . Retrieved 28 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` KCTCS.edu '' . Octc.kctcs.edu . Retrieved 28 August 2010 . Jump up ^ Germaine Greer ( 2007 - 04 - 09 ) . `` Yes , Frankenstein really was written by Mary Shelley . It 's obvious - because the book is so bad '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ L. Lipking . Frankenstein the True Story ; or Rousseau Judges Jean - Jacques . ( Published in the Norton critical edition . 1996 ) Jump up ^ UTM.edu Lynn Alexander , Department of English , University of Tennessee at Martin . Retrieved 27 August 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Frankenstein : Behind the monster smash '' . BBC . 1 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Lawson , Shanon ( 11 February 1998 ) . `` A Chronology of the Life of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley : 1825 -- 1835 '' . umd.edu . Retrieved 8 July 2008 . Jump up ^ Blood on the Stage , 1950 -- 1975 : Milestone Plays of Crime , Mystery and Detection , by Amnon Kabatchnik . Scarecrow Press , 2011 , p. 300 Jump up ^ Lawson , Carol ( 7 January 1981 ) . `` '' FRANKENSTEIN '' NEARLY CAME BACK TO LIFE `` . New York Times . Retrieved 8 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Hickling , Alfred ( 20 March 2011 ) . `` Frankenstein 's Wedding -- review '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 23 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Announcing FRANKENSTEIN , a new interactive literary app for iPad and iPhone '' . Profile Books . Retrieved 6 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Hello Igor ... Daniel Radcliffe gets into character on the set of the brand new Frankenstein movie , The Daily Mail Jump up ^ `` Frankenstein 4 -- 27 May 2016 . Main Stage . The world premiere of Liam Scarlett 's new full - length ballet , inspired by Mary Shelley 's Gothic masterpiece '' . roh.org.uk . Royal Opera House . Retrieved 24 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Slavin , Rose ( 11 May 2016 ) . `` Frankenstein to be relayed live to BP Big Screens in the UK and cinemas around the world on 18 May 2016 '' . Royal Opera House . Retrieved 19 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Universal Pictures ( 22 May 2017 ) . `` Universal Pictures Unveils `` Dark Universe '' With Name , Mark and Musical Theme for its Classic Monsters Series of Films `` . PR Newswire . Jump up ^ Fleming Jr. , Mike ( 5 October 2017 ) . `` ' Bride Of Frankenstein ' Back To Lab As London Pre-Production Postponed ; Javier Bardem & Angelina Jolie Expected To Wait '' . Deadline Hollywood . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs '' . American Film Institute . Retrieved 21 November 2010 . Jump up ^ LaFarge , Antoinette , and Annie Loui . `` Excerpts from Reading Frankenstein : Mary Shelley as 21st Century Artificial Life Scientist '' . Ada : A Journal of Gender , New Media & Technology , Fall 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Communiqués officiels des jeux vidéo '' . AFJV . Jump up ^ `` A Nightmare On Lime Street -- Royal Court Theatre , Liverpool '' . Jump up ^ Pedersen , Erik ( 2 March 2015 ) . `` Rob Kazinsky Is Fox 's ' Frankenstein ' Monster '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved 30 March 2017 . References Aldiss , Brian W. `` On the Origin of Species : Mary Shelley '' . Speculations on Speculation : Theories of Science Fiction . Eds . James Gunn and Matthew Candelaria . Lanham , Maryland : Scarecrow , 2005 . Baldick , Chris . In Frankenstein 's Shadow : Myth , Monstrosity , and Nineteenth - Century Writing . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1987 . Bann , Stephen , ed . `` Frankenstein '' : Creation and Monstrosity . London : Reaktion , 1994 . Behrendt , Stephen C. , ed . Approaches to Teaching Shelley 's `` Frankenstein '' . New York : MLA , 1990 . Bennett , Betty T. and Stuart Curran , eds . Mary Shelley in Her Times . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , 2000 . Bennett , Betty T. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley : An Introduction . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , 1998 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 5976 - X . Bohls , Elizabeth A. `` Standards of Taste , Discourses of ' Race ' , and the Aesthetic Education of a Monster : Critique of Empire in Frankenstein '' . Eighteenth - Century Life 18.3 ( 1994 ) : 23 -- 36 . Botting , Fred . Making Monstrous : `` Frankenstein '' , Criticism , Theory . New York : St. Martin 's , 1991 . Chapman , D. That Not Impossible She : A study of gender construction and Individualism in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , UK : Concept , 2011 . ISBN 978 - 1480047617 Clery , E.J. Women 's Gothic : From Clara Reeve to Mary Shelley . Plymouth : Northcote House , 2000 . Conger , Syndy M. , Frederick S. Frank , and Gregory O'Dea , eds . Iconoclastic Departures : Mary Shelley after `` Frankenstein '' : Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley 's Birth . Madison , New Jersey : Fairleigh Dickinson University Press , 1997 . Donawerth , Jane . Frankenstein 's Daughters : Women Writing Science Fiction . Syracuse : Syracuse University Press , 1997 . Douthwaite , Julia V . `` The Frankenstein of the French Revolution , '' chapter two of The Frankenstein of 1790 and other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 2012 . Dunn , Richard J. `` Narrative Distance in Frankenstein '' . Studies in the Novel 6 ( 1974 ) : 408 -- 17 . Eberle - Sinatra , Michael , ed . Mary Shelley 's Fictions : From `` Frankenstein '' to `` Falkner '' . New York : St. Martin 's Press , 2000 . Ellis , Kate Ferguson . The Contested Castle : Gothic Novels and the Subversion of Domestic Ideology . Urbana : University of Illinois Press , 1989 . Florescu , Radu ( 1996 ) . In Search of Frankenstein : Exploring the Myths Behind Mary Shelley 's Monster ( 2nd ed . ) . London : Robson Books . ISBN 978 - 1 - 861 - 05033 - 5 . Forry , Steven Earl . Hideous Progenies : Dramatizations of `` Frankenstein '' from Mary Shelley to the Present . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press , 1990 . Freedman , Carl . `` Hail Mary : On the Author of Frankenstein and the Origins of Science Fiction '' . Science Fiction Studies 29.2 ( 2002 ) : 253 -- 64 . Gigante , Denise . `` Facing the Ugly : The Case of Frankenstein '' . ELH 67.2 ( 2000 ) : 565 -- 87 . Gilbert , Sandra and Susan Gubar . The Madwoman in the Attic : The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth - Century Literary Imagination . New Haven : Yale University Press , 1979 . Hay , Daisy `` Young Romantics '' ( 2010 ) : 103 . Heffernan , James A.W. `` Looking at the Monster : Frankenstein and Film '' . Critical Inquiry 24.1 ( 1997 ) : 133 -- 58 . Hodges , Devon . `` Frankenstein and the Feminine Subversion of the Novel '' . Tulsa Studies in Women 's Literature 2.2 ( 1983 ) : 155 -- 64 . Hoeveler , Diane Long . Gothic Feminism : The Professionalization of Gender from Charlotte Smith to the Brontës . University Park : Pennsylvania State University Press , 1998 . Holmes , Richard . Shelley : The Pursuit. 1974 . London : Harper Perennial , 2003 . ISBN 0 - 00 - 720458 - 2 . Jones , Frederick L. ( 1952 ) . `` Shelley and Milton '' . Studies in Philology. 49 ( 3 ) : 488 -- 519 . JSTOR 4173024 . Knoepflmacher , U.C. and George Levine , eds . The Endurance of `` Frankenstein '' : Essays on Mary Shelley 's Novel . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1979 . Lew , Joseph W . `` The Deceptive Other : Mary Shelley 's Critique of Orientalism in Frankenstein '' . Studies in Romanticism 30.2 ( 1991 ) : 255 -- 83 . Lauritsen , John . `` The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein '' . Pagan Press , 2007 . London , Bette . `` Mary Shelley , Frankenstein , and the Spectacle of Masculinity '' . PMLA 108.2 ( 1993 ) : 256 -- 67 . Mellor , Anne K. Mary Shelley : Her Life , Her Fiction , Her Monsters . New York : Methuen , 1988 . Michaud , Nicolas , Frankenstein and Philosophy : The Shocking Truth , Chicago : Open Court , 2013 . Miles , Robert . Gothic Writing 1750 -- 1820 : A Genealogy . London : Routledge , 1993 . Milner , Andrew . Literature , Culture and Society . London : Routledge , 2005 , ch. 5 . O'Flinn , Paul . `` Production and Reproduction : The Case of Frankenstein '' . Literature and History 9.2 ( 1983 ) : 194 -- 213 . Poovey , Mary . The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer : Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft , Mary Shelley , and Jane Austen . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1984 . Rauch , Alan . `` The Monstrous Body of Knowledge in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein '' . Studies in Romanticism 34.2 ( 1995 ) : 227 -- 53 . Selbanev , Xtopher . `` Natural Philosophy of the Soul '' , Western Press , 1999 . Schor , Esther , ed . The Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelley . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 2003 . Scott , Grant F. ( 1934 ) . `` Victor 's Secret : Queer Gothic in Lynd Ward 's Illustrations to Frankenstein '' . Word & Image - 28 ( April -- June 2012 ) . pp. 206 -- 232 . Smith , Johanna M. , ed . Frankenstein . Case Studies in Contemporary Criticism . Boston : Bedford / St. Martin 's , 1992 . Spark , Muriel . Mary Shelley . London : Cardinal , 1987 . ISBN 0 - 7474 - 0318 - X . Stableford , Brian . `` Frankenstein and the Origins of Science Fiction '' . Anticipations : Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors . Ed . David Seed . Syracuse : Syracuse University Press , 1995 . Sunstein , Emily W. Mary Shelley : Romance and Reality. 1989 . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press , 1991 . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 4218 - 2 . Tropp , Martin . Mary Shelley 's Monster . Boston : Houghton Mifflin , 1976 . Veeder , William . Mary Shelley & Frankenstein : The Fate of Androgyny . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1986 . Williams , Anne . The Art of Darkness : A Poetics of Gothic . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1995 . Further reading Richard Holmes , `` Out of Control '' ( review of Mary Shelley , Frankenstein , Or , The Modern Prometheus : Annotated for Scientists , Engineers , and Creators of All Kinds , edited by David H. Guston , Ed Finn , and Jason Scott Robert , MIT Press , 277 pp. ; and Mary Shelley , The New Annotated Frankenstein , edited and with a foreword and notes by Leslie S. Klinger , Liveright , 352 pp . ) , The New York Review of Books , vol . LXIV , no . 20 ( 21 December 2017 ) , pp. 38 , 40 -- 41 . Editions 1818 text Shelley , Mary Frankenstein : 1818 text ( Oxford University Press , 2009 ) . Edited with an introduction and notes by Marilyn Butler . 1831 text Fairclough , Peter ( ed . ) Three Gothic Novels : Walpole / Castle of Otranto , Beckford / Vathek , Mary Shelley / Frankenstein ( Penguin English Library , 1968 ) . With an introductory essay by Mario Praz . Shelley , Mary Frankenstein ( Oxford University Press , 2008 ) . Edited with an introduction and notes by M.K. Joseph . External links Find more aboutFrankensteinat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Frankenstein at Project Gutenberg Frankenstein 1818 edition at Project Gutenberg Frankenstein public domain audiobook at LibriVox Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley Chronology and Resource Site `` On Frankenstein '' , review by Percy Bysshe Shelley Inside look at the `` Read original Frankenstein by Mary Shelley '' ( hide ) Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein Characters Frankenstein 's monster Victor Frankenstein Bride of Frankenstein Doctor Waldman Elizabeth Lavenza Films ( expands on the right ) Film characters Igor Doctor Septimus Pretorius Wolf Frankenstein Universal series Frankenstein ( 1931 ) Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) Son of Frankenstein ( 1939 ) The Ghost of Frankenstein ( 1942 ) Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man ( 1943 ) House of Frankenstein ( 1944 ) House of Dracula ( 1945 ) Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein ( 1948 ) Hammer series The Curse of Frankenstein ( 1957 ) The Revenge of Frankenstein ( 1958 ) The Evil of Frankenstein ( 1964 ) Frankenstein Created Woman ( 1967 ) Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed ( 1969 ) The Horror of Frankenstein ( 1970 ) Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell ( 1974 ) Toho series Frankenstein Conquers the World ( 1965 ) The War of the Gargantuas ( 1966 ) Parodies Mad Monster Party ? 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The Genetic Opera ( 2008 ) My Sister 's Keeper ( 2009 ) Never Let Me Go ( 2010 ) Repo Men ( 2010 ) The Harvest ( 2013 ) Pound of Flesh ( 2015 ) Television `` Spock 's Brain '' ( 1968 ) The Brain of Morbius ( 1976 ) `` Appointment on Route 17 '' ( 1988 ) `` Phage '' ( Vidiians ) ( 1995 ) Three Rivers ( 2009 - 2010 ) Coma ( 2012 ) iZombie ( 2015 ) Music `` Gary Gilmore 's Eyes '' ( 1977 ) Concepts Organ trade Organlegging Brain transplantation Body horror VIAF : 185508590 LCCN : n84007242 GND : 4220200 - 0 SUDOC : 027515354 BNF : cb11953887q ( data ) NLA : 35303735 BNE : XX2187643 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frankenstein&oldid=833165930 '' Categories : Frankenstein British science fiction novels British novels adapted into films Gothic novels British horror novels Epistolary novels Romanticism Novels set in the Arctic Novels set in Germany Novels set in Switzerland Novels by Mary Shelley Works published anonymously Debut novels Novels about revenge Frame stories 1818 British novels Novels adapted into comics British novels adapted into plays Novels adapted into radio programs Novels adapted into television programs Novels adapted into video games 1810s science fiction novels 1810s fantasy novels Science fiction horror novels Experimental medical treatments in fiction Resurrection in fiction Human experimentation in fiction Hidden categories : CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism EngvarB from September 2013 Use dmy dates from September 2013 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from June 2017 Interlanguage link template link number Articles needing additional references from March 2018 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2017 Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikisource Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 粵語 中文 55 more Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2018 , at 01 : 02 . 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Don't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes
Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes - wikipedia Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes Jump to : navigation , search `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes '' Single by Slim Willet Genre Country Songwriter ( s ) Slim Willet `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes '' is an off meter ballad concerning a man away from home worried that his paramour may unwittingly stray from their relationship . The song was recorded in many different styles by many artists . It was written by Winston L. Moore ( whose stage name was Slim Willet ) and was published in 1952 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Song 2 Other recorded versions 3 See also 4 References Song ( edit ) The title comes from the opening refrain : Do n't let the stars get in your eyes , Do n't let the moon break your heart . The song was first recorded by Slim Willet and the Brush Cutters ( 4 Star 11614 , reaching # 1 ) and then by Ray Price ( Columbia 4 - 21025 , reaching # 4 ) . Skeets McDonald followed with a Western swing hit , reaching # 1 and staying on the charts 18 weeks . His version was released by Capitol Records as catalog number 2216 with the flip side `` Big Family Trouble . '' The best selling performance was a pop version recorded by Perry Como with The Ramblers on November 4 , 1952 and released in the following versions : In the United States , by RCA Victor , as a 78 rpm single record ( catalog number 20 - 5064 ) and a 45 rpm single ( catalog number 47 - 5064 ) , with the flip side `` Lies . '' This record reached # 1 on the US Billboard charts . In Argentina by RCA Victor , as a single ( catalog number 68 - 0722 ) with the flip side `` No Hay Bote Como El De Remo . '' In the United Kingdom , by HMV , as a 78 rpm single ( catalog number B - 10400 ) , with the flip side `` To Know You ( Is to Love You ) . '' This record reached # 1 in the UK Singles Chart in February 1953 . In Germany , by HMV , as a 78 rpm single ( catalog number X-8080 ) , with the flip side `` Outside of Heaven '' by Eddie Fisher . Slim Willet and Tommy Hill also wrote the female answer song `` I Let the Stars Get In My Eyes '' , which was performed by Hill 's sister Goldie Hill . Other recorded versions ( edit ) Boxcar Willie ( released by Mainstreet Records as catalog number 950 , with the flip side `` Boxcar Blues '' ) Red Foley ( recorded October 7 , 1952 , released by Decca Records as catalog number 28460 , with the flip side `` Sally '' ) Dean Martin ( 1952 in a Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis radioshow ) Henry Jerome ( released by MGM Records as catalog number 11385 , with the flip side `` Keep It a Secret '' ) Johnnie and Jack ( released by RCA Victor Records as catalog number 20 - 5040 , with the flip side `` The Only One I Ever Loved , I Lost '' ) Jimmy Justice ( released 1964 by Blue Cat Records as catalog number 101 , with the flip side `` The Guitar Player ( Her and Him ) '' ) Gisele MacKenzie ( released by Capitol Records in the United States as catalog number 2256 , with the flip side `` My Favorite Song '' , and in Australia as catalog number CP - 200 , with the flip side `` Adios '' ) Bobby Maxwell ( released by Mercury Records as catalog number 70047 , with the flip side `` Ching - Ching - A-Ling '' ) The Parisian Sextet ( released 1962 by Challenge Records as catalog number 59137 , with the flip side `` The Poor People of Paris '' ) Slim Whitman Jerry Lee Lewis In 1977 , Milton Berle , Florence Henderson & Tina Turner performed the song on an episode of The Brady Bunch Variety Hour . k.d. lang ( released 1988 by Sire Records as track # 8 on the album Shadowland ) Jimmie Dale Gilmore ( released 2005 by Rounder Records as track # 4 on the album Come on Back ) Alberto Semprini recorded it as the third song of the medley `` Dancing to the piano ( No. 12 ) - Hit medley of quick - steps '' along with `` She Wears Red Feathers '' and `` Wild Roses . '' The medley was released by EMI on the His Master 's Voice label as catalog number B 10457 . The song was also covered by Eileen Barton in a recording issued by Coral Records as catalog number 60882 , with the flip side `` Tennessee Tango , '' and by country music artist k.d. lang on her 1988 album , Shadowland . It was spoofed by Homer and Jethro on their album America 's Song Butchers : The Weird World of Homer and Jethro in a song entitled `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyeballs , '' the lyrics of which are also found in a Steve Goodman song entitled `` Talk Backwards . '' The song was recorded in 2008 by Australian singer and composer Alfio for his album Classic Rewinds which pays tribute to Perry Como , Dean Martin and 13 other popular Italian - American singers . Lavern Baker ( See See Rider LP , Atlantic Records , 1962 ) See also ( edit ) List of number - one singles from the 1950s ( UK ) List of number - one singles of 1953 ( U.S. ) References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Perry Como discography entry for `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes '' `` . Kokomo.ca . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes ( song by Slim Willet ) Music VF , US & UK hits charts '' . Musicvf.com . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes ( song by Ray Price ) Music VF , US & UK hits charts '' . Musicvf.com . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : `` Capitol Records in the 2000 to 2499 series '' . 78discography.com. 2011 - 11 - 01 . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : `` RCA Victor Records in the 20 - 5000 to 20 - 5499 series '' . 78discography.com . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes ( song by Perry Como ) Music VF , US & UK hits charts '' . Musicvf.com. 1953 - 01 - 17 . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ Rice , Jo ( 1982 ) . The Guinness Book of 500 Number One Hits ( 1st ed . ) . Enfield , Middlesex : Guinness Superlatives Ltd. p. 8 . ISBN 0 - 85112 - 250 - 7 . Jump up ^ Roberts , David ( 2006 ) . British Hit Singles & Albums ( 19th ed . ) . London : Guinness World Records Limited . pp. 14 -- 5 . ISBN 1 - 904994 - 10 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` Mainstreet Records listing '' . Globaldogproductions.info . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Decca Records in the 28000 to 28499 series '' . 78discography.com . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` MGM Records in the 11000 to 11499 series '' . 78discography.com . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Blue Cat Records in the 101 to 130 series '' . Globaldogproductions.info . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Australian Capitol Records listing '' . Globaldogproductions.info . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Mercury Records in the 70000 to 71696 series '' . 78discography.com . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ Global Dog Productions . `` Challenge Records listing '' . Globaldogproductions.info . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Jerry Lee Lewis Keeps on Rockin ' - Jerry Lee Lewis Songs , Reviews , Credits , Awards '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Come on Back : Jimmie Dale Gilmore : Music '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Coral records in the 60000 series '' . Globaldogproductions.info . Retrieved 2012 - 01 - 06 . Ray Price Studio albums San Antonio Rose Last of the Breed Songs `` I Ca n't Escape from You '' `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes '' `` I 'll Be There ( If You Ever Want Me ) '' `` Release Me '' `` Crazy Arms '' `` I 've Got a New Heartache '' `` City Lights '' `` Heartaches by the Number '' `` The Same Old Me '' `` Under Your Spell Again '' `` I Wish I Could Fall in Love Today '' `` Make the World Go Away '' `` Night Life '' `` Please Talk to My Heart '' `` Do n't You Ever Get Tired ( Of Hurting Me ) '' `` Danny Boy '' `` Crazy '' `` She Wears My Ring '' `` For the Good Times '' `` I Wo n't Mention It Again '' `` She 's Got to Be a Saint '' `` You 're the Best Thing That Ever Happened to Me '' `` Faded Love '' `` New San Antonio Rose '' `` You 're Nobody till Somebody Loves You '' `` All the Way '' `` Please Do n't Talk About Me When I 'm Gone '' Related articles Discography Perry Como Albums So Smooth ( 1955 ) We Get Letters ( 1956 ) Saturday Night with Mr. C ( 1958 ) When You Come to the End of the Day ( 1958 ) Como Swings ( 1959 ) Season 's Greetings from Perry Como ( 1959 ) For the Young at Heart ( 1960 ) Sing to Me Mr. C ( 1961 ) By Request ( 1962 ) The Best of Irving Berlin 's Songs from Mr. President ( 1962 ) The Songs I Love ( 1963 ) The Scene Changes ( 1965 ) Lightly Latin ( 1966 ) Perry Como in Italy ( 1966 ) The Perry Como Christmas Album ( 1968 ) Look to Your Heart ( 1968 ) Seattle ( 1969 ) Perry Como in Person at the International Hotel , Las Vegas ( 1970 ) It 's Impossible ( 1970 ) I Think of You ( 1971 ) And I Love You So ( 1973 ) Perry ( 1974 ) Just Out of Reach ( 1975 ) 40 Greatest Hits ( 1975 ) The Best of British ( UK and Canada ) ( 1977 ) Where You 're Concerned ( US ) ( 1978 ) Perry Como ( 1980 ) Perry Como Live on Tour ( 1981 ) So It Goes / Goodbye for Now ( 1983 ) Today ( 1987 ) Perry Como 's Christmas Concert ( 1994 ) On the Radio -- The Perry Como Shows 1943 ( 2009 ) At the Supper Club ( 2010 ) At the Supper Club Part II ( 2011 ) At the Supper Club Part III ( 2011 ) Songs `` ' A ' You 're Adorable '' `` Ac - Cent - Tchu - Ate the Positive '' `` And I Love You So '' `` As Time Goes By '' `` Bali Ha'i '' `` Because '' `` Beyond Tomorrow '' `` Bibbidi - Bobbidi - Boo '' `` Blue Room '' `` A Bushel and a Peck '' `` Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' `` Catch a Falling Star '' `` Chi - Baba , Chi - Baba ( My Bambino Go to Sleep ) '' `` Confessin ' '' `` Days of Wine and Roses '' `` Deep in the Heart of Texas '' `` Delaware '' `` Do n't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes '' `` Dream Along with Me ( I 'm on My Way to a Star ) '' `` A Dreamer 's Holiday '' `` El Cóndor Pasa '' `` Feelings '' `` Fly Me to the Moon '' `` For the Good Times '' `` Forever and Ever '' `` Forget Domani '' `` Give Me Your Hand '' `` Glendora '' `` The Gypsy in My Soul '' `` Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas '' `` He 's Got the Whole World in His Hands '' `` Hello , Young Lovers '' `` Here , There and Everywhere '' `` Home for the Holidays '' `` Hot Diggity ( Dog Ziggity Boom ) '' `` A House Is Not a Home '' `` I Do n't See Me in Your Eyes Anymore '' `` I Dream of You ( More Than You Dream I Do ) '' `` I Think I Love You '' `` I 'll Be Home for Christmas '' `` If ( They Made Me a King ) '' `` It 's Been a Long , Long Time '' `` It 's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas '' `` Kewpie Doll '' `` The Lord 's Prayer '' `` Magic Moments '' `` Mandolins in the Moonlight '' `` Maria '' `` Moon River '' `` More '' `` No Other Love '' `` Papa Loves Mambo '' `` Prisoner of Love '' `` Round and Round '' `` Santa Claus Is Coming to Town '' `` Seattle '' `` The Shadow of Your Smile '' `` Some Enchanted Evening '' `` Somos Novios ( It 's Impossible ) '' `` The Songs I Love '' `` Stop ! And Think It Over '' `` Surrender '' `` Till the End of Time '' `` Unchained Melody '' `` Wanted '' `` The Way You Look Tonight '' `` What 'll I Do '' `` When You and I Were Young , Maggie '' `` Young at Heart '' Related Perry Como discography Perry Como television and radio shows Beat the Band The Chesterfield Supper Club List of songs recorded by Perry Como Goodman Ace Mitchell Ayres Ray Charles Frank Gallop Nick Perito Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Don%27t_Let_the_Stars_Get_in_Your_Eyes&oldid=810067772 '' Categories : 1952 singles Slim Willet songs Ray Price ( musician ) songs Skeets McDonald songs Perry Como songs Red Foley songs Jerry Lee Lewis songs K.d. lang songs Number - one singles in the United States UK Singles Chart number - one singles Western swing songs Pop ballads Songs written by Slim Willet 1952 songs Talk More Contents About Wikipedia Norsk Edit links This page was last edited on 13 November 2017 , at 04 : 58 . About Wikipedia
who sang don't let the stars get in your eyes
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2018 Little League World Series results
2018 Little League World Series results - wikipedia 2018 Little League World Series results Main article : 2018 Little League World Series The results of the 2018 Little League World Series were determined between August 16 and August 26 , 2018 in South Williamsport , Pennsylvania . 16 teams were divided into two groups , one with eight teams from the United States and another with eight international teams , with both groups playing a modified double - elimination tournament . In each group , the last remaining undefeated team faced the last remaining team with one loss , with the winners of those games advancing to play for the Little League World Series championship . Contents 1 Double - elimination stage 1.1 United States 1.1. 1 Winner 's bracket 1.1. 1.1 Game 2 : New York 5 , Iowa 2 1.1. 1.2 Game 4 : Texas 3 , Rhode Island 1 1.1. 1.3 Game 6 : Michigan 5 , Idaho 4 1.1. 1.4 Game 8 : Hawaii 2 , Georgia 0 1.1. 1.5 Game 14 : New York 2 , Texas 1 1.1. 1.6 Game 16 : Hawaii 8 , Michigan 3 1.1. 1.7 Game 24 : Hawaii 10 , New York 0 1.1. 2 Loser 's bracket 1.1. 2.1 Game 10 : Iowa 9 , Rhode Island 5 1.1. 2.2 Game 12 : Georgia 3 , Idaho 0 1.1. 2.3 Game 18 : Michigan 5 , Iowa 4 1.1. 2.4 Game 20 : Georgia 7 , Texas 6 1.1. 2.5 Game 22 : Georgia 4 , Michigan 3 1.1. 2.6 Game 26 : Georgia 7 , New York 3 1.2 International 1.2. 1 Winner 's bracket 1.2. 1.1 Game 1 : South Korea 4 , Puerto Rico 2 1.2. 1.2 Game 3 : Mexico 3 , Australia 2 1.2. 1.3 Game 5 : Japan 11 , Spain 1 1.2. 1.4 Game 7 : Panama 8 , Canada 3 1.2. 1.5 Game 13 : South Korea 5 , Mexico 1 1.2. 1.6 Game 15 : Japan 4 , Panama 2 1.2. 1.7 Game 23 : South Korea 10 , Japan 0 1.2. 2 Loser 's bracket 1.2. 2.1 Game 9 : Puerto Rico 6 , Australia 0 1.2. 2.2 Game 11 : Canada 2 , Spain 1 1.2. 2.3 Game 17 : Puerto Rico 3 , Panama 1 1.2. 2.4 Game 19 : Canada 6 , Mexico 4 1.2. 2.5 Game 21 : Puerto Rico 9 , Canada 4 1.2. 2.6 Game 25 : Japan 1 , Puerto Rico 0 1.3 Consolation games 1.3. 1 Game A : Rhode Island 15 , Australia 0 1.3. 2 Game B : Idaho 5 , Spain 0 2 Single - elimination stage 2.1 International championship : South Korea 2 , Japan 1 2.2 United States championship : Hawaii 3 , Georgia 0 2.3 Third place game : Japan 8 , Georgia 2 2.4 World championship game : Hawaii 3 , South Korea 0 3 References 4 External links Double - elimination United States Winner 's bracket IA 2 NY 5 ◄ Linescore TX 3 ◄ RI 1 Linescore ID 4 MI 5 ◄ Linescore GA 0 ( F / 11 ) HI 2 ◄ Linescore TX 1 NY 2 ◄ Linescore MI 3 HI 8 ◄ Linescore NY 0 ( F / 5 ) HI 10 ◄ Linescore Loser 's bracket IA 9 ◄ RI 5 Linescore GA 3 ◄ ID 0 Linescore IA 4 MI 5 ◄ Linescore TX 6 ( F / 9 ) GA 7 ◄ Linescore MI 3 GA 4 ◄ Linescore NY 3 GA 7 ◄ Linescore International Winner 's bracket KOR 4 ◄ PUR 2 ( F / 9 ) Linescore AUS 2 MEX 3 ◄ Linescore ESP 1 ( F / 5 ) JPN 11 ◄ Linescore PAN 8 ◄ CAN 3 Linescore KOR 5 ◄ MEX 1 Linescore PAN 2 JPN 4 ◄ Linescore JPN 0 ( F / 4 ) KOR 10 ◄ Linescore Loser 's bracket PUR 6 ◄ AUS 0 Linescore ESP 1 ( F / 10 ) CAN 2 ◄ Linescore PAN 1 PUR 3 ◄ Linescore CAN 6 ◄ MEX 4 Linescore PUR 9 ◄ CAN 4 Linescore JPN 1 ◄ PUR 0 Linescore Consolation games Rhode Island 15 ◄ Australia 0 ( F / 4 ) Linescore Idaho 5 ◄ Spain 0 Linescore Single - elimination International championship Japan 1 South Korea 2 ◄ Linescore United States championship Georgia 0 Hawaii 3 ◄ Linescore Third place game Georgia 2 Japan 8 ◄ Linescore World championship game South Korea 0 Hawaii 3 ◄ Linescore Double - elimination stage ( edit ) United States ( edit ) This template : view talk edit August 16 -- Game 2 New York 5 August 19 -- Game 14 Iowa New York August 16 -- Game 4 Texas Rhode Island August 22 -- Game 24 ( F / 5 ) Texas New York 0 August 17 -- Game 6 Hawaii 10 Michigan 5 August 19 -- Game 16 Idaho Michigan August 17 -- Game 8 ( F / 11 ) Hawaii 8 Georgia 0 Hawaii August 25 -- U.S. championship Hawaii August 18 -- Game 10 Georgia 0 Iowa 9 August 20 -- Game 18 Rhode Island 5 Michigan 5 Iowa August 22 -- Game 22 Michigan August 18 -- Game 12 Georgia Idaho 0 August 20 -- Game 20 ( F / 9 ) Georgia Texas 6 Georgia 7 August 23 -- Game 26 New York Georgia 7 Winner 's bracket ( edit ) Game 2 : New York 5 , Iowa 2 ( edit ) August 16 3 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Iowa 0 0 0 0 0 New York ◄ 0 X 5 5 0 WP : Gregory Bruno ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Brody Watson ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Derek Mendez ( 1 ) Boxscore Game 4 : Texas 3 , Rhode Island 1 ( edit ) August 16 7 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Texas ◄ 0 0 0 0 6 Rhode Island 0 0 0 0 0 WP : Carter Pitts ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Tommy Turner ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Ryan Selvaggi ( 1 ) Boxscore Game 6 : Michigan 5 , Idaho 4 ( edit ) August 17 4 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Idaho 0 0 0 0 6 Michigan ◄ 0 0 0 0 5 8 WP : Preston Barr ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Braeden Newby ( 0 -- 1 ) Boxscore Game 8 : Hawaii 2 , Georgia 0 ( edit ) August 17 8 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Georgia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hawaii ◄ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 WP : Sean Yamaguchi ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Ben Traxler ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : GA : None HI : Aukai Kea ( 1 ) Boxscore Game 14 : New York 2 , Texas 1 ( edit ) August 19 11 : 00 am EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Texas 0 0 0 0 0 0 New York ◄ 0 0 0 0 X 0 WP : Gregory Bruno ( 2 -- 0 ) LP : Ryan Selvaggi ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Chris Bedford ( 1 ) Boxscore Game 16 : Hawaii 8 , Michigan 3 ( edit ) August 19 2 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Michigan 0 0 0 0 5 Hawaii ◄ 0 6 0 0 X 8 5 WP : Ka'olu Holt ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Ryan Knaebel ( 0 -- 1 ) Boxscore Game 24 : Hawaii 10 , New York 0 ( edit ) August 22 7 : 30 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 New York 0 0 0 0 0 -- 0 Hawaii ◄ 5 0 -- 10 7 0 WP : Aukai Kea ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Chris Bedford ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : NY : None HI : Sean Yamaguchi ( 1 ) Notes : Completed early due to mercy rule . Boxscore Loser 's bracket ( edit ) Game 10 : Iowa 9 , Rhode Island 5 ( edit ) August 18 3 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Iowa ◄ 0 0 9 8 Rhode Island 0 0 5 0 0 0 5 6 WP : Blake Larson ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Logan Lama ( 0 -- 1 ) Notes : Rhode Island is eliminated . Boxscore Game 12 : Georgia 3 , Idaho 0 ( edit ) August 18 8 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Georgia ◄ 0 0 0 10 0 Idaho 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 WP : Tai Peete ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Braeden Newby ( 0 -- 2 ) Notes : Idaho is eliminated . Boxscore Game 18 : Michigan 5 , Iowa 4 ( edit ) August 20 3 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Iowa 0 0 0 0 6 Michigan ◄ 0 0 0 5 7 WP : Preston Barr ( 2 -- 0 ) LP : Connor Duong ( 0 -- 1 ) Notes : Iowa is eliminated . Boxscore Game 20 : Georgia 7 , Texas 6 ( edit ) August 20 8 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 7 8 9 Texas 0 0 0 0 6 9 Georgia ◄ 0 0 0 0 0 7 10 WP : Ben Traxler ( 1 -- 1 ) LP : Richie Klosek ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : TX : Ryan Selvaggi ( 1 ) GA : Jansen Kenty ( 1 ) Notes : Texas is eliminated . Boxscore Game 22 : Georgia 4 , Michigan 3 ( edit ) August 22 3 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Michigan 0 0 0 0 Georgia ◄ 0 0 0 X 6 0 WP : Jansen Kenty ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Brennan Hill ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : MI : Jarren Purify ( 1 ) , Oliver Service ( 1 ) GA : None Notes : Michigan is eliminated . Boxscore Game 26 : Georgia 7 , New York 3 ( edit ) August 23 7 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 New York 0 0 0 0 0 7 Georgia ◄ 0 X 7 8 0 WP : Tai Peete ( 2 -- 0 ) LP : Derek Mendez ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Ben Traxler ( 1 ) Notes : New York is eliminated . Boxscore International ( edit ) This template : view talk edit August 16 -- Game 1 ( F / 9 ) Puerto Rico August 19 -- Game 13 South Korea South Korea 5 August 16 -- Game 3 Mexico Mexico August 22 -- Game 23 ( F / 4 ) Australia South Korea 10 August 17 -- Game 5 ( F / 5 ) Japan 0 Spain August 19 -- Game 15 Japan 11 Japan August 17 -- Game 7 Panama Panama 8 Canada August 25 -- International championship South Korea August 18 -- Game 9 Japan Puerto Rico 6 August 20 -- Game 17 Australia 0 Panama Puerto Rico August 22 -- Game 21 Puerto Rico 9 August 18 -- Game 11 ( F / 10 ) Canada Spain August 20 -- Game 19 Canada Mexico Canada 6 August 23 -- Game 25 Japan Puerto Rico 0 Winner 's bracket ( edit ) Game 1 : South Korea 4 , Puerto Rico 2 ( edit ) August 16 1 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 7 8 9 South Korea ◄ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 Puerto Rico 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 WP : Ji - Hyung Choi ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Victor Cartagena ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Jun - Woo Lim ( 1 ) Boxscore Game 3 : Mexico 3 , Australia 2 ( edit ) August 16 5 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Australia 0 0 0 0 0 Mexico ◄ 0 0 0 0 6 WP : Alberto Gomez ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Jake Calver ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : AUS : Oscar Hyde ( 1 ) MEX : None Boxscore Game 5 : Japan 11 , Spain 1 ( edit ) August 17 2 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Spain 0 0 0 0 -- 5 Japan ◄ 0 0 8 -- 11 14 0 WP : Shisei Fujimoto ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Juan Salazar ( 0 -- 1 ) Notes : Completed early due to mercy rule . Boxscore Game 7 : Panama 8 , Canada 3 ( edit ) August 17 7 : 10 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Panama ◄ 0 0 0 8 9 0 Canada 0 0 0 0 5 WP : Brian Villarreal ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Ian Huang ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : PAN : Adan Sanchez ( 1 ) CAN : None Boxscore Game 13 : South Korea 5 , Mexico 1 ( edit ) August 19 9 : 00 am EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 South Korea ◄ 0 0 0 5 5 Mexico 0 0 0 0 0 WP : Shoo - Hoo Choi ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Alberto Gomez ( 1 -- 1 ) Home runs : KOR : Ji - Hyung Choi ( 1 ) MEX : None Boxscore Game 15 : Japan 4 , Panama 2 ( edit ) August 19 1 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Panama 0 0 0 0 0 Japan ◄ 0 0 X 0 WP : Shinji Furusawa ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Adan Sanchez ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : PAN : None JPN : Shisei Fujimoto ( 1 ) Boxscore Game 23 : South Korea 10 , Japan 0 ( edit ) August 22 7 : 30 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Japan 0 0 0 0 -- -- 0 0 South Korea ◄ 0 -- -- 10 11 0 WP : Yeong - Hyeon Kim ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Shisei Fujimoto ( 1 -- 1 ) Home runs : JPN : None KOR : Ji - Hyung Choi ( 2 ) Notes : Completed early due to mercy rule . Boxscore Loser 's bracket ( edit ) Game 9 : Puerto Rico 6 , Australia 0 ( edit ) August 18 2 : 30 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Puerto Rico ◄ 0 0 0 6 7 Australia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 WP : Yadiel Delgado ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Matthew White ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Luis Diaz ( 1 ) Home runs : PUR : Eric Rodriguez ( 1 ) AUS : None Notes : Australia is eliminated . Boxscore Game 11 : Canada 2 , Spain 1 ( edit ) August 18 6 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 7 8 9 10 Spain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Canada ◄ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 WP : Cole Balkovec ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Toni Cortes ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : ESP : Lucas Iriarte ( 1 ) CAN : None Notes : Spain is eliminated . Boxscore Game 17 : Puerto Rico 3 , Panama 1 ( edit ) August 20 1 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Panama 0 0 0 0 0 0 Puerto Rico ◄ 0 0 0 X WP : Roberto Joubert ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Arod McKenzie ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : John Lopez ( 1 ) Notes : Panama is eliminated . Boxscore Game 19 : Canada 6 , Mexico 4 ( edit ) August 20 6 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Canada ◄ 0 0 0 6 10 Mexico 0 0 0 0 5 0 WP : Ian Huang ( 1 -- 1 ) LP : Angel Martinez ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Nate Colina ( 1 ) Home runs : CAN : None MEX : Fernando Lopez ( 1 ) Notes : Mexico is eliminated . Boxscore Game 21 : Puerto Rico 9 , Canada 4 ( edit ) August 22 3 : 00 pm EDT Volunteer Stadium Team 5 6 Puerto Rico ◄ 0 0 9 9 Canada 0 0 0 5 WP : Eric Rodriguez ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Jordan Jaramillo ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : PUR : Carlos De Jesus 2 ( 2 ) CAN : None Notes : Canada is eliminated . Boxscore Game 25 : Japan 1 , Puerto Rico 0 ( edit ) August 23 3 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Japan ◄ 0 0 0 0 0 0 Puerto Rico 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 WP : Masato Igarashi ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : John Lopez ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Shisei Fujimoto ( 1 ) Notes : Puerto Rico is eliminated . Boxscore Consolation games ( edit ) Game A : Rhode Island 15 , Australia 0 ( edit ) August 20 11 : 00 am EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Rhode Island ◄ 5 0 9 -- -- 15 10 Australia 0 0 0 0 -- -- 0 5 WP : Will Owens ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Jake Calver ( 0 -- 2 ) Notes : Completed early due to mercy rule . Boxscore Game B : Idaho 5 , Spain 0 ( edit ) August 23 11 : 00 am EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Idaho ◄ 0 0 0 0 5 8 Spain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 WP : Christopher Reynolds ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Juan Salazar ( 0 -- 2 ) Boxscore Single - elimination stage ( edit ) International championship : South Korea 2 , Japan 1 ( edit ) August 25 12 : 30 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Japan 0 0 0 0 0 5 South Korea ◄ 0 0 0 0 X 0 WP : Ji - Hyung Choi ( 2 -- 0 ) LP : Shisei Fujimoto ( 1 -- 2 ) Sv : Yeong - Hyeon Kim ( 1 ) Home runs : JPN : None KOR : Ji - Hyung Choi ( 3 ) Notes : Japan is eliminated . Boxscore United States championship : Hawaii 3 , Georgia 0 ( edit ) August 25 3 : 30 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Georgia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hawaii ◄ 0 0 0 X 6 0 WP : Aukai Kea ( 2 -- 0 ) LP : Connor Riggs - Soper ( 0 -- 1 ) Notes : Georgia is eliminated . Boxscore Third place game : Japan 8 , Georgia 2 ( edit ) August 26 10 : 00 am EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 Georgia 0 0 0 0 0 6 Japan ◄ 0 7 0 0 X 8 9 WP : Masato Igarashi ( 2 -- 0 ) LP : Chase Fralick ( 0 -- 1 ) Home runs : GA : None JPN : Masato Igarashi ( 1 ) Boxscore World championship game : Hawaii 3 , South Korea 0 ( edit ) August 26 3 : 00 pm EDT Howard J. Lamade Stadium Team 5 6 South Korea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hawaii ◄ 0 0 0 X 7 0 WP : Ka'olu Holt ( 2 -- 0 ) LP : Yeong - Hyeon Kim ( 1 -- 1 ) Home runs : KOR : None HI : Mana Lau Kong ( 1 ) Boxscore References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Dates Announced for the 2018 Little League World Series Tournaments '' . littleleague.org . Retrieved June 16 , 2018 . External links ( edit ) Full schedule from littleleague.org Little League World Series Broadcasters World Series 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 2001 2017 2018 2019 Results 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Qualification 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Regions United States Great Lakes Mid-Atlantic Midwest New England Northwest Southeast Southwest West International Asia - Pacific and Middle East Australia Canada Caribbean Europe and Africa Japan Latin America Mexico Middle East - Africa ( defunct ) Venues Howard J. Lamade Stadium Little League Volunteer Stadium Related MLB Little League Classic ( 2017 , 2018 , 2019 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2018_Little_League_World_Series_results&oldid=856683091 '' Categories : 2018 Little League World Series Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 26 August 2018 , at 22 : 54 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia
who won little league game between spain and canada
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Matthew 6:33
Matthew 6 : 33 - wikipedia Matthew 6 : 33 Matthew 6 : 33 is the thirty - third verse of the sixth chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament and is part of the Sermon on the Mount . This verse continues the discussion of worry about material provisions . In the Authorized King James Version of the Bible the text reads : But seek ye first the kingdom of God , and his righteousness ; and all these things shall be added unto you . The World English Bible translates the passage as : But seek first God 's Kingdom , and his righteousness ; and all these things will be given to you as well . For a collection of other versions see BibRef Matthew 6 : 33 Jesus has just told his followers not to worry about material things such as food or clothing , as God will provide the needs of his followers . Earlier in the chapter Jesus presented a discussion on how one must not pursue wealth and material things before God . This verse ties the two notions together . If one places the pursuit of the Kingdom of God first , then material needs will follow without need for worry or anxiety . The present imperative verb seek makes clear that pursuing the eschatological kingdom is not a passive act , but one that must be pursued with rigour . Hill notes that the word God is left out of many of the better early manuscripts of the Gospel , and it thus might be a later addition . Kingdom of God is a somewhat unusual phrase , with the author of Matthew generally preferring Kingdom of Heaven . Even without the word it is quite clear that this is a reference to the Kingdom of God . The parallel to this verse at Luke 12 : 31 does not mention righteousness , but as France notes the author of Matthew shows a special interest in righteousness throughout his gospel . Interpretation ( edit ) The interpretation or meaning of this verse may be a subjective matter . However , the common perception is speaking of prioritization , in which one who is a believer is to place God above all other things . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Matthew 6 : 33 '' Archived 2014 - 10 - 13 at Archive.is Jump up ^ Hill , David . The Gospel of Matthew . Grand Rapids : Eerdmans , 1981 Jump up ^ France , R.T. The Gospel According to Matthew : an Introduction and Commentary . Leicester : Inter-Varsity , 1985 . Preceded by Matthew 6 : 32 Gospel of Matthew Chapter 6 Succeeded by Matthew 6 : 34 Gospel of Matthew chapter 6 Verse Matthew 6 : 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Places Galilee Terms Lord 's Prayer Sermon on the Mount ← chapter 5 Gospel of Matthew chapter 7 → Gospel of Matthew Bible Chapter Matthew 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Verse Matthew 1 : 1 - 25 2 : 1 - 23 3 : 1 - 17 4 : 1 - 25 5 : 1 - 48 6 : 1 - 34 7 : 1 - 24 27 : 1 - 66 28 : 1 - 16 Places Bethany Bethlehem Bethsaida Capernaum Egypt Galilee Jerusalem Jordan River Judea Samaria Sea of Galilee People Andrew Caiaphas Herod James Jeremiah Jesus Christ John the Baptist Joseph Judas Iscariot Mary Mary Magdalene Matthew Philip Pontius Pilate Rachel Simon Peter Thomas Zebedee Groups Angels Pharisees Sadducees Sanhedrin Events Star of Bethlehem Magi Baptism of Jesus Sermon on the Mount Lord 's Prayer Golden rule Walking on water Last Supper Crucifixion of Jesus Sources Greek Text Latin Vulgate Wycliffe Version King James Version American Standard Version World English Version ← Book of Malachi ( chapter 4 ) Gospel of Mark ( chapter 1 ) → Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Matthew_6:33&oldid=835493557 '' Categories : Matthew 6 Gospel of Matthew verses Hidden categories : Webarchive template archiveis links Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 9 April 2018 , at 01 : 12 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia
seek first the kingdom of heaven and his righteousness
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Study skills
Study skills - wikipedia Study skills Jump to : navigation , search Study skills , academic skills , or study strategies are approaches applied to learning . They are generally critical to success in school , considered essential for acquiring good grades , and useful for learning throughout one 's life . Study skills are an array of skills which tackle the process of organizing and taking in new information , retaining information , or dealing with assessments . They include mnemonics , which aid the retention of lists of information ; effective reading ; concentration techniques ; and efficient notetaking . While often left up to the student and their support network , study skills are increasingly taught in high school and at the university level . More broadly , any skill which boosts a person 's ability to study , retain and recall information which assists in and passing exams can be termed a study skill , and this could include time management and motivational techniques . Study skills are discrete techniques that can be learned , usually in a short time , and applied to all or most fields of study . They must therefore be distinguished from strategies that are specific to a particular field of study ( e.g. music or technology ) , and from abilities inherent in the student , such as aspects of intelligence or learning styles . Contents ( hide ) 1 Historical context 2 Types 2.1 Rehearsal and rote learning 2.2 Reading and listening 2.3 Flashcard training 2.4 Keywords 2.5 Visual imagery 2.6 Acronyms and mnemonics 2.7 Exam strategies 2.8 Spacing 2.9 Time management , organization and lifestyle changes 2.10 Study environment 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Historical context ( edit ) The term study skills is used for general approaches to learning , skills for specific courses of study . There are many theoretical works on the subject , including a vast number of popular books and websites . Manuals for students have been published since the 1940s . In the 1950s and 1960s , college instructors in the fields of psychology and the study of education used research , theory , and experience with their own students in writing manuals . Marvin Cohn based the advice for parents in his 1978 book Helping Your Teen - Age Student on his experience as a researcher and head of a university reading clinic that tutored teenagers and young adults . In 1986 , when Dr. Gary Gruber 's Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids was first published , the author had written 22 books on taking standardized tests . A work in two volumes , one for upper elementary grades and the other for middle school , the Guide has methods for taking tests and completing schoolwork . Types ( edit ) Rehearsal and rote learning ( edit ) Main article : Rote learning Memorization is the process of committing something to memory . The act of memorization is often a deliberate mental process undertaken in order to store in memory for later recall items such as experiences , names , appointments , addresses , telephone numbers , lists , stories , poems , pictures , maps , diagrams , facts , music or other visual , auditory , or tactical information . Memorization may also refer to the process of storing particular data into the memory of a device . One of the most basic approaches to learning any information is simply to repeat it by rote . Typically this will include reading over notes or a textbook , and re-writing notes . Reading and listening ( edit ) The weakness with rote learning is that it implies a passive reading or listening style . Educators such as John Dewey have argued that students need to learn critical thinking -- questioning and weighing up evidence as they learn . This can be done during lectures or when reading books . A student of the University of British Columbia studies for his final exams using the PQRST method . One method used to focus on key information when studying from books is the PQRST method . This method prioritizes the information in a way that relates directly to how they will be asked to use that information in an exam . PQRST is an acronym for Preview , Question , Read , Summary , Test . Preview : The student looks at the topic to be learned by glancing over the major headings or the points in the syllabus . Question : The student formulates questions to be answered following a thorough examination of the topic ( s ) . Read : The student reads through the related material , focusing on the information that best relates to the questions formulated earlier . Summary : The student summarizes the topic , bringing his or her own understanding into the process . This may include written notes , spider diagrams , flow diagrams , labeled diagrams , mnemonics , or even voice recordings . Test : The student answers the questions drafted earlier , avoiding adding any questions that might distract or change the subject . There are a variety of studies from different colleges nationwide that show peer - communication can help increase better study habits tremendously . One study shows that an average of 73 % score increase was recorded by those who were enrolled in the classes surveyed . Flashcard training ( edit ) Flashcards are visual cues on cards . These have numerous uses in teaching and learning , but can be used for revision . Students often make their own flashcards , or more detailed index cards -- cards designed for filing , often A5 size , on which short summaries are written . Being discrete and separate , they have the advantage of allowing students to re-order them , pick a selection to read over , or choose randomly for self - testing . Keywords ( edit ) Summary methods vary depending on the topic , but most involve condensing the large amount of information from a course or book into shorter notes . Often , these notes are then condensed further into key facts . Organized summaries : Such as outlines showing keywords and definitions and relations , usually in a tree structure . Spider diagrams : Using spider diagrams or mind maps can be an effective way of linking concepts together . They can be useful for planning essays and essay responses in exams . These tools can give a visual summary of a topic that preserves its logical structure , with lines used to show how different parts link together . Visual imagery ( edit ) Some learners are thought to have a visual learning style , and will benefit greatly from taking information from their studies which are often heavily verbal , and using visual techniques to help encode and retain it in memory . Some memory techniques make use of visual memory , for example the method of loci , a system of visualising key information in real physical locations e.g. around a room . Diagrams are often underrated tools . They can be used to bring all the information together and provide practice reorganizing what has been learned in order to produce something practical and useful . They can also aid the recall of information learned very quickly , particularly if the student made the diagram while studying the information . Pictures can then be transferred to flashcards that are very effective last - minute revision tools rather than rereading any written material . Acronyms and mnemonics ( edit ) A mnemonic is a method of organizing and memorizing information . Some use a simple phrase or fact as a trigger for a longer list of information . For example , the cardinal points of the compass can be recalled in the correct order with the phrase `` Never Eat Shredded Wheat '' . Starting with North , the first letter of each word relates to a compass point in clockwise order round a compass . Exam strategies ( edit ) The Black - Red - Green method ( developed through the Royal Literary Fund ) helps the student to ensure that every aspect of the question posed has been considered , both in exams and essays . The student underlines relevant parts of the question using three separate colors ( or some equivalent ) . BLAck denotes ' BLAtant instructions ' , i.e. something that clearly must be done ; a directive or obvious instruction . REd is a REference Point or REquired input of some kind , usually to do with definitions , terms , cited authors , theory , etc. ( either explicitly referred to or strongly implied ) . GREen denotes GREmlins , which are subtle signals one might easily miss , or a ' GREEN Light ' that gives a hint on how to proceed , or where to place the emphasis in answers ( 1 ) . Another popular method whilst studying is to P.E.E ; Point , evidence and explain , reason being , this helps the student break down exam questions allowing them to maximize their marks / grade during the exam . Many Schools will encourage practicing the P.E. Eing method prior to an exam . Spacing ( edit ) Spacing , also called distributed learning by some ; helps individuals remember at least as much if not more information for a longer period of time than using only one study skill . Using spacing in addition to other study methods can improve retention and performance on tests . Spacing is especially useful for retaining and recalling new material . The theory of spacing is that instead of cramming all studying into one long study session an individual would split that single session to a few shorter sessions that are hours , if not days apart . Studying will not last longer than it would have originally and one is not working harder but this tool gives the user the ability to remember and recall things for a longer time period . The science behind this ; according to Jost 's Law from 1897 `` If two associations are of equal strength but of different age , a new repetition has a greater value for the older one '' . This means that if a person were to study two things once , at different times , the one studied most recently will be easier to recall . Time management , organization and lifestyle changes ( edit ) Often , improvements to the effectiveness of study may be achieved through changes to things unrelated to the study material itself , such as time - management , boosting motivation and avoiding procrastination , and in improvements to sleep and diet . Time management in study sessions aims to ensure that activities that achieve the greatest benefit are given the greatest focus . A traffic lights system is a simple way of identifying the importance of information , highlighting or underlining information in colours : Green : topics to be studied first ; important and also simple Amber : topics to be studied next ; important but time - consuming Red : lowest priority ; complex and not vital . This reminds students to start with the things which will provide the quickest benefit , while ' red ' topics are only dealt with if time allows . The concept is similar to the ABC analysis , commonly used by workers to help prioritize . Also , some websites ( such as FlashNotes ) can be used for additional study materials and may help improve time management and increase motivation . In addition to time management , sleep is an important lifestyle change that could effect your studying . Sleeping less means that you have more time to study . This is a true fact , but just because you are `` studying , '' does not necessarily mean that your brain is processing everything that you are trying to learn or memorize . It is a proven fact that sleeping more can help you study better , because your brain can process more facts when it has had the rest it needs every night . In addition to time management and sleep , emotional state of mind matters when a student is studying , according to Benedict Carey in his book `` The Surprising Truth About How We Learn and Why It Happens '' when speaking about studying versus test taking `` we perform better on tests when in the same state of mind as when we studied '' If an individual is calm or nervous in class ; replicating that emotion can assist in studying . With replicating the emotion an individual is more likely to recall more information if they are in the same state of mind when in class . This also goes the other direction ; if one is upset but normally calm in class it 's much better to wait until they are feeling calmer to study . At the time of the test or class they will remember more . Study environment ( edit ) Studying can also be more effective if one changes their environment while studying . For example : the first time studying the material , one can study in a bedroom , the second time one can study outside , and the final time one can study in a coffee shop . The thinking behind this is that as when an individual changes their environment the brain associates different aspects of the learning and gives a stronger hold and additional brain pathways with which to access the information . In this context environment can mean many things ; from location , to sounds , to smells , to other stimuli including foods . When discussing environment in regards to its affect on studying and retention Carey says `` a simple change in venue improved retrieval strength ( memory ) by 40 percent . '' Another change in the environment can be background music ; if people study with music playing and they are able to play the same music during test time they will recall more of the information they studied . According to Carey `` background music weaves itself subconsciously into the fabric of stored memory . '' This `` distraction '' in the background helps to create more vivid memories with the studied material . See also ( edit ) Homework Learning Learning styles Reading day Speed reading SQ3R Study guide Study software Video study guide References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Contributions of Study Skills to Academic Competence . '' . Educational Resources Information Center . ISSN 0279 - 6015 . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 01 . Jump up ^ Bremer , Rod . The Manual : A Guide to the Ultimate Study Method ( Second ed . ) . Fons Sapientiae Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0993496424 . Jump up ^ http://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/site/colleges/seh/freshinfo/vs/StudySkills2008b.pdf Archived March 19 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Preston , Rah ( 1959 ) . Teaching Study Habits and Skills , Rinehart . Original from the University of Maryland digitized August 7 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Kranyik , Robert and Shankman , Florence V. ( 1963 ) . How to Teach Study Skills , Teacher 's Practical Press . Jump up ^ Cohn , Marvin ( 1979 ) . Helping Your Teen - age Student : What Parents Can Do to Improve Reading and Study Skills , Dutton , ISBN 978 - 0 - 525 - 93065 - 5 . Jump up ^ Gruber , Gary ( 1986 ) . Dr. Gary Gruber 's Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids , Grades 3 , 4 , 5 , Quill , ISBN 978 - 0 - 688 - 06350 - 4 . Jump up ^ Gruber , Gary ( 1986 ) . Dr. Gary Gruber 's Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids , Grades 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , Quill , ISBN 978 - 0 - 688 - 06351 - 1 . Jump up ^ Gopalakrishnan , Karthika ( 2009 - 01 - 08 ) . `` Students tackle stress as board exams draw '' . The Times Of India . Jump up ^ Stangl , Werner . `` The PQRST Method of Studying '' . stangl-taller.at . Robinson , Francis Pleasant ( 1970 ) . Effective study . New York : Harper & Row . Jump up ^ Royal Literary Fund : Mission Possible : the Study Skills Pack http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/mission_possible.cfm ^ Jump up to : Carey , Benedict ( 2015 ) . The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens . New York : Random House . pp. 65 -- 66 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 8429 - 3 . Jump up ^ Carey , Benedict ( 2015 ) . The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens . New York : Random House . p. 68 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 8429 - 3 . Jump up ^ College Success : Study Strategies and Skills , Jean A. Reynolds , © 1996 by Allyn & Bacon , Boston Jump up ^ Study Efficiently TeenLife Media , January , 2015 Jump up ^ Carey , Benedict ( 2015 ) . The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens . New York : Random House . p. 47 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 8429 - 3 . Jump up ^ Carey , Benedict ( 2015 ) . The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens . New York : Random House . p. 62 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 8429 - 3 . Jump up ^ Carey , Benedict ( 2015 ) . The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens . New York : Random House . p. 50 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 8429 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Carey , Benedict ( 2015 ) . The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens . New York : Random House . p. 51 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 8429 - 3 . External links ( edit ) Wikibooks has a book on the topic of : Study Skills Improving Students ' Learning With Effective Learning Techniques : Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology from Association for Psychological Science Academic learning strategy videos from Dartmouth College provide skills training Think You Know How To Study ? Think Again - audio report by NPR Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Study_skills&oldid=805766701 '' Categories : Learning methods Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Català ChiShona Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی 한국어 Հայերեն IsiXhosa עברית ಕನ್ನಡ 日本 語 Norsk Simple English Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 October 2017 , at 14 : 16 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
which of the following is an example of the selection strategy for improving your working memory
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Alcoholic beverages in Oregon
Alcoholic beverages in Oregon - wikipedia Alcoholic beverages in Oregon Jump to : navigation , search 1914 Executive Order by Governor Oswald West , announcing the passage of prohibition by ballot initiative . The U.S. state of Oregon has an extensive history of laws regulating the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages , dating back to 1844 . It has been an alcoholic beverage control state , with the Oregon Liquor Control Commission holding a monopoly over the sale of all distilled beverages , since Prohibition . Today , there are thriving industries producing beer , wine , and liquor in the state . Alcohol may be purchased between 7 a.m. and 2 : 30 a.m. As of 2007 , consumption of spirits is on the rise , while beer consumption is holding steady . Also , 11 % of beer sold in Oregon was brewed in - state , the highest figure in the United States . Oregon wine production began in the mid-19th century , before it was a state . By 1919 , the industry had collapsed due to prohibition , and after prohibition ended fruit wines dominated the industry . The modern era of Oregon wine began in 1961 , and the industry cemented its reputation in 1975 by winning a French award . In 2007 , wine making was a $207.8 million business . Beer production began in 1852 with Henry Saxer 's liberty brewing in Portland . In 1862 Henry Weinhard 's bought the Liberty brewery . The company is now a part of the Miller Brewing Company , but it helped Portland to become the microbrewing capital of the world . Portland hosts North America 's largest beerfest , and Oregon has produced a number of national and international award winning beers . In 1844 , the Oregon territories voted to prohibit alcoholic beverages . This was repealed in 1845 , but prohibition was reinstated in a 1915 , four years before the national alcohol prohibition . When national prohibition was repealed in 1933 , the Oregon Liquor Control Commission ( OLCC ) was created . Unlike states that allow liquor sales in grocery stores , liquor in Oregon is sold only in OLCC run liquor stores and establishments that have liquor licenses , and the OLCC has strict guidelines and training to ensure that all licensed venues understand how to safely sell and serve alcoholic beverages . Alcohol and alcoholism are also studied by the state at the Portland Alcohol Research Center . Contents ( hide ) 1 Consumption 1.1 Beer consumption 2 Production 2.1 Wine 2.2 Beer 2.3 Spirits 3 Legislative history 3.1 Ballot measures relating to alcohol 4 Research 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Consumption ( edit ) Alcohol laws in Oregon permit the sale of beer , wine , and liquor , for on - or off - premises consumption , between 7 a.m. and 2 : 30 a.m. In 2004 , Oregonians consumed 5,103,000 US gallons ( 19,320,000 L ) of distilled spirits , 11,132,000 US gallons ( 42,140,000 L ) of wine , and 80,415,000 US gallons ( 304,400,000 L ) of beer , ranking it 27th , 19th , and 27th respectively of US states . Oregon had an estimated population of 3,594,586 in 2004 , ranking it 27th among US states . In 2007 , sales of spirits increased 9 % over the previous year . Whiskey and vodka were the top sellers , while tequila had the largest percentage increase . Oregonian 's top buy was Jack Daniel 's , with 412,000 bottles sold . This was during a national spirits trend where manufacturers introduced new products and advertising aimed at young drinkers . Again in 2007 , Oregon 's 2.6 million adults on average drank 32 gallons of beer each , versus 4 gallons of wine and 2 gallons of spirits , but sales of beer had n't increased like sales of spirits . The Oregon Department of Human Services reported that while drinking among 8th -- 11th graders has fallen nationally , it has increased in Oregon . The number of DUI offenses dropped between 2002 and 2005 , from 25,342 to 23,455 . Beer consumption ( edit ) Salem Beer label from 1904 . The following table lists the amount of beer consumed in Oregon for the years 1997 -- 2004 as reported in the 2005 Beer Handbook . The scale is in 1,000 s of cases of beer . A case of beer is 24 12 - ounce beers , for a total of 2.25 gallons per case . Year Oregon United States 31,822 2,632,184 1998 32,242 2,667,752 1999 32,947 2,727,195 2000 33,398 2,765,670 34,400 2,788,820 2002 34,650 2,824,710 2003 35,000 2,817,400 35,740 2,838,400 Production ( edit ) Wine ( edit ) Main article : Oregon wine Wine grapes were planted in Oregon in the Willamette Valley starting in 1847 . A census in 1860 revealed that Oregon 's wine production was 2,600 gallons . In the 1880s and 1890s , German immigrants began planting wine grapes in Southern Oregon . In the 1880s , Ernest Reuter garnered a reputation for his Klevner wines , grown in the Willamette Valley , west of Forest Grove . By 1919 , the Oregon wine industry had collapsed due to the temperance movement and resulting prohibition . Fruit wines dominated Oregon 's wine industry post-prohibition , and by 1938 there were 28 bonded wineries , producing wines based on berries , Concord grapes , and other American hybrids . Oregon 's modern wine industry dates to 1961 when Hillcrest Vineyard in Roseburg began planting Riesling and small amounts of other grapes . In 1965 , Oregon pinot noir was established when The Eyrie Vineyards planted grapes near Corvallis . Oregon 's wine reputation was made in 1979 when a French magazine ranked The Eyrie 's 1975 Pinot noir third among 330 wines of the world . By 2007 , Oregon wineries were producing 1.7 million cases of wine for a total of $207.8 million in sales . There are several official American Viticultural Areas entirely within the state , including the Willamette Valley , Southern Oregon , Umpqua Valley , and Rogue Valley AVAs . Parts of the Columbia Gorge , Walla Walla Valley , and Snake River Valley AVAs lie within Oregon . Pinot noir and Pinot gris are the top two grapes grown . Beer ( edit ) Main article : Brewing in Oregon In 1862 , German immigrant Henry Weinhard founded a brewery in Portland . By the early 1880s it had become the Northwest 's largest brewery . Weinhard once attempted to pump free beer through Portland 's Skidmore Fountain . He died in 1904 , but the company continued to do well , making it through prohibition by brewing soft drinks and merging with Arnold Blitz , a local competitor . Blitz - Weinhard was sold to the Pabst Brewing Company in 1979 , and then again to the Miller Brewing Company in 1999 . The company helped prepare Oregon beer drinkers for the arrival of microbrewing . Portland , Oregon is considered to be the nation 's microbrew capital . A microbrewery is defined as one that produces less than 15,000 barrels a year . Portland hosts the Oregon Brewers Festival , North America 's largest beer festival . The microbrewery industry began in 1979 when President Jimmy Carter legalized home brewing . In 2006 , 14 beers from eight Oregon breweries won medals at the Great American Beer Festival , out of 2,800 entries . Also in 2006 , Oregon won 11 times at the World Beer Cup , in a field of 2,200 beers . In 2007 , 11 % of beer sold in Oregon was brewed in - state , the highest figure in the United States . According to the Oregon Hop Commission , in 2007 , Oregon was also the second largest U.S. hops producer , after Washington . Spirits ( edit ) Main article : List of distilleries in Portland , Oregon As of 2008 , Oregon contains 12 of the nation 's 142 craft distilleries , up from six in 2006 . In 2007 , a law was approved allowing tasting rooms and direct sales to the public . Jim Dodge , purchasing manager for the OLCC , believes that the distilleries are an outgrowth of the microbrew industry , instead of the wine industry , as well as a societal change . Dodge explained that `` there 's been a recent shift from beer , and to some degree wine , to distilled spirits as the alcohol of choice . '' In 2008 , the U.S. Food and Drug Administration determined that absinthe was legal , though it had been understood to be illegal for about 80 years . Portland distillery Integrity Spirits responded by releasing the second American - made absinthe , which was in high demand immediately upon its release . Legislative history ( edit ) Oregon has been regulating alcohol through its laws for over 150 years . In 1844 , the Oregon Territory voted to prohibit alcoholic beverages . This is often referred to as the first prohibition in the United States . The law was repealed in 1845 . From 1845 to 1915 , various local laws governing alcohol were passed . In 1915 , Oregonians voted to ban all alcohol , preceding national alcohol prohibition by four years . In 1933 , national prohibition ended with a repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . Oregon 's governor , Julius Meier , appointed Dr. William S. Knox to study the situation . Knox recommended adopting the Canadian system of sales of alcohol by the state . The reasoning was that this would provide revenue and lower alcohol abuse . The Oregon Legislative Assembly held a special session and the OLCC was created days after the repeal of national prohibition . Eighteen states in total chose to regulate alcohol . Oregon Revised Statutes Chapters 471 , 472 , 473 and 474 were the commission 's enabling statutes . OAR Chapter 845 governed its administrative rules . The OLCC 's mission is `` to effectively regulate the sale , distribution , and responsible use of alcoholic beverages in order to protect Oregon 's public health , safety and community livability . '' However , under these laws bootlegging in Oregon was rife and Portland became infamous as a center of corruption . In 1939 , the advertising of hard liquor on billboards and in newspapers was voluntarily discontinued . Also , in 1939 , a `` club bill '' was passed by the Legislative Assembly . The bill gave regulatory power to the OLCC over hotels , restaurants and private clubs where liquor was served . Lobbyists then succeeded in having the bill referred to the voters in 1940 . Voters passed the bill in 1940 . In 1944 , the `` Burke Bill '' became law : wines with more than 14 % alcohol could only be sold by Commission stores and agencies . Also in the 1940s , a `` service bars '' license was established . This restricted liquor licenses to establishments serving food . In 1949 , the Legislative Assembly approved a method where establishments that sold liquor could ask for proof of age from patrons they thought were under the age of 21 . Measure 15 -- passed in 1952 -- amended the Constitution ( Article I , section 39 ) to regulate the sale of liquor by the individual glass . Five more types of licenses were created in the 1950s , dealing with liquor - by - the - drink operations , industry agents , salesmen , out - of - state manufacturers of malt beverages , and conventions , group meetings , etc . In 1960 , establishments were required to have food sales equal to 25 % of their total sales . In the 1970s , the OLCC began enforcing the Oregon Bottle Bill and wines of up to 20 % alcohol became allowed with certain licenses . In the 1980s , the number of OLCC commissioners was changed from three to five , to reflect the number of congressional districts . The 1990s saw a flurry of laws passed governing the OLCC 's oversight of the newly numerous Oregon wineries and microbreweries . House Bill 4028 -- passed in 2002 -- allowed liquor stores to operate on Sunday ; they had previously been restricted to six days a week . This sort of licensing is very important for maintaining safe production and sales of alcoholic beverages in Oregon . Under Oregon law , specifically ORS 471.565 , bars and restaurants can be held legally responsible for any damages to property or injuries incurred when an intoxicated person is served alcohol and causes a car crash . Ballot measures relating to alcohol ( edit ) The following ballot measures changed state policy on alcohol : Measure 3 ( 1904 ) , a `` local option '' law , passed . Measure 17 ( 1914 ) , Prohibition Constitutional Amendment : passed 57.7 % Measure 9 ( 1916 ) , Prohibition Amendment Forbidding Importation of Intoxicating Liquors for Beverage Purposes : passed with 51.2 % . Measure 7 ( 1932 ) , Bill to Repeal State Prohibition Law of Oregon : passed 59.8 % Measure 7 ( 1944 ) , Burke Bill ; Only State Selling Liquor over 14 Hundredths Alcohol : passed 55.95 % Measure 15 ( 1952 ) , Constitutional Amendment Authorizing Alcoholic Liquor Sale by Individual Glass : passed 56.4 % The following alcohol - related ballot measures have failed : Measure 3 ( 1906 ) , Amendment to local option law giving anti-prohibitionists and prohibitionists equal privileges : failed with 43.9 % support . Measure 22 ( 1910 ) , Prohibiting Liquor Traffic : failed 41.6 % . Measure 23 ( 1910 ) , Prohibiting the Sale of Liquors and Regulating Shipments of Same , and Providing for Search for Liquor : failed 40.2 % . Measure 8 ( 1916 ) , Permitting Manufacture and Regulating Sale 4 Percent Malt Liquors : failed with 38 % support . Measure 11 ( 1938 ) , Bill Regulating Sale of Alcoholic Liquor for Beverage Purposes : failed 34.7 % Measure 6 ( 1940 ) , Bill to Further Regulate Sale and Use of Alcoholic Liquor : failed 40.2 % Measure 9 ( 1950 ) , Making Sale of Promotively Advertised Alcoholic Beverage Unlawful : failed 23.1 % Measure 5 ( 1988 ) , Finances Intercollegiate Athletic Fund by Increasing Malt Beverage , Cigarette Taxes Research ( edit ) The Portland Alcohol Research Center is a NIH - established effort funded by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism . About 20 scientists and 60 people , mostly at OHSU , are investigating science organized around ten components : Dependency using mice . Molecular genetics responses affecting alcohol withdrawal and preference . Quantitative trait locus which relates gene expression to genotypes . Genetic analysis of gene expression . Characterization of ethanol response on chromosome 11 . Massive search strategy for ethanol - related genes . Genetic models of variation in impulsivity and alcoholism . Genetics of alcohol - associated traits in monkeys . A dedicated section ( Pilot projects ) launches 2 to 4 projects annually . Educational outreach with three aims : K - 12 schools , scientific education , and publication . Additional themes and focuses include : Genetic contributions to alcohol sensitivity Permit is needed to make Alcohol . Behavioral predispositions to the drug , such as impulse effects and dependency . The center has trained medical students in alcohol - related issues for more than 30 years and has published more than 380 papers and articles since 1996 . See also ( edit ) Alcohol laws of the United States by state Drug policy of Oregon Cannabis in Oregon Fern Hobbs , West 's personal secretary Oregon Bottle Bill Oswald West , former Governor and noted prohibitionist Woman 's Christian Temperance Union References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` How to Get a Liquor License ? '' . Retrieved 17 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` OLCC Law Orientation Booklet for Retailers '' ( PDF ) . OLCC . August 2007 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2008 - 10 - 10 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` Top metropolitan areas for beer , 2004 '' . Beer Handbook . Bev - AL Communications , Inc. 2005 - 01 - 01 . Archived from the original on 2008 - 11 - 19 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Oregon '' . City-Data.com . Archived from the original on 3 January 2009 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ Har , Janie ; Ryan Kost ( July 19 , 2007 ) . `` Cocktails push up liquor sales '' . The Oregonian . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : Hall , Lisa Shara ( 2001 ) . Wines of the Pacific Northwest . Mitchell Beazley . Jump up ^ Hale , Sally Carpenter ( December 14 , 1997 ) . `` A Taste of Success '' . Los Angeles Times . pp. Metro , Part B , p. 1 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ Sarah Skidmore ( March 18 , 2008 ) . `` Oregon wine grape production hits record '' . The Seattle Times . Archived from the original on July 13 , 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` American Viticultural Areas of Oregon '' ( PDF ) . Oregon Wine Board . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2009 - 03 - 25 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` 2006 Oregon Vineyard and Winery Report '' ( PDF ) . Oregn Wine Board . February 2007 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2009 - 03 - 25 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 11 . Jump up ^ Alworth , Jeff ( February 24 , 1999 ) . `` Goodbye Blitz - Weinhard '' . Willamette Week . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Introduction to Portland '' . New York Times . Frommer 's . 2006 - 11 - 20 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 24 . Jump up ^ Heim , Joe ; Greg Kitsock ( April 7 , 2008 ) . `` Beer Madness Crowns a Winner '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : Greif , Andrew ( September 17 , 2007 ) . `` Good beer : what Oregon does best '' . Oregon Daily Emerald . Archived from the original on June 11 , 2007 . Retrieved December 23 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Dininny , Shannon ( January 13 , 2008 ) . `` Wash. entrepreneurs getting into the distillery business '' . Seattle Times . Archived from the original on 2011 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ Watts , Joe ( July 14 , 2008 ) . `` Happy Daze Are Here Again : Integrity Spirits Releases Trillium Absinthe Supérieure '' . Willamette Week . ^ Jump up to : `` Oregon Liquor Control Commission ( OLCC ) Administrative Overview August 2000 '' ( PDF ) . Oregon Secretary of State . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` OLCC celebrates 75 years of responsible sales and service '' ( PDF ) ( Press release ) . Oregon Liquor Control Commission . December 11 , 2008 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on May 2 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Initiative , Referendum and Recall : 1948 - 1952 '' . Oregon Blue Book . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ Nolan , Rebecca ( April 15 , 2002 ) . `` Liquor Remains Scarce on Sundays in Eugene , Ore. , Area . '' . The Register - Guard . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Initiative , Referendum and Recall : 1912 - 1914 '' . Oregon Blue Book . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : `` Initiative , Referendum and Recall : 1916 - 1921 '' . Oregon Blue Book . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Initiative , Referendum and Recall : 1930 - 1936 '' . Oregon Blue Book . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : `` Initiative , Referendum and Recall : 1938 - 1947 '' . Oregon Blue Book . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : `` Initiative , Referendum and Recall : 1902 - 1906 '' . Oregon Blue Book . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ Ellensburg Daily Record - Google News Archive Search ^ Jump up to : `` About PARK Overview : Uncovering the genetics of how the brain adapts to alcohol '' . OHSU . Archived from the original on 2012 - 12 - 14 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Research component & core structure '' . OHSU . Archived from the original on 2012 - 12 - 15 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` PARC Publications '' . OHSU . Archived from the original on 2012 - 12 - 12 . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 22 . External links ( edit ) Oregon Liquor Control Commission National Alcohol Beverage Control Association Prohibition in Oregon : The Vision and the Reality , from the Oregon State Archives Portland Beer Wiki Topics in Oregon legislation Crime and sentencing Capital punishment Measure 11 ( 1994 ) ( mandatory minimum sentencing ) Measure 40 ( 1996 ) etc. ( victims ' rights ) Elections and voting Direct Legislation League Vote - by - mail Term limits List of Oregon ballot measures Gay rights Same - sex marriage Oregon Citizens Alliance Measure 9 ( 1992 ) ( homosexuality and education ) Environment Bottle bill Nuclear power Wind power Solar power Coal power Land use O&C Lands Beach Bill ( 1967 ) Land Conservation and Development Act ( 1973 ) Measure 37 ( 2004 ) & 49 ( 2008 ) Health care Death with Dignity Act Oregon Health Plan Minimum wage Measures 36 ( 1996 ) , 25 ( 2002 ) Taxation Tax revolt Measure 5 ( 1990 ) ( landmark tax law ) Measures 47 ( 1996 ) and 50 ( 1997 ) ( adjusted Measure 5 ) Kicker tax rebate Measure 97 ( 2016 ) Miscellaneous Compulsory Education Act Adoption rights Alcoholic beverages in Oregon Bicycle Bill Cannabis in Oregon Influential people Loren Parks Bill Sizemore Background , further reading Oregon legislature Direct democracy in Oregon Oregon government Oregon history Oregon ballot measures Alcohol laws of the United States States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Federal district Washington , D.C. Insular areas American Samoa The Marianas Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcoholic_beverages_in_Oregon&oldid=801582620 '' Categories : Alcohol law in the United States by state Controlled substances in Oregon History of Oregon Oregon law Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2012 Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 20 September 2017 , at 15 : 33 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
what time can you buy beer in oregon
[ "The U.S. state of Oregon has an extensive history of laws regulating the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, dating back to 1844. It has been an alcoholic beverage control state, with the Oregon Liquor Control Commission holding a monopoly over the sale of all distilled beverages, since Prohibition. Today, there are thriving industries producing beer, wine, and liquor in the state. Alcohol may be purchased between 7 a.m. and 2:30 a.m. As of 2007, consumption of spirits is on the rise, while beer consumption is holding steady. Also, 11% of beer sold in Oregon was brewed in-state, the highest figure in the United States." ]
[ "between 7 a.m. and 2:30 a.m." ]
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Invitation to treat
Invitation to treat - wikipedia Invitation to treat Jump to : navigation , search The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United Kingdom and Canada and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate . ( April 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) An invitation to treat ( or invitation to bargain in the United States ) is a concept within contract law . In Andrew Burrows ' words , an invitation to treat is `` ... an expression of willingness to negotiate . A person making an invitation to treat does not intend to be bound as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom the statement is addressed . '' A contract is a legally binding voluntary agreement that is formed when one person makes an offer , and the other accepts it . There may be some preliminary discussion before an offer is formally made . Such pre-contractual representations are known variously as `` invitations to treat '' , `` requests for information '' or `` statements of intention '' . True offers may be accepted to form a contract , whereas representations such as invitations to treat may not . However , although an invitation to treat can not be accepted it should not be ignored , for it may nevertheless affect the offer . For example , where an offer is made in response to an invitation to treat , the offer may incorporate the terms of the invitation to treat ( unless the offer expressly incorporates different terms ) . If , as in the Boots case ( described below ) the offer is made by an action without any negotiations -- such as presenting goods to a cashier -- the offer will be presumed to be on the terms of the invitation to treat . Contents ( hide ) 1 Case law 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References Case law ( edit ) Contract law Part of the common law series Contract formation Offer and acceptance Posting rule Mirror image rule Invitation to treat Firm offer Consideration Implication - in - fact Collateral contract Defenses against formation Lack of capacity Duress Undue influence Illusory promise Statute of frauds Non est factum Contract interpretation Parol evidence rule Contract of adhesion Integration clause Contra proferentem Excuses for non-performance Mistake Misrepresentation Frustration of purpose Impossibility Impracticability Illegality Unclean hands Unconscionability Accord and satisfaction Rights of third parties Privity of contract Assignment Delegation Novation Third - party beneficiary Breach of contract Anticipatory repudiation Cover Exclusion clause Efficient breach Deviation Fundamental breach Remedies Specific performance Liquidated damages Penal damages Rescission Quasi-contractual obligations Promissory estoppel Quantum meruit Related areas of law Conflict of laws Commercial law Other common law areas Tort law Property law Wills , trusts , and estates Criminal law Evidence Generally , advertisements are not offers but invitations to treat , so the person advertising is not compelled to sell . In Partridge v Crittenden ( 1968 ) 1 WLR 1204 , a defendant who was charged with `` offering for sale protected birds '' -- bramblefinch cocks and hens that he had advertised for sale in a newspaper -- was not offering to sell them . Lord Parker CJ said it did not make business sense for advertisements to be offers , as the person making the advertisement may find himself in a situation where he would be contractually obliged to sell more goods than he actually owned . In certain circumstances called unilateral contracts , an advertisement can be an offer ; as in Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company ( 1893 ) 1 QB 256 , where it was held that the defendants , who advertised that they would pay £ 100 to anyone who sniffed a smoke ball in the prescribed manner and yet caught influenza , were contractually obliged to pay £ 100 to whomever accepted it by performing the required acts . A display of goods for sale in a shop window or within a shop is an invitation to treat , as in the Boots case , a leading case concerning supermarkets . The shop owner is thus not obliged to sell the goods , even if signage such as `` special offer '' accompanies the display . Also , in Fisher v Bell ( 1961 ) 1 QB 394 , the display of a flick knife for sale in a shop did not contravene legislation which prohibited `` offering for sale an offensive weapon '' . If a shop mistakenly displays an item for sale at a very low price it is not obliged to sell it for that amount . For an offer to be capable of becoming binding on acceptance , the offer must be definite , clear , and objectively intended to be capable of acceptance . In England , auctions are governed by the Sale of Goods Act 1979 ( as amended ) . Section 57 ( 2 ) provides : `` A sale by auction is complete when the auctioneer announces its completion by the fall of the hammer , or in other customary manner . Until the announcement is made any bidder may retract his bid '' . S. 57 ( 3 ) provides further : `` An auction sale may be subject to a reserve price '' . However , if the auction is held `` without reserve '' then the auctioneer is obliged to sell to the highest bidder . It is implicit from Payne v Cave ( 1789 ) , an early case concerning auctions , that each bid is deemed to expire when others make higher bids ; but some auctioneers ( such as eBay ) have lawfully amended this presumption so that , should a higher bidder withdraw his bid , they may accept a lower one . The tender process is a debated issue . In the case of Spencer v Harding the defendants offered to sell stock by tender , but the court held that there was no promise to sell to the highest bidder , merely an invitation for offers which they could then accept or reject at will . In exceptional circumstances an invitation for tenders may be an offer , as in Harvela Investments v Royal Trust of Canada ( 1986 ) where the court held that because defendants had made clear an intention to accept the highest tender , then the invitation to tender was an offer accepted by the person making the highest tender . The Harvela case also made it clear that `` referential bids '' are void as being `` contrary to public policy and not cricket '' . See also ( edit ) Contract Offer and acceptance Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ It comes from the Latin phrase invitatio ad offerendum and means `` inviting an offer '' . Jump up ^ Burrows , A. ( 2009 ) . Offer and Acceptance . A Casebook on Contract ( 2nd ed. , pp. 5 ) . Portland , OR , North America : Hart Publishing . ( Original work published 2007 ) . Jump up ^ Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Chemists ( Southern ) Ltd ( 1953 ) 1 QB 401 Bailii Jump up ^ `` Business : The Economy Argos - an invitation to ' treat ' '' . BBC News . September 8 , 1999 . Retrieved 8 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Warlow v Harrison ( 1859 ) 1 E & E 309 Jump up ^ Barry v Davies ( Heathcote Ball & Co . ) ( 2000 ) 1 WLR 1962 Jump up ^ Payne v Cave ( 1789 ) 3 TR 148 Jump up ^ Spencer v Harding ( 1870 ) LR 5 CP 561 Jump up ^ Harvela Investments Ltd v Royal Trust of Canada ( CI ) Ltd ( 1986 ) AC 207 Jump up ^ ( eg : `` $2,100,000 or $101,000 in excess of any other offer which you may receive , whichever is the higher '' , as in the Harvela case ) References ( edit ) Andrew Burrows , Casebook on Contract ( Hart Publishing , 2007 ) Ed . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Invitation_to_treat&oldid=836174538 '' Categories : Contract law Legal doctrines and principles Hidden categories : Articles with limited geographic scope from April 2018 United Kingdom - centric Canada - centric Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2018 , at 03 : 10 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
carlill v carbolic smoke ball offer or invitation to treat
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List of English football champions
List of English Football champions - wikipedia List of English Football champions Jump to : navigation , search Leicester City celebrate winning the Premier League in the 2015 -- 16 season . The English football champions are the winners of the highest league in English men 's football , which since 1992 - 1993 is the Premier League . Following the legalisation of professional football by the Football Association in 1885 , the English Football League was established in 1888 , after a series of meetings initiated by Aston Villa director William McGregor . At the end of the 1888 -- 89 season , Preston North End were the first club to be crowned champions after completing their fixtures unbeaten . Representing the first fully professional football competition in the world the league saw its early years dominated by teams from the North and Midlands , where professionalism was embraced more readily than in the South . Its status as the country 's pre-eminent league was strengthened in 1892 , when the rival Football Alliance was absorbed into the Football League . Former Alliance clubs comprised the bulk of a new Second Division , from which promotion to the top level could be gained . It was not until 1931 that a Southern club were crowned champions , when Herbert Chapman 's Arsenal secured the title . Arsenal scored 127 goals in the process , a record for a title - winning side ( though runners - up Aston Villa scored one goal more , a record for the top division ) . Rules stipulating a maximum wage for players were abolished in 1961 . This resulted in a shift of power towards bigger clubs . Financial considerations became an even bigger influence from 1992 , when the teams then in the First Division defected to form the FA Premier League . This supplanted the Football League First Division as the highest level of football in England , and due to a series of progressively larger television contracts , put wealth into the hands of top flight clubs in a hitherto unprecedented manner . The first five champions in the Premier League era - Arsenal , Blackburn Rovers , Chelsea , Manchester City and Manchester United - had all won the title at least once prior to 1992 . Leicester City were crowned champions for the first time in 2016 , becoming the first ( and to date only ) team to win the Premier League without having previously won the First Division . All the clubs which have ever been crowned champions are still in existence today and all take part in the top four tiers of the English football league system - the football pyramid . Sheffield Wednesday are the only club who have ever changed their name after winning a league title having been known as The Wednesday for the first three of their four titles . Manchester United have won 20 titles , the most of any club . United 's rivals Liverpool are second with 18 . Liverpool dominated during the 1970s and 1980s , while United dominated in the 1990s and 2000s under Sir Alex Ferguson . Arsenal are third ; their 13 titles all came after 1930 . Everton ( nine ) have enjoyed success throughout their history , and both Aston Villa ( seven ) and Sunderland ( six ) secured the majority of their titles before World War I. Huddersfield Town in 1924 -- 26 , Arsenal in 1933 -- 35 , Liverpool in 1982 -- 84 and Manchester United in 1999 -- 2001 and 2007 -- 09 are the only sides to have won the League title in three consecutive seasons . Contents ( hide ) 1 List 1.1 Football League ( 1888 -- 1892 ) 1.2 Football League First Division ( 1892 -- 1992 ) 2 Premier League ( 1992 -- present ) 3 Total titles won 4 Total titles won by region 4.1 By City / Town 5 Multiple trophy wins 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References List ( edit ) Teams in bold are those who won the double of League Championship and FA Cup , or the European Double of League Championship and European Cup in that season . Football League ( 1888 -- 1892 ) ( edit ) Year Champions ( number of titles ) Runners - up Third place Leading goalscorer 22Goals 1888 -- 89 Preston North End Aston Villa Wolverhampton Wanderers John Goodall ( Preston North End ) 21 1889 -- 90 Preston North End ( 2 ) Everton Blackburn Rovers Jimmy Ross ( Preston North End ) 24 1890 -- 91 Everton Preston North End Notts County Jack Southworth ( Blackburn Rovers ) 26 1891 -- 92 Sunderland Preston North End Bolton Wanderers John Campbell ( Sunderland ) 32 Football League First Division ( 1892 -- 1992 ) ( edit ) Year Champions ( number of titles ) Runners - up Third place Leading goalscorer Goals 1892 -- 93 Sunderland ( 2 ) Preston North End Everton John Campbell ( Sunderland ) 31 1893 -- 94 Aston Villa Sunderland Derby County Jack Southworth ( Everton ) 27 1894 -- 95 Sunderland ( 3 ) Everton Aston Villa John Campbell ( Sunderland ) 22 1895 -- 96 Aston Villa ( 2 ) Derby County Everton Johnny Campbell ( Aston Villa ) Steve Bloomer ( Derby County ) 20 1896 -- 97 Aston Villa ( 3 ) Sheffield United Derby County Steve Bloomer ( Derby County ) 22 1897 -- 98 Sheffield United Sunderland Wolverhampton Wanderers Fred Wheldon ( Aston Villa ) 21 1898 -- 99 Aston Villa ( 4 ) Liverpool Burnley Steve Bloomer ( Derby County ) 23 1899 -- 1900 Aston Villa ( 5 ) Sheffield United Sunderland Billy Garraty ( Aston Villa ) 27 1900 -- 01 Liverpool Sunderland Notts County Steve Bloomer ( Derby County ) 23 1901 -- 02 Sunderland ( 4 ) Everton Newcastle United Jimmy Settle ( Everton ) 18 1902 -- 03 The Wednesday Aston Villa Sunderland Sam Raybould ( Liverpool ) 31 1903 -- 04 The Wednesday ( 2 ) Manchester City Everton Steve Bloomer ( Derby County ) 20 1904 -- 05 Newcastle United Everton Manchester City Arthur Brown ( Sheffield United ) 22 1905 -- 06 Liverpool ( 2 ) Preston North End The Wednesday Albert Shepherd ( Bolton Wanderers ) 26 1906 -- 07 Newcastle United ( 2 ) Bristol City Everton Alex Young ( Everton ) 30 1907 -- 08 Manchester United Aston Villa Manchester City Enoch West ( Nottingham Forest ) 27 1908 -- 09 Newcastle United ( 3 ) Everton Sunderland Bert Freeman ( Everton ) 38 1909 -- 10 Aston Villa ( 6 ) Liverpool Blackburn Rovers Jack Parkinson ( Liverpool ) 30 1910 -- 11 Manchester United ( 2 ) Aston Villa Sunderland Albert Shepherd ( Newcastle United ) 25 1911 -- 12 Blackburn Rovers Everton Newcastle United Harry Hampton ( Aston Villa ) George Holley ( Sunderland ) David McLean ( The Wednesday ) 25 1912 -- 13 Sunderland ( 5 ) Aston Villa The Wednesday David McLean ( The Wednesday ) 30 1913 -- 14 Blackburn Rovers ( 2 ) Aston Villa Middlesbrough George Elliot ( Middlesbrough ) 32 1914 -- 15 Everton ( 2 ) Oldham Athletic Blackburn Rovers Bobby Parker ( Everton ) 35 1915 / 16 -- 1918 / 19 League suspended owing to the First World War 1919 -- 20 West Bromwich Albion Burnley Chelsea Fred Morris ( West Bromwich Albion ) 37 1920 -- 21 Burnley Manchester City Bolton Wanderers Joe Smith ( Bolton Wanderers ) 38 1921 -- 22 Liverpool ( 3 ) Tottenham Hotspur Burnley Andy Wilson ( Middlesbrough ) 31 1922 -- 23 Liverpool ( 4 ) Sunderland Huddersfield Town Charlie Buchan ( Sunderland ) 30 1923 -- 24 Huddersfield Town Cardiff City Sunderland Wilf Chadwick ( Everton ) 28 1924 -- 25 Huddersfield Town ( 2 ) West Bromwich Albion Bolton Wanderers Frank Roberts ( Manchester City ) 31 1925 -- 26 Huddersfield Town ( 3 ) Arsenal Sunderland Ted Harper ( Blackburn Rovers ) 43 1926 -- 27 Newcastle United ( 4 ) Huddersfield Town Sunderland Jimmy Trotter ( The Wednesday ) 37 1927 -- 28 Everton ( 3 ) Huddersfield Town Leicester City Dixie Dean ( Everton ) 60 1928 -- 29 The Wednesday ( 3 ) Leicester City Aston Villa Dave Halliday ( Sunderland ) 43 1929 -- 30 Sheffield Wednesday ( 4 ) Derby County Manchester City Vic Watson ( West Ham United ) 41 1930 -- 31 Arsenal Aston Villa Sheffield Wednesday Tom Waring ( Aston Villa ) 49 1931 -- 32 Everton ( 4 ) Arsenal Sheffield Wednesday Dixie Dean ( Everton ) 44 1932 -- 33 Arsenal ( 2 ) Aston Villa Sheffield Wednesday Jack Bowers ( Derby County ) 35 1933 -- 34 Arsenal ( 3 ) Huddersfield Town Tottenham Hotspur Jack Bowers ( Derby County ) 34 1934 -- 35 Arsenal ( 4 ) Sunderland Sheffield Wednesday Ted Drake ( Arsenal ) 42 1935 -- 36 Sunderland ( 6 ) Derby County Huddersfield Town W.G. Richardson ( West Bromwich Albion ) 39 1936 -- 37 Manchester City Charlton Athletic Arsenal Freddie Steele ( Stoke City ) 33 1937 -- 38 Arsenal ( 5 ) Wolverhampton Wanderers Preston North End Tommy Lawton ( Everton ) 28 1938 -- 39 Everton ( 5 ) Wolverhampton Wanderers Charlton Athletic Tommy Lawton ( Everton ) 35 1939 / 40 -- 1945 / 46 League suspended owing to the Second World War 1946 -- 47 Liverpool ( 5 ) Manchester United Wolverhampton Wanderers Dennis Westcott ( Wolverhampton Wanderers ) 37 1947 -- 48 Arsenal ( 6 ) Manchester United Burnley Ronnie Rooke ( Arsenal ) 33 1948 -- 49 Portsmouth Manchester United Derby County Willie Moir ( Bolton Wanderers ) 25 1949 -- 50 Portsmouth ( 2 ) Wolverhampton Wanderers Sunderland Dickie Davis ( Sunderland ) 25 1950 -- 51 Tottenham Hotspur Manchester United Blackpool Stan Mortensen ( Blackpool ) 30 1951 -- 52 Manchester United ( 3 ) Tottenham Hotspur Arsenal George Robledo ( Newcastle United ) 33 1952 -- 53 Arsenal ( 7 ) Preston North End Wolverhampton Wanderers Charlie Wayman ( Preston North End ) 24 1953 -- 54 Wolverhampton Wanderers West Bromwich Albion Huddersfield Town Jimmy Glazzard ( Huddersfield Town ) 29 1954 -- 55 Chelsea Wolverhampton Wanderers Portsmouth Ronnie Allen ( West Bromwich Albion ) 27 1955 -- 56 Manchester United ( 4 ) Blackpool Wolverhampton Wanderers Nat Lofthouse ( Bolton Wanderers ) 33 1956 -- 57 Manchester United ( 5 ) Tottenham Hotspur Preston North End John Charles ( Leeds United ) 38 1957 -- 58 Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 2 ) Preston North End Tottenham Hotspur Bobby Smith ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 36 1958 -- 59 Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 3 ) Manchester United Arsenal Jimmy Greaves ( Chelsea ) 33 1959 -- 60 Burnley ( 2 ) Wolverhampton Wanderers Tottenham Hotspur Dennis Viollet ( Manchester United ) 32 1960 -- 61 Tottenham Hotspur ( 2 ) Sheffield Wednesday Wolverhampton Wanderers Jimmy Greaves ( Chelsea ) 41 1961 -- 62 Ipswich Town Burnley Tottenham Hotspur Ray Crawford ( Ipswich Town ) Derek Kevan ( West Bromwich Albion ) 33 1962 -- 63 Everton ( 6 ) Tottenham Hotspur Burnley Jimmy Greaves ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 37 1963 -- 64 Liverpool ( 6 ) Manchester United Everton Jimmy Greaves ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 35 1964 -- 65 Manchester United ( 6 ) Leeds United Chelsea Andy McEvoy ( Blackburn Rovers ) Jimmy Greaves ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 29 1965 -- 66 Liverpool ( 7 ) Leeds United Burnley Willie Irvine ( Burnley ) 29 1966 -- 67 Manchester United ( 7 ) Nottingham Forest Tottenham Hotspur Ron Davies ( Southampton ) 37 1967 -- 68 Manchester City ( 2 ) Manchester United Liverpool George Best ( Manchester United ) Ron Davies ( Southampton ) 28 1968 -- 69 Leeds United Liverpool Everton Jimmy Greaves ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 27 1969 -- 70 Everton ( 7 ) Leeds United Chelsea Jeff Astle ( West Bromwich Albion ) 25 1970 -- 71 Arsenal ( 8 ) Leeds United Tottenham Hotspur Tony Brown ( West Bromwich Albion ) 28 1971 -- 72 Derby County Leeds United Liverpool Francis Lee ( Manchester City ) 33 1972 -- 73 Liverpool ( 8 ) Arsenal Leeds United Pop Robson ( West Ham United ) 28 1973 -- 74 Leeds United ( 2 ) Liverpool Derby County Mick Channon ( Southampton ) 21 1974 -- 75 Derby County ( 2 ) Liverpool Ipswich Town Malcolm Macdonald ( Newcastle United ) 21 1975 -- 76 Liverpool ( 9 ) Queens Park Rangers Manchester United Ted MacDougall ( Norwich City ) 23 1976 -- 77 Liverpool ( 10 ) Manchester City Ipswich Town Malcolm Macdonald ( Arsenal ) Andy Gray ( Aston Villa ) 25 1977 -- 78 Nottingham Forest Liverpool Everton Bob Latchford ( Everton ) 30 1978 -- 79 Liverpool ( 11 ) Nottingham Forest West Bromwich Albion Frank Worthington ( Bolton Wanderers ) 24 1979 -- 80 Liverpool ( 12 ) Manchester United Ipswich Town Phil Boyer ( Southampton ) 23 1980 -- 81 Aston Villa ( 7 ) Ipswich Town Arsenal Peter Withe ( Aston Villa ) Steve Archibald ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 20 1981 -- 82 Liverpool ( 13 ) Ipswich Town Manchester United Kevin Keegan ( Southampton ) 26 1982 -- 83 Liverpool ( 14 ) Watford Manchester United Luther Blissett ( Watford ) 27 1983 -- 84 Liverpool ( 15 ) Southampton Nottingham Forest Ian Rush ( Liverpool ) 32 1984 -- 85 Everton ( 8 ) Liverpool Tottenham Hotspur Kerry Dixon ( Chelsea ) Gary Lineker ( Leicester City ) 24 1985 -- 86 Liverpool ( 16 ) Everton West Ham United Gary Lineker ( Everton ) 30 1986 -- 87 Everton ( 9 ) Liverpool Tottenham Hotspur Clive Allen ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 33 1987 -- 88 Liverpool ( 17 ) Manchester United Nottingham Forest John Aldridge ( Liverpool ) 26 1988 -- 89 Arsenal ( 9 ) Liverpool Nottingham Forest Alan Smith ( Arsenal ) 23 1989 -- 90 Liverpool ( 18 ) Aston Villa Tottenham Hotspur Gary Lineker ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 24 1990 -- 91 Arsenal ( 10 ) Liverpool Crystal Palace Alan Smith ( Arsenal ) 22 1991 -- 92 Leeds United ( 3 ) Manchester United Sheffield Wednesday Ian Wright ( Crystal Palace / Arsenal ) 29 Premier League ( 1992 -- present ) ( edit ) Year Champions ( number of titles ) Points Runners - up Points Third place Points Top goalscorer Goals 1992 -- 93 Manchester United ( 8 ) 84 Aston Villa 74 Norwich City 72 Teddy Sheringham ( Nottingham Forest / Tottenham ) 22 1993 -- 94 Manchester United ( 9 ) 92 Blackburn Rovers 84 Newcastle United 77 Andrew Cole ( Newcastle United ) 34 1994 -- 95 Blackburn Rovers ( 3 ) 89 Manchester United 88 Nottingham Forest 77 Alan Shearer ( Blackburn Rovers ) 34 1995 -- 96 Manchester United ( 10 ) 82 Newcastle United 78 Liverpool 71 Alan Shearer ( Blackburn Rovers ) 31 1996 -- 97 Manchester United ( 11 ) 75 Newcastle United 68 Arsenal 68 Alan Shearer ( Newcastle United ) 25 1997 -- 98 Arsenal ( 11 ) 78 Manchester United 77 Liverpool 65 Chris Sutton ( Blackburn Rovers ) Dion Dublin ( Coventry City ) Michael Owen ( Liverpool ) 18 1998 -- 99 Manchester United ( 12 ) 79 Arsenal 78 Chelsea 75 Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink ( Leeds United ) Michael Owen ( Liverpool ) Dwight Yorke ( Manchester United ) 18 1999 -- 2000 Manchester United ( 13 ) 91 Arsenal 73 Leeds United 69 Kevin Phillips ( Sunderland ) 30 2000 -- 01 Manchester United ( 14 ) 80 Arsenal 70 Liverpool 69 Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink ( Chelsea ) 23 2001 -- 02 Arsenal ( 12 ) 87 Liverpool 80 Manchester United 77 Thierry Henry ( Arsenal ) 24 2002 -- 03 Manchester United ( 15 ) 83 Arsenal 78 Newcastle United 69 Ruud van Nistelrooy ( Manchester United ) 25 2003 -- 04 Arsenal ( 13 ) 90 Chelsea 79 Manchester United 75 Thierry Henry ( Arsenal ) 30 2004 -- 05 Chelsea ( 2 ) 95 Arsenal 83 Manchester United 77 Thierry Henry ( Arsenal ) 25 2005 -- 06 Chelsea ( 3 ) 91 Manchester United 83 Liverpool 82 Thierry Henry ( Arsenal ) 27 2006 -- 07 Manchester United ( 16 ) 89 Chelsea 83 Liverpool 68 Didier Drogba ( Chelsea ) 20 2007 -- 08 Manchester United ( 17 ) 87 Chelsea 85 Arsenal 83 Cristiano Ronaldo ( Manchester United ) 31 2008 -- 09 Manchester United ( 18 ) 90 Liverpool 86 Chelsea 83 Nicolas Anelka ( Chelsea ) 19 2009 -- 10 Chelsea ( 4 ) 86 Manchester United 85 Arsenal 75 Didier Drogba ( Chelsea ) 29 2010 -- 11 Manchester United ( 19 ) 80 Chelsea 71 Manchester City 71 Dimitar Berbatov ( Manchester United ) Carlos Tevez ( Manchester City ) 20 2011 -- 12 Manchester City ( 3 ) 89 Manchester United 89 Arsenal 70 Robin van Persie ( Arsenal ) 30 2012 -- 13 Manchester United ( 20 ) 89 Manchester City 78 Chelsea 75 Robin van Persie ( Manchester United ) 26 2013 -- 14 Manchester City ( 4 ) 86 Liverpool 84 Chelsea 82 Luis Suárez ( Liverpool ) 31 2014 -- 15 Chelsea ( 5 ) 87 Manchester City 79 Arsenal 75 Sergio Agüero ( Manchester City ) 26 2015 -- 16 Leicester City 81 Arsenal 71 Tottenham Hotspur 70 Harry Kane ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 25 2016 -- 17 Chelsea ( 6 ) 93 Tottenham Hotspur 86 Manchester City 78 Harry Kane ( Tottenham Hotspur ) 29 Bold indicates Double winners -- i.e. League and FA Cup winners OR League and European Cup winners Bold Italic indicates Treble winners -- i.e. League , FA Cup and European Cup winners Total titles won ( edit ) Teams in bold compete in the Premier League as of the 2017 -- 18 season . Club Winners Runners - up Winning seasons Manchester United 20 15 1907 -- 08 , 1910 -- 11 , 1951 -- 52 , 1955 -- 56 , 1956 -- 57 , 1964 -- 65 , 1966 -- 67 , 1992 -- 93 , 1993 -- 94 , 1995 -- 96 , 1996 -- 97 , 1998 -- 99 , 1999 -- 2000 , 2000 -- 01 , 2002 -- 03 , 2006 -- 07 , 2007 -- 08 , 2008 -- 09 , 2010 -- 11 , 2012 -- 13 Liverpool 18 13 1900 -- 01 , 1905 -- 06 , 1921 -- 22 , 1922 -- 23 , 1946 -- 47 , 1963 -- 64 , 1965 -- 66 , 1972 -- 73 , 1975 -- 76 , 1976 -- 77 , 1978 -- 79 , 1979 -- 80 , 1981 -- 82 , 1982 -- 83 , 1983 -- 84 , 1985 -- 86 , 1987 -- 88 , 1989 -- 90 Arsenal 13 9 1930 -- 31 , 1932 -- 33 , 1933 -- 34 , 1934 -- 35 , 1937 -- 38 , 1947 -- 48 , 1952 -- 53 , 1970 -- 71 , 1988 -- 89 , 1990 -- 91 , 1997 -- 98 , 2001 -- 02 , 2003 -- 04 Everton 9 7 1890 -- 91 , 1914 -- 15 , 1927 -- 28 , 1931 -- 32 , 1938 -- 39 , 1962 -- 63 , 1969 -- 70 , 1984 -- 85 , 1986 -- 87 Aston Villa 7 10 1893 -- 94 , 1895 -- 96 , 1896 -- 97 , 1898 -- 99 , 1899 -- 1900 , 1909 -- 10 , 1980 -- 81 Sunderland 6 5 1891 -- 92 , 1892 -- 93 , 1894 -- 95 , 1901 -- 02 , 1912 -- 13 , 1935 -- 36 Chelsea 6 1954 -- 55 , 2004 -- 05 , 2005 -- 06 , 2009 -- 10 , 2014 -- 15 , 2016 -- 17 Manchester City 5 1936 -- 37 , 1967 -- 68 , 2011 -- 12 , 2013 -- 14 Newcastle United 1904 -- 05 , 1906 -- 07 , 1908 -- 09 , 1926 -- 27 Sheffield Wednesday 1902 -- 03 , 1903 -- 04 , 1928 -- 29 , 1929 -- 30 Leeds United 5 1968 -- 69 , 1973 -- 74 , 1991 -- 92 Wolverhampton Wanderers 5 1953 -- 54 , 1957 -- 58 , 1958 -- 59 Huddersfield Town 1923 -- 24 , 1924 -- 25 , 1925 -- 26 Blackburn Rovers 1911 -- 12 , 1913 -- 14 , 1994 -- 95 Preston North End 6 1888 -- 89 , 1889 -- 90 Tottenham Hotspur 5 1950 -- 51 , 1960 -- 61 Derby County 1971 -- 72 , 1974 -- 75 Burnley 1920 -- 21 , 1959 -- 60 Portsmouth 0 1948 -- 49 , 1949 -- 50 Ipswich Town 1961 -- 62 Nottingham Forest 1977 -- 78 Sheffield United 1897 -- 98 West Bromwich Albion 1919 -- 20 Leicester City 2015 -- 16 Bristol City 0 Oldham Athletic 0 Cardiff City 0 Charlton Athletic 0 Blackpool 0 Queen 's Park Rangers 0 Watford 0 Southampton 0 Total titles won by region ( edit ) Region Number of titles Clubs North West 58 Manchester United ( 20 ) , Liverpool ( 18 ) , Everton ( 9 ) , Manchester City ( 4 ) Blackburn Rovers ( 3 ) , Burnley ( 2 ) , Preston North End ( 2 ) London 21 Arsenal ( 13 ) , Chelsea ( 6 ) , Tottenham Hotspur ( 2 ) Yorkshire and the Humber 11 Sheffield Wednesday ( 4 ) , Huddersfield Town ( 3 ) , Leeds United ( 3 ) , Sheffield United ( 1 ) West Midlands 11 Aston Villa ( 7 ) , Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 3 ) , West Bromwich Albion ( 1 ) North East 10 Sunderland ( 6 ) , Newcastle United ( 4 ) East Midlands Derby County ( 2 ) , Leicester City ( 1 ) , Nottingham Forest ( 1 ) South East Portsmouth ( 2 ) East of England Ipswich Town ( 1 ) South West -- Wales -- By City / Town ( edit ) City / Town Championships Clubs Liverpool 27 Liverpool ( 18 ) , Everton ( 9 ) Manchester 24 Manchester United ( 20 ) , Manchester City ( 4 ) London 21 Arsenal ( 13 ) , Chelsea ( 6 ) , Tottenham Hotspur ( 2 ) Birmingham 7 Aston Villa ( 7 ) Sunderland 6 Sunderland ( 6 ) Sheffield 5 Sheffield Wednesday ( 4 ) , Sheffield United ( 1 ) Newcastle Newcastle United ( 4 ) Blackburn Blackburn Rovers ( 3 ) Huddersfield Huddersfield Town ( 3 ) Leeds Leeds United ( 3 ) Wolverhampton Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 3 ) Burnley Burnley ( 2 ) Derby Derby County ( 2 ) Portsmouth Portsmouth ( 2 ) Preston Preston North End ( 2 ) Ipswich Ipswich Town ( 1 ) Leicester Leicester City ( 1 ) Nottingham Nottingham Forest ( 1 ) West Bromwich West Bromwich Albion ( 1 ) Multiple trophy wins ( edit ) See The Double and The Treble . See also ( edit ) English football first tier top scorers For English women 's football champions , see FA Women 's Premier League National Division : History List of First Division and Premier League winning managers List of football players with a Premier League winner 's medal List of football clubs in England by competitive honours won List of FA Cup winners Notes ( edit ) Completed the season unbeaten . Also won the UEFA Cup . Also won the European Cup . Also won the League Cup . From the 1981 -- 82 season onwards three points were awarded for a win . Prior to this a win gave two points . Also won the Cup Winners Cup . In addition to the double of League and FA Cup , Manchester United also won the European Cup in 1999 . This achievement is referred to as the Treble . Sheffield Wednesday were known as The Wednesday until 1929 . References ( edit ) General `` Past winners -- The Football League '' . Football League website . Archived from the original on 17 July 2014 . Retrieved 29 August 2008 . `` England - List of Champions '' . RSSSF . Retrieved 11 June 2009 . `` English League Leading Goalscorers '' . RSSSF . Retrieved 11 June 2009 . Specific Jump up ^ `` The History of the Football League '' . Football League website . Archived from the original on 11 February 2007 . Retrieved 15 February 2006 . Jump up ^ Inglis , Simon ( 1988 ) . League Football and the Men Who Made It . Willow Books . pp. 6 -- 8 . ISBN 0 - 00 - 218242 - 4 . Jump up ^ Titford , Roger ( November 2005 ) . `` Football League , 1888 -- 89 '' . When Saturday Comes . Retrieved 6 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Goldblatt , David ( 2007 ) . The Ball is Round : A Global History of Football . London : Penguin . p. 58 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 101582 - 8 . Jump up ^ Inglis , League Football and the Men Who Made It , p25 Jump up ^ `` Free - scoring Gunners clinch first title '' . Arsenal.com . Retrieved 15 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Dart , Tom ( 25 May 2009 ) . `` Burnley : little town , big traditions '' . The Times . London . Retrieved 15 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` A History of The Premier League '' . Premier League . Archived from the original on 18 November 2011 . Retrieved 7 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Harris , Nick ( 7 February 2009 ) . `` £ 1.78 bn : Record Premier League TV deal defies economic slump '' . Independent . London . Retrieved 15 June 2009 . Jump up ^ Nurse , Howard ( 14 May 2011 ) . `` Blackburn 1 -- 1 Man Utd '' . BBC Sport . Retrieved 14 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Sideline '' . London : The Times . 16 May 2003 . Retrieved 7 June 2009 . ( hide ) Lists of national association football champions of Europe ( UEFA ) Active Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark England Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Israel Italy Macedonia Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Scotland Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine Wales Defunct Czechoslovakia East Germany Soviet Union Yugoslavia Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_English_football_champions&oldid=800752506 '' Categories : Premier League Association football in England lists English Football League National association football champions Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from May 2013 Use British English from May 2013 Featured lists Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Беларуская Dansk Español Føroyskt Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Scots Српски / srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 September 2017 , at 13 : 08 . 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Rides Again (David Allen Coe album)
Rides Again ( David allen Coe album ) - wikipedia Rides Again ( David allen Coe album ) This article does not cite any sources . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Rides Again Studio album by David Allan Coe Released January 1977 Genre Country Length 34 : 19 Label Columbia Producer Billy Sherrill , Ron Bledsoe David Allan Coe chronology Longhaired Redneck ( 1976 ) Longhaired Redneck 1976 Rides Again ( 1977 ) Texas Moon ( 1977 ) Texas Moon 1977 Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating Allmusic link Rides Again is an album released by country musician David Allan Coe . It was released in 1977 on Columbia . Track listing ( edit ) All songs written by David Allan Coe and Deborah L. Coe except where noted . `` Willie , Waylon and Me '' -- 3 : 14 `` The House We 've Been Calling Home '' -- 2 : 53 `` Young Dallas Cowboy '' -- 2 : 29 `` A Sense of Humor '' -- 1 : 39 `` The Punkin Center Barn Dance '' ( Coe , Lonnie Dearman ) -- 2 : 28 `` Willie , Waylon and Me ( Reprise ) '' -- 1 : 10 `` Lately I 've Been Thinking Too Much Lately '' -- 3 : 20 `` Laid Back and Wasted '' ( Donnie Murphy ) -- 2 : 33 `` Under Rachel 's Wings '' ( Coe , Fred Spears , Stephen Loggans ) -- 3 : 08 `` Greener Than the Grass ( We Laid On ) '' ( Coe ) -- 3 : 35 `` If That Ai n't Country '' ( Coe , Deborah L. Coe , Fred Spears ) -- 4 : 50 David Allan Coe Studio albums Penitentiary Blues Requiem for a Harlequin The Mysterious Rhinestone Cowboy Once Upon a Rhyme Longhaired Redneck Rides Again Texas Moon Tattoo Buckstone County Prison Family Album Nothing Sacred Human Emotions Compass Point Spectrum VII I 've Got Something to Say Encore Invictus ( Means ) Unconquered Tennessee Whiskey DAC Rough Rider Underground Album Castles in the Sand Hello in There Just Divorced Darlin ' , Darlin ' Unchained Son of the South A Matter of Life and Death I Love Country Crazy Daddy 1990 Songs for Sale Standing Too Close to the Flames Johnny Cash Is a Friend of Mine Recommended for Airplay Long Haired Country Boy Songwriter of the Tear Country and Western Sings Merle Haggard Whoopsy Daisy Sings Johnny Cash 's Biggest Hits All I 'll Ever Be Rebel Meets Rebel DAC 's Back Live albums Live : If That Ai n't Country ... Live at the Iron Horse Saloon Live at Billy Bob 's Texas Compilation albums Greatest Hits The Best of David Allan Coe 17 Greatest Hits For the Record : The First 10 Years 18 X-Rated Hits Biggest Hits Super Hits The Mysterious Rhinestone Cowboy / Once Upon a Time 20 Greatest Hits Longhaired Redneck / Rides Again The Original Outlaw Headed for the Country Best of the Best Compass Point / I 've Got Something to Say David Allan Coe , Johnny Paycheck & Others Human Emotions / Spectrum VII Invictus Means Unconquered / Tennessee Whiskey Tattoo / Family Album Lonesome Fugitive The Perfect Country and Western Song Truckin ' Outlaw Super Hits , Vol. 2 20 Road Music Hits 16 Biggest Hits Castles in the Sand / Once Upon a Rhyme The Original Outlaw of Country Music 20 All Time Greatest Hits Country Outlaw The Essential David Allan Coe Ultimate Collection For the Soul and for the Mind : Demos of ' 71 - ' 74 Castles in the Sand / Hello in There Just Divorced / Darlin ' Darlin ' : Plus Rough Rider / DAC : Plus Unchained / Son of the South : Plus At His Best The Ride Country Hit Parade Early Years Singles `` You Never Even Called Me by My Name '' `` Longhaired Redneck '' `` Stand by Your Man '' `` Tennessee Whiskey '' `` Dock of the Bay '' `` The Ride '' `` Mona Lisa Lost Her Smile '' `` She Used to Love Me a Lot '' `` I 'm Gonna Hurt Her on the Radio '' Related articles Discography Johnny Paycheck `` Would You Lay with Me ( In a Field of Stone ) '' `` Take This Job and Shove It '' FaceBook Page https://www.facebook.com/BigBadDAC/ Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rides_Again_(David_Allen_Coe_album)&oldid=774199868 '' Categories : David Allan Coe albums 1977 albums Albums produced by Billy Sherrill Columbia Records albums Hidden categories : Articles lacking sources from September 2012 All articles lacking sources Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with album ratings that need to be turned into prose Talk About Wikipedia Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 6 April 2017 , at 22 : 01 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia
david allan coe if that ain't country wiki
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Bernese Mountain Dog
Bernese Mountain Dog - wikipedia Bernese Mountain Dog Jump to : navigation , search Bernese Mountain Dog Bernese Mountain Dog Other names Berner Sennenhund Bernese Cattle Dog Common nicknames `` Berner '' Origin Switzerland ( hide ) Traits Weight Male 80 -- 120 lb ( 35 -- 55 kg ) Female 70 -- 110 lb ( 30 -- 50 kg ) Height Male 24 -- 28 in ( 61 -- 71 cm ) Female 22 -- 26 in ( 56 -- 66 cm ) Coat Double Color Tricolor ( black , rust , and white ) Litter size average 5 - 7 , up to 15 Life span 7 -- 8 years ( hide ) Classification / standards FCI Group 2 , Section 3 Swiss Mountain and Cattle Dogs # 45 standard AKC Working standard ANKC Group 6 ( Utility ) standard CKC Group 3 ( Working Dogs ) standard KC ( UK ) Working standard NZKC Utility standard UKC Guardian Dogs standard Domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) The Bernese Mountain Dog ( German : Berner Sennenhund ) is a large - sized breed of dog , one of the four breeds of Sennenhund - type dogs from the Swiss Alps . The name Sennenhund is derived from the German Senne ( `` alpine pasture '' ) and Hund ( `` dog '' ) , as they accompanied the alpine herders and dairymen called Senn . Berner ( or Bernese in English ) refers to the area of the breed 's origin , in the canton of Bern . This mountain dog was originally kept as a general farm dog . Large Sennenhunde in the past were also used as draft animals , pulling carts . The breed was officially established in 1907 . In 1937 , the American Kennel Club recognized it ; today , the club classifies it as a member of the Working Group . Contents ( hide ) 1 Appearance 1.1 Four breeds of Sennenhund 1.2 Colouring 1.3 Height and weight ranges 1.4 Build and proportions 1.5 Other physical traits 2 Temperament 3 History 4 Health 4.1 Medical problems 4.2 Life expectancy 5 Care 5.1 Activities 5.2 Grooming 6 Notable Bernese Mountain Dogs 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Footnotes 8.2 Notes 9 Further reading 10 External links Appearance ( edit ) Bernese Mountain Dog Bernese portrait A 60 - pound , eight - month - old Bernese Mountain Dog puppy Four breeds of Sennenhund ( edit ) The four breeds of Sennenhund , with the original breed name , followed by the most popular English version of the breed name : Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund , Greater Swiss mountain dog Berner Sennenhund , Bernese mountain dog Appenzeller Sennenhund , Appenzeller Entlebucher Sennenhund , Entlebucher mountain dog Colouring ( edit ) Like the other Sennenhunde , the Bernese mountain dog is a large , heavy dog with a distinctive tri-colored coat , black with white chest and rust colored markings above eyes , sides of mouth , front of legs , and a small amount around the white chest . An ideal of a perfectly marked individual gives the impression of a white horseshoe shape around the nose and a white `` Swiss cross '' on the chest , when viewed from the front . A `` Swiss kiss '' is a white mark located typically behind the neck , but may be a part of the neck . A full ring would not meet type standard . The AKC breed standard lists , as disqualifications , blue eye color , and any ground color other than black . Height and weight ranges ( edit ) Height at the withers is 24 -- 28 in ( 61 -- 71 cm ) for males , while it is 22 -- 26 in ( 56 -- 66 cm ) for females . Weight is 80 -- 120 lb ( 35 -- 55 kg ) for males , while it is 70 -- 110 lb ( 30 -- 50 kg ) for females . Build and proportions ( edit ) The Bernese mountain dog is slightly longer than it is tall , and it is highly muscular . Other physical traits ( edit ) The head of the Bernese mountain dog is flat on the top with a moderate stop , and the ears are medium - sized , triangular , set high , and rounded at the top . The teeth have a scissors bite . The legs of the Bernese are straight and strong , with round , arched toes . The dewclaws of the Bernese are often removed . Its bushy tail is carried low . Temperament ( edit ) The breed standard for the Bernese mountain dog states that dogs should not be `` aggressive , anxious or distinctly shy '' , but rather should be `` good - natured '' , `` self - assured '' , `` placid towards strangers '' , and `` docile '' . The temperament of individual dogs may vary , and not all examples of the breed have been bred carefully to follow the standard . All large breed dogs should be well socialized when they are puppies , and given regular training and activities throughout their lives . Bernese are outdoor dogs at heart , though well - behaved in the house ; they need activity and exercise , but do not have a great deal of endurance . They can move with amazing bursts of speed for their size when motivated . If they are sound ( no problems with their hips , elbows , or other joints ) , they enjoy hiking and generally stick close to their people . Not being given the adequate amount of exercise may lead to barking and harassing in the Bernese . Bernese mountain dogs are a breed that generally does well with children , as they are very affectionate . They are patient dogs that take well to children climbing over them . Though they have great energy , a Bernese will also be happy with a calm evening . Bernese work well with other pets and around strangers . They are excellent guardians . They tend to bond with one owner , and are somewhat aloof and ' standoffish . ' History ( edit ) Benno Adam , Bernese Mountain Dog and Her Pups , 1862 Historically , in some locales at least , the breed was called a Dürrbachhund . The dogs have roots in the Roman Molosser breeds . The breed was used as an all purpose farm dog for guarding property and to drive dairy cattle long distances from the farm to the alpine pastures . The type was originally called the Dürrbächler , for a small town ( Dürrbach ) where the large dogs were especially frequent . In the early 1900s , fanciers exhibited the few examples of the large dogs at shows in Berne , and in 1907 a few breeders from the Burgdorf region founded the first breed club , the Schweizerische Dürrbach - Klub , and wrote the first Standard which defined the dogs as a separate breed . By 1910 , there were already 107 registered members of the breed . There is a photo of a working Bernese Mountain Dog , dated 1905 at the Fumee Fall rest area in Quinnesec , MI . In the US , the Bernese Mountain Dog is growing in popularity , ranking in 32nd place by the American Kennel Club in 2013 . These dogs are very popular as family dogs in German - speaking countries , where they are among the most popular dog breeds ( for example , the German Association of Dog Breeders listed the Bernese at the 11th rank per live births in 2014 ) . Health ( edit ) Bernese Mountain Dog puppy Bernese Mountain Dog standing Medical problems ( edit ) Bernese Mountain Dog Cancer is the leading cause of death for dogs in general , but Bernese Mountain Dogs have a much higher rate of fatal cancer than other breeds ; in both U.S. / Canada and UK surveys , nearly half of Bernese Mountain Dogs die of cancer , compared to about 27 % of all dogs . Bernese Mountain Dogs are killed by many types of cancer , including malignant histiocytosis , mast cell tumor , lymphosarcoma , fibrosarcoma , and osteosarcoma . Inherited medical problems that a Bernese Mountain Dog may face include malignant histiocytosis , hypomyelinogenesis , progressive retinal atrophy , and possibly cataracts and hypoadrenocorticism . The breed is also prone to histiocytic sarcoma , a cancer of the muscle tissue that is very aggressive , and hereditary eye diseases that are common among larger dogs . A four - year - old Bernese with lymphoma named Dylan was one of the first dogs to receive chemotherapy at the Virginia - Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine , and it was successful . Bernese Mountain Dogs have an unusually high mortality due to musculoskeletal causes . Arthritis , hip dysplasia , and cruciate ligament rupture were reported as the cause of death in 6 % of Bernese Mountain Dogs in the UK study ; for comparison , mortality due to musculoskeletal ailments was reported to be less than 2 % for pure - bred dogs in general . Owners of Bernese Mountain Dogs are nearly three times as likely as owners of other breeds to report musculoskeletal problems in their dogs ; the most commonly reported being cruciate ligament rupture , arthritis ( especially in shoulders and elbows ) , hip dysplasia , and osteochondritis . The age at onset for musculoskeletal problems is also unusually low . In the U.S. / Canada study , 11 % of living dogs had arthritis at an average age of 4.3 years . Most other common , non-musculoskeletal morbidity issues strike Berners at rates similar to other breeds . Prospective Bernese Mountain Dog owners should be prepared to cope with a large dog that may have mobility problems at a young age . Options to help mobility - impaired dogs may include ramps for car or house access , lifting harnesses and slings , and dog wheelchairs ( ex : Walkin ` Wheels ) . Comfortable bedding may help alleviate joint pain . Life expectancy ( edit ) The Bernese is one of the short - lived dog breeds , compared both to other breeds of a similar size and to purebred dogs in general . The average life expectancy of a Bernese Mountain Dog is approximately 7 to 8 years . Most other breeds of a similar size have median longevities of 10 -- 11 years . In a 2004 UK survey , the longest - lived of 394 deceased Bernese Mountain Dogs died at the age of 15.2 years . Care ( edit ) Activities ( edit ) The Bernese 's calm temperament makes them a natural for pulling small carts or wagons , a task they originally performed in Switzerland . With proper training they enjoy giving children rides in a cart or participating in a parade , such as the Conway , New Hampshire holiday parade . Regional Bernese clubs often offer carting workshops . Carting competitions are held for the breed . On July 1 , 2010 , the Bernese Mountain Dog became eligible to compete in AKC Herding Events . Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests . Berners exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials . Grooming ( edit ) See also : Dog grooming Bernese Mountain Dogs shed year - round , and the heaviest shedding is during seasonal changes . Usually the Bernese will only require a brushing once a week , with more in spring and fall , to keep its coat neat and reduce the amount of fur on the floor and furniture . The Bernese will only require a bath about once every couple of months or so , depending on how high its activity level is and how often it spends its time in the dirt . Special attention should be paid to the ears of the Bernese Mountain Dog , as they can trap bacteria , dirt , and liquid . The risk of an ear infection drops with weekly ear cleanings using a veterinarian - recommended cleanser . Notable Bernese Mountain dogs ( edit ) This section contains embedded lists that may be poorly defined , unverified or indiscriminate . Please help to clean it up to meet Wikipedia 's quality standards . Where appropriate , incorporate items into the main body of the article . ( November 2017 ) Bernese Mountain Dog portrait Hercules is Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger 's dog that he brought home from the Emmental region of Switzerland during a 2006 weeklong trip to discover his family 's roots in the country . Sasha was a Bernese Mountain Dog that followed a goat off of a cliff and managed to survive the fall as well as three days on an ice shelf waiting for rescue . The characters Bryan ( Andrew Rannells ) and David ( Justin Bartha ) in the 2012 TV series The New Normal own two Bernese Mountain Dogs named `` Smelly '' and `` Harvey Milkbone '' . Ohly was a Bernese Mountain Dog who achieved notoriety in Canada after disappearing and then being found on Mount Seymour in a dangerous area known as `` Suicide Gulley . '' Members of North Shore Rescue , a local mountain rescue team , tracked , located and rescued Ohly . Quincey von Wiesmadern , has appeared in various videos with Hansi Hinterseer , an Austrian singer , entertainer and former member of the Austrian Ski Team . Hannah is the real - life inspiration for the protagonist of children 's books such as A Beach Day for Hannah and A Snow Day for Hannah by Linda Petrie Bunch . Argus and Fiona were two Bernese mountain dogs that were shot and killed when they entered a neighbor 's yard . The neighbor who shot the dogs admits that he was overreacting . A Pennsylvania state law states that humans are free to kill animals attacking domestic animals . The man feared a possible attack on his sheep , who were in their fenced off grazing area . Attacks on a neighbor 's farm had taken place and resulted in the death of several animals sometime the previous year , although the type of dog who ruthlessly attacked those animals was not a Bernese . However , since no attack was in progress at the time of the shooting , the shooter was charged with two counts of cruelty to animals and one count of recklessly endangering another person , the latter a result of there being a house within the possible line of fire . There were no residents at home at the time of the shooting . On September 11 , 2013 , the shooter was convicted on two counts of animal cruelty . He faces up to five years in jail for each count . Nico ( 2015 ) , an adopted Bernese mountain dog , became a hero when he saved two people who were being swept out into the ocean by a California rip current . Bella saved owner Chris Larocque from a burning house by pulling him out . The owner had reduced mobility from the injuries inflicted , and said that he would have died without Bella 's help . Izzy survived the destruction of her family 's Northern California home in the October 2017 Northern California wildfires and emerged from the woods with her tail wagging as her family investigated the ruins . Family members captured the reunion on video . Bród and Shadow are the pet dogs of the President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins . See also ( edit ) Carting Guard dog Molosser Sennenhund References ( edit ) Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The breed arrived in Switzerland along with the ancient Roman soldiers ... The ancient Romans used Bernese mountain dogs as fighting dogs and sent them into battle with heavy iron - studded collars . Subsequently the breed became excellent guardians of the herd ... '' Jump up ^ For example , the Bernese Mountain Dog Club of America offers drafting trials open to all breeds ; dogs can earn eight different titles -- four as individual dogs ( Novice Draft Dog , Advanced Novice Draft Dog , Draft Dog , and Master Draft Dog ) and four brace titles , in which two dogs work one cart together . Regional Bernese clubs often offer carting workshops . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Borge , K.S. ; Tønnessen , R. ; Nødtvedt , A. ; Indrebø , A. ( 2011 ) . `` Litter size at birth in purebred dogs -- A retrospective study of 224 breeds '' . Theriogenology. 75 ( 5 ) : 911 -- 919 . doi : 10.1016 / j. theriogenology. 2010.10. 034 . PMID 21196028 . `` n = 137 litter size = 6.4 range 1 - 15 '' ^ Jump up to : Leroy , G.G. ; Phocas , F. ; Hedan , B. ; Verrier , E. ; Rognon , X . ( 2015 ) . `` Inbreeding impact on litter size and survival in selected canine breeds '' . The Veterinary Journal . 203 : 74 -- 8 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tvjl. 2014.11. 008 . PMID 25475165 . litter size = 5.51 ± 2.7 , longevity mean = 7.74 ± 3.03 median = 8.15 Jump up ^ `` 100th Anniversary '' . Swiss Club for Bernese Mountain Dogs . 2007 . Archived from the original on July 6 , 2011 . Retrieved January 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Bernese Mountain Dog History '' . American Kennel Club . Retrieved December 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` AKC Working Group '' . American Kennel Club . Retrieved December 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Bernese Mountain Dog ( Berner Sennenhund , Dürrbächler ) '' . May 5 , 2003 . Archived from the original on May 1 , 2011 . Retrieved April 3 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bernese Mountain Dog : Breed Standard '' . American Kennel Club . 28 March 1990 . Retrieved 4 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Bernese Mountain Dog Profile '' . Bernese Breeders Association of Great Britain . Archived from the original on 23 March 2015 . Retrieved 23 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bernese Mountain Dog Temperament & Personality '' . Bernese Mountain Dog Breed . PetWave . Retrieved 4 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Too little exercise leads to agitated canine : Ask Dog Lady '' . Cleveland Plain Dealer. 5 December 2012 . Retrieved 11 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Schuler , Elizabeth Meriwether ( 1980 ) . Simon & Schuster 's Guide to Dogs . Milano : Arnoldo Mondadori Editore S.p.A. , Simon & Schuster . p. 45 . Jump up ^ `` Historical photos of the Berner Sennenhund ( Bernese Mountain Dog ) '' . Naturhistorisches Museum der Burgermendiz Bern . Archived from the original on January 11 , 2011 . Retrieved January 5 , 2011 ... Notice the variety in appearance of the original type Jump up ^ `` Bernese Mountain Dog '' . Dog Owner 's Guide . Retrieved June 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Wilcox , Bonnie , DVM ; Walkowicz , Chris ( 1993 ) ( 1989 ) . Bernese Mountain Dog . The Atlas of Dog Breeds of the World . 1 ( 4th ed . ) . Neptune City , NJ Lanham , MD : TFH Publications Distributed in the U.S. to the Bookstore and library trade by National Book Network . p. 188 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 86622 - 855 - 8 . ISBN 0 - 86622 - 855 - 1 . Jump up ^ Bernese Mountain Dog , Berner Sennenhund , Dürrbächler , Vertebrate Animals Department , Naturhistorische Museum Bern Archived October 25 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . ( in English ) Jump up ^ American Kennel Club 2013 Dog Registration Statistics Historical Comparisons & Notable Trends , The American Kennel Club , Retrieved 30 April 2014 Jump up ^ ( VDH ) , Verband für das Deutsche Hundewesen . `` Welpenstatistik der VDH - Mitgliedsvereine - Verband für das Deutsche Hundewesen ( VDH ) '' . www.vdh.de . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : `` Individual Breed Results for Purebred Dog Health Survey '' . The Kennel Club . August 18 , 2006 . Retrieved April 3 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` 2000 BMDCA Health Survey '' . Bernese Mountain Dog Club of America , Inc . July 7 , 2008 . Retrieved April 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Willis , Dr. Malcolm Beverly ( 1998 ) . The Bernese Mountain Dog Today . New York : Howell Book House . pp. 16 -- 17 . ISBN 1 - 58245 - 038 - 2 . Jump up ^ Marrazzo , Amanda ( 17 October 2012 ) . `` Dog cancer : Dog owner 's mission seeks to find help for pet and human cancer victims '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 27 October 2012 . Jump up ^ The Messenger - Gazette ( 21 March 2013 ) . `` All - breed eye clinic for dogs to be held at 4H Center in Bridgewater '' . New Jersey Online . Retrieved 21 March 2013 . Jump up ^ McNew , Karen ( 21 December 2012 ) . `` Virginia - Maryland Veterinary College launches oncology program for pets '' . WSLS10 . Retrieved 28 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Cassidy , Kelly M. ( February 1 , 2008 ) . `` Breed Longevity Data '' . Dog Longevity . Retrieved September 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Life in dog years : A look at the longest - and shortest - lived breeds '' . NBC . 2012 . Retrieved 27 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Cassidy , Kelly M. ( December 26 , 2007 ) . `` Survey Comparisons '' . Dog Longevity . Retrieved April 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Young - Knox , Sara ( 2 December 2012 ) . `` Conway celebrates with jolly holiday parade '' . The Union Leader . Retrieved 10 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Afghan Hound , Alaskan Malamute , Bernese Mountain Dog , Cairn Terrier , Portuguese Water Dog '' . Dogs 101 . Season 2 . Episode 4 . 24 October 2009 . 60 minutes in . Animal Planet . Jump up ^ Hartnagle - Taylor , Jeanne Joy ; Taylor , Ty . Stockdog Savvy . Loveland , Colorado : Alpine Publications . p. 300 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57779 - 106 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bernese Mountain Dog Appearance & Personality '' . Bernese Mountain Dog Breed . PetWave . Retrieved 26 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Big Ben exploring his roots in Switzerland '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved 19 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Ben Roethlisberger '' . Swiss Center of North America . Archived from the original on 24 September 2014 . Retrieved 19 June 2014 . Jump up ^ Oliver , Amy ( 2011 ) . `` ' Are you telling me she 's alive ? ' : Sasha the Bernese Mountain dog plunges 150 - feet off cliff after chasing goat and survives '' . MailOnline.com . Retrieved 28 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Tucker , Ken ( 2012 ) . `` TV : NBC 's Comedy Gamble '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Warner ( # 1223 ) : 64 -- 65 . Jump up ^ The Canadian Press ( 8 December 2012 ) . `` Ohly Found On Mount Seymour : Dog Reunited With Family '' . Huffington Post British Columbia . Retrieved 10 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Ryan , Denise ( 10 December 2012 ) . `` Team rescues Ohly , Bernese Mountain Dog from Suicide Gully after 13 days on Mt . Seymour '' . Calgary Herald . Archived from the original on 22 November 2014 . Retrieved 10 December 2012 . Jump up ^ McKenna , Cara ( 9 December 2012 ) . `` Ohly Moly ! Bernese mountain dog rescued after two weeks on Seymour Metro '' . Metro Vancouver . Retrieved 10 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Jones , Curtis . `` A Very Busy Day - `` Ohly '' the Dog Rescued `` . Archived from the original on 11 January 2013 . Retrieved 24 January 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Zwinger von Wiesmadern '' ( Kennel of Wiesmadern ) ( in German ) . Retrieved 27 February 2013 . Cite uses deprecated parameter trans_title = ( help ) Jump up ^ Helhoski , Anna ( 2 January 2013 ) . `` Children 's Book Author To Bring Dog Stories To Rye '' . The Rye Daily Voice . Retrieved 3 January 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Hondro , Marcus ( 21 February 2013 ) . `` U.S. family mourns as neighbour kills their Bernese Mountain dogs '' . Digital Journal . Retrieved 26 February 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Davis , Carolyn ( 23 February 2013 ) . `` Chester County dog shooter will face charges after all '' . Philadelphia Daily News . Retrieved 26 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Jimenez , Tim . `` Guilty verdict for Chester County Man in Shooting of Neighbors ' Dogs '' . Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : CBS . Retrieved September 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Moran , Lee ( March 23 , 2015 ) . `` Bernese mountain dog rescues couple from riptide off California coast '' . Daily News ( New York ) Daily News . New York . Retrieved March 28 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Mecham , Dave ( March 20 , 2015 ) . `` Dog Credited With Saving Swimmers From Dangerous Rip Currents in Ventura '' ( Video ) . KTLA . Retrieved March 28 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' I would have died ' without hero dog who dragged me from burning building , owner says as canine honoured '' . The Canadian Press . May 6 , 2013 . Retrieved June 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Family dog emerges alive and healthy from wildfire aftermath '' . The Associated Press . October 14 , 2017 . Retrieved October 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ _ `` Just 12 photos of Michael D with his dogs Bród and Shadow '' . August 30 , 2017 . Retrieved November 7 , 2017 . Further reading ( edit ) Christiansen , Amy ( 2004 ) . A New Owner 's Guide To Bernese Mountain Dogs . Neptune City : TFH Publications . p. 160 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7938 - 2818 - 0 . Cochrane , Diana ( 1987 ) . Bernese Mountain Dog ( hardcover ) . Diana Cochrane Publications . p. 210 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9512206 - 0 - 3 . Crawford , Julia ( 2000 - 06 - 13 ) . The Bernese Mountain Dog . An Owner 's Guide to a Happy Healthy Pet ( hardcover ) . New York : Howell Book House . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58245 - 162 - 6 . Guenter , Bernd ( 2004 ) . The Bernese Mountain Dog : A Dog of Destiny . Sun City : Doral Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 9745407 - 3 - 3 . Harper , Louise ( 2004 ) . Bernese Mountain Dog . Kennel Club Books . p. 160 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59378 - 289 - 4 . Hartnagle - Taylor , Jeanne Joy ; Taylor , Ty . Stockdog Savvy . Loveland , Colorado : Alpine Publications . p. 300 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57779 - 106 - 5 . Ludwig , Gerd ; Steimer , Christine ( 1995 ) . The Bernese and Other Mountain Dogs : Bernese , Greater Swiss , Appenzellers , and Entlebuchers : Everything about Purchase , Care , Nutrition , Breeding . Barrons Educational Series Inc. p. 64 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8120 - 9135 - 9 . Ostermiller , Lilian ( March 1994 ) . Bernese Mountain Dogs ( hardcover ) . TFH Publications . p. 192 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 86622 - 572 - 4 . Petch , Paddy ( April 1991 ) . The Bernese Mountain Dog ( paperback ) . Dickson Price Publishers Ltd. p. 160 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85380 - 152 - 8 . Russ , Diane ; Rogers , Shirle ( 1994 ) . The Beautiful Bernese Mountain Dog : A Complete American Handbook . Loveland , Colorado : Alpine Publications . p. 248 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 931866 - 55 - 5 . Simonds , Jude ( 1990 ) . The Complete Bernese Mountain Dog . New York : Howell Book House . p. 160 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87605 - 050 - 7 . Smith , Sharon Chesnutt ( 1995 ) . The New Bernese Mountain Dog . New York : Howell Books . p. 272 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87605 - 075 - 0 . Willis , Dr. Malcolm Beverly ( 1998 ) . The Bernese Mountain Dog Today . New York : Howell Book House . p. 184 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58245 - 038 - 4 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Berner Sennenhund . Bernese Mountain Dog at DMOZ `` Boris 's Book Page '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2011 . A Bernese Mountain Dog bibliography . Pastoral dogs Herding and droving dogs Australian Cattle Dog Australian Kelpie Australian Shepherd Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog Basque Shepherd Dog Bearded Collie Beauceron Belgian Shepherd Dog ( Groenendael ) Belgian Shepherd Dog ( Laekenois ) Belgian Shepherd Dog ( Malinois ) Belgian Shepherd Dog ( Tervuren ) Bergamasco Berger Picard Black Mouth Cur Blue Lacy Bohemian Shepherd Border Collie Bouvier des Flandres Briard Can de Chira Cão da Serra de Aires Carea Castellano Manchego Carea Leonés Catahoula Bulldog Catahoula Leopard Dog Catalan Sheepdog Collie Collie ( Smooth ) Croatian Sheepdog Cumberland Sheepdog Dutch Shepherd Dog English Shepherd Farm Collie Finnish Lapphund Galician Palleiro Garafian Shepherd German Shepherd Huntaway Icelandic Sheepdog King Shepherd Koolie Lancashire Heeler Lapponian Herder Magellan sheep dog McNab Miniature American Shepherd Miniature Australian Shepherd Mucuchies Mudi New Zealand Heading Dog Norwegian Buhund Old English Sheepdog Old German Herding Dogs ( Altdeutsche ) Polish Lowland Sheepdog Puli Pumi Pyrenean Shepherd Reindeer Herder Rough Collie Samoyed Sardinian Sheperd Dog Schapendoes Schipperke Scotch Collie Shetland Sheepdog Smithfield Spanish Water Dog Swedish Lapphund Swedish Vallhund Tibetan Terrier Welsh Corgi ( Cardigan ) Welsh Corgi ( Pembroke ) Welsh Sheepdog White Shepherd Livestock guardian dogs Aidi or Atlas Mountain Dog Akbash Dog or Turkish Akbash Dog Anatolian Shepherd Armenian mountain dog a / k / a Armenian wolfhound Bucovina Shepherd Dog Bernese Mountain Dog Cão de Castro Laboreiro Cão de Gado Transmontano Cão Fila de São Miguel Carpathian Shepherd Dog Caucasian Shepherd Dog Central Asian Shepherd Dog Estrela Mountain Dog Gaddi Kutta Georgian Shepherd Great Pyrenees Greater Swiss Mountain Dog Greek Shepherd Himalayan Sheepdog Hovawart Kuchi ( dog ) Kumaon Mastiff or Indian Sindh Mastiff Kangal Dog Karakachan Karst Shepherd Komondor Kuvasz Landseer Leonberger Majorca Shepherd Dog Maremma Sheepdog or Italian Abruzzese Sheepdog Mioritic Perro Majorero Polish Tatra Sheepdog Puli Pyrenean Mastiff Rafeiro do Alentejo Šarplaninac Slovak Cuvac South Russian Ovcharka Spanish Mastiff Tibetan Mastiff Tornjak Dogs originating in Switzerland Extant Appenzeller Sennenhund Berger Blanc Suisse Bernese Mountain Dog Bruno Jura Hound Entlebucher Mountain Dog Greater Swiss Mountain Dog Schweizer Laufhund Schweizerischer Niederlaufhund St. Bernard St. Hubert Jura Hound Swiss mountain dog Extinct Alpine Mastiff Alpine Spaniel Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bernese_Mountain_Dog&oldid=809134905 '' Categories : Canton of Bern Dog breeds originating in Switzerland Livestock guardians Molossers Mountain dogs Dog breeds Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 errors : deprecated parameters CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Articles with ' species ' microformats Articles containing German - language text Articles needing cleanup from November 2017 All pages needing cleanup Wikipedia list cleanup from November 2017 Articles with DMOZ links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 7 November 2017 , at 09 : 28 . 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Room (2015 film)
Room ( 2015 film ) - wikipedia Room ( 2015 film ) Jump to : navigation , search Room Theatrical release poster Directed by Lenny Abrahamson Produced by Ed Guiney David Gross Screenplay by Emma Donoghue Based on Room by Emma Donoghue Starring Brie Larson Jacob Tremblay Joan Allen Sean Bridgers William H. Macy Music by Stephen Rennicks Cinematography Danny Cohen Edited by Nathan Nugent Production companies Telefilm Canada Filmnation Entertainment Bórd Scannán na hÉireann / Irish Film Board Element Pictures No Trace Camping Film4 Distributed by Elevation Pictures ( Canada ) A24 ( United States ) Release date September 4 , 2015 ( 2015 - 09 - 04 ) ( Telluride ) October 16 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 16 ) ( United States ) Running time 118 minutes Country Canada Ireland Language English Budget $13 million Box office $36.3 million Room is a 2015 independent drama film directed by Lenny Abrahamson and written by Emma Donoghue , based on her novel of the same name . It stars Brie Larson as a woman who has been held captive for seven years , and whose 5 - year - old son ( Jacob Tremblay ) was born in captivity . Their escape allows the boy to experience the outside world for the first time . The film also stars Joan Allen , Sean Bridgers , and William H. Macy . A co-production of Canada and Ireland , Room was shot in Toronto , with the eponymous Room set built at Pinewood Toronto Studios . The crew designed each part of the Room set to be removable to fit the crew . Larson researched trauma and nutrition for her part , while numerous children were considered for the role of Jack . Room premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on 4 September 2015 and had a limited release in the United States on 16 October 2015 , to acclaim from critics . Larson won multiple awards for her performance , including the Academy Award for Best Actress , the BAFTA Award , Golden Globe Award , and the Screen Actors Guild Award . Room also received three other Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture and Best Director . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Casting 3.3 Filming 4 Release 5 Reception 5.1 Box office 5.2 Critical reception 5.3 Accolades 6 References 7 External links Plot ( edit ) In Akron , Ohio , 24 - year - old Joy Newsome and her 5 - year - old son Jack live in a squalid shed they call Room . They share a bed , toilet , bathtub , television , and rudimentary kitchen ; the only window is a skylight . They are captives of a man they call `` Old Nick '' , Jack 's biological father , who abducted Joy seven years prior and routinely rapes her while Jack sleeps in the closet . She tries to stay optimistic for her son , but suffers from malnutrition and depression . She allows Jack to believe that only Room and its contents are real , and that the rest of the world exists only on television . Old Nick tells Joy that he has lost his job and threatens that he may not be able to afford their supplies in the future . That night , Jack is overcome with curiosity and ventures out of the closet while Old Nick is asleep in bed with his mother . Joy is horrified when she awakens and sees their interaction , slapping Old Nick away . As punishment , he cuts their heat and power . Joy decides to tell Jack about the outside world ; he reacts with disbelief and incomprehension , but also curiosity . She has Jack fake a fever , hoping that Old Nick will take him to a hospital where he can alert the authorities , but Old Nick says he will return the following day with antibiotics . Joy wraps Jack in a carpet and has him play dead in the hope that Old Nick will remove him from Room . Falling for the ruse , Old Nick places Jack in the back of his pickup truck and drives through a residential neighborhood . Although stunned by his first exposure to the outside world , Jack jumps from the truck and attracts the attention of a passerby . The police arrive and rescue him . The police discover Joy as well , and take her and Jack to a hospital . Old Nick is captured and imprisoned . Reunited with her family , Joy learns her parents have divorced and that her mother has a new partner , Leo . She returns with Jack to her childhood home where her mother and Leo reside . Her father can not accept Jack and leaves . Jack struggles to adjust to life in the larger world , speaking only to his mother and expressing a desire to return to Room . Joy struggles with anger and depression , lashing out at her mother and becoming worried about Jack 's lack of interaction with `` real '' things . At the suggestion of the family 's lawyer , Joy agrees to a television interview , but becomes upset when the interviewer questions her decision to keep the newborn Jack instead of asking Old Nick to take him to a hospital . Overwhelmed with guilt , she attempts suicide ; Jack finds her unconscious in the bathroom , and she is admitted to a hospital . Jack misses his mother but begins to settle into his new life . He bonds with his new family , meets Leo 's dog Seamus and makes friends with a boy his age . Believing his long hair will give Joy the strength she needs to recover , Jack has his grandmother cut it for him so he can send it to her . Joy returns home and apologizes , thanking Jack for saving her life again . At Jack 's request , they visit Room one last time , escorted by police . Jack is confused ; he feels it has shrunk and that it is a different place with the door open . He and Joy say their goodbyes to Room and leave . Cast ( edit ) Brie Larson as Joy `` Ma '' Newsome Jacob Tremblay as Jack Newsome Joan Allen as Nancy Newsome William H. Macy as Robert Newsome Sean Bridgers as Old Nick Tom McCamus as Leo Amanda Brugel as Officer Parker Joe Pingue as Officer Grabowski Cas Anvar as Dr. Mittal Wendy Crewson as Talk Show Hostess Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) Irish - Canadian author Emma Donoghue adapted her novel Room , served as executive producer for the film and supported Lenny Abrahamson 's bid to direct . Emma Donoghue , who also wrote the novel on which the film is based , wrote the screenplay for the film before the novel was published in 2010 . She explained she felt sure the book could be made into a film because of its structured storyline , and received many offers from filmmakers after it was published , which she rejected for creative reasons . Director Lenny Abrahamson read the novel and sent Donoghue a 10 - page fan letter telling her it should be a film , without knowing a screenplay already existed . Donoghue felt the letter demonstrated an understanding of her work and advocated for him as director . In 2012 , Abrahamson and Donoghue spent one week at her house in London , Ontario as they revised the screenplay . She served as executive producer and was included in major filmmaking decisions . Abramson credited Donoghue with securing funding from Canada , where she is a citizen . She also suggested shooting in Toronto because it could resemble the United States , and she believed it would be awkward for many Irish filmmakers to work in the U.S. Canadian producer David Gross helped persuade his Irish co-producers to shoot in Canada rather than the U.S. , saying they could have a longer schedule and more money in Canada . Casting ( edit ) Canadian child actor Jacob Tremblay was chosen from dozens of young performers for the part of Jack , and went on to win the Canadian Screen Award for Best Actor . Emma Watson , Rooney Mara , Shailene Woodley and Mia Wasikowska were all considered for the role of Joy . Brie Larson was cast after an associate of Abrahamson suggested that he see her in Short Term 12 . Larson consulted with a trauma expert and a nutritionist for the role , went on `` a restrictive diet '' and avoided sunlight . She said she saw the film less as a crime story and more of `` a story of love and freedom and perseverance and what it feels like to grow up and become your own person . '' The filmmakers considered dozens of child actors for Jack before choosing seven - year - old Jacob Tremblay from Vancouver . Tremblay said his part was not hard `` because I was playing a happy child '' unaware of the sinister nature of Room . However , because he was too young to read the whole screenplay , each scene was explained to him one by one . Tremblay wore a wig made from human hair . According to Joan Allen , Larson and Tremblay met for over three weeks to build a `` very tight , obviously critical , close relationship , '' before the Room scenes were shot over five weeks . Allen arrived in Toronto later and met Tremblay , `` But we did n't want him to become too familiar with me because that 's not what the story is . '' In preparing for her own role , Allen did not consult real mothers of kidnapped children , but said she reflected on her own experiences `` in a mall when my daughter was little and I look around and within a flash she 's not there . '' Canadian actor Tom McCamus originally auditioned for the part of Old Nick before being cast as Leo . The actors improvised some lines , with Donoghue saying they created `` speech patterns more natural - sounding than I could have written , and produced some brilliant new lines that ended up in the film . '' Filming ( edit ) The only Room set was built at Pinewood Toronto Studios by production designer Ethan Tobman . Abrahamson used only one Room set , wanting to create an authentic experience for Tremblay . The set , built on a soundstage at Pinewood Toronto Studios , was 11 ft × 11 ft ( 3.4 m × 3.4 m ) . To design it , Abrahamson hired Montreal production designer Ethan Tobman , who set out with the idea `` that every square inch of Room needed to have a backstory . '' To fit the crew and equipment into the small space , he made each piece of the set removable . However , as Abrahamson and cinematographer Danny Cohen wanted the camera to always shoot scenes from inside Room , the lens was always positioned within the set even if the rest of the camera was outside . There were as many as eight cameramen at a time inside the Room set with Larson and Tremblay . The actors also made the props decorating the set . Because the scenes set outside Room were filmed after the scenes inside , the crew was initially eager to leave the cramped space , expecting that the rest of the film would be easy . However , the crew had difficulty adjusting to the cold weather , traffic and crowds in Toronto . Cohen remarked that upon returning to the Room set for the final scene , the shed indeed appeared smaller to the crew . Cohen used a Panavision Primos lens on a Red Epic Dragon camera , saying `` The Primos and using Kino Flos , which is more akin to fluorescent lighting , gave Room a certain texture , a certain look . '' Principal photography began on 10 November 2014 and ended on 15 December 2014 . Release ( edit ) Prior to production on the film , A24 acquired U.S distribution rights to the film . The film had its world premiere on 4 September 2015 , at the Telluride Film Festival . It went onto screen in the Special Presentations section at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival . and at the London Film Festival , on 11 October 2015 . The film began a limited release on 16 October 2015 . Room was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 15 January 2016 , by Studio Canal . It went into wide release on 22 January 2016 . The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray in the United States on 1 March 2016 . It was released on DVD and Blu - ray in Ireland in May 2016 . Reception ( edit ) Box office ( edit ) After its U.S. release on 16 October 2015 , Room played in a peak of 198 theaters from December 11 to 13 , and grossed $5,166,724 before its Academy Award nominations were announced , making it one of the lowest grossing Best Picture nominees in years . Initial box office under - performance came as a surprise to Canada 's Elevation Pictures , since winning the People 's Choice Award at the Toronto International Film Festival was usually a predictor of financial success . However , the nominations gave the film a boost at the box office , and after opening in the Republic of Ireland on 15 January , it initially made € 200,000 at 50 theatres . A month after its release in Ireland , it had grossed more than € 1 million nationwide . On 24 April , Room completed its run having grossed an estimated $14.7 million in North America and $20.7 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $35.4 million on a $13 million budget . Critical reception ( edit ) Brie Larson 's performance as Joy `` Ma '' Newsome received widespread acclaim and won her the Academy Award for Best Actress . Room received widespread critical acclaim . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 94 % , based on 268 reviews , with an average rating of 8.4 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus states , `` Led by incredible work from Brie Larson and Jacob Tremblay , Room makes for an unforgettably harrowing -- and undeniably rewarding -- experience . '' Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 , based on reviews from 43 critics , indicating `` universal acclaim '' . Todd McCarthy from The Hollywood Reporter wrote , `` Overall , it 's a decent shot at a tall target , but real credit is due the lead actors , with Larson expanding beyond the already considerable range she 's previously shown with an exceedingly dimensional performance in a role that calls for running the gamut , and Tremblay always convincing without ever becoming cloying . '' Eric Kohn of Indiewire stated , `` Brie Larson and newcomer Jacob Tremblay ( 's ) ... textured performances turn outrageous circumstances into a tense and surprisingly credible survival tale . '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times called the film `` the most impressive piece of filmmaking I 've seen in 2015 , and one of the best movies of the decade . '' Rex Reed said Room is `` so powerful and unforgettable that it must be seen '' but `` too grim and heartbreaking for some viewers . '' The central performances of Brie Larson and Jacob Tremblay have received critical acclaim . Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal noted that `` this drama is as big as all outdoors in scope ; poetic and profound in its exploration of the senses ; blessed with two transcendent performances , by Brie Larson and Jacob Tremblay ; and as elegantly wrought as any film that has come our way in a very long while . '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote , `` All you need to know is that the performances of Larson and Tremblay will blow you away . Tremblay is a child actor incapable of a false move . And Larson , so good in Short Term 12 , is magnificent , finding a way into Joy 's bruised psyche that tears at your heart . '' The film received positive reviews in its countries of origin , with Barry Hertz of Canada 's The Globe and Mail writing `` Room is a film of tiny little miracles , '' finding it uplifting , praising Larson 's performance and referring to Tremblay as `` a wide - eyed wonder who is always genuine . '' Chris Knight for the National Post called Tremblay `` preternaturally talented , '' and said Room `` works on a tiny canvas , but in doing so it emphasizes that great things can be accomplished in tight spaces . '' Liz Braun of the Toronto Sun said Jack 's narration made the Room scenes `` joyful '' as well as claustrophobic , and that Larson and Tremblay 's performances are `` completely engaging . '' Linda Barnard of the Toronto Star called Room `` equally tender and chilling , '' In Ireland , Donald Clarke of The Irish Times gave the film five stars , calling it `` harrowing , '' and concluded , `` We are left with a film that manages a degree of optimism in the most unpromising circumstances . It is a substantial achievement . '' Daniel Anderson , writing for the Irish Examiner , called Room `` an utterly unique tale which has seen the filmmaker deservedly thrust onto the world stage , '' but also `` bleak '' and `` difficult to recommend . '' Dissenting , Kyle Smith of the New York Post wrote `` The script ( ... ) does n't illuminate what kind of internal damage might be wrought by being held prisoner for seven years : On - screen it simply looks like Joy has a case of the sads . '' Matthew Lickona of the San Diego Reader also called it `` a cowardly movie about brave people . '' Accolades ( edit ) Main article : List of accolades received by Room Room has received many awards and nominations . Brie Larson 's performance in particular has been singled out for awards , with the National Board of Review , Chicago Film Critics , and various other film critic organizations awarding her Best Actress . Larson has also won several major awards , including the Academy Award , Critic 's Choice Award , Screen Actors Guild , BAFTA Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress . Emma Donoghue 's screenplay and Jacob Tremblay 's performance have also received awards ' attention . The film received four nominations for the 88th Academy Awards . Room was named one of the best films of 2015 by over 50 critics and publications . The film also won nine Canadian Screen Awards , including Best Motion Picture , Best Direction , Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Actress in a Leading Role for Larson . It won seven awards at the 13th Irish Film & Television Awards , including Best Film , Director for Abramson , script for Donoghue and International Actress for Larson . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` ROOM '' . British Board of Film Classification . November 5 , 2015 . Retrieved November 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Canada , Ireland lay claim to Oscar nominees Room and Brooklyn '' . CBC News . 27 February 2016 . Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 7 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Coyne , Kevin . `` Room '' . Irish Film Institute . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ The Canadian Press ( 21 September 2015 ) . `` TIFF 2015 : Room wins People 's Choice Award as festival wraps '' . CBC News . Archived from the original on 9 May 2016 . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` With indie films such as ' Brooklyn ' and ' Room , ' the creativity often begins with the financing '' . Los Angeles Times . December 29 , 2015 . Retrieved February 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Room ( 2016 ) '' . The Numbers . Retrieved March 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nathoo , Zulekha ( 26 February 2016 ) . `` Oscar - nominated Emma Donoghue wrote Room screenplay before book came out '' . CBC News . Archived from the original on 12 June 2016 . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Medley , Mark ( 22 October 2015 ) . `` On set of the Room as Donoghue watches her novel come to filmic life '' . The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 26 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Fear , David ( 12 November 2015 ) . `` ' Room ' : How a Dark Indie Became 2015 's Left - Field Oscar Contender '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : The Early Edition ( 28 September 2015 ) . `` Emma Donoghue , author of bestseller Room , talks about turning her book into a film '' . CBC News . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Wise , Damon ( 15 October 2015 ) . `` ' Room ' Director Abrahamson Makes Unlikely Stories Accessible '' . Variety . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Barlow , Helen ( 30 September 2015 ) . `` Emma Donoghue on the Room with a different view '' . Irish Examiner . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Vlessing , Etan ( 12 September 2015 ) . `` TIFF : Why Canadian Co-Productions Thrive in Ontario '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 23 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Slotek , Jim ( 19 March 2016 ) . `` Room 's Jacob Tremblay shows young stars have come a long way '' . Toronto Sun . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Sandell , Laurie ( 20 January 2016 ) . `` Brie Larson 's 20 - Year Climb to Overnight Stardom : I 'm ' Totally Out of My Comfort Zone ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Bramesco , Charles . `` Brie Larson on why Room is more `` lovely '' than `` harrowing '' `` . The A.V. Club . Retrieved 14 October 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Ahearn , Victoria ( 21 October 2015 ) . `` Brie Larson on ' Room ' role , bonding with clever young co-star Jacob Tremblay '' . CKWX . The Canadian Press . Retrieved 17 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Sumanac - Johnson , Deana ( 23 October 2015 ) . `` Room , starring Brie Larson and Jacob Tremblay , earns Oscar buzz despite dark subject matter '' . CBC News . Archived from the original on 20 March 2016 . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Riley , Jenelle . `` ' Room 's ' Brie Larson , Joan Allen Praise Breakout Star Jacob Tremblay ( VIDEO ) '' . Variety . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . Jump up ^ McGahan , Michelle ( 25 February 2016 ) . `` Did Jacob Tremblay Wear A Wig In ' Room ' ? That Long Hair Was Very Convincing '' . Bustle . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Freshwater , Lori ( 20 December 2015 ) . `` Joan Allen on ' Room ' '' . Los Angeles Review of Books . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Scott , Walter ( 26 February 2016 ) . `` Did Joan Allen Do Research for her Role in Room ? '' . Parade . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Four actors leave big impressions with small roles '' . Los Angeles Times . 22 December 2015 . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Tapley , Kristopher ( 19 November 2015 ) . `` ' Room ' : Creating a Whole World in a 10 - Foot Space '' . Variety . Retrieved 27 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Buxton , Ryan ( 18 December 2015 ) . `` Why ' Room ' Director Lenny Abrahamson Spent A Month Hiding In A Bathtub '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Brunhuber , Kim ( 25 February 2016 ) . `` Oscar - nominated Room required painstaking precision from cast and crew '' . CBC News . Archived from the original on 12 June 2016 . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Bramesco , Charles ( 14 October 2015 ) . `` Brie Larson on why Room is more ' lovely ' than ' harrowing ' '' . The A.V. Club . Retrieved 27 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lytal , Cristy ( 3 December 2015 ) . `` The cinematographer of ' The Danish Girl ' and ' Room ' details shooting such ' extreme opposites ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 27 July 2016 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( 10 November 2014 ) . `` AFM : William H. Macy , Joan Allen Join Brie Larson 's ' Room ' '' . Variety . Retrieved 17 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` On The Set , - Box Office ... Abrams Wraps ' The Cellar ' , Tom Hiddleston Finishes ' I Saw the Light ' & More '' . ssninsider.com. 15 December 2014 . Retrieved 16 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Ford , Rebecca ( 18 May 2014 ) . `` Cannes : Brie Larson Drama ' Room ' Goes to A24 Films '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 17 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Lenny Abrahamson 's ROOM to have world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival '' . Elementpictures.ie. 4 September 2015 . Retrieved 28 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Toronto to open with ' Demolition ' ; world premieres for ' Trumbo ' , ' The Program ' '' . Screen Daily . 28 July 2015 . Retrieved 28 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Room '' . BFI London Film Festival . Retrieved February 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( 29 July 2015 ) . `` Brie Larson 's ' Room ' Set for Oct 16 Release '' . Variety . Retrieved 16 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Denham , Jess ( 7 January 2016 ) . `` Room : Poignant exclusive clip sees Brie Larson make a birthday cake for the most adorable five - year - old '' . The Independent . Retrieved 18 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Kermode , Mark ( 17 January 2016 ) . `` Room review -- to see the world within four walls '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 18 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Jaafar , Ali ; Fleming , Mike Jr. ( 14 January 2016 ) . `` Oscar Nominations : Friendship Is Crucial Element For ' Room 's Lenny Abrahamson And Ed Guiney '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved 18 March 2017 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( 18 January 2016 ) . `` ' Ride Along 2 ' Continues No. 1 Journey With $41.5 M ; ' 13 Hours ' Clocks $19.65 M -- Monday Update '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved 28 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Schager , Nick ( 1 March 2016 ) . `` Here Are the Must - Stream Movies of March 2016 '' . Esquire . Retrieved 18 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Roy , David ( 20 May 2016 ) . `` DVD of the week : Room '' . The Irish News . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Lincoln , Kevin ( 14 January 2016 ) . `` Room Was Nominated for Best Picture Despite Making Historically Little Money '' . Vulture.com . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Houpt , Simon ( 21 January 2016 ) . `` The marketing quest to turn Room into a populist hit '' . The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 26 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Room triumphs at the box office '' . Irish Examiner. 18 January 2016 . Retrieved 22 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Congratulations to the Irish Films BROOKLYN & ROOM on Winning BAFTA AWARDS '' . Irish Film Board . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Room ( 2016 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Room ( 2015 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved 21 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Room Reviews '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved 9 December 2015 . Jump up ^ McCarthy , Todd ( 4 September 2015 ) . `` ' Room ' : Telluride Review '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 1 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Kohn , Eric ( 4 September 2015 ) . `` Telluride Review : Brie Larson is a Revelation Alongside Stunning Newcomer Jacob Tremblay in ' Room ' '' . Indiewire . Retrieved 1 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Room '' . Room the Movie . Room . Retrieved 6 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Morgenstern , Joe . `` ' Room ' : Downsized Space , Vibrant Life '' . The Wall Street Journal . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Travers , Peter . `` Room '' . Rolling Stone . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Hertz , Barry ( 23 October 2015 ) . `` Room : Uplifting tale of miracles and love bound by a horrific kidnapping '' . The Globe and Mail . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Knight , Chris ( 22 October 2015 ) . `` Room review : How a single room acts as an allegory for the chamber of our own minds '' . National Post . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Braun , Liz ( 22 October 2015 ) . `` ' Room ' review : Film finds uplifting message in chilling tale of captivity '' . Toronto Sun . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Barnard , Linda ( 22 October 2015 ) . `` Drama Room chilling yet uplifting : review '' . Toronto Star . Retrieved 27 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Clarke , Donald ( 14 January 2016 ) . `` Room review : home is where the room is '' . The Irish Times . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Anderson , Daniel ( 13 January 2016 ) . `` Room review '' . Irish Examiner . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` In ' Room , ' Brie Larson tries to win a no - makeup Oscar '' . The New York Post . Retrieved 13 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Lickona , Matthew . `` Room '' . San Diego Reader . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` National Board of Review Announces 2015 Award Winners '' . National Board of Review . December 1 , 2015 . Retrieved July 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gire , Dann ( December 17 , 2015 ) . `` ' Mad Max : Fury Road ' wins best picture from Chicago Film Critics '' . Daily Herald . Retrieved December 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Oscars 2016 : Winners list in full '' . BBC News . February 28 , 2016 . Retrieved February 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rosen , Christopher ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` Critics ' Choice Awards 2016 winners : Spotlight , Mad Max , Leonardo DiCaprio , and more '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved February 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The 22nd Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards '' . Screen Actors Guild Awards . Retrieved February 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Bafta Film Awards 2016 : Winners '' . BBC News . February 14 , 2016 . Retrieved May 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globes 2016 : Complete list of nominees '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved December 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Belanger , Joe ( 10 December 2015 ) . `` Emma Donoghue nominated for Golden Globe for her screenplay Room '' . The London Free Press . Retrieved 27 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2015 : Film Critic Top Ten Lists '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Feature Film Winners '' . Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television . March 13 , 2016 . Retrieved July 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Feature Film Nominations '' ( PDF ) . Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television . January 19 , 2016 . Retrieved July 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Barraclough , Leo ( 11 April 2016 ) . `` Brie Larson 's ' Room ' Sweeps Irish Film and Television Awards '' . Variety . Retrieved 24 July 2016 . 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Soil horizon
Soil horizon - wikipedia Soil horizon Jump to : navigation , search A cross-section of soil top , revealing horizons A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface , whose physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath . Each soil type usually has three or four horizons . Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious physical features , chiefly colour and texture . These may be described both in absolute terms ( particle size distribution for texture , for instance ) and in terms relative to the surrounding material , i.e. ' coarser ' or ' sandier ' than the horizons above and below . Water dissolves and removes nutrients as it passes through the soil . Identification and description of the horizons present at a given site is the first step in soil classification at higher levels , through the use of systems such as the USDA soil taxonomy or the Australian Soil Classification . The World Reference Base for Soil Resources lists 40 diagnostic horizons . Most soils , especially in temperate climates , conform to a similar general pattern of horizons , often represented as an ' ideal ' soil in diagrams . Each main horizon is denoted by a capital letter , which may then be followed by several alphanumerical modifiers highlighting particular outstanding features of the horizon . While the general O-A-B-C-R sequence seems fairly universal , some variation exists between the classification systems in different parts of the world . In addition , the exact definition of each main horizon may differ slightly -- for instance , the US system uses the thickness of a horizon as a distinguishing feature , while the Australian system does not . It should be emphasised that no one system is more correct -- as artificial constructs , their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner . Also , many subtropical and tropical areas have soils such as oxisols or aridisols that have very different horizons from an `` ideal '' soil , or no horizons at all . Contents ( hide ) 1 Main horizons 2 Layers 2.1 O horizon 2.2 P horizon 2.3 A horizon 2.4 E horizon 2.5 B horizon 2.6 C horizon 2.7 D horizon 2.8 R horizon 2.9 L horizon 3 Sub-horizon suffixes and labels 4 Buried soils 5 See also 6 References Main horizons ( edit ) The following horizons are listed by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile . Not all of these layers are present in every location -- for instance , P horizons only form in areas which have been waterlogged for long periods of time . Soils with a history of human interference , for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing , may lack distinct horizons almost completely . When examining soils in the field , attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses to which the land has been put in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons . The horizon not listed is the O horizon which is grass and animal / plant life . Soil has three main horizons ( A , B , and C ) , which will be explained below along with other layers . Layers ( edit ) Soil generally consists of visually and texturally distinct layers , which can be summarised as follows from top to bottom : O ) Organic matter : Litter layer of plant residues in relatively undecomposed form . A ) Surface soil : Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and soil life . This layer eluviates ( is depleted of ) iron , clay , aluminium , organic compounds , and other soluble constituents . When eluviation is pronounced , a lighter coloured `` E '' subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the `` A '' horizon . A-horizons may also be the result of a combination of soil bioturbation and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil . In this case , the A-horizon is regarded as a `` biomantle '' . B) Subsoil : This layer accumulates iron , clay , aluminium and organic compounds , a process referred to as illuviation . C ) Parent rock : Layer of large unbroken rocks . This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds . R ) bedrock : R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile . Unlike the above layers , R horizons largely comprise continuous masses ( as opposed to boulders ) of hard rock that can not be excavated by hand . Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer . O horizon ( edit ) Main article : Organic matter The `` O '' stands for organic matter . It is a surface layer , dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic material in varying stages of decomposition . The O horizon should be considered distinct from the layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas , which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself . O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories , whereby O1 horizons contain decomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight ( for instance , fragments of rotting leaves ) , and O2 horizons containing only well - decomposed organic matter , the origin of which is not readily visible . P horizon ( edit ) Main article : Humus See also : Peat These horizons are also heavily organic , but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions . The `` P '' designation comes from their common name , peats . They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O Horizons . This layer accumulates iron , clay , aluminium and organic compounds , a process referred to as illuviation . A horizon ( edit ) Main article : topsoil Surface runoff , also called nonpoint source pollution , from a farm field in Iowa during a rain storm . The A horizon is the top layer of the soil horizons , often referred to as ' topsoil ' . This layer has a layer of dark decomposed organic materials , which is called `` humus ''. The technical definition of an A horizon may vary , but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper layers . `` A '' Horizons may be darker in colour than deeper layers and contain more organic material , or they may be lighter but contain less clay or sesquioxides . The A is a surface horizon , and as such is also known as the zone in which most biological activity occurs . Soil organisms such as earthworms , potworms ( enchytraeids ) , arthropods , nematodes , fungi , and many species of bacteria and archaea are concentrated here , often in close association with plant roots . Thus the A horizon may be referred to as the biomantle . However , since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil , it can not be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A horizon . E horizon ( edit ) Albeluvisol -- dark surface horizon on a bleached subsurface horizon ( an albic horizon ) that tongues into a clay illuviation ( Bt ) horizon Main article : Eluvium `` E '' , being short for eluviated , is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and / or organic content , leaving a pale layer largely composed of silicates . These are present only in older , well - developed soils , and generally occur between the A and B horizons . In regions where this designation is not employed , leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics , and then appended with the designation `` e '' ( see the section below on horizon suffixes ) . In soils that contain gravels , due to animal bioturbation , a stonelayer commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon . The above layers may be referred to collectively as the `` solum '' . The layers below have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil - forming processes . B horizon ( edit ) Main article : Subsoil The B horizon is commonly referred to as `` subsoil '' , and consists of mineral layers which may contain concentrations of clay or minerals such as iron or aluminium oxides or organic material moved there by leaching . Accordingly , this layer is also known as the `` illuviated '' horizon or the `` zone of accumulation '' . In addition , it is defined as having a distinctly different structure or consistency than the horizon ( s ) above and the horizon ( s ) below . They may also have stronger colours ( is higher chroma ) than the A horizon . As with the A horizon , the B horizon may be divided into B1 , B2 , and B3 types under the Australian system . B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 -- dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it , but containing some A-horizon characteristics . B2 horizons have a concentration of clay , minerals , or organics and feature the strongest pedological development within the profile . B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it , whether C or D horizon . The A3 , B1 , and B3 horizons are not tightly defined , and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker . Plant roots penetrate through this layer , but it has very little humus . It is usually brownish or reddish due to clay and iron oxides that wash down from A horizon . C horizon ( edit ) Main article : Parent rock The C horizon ( parent rock ) is below the B Horizon . This layer is little affected by soil forming processes ( weathering ) , and the lack of pedological development is one of the defining attributes . The C Horizon may contain lumps or more likely large shelves of unweathered rock , rather than being made up solely of small fragments as in the solum . `` Ghost '' rock structure may be present within these horizons . The C horizon also contains parent material . The A and B layers usually originate from the C horizon . The C horizon forms as bed rock weathers and rock breaks up into particles . Soil with broken rock fragments overlying bedrock , Sandside Bay , Caithness D horizon ( edit ) D horizons are not universally distinguished , but in the Australian system refer to `` any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in general character , is not C horizon , and can not be given reliable designation ... ( it ) may be recognized by the contrast in pedologic organization between it and the overlying horizons '' Also is located at the bottom of th diagram ( MacDonald et al. , 1990 , p. 106 ) . R horizon ( edit ) Main article : Bedrock R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile . Unlike the above layers , R horizons largely comprise continuous masses ( as opposed to boulders ) of hard rock that can not be excavated by hand . Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer . L horizon ( edit ) Main article : Limnic L ( Limnic ) horizons or layers indicate mineral or organic material that has been deposited in water by precipitation or through the actions of aquatic organisms . Included are coprogenous earth ( sedimentary peat ) , diatomaceous earth , and marl ; and is usually found as a remnant of past bodies of standing water . Sub-horizon suffixes and labels ( edit ) In addition to the main descriptors above , several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each horizon . Firstly , each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical subscript , based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth ( e.g. , B21 , B22 , B23 etc . ) . While this can add necessary depth to a field description , workers should bear in mind that excessive division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided . Walking as little as ten metres in any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth and thickness of each horizon . Over-precise description can be a waste of time , and as a rule of thumb , layers thinner than 5 cm ( 2 inches ) or so are best described as pans or segregations within a horizon rather than as a distinct layer . Suffixes describing particular physical features of a horizon may also be added . These vary considerably between countries , but a limited selection of common ones are listed here : b : buried horizon . c : presence of mineral concretions or nodules , perhaps of iron , aluminium , or manganese . d : root restricting layer . f : frozen soil ( permafrost ) . g : a gleyed horizon . h : accumulation of organic matter . p : disturbed by ploughing or other tillage practices ( A horizon only ) . r : weathered , digable bedrock . s : sesquioxide accumulation . w : weak development . x : fragipan . The US system employs largely similar suffixes , with a few important differences . For instance , ' e ' under the US system denotes a horizon containing `` organic material of intermediate decomposition '' rather than a bleached horizon . A full list of suffixes is available online as part of the USDA Soil Survey Manual . Buried soils ( edit ) Main article : Paleosol While soil formation is generally described as occurring in situ , as rock breaks down and is mixed with other materials , the process is often far more complicated . For instance , a fully formed profile may have developed in an area only to be buried by wind - or water - deposited sediments which later formed into another soil profile . This sort of occurrence is most common in coastal areas , and descriptions are modified by numerical prefixes . Thus , a profile containing a buried sequence could be structured O , A1 , A2 , B2 , 2A2 , 2B21 , 2B22 , 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2 . See also ( edit ) Archaeological horizon References ( edit ) This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( February 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Jump up ^ World Reference Base for Soil Resources Jump up ^ Isbell , Raymond , 2002 , The Australian Soil Classification , Revised Edition . Australian Soil and Land Survey Handbooks Series 4 , CSIRO Publishing , Online version Jump up ^ Johnson , D.L. , J.E.J. Domier , and D.N. Johnson . 2005 . Reflections on the nature of soil and its biomantle . Annals , Association of American Geographers , v. 95 ( 1 ) , pp. 11 - 31 . Jump up ^ Wilkinson , M.T. and G.S. Humphreys. 2005 . Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide - based soil production rates and OSL - based bioturbation rates . Australian Journal of Soil Research , v. 43 , pp. 767 - 779 . McDonald , R.C. et al. 1990 . Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook , 2nd Ed . Melbourne : Inkata Press . Soil - Net section on soil horizons . World reference base for soil resources . Rome : Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations . 1998 . ISBN 92 - 5 - 104141 - 5 . 84 World Soil Resources Reports . see `` Appendix 1 : Soil horizon designations '' . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 02 . `` Soil Horizon letter designations '' . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 02 . This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document `` http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/ '' . Topics in soil science Main fields Pedology Edaphology Soil physics Soil mechanics Soil chemistry Soil biology Soil zoology Soil ecology Soil morphology Environmental soil science Agricultural soil science ‎ Soil topics Soil Pedosphere Pedodiversity Pedogenesis Soil erosion Soil contamination Soil retrogression and degradation Soil compaction Soil compaction ( agriculture ) Soil salinity Alkali soil Soil pH Soil acidification Soil health Soil life Soil biodiversity Soil quality Soil value Soil fertility Soil resilience Soil color Soil texture Soil structure Pore space in soil Pore water pressure Soil crust Soil horizon Soil biomantle Soil carbon Soil gas Soil respiration Soil organic matter Soil moisture Soil water ( retention ) Soil type Soil classification USDA soil taxonomy Alfisols Andisols Aridisols Entisols Gelisols Histosols Inceptisols Mollisols Oxisols Spodosols Ultisols Vertisols World Reference Base for Soil Resources ( 1998 -- ) Acrisols Albeluvisols Alisols Andosols Anthrosols Arenosols Calcisols Cambisols Chernozem Cryosols Durisols Ferralsols Fluvisols Gleysols Gypsisols Histosol Kastanozems Leptosols Lixisols Luvisols Nitisols Phaeozems Planosols Plinthosols Podzols Regosols Solonchaks Solonetz Stagnosol Technosols Umbrisols Vertisols Other systems FAO soil classification ( 1974 -- 98 ) Unified Soil Classification System AASHTO Soil Classification System Référentiel pédologique ( French classification system ) Canadian system of soil classification Australian Soil Classification Polish Soil Classification 1938 USDA soil taxonomy List of U.S. state soils List of vineyard soil types Types of soil Applications Soil conservation Soil management Soil guideline value Soil survey Soil test Soil governance Soil value Soil salinity control Erosion control Soil policy Soil policy ( Victoria , Australia ) Agroecology Liming ( soil ) Related fields Geology Geochemistry Petrology Geomorphology Geotechnical engineering Hydrology Hydrogeology Biogeography Earth materials Archaeology Agricultural science Agrology Societies , Initiatives Canadian Society of Soil Science International Union of Soil Sciences Soil and Water Conservation Society National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists Soil Science Society of America National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated International Year of Soil World Congress of Soil Science See also Land use Land conversion Land management Vegetation Infiltration ( hydrology ) Groundwater Crust ( geology ) Impervious surface / Surface runoff Wikipedia : WikiProject Soil Category soil Category soil science Index of soil - related articles List of soil scientists Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil_horizon&oldid=813892798 '' Categories : Pedology Soil Hidden categories : Use British English from October 2013 Articles lacking in - text citations from February 2008 All articles lacking in - text citations Wikipedia articles incorporating text from public domain works of the United States Government Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Eesti Esperanto Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Nederlands 日本 語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Русский Slovenčina Српски / srpski தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2017 , at 20 : 27 . 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Dennis the Menace (U.S. comics)
Dennis the Menace ( US Comics ) - wikipedia Dennis the Menace ( US Comics ) This article is about the US newspaper strip Dennis the Menace . For other uses , see Dennis the Menace . Not to be confused with Dennis the Menace and Gnasher . Dennis the Menace Author ( s ) Hank Ketcham Marcus Hamilton Ron Ferdinand Scott Ketcham Launch date March 12 , 1951 -- present Syndicate ( s ) DailyINK Publisher ( s ) Fantagraphics Books Genre ( s ) Gag cartoon Dennis the Menace is a daily syndicated newspaper comic strip originally created , written , and illustrated by Hank Ketcham . It debuted on March 12 , 1951 , in 16 newspapers and was originally distributed by Post-Hall Syndicate . It is now written and drawn by Ketcham 's former assistants , Marcus Hamilton ( weekdays , since 1995 ) , Ron Ferdinand ( Sundays , since 1981 ) , and son Scott Ketcham ( since 2010 ) , and distributed to at least 1,000 newspapers in 48 countries and in 19 languages by King Features Syndicate . The comic strip usually runs for a single panel on weekdays and a full strip on Sundays . The comic strip became so successful that it was adapted to other popular media , including several television shows , both live - action and animated , and several feature films , including theatrical and direct - to - video releases . Coincidentally , a UK comic strip of the same name debuted on the same day , though the issue in question bore the cover date of March 17 . The two are not related and change their names subtly in each other 's respective home bases to avoid confusion . Contents ( hide ) 1 Characters and setting 1.1 The Mitchell family 1.2 The Wilsons 1.3 Dennis ' friends 2 History 2.1 Inspiration 2.2 Visuals 2.3 Awards 2.4 Ketcham retires 3 Advertising 4 Comic books 4.1 Giant series 4.2 Other series 4.3 Bible Kids series 4.4 Marvel series 4.5 List of comic books 4.5. 1 Main series 4.5. 2 Other series 5 Book compilations 5.1 Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace 6 Worldwide success 6.1 Film and television 6.2 Animation 6.2. 1 List of film and TV adaptations 6.3 Merchandising 6.4 Playground 6.5 Video games 6.6 Dennis the Menace in other languages 7 References 8 External links Characters and setting ( edit ) Dennis the Menace takes place in a middle - class suburban neighborhood in Wichita , Kansas . The Mitchells live in a two - story house at 2251 Pine Street . The Wilsons live next door at 2253 Pine Street . The Mitchell family ( edit ) Dennis Mitchell is an importuning but lovable , freckle - faced five - and - a-half - year - old boy with a famous blonde cowlick and a penchant for mischief . His long - suffering parents can only shake their heads and try to explain their son 's antics to others . Despite this , they really do love him very much . Dennis 's wide - eyed curiosity , his well - meaning attempts to help , his innocent , matter - of - fact bluntness , and his youthful energy and enthusiastic nature always leads to trouble wherever he goes ( often at Mr. Wilson 's expense ) . He wears a blue / black striped shirt , tennis shoes , and red overalls with pockets that are sometimes filled with snakes , frogs , or his slingshot . He hates carrots and baths , loves root beer ( especially with cookies ) , ketchup , water pistols , his teddy bear `` Teddy '' , getting into fights with other boys his age , mud puddles , and TV Westerns ( especially those starring Cowboy Bob ) , and has occasionally been depicted wearing a cowboy costume . Dennis has a poster and an autographed picture of Cowboy Bob , as well . In fact , he is such a fan that once a week he goes to the local theater to watch a Cowboy Bob Western . A favorite TV show of Dennis 's is `` Uncle Earl . '' Among the running gags : Dennis has a soft spot for kittens and puppies , which he is always taking home to feed ; he loves loud instruments -- such as horns and drums ; and he ruins Christmas songs with shouts of cowboy songs or annoys adults by shouting out loud . Whenever Dennis is in the local department store trying out toys , such as tricycles , he ends up breaking them and his parents have to buy them . In fact , Dennis nearly causes kindergarten teachers , librarians department store Christmas Santas , department store saleswomen , drugstore salesmen , hardware store salesmen , shoe salesmen , barbers , and the local post office workers to have nervous breakdowns when he comes around . Dennis also believes in the Easter Bunny and Santa Claus ; another running gag is Dennis on Christmas Eve dreaming that he meets Santa Claus , and causing chaos for everyone else . Henry Mitchell , age 32 , is Dennis ' father , a workaday aerospace engineer . Henry seems to understand Dennis more than his wife does , especially in affairs of the heart . One example was when a furious Dennis stormed in , saying , `` Wimmin can say some of the stupidest things ! '' ; Henry knowingly said to Alice , `` Margaret . '' Another time , while Dennis was watching Gina , he confided to his dad , `` There 's somethin ' about Gina that I ca n't figger out . '' Henry wisely advised his son , `` Wait . '' Again , Henry and Alice overhear Dennis tell Gina that she `` smelled better than a plateful of peanut butter samwiches '' . Henry remarks , `` The ultimate compliment . '' Like his creator Hank Ketcham , Henry served in the US Navy ; his position was as a quartermaster ( Helmsman ) 2nd class on a battleship . Sometimes , Alice and he get into arguments ( which even show his chauvinistic side at times ) ; however , they remain devoted to each other . Among his hobbies are golf , taking naps , fishing , and playing the ukulele and singing old songs with George Wilson . A running gag is that Henry often plays the straight man dupe -- either resulting from Dennis 's pranks , or because of his own foolishness ; once , he tried to save money on a Christmas tree by cutting one down in the country -- and ended up paying $20.00 ( $10.00 for a fine and $10.00 for the owner charging him for the tree ) . Alice Mitchell , née Johnson is Dennis ' stay - at - home mother Alice , who is usually the reassuring figure to whom Dennis can run when things get too overwhelming , ready to greet him with a warm hug . Although she grew up among animals on a chicken ranch , a running gag is that Alice Mitchell has a phobia of snakes . Another running gag involves Dennis 's ever - changing parade of new babysitters ; no one will take the job twice . Alice is also known for punishing Dennis 's misbehavior by having him sit in the corner in a rocking chair for timeout , although a few times she has instituted tougher disciplinary measures , such as spanking , where afterward Dennis is shown crying or grumbling about the adversity . Ruff Mitchell is Dennis 's big , lovable , faithful dog ( an Airedale mix ) and best pal . Ruff is always eagerly following him around , accompanying him while Dennis is running , or riding his bike or skateboard . Hot Dog is Dennis 's rarely seen cat , which usually commiserates with him while he sits in the corner and reflects on his wrongdoings . Dennis gave the kitty this name after the cat ate a package of hot dogs . Grampa Johnson ( Oliver `` Swede '' Johnson ) is Alice 's father , who spoils Dennis often . He evokes the unintentional jealousy of Mr. Wilson , for he gets to see Dennis only on occasion , but Mr. Wilson sees him all the time . Because they are so much alike , Dennis and Grampa Johnson get along beautifully . Mr. Wilson also thinks that Johnson should act his age , but this advice is often ignored . To Grampa , life is worth living and he encourages Dennis to live it to the fullest . His wife 's status is unknown ; she is never seen in the comics , although she is mentioned twice -- once when , thanks to Dennis , a furious Alice finds out that Henry had thrown his mother - in - law 's gift ( a tie ) into the trash. ; another time , Alice wished her mother a Happy Mother 's Day by telephone . Uncle Fred and Aunt Mollie Uncle Richard and Aunt Ginny Uncle John lives in Florida . The Mitchells visited him once for a vacation . Aunt Betty Aunt Hetty Aunt Sue The Wilsons ( edit ) George Everett Wilson , Sr. is Dennis 's cranky , cantankerous , middle - aged next - door neighbor , a retired postal carrier and ( at least as far as Dennis is concerned ) his best adult friend . Dennis likes Mr. Wilson , but unintentionally annoys him , as he regularly disrupts Mr. Wilson 's attempts at a serene , quiet life . Dennis often interrupts Mr. Wilson 's hobbies such as gardening , as well as coin and stamp collecting , at times accidentally damaging his property . As a result , the gruff old retiree displays a less than cordial attitude towards the young boy , though Dennis continues his well - meaning intrusions unabated . Actually , as many readers suspected , he is secretly fond of Dennis and misses him when he is away -- although he would never openly admit it . Mr. Wilson is named after a teacher Hank Ketcham knew . Dennis often ( especially in the TV series ) refers to him as `` Good Ol ' Mr. Wilson '' . Although a running gag is that Dennis 's pranks drive Mr. Wilson crazy , at times Dennis tries to do something nice for Mr. Wilson , such as the time Dennis left Ruff the dog and Hot Dog the cat with Mr Wilson so he would not be lonely on Father 's Day , while Dennis and his father went to a baseball game , or the time Dennis tries to cheer Mr. Wilson up on April Fool 's day by placing a fake `` Mitchell House for sale '' sign up . He is named after the first President of the United States , George Washington . Martha Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's engaging wife , who adores Dennis . Mrs. Wilson freely dotes on him and plies him with freshly baked cookies and milk . Martha sees Dennis as a surrogate grandson . She is named after the first First Lady of the United States , Martha Dandridge . John Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's brother . Eloise Wilson is John 's wife , Mr. Wilson 's sister - in - law . Earl Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's estranged son . Elena Wilson is Earl 's wife . Winnie Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's granddaughter and Earl 's daughter . Walter `` Walt '' Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's grandson and Earl 's son . Keith Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's grandson and Earl 's son . Sammy Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's grandson and Earl 's son . George Wilson , Jr. is Mr. Wilson 's son . Edna Wilson is George Jr. 's wife . Tammy Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's daughter . George Wilson III is Mr. Wilson 's grandson . Will Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's grandson . Helga Wilson is Mr. Wilson 's granddaughter . Dennis ' friends ( edit ) Tommy Anderson is Dennis ' best friend ( after Mr. Wilson ) . This character eventually disappeared from the strip , although he does make appearances in the Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun books . Joey McDonald is loyal , timid , and not too bright ( but he 's a year younger ) ; he usually plays the sidekick to Dennis ' schemes , and sees him as a big - brother figure . Dennis often gives him advice , and gives him little `` nuggets '' of wisdom and insight . Margaret Wade is a freckled , red - haired , bespectacled know - it - all whose cloying and self - important demeanor is always getting on Dennis ' nerves . She is attracted to Dennis and is stubbornly confident in the belief that she will marry him when they are adults , but he clearly has no interest in her . She always tries to improve Dennis and his manners , but only succeeds in annoying him . She has a certain amount of dislike for Gina , whom she sees as her competition . Gina gains Dennis ' respect and admiration by just being herself , and Margaret 's pretensions fail to make a mark on him . Margaret , who is two years older than Dennis , is very ambitious : when she was five , she decided to join the Camp Fire Girls when she reaches the age of seven ; and in one comic , sells Girl Scout cookies to the Mitchells ( especially Dennis ! ) she likes taking ballet , singing Christmas carols , and taking piano lessons ; she is a devout -- if conventional -- religious believer , and has a pet of her own -- a white Persian cat named Snowflake ( which does tricks on command ) . Besides hoping to marry Dennis , she also has decided to be the first female President of the United States . A running gag is that whenever Margaret tries to be genuinely nice to Dennis , such as inviting him over to her house to help decorate a Christmas tree , or to be a guest at her birthday party , or when Dennis tries to have Margaret give him too much candy - Dennis `` helpfulness '' results in him being sent home ! One weakness of Dennis is that no matter how much he dislikes Margaret , he can not resist eating food at the Wades ' . Margaret and Dennis are not always adversaries ; one time , Dennis sprayed both Margaret and Gina with his mother 's perfume with a water pistol , which resulted in both girls playing with him and Dennis ' mother becoming very angry with him ! During one April Fool comic , Dennis decided to trick Margaret with compliments instead of pranks ; to Dennis ' horror , Margaret accepted the joke as real and dragged poor Dennis to hear her piano playing . Gina Gillotti is a fiercely independent young Italian - American girl , on whom Dennis is mostly unaware that he has a crush . Gina is tomboyish yet still feminine in appearance . She also likes Dennis in a future - sweethearts kind of way , but in contrast to his dislike of Margaret , Dennis actually enjoys being with Gina . He likes her because she is as independent - minded as he is , and she enjoys the same things that he does . Gina is aware that she is a girl , and woe betide anyone who thinks otherwise . Jackson is an African American character named Jackson whom Ketcham decided to add to the cast in the late 1960s . Ketcham designed Jackson in the tradition of a stereotypical cartoon pickaninny , with huge lips , big white eyes , and just a suggestion of an Afro hair style . A panel from May 13 , 1970 , depicted Jackson and Dennis playing in the backyard , with Dennis saying to his father , `` I 'm havin ' some race trouble with Jackson . He runs FASTER than I do ! '' The attempt to integrate the feature did not go over well . Protests erupted in Detroit , Little Rock , Miami , and St. Louis , and debris was thrown at the offices of the Post Dispatch . Taken aback , Ketcham issued a statement explaining that his intentions were innocent , and Jackson was not used again . However , another African American character named Jay Weldon appeared in the 1986 animated series to far less controversy , as he was not a stereotype . Cowboy Bob is a film cowboy , whom Dennis idolizes ; he appears in a series of Westerns known as Cowboy Bob films . The boy fails to realize that Westerns are rarely made in these times and that the films he is seeing are actually old repeats . In one story arc where Dennis ' parents invite the retired actor to a party , they have Dennis meet him , to which Dennis comments that he must be `` Cowboy Bob 's grandpa ! '' Ben is a Jewish friend of Dennis 's . History ( edit ) Inspiration ( edit ) The inspiration for the comic strip came from Dennis Ketcham , the real - life son of Hank Ketcham , who was only four years old when he refused to take a nap and somehow messed up his whole room . Hank tried many possible names for the character , and translated them into rough pencil sketches , but when his studio door flew open and his then - wife Alice , in utter exasperation , exclaimed , `` Your son is a menace ! '' , the `` Dennis the Menace '' name stuck . The character of Henry Mitchell bore a striking resemblance to Ketcham . The Mitchell family of Dennis , Hank / Henry , and Alice were all named after the Ketchams . Visuals ( edit ) Ketcham 's line work has been highly praised over the years . A review on comicbookbin.com states : `` ... a growing legion of cartoonists , scholars , aficionados , etc. have come to appreciate the artistry of Dennis 's creator , Hank Ketcham . Ketcham 's beautiful artwork defines cartooning elegance . The design , the composition , and the line : it 's all too , too beautiful . '' AV Club reviewer Noel Murray wrote : `` Ketcham also experimented with his line a little early on , tightening and thickening without losing the looseness and spontaneity that remains the strip 's best aspect even now . '' In 2005 , Dennis appeared as a guest for Blondie and Dagwood 's 75th anniversary party in the comic strip Blondie . Awards ( edit ) Ketcham received the Reuben Award for the strip in 1953 . He also was made honorary mayor of Wichita . He was quoted as saying , `` I set the whole thing in Wichita , Kansas , and as a result I got made an honorary mayor of Wichita . '' Ketcham retires ( edit ) Ron Ferdinand in 2013 Hank Ketcham retired from the comic strip in 1994 , turning over production of the strip to his assistants Ron Ferdinand and Marcus Hamilton . They continued it as a `` zombie strip '' after Ketcham 's death in 2001 , where the two , and since 2010 , Scott Ketcham , continue the strip . Advertising ( edit ) Dennis the Menace appeared in A&W Restaurants advertising in the 1960s , then Dairy Queen marketing from 1971 until 2001 , when he was dropped because Dairy Queen felt children could no longer relate to him . Dennis also appeared in the Sears Roebuck Wish Book Christmas catalog in the 1970s . Comic books ( edit ) Dennis the Menace has been published in comic books and comic digests from the 1950s through the 1980s by a variety of publishers , including Standard / Pines ( 1953 -- 58 ) , Fawcett Comics ( 1958 -- 80 , during their only return to comics after settling the Captain Marvel lawsuit and selling much of their comics division to Charlton Comics ) , and Marvel Comics ( 1981 -- 82 ) . These included both newspaper strip reprints and original Dennis the Menace comic book stories , produced by others besides Ketcham . Al Wiseman , one of Ketcham 's assistants in the 1950s and ' 60s , worked on many of them . Ron Ferdinand , Ketcham 's Sunday page artist , drew several of the Dennis stories in the Marvel books , including the cover for issue No. 11 . Giant series ( edit ) The main comic book series ( simply named Dennis the Menace ) ran in tandem with the `` Giant '' series . The Dennis the Menace Giant Vacation Special and Dennis the Menace Christmas Issue were published by Standard in 1955 . Those issues inaugurated the Giants series , which was published by Pines for issues 2 -- 6 , and continued by Hallden / Fawcett for issues 6 -- 75 . The Giant series was later renamed the Dennis the Menace Bonus Magazine Series , which started with issue No. 76 in 1970 . CBS and Hallden later retitled the series as The Dennis the Menace Big Bonus Series , which ran through issue # 194 in October 1979 . Other series ( edit ) By October 1979 , Fawcett began publishing a separate series of 36 issues entitled Dennis the Menace and Mr. Wilson . By the second issue , the series was rechristened Dennis the Menace and His Friends which now involved Dennis , Mr. Wilson , friends Joey and Margaret , and dog Ruff . Because of this , the Mr. Wilson stories were alternated with the three characters as Ruff , Joey , and Margaret who each shared a No. 1 issue with Dennis . Three other series of Dennis the Menace comic books also were published , beginning in 1961 . First was Dennis the Menace and His Dog , Ruff , Dennis the Menace and His Pal , Joey was published in summer 1961 , and Dennis the Menace and Margaret was published in the winter of 1969 . In 1972 , as part of a bonus magazine series , Fawcett published a `` Short Stuff Special '' where Dennis visited Children 's Fairyland in Oakland , California . Bible Kids series ( edit ) In 1977 , Word Books , Inc. ( now HarperCollins ) commissioned Hank Ketcham Enterprises , Inc. to produce a series of 10 comic books under the title Dennis and the Bible Kids , with the usual cast of characters reading ( and sometimes partly acting out ) the stories of Joseph , Moses , David , Esther , Jesus , and other Biblical characters . These were sold through Christian bookstores and related outlets . Each issue contained several inspirational renderings by Hank Ketcham himself . Marvel series ( edit ) The Dennis the Menace Fun Fest and the Dennis the Menace Big Bonus series were revived for a short - issue run in 1980 : January : The Dennis the Menace Fun Fest # 16 February : The Dennis the Menace Big Bonus # 10 March : The Dennis the Menace Fun Fest # 17 April : The Dennis the Menace Big Bonus # 11 After these revival series , the Hallden and CBS comics run came to an end in 1980 . Ketcham had half of the comic book rights purchased by Stan Lee and Marvel Comics , so they were able to produce a new series of Dennis the Menace comic books . The new Marvel series ran from December 1981 to November 1982 . The smaller Dennis the Menace comic digests were published continually by Fawcett and Hallden between 1969 and 1980 , and they were briefly resurrected in reprints by Marvel in 1982 for a run of three issues . List of comic books ( edit ) Main series ( edit ) Title Starting year Publisher Dennis the Menace ( # 1 -- 14 ) 1953 Standard Dennis the Menace ( # 15 -- 31 ) 1956 Pines Dennis the Menace ( # 32 -- 166 ) 1959 Hallden / Fawcett / CBS Dennis the Menace ( # 1 -- 13 ) 1981 Marvel Other series ( edit ) Title Starting year Publisher The Best of Dennis the Menace ( # 1 -- 5 ) 1959 Hallden Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun digest ( # 1 -- 50 ) 1969 Fawcett Dennis The Menace and the Bible Kids ( # 1 -- 10 ) 1977 Word Books Book compilations ( edit ) Dennis the Menace has also been published in mass market paperback collections , made up of newspaper strip reprints : Dennis the Menace ( 1952 ) Avon ( also published in hardcover by Henry Holt & Co . ) More Dennis the Menace ( 1954 ) Avon ( also in hardcover by Holt ) Baby Sitter 's Guide by Dennis the Menace ( 1955 , 1961 ) Pocket Books , Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Holt ) Wanted : Dennis the Menace ( 1955 ) Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Holt ) Dennis the Menace Rides Again ( 1956 , 1971 ) PB , Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Holt ) Dennis the Menace vs. Everybody ( 1957 ) PB ( also in hardcover by Holt ) Dennis the Menace : Household Hurricane ( 1958 , 1963 ) PB , Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Holt ) The Adventures of the Pickle ( 1958 ) Corgi Books In this Corner ... Dennis the Menace ( 1959 ) Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Holt ) Dennis the Menace ... Teacher 's Threat ( 1960 ) Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Holt ) Dennis the Menace : Voted Most Likely ( 1960 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace , A.M. * Ambassador of Mischief ( 1961 ) Fawcett ( also in hardcover by HRW ) Dennis the Menace : Happy Half - Pint ( 1962 ) Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Random House ) Dennis the Menace ... Who , Me ? ( 1963 ) Fawcett ( also in hardcover by Random House ) Dennis the Menace : Make - Believe Angel ( 1964 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace ... Here Comes Trouble ( 1966 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace and Poor Ol ' Mr. Wilson ( 1967 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : All - American Kid ( 1968 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace and His Pal Joey ( 1968 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Your Friendly Neighborhood Kid ( 1969 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Perpetual Motion ( 1969 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace ... Everybody 's Little Helper ( 1970 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Non-Stop Nuisance ( 1970 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Surprise Package ( 1971 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Short ' n ' Snappy ( 1971 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Where the Action Is ( 1971 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Dennis Power ( 1972 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Just for Fun ( 1973 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : The Kid Next Door ( 1973 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Busybody ( 1974 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Little Pip - Squeak ( 1974 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Play It Again , Dennis ( 1975 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace to the Core ( 1975 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Little Man in a Big Hurry ( 1976 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Short Swinger ( 1976 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace and His Girls ( 1977 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : `` Your Mother 's Calling ! '' ( 1977 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Ol ' Droopy Drawers ( 1978 ) Fawcett Someone 's in the Kitchen with Dennis the Menace ( 1978 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Driving Mother Up the Wall ( 1979 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : I Done It MY Way ( 1979 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Short in the Saddle ( 1979 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Ai n't Misbehavin ' ( 1980 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Stayin ' Alive ( 1980 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Good Intenshuns ( 1981 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : One More Time ! ( 1981 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : The Way I Look at It ... ( 1982 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Dog 's Best Friend ( 1982 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Supercharged and Ever Ready ( 1983 ) Fawcett Dennis the Menace : Sunrise Express ( 1983 ) Fawcett In 1990 , Abbeville Press published Hank Ketcham 's fully illustrated autobiography : The Merchant of Dennis ( ISBN 9780896599437 , hardcover ) . The book was reprinted by Fantagraphics in 2005 ( ISBN 1560977140 , trade paperback ) . Abbeville also published a softcover retrospective of the strip in 1991 , Dennis the Menace : His First 40 Years . Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace ( edit ) In 2005 , comics publisher Fantagraphics began to reprint Ketcham 's entire run on Dennis the Menace ( excluding Sunday strips ) in a projected 25 - volume series over 11 years . No new volumes have been issued since 2009 and it is unknown when and if the series will resume . They are published in hardcover editions as well as paperback . Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace , 1951 -- 1952 ( 2005 ) ISBN 1 - 56097 - 680 - 2 Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace , 1953 -- 1954 ( 2006 ) ISBN 1 - 56097 - 725 - 6 Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace , 1955 -- 1956 ( 2006 ) ISBN 1 - 56097 - 770 - 1 Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace , 1957 -- 1958 ( 2007 ) ISBN 978 - 1 - 56097 - 880 - 0 Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace , 1959 -- 1960 ( 2008 ) ISBN 978 - 1 - 56097 - 966 - 1 Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace , 1961 -- 1962 ( 2009 ) ISBN 978 - 1 - 60699 - 311 - 8 Worldwide success ( edit ) Film and television ( edit ) Dennis the Menace has been the subject of a number of adaptations . The first one produced is a CBS sitcom that aired from 1959 to 1963 starring Jay North as Dennis , Herbert Anderson as Henry Mitchell and father to Dennis ; Joseph Kearns as George Wilson , and subsequently Gale Gordon as his brother , John Wilson . North also appeared as Dennis on an episode of The Donna Reed Show and in the theatrical film Pepe ( both 1960 ) . In 1987 , a Dennis the Menace live - action television film was released ; it was later re-released on video under the title Dennis the Menace : Dinosaur Hunter . Another live - action Dennis the Menace film , starring Walter Matthau as Mr. Wilson and Mason Gamble as Dennis , was released to theaters in 1993 . It was originally titled The Real Dennis the Menace before the final name was approved . This was followed with the direct - to - video Dennis the Menace Strikes Again in 1998 , starring Don Rickles as Mr. Wilson . The most recent film adaptation , A Dennis the Menace Christmas was released to DVD on November 6 , 2007 . The Warner Bros. production starred Robert Wagner as Mr. Wilson , Louise Fletcher as Mrs. Wilson , and Maxwell Perry Cotton , a six - year - old actor , as Dennis . Animation ( edit ) Dennis the Menace was adapted into an animated special , Dennis the Menace in Mayday for Mother which aired in 1981 and was produced by DePatie - Freleng Enterprises and Mirisch Films . A daily animated syndicated series was produced by DiC Entertainment in 1986 with Brennan Thicke as the voice of Dennis , also featuring Phil Hartman who voiced George Wilson and Henry Mitchell . DiC also produced the All - New Dennis the Menace for CBS Saturday Mornings in 1993 with Adam Wylie voicing Dennis . An animated movie , Dennis the Menace in Cruise Control , premiered as part of Nickelodeon 's Sunday Movie Toons block in 2002 and later released to DVD . List of film and TV adaptations ( edit ) Films Dennis the Menace : Dinosaur Hunter ( 1987 , live - action ) Dennis the Menace ( 1993 , live - action ) Dennis the Menace Strikes Again ( 1998 , live - action ) Dennis the Menace in Cruise Control ( 2002 , animated ) A Dennis the Menace Christmas ( 2007 , live - action ) Crew / detail Film Dennis the Menace : Dinosaur Hunter ( 1987 ) Dennis the Menace ( 1993 ) Dennis the Menace Strikes Again ( 1998 ) Dennis the Menace : Cruise Control ( 2002 ) A Dennis the Menace Christmas ( 2007 ) Director Doug Rogers Nick Castle Charles T. Kanganis Pat Ventura Ron Oliver Producer Philip D. Fehrle John Hughes and Richard Vane Jeffrey Silver and Bobby Newmyer Executive producers : Andy Heyward and Michael Maliani Steven J. Wolfe Writers Bruce Kalish & David Garber and K.C. Dee John Hughes Tim McCanlies ( screenplay ) ; Tim McCanlies and Jeff Schechter ( story ) Steve Granat and Cydne Clark Kathleen Laccinole Editor Edward Salier Alan Heim Jeffrey Reiner N / A Zack Arnold Composer Randy Edelman Jerry Goldsmith Graeme Revell Matt McGuire Peter Allen Cinematography Arledge Armenaki Thomas E. Ackerman Christopher Faloona N / A C. Kim Miles Production company DIC Enterprises Coca - Cola Telecommunications Hughes Entertainment Warner Bros. Family Entertainment Outlaw Productions Warner Bros. Family Entertainment DIC Enterprises DTM3 Productions Sneak Preview Entertainment Valkyrie Films Warner Premiere Distribution Sony Pictures Television Warner Bros . Nickelodeon Warner Home Video Released 11 September 1987 25 June 1993 14 July 1998 27 October 2002 13 November 2007 Duration 118 minutes 94 minutes 75 minutes 72 minutes 83 minutes TV shows and specials Dennis the Menace ( 1959 , live - action ) Dennis the Menace in Mayday for Mother ( 1981 , animated , TV special ) Dennis the Menace ( 1986 , animated ) All - New Dennis the Menace ( 1993 , animated ) Merchandising ( edit ) From 1971 to 2001 , Dennis the Menace was licensed by Dairy Queen as their official mascot , appearing in many commercials and on the chain 's cups , bags , and other promotional items , until he was dropped because the chain felt children could no longer relate to him as much . Playground ( edit ) In 1952 Hank Ketcham spearheaded the construction of the Dennis the Menace Playground , designed by Arch Garner . It opened in Monterey , California on November 17 , 1956 . The playground featured a bronze statue of Dennis sculpted by Wah Chang . On the night of October 25 , 2006 , the 125 - lb statue , which was estimated to be worth $30,000 , was stolen from the playground . It was not recovered , but in April 2007 it was replaced by a reproduction of another Dennis statue Chang made for the Ketchams . Video games ( edit ) Dennis , 1993 Amiga game by Ocean Software Dennis the Menace , a video game tie - in to the 1993 feature film was released that same year by Ocean Software for the Super NES . A Game Boy version was released in 1994 . Dennis the Menace in other languages ( edit ) The comic strip has been translated into many foreign languages , which has helped make the strip 's characters famous worldwide . show List of foreign language titles Arabic : ' ّماهر الصغير ' ( Little Maher ) Brazilian Portuguese : Dennis , o Pimentinha Catalan : Daniel el trapella Chinese : 淘氣 阿 丹 Croatian : Vragolasti Denis Danish : Jern - Henrik ( means Iron - Henrik ) Dutch : Dennis de Bengel Estonian : Nuhtlus Nimega Dennis Finnish : Ville Vallaton French : Denis la malice French Canadian : Denis la petite peste German : Dennis der Lausejunge ( also known as Dennis die Nervensäge ) Greek : Ντένις ο Τρομερός ( Dénis o Tromeros ) Hebrew : דני שובבני ( Danny Shovevani ) Hungarian : Dennisz , a komisz Icelandic : Denni Dæmalausi Italian : Dennis la Minaccia Japanese : わんぱく デニス ( Wanpaku Dennis ) Korean : 개구쟁이 데니스 Norwegian : Dennis Persian : دنیس دردسر Polish : Dennis Rozrabiaka Portuguese : Dennis o Pimentinha Romanian : Denis pericol public Russian : Дэннис непоседа Serbian : Denis Napast Sinhalese ( Sri Lanka ) : Dangaya ( දඟයා ) Spanish : Daniel el Travieso Slovenian : Dennis pokora Swedish : Dennis , early called Jern - Hernik , Bosse Bus or Kristian Tyrann . Turkish : Afacan Denis References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` History '' . Dennisthemenace.com . Retrieved August 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Markstein , Donald D. ( 2010 ) . `` Dennis the Menace '' . Don Markstein 's Toonopedia . Retrieved August 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Van Gelder , Lawrence ( June 2 , 2001 ) . `` Hank Ketcham , Father of Dennis the Menace , Dies at 81 '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 13 , 2013 . Retrieved August 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Dennis the Menace ' creator dies at 81 ; strip to continue ' Jump up ^ Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 2 . Christmas Double Feature `` I want a ... '' p. 77 . Jump up ^ Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 2 . p. 171 . Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace cartoon march - 14 - 2014 / ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace comic june - 2 - 2014 / ) ^ Jump up to : ( Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 8 ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace comic march - 27 - 2014 / ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace Comic strip Nov 13 , 1987 ) Jump up ^ ( For an hilarious example of Dennis the Menace chaos in a department store , see `` Dennis Goes Christmas Shopping '' in Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 2 . ) ^ Jump up to : ( 1 ) Archived May 4 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 2 , `` Up a tree '' ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace comic february - 28 - 2014 / ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace march - 16 - 2014 / ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace march - 18 - 2014 / ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 2 `` Too Many Santas '' ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 2 ) Jump up ^ `` Dennis the Menace '' June 20 , 2010 Jump up ^ `` Dennis the Menace '' comic April 2 , 2012 ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace february - 22 - 2014 / ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace comic April 7 , 2013 ) ^ Jump up to : ( Dennis the Menace Pocket Full of Fun # 2 `` How not to Decorate a Tree '' ) Jump up ^ ( Dennis the Menace comic April 1 , 2012 ) Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Archived February 25 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Brian Walker . `` Dennis the Menace -- Introduction by Brian Walker '' . Fantagraphics Books . Archived from the original on June 13 , 2011 . Retrieved February 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` October 26 , 2014 Dennis the Menace strip '' . Retrieved October 28 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Weinraub , Judith ( May 5 , 1990 ) . `` Dennis 's Dear Old Dad '' . The Washington Post . ^ Jump up to : Van Gelder , Lawrence ( June 2 , 2001 ) . `` Hank Ketcham , Father of Dennis the Menace , Dies at 81 '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 17 . Jump up ^ Douresseaux , Leroy ( August 20 , 2007 ) . `` Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis the Menace : 1953 -- 1954 ( review ) '' . comicbookbin.com . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Murray , Noel ( September 28 , 2005 ) . `` Hank Ketcham 's Complete Dennis The Menace 1951 -- 1952 ( review ) '' . The Onion 's avlub.com . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Comics and cartoons Chron.com -- Houston Chronicle '' . Chron.com . September 4 , 2005 . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Reuben Award 1946 -- 1974 '' . The National Cartoonists Society . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Biography for Hank Ketcham '' . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` The Grand Comics Database ( GCD ) '' . Comics.org . Retrieved 2010 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ Estrada , George ( August 8 , 2005 ) . `` Antics of `` Dennis the Menace '' back in print `` . The Seattle Times Company . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Korman , Seymour ( September 26 , 1959 ) . `` DENNIS THE MENACE Goes on TV '' . Chicago Daily Tribune . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` JOSEPH KEARNS , 55 , TV ACTOR , IS DEAD ; Played Mr. Wilson of ' Dennis the Menace ' on C.B.S. '' The Seattle Times Company . February 18 , 1962 . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Full cast and crew for The Donna Reed Show Donna Decorates ( 1960 ) '' . imdb . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ Kohn , Martin F. ( 1996 ) . Videohound 's Family Video Guide . Visible Ink Press . p. 1960 . ISBN 0787609846 . Jump up ^ `` Dennis the Menace in Mayday for Mother ( 1981 ) '' . imdb . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Dennis the Menace ( 1986 ) '' . imdb . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` All - New Dennis the Menace ( 1993 ) '' . imdb . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0337974/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1 '' . imdb . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 21 . External link in title = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Archibald garner : a brief biographical sketch '' . words-and-art.com . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Dennis the Menace Playground Flyer '' ( PDF ) . Monterey.org -- City of Monterey . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on February 20 , 2009 . Retrieved December 18 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Statue of Dennis the Menace Stolen '' . The Washington Post . Associated Press . October 28 , 2006 . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Maria Daly ( April 5 , 2007 ) . `` Dennis the Menace Returns to Monterey , California '' . The Epoch Times . Archived from the original on February 18 , 2009 . Retrieved December 8 , 2008 . External links ( edit ) Official website Dennis the Menace at King Features List and short bios of the strip 's characters NCS Awards Dennis the Menace TV series 1959 series ( episodes ) 1986 series All - New Dennis the Menace Films Dennis the Menace : Dinosaur Hunter Dennis the Menace Dennis the Menace Strikes Again Dennis the Menace : Cruise Control A Dennis the Menace Christmas Other Video game King Features Syndicate comics Current The Amazing Spider - Man Arctic Circle Baby Blues Barney Google and Snuffy Smith Beetle Bailey Between Friends Bizarro Blondie The Brilliant Mind of Edison Lee Buckles Carpe Diem Crankshaft Curtis Deflocked Dennis the Menace Dustin The Family Circus Flash Gordon Funky Winkerbean Hägar the Horrible Hazel Henry Hi and Lois Intelligent Life Judge Parker The Katzenjammer Kids Kevin and Kell Laff - a-Day The Lockhorns Mallard Fillmore Mark Trail Marvin Mary Worth Moose & Molly Mother Goose and Grimm Mutts On the Fastrack The Pajama Diaries Pardon My Planet The Phantom Piranha Club Popeye Prince Valiant Pros & Cons Retail Rex Morgan , M.D. Rhymes with Orange Safe Havens Sally Forth Sam and Silo Sherman 's Lagoon Shoe Six Chix Slylock Fox & Comics for Kids Take It from the Tinkersons Tiger Todd the Dinosaur Zippy Zits Historical Abie the Agent Ace Drummond Agatha Crumm Alphonse and Gaston And Her Name Was Maud Apartment 3 - G Archie Art Linkletter 's Kids Barney Baxter Baron Bean The Better Half Betty Boop Betty Boop and Felix Big Ben Bolt Bleeker : The Rechargeable Dog Boner 's Ark Brick Bradford Bringing Up Father Buz Sawyer Captain Kate Count Screwloose from Tooloose Crock Dr. Kildare Donald Duck Dumb Dora Edge City Etta Kett Felix the Cat Flapper Filosofy Franklin Fibbs Gil Grandma Grin and Bear It Gummi Bears Half Hitch Happy Hooligan The Heart of Juliet Jones Heaven 's Love Thrift Shop Hejji Inside Woody Allen Johnny Hazard José Carioca Jungle Jim King of the Royal Mounted Krazy Kat Little Annie Rooney Little Iodine Little Jimmy The Little King The Lone Ranger Mandrake the Magician Mister Breger Mickey Mouse My Cage Norb The Norm Oh , Brother ! Ollie and Quentin Ozark Ike Pete the Tramp Polly and Her Pals Quincy Radio Patrol Red Barry Redeye Reg'lar Fellers Rip Kirby Room and Board Rusty Riley Sam 's Strip Scamp Secret Agent X-9 Silly Symphonies Skippy Steve Canyon Steve Roper and Mike Nomad Strictly Richter Teena They 'll Do It Every Time Tillie the Toiler Tim Tyler 's Luck Tina 's Groove Toots and Casper Triple Take Trudy Tumbleweeds Tundra Uncle Remus Walt Disney 's Treasury of Classic Tales What a Guy ! Winnie the Pooh Wonder Woman Related Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum Central Press Association DailyINK Jay Kennedy King Comics King Features Syndicate National Cartoonists Society The Sunday Funnies Kings Watch Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dennis_the_Menace_(U.S._comics)&oldid=845718275 '' Categories : 1951 comics debuts American comic strips Dennis the Menace ( U.S. comics ) Fictional characters from Kansas Child characters in comics Comic strips set in the United States Comics characters introduced in 1951 Comics characters in television Gag cartoon comics Gag - a-day comics American comics adapted into films Comics adapted into animated series Comics adapted into television series Comics adapted into video games Fictional tricksters Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 errors : external links Use mdy dates from April 2013 Pages using deprecated image syntax Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Español Français Galego हिन्दी Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Svenska తెలుగు 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 June 2018 , at 17 : 20 . 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who created the famous cartoon dennis the menace
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Theia
Theia - wikipedia Theia For other uses , see Theia ( disambiguation ) . Theia Titaness of sight and the shining light of the clear blue sky Member of the Titans In the frieze of the Great Altar of Pergamon ( Berlin ) , the goddess who fights at Helios ' back is conjectured to be Theia Other names Euryphaessa , Aethra ( probably ) Consort Hyperion Offspring Helios , Selene , Eos Parents Gaia and Uranus Siblings Titans ( show ) Crius Cronus Coeus Hyperion Iapetus Mnemosyne Oceanus Phoebe Rhea Tethys Themis Hekatonkheires ( show ) Briareos Cottus Gyges Cyclops ( show ) Arges Brontes Steropes Other siblings ( show ) Gigantes Erinyes ( the Furies ) Meliae Half - siblings ( show ) Aphrodite Typhon Python Uranus In Greek mythology , Theia ( / ˈθiːə / ; Ancient Greek : Θεία , translit . Theía , also rendered Thea or Thia ) , also called Euryphaessa `` wide - shining '' , is a Titaness . Her brother / consort is Hyperion , a Titan and god of the sun , and together they are the parents of Helios ( the Sun ) , Selene ( the Moon ) , and Eos ( the Dawn ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Mythology 2.1 Earliest account 2.2 Later myths 3 Genealogy 4 Theia in the sciences 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References Etymology ( edit ) The name Theia alone means simply `` goddess '' or `` divine '' ; Theia Euryphaessa ( Θεία Εὐρυφάεσσα ) brings overtones of extent ( εὐρύς , eurys , `` wide '' , root : εὐρυ - / εὐρε - ) and brightness ( φάος , phaos , `` light '' , root : φαεσ - ) . Mythology ( edit ) Earliest account ( edit ) Hesiod 's Theogony gives her an equally primal origin , said to be the eldest daughter of Gaia ( Earth ) and Uranus ( Sky ) . Robert Graves also relates that later Theia is referred to as the cow - eyed Euryphaessa who gave birth to Helios in myths dating to Classical Antiquity . Later myths ( edit ) Once paired in later myths with her Titan brother Hyperion as her husband , `` mild - eyed Euryphaessa , the far - shining one '' of the Homeric Hymn to Helios , was said to be the mother of Helios ( the Sun ) , Selene ( the Moon ) , and Eos ( the Dawn ) . Pindar praises Theia in his Fifth Isthmian ode : `` Mother of the Sun , Theia of many names , for your sake men honor gold as more powerful than anything else ; and through the value you bestow on them , o queen , ships contending on the sea and yoked teams of horses in swift - whirling contests become marvels . '' She seems here a goddess of glittering in particular and of glory in general , but Pindar 's allusion to her as `` Theia of many names '' is telling , since it suggests assimilation , referring not only to similar mother - of - the - sun goddesses such as Phoebe and Leto , but perhaps also to more universalizing mother - figures such as Rhea and Cybele . Genealogy ( edit ) hide Hyperion 's family tree Uranus Gaia Pontus Oceanus Tethys Hyperion THEIA Crius Eurybia The Rivers The Oceanids Helios Selene Eos Astraeus Pallas Perses Cronus Rhea Coeus Phoebe Hestia Hera Poseidon Zeus Leto Asteria Demeter Hades Apollo Artemis Hecate Iapetus Clymene ( or Asia ) Themis ( Zeus ) Mnemosyne Atlas Menoetius Prometheus Epimetheus The Horae The Muses Theia in the sciences ( edit ) Main article : Giant impact hypothesis Theia 's mythological role as the mother of the Moon goddess Selene is alluded to in the application of the name to a hypothetical planet which , according to the giant impact hypothesis , collided with the Earth , resulting in the Moon 's creation . Theia 's alternate name Euryphaessa has been adopted for a species of Australian leafhoppers Dayus euryphaessa ( Kirkaldy , 1907 ) . A Theia figure has been found at the Necropolis of Cyrene . See also ( edit ) Greek mythology in popular culture Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ M.M. Honan , Guide to the Pergamon Museum , Berlin 1904 , etc . Jump up ^ Hesiod , Theogony , 132 . Jump up ^ Graves , Robert , The Greek Myths , 42. a Jump up ^ Hesiod , Theogony 371 ; of `` cow - eyed , Karl Kerenyi observes that `` these names recall such names as Europa and Pasiphae , or Pasiphaessa -- names of moon - goddesses who were associated with bulls . In the mother of Helios we can recognize the moon - goddess , just as in his father Hyperion we can recognise the sun - god himself '' ( Kerenyi , The Gods of the Greeks , 1951 , p. 192 ) . Jump up ^ Hesiod , Theogony 132 -- 138 , 337 -- 411 , 453 -- 520 , 901 -- 906 , 915 -- 920 ; Caldwell , pp. 8 -- 11 , tables 11 -- 14 . Jump up ^ Although usually the daughter of Hyperion and Theia , as in Hesiod , Theogony 371 -- 374 , in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes ( 4 ) , 99 -- 100 , Selene is instead made the daughter of Pallas the son of Megamedes . Jump up ^ According to Hesiod , Theogony 507 -- 511 , Clymene , one of the Oceanids , the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys , at Hesiod , Theogony 351 , was the mother by Iapetus of Atlas , Menoetius , Prometheus , and Epimetheus , while according to Apollodorus , 1.2. 3 , another Oceanid , Asia was their mother by Iapetus . Jump up ^ According to Plato , Critias , 113d -- 114a , Atlas was the son of Poseidon and the mortal Cleito . Jump up ^ In Aeschylus , Prometheus Bound 18 , 211 , 873 ( Sommerstein , pp. 444 -- 445 n . 2 , 446 -- 447 n . 24 , 538 -- 539 n . 113 ) Prometheus is made to be the son of Themis . Jump up ^ Joyce Reynolds and James Copland Thorn ( 2005 ) . `` Cyrene 's Thea figure discovered in the Necropolis '' . Libyan Studies . doi : 10.1017 / S0263718900005525 . References ( edit ) Smith , William ; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology , London ( 1873 ) . `` Theia '' Ancient Greek deities by affiliation Primordial deities Achlys Aether Aion / Chronos Ananke Chaos Erebus Eros / Phanes Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Pontus / Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Fates Atropos Clotho Lachesis Titan deities Titanes ( male ) Coeus Crius Cronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Ophion Titanides ( female ) Dione Eurybia Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Hyperionides Eos Helios Selene Koionides Asteria Leto Lelantos Krionides Astraeus Pallas Perses Iapetionides Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Mousai ( Muses ) Aoide Arche Melete Mneme Olympian deities Dodekatheon Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Theoi Olympioi Asclepius Deimos Ganymede Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Phobos Mousai ( Muses ) Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites ( Graces ) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae ( Hours ) Dike Eirene Eunomia Styktides Bia Kratos Nike Zelos Aquatic deities Theoi Halioi Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calypso Ceto Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Kymopoleia Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Phorcys Pontus / Thalassa Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Adrasteia Amalthea Asia Callirrhoe Ceto Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia Metis Nemesis Perse Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Zeuxo Nereides Amphitrite Arethusa Dynamene Galatea Galene Psamathe Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapos Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Kleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deities Theoi Chthonioi Angelos Demeter Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes ( Furies ) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Trophonius Triptolemus Orpheus Aeacus Minos Rhadamanthus Personifications Children of Nyx Achlys Apate Dolos Eleos Elpis Epiphron Eris Geras Hesperides Hybris Hypnos Ker The Keres The Moirai Aisa Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Oizys The Oneiroi Epiales Morpheus Phantasos Phobetor Nemesis Philotes Sophrosyne Thanatos Children of Eris Algos Amphillogiai Ate The Androktasiai Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Limos Machai Phonoi Ponos Neikea Pseudea Logoi Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Bia Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus Kratos The Litae Homonoia Nike Peitho Phobos Tyche Zelos Others Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia Aporia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Kalokagathia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Philotes Phrike Phthonus Pistis Poine Polemos Poros Praxidike Proioxis Prophasis Roma Soter Soteria Techne Thrasos Other deities Sky deities The Anemoi The Astra Planeti Stilbon Eosphorus Hesperus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Agricultural deities Aphaea Ariadne Carmanor Demeter Despoina Eunostus Philomelus Plutus Health deities Asclepius Aceso Epione Iaso Hygieia Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna The Alseids The Auloniads Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato Eurydice The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce Ma The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Echo Helike Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Acratopotes Adrasteia Agdistis Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Astraea Circe Eiresione Enyalius Harpocrates Ichnaea Palaestra Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theia&oldid=811141079 '' Categories : Greek goddesses Titans Offspring of Gaia Hidden categories : Pages using infobox deity with unknown parameters Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 40 more Edit links This page was last edited on 19 November 2017 , at 19 : 54 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
which two titans became the parents of the sun and the moon
[ "In Greek mythology, Theia (/ˈθiːə/; Ancient Greek: Θεία, translit. Theía, also rendered Thea or Thia), also called Euryphaessa \"wide-shining\", is a Titaness. Her brother/consort is Hyperion, a Titan and god of the sun, and together they are the parents of Helios (the Sun), Selene (the Moon), and Eos (the Dawn).\n", "In Greek mythology, Theia (/ˈθiːə/; Ancient Greek: Θεία, translit. Theía, also rendered Thea or Thia), also called Euryphaessa \"wide-shining\", is a Titaness. Her brother/consort is Hyperion, a Titan and god of the sun, and together they are the parents of Helios (the Sun), Selene (the Moon), and Eos (the Dawn).\n" ]
[ "Theia", "Hyperion" ]
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Grey's Anatomy (season 14)
Grey 's Anatomy ( season 14 ) - wikipedia Grey 's Anatomy ( season 14 ) Grey 's Anatomy ( season 14 ) Promotional poster Starring Ellen Pompeo Justin Chambers Chandra Wilson James Pickens , Jr . Kevin McKidd Jessica Capshaw Sarah Drew Jesse Williams Caterina Scorsone Camilla Luddington Kelly McCreary Jason George Martin Henderson Giacomo Gianniotti Country of origin United States No. of episodes 24 Release Original network ABC Original release September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) -- May 17 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 17 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 13 Next → Season 15 List of Grey 's Anatomy episodes The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10 , 2017 , by American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , and premiered on September 28 , 2017 with a special two - hour premiere . The season consists of 24 episodes , with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall . The season is produced by ABC Studios , in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company ; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper . The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season , following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season . The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson , Jason George , Jessica Capshaw , and Sarah Drew as series regulars , as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera , the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series , Station 19 . On April 20 , 2018 , ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - tying fifteenth season . Contents 1 Plots 2 Cast 2.1 Main cast 2.2 Recurring cast 2.3 Guest cast 2.4 Casting 3 Production 3.1 Development 4 Episodes 5 Ratings 5.1 Live + SD ratings 5.2 Live + 7 Day ( DVR ) ratings 6 DVD release 7 References Plots ( edit ) The season follows the story of surgical residents , fellows , and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen . It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital , located in Seattle , Washington . After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital , Chief Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality . During the construction , Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister , Megan ( Abigail Spencer ) , who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas . The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman ( Kim Raver ) , the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend , which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd ( Caterina Scorsone ) . Of course , Nathan Riggs ( Martin Henderson ) , who was once in love with Megan , is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) . Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) learns what `` ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick ( Marika Dominczyk ) vanishes without a trace , but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar , Carina DeLuca ( Stefania Spampinato ) , sister to Andrew DeLuca ( Giacomo Gianniotti ) . Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) , but when her attempts fail , she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns . When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor , she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek ( Greg Germann ) to create a treatment plan . But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment , she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman ( Geena Davis ) , who despite saving her life , was left blind . After the tumor is removed , Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided ; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not , and they ultimately decide to get a divorce . With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan , Harper Avery ( Chelcie Ross ) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her . Shortly after , he immediately dies from cardiac arrest . Before they have to find another chief , Catherine ( Debbie Allen ) and Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) reinstate Bailey to her position . At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber ( James Pickens Jr . ) , Maggie Pierce ( Kelly McCreary ) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance , a quarter billion dollars , which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest . Now that Megan is healthy again , Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States . Upon arrival , Nathan , Megan , and Farouk all move to California to start a life together , which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith . Despite the breakup , Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award , which she goes on to win . While the joyous news spreads around the hospital , Bailey learns that Ben Warren ( Jason George ) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department . With Jo and Alex now living together again , she realizes how much control her estranged husband , Dr Paul Stadler ( Matthew Morrison ) , has over her . Now in the running for chief resident , Jo decides to file for divorce . With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul , she 's surprised to find him in the hospital . Jo attempts to steer clear of him , but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is . As Paul keeps trying to find Jo , Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed , but he leaves before they can get there . However , he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident . With everyone running around the ER , April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) sees a familiar face in Matthew ( Justin Bruening ) , the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson . He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant . After Jo talks to Jenny ( Bethany Joy Lenz ) , Paul 's fiancé , they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court . Upon receiving the news , he tries to attack them in a bout of rage ; however , he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious , rendering him brain dead . Still legally his wife , Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support . April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child , while she 's alone and a single mother . As she begins to question her faith , she acts out and sleeps with an intern . With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery , Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack . She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital , where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously . They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue , since the tests they are running are coming back negative . Bailey calls on Maggie to save her , and after she does , Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter , as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy . With the medical research contest , funded by Jackson 's money , getting underway , the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further . Meredith learns that for her project , she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone ... a former friend of her mother 's . When Marie denies access to the patent , Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why . According to Richard , there was a falling out of some sort , but he never knew what happened between the two women . At a dinner party hosted by Amelia , Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends . However , it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man . Quick to call it off , Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie . In Meredith 's search for answers , she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together . If she is to acquire the patent , she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method . Meredith denies the ultimatum . While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings , Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him . He quickly accepts . With the research projects humming along , Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their `` friends with benefits '' relationship , that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy . She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life . The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy . The two talk all night and make plans to stay together , but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her , she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out . Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns , Sam Bello ( Jeanine Mason ) , is a `` Dreamer '' protected by ( DACA ) . Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported . Despite pleas from Andrew ( Sam 's boyfriend ) , Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland . While the research contest reaches the next milestone , presentation day , Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather . The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him , and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up . Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13 . Disgusted with the whole situation , Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest . In the meantime , Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread . While in surgery , Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan , which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine ( née Fox ) to the Catherine Fox Foundation . When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending , he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her . He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library . The two extend an invitation to the wedding , but she declines stating it would be too much for her . While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs , Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom , Callie . After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her , Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey . However , an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly . Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health . Knowing that she 's headed to New York , Arizona asks that it be there , and Nicole obliges . Matthew winds up in the ER again , but this time for himself , after he rolled his car . Trying to get information from him about what happened , he mentions April 's name , which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe . Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident , down in a ravine nearby . After he rushes her back to the hospital , the team rallies to save her , and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life , she wakes up , fully functional . Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived , and though most details have come together , April ( who has been planning the wedding ) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony . While trying to escape , the mother of the bride faints , keeping Ben and Bailey behind . Once at the hospital , Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job . Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program , but fearful of losing Alex , Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position . The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her . After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding , the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement . On a ferry back to the main land , Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry . Bailey , wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions , offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief . Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet , in the ICU with the bride 's mother , Teddy reveals she 's pregnant . Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York , but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single . Cast ( edit ) Main articles : List of Grey 's Anatomy cast members and List of Grey 's Anatomy characters Main cast ( edit ) Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber Kevin McKidd as Dr. Owen Hunt Jessica Capshaw as Dr. Arizona Robbins Sarah Drew as Dr. April Kepner Jesse Williams as Dr. Jackson Avery Caterina Scorsone as Dr. Amelia Shepherd Camilla Luddington as Dr. Jo Wilson Kelly McCreary as Dr. Maggie Pierce Jason George as Dr. Ben Warren Martin Henderson as Dr. Nathan Riggs Giacomo Gianniotti as Dr. Andrew DeLuca Recurring cast ( edit ) Debbie Allen as Dr. Catherine Avery / Catherine Fox Kim Raver as Dr. Teddy Altman Abigail Spencer as Dr. Megan Hunt Greg Germann as Dr. Tom Koracick Matthew Morrison as Dr. Paul Stadler Stefania Spampinato as Dr. Carina DeLuca Jake Borelli as Dr. Levi Schmitt Jeanine Mason as Dr. Sam Bello Alex Blue Davis as Dr. Casey Parker Rushi Kota as Dr. Vikram Roy Jaicy Elliot as Dr. Taryn Helm Sophia Ali as Dr. Dahlia Qadri Blake Hood as Clive Johnson Bethany Joy Lenz as Jenny Justin Bruening as Paramedic Matthew Taylor Nayah Damasen as Kimmie Park Peyton Kennedy as Betty Candis Cayne as Dr. Michelle Velez Rachel Ticotin as Dr. Marie Cerone Guest cast ( edit ) Debra Mooney as Evelyn Hunt Bill Smitrovich as Dr. Walter Carr Chelcie Ross as Dr. Harper Avery Kate Burton as Dr. Ellis Grey Mark Moses as Dr. Larry Maxwell Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andrea ' Andy ' Herrera Scott Speedman as Dr. Nick Marsh Mary Kay Place as Olive Warner Sarah Utterback as Nurse Olivia Harper Lindsay Wagner as Helen Karev Geena Davis as Dr. Nicole Herman Casting ( edit ) Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season , after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now . Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast , but ABC passed on the project . Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season , Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season . On June 20 , 2017 , it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc . In August 2017 , it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season . After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character , Eliza Minnick , it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show . On September 13 , 2017 , another guest star was announced in Greg Germann ( Ally McBeal ) , and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick , Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor . On October 9 , 2017 , the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode `` Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason ( So You Think You Can Dance ) as Sam , Alex Blue Davis as Casey , Rushi Kota as Vik , Jaicy Elliot as Taryn , Sophia Ali as Dahlia , and Jake Borelli as Levi . On October 26 , 2017 , it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled `` Danger Zone '' would be his last . On January 31 , 2018 , it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery . On March 8 , 2018 , it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season . It was released on April 4 , 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan , not as a nurse but as mom of a patient . Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released . On April 20 , 2018 , it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode `` Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10 , 2017 . It premiered on September 28 , 2017 , with a two - hour premiere . Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season . On April 28 , 2017 , veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season . On January 11 , 2018 , ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital . The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew . Episodes ( edit ) Main article : List of Grey 's Anatomy episodes The number in the `` No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the `` No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . `` U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live . No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 294 `` Break Down the House '' Debbie Allen Krista Vernoff September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) 8.07 In a whirlwind of reunions and a Grey Sloan `` major uplift '' , Meredith finds herself in a complicated love triangle between Nathan and Megan , Owen 's sister who was recently revealed to still be alive after a ten year absence in a hostage camp overseas . With Megan 's reappearance , Teddy Altman comes back to Seattle to support Owen and his mom , which leads to awkward interactions with Amelia . With Stephanie now in Texas at a burn unit , Jo eagerly tries to make Ben her new person . After being `` ghosted '' by Eliza , Arizona hits it off with an Italian girl in a bar whom she takes home with her . When DeLuca comes home , he finds his sister half - naked on his couch with Arizona . 295 `` Get Off on the Pain '' Kevin McKidd Krista Vernoff September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) 8.07 Carina , DeLuca 's sister , asks to be introduced to Bailey in order to get approval to study the controversial topic of female masturbation and orgasms at her hospital ; Bailey obliges due to society 's double standard . Meredith works to get everyone to agree that an abdominal wall transplant is the best tactic to treat Megan 's wounds ; she even gets Teddy to scrub in to erase any doubts of Meredith 's intentions of being Megan 's surgeon . Jo tries to mend her relationship with Alex . Later , it is revealed that Jo slept with one of the new sub-interns . Owen gets called out on his marital status with Amelia , who seems to be avoiding him and his family . Even without the support of Jackson , Amelia fights to remove a patient 's mastoid tumor . She later takes part in Carina 's study which leads to her finding a huge tumor in her own brain . 296 `` Go Big or Go Home '' Chandra Wilson Meg Marinis October 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 05 ) 8.06 Amelia brings in one of her former professors and current head of Neurology at Johns Hopkins , Dr. Tom Koracik to help her come up with a treatment plan for her tumor . Much to her chagrin , Dr Koracik brings to light how impaired her judgment has been over the last ten years ; Richard makes sure to let Amelia know that her judgment has not been all that bad and encourages her to come clean to those with whom she is closest . Bailey is confronted by Harper Avery about all the changes that have been made to the hospital and threatens to withdraw all funding from the foundation ; when Bailey stands up to him , Avery fires her . In the end of the episode Avery passes away with a sudden cardiac arrest and then Jackson and Catherine Avery reinstate Bailey back as the chief . Ben and Arizona resort to advice delivered by Carina when one of their patients gets stuck in labor . Meredith turns to her former psychiatrist , who winds up as a patient , to sort out her mood towards everyone instigated by the love triangle involving Nathan and Megan . Jo asks Alex to move back home . 297 `` Ai n't That a Kick in the Head ? '' Geary McLeod Marlana Hope October 12 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 12 ) 8.08 Amelia has her brain tumor removed , but in the days following , she experiences some complications , such as speaking only French , and memory loss . Richard unexpectedly brings Maggie to attend a family dinner hosted by Catherine , which turns awkward when Catherine discloses to Jackson his inheritance from Harper 's passing , a quarter billion dollars . Bailey and Richard host interviews with prospective new interns but fail to find a decent candidate . Using her research to justify his entry into the country , Meredith and Nathan team up to bring Megan 's adopted son to America . Amelia and Owen face their fear that their marriage is based on a version of Amelia created by her illness . Arizona learns that Sofia wants to move home . Jo confesses that she hates how much control her ex-husband has over her . 298 5 `` Danger Zone '' Cecilie Mosli Jalysa Conway October 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 26 ) 7.67 As Owen helps Megan make the trip to California where she will start her new life with Nathan and her son , Farouk , they reminisce on their time spent in Fallujah , Iraq . During their time overseas , Nathan proposed to Megan by recycling a necklace that was not initially intended for her . Teddy quickly recognized the necklace and the fact that Nathan cheated and pushed him to come clean . Despite the good news of the engagement , Megan dealt with heartbreak of not making strat , which is later revealed to her as Owen 's own doing . Distraught over her brother 's betrayal , she gets on a helicopter with one of the shooters who attacked their troops , leading to her disappearance . While Nathan awaits the arrival of Megan and Owen , he bonds with Farouk , who is having trouble acclimating to the free world . He also officially ends his relationship with Meredith , as does Owen with Amelia when he comes to terms with the notion that neither of them are truly happy . 299 6 `` Come on Down to My Boat , Baby '' Lisa Leone Kiley Donovan November 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 02 ) 7.38 As the new surgeon on the cover page of the medical journal , JSA , Meredith performs a rare surgical procedure to try and save a judge from his progressive cancer diagnosis . The men of Grey Sloan take a `` sick day '' and hang out on a Jackson 's newly purchased boat , whereas the women swipe for dates on Tinder . Arizona has broken up with Carina in preparation of Sofia moving back home . Amelia heads back to surgery but struggles with her confidence , recruiting the help of Dr. Koracik and seeking the encouragement of Richard . While Arizona and April repair a woman 's injuries caused by an accidental firing of a gun that was hidden inside her vagina , Bailey and Maggie take care of a hypochondriac who was a victim of the accidental shooting . At the surgeon - intern mixer , Meredith learns that she has been nominated for the annual Harper Avery award ; however , the news is overshadowed by the loss of her patient . Jackson gives half of his inheritance to Bailey to fund a research competition . Jo learns she is in the running for chief resident and decides to file for divorce from Paul after confiding her situation to the judge . DeLuca recognizes one of the new interns from his past , while Owen and Carina are caught kissing . 300 7 `` Who Lives , Who Dies , Who Tells Your Story '' Debbie Allen Krista Vernoff November 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 09 ) 8.13 When a roller coaster car derails off its tracks , Meredith 's plans to attend the Harper Avery award ceremony are put on hold . Three patients visiting the ER look like former doctors of the hospital : Drs . Cristina Yang , George O'Malley , and Izzie Stevens . Amelia and Owen learn to co-exist in the OR , after Amelia orders a surprise CT which shows a large hematoma that she is able to repair . As Arizona performs surgery on Liza , Izzie 's look - a-like , she reflects on her relationship with Callie and Mark in preparation for Sofia 's return to Seattle . Jo probes Alex to call Izzie and see how she is , to which Alex says he knows how she is : a happily married surgeon with three children . As they wait on Meredith to leave for Boston , Maggie bonds with Zola as they rehearse medical knowledge and talk about Derek . Bailey and Ben fight over his announcement to join the fire department , due to Bailey 's fear that he has commitment issues . Unable to fly out to Boston , in an OR -- in front of her friends and colleagues -- Meredith is announced the winner of the 2017 Harper Avery award . 301 8 `` Out of Nowhere '' Kevin McKidd William Harper November 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 16 ) 7.52 As the interns struggle to find their stride as surgeons , Jo begins her reign as chief resident . Things take a turn for the worse when the computer system gets hacked at Grey Sloan Memorial , as all of the patients ' records get held hostage for $20 million . Unable to understand why the ransom is so large and unprecedented , Bailey realizes it is due to the recently announced competition funded by Jackson 's inheritance . Without the use of the technological advancements to which the doctors have become accustomed , they must rely on their instincts to treat their patients ; Richard teaches his younger colleagues about how they worked in the `` Stone Age '' . One patient is transported to another hospital by a helicopter which encounters bad turbulence , causing a line to loosen and squirt blood everywhere . Jo gets the scariest surprise of her life when she runs into her abusive husband , Paul , on her way to stop Alex from inadvertently killing their patient . 302 9 `` 1 - 800 - 799 - 7233 '' Bill D'Elia Andy Reaser January 18 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 18 ) 8.27 While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon , Jo tries to steer clear of him . Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce . Drenched in blood , Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers ; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions , very similar to when they were overseas . Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital ; this intern later outs himself as `` a proud trans man '' . After Paul 's fiancée , Jenny , tells him about her secret exchange with Jo , Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital . However , he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run . This episode was followed by a PSA of Camilla Luddington reminding viewers that psychological abuse is a form of domestic violence and providing the number of the National Domestic Violence Hotline : 1 - 800 - 799 - 7233 , the episode 's title . 303 10 `` Personal Jesus '' Kevin Sullivan Zoanne Clack January 25 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 25 ) 8.62 With Paul recovering from surgery , Meredith questions Alex and Jo 's alibi . Believing that it is his fiancée , Jenny , who ran him over , Jo feels the need to consult her . April 's patient turns out to be the pregnant wife of her ex-fiancé , Matthew , proving to be more than an awkward situation , as she helps deliver their baby , and then watches him deal with his wife 's unexpected death . Jackson , Bailey , and April are confronted with racial profiling when police show up with a handcuffed 12 - year - old boy whom they shot when he was seen trying to enter his own home through a window . Police officers continue to treat him like a criminal in the ER , prompting Bailey and Ben to give Tucker `` the talk '' . When Jo and Jenny go to Paul 's room to announce they are taking him to court , he gets in a bout of rage , falls out of his bed , and knocks himself out becoming brain dead . Still legally his wife , Jo decides to take him off life support and have his organs donated . April ends up in the shower with Vikram , an intern , after she finds herself questioning her faith . 304 11 `` ( Do n't Fear ) the Reaper '' Nicole Rubio Elisabeth R. Finch February 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 01 ) 8.93 With her intuition and the more subtle signs of a heart attack , Bailey winds up in the ER at Seattle Presbyterian ; however , after her doctors treat her condescendingly , assuming she is imagining the heart attack and really just suffering from her OCD , she calls on Maggie to come save her . When Maggie arrives , she runs into Richard who found his way there based on Bailey 's record of attendance . With her life flashing before her eyes , Bailey reflects on her upbringing and her past as a surgeon with all the stressful fights and struggles she has gone through to get to this point in her life . Right before she goes under for emergency surgery to save her life , Bailey asks Maggie to call Ben who is able to get there before she wakes up . Ben announces that he has quit being a firefighter , but Bailey demands that he go back and never do anything other than what he truly loves . 305 12 `` Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger '' Jeannot Szwarc Kiley Donovan February 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 08 ) 7.32 As the contest draws near , a competitive edge and tension arise between the doctors and their selected interns vying for millions of dollars . In preparation to surprise Catherine on her birthday , Richard takes salsa dancing lessons with Maggie , who is struggling with the one year anniversary of her mother 's death . Amelia and Alex tag team a pediatric case , in order to save their patient 's ability to sing , as well as retain all mental capabilities . Meredith gets a visit from an old splenectomy patient , who is back with multiple miniature spleens , which guides Meredith to her idea for the competition , and Jackson gets pulled into his mother 's gender confirmation proposal , despite his wishes . 306 13 `` You Really Got a Hold on Me '' Nzingha Stewart Stacy McKee March 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 01 ) 7.52 A house fire brings two young boys , who were rescued by the Seattle Grace fire department -- Station 19 , to the ER . Meredith meets Andy Herrera , a firefighter , who has her hand inside the patient , clamping his abdominal aorta . While Andy gets a front row seat to view the action inside the OR , Ben struggles with idea of not being a surgeon anymore . Dr. Tom Koracik , Amelia 's former professor , shows up to help her with her research project , but quickly shoots down her ideas . However , when they confront each other about their difference in opinion , they come up with an idea to save her patient . Richard watches Bailey very closely , as it is her first day back after recovering from her heart attack . Jackson begins to worry about April and the fact that the interns have nicknamed her `` the Party '' . 307 14 `` Games People Play '' Chandra Wilson Jason Ganzel & Julie Wong March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) 7.07 As Maggie 's budding romance with Clive gets more serious , Amelia suggests hosting a game night so they can secretly judge him . Meredith prepares to meet the owner of the patent she is pursuing ; however , she is surprised to find out that it is an old `` friend '' of Ellis ' . When Marie turns down the opportunity to hand over the patent , Meredith resorts to showing her the device has already been implemented and works . The legal team is brought in after April forgets to file a report when she accidentally severs a patient 's ear , which falls to the floor and causes Deluca to slip and fall , resulting in a concussion . Alex requests permission to use medicinal marijuana on his underage patient , but when her grandma learns of his treatment plan , she temporarily fires him . The game night takes a turn when April has an inebriated breakdown and an unexpected guest shows up -- Clive 's wife . Calling off the relationship , Jackson sees his opportunity and makes his move on Maggie . Richard reveals to Meredith that Marie and Ellis had a falling out , which leads Meredith to the conclusion that she has been played . 308 15 `` Old Scars , Future Hearts '' Ellen Pompeo Tameson Duffy March 15 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 15 ) 7.18 Alex , Jo , and Maggie reflect on their first loves as they prepare their teenaged patient for heart surgery ; however , when a heart transplant becomes available , he denies it until his boyfriend breaks up with him . Marie tells Meredith that her friendship with Ellis ended when Ellis left her name off her Harper Avery award winning research . Marie gives Meredith the ultimatum that for her to get the patent , she must make a statement that the Grey Method is now the Grey - Cerone Method . After a night spent together , April confesses to Tom that her deviant behavior is a result of her failing faith and hatred of God . Maggie and Jackson learn to move past their quirks and baggage . Alex fears that Jo 's fellowship applications indicate that she 's willing to leave him behind in Seattle ; however , in a twist of events , Jo asks Alex to marry her and he quickly accepts . 309 16 `` Caught Somewhere in Time '' Nicole Rubio Jalysa Conway March 22 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 22 ) 7.61 Bailey 's patient turns out to be one of her childhood heroes , a female astronaut who is in the process of building a time machine . Meredith throws in the towel on her research , since she is no longer receiving the patent . Richard and Catherine learn of Jackson and Maggie 's relationship , which causes some awkward tension as Jackson , Catherine , and Richard work together on the vaginoplasty case . April hijacks the trauma certification drill , and leaves the interns in tears and doubt . After Bailey loses her patient , she finds the inspiration needed to name her research project `` The Trailblazer '' , and Jo reignites Meredith 's will to continue on with her project . Amelia and Owen continue to pursue their `` friends with benefits '' relationship until she finds out how close Owen and Teddy are , and Arizona helps Sofia get accustomed to her new life away from New York . 310 17 `` One Day Like This '' Kevin McKidd Elisabeth R. Finch March 29 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 29 ) 7.15 April crosses Bailey when she disagrees on Bailey 's treatment plan for a rabbi who came in three times for diverticulitis and only gave him antibiotics , and who is now suffering from toxic epidermal necrolysis as a side effect . As April treats the rabbi , he gives her a lesson on faith which allows her to reflect on her recent struggles . Meredith buddies up with a new transplant surgeon from the Mayo Clinic , Dr Nick Marsh , who is recovering from a recent kidney transplant of his own . After his lab results come back , Meredith rushes him to surgery to remove a blood clot and successfully saves his kidney . After calling it quits with Amelia , Owen reconnects with Teddy , who now lives in Germany . However , after the short , happy reunion , Teddy learns that just a short while ago he was still sleeping with Amelia and refuses to be his second choice . 311 18 `` Hold Back the River '' Geary McLeod Alex Manugian April 5 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 05 ) 6.84 Richard is surprised to see his AA sponsor , Ollie , arrive at Grey Sloan in an ambulance . After she denies him the ability to save her life once more , he enlists the help of Maggie and Meredith . Now that Owen is back in the States , he has to face the disdain of Arizona and Amelia 's failure to fix things with Teddy . In between the personal conversations , Arizona and Owen look further into a fraudulent oncologist . In their pursuit , they coincidentally learn that Arizona has breast cancer -- at least until it was proven that the image produced was a fake . Alex , Amelia , and Tom resect Noah 's brain tumor , despite never performing the procedure before . Though successful , Amelia and Tom decide that it is too risky to do the same for Kimmy , which infuriates Alex. April strives to make amends with her colleagues , and Jackson , claiming that she has found Jesus again . Meredith and Jo learn that their research can be successful without the polymer , and that they can help patients grow livers and save lives . 312 19 `` Beautiful Dreamer '' Jeannot Szwarc Meg Marinis April 12 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 12 ) 6.97 Bailey gets caught off guard when an agent from ICE ( Immigration and Customs Enforcement ) shows up looking for one of her surgical interns , Sam Bello . Unaware of the situation , Sam explains that she is a `` dreamer '' protected by DACA . While Meredith and Andrew scheme up ideas to keep Sam from being deported back to El Salvador , Bailey distracts Agent Fields with concerns about his own health . As Arizona and Carina move forward in their research by learning from their previous patient 's death , April is surprised to see Matthew back at Grey Sloan with his baby who is failing to thrive . When Alex refuses to give up on Kimmy , Jo realizes Kimmy 's dream and signs off on discharge papers . Catherine comes back to support Richard who has stayed with Ollie right through her final breath . Meredith sends Sam to Zurich to study under Cristina ; Owen signs up to become a foster parent , and Jackson confronts Maggie about her tendency to resist their relationship . Jackson directs the Harper Avery Foundation to release a researcher from an agreement so she can collaborate with Amelia ; Catherine tells Richard that the hospital is now doomed . 313 20 `` Judgment Day '' Sydney Freeland Julie Wong April 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 19 ) 6.93 As the next stage of the research contest begins , the Top 25 proposals are presented by their respective owners who have gathered to present in front of a panel and audience . Arizona shares cookies , provided by a grateful patient , with her colleagues ; however , she later learns they were laced with cannabis . Due to the mishap , the presentations are postponed , and the interns are summoned to replace the stoned attendings . Meredith walks Jo through surgery after Bailey is forced to scrub out and accidentally injures Meredith 's hand . Jo makes effective use of Richard 's project . Catherine tells Jackson of the 13 cases of sexual harassment that were filed against his grandfather and the major settlements used to cover them up . April overhears and then shares the secret with Bailey , who has a secret of her own -- she is partnering with a sex toy company to make her `` Trailblazer '' device . Owen gets a call about his first foster child , which makes him nervous until Amelia saves him . Meredith learns about the dark past of Harper Avery and , in addition , that Marie Cerone was one of the 13 women . Richard fires intern , Dr Vikram Roy , who was found practicing under the influence . 314 21 `` Bad Reputation '' Kevin McKidd Mark Driscoll April 26 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 26 ) 6.54 With word spreading about Harper Avery , Meredith decides to return her and Ellis ' awards to the foundation . Catherine hires a crisis management specialist , who brings in a patient for Jackson and Meredith to heal as PR stunt. Bailey shuts down the innovation contest for fear of word getting out that an Avery funded it , so April volunteers her time to plan Alex and Jo 's wedding . Alex and Jo get awkward when , Olivia , the former `` Syph nurse , '' returns to the hospital with her son -- who swallowed a whistle -- and begins planting seeds of doubt . Owen takes Leo in for his check up with his birth mom in tow , who ends up talking to Amelia . Thinking she can sponsor her with her drug addiction , Amelia takes her in as a foster child of her own . Meredith and Jackson think up a way to save the foundation by changing its name to the Catherine Fox Foundation dedicated to all the women victimized by the previous regime . Alex learns that his bank account balance is awfully high due to his mom not cashing the checks he 's been sending her , and Vikram plans to sue the hospital for wrongful termination . 315 22 `` Fight for Your Mind '' Jesse Williams Andy Reaser May 3 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 03 ) 6.66 Alex and Jo drive to Iowa to locate his mom , only to find that she no longer exhibits schizophrenic behavior and that she 's even returned to her old job . Richard and Bailey battle to keep the hospital from being sued by Vikram ; although Bailey stands by the initial firing , Richard empathizes as he reflects on the times he operated while inebriated . As Amelia helps Betty detox , Arizona struggles to accept that Sofia stole money . Meredith kills time before her presentation throwing darts with a guy she eventually learns is a surgeon who 's there to see her . Their conversation leads Meredith to decide that the `` Grey Method '' should be renamed the `` Grey - Cerone Method . '' After Alex works things out with his mom , Jo extends a declined invitation to their wedding . Bailey allows Vikram to return under strict probationary rules ; Amelia visits an AA group after Betty makes an escape , and Arizona calls Callie to say that she thinks it 's time for her and Sofia to move to New York . 316 23 `` Cold as Ice '' Bill D'Elia William Harper May 10 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 10 ) 7.35 After Arizona tells Bailey of her upcoming departure , she and Amelia consult with a familiar patient , Dr Nicole Herman . Her arrival presents an opportunity that changes Arizona 's future plans - the chance to partner with her and create the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health . When Matthew winds up in the ER after rolling his car and mentions being with April , the doctors fear the worst . Frantically trying to locate her , Owen finds her unconscious in a nearby ravine . Unknowing of the latest events , Alex and Jo work to finalize the details of their impending wedding . Maggie thinks she detects a subtle rhythm on April 's monitor , but she has to repeatedly shock her to strengthen it . While waiting for her to wake up , Arizona breaks the news that Matthew and April have been seeing each other for months and that they were in love . Thinking that the end has come , Jackson finally prays to God and begs Him to save her in exchange for his belief . However , April awakens fully functional despite the disbelief of all her coworkers . 317 24 `` All of Me '' Debbie Allen Krista Vernoff May 17 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 17 ) 7.60 Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived , and though most details have come together , April ( who quit the hospital and is now doing medical work with the homeless ) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony . While trying to escape , the mother of the bride faints , keeping Ben and Bailey behind . Once at the hospital , Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job . Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program , but fearful of losing Alex , Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position . As guests arrive , Alex and Jo accidentally lock themselves in a shed after engaging in one last fling before tying the knot . The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her . After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding , the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement . On a ferry back to the main land , Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry . Bailey , wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions , offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief . Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet , in the ICU with the bride 's mother , Teddy reveals she 's pregnant . Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York , but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single . Ratings ( edit ) Live + sd ratings ( edit ) No. in series No. in season Episode Air date Time slot ( EST ) Rating / Share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( m ) 18 -- 49 Rank Viewership rank Drama rank 294 `` Break Down the House '' September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) Thursday 8 : 00 p.m. 2.3 / 8 8.07 12 24 295 `` Get Off on the Pain '' September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) Thursday 9 : 00 p.m. 2.3 / 8 8.07 12 24 296 `` Go Big or Go Home '' October 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 05 ) Thursdays 8 : 00 p.m. 2.1 / 8 8.06 11 21 297 `` Ai n't That a Kick in the Head ? '' October 12 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 12 ) 2.1 / 8 8.08 10 17 298 5 `` Danger Zone '' October 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 26 ) 1.8 / 7 7.67 14 22 299 6 `` Come On Down to My Boat , Baby '' November 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 02 ) 1.8 / 7 7.38 13 21 300 7 `` Who Lives , Who Dies , Who Tells Your Story '' November 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 09 ) 1.9 / 7 8.13 11 19 301 8 `` Out of Nowhere '' November 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 16 ) 1.8 / 7 7.52 13 21 302 9 `` 1 - 800 - 799 - 7233 '' January 18 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 18 ) 2.3 / 9 8.27 7 14 303 10 `` Personal Jesus '' January 25 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 25 ) 2.3 / 9 8.62 7 304 11 `` ( Do n't Fear ) the Reaper '' February 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 01 ) 2.3 / 9 8.93 5 8 305 12 `` Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger '' February 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 08 ) 2.0 / 8 7.32 6 13 306 13 `` You Really Got a Hold on Me '' March 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 01 ) 2.0 / 8 7.52 9 17 307 14 `` Games People Play '' March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) 1.7 / 7 7.07 9 19 308 15 `` Old Scars , Future Hearts '' March 15 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 15 ) 1.8 / 7 7.18 5 15 309 16 `` Caught Somewhere in Time '' March 22 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 22 ) 1.9 / 8 7.61 7 12 310 17 `` One Day Like This '' March 29 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 29 ) 1.8 / 7 7.15 8 19 311 18 `` Hold Back the River '' April 5 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 05 ) 1.7 / 7 6.84 8 20 312 19 `` Beautiful Dreamer '' April 12 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 12 ) 1.7 / 7 6.97 8 16 313 20 `` Judgment Day '' April 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 19 ) 1.7 / 7 6.93 6 18 314 21 `` Bad Reputation '' April 26 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 26 ) 1.5 / 6 6.54 7 16 315 22 `` Fight for Your Mind '' May 3 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 03 ) 1.6 / 7 6.66 8 18 316 23 `` Cold as Ice '' May 10 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 10 ) 1.9 / 8 7.35 16 317 24 `` All of Me '' May 17 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 17 ) 1.9 / 8 7.60 10 Live + 7 day ( DVR ) ratings ( edit ) No. in series No. in season Episode Air date Time slot ( EST ) 18 -- 49 increase Viewers ( millions ) increase Total 18 - 49 Total viewers ( millions ) Ref 294 `` Break Down the House '' September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) Thursday 8 : 00 p.m. 1.6 3.91 3.9 11.99 295 `` Get Off on the Pain '' September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) Thursday 9 : 00 p.m. 1.6 3.91 3.9 11.99 296 `` Go Big or Go Home '' October 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 05 ) Thursdays 8 : 00 p.m. 1.6 3.83 3.7 11.89 297 `` Ai n't That a Kick in the Head ? '' October 12 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 12 ) 1.4 3.51 3.5 11.59 298 5 `` Danger Zone '' October 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 26 ) 1.5 3.54 3.3 11.22 299 6 `` Come On Down to My Boat , Baby '' November 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 02 ) 1.5 3.45 3.2 10.84 300 7 `` Who Lives , Who Dies , Who Tells Your Story '' November 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 09 ) 1.5 3.53 3.4 11.67 301 8 `` Out of Nowhere '' November 16 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 16 ) 1.5 3.54 3.3 11.07 302 9 `` 1 - 800 - 799 - 7233 '' January 18 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 18 ) 1.3 3.30 3.6 11.58 303 10 `` Personal Jesus '' January 25 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 25 ) 1.3 3.35 3.6 11.98 304 11 `` ( Do n't Fear ) The Reaper '' February 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 01 ) 1.4 3.41 3.7 12.35 305 12 `` Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger '' February 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 08 ) 1.5 3.72 3.5 11.05 306 13 `` You Really Got a Hold on Me '' March 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 01 ) 1.6 3.90 3.6 11.43 307 14 `` Games People Play '' March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) 1.5 3.57 3.2 10.65 308 15 `` Old Scars , Future Hearts '' March 15 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 15 ) 1.5 3.64 3.3 10.82 309 16 `` Caught Somewhere in Time '' March 22 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 22 ) 1.4 3.25 3.3 10.87 310 17 `` One Day Like This '' March 29 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 29 ) 1.4 3.50 3.2 10.66 311 18 `` Hold Back the River '' April 5 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 05 ) 1.4 3.58 3.1 10.43 312 19 `` Beautiful Dreamer '' April 12 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 12 ) 1.4 3.44 3.1 10.42 313 20 `` Judgment Day '' April 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 19 ) 1.3 3.40 3.0 10.35 314 21 `` Bad Reputation '' April 26 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 26 ) 1.3 3.31 2.8 9.93 315 22 `` Fight for Your Mind '' May 3 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 03 ) 1.4 3.44 3.0 10.10 316 23 `` Cold as Ice '' May 10 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 10 ) 1.4 3.38 3.3 10.71 317 24 `` All of Me '' May 17 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 17 ) 1.3 3.09 3.3 11.01 DVD release ( edit ) References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Mitovich , Matt Webb ( July 24 , 2017 ) . `` ABC Fall Premiere Dates : XL Grey 's Return , Scandal 's Swan Song and More '' . TVLine . Retrieved July 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` TV shows renewed for 2017 -- 18 and beyond '' . TV By The Numbers by zap2it.com. 2017 - 02 - 13 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : `` Grey 's Anatomy TV show on ABC : season 14 renewal '' . canceled TV shows -- TV Series Finale. 2017 - 02 - 10 . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Ausiello , Michael ( January 31 , 2017 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy : ( Spoiler ) Poised to Exit '' . TV Line . Retrieved February 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Grey 's Anatomy Martin Henderson exit Riggs '' . EW . Retrieved October 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : Jessica Capshaw , Sarah Drew to Exit After Season 14 , '' . Deadline . Retrieved March 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' Renewed for Season 15 at ABC '' . Variety . 2018 - 04 - 20 . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Andreeva , Nellie ( June 20 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : Kim Raver To Make A Return In Season 14 '' . Deadline . Retrieved June 21 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Petski , Denise ( 4 August 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : Abigail Spencer Set To Recur In Recasting '' . Retrieved 29 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Nilles , Billy ( September 13 , 2017 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Season 14 Admits Greg Germann for Guest - Star Role '' . E !. Retrieved September 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Matthew Morrison will return to Grey 's Anatomy in 14th season '' . Retrieved 29 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Grey 's Anatomy Adds a Controversial New Doctor for Season 14 '' . 8 August 2017 . Retrieved 29 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Nilles , Billy ( October 9 , 2017 ) . `` Meet Grey 's Anatomy 's New Season 14 Interns '' . E !. Retrieved October 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Niles , Billy ( 2018 - 01 - 31 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Admits Candis Cayne for `` Groundbreaking '' Season 14 Transgender Storyline `` . eonline.com . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 01 . Jump up ^ http://deadline.com/2018/02/scott-speedman-cast-greys-anatomy-guest-star-animal-kingdom-exit-tnt-1202279529/ ^ Jump up to : Nilles , Billy ( April 4 , 2018 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Is Welcoming Back Another Familiar Face in Season 14 '' . E !. Retrieved April 5 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( April 26 , 2018 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' : Lindsay Wagner To Play Alex 's Mom On ABC Medical Drama Series '' . Deadline . Retrieved April 26 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Grey 's Anatomy ' : Geena Davis Returns To Reprise Dr. Herman Role '' . Deadline. April 20 , 2018 . Retrieved April 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Alan Ball HBO Series Casts Sosie Bacon , Daniel Zovatto , Raymond Lee & Jerrika Hinton '' . Deadline . Jump up ^ Schwartz , Ryan ( March 16 , 2016 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy 's Jerrika Hinton Nabs Lead in Shondaland Comedy Pilot '' . TVLine . Retrieved May 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( June 28 , 2015 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy : Jessica Capshaw Signs Major Contract Extension -- Find Out How Long Arizona 's Sticking Around '' . TVLine . Retrieved May 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rice , Lynette ( August 7 , 2017 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy spoiler ! Look who else is leaving Grey Sloan '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved March 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( October 26 , 2017 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy : Another cast member exits '' . Entertainment Weekly . Jump up ^ Nilles , Billy ( January 31 , 2018 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Admits Candis Cayne for `` Groundbreaking '' Season 14 Transgender Storyline `` . E ! Online . Retrieved April 4 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Nilles , Billy ( March 30 , 2017 ) . `` Why Ellen Pompeo Could n't Say No to Directing Grey 's Anatomy '' . E ! Online . Retrieved May 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Vernoff , Krista ( @ KristaVernoff ) ( April 28 , 2017 ) . `` Friday afternoon seems as good a time as any to announce this tidbit : I 'm returning to # GreysAnatomy for Season 14 ! # NeverSayNever '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved May 14 , 2017 -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ Corinthios , Aurelie ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` Grey 's Anatomy Web Series Follows Latest Batch of Newbie Doctors : Meet the B - Team '' . People.com . Retrieved January 11 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( September 29 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace , ' ' Superstore , ' ' Good Place , ' ' Gotham ' adjust up ; ' How to Get Away ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 6 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 6 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Gotham ' and NFL adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 13 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 27 , 2017 ) . `` NFL adjusts up , scripted shows all unchanged : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Will & Grace ' adjusts up , ' Sheldon ' and other CBS shows adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 3 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' Thursday Night Football ' adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 10 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' Supernatural ' and NFL adjust up , ' Young Sheldon ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved November 17 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' adjusts up , ' The Four , ' ' Scandal ' and ' Great News ' down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 26 , 2018 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' adjusts up , ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 26 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 2 , 2018 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' The Four ' adjust up , ' Mom ' and ' AP Bio ' adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 2 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 9 , 2018 ) . `` Olympics adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 9 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 2 , 2018 ) . `` ' Superstore , ' ' SWAT , ' ' Scandal ' and ' AP Bio ' adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 2 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 9 , 2018 ) . `` ' Young Sheldon , ' ' SWAT , ' all NBC shows adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 9 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 16 , 2018 ) . `` AP Bio ' adjusts up , NCAA Tournament adjusts down but ahead of 2017 : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 16 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 23 , 2018 ) . `` ' AP Bio ' adjusts up , NCAA Sweet 16 ahead of last year : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 23 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 30 , 2018 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Chicago Fire ' adjust up , ' SWAT ' adjusts down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 30 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy ' adjust up , ' Mom , ' ' Supernatural , ' ' Arrow ' down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 6 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 13 , 2018 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Grey 's Anatomy ' and ' Superstore ' adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 20 , 2018 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' adjusts up , ' SWAT , ' ' Supernatural ' & ' Arrow ' adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 20 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 27 , 2018 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Young Sheldon ' and ' Supernatural ' adjust up : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 27 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 4 , 2018 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory ' adjusts up , ' Life in Pieces ' and ' Station 19 ' adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 4 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 11 , 2018 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy , ' ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Young Sheldon ' adjust up , ' Supernatural ' & ' Arrow ' down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 11 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 18 , 2018 ) . `` ' SWAT ' and ' Arrow ' finales adjust down : Thursday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Sunday Night Football ' score in week 1 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 3 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 10 , 2017 ) . `` NFL times 2 dominates the week 2 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 11 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 17 , 2017 ) . `` NFL , ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' NCIS ' lead week 3 's broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 31 , 2017 ) . `` World Series makes FOX No. 1 in week 5 's broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 7 , 2017 ) . `` World Series , ' Big Bang Theory ' lead week 6 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 14 , 2017 ) . `` NFL and ' This Is Us ' carry NBC to victory in week 7 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 14 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 21 , 2017 ) . `` NFL carries NBC to victory again : Week 8 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved November 22 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 23 , 2018 ) . `` FOX dominates , ABC gets a boost in week 17 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved January 23 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 30 , 2018 ) . `` Grammys and ' NCIS ' carry CBS to victory : Week 18 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved January 30 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 6 , 2018 ) . `` Super Bowl LII ( obviously ) dominates week 19 's broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 13 , 2018 ) . `` Olympics push NBC to No. 1 for the season : Week 20 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved February 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 6 , 2018 ) . `` Low Oscars still carries ABC to No. 1 : Week 23 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 7 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 13 , 2018 ) . `` ' American Idol ' helps ABC lead the week 24 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 20 , 2018 ) . `` ' NCIS , ' NCAA carry CBS to No. 1 : Week 25 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 20 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 27 , 2018 ) . `` March Madness and ' 60 Minutes ' carry CBS : Week 26 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 27 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 3 , 2018 ) . `` ' Roseanne ' carries ABC to No. 1 in week 27 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 3 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 10 , 2018 ) . `` ABC and CBS share lead in week 28 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 10 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 17 , 2018 ) . `` ' Roseanne ' is still No. 1 , but CBS wins week 29 : Broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 17 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 24 , 2018 ) . `` ' Roseanne ' stays in front , networks soft : Week 30 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 24 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 1 , 2018 ) . `` ' American Idol ' helps ABC lead the week 31 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 1 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 8 , 2018 ) . `` ' Roseanne , ' ' Idol ' and LeBron help ABC top week 32 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 8 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 15 , 2018 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory ' finale overtakes ' Roseanne ' : Week 33 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 15 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 22 , 2018 ) . `` NBC and CBS will split season victory : Week 34 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 22 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and ' The Good Doctor ' score big in premiere week broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Orville , ' ' Once Upon a Time , ' 5 more shows double in week 2 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Good Doctor ' is the most - watched show on TV in week 3 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' keeps rolling along in week 5 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and 12 more shows double in week 6 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' rides high in week 7 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 5 , 2017 ) . `` ' Jane the Virgin , ' 10 other shows double in week 8 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 1 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us , ' ' The Good Doctor ' both double in week 17 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 8 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' sets NBC records in week 18 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 15 , 2018 ) . `` Closing the book on the Super Bowl ' This Is Us ' : Week 19 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Good Doctor ' and ' This Is Us ' on top again : Week 20 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 15 , 2018 ) . `` ' Agents of SHIELD , ' 16 other shows double in week 23 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' leads the week 24 broadcast Live + 7 ratings -- by quite a bit '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 29 , 2018 ) . `` This Is Us ' goes out on top : Week 25 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 29 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 6 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Good Doctor ' scores highest in week 26 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 11 , 2018 ) . `` ' Roseanne ' premiere sets a record in week 27 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 19 , 2018 ) . `` ' Will & Grace ' finale , 11 other shows double in week 28 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 19 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 26 , 2018 ) . `` ' New Girl ' premiere doubles in week 29 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 7 , 2018 ) . `` ' Scandal ' and ' Criminal Minds ' get biggest finale bumps in week 30 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 10 , 2018 ) . `` ' Agents of SHIELD , ' 13 more shows double in week 31 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Otterson , Joe ( May 21 , 2018 ) . `` Delayed Viewing Ratings : ' Roseanne ' Returns on Top '' . Variety . Retrieved May 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 24 , 2018 ) . `` ' Chicago PD ' wins the Windy City battle in week 33 's broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Live + 7 DVR Ratings - 2016 / 2017 Season * Updated 8th June 2017 * '' . Spoiler TV . June 8 , 2018 . Retrieved June 8 , 2018 . Grey 's Anatomy episodes Season 1 `` A Hard Day 's Night '' `` If Tomorrow Never Comes '' Season 2 `` Into You Like a Train '' `` It 's the End of the World '' `` As We Know It '' `` Losing My Religion '' Season 3 `` Time Has Come Today '' `` I Am a Tree '' `` Great Expectations '' `` Wishin ' and Hopin ' '' `` Did n't We Almost Have It All ? '' Season 4 `` A Change Is Gonna Come '' Season 5 `` Stand By Me '' `` Elevator Love Letter '' `` What a Difference a Day Makes '' `` Now or Never '' Season 6 `` Good Mourning '' `` Goodbye '' `` I Always Feel Like Somebody 's Watchin ' Me '' `` Tainted Obligation '' `` Invasion '' `` I Saw What I Saw '' `` Give Peace a Chance '' `` Invest in Love '' `` I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked '' `` Death and All His Friends '' Season 7 `` Song Beneath the Song '' Season 8 `` Flight '' Season 9 `` Going , Going , Gone '' `` Beautiful Doom '' `` Perfect Storm '' Season 10 `` Fear ( of the Unknown ) '' Season 11 `` I Must Have Lost it on the Wind '' `` Puzzle with a Piece Missing '' `` Got to Be Real '' `` Only Mama Knows '' `` Bend & Break '' `` Do n't Let 's Start '' `` One Flight Down '' `` How to Save a Life '' `` She 's Leaving Home '' `` Time Stops '' `` You 're My Home '' Season 12 `` Sledgehammer '' `` Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner '' `` Something Against You '' `` Things We Lost in the Fire '' `` The Sound of Silence '' `` Family Affair '' Season 13 `` True Colors '' Season 14 `` Danger Zone '' `` Personal Jesus '' `` All of Me '' Grey 's Anatomy Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Characters ( cast members ) Meredith Grey Cristina Yang Izzie Stevens Alex Karev George O'Malley Miranda Bailey Richard Webber Preston Burke Derek Shepherd Addison Montgomery Callie Torres Mark Sloan Lexie Grey Erica Hahn Owen Hunt Sadie Harris Arizona Robbins Teddy Altman Jackson Avery April Kepner Amelia Shepherd Stephanie Edwards Maggie Pierce Nathan Riggs Spin - offs Private Practice Station 19 Other Awards and nominations Soundtrack Video game A Corazón Abierto ( Mexican telenovela ) A Corazón Abierto ( Colombian telenovela ) Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grey%27s_Anatomy_(season_14)&oldid=856736458 '' Categories : Grey 's Anatomy episodes 2017 American television seasons 2018 American television seasons Grey 's Anatomy seasons Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Español Français Italiano Polski Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 27 August 2018 , at 06 : 43 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
when is season 16 of greys anatomy coming out
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Animal cracker
Animal cracker - wikipedia Animal cracker Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Animal Crackers . Animal cracker Some of Barnum 's Animals Type Cracker / cookie Invented 19th century Cookbook : Animal cracker Media : Animal cracker An animal cracker is a particular type of small cracker / cookie , baked in the shape of an animal , usually an animal either at a zoo or circus , such as an African lion , tiger , bear or elephant . The most common variety is light - colored and slightly sweet , but darker chocolate - flavored and colorful frosted varieties are also sold . Although animal crackers are made with a layered dough like crackers , they tend to be sweet in flavor , but still technically a cracker and not a cookie . Other animal - shaped crackers and cookies are popular , such as Teddy Grahams , Goldfish , Hello Panda and Koala 's March . These differ from traditional animal crackers in flavor and assortment , and though not usually called animal crackers , are still considered animal crackers . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Varieties 3 Manufacturers 4 In popular culture 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History ( edit ) In the late 19th century , animal - shaped crackers ( or `` biscuits '' in British terminology ) called `` Animals '' were imported from England to the United States . The demand for these cookies grew to the point that bakers began to produce them domestically . Stauffer 's Biscuit Company produced their first batch of animal crackers in York , Pennsylvania , in 1871 . Other domestic bakeries , including the Dozier - Weyl Cracker Company of St. Louis , and the Holmes and Coutts Company of New York City , were the predecessors of the National Biscuit Company , today 's `` Nabisco Brands '' . Animal biscuit cookies were made and distributed under the National Biscuit Company banner . In 1902 , animal crackers officially became known as `` Barnum 's Animals '' and evoked the familiar circus theme of the Barnum and Bailey Circus . Later in 1902 , the now - familiar box was designed for the Christmas season with the innovative idea of attaching a string to hang from the Christmas tree . Until that time , crackers were generally sold only in bulk ( the proverbial `` cracker barrel '' ) or in large tins . These small cartons , which retailed for 5 cents at the time of their release , were a big hit and are still sold today . The number and variety contained in each box has varied over the years . In total , 54 different animals have been represented by animal crackers since 1902 . In its current incarnation , each package contains 22 cookies consisting of a variety of animals . The most recent addition , the koala , was added in September 2002 after being chosen by consumer votes , beating out the penguin , walrus and cobra . In 1948 , the company changed the product name to its current designation of `` Barnum 's Animals Crackers '' . In 1958 , production methods changed to improve the cookies ' visual details . Until then , animal shapes were stamped out of a dough sheet by a cutter . This produced outlines with little sophistication . By installing rotary dies , bakers can actually engrave details onto each cookie , creating a more intricate design . The rotary dies are still used today . Barnum 's Animals Crackers are all produced in the Fair Lawn , New Jersey , bakery by Nabisco Brands . More than 40 million packages of Barnum 's Animals Crackers are sold each year , both in the United States and exported to 17 countries worldwide . The cookies are baked in a 300 - foot ( 91 m ) - long traveling band oven . They are in the oven for about four minutes and are baked at the rate of 12,000 per minute . About 15,000 cartons and 330,000 cookies are produced in a single shift , using some 30 miles of string on the packages . This runs to nearly 8,000 miles ( 13,000 km ) of string a year . Those bright circus boxes are produced in three colors - red , blue , and yellow - with different variety of animals on each . Varieties ( edit ) In total , 106 different animals have been featured in Barnum 's Animals Crackers since 1903 . The current cookies are bear , bison , camel , cougar , elephant , giraffe , gorilla , hippopotamus , hyena , kangaroo , lion , monkey , rhinoceros , seal , sheep , tiger , and zebra . To celebrate its 100th anniversary , Barnum 's added the koala to the menagerie in September 2002 . Austin Zoo Animal Crackers currently feature bear , camel , elephant , lion , monkey , owl , penguin , rabbit , ram , rhinoceros , turtle , and zebra . Cadburys Animals are chocolate coated and feature crocodile , elephant , hippo , monkey , lion , tiger , and toucan . Stauffer 's Animals Crackers Stauffer 's animal crackers include an American bison , bear , camel , cow , cat , donkey , elephant , hippopotamus , horse , lion , mountain goat , rhinoceros , and tiger . They are made in plain ( vanilla ) , chocolate graham , cinnamon graham , cotton candy and iced flavors , as well as `` breakfast cookies '' made with oats , almonds , cranberries , and pomegranate . Manufacturers ( edit ) Nabisco makes Barnum 's Animal Crackers , with their distinctive package art of a circus wagon fitted out as a cage and animals within it . `` Barnum '' refers to the famous showman and circus entrepreneur P.T. Barnum , but Nabisco does not pay a licensing fee to Barnum and Bailey Circus . The product actually says `` Barnum 's Animals '' , subtitled `` Crackers '' . Half of the wheels are printed on the large sides of the box but at one time the printed wheels continued to the bottom of the box , and were partially perforated along their outline , which allowed punching the wheels out and standing the wagon to stand on its wheels . Austin , a division of the Keebler Company , also makes a variety of animal crackers . Although not nearly as popular , the Austin variety has similar nutritional content and animal shapes . The Austin product is labeled under the name of the Kellogg Company , which acquired Keebler in 2001 . Stauffer Biscuit Company of York , Pennsylvania , also has a line of animal crackers , which are now distributed by several major discount retailers . Their use of the spices nutmeg and mace give the basic animal cracker a slightly different character from the Nabisco crackers . The Borden corporation also produced a brand of animal crackers , until the late 1970s . They came in a red box , which featured the famous Elsie the Cow logo . Market Square Food Company Inc. in Illinois has also produced its own brand of animal crackers since 1982 . Its animal crackers are distributed by several major retailers throughout the United States and internationally . In the UK , Cadburys produce a range simply called `` Animals '' . As noted above , these biscuits ( British usage ) have a chocolate coating on one side . In Germany , Bahlsen produces animal crackers under the Leibniz brand . In popular culture ( edit ) Animal Crackers was the name of a 1930 Marx Brothers film . `` I 'm Just Wild About Animal Crackers '' was recorded by Irving Aaronson & His Commanders with Phil Saxe doing the vocal for Victor on June 23 , 1926 . A song sung by Shirley Temple in 1935 , `` Animal Crackers in My Soup '' , was used by many companies for advertising animal crackers . Animal crackers are the subject of Melanie Safka 's 1968 novelty hit `` Animal Crackers '' . They are the namesake of Eric Whitacre 's popular choral piece , `` Animal Crackers '' . There are animal crackers featured on the artwork for the unreleased single `` Pennyroyal Tea '' by Nirvana . In the 2007 film Zodiac , Inspector Dave Toschi ( portrayed by Mark Ruffalo ) is frequently seen snacking on animal crackers . The real life Toschi was known for this habit as well . Animal crackers figure prominently in a romantic scene between Ben Affleck and Liv Tyler in the movie Armageddon ( 1998 ) Animal crackers are mentioned in passing in Buffy the Vampire Slayer season 2 , episode 13 , `` Surprise '' , when Oz , wooing Willow , notes that the monkey is the only cookie animal which wears pants ; `` I mock you with my monkey pants '' is a memorable line . See also ( edit ) Food portal List of crackers References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` FAQs Stauffer 's Animal Crackers '' . www.stauffers.com . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Stauffer 's Original Animal Crackers History '' . Stauffers.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` D.F. Stauffer Biscuit Company - Company Profile , Information , Business Description , History , Background Information on D.F. Stauffer Biscuit Company '' . Referenceforbusiness.com . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 13 . ^ Jump up to : Frey , Jennifer ( 2002 - 01 - 02 ) . `` A Box Filled With Sweet Memories '' . Los Angeles Times . ISSN 0458 - 3035 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : `` Happy National Animal Cracker Day -- from Fair Lawn ! '' . Youdontknowjersey.com. 2012 - 04 - 18 . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 11 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived 2010 - 10 - 12 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Pennyroyal Tea '' . Wikipedia . 2017 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Quotes for Inspector David Toschi ( Character ) : Zodiac ( 2007 ) '' . IMDb.com . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` 40 years of Zodiac -- The cold case that haunts Dave Toschi - City Brights : Duffy Jennings '' . Blog.sfgate.com. 2009 - 10 - 07 . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Armageddon ( 1998 ) : Full Cast & Crew '' . IMDb.com . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 13 . External links ( edit ) Animal Crackers -- The largest animal crackers resource in the world , complete with recipes and articles . ( hide ) Mondelēz International brands Nabisco brands and other snacks Arrowroot Barni Barnum 's Animals Belvita Better Cheddars Bimo Cheese Nips Chips Ahoy ! Club Social Comet Enjoy Life Fig Newtons Filipinos Fudgee - O Ginger Snaps Good Thins Handi - Snacks Honey Maid In a Biskit Kinh Do Lefèvre - Utile ( LU ) Lorna Doone Mallomars Mikado Nilla Nutter Butter Oreo Peek Freans Premium Crackers Prince Rice Thins Ritz Crackers SnackWells Sociables Social Tea Stoned Wheat Thins Teddy Grahams Tiger Trakinas Triscuit TUC Vegetable Thins Wheat Thins Wheatsworth Cadbury brands 5 star chocolate Astros Bassett 's Boost Bournville Bournvita Brunch Bar Buttons Carambar Caramello Koala Caramilk Chappies Cherry Ripe Chomp Clusters Creme Egg Creme Egg Twisted Crispy Crunch Crunchie Curly Wurly Dairy Milk ( Caramel , Fruit & Nut ) Double Decker Dream Eclairs Fingers Flake Freddo Fry 's Chocolate Cream Fry 's Turkish Delight Fudge Fuse Green & Black 's Heroes Jelly Babies Kent Koko Kréma La Pie qui Chante Mantecol Maynards Milk Tray Mini Eggs Moro Mr. Big Old Gold Palitos de la selva Pascall Picnic Poulain Roses Shots Snack Snowflake Starbar The Natural Confectionery Company Time Out Trebor Twirl Vichy Pastilles Wispa Yowie Gums Beemans gum Bubbaloo Bubblicious Certs Chiclets Clorets Dentyne Dentyne Mints Dirol Freshen Up Gum Hollywood Chewing Gum Malabar Sour Patch Kids Stimorol Stride Swedish Fish Trident Wunderbar Chocolates Alpen Gold Baker 's Chocolate Côte d'Or Daim Freia Freia Melkesjokolade Kvikk Lunsj Lacta Marabou Milka O'Boy Poiana Prince Polo Terry 's Terry 's All Gold Terry 's Chocolate Orange Toblerone Twist Coffee ( Jacobs Douwe Egberts ) Douwe Egberts Gevalia HAG Jacobs Kenco L'OR Moccona Pilão Senseo Super Tassimo Other brands Clight Eden Halls Philadelphia Royal 90 Brasil Sottilette ( Kraft Singles ) Tang Discontinued Bonkers candy Cameo cookies In the United States , these products are manufactured and marketed by The Hershey Company under a prior licensing agreement . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal_cracker&oldid=825543982 '' Categories : 1871 introductions Crackers ( food ) Cookies Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 14 February 2018 , at 00 : 33 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
how many different animals in a box of stauffers animal crackers
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Star-Spangled Banner (flag)
Star - Spangled Banner ( flag ) - wikipedia Star - Spangled Banner ( flag ) Jump to : navigation , search Flag that flew over Fort McHenry in 1814 , photographed in 1873 in the Boston Navy Yard by George Henry Preble . The Star - Spangled Banner , or the Great Garrison Flag , was the garrison flag that flew over Fort McHenry in Baltimore Harbor during the naval portion of the Battle of Baltimore during the War of 1812 . Seeing the flag during the battle inspired Francis Scott Key to write the poem `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' , which , retitled with the flag 's name from the closing lines of the first stanza and set to the tune of `` To Anacreon in Heaven '' by John Stafford Smith , later became the national anthem of the United States . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Design 1.2 Battle 1.3 Scrap sold at auction , November 2011 2 Smithsonian National Museum of American History 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links History ( edit ) In Baltimore 's preparation for an expected attack on the city , Fort McHenry was made ready to defend the city 's harbor . When Major George Armistead expressed desire for a very large flag to fly over the fort , General John S. Stricker and Commodore Joshua Barney placed an order with a prominent Baltimorean flagmaker for two oversized American Flags . The larger of the two flags would be the Great Garrison Flag , the largest battle flag ever flown at the time . The smaller of the two flags would be the Storm Flag , to be more durable and less prone to fouling in inclement weather . Available documentation shows that this flag was sewn by local flagmaker Mary Young Pickersgill under a government commission in 1813 at a cost of $405.90 ( equivalent to $5,037 in 2016 ) . George Armistead , the commander of Fort McHenry , specified `` a flag so large that the British would have no difficulty seeing it from a distance '' . Design ( edit ) Mary Pickersgill stitched the flag from a combination of cotton and dyed English wool bunting , assisted by her daughter , two nieces , and an African American indentured servant . ( Her elderly mother may also have helped . ) The flag has fifteen horizontal red and white stripes , as well as fifteen white stars in the blue field . The two additional stars and stripes , approved by the United States Congress 's Flag Act of 1794 , represent Vermont and Kentucky 's entrance into the Union . The stars are arranged in vertical rows , with five horizontal rows of stars , offset , each containing three stars . At the time , the practice of adding stripes ( in addition to stars ) with the induction of a new state had not yet been discontinued . The flag originally measured 30 by 42 feet ( 9.1 by 12.8 m ) . Each of the fifteen stripes is 2 feet ( 0.61 m ) wide , and each of the stars measures about 2 feet ( 0.61 m ) in diameter . After the battle , the Armistead family occasionally gave away pieces of the flag as souvenirs and gifts ; this cutting , along with deterioration from continued use , removed several feet of fabric from the flag 's fly end , and it now measures 30 by 34 feet ( 9.1 by 10.4 m ) . The flag currently has only fourteen stars -- the fifteenth star was similarly given as a gift , but its recipient and current whereabouts are unknown . Battle ( edit ) The Flag was flown over the fort when 5,000 British soldiers and a fleet of 19 ships attacked Baltimore on September 12 , 1814 . The bombardment turned to Fort McHenry on the evening of September 13 , and continuous shelling occurred for 25 hours under heavy rain . When the British ships were unable to pass the fort and penetrate the harbor , the attack was ended , and on the morning of September 14 , when the battered flag still flew above the ramparts , it was clear that Fort McHenry remained in American hands . This revelation was famously captured in poetry by Key , an American lawyer and amateur poet . Being held by the British on a truce ship in the Patapsco River , Key observed the battle from afar . When he saw the Garrison Flag still flying at dawn of the morning of the 14th , he composed a poem he originally titled `` Defence of Fort M'Henry '' . The poem would be put to the music of a common tune , retitled `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' , and a portion of it would later be adopted as the United States National Anthem . Since its arrival at the Smithsonian , the flag has undergone multiple preservation efforts . Scrap sold at auction , November 2011 ( edit ) A 2 - inch by 5 - inch scrap of the flag - white and red , with a seam down the middle - was sold at auction in Dallas , TX on November 30 , 2011 , for $38,837 : the snippet was , presumably , cut from the famous flag as a souvenir in the mid-19th century . The framed remnant came with a faded , hand - written note attesting it was `` A piece of the Flag which floated over Fort McHenry at the time of the bombardment when Key 's ( sic ) composed the Song of the Star Spangled Banner , presented by Sam Beth Cohen . '' Smithsonian National Museum of American History ( edit ) In addition to the original flag on display , the Smithsonian also features pieces from the flag that had been snipped off over the years as patriotic mementos The flag that flew during that episode in history became a significant artifact . It remained in the possession of Major Armistead , who was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel , and his family for many years . Eben Appleton , Colonel Armistead 's grandson , inherited the flag in 1878 . In 1907 , he lent it to the Smithsonian Institution , and in 1912 it was made a formal gift . Today it is permanently housed in the National Museum of American History , one of the Smithsonian Institution museums on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. The flag was given to the museum in 1912 , and has undergone multiple restoration efforts after being originally restored by Amelia Fowler in 1914 . Due to environmental and light damage a four phase restoration project began in May 1999 . In the first phase , the team removed the linen support backing that was attached to the flag during the 1914 restoration . The second phase consisted of the most comprehensive , detailed examination of the condition and construction of the Star - Spangled Banner to date , which provided critical information for later work . This included scientific studies with infrared spectrometry , electron microscopy , mechanical testing , and determination of amino acid content by a New Zealand scientist , and infrared imaging by a NASA scientist . Planning and executing a cleaning treatment for the flag following scientific analysis was the third phase . In the fourth and final phase of the project , curators , scientists and conservators developed a long - term preservation plan . The restoration was completed in 2008 at a total cost in excess of $21 million . Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21 , 2008 , the flag is now on display in a two - story display chamber that allows it to lie at a 10 - degree angle in dim light . The Smithsonian has created a permanent exhibition to document the flag 's history and significance , called `` The Star - Spangled Banner : The Flag that Inspired the National Anthem '' . Visitors are allowed a clear view of the flag , while it remains protected in a controlled environment . The National Museum of American History produced an online exhibition in conjunction with the reopening of Flag Hall in 2008 . An interactive component allows site visitors to closely explore features of the flag in detail , download an audiodescriptive tour of the exhibition for the visually - impaired , and hear the song performed on original instruments from the National Museum of American History 's collection . See also ( edit ) Flags of the United States References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Keim , Kevin P. & Keim , Peter ( 2007 ) . A Grand Old Flag . New York : DK Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7566 - 2847 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` The Great Garrison Flag '' . National Park Service , U.S. Department of the Interior . Jump up ^ Poole , Robert M. ( November 2008 ) . `` Star - Spangled Banner Back on Display '' . Smithsonian Magazine . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 03 . Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project . `` Consumer Price Index ( estimate ) 1800 -- '' . Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis . Retrieved January 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Davenport , Misha A Nations History Chicago - Sun Times 2002 - 06 - 02 Jump up ^ Fort McHenry lesson guide retrieved 2008 - 02 - 09 Jump up ^ `` The Star - Spangled Banner : Making the Flag '' . National Museum of American History . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` The Star - Spangled Banner : Family Keepsake '' . National Museum of American History . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` The Star - Spangled Banner : Congratulations '' . National Museum of American History . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 12 . Jump up ^ Old Glory 2 '' X 5 '' snippet sold at an auction 30 November 2011 ; shown in Maine Antiques Digest , March 2012 , page 21 - C , `` Heritage Auctions , Dallas , Texas : Brady Camera and Kennedy Rocker Take Top Bids in Americana Auction '' ; accessed 26 FEB 2012 . Jump up ^ Heritage Auctions , Dallas , Texas ; catalogue `` Political & Americana Auction , November 30 , 2011 ; ( www.ha.com/common/auction/frontmatter/6066_catalogpdf.pdf `` A Piece of Old Glory '' ) ; catalogue page 118 , item # 38311 ; accessed 26 FEB 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Star - Spangled Banner and the War of 1812 '' . Smithsonian Institution . Jump up ^ Science News `` Old Glory , New Glory , The Star - Spangled Banner gets some tender loving care '' Jump up ^ Bowley , Graham ( 2016 - 10 - 19 ) . `` Smithsonian Seeks $300,000 to Save Dorothy 's Ruby Slippers '' . The New York Times . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ Smithsonian Preserving the Star - Spangled Banner Jump up ^ Washington POST `` Reopening , in All Its Old Glory '' Jump up ^ `` Visit the Star - Spangled Banner '' . National Museum of American History . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' . National Museum of American History . Smithsonian Institution . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 08 . Further reading ( edit ) Lonn Taylor ( 2000 ) . The Star - Spangled Banner : The Flag that Inspired the National Anthem . Harry N. Abrams , Inc . Scott S. Sheads ( 1989 ) . Fort McHenry . Sequoia Press . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Star - Spangled Banner ( flag ) . Interactive image of original flag which includes a zoom to view detail Research project to preserve the flag 's fabric using LED technology Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Star-Spangled_Banner_(flag)&oldid=812171510 '' Categories : Flags of the United States Military flags of the United States National symbols of the United States War of 1812 History of Baltimore Artifacts in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution Tourist attractions in Washington , D.C. The Star - Spangled Banner Historical flags Hidden categories : Commons category with page title different than on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia עברית Edit links This page was last edited on 26 November 2017 , at 11 : 25 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
where is the original star spangled banner on display
[ "Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a two-story display chamber that allows it to lie at a 10-degree angle in dim light. The Smithsonian has created a permanent exhibition to document the flag's history and significance, called \"The Star-Spangled Banner: The Flag that Inspired the National Anthem\". Visitors are allowed a clear view of the flag, while it remains protected in a controlled environment.[15][16][17]" ]
[ "November 21, 2008" ]
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Casey at the Bat
Casey at the Bat - wikipedia Casey at the Bat Jump to : navigation , search For the 1927 film , see Casey at the Bat ( film ) . Tim Wiles , Director of Research at the Baseball Hall of Fame Library in Cooperstown , frequently dresses as Casey to recite the poem . `` Casey at the Bat : A Ballad of the Republic Sung in the Year 1888 '' is a baseball poem written in 1888 by Ernest Thayer . First published in The San Francisco Examiner ( then called The Daily Examiner ) on June 3 , 1888 , it was later popularized by DeWolf Hopper in many vaudeville performances . It has become one of the best - known poems in American literature . The poem was originally published anonymously ( under the pen name `` Phin '' , based on Thayer 's college nickname , `` Phinney '' ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Synopsis 2 Text 3 Inspiration 4 Plagiarism 5 Pre-publication version 6 Live performances 7 Recordings 8 Mudville 9 Adaptations 9.1 Books 9.2 Comics 9.3 Film 9.4 Television 9.5 Music 9.6 Theatre 10 Derivations 10.1 Sequels 10.2 Parodies 10.3 Translations 10.4 Names 11 Contemporary culture 11.1 Games 11.2 Television 11.3 Theme parks 11.4 Postage stamp 12 References 13 External links Synopsis ( edit ) A baseball team from the fictional town of `` Mudville '' ( implied to be the home team ) is losing by two runs in its last inning . Both the team and its fans , a crowd of 5,000 , believe they can win if Casey , Mudville 's star player , gets to bat . However , Casey is scheduled to be the fifth batter of the inning , and the first two batters ( Cooney and Barrows ) fail to get on base . The next two batters ( Flynn and Jimmy Blake ) are perceived to be weak hitters with little chance of reaching base to allow Casey a chance to bat . Surprisingly , Flynn hits a single , and Blake follows with a double that allows Flynn to reach third base . Both runners are now in scoring position and Casey represents the potential winning run . Casey is so sure of his abilities that he does not swing at the first two pitches , both called strikes . On the last pitch , the overconfident Casey strikes out swinging , ending the game and sending the crowd home unhappy . Text ( edit ) Casey at the Bat Recited by DeWolf Hopper , c. 1920 . Problems playing this file ? See media help . The text is filled with references to baseball as it was in 1888 , which in many ways is not far removed from today 's version . As a work , the poem encapsulates much of the appeal of baseball , including the involvement of the crowd . It also has a fair amount of baseball jargon that can pose challenges for the uninitiated . This is the complete poem as it originally appeared in The Daily Examiner . After publication , various versions with minor changes were produced . No one imagines that ' Casey ' is great in the sense that the poetry of Shakespeare or Dante is great ; a comic ballad obviously must be judged by different standards . One does n't criticize a slice of superb apple pie because it fails to taste like crepes suzette . Thayer was only trying to write a comic ballad , with clanking rhymes and a vigorous beat , that could be read quickly , understood at once , and laughed at by any newspaper reader who knew baseball . Somehow , in harmony with the curious laws of humor and popular taste , he managed to produce the nation 's best - known piece of comic verse -- a ballad that began a native legend as colorful and permanent as that of Johnny Appleseed or Paul Bunyan . Martin Gardner , American Heritage The outlook was n't brilliant for the Mudville nine that day ; the score stood four to two , with but one inning more to play . And then when Cooney died at first , and Barrows did the same , a sickly silence fell upon the patrons of the game . A straggling few got up to go in deep despair . The rest clung to that hope which springs eternal in the human breast ; they thought , if only Casey could get but a whack at that -- they 'd put up even money , now , with Casey at the bat . But Flynn preceded Casey , as did also Jimmy Blake , and the former was a lulu and the latter was a cake , so upon that stricken multitude grim melancholy sat , for there seemed but little chance of Casey 's getting to the bat . But Flynn let drive a single , to the wonderment of all , and Blake , the much despised , tore the cover off the ball ; and when the dust had lifted , and the men saw what had occurred , there was Jimmy safe at second and Flynn a-hugging third . Then from five thousand throats and more there rose a lusty yell ; it rumbled through the valley , it rattled in the dell ; it knocked upon the mountain and recoiled upon the flat , for Casey , mighty Casey , was advancing to the bat . There was ease in Casey 's manner as he stepped into his place ; there was pride in Casey 's bearing and a smile on Casey 's face . And when , responding to the cheers , he lightly doffed his hat , no stranger in the crowd could doubt ' twas Casey at the bat . Ten thousand eyes were on him as he rubbed his hands with dirt ; five thousand tongues applauded when he wiped them on his shirt . Then while the writhing pitcher ground the ball into his hip , defiance gleamed in Casey 's eye , a sneer curled Casey 's lip . And now the leather - covered sphere came hurtling through the air , and Casey stood a-watching it in haughty grandeur there . Close by the sturdy batsman the ball unheeded sped -- `` That ai n't my style , '' said Casey . `` Strike one , '' the umpire said . From the benches , black with people , there went up a muffled roar , like the beating of the storm - waves on a stern and distant shore . `` Kill him ! Kill the umpire ! '' shouted someone on the stand ; and it 's likely they 'd have killed him had not Casey raised his hand . With a smile of Christian charity great Casey 's visage shone ; he stilled the rising tumult ; he bade the game go on ; he signaled to the pitcher , and once more the spheroid flew ; but Casey still ignored it , and the umpire said : `` Strike two . '' `` Fraud ! '' cried the maddened thousands , and echo answered fraud ; but one scornful look from Casey and the audience was awed . They saw his face grow stern and cold , they saw his muscles strain , and they knew that Casey would n't let that ball go by again . The sneer is gone from Casey 's lip , his teeth are clenched in hate ; he pounds with cruel violence his bat upon the plate . And now the pitcher holds the ball , and now he lets it go , and now the air is shattered by the force of Casey 's blow . Oh , somewhere in this favored land the sun is shining bright ; the band is playing somewhere , and somewhere hearts are light , and somewhere men are laughing , and somewhere children shout ; but there is no joy in Mudville -- mighty Casey has struck out . Inspiration ( edit ) Thayer said he chose the name `` Casey '' after a non-player of Irish ancestry he once knew , and it is open to debate who , if anyone , he modeled the character after . It has been reported that Thayer 's best friend Samuel Winslow , who played baseball at Harvard , was the inspiration for Casey . Another candidate is National League player Mike `` King '' Kelly , who became famous when Boston paid Chicago a record $10,000 for him . He had a personality that fans liked to cheer or jeer . After the 1887 season , Kelly went on a playing tour to San Francisco . Thayer , who wrote `` Casey '' in 1888 , covered the San Francisco leg for the San Francisco Examiner . Thayer , in a letter he wrote in 1905 , mentions Kelly as showing `` impudence '' in claiming to have written the poem . The author of the 2004 definitive bio of Kelly -- which included a close tracking of his vaudeville career -- did not find Kelly claiming to have been the author . Plagiarism ( edit ) A month after the poem was published , it was reprinted as `` Kelly at the Bat '' in the New York Sporting Times . Aside from omitting the first five verses , the only changes from the original are substitutions of Kelly for Casey , and Boston for Mudville . King Kelly , then of the Boston Beaneaters , was one of baseball 's two biggest stars at the time ( along with Cap Anson ) . In 1897 , the magazine Current Literature noted the two versions and said , `` The locality , as originally given , is Mudville , not Boston ; the latter was substituted to give the poem local color . '' Pre-publication version ( edit ) Sportswriter Leonard Koppett claimed in a 1979 article that the published poem omits 18 lines penned by Thayer which change the entire theme of the poem . Koppett said the full version of the poem takes the pitch count on Casey to full as his uncle Arnold stirs up wagering action in the stands before a wink passes between them and Casey throws the game . Live performances ( edit ) 1909 theatrical poster with DeWolf Hopper in A Matinee Idol DeWolf Hopper gave the poem 's first stage recitation on August 14 , 1888 , at New York 's Wallack Theatre as part of the comic opera Prinz Methusalem in the presence of the Chicago and New York baseball teams , the White Stockings and the Giants , respectively ; August 14 , 1888 was also Thayer 's 25th birthday . Hopper became known as an orator of the poem , and recited it more than 10,000 times ( by his count -- some tabulations are as much as four times higher ) before his death . `` It is as perfect an epitome of our national game today as it was when every player drank his coffee from a mustache cup . There are one or more Caseys in every league , bush or big , and there is no day in the playing season that this same supreme tragedy , as stark as Aristophanes for the moment , does not befall on some field . '' On stage in the early 1890s , baseball star Kelly recited the original `` Casey '' a few dozen times and not the parody . For example , in a review in 1893 of a variety show he was in , the Indianapolis News said , `` Many who attended the performance had heard of Kelly 's singing and his reciting , and many had heard De Wolf Hopper recite ' Casey at the Bat ' in his inimitable way . Kelly recited this in a sing - song , school - boy fashion . '' Upon Kelly 's death , a writer would say he gained `` considerable notoriety by his ludicrous rendition of ' Casey at the Bat , ' with which he concluded his ` turn ' ( act ) at each performance . '' During the 1980s , the magic / comedy team Penn & Teller performed a version of `` Casey at the Bat '' with Teller ( the `` silent '' partner ) struggling to escape a straitjacket while suspended upside - down over a platform of sharp steel spikes . The set - up was that Penn Jillette would leap off his chair upon finishing the poem , releasing the rope which supported Teller , and send his partner to a gruesome death if he was n't free by that time . The drama of the performance was taken up a notch after the third or fourth stanza , when Penn Jillette began to read out the rest of the poem much faster than the opening stanzas , greatly reducing the time that Teller had left to work free from his bonds . On July 4 , 2008 , Jack Williams recited the poem accompanied by the Boston Pops during the annual Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular at Boston 's 4 July Celebration . On July 14 , 2013 , the jam rock band Furthur performed the poem as part of a second - set medley in center field of Doubleday Field in Cooperstown , New York . Recordings ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) External video Casey at the Bat , Garrison Keillor with Rich Dworsky , Prairie Home Companion , 5 : 29 , July 14 , 2013 The first recorded version of `` Casey at the Bat '' was made by Russell Hunting , speaking in a broad Irish accent , in 1893 ; an 1898 cylinder recording of the text made for the Columbia Graphophone label by Hunting can be accessed from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California , Santa Barbara Library . DeWolf Hopper 's more famous recorded recitation was released in October 1906 . In 1946 , Walt Disney released a recording of the narration of the poem by Jerry Colonna , which accompanied the studio 's animated cartoon adaptation of the poem ( see below ) . In 1973 , the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra commissioned its former Composer - in - Residence , Frank Proto , to create a work to feature Baseball Hall - of - Famer Johnny Bench with the orchestra . The result `` Casey At The Bat -- an American Folk Tale for Narrator and Orchestra '' was an immediate hit and recorded by Bench and the orchestra . It has since been performed more than 800 times by nearly every major and Metropolitan orchestra in the U.S. and Canada . In 1980 , baseball pitcher Tug McGraw recorded Casey at The Bat -- an American Folk Tale for Narrator and Orchestra by Frank Proto with Peter Nero and the Philly Pops . In 1996 , actor James Earl Jones recorded the poem with Arranger / Composer Steven Reineke and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra . In 2013 , Dave Jageler and Charlie Slowes , both radio announcers for the Washington Nationals , each made recordings of the poem for the Library of Congress to mark the 125th anniversary of its first publication . Mudville ( edit ) A rivalry of sorts has developed between two cities claiming to be the Mudville described in the poem . Holliston , Massachusetts -- Mudville Village , Statue and Plaque Dedicated to `` Casey '' of `` Casey at the Bat '' Holliston , Massachusetts -- Mudville Village , Welcome Sign Residents of Holliston , Massachusetts , where there is a neighborhood called Mudville , claim it as the Mudville described in the poem . Thayer grew up in nearby Worcester , Massachusetts , where he wrote the poem in 1888 ; his family owned a wool mill less than a mile from Mudville 's baseball field . However , residents of Stockton , California -- which was known for a time as Mudville prior to incorporation in 1850 -- also lay claim to being the inspiration for the poem . In 1887 , Thayer covered baseball for The Daily Examiner -- owned by his Harvard classmate William Randolph Hearst -- and is said to have covered the local California League team , the Stockton Ports . For the 1902 season , after the poem became popular , Stockton 's team was renamed the Mudville Nine . The team reverted to the Mudville Nine moniker for the 2000 and 2001 seasons . The Visalia Rawhide , another California League team , currently keep Mudville alive by playing in Mudville jerseys on June 3 each year . Despite the towns ' rival claims , Thayer himself told the Syracuse Post-Standard that `` the poem has no basis in fact . '' Adaptations ( edit ) The poem has been adapted to diverse types of media : Books ( edit ) Ralph Andreano 's 1965 book , No Joy in Mudville , laments the dearth of heroes in modern baseball . In the book Faithful by Steward O'Nan and Stephen King , describing the 2004 season of the Boston Red Sox , a chapter contributed by King is named `` The Gloom is gone from Mudville '' . Wallace Tripp illustrated a popular 1978 book of the poem . Kurtis Scaletta 's 2009 children 's novel , Mudville , is about a town where it has been raining for 22 years , delaying a baseball game between two rival towns . Christopher Bing 's 2000 children 's book , an illustrated version of the original poem by Thayer , won a Caldecott Honor for its line drawing illustrations made to look like newspaper articles from 1888 . Comics ( edit ) Marvel Comics published a spoof in August 1969 , in the 9th issue of `` Not Brand Echh '' , featuring parodies of their popular heroes and villains , and the Bulk ( parody of the Hulk ) as Casey . DC Comics ' series Fables from the Vertigo imprint featured an adaptation titled `` Out to the Ball Game '' , which features a similar baseball match , with Weyland Smith playing the part of Casey against a team of goblins . Film ( edit ) In 1922 , Lee De Forest recorded DeWolf Hopper reciting the poem in DeForest 's Phonofilm sound - on - film process . In 1927 , a feature - length silent film Casey at the Bat was released , starring Wallace Beery , Ford Sterling , and ZaSu Pitts -- the first film adaptation of the poem . Walt Disney produced an animated short adaptation of the poem for the film Make Mine Music ( 1946 ) and uses the original text , but is set in 1902 according to the opening song 's lyrics , instead of 1888 . This version is recited by Jerry Colonna . It was later released as an individual short on July 16 , 1954 . Several differences from the original text include , but are not limited to ; Barrows failing to get off base when he smacks the ball back into the pitcher 's mitt , Flynn letting drive a single due to trying to get the bat out of his moustache and Blake getting a double due to an attempt by the visiting team 's catcher to set his foot on fire . The poem is cited in Frederic Wiseman 's documentary High School ( 1968 ) by a teacher in a classroom . In 1986 , Elliott Gould starred as `` Casey '' in the Shelley Duvall 's Tall Tales and Legends adaptation of the story , which also starred Carol Kane , Howard Cosell , Bob Uecker , Bill Macy and Rae Dawn Chong . The screenplay , adapted from the poem , was written by Andy Borowitz and the production was directed by David Steinberg . In The Dream Team ( 1989 ) , Michael Keaton 's character announces that `` there is no joy in Mudville '' after giving a fellow mental patient three `` strikes '' for psychotic behavior . A reference to the poem occurs in Short Cuts ( 1993 ) . In the film What Women Want ( 2000 ) , Mel Gibson 's character tries to block out his daughter 's thoughts by muttering the poem under his breath . The poem is briefly cited in the revised version of Bad News Bears ( 2005 ) . Television ( edit ) Jackie Gleason in his `` Reginald Van Gleason III '' persona ( in full Mudville baseball uniform ) performed a recitation of the poem on his And Awaaaay We Go ! album . Season 1 : Episode 35 of The Twilight Zone , `` The Mighty Casey '' , concerns a baseball player who is actually a robot ( June 17 , 1960 ) . In the Northern Exposure episode `` The Graduate '' , Chris Stevens gains his Master 's degree in Comparative Literature by subjecting his assessors to a spirited re-enactment of the poem . An episode of Tiny Toon Adventures features a retelling of the poem with Buster Bunny in the title role . However , instead of striking out at the end , he hits a walk off home run . An episode of Animaniacs entitled `` Jokahontas / Boids on the Hood / Mighty Wakko at the Bat '' includes a parody of the poem , featuring Wakko Warner as the leading role , and Yakko as the narrator . Instead of missing , he strikes the ball out of the park and wins the game . An episode of the television series The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron : Boy Genius entitled `` Return of the Nanobots '' has Cindy Vortex reciting a poem that ends with the lines : `` But there is no joy in Retroville , ' cause Jimmy is an idiot . '' In the fourth season of Garfield and Friends the episode entitled `` Mind Over Matter / Orson at the Bat / Multiple Choice Cartoon '' features Wade Duck narrating a parody of the poem as Orson Pig experiences it in a dream sequence . A third - season episode of Storm Chasers was titled `` Sean Casey At Bat '' . The episode featured Casey ( a chaser ) intercepting a tornado for the first time in TIV 2 . In How I Met Your Mother , the episode `` Bedtime Stories '' ( which is done entirely in rhymes ) features a subplot called `` Mosby At The Bat '' . The start of that section of the episode begins with `` The outlook was n't brilliant for poor Ted 's romantic life '' , a line based on the opening of the original poem . In One Tree Hill , the episode `` The Man Who Sailed Around His Soul '' was a flashback - heavy episode revolving around a baseball game with Jamie Scott narrating the poem throughout . On an episode of Penn & Teller : Fool Us , magician Rick Lax recites the entire poem while performing a card trick . Containment ( TV series ) episode He Stilled the Rising Tumult owes its title to and the text of the 10th stanza was used in the opening sequence . Music ( edit ) Art - song composer Sidney Homer turned the poem into a song . Sheet music was published by G. Schirmer in 1920 as part of Six Cheerful Songs to Poems of American Humor . William Schuman composed an opera , The Mighty Casey ( 1953 ) , based on the poem . The song No Joy in Mudville from Death Cab for Cutie 's album We Have the Facts and We 're Voting Yes directly references the poem . The song `` Centerfield '' by John Fogerty includes the line `` Well , I spent some time in the Mudville Nine , watchin ' it from the bench . You know I took some lumps when the Mighty Case struck out . '' The song `` No Joy In Pudville '' by Steroid Maximus is a reference to this poem . Joe Walsh 's 1973 song Rocky Mountain Way features the lyrics `` Bases are loaded / And Casey 's at bat / Playin ' it play - by - play / Time to change the batter . '' In 2008 American composer Randol Alan Bass used the song `` Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' by Alfred Von Tilzer and Jack Norworth in Casey at the Bat , a setting of the poem for concert band and narrator . Theatre ( edit ) `` Casey at the Bat '' was adapted into a 1953 opera by American composer William Schuman . Allen Feinstein composed an adaptation for orchestra with a narrator . An orchestral version was composed by Stephen Simon in 1976 for the US bicentennial ; Maestro Classics ' has recorded it with the London Philharmonic Orchestra , Stephen Simon conducting with Yadu ( Dr. Konrad Czynski ) narrating . An orchestral adaptation by composer Frank Proto has been recorded by the Cincinnati Pops orchestra conducted by Erich Kunzel with baseball star Johnny Bench narrating . The Dallas Symphony commissioned an arrangement of `` Casey '' by Randol Alan Bass in 2001 , which he later arranged for concert band . A version for wind band and narrator by Donald Shirer based on the song `` Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' had its world premiere in July 2008 . Derivations ( edit ) For a relatively short poem apparently dashed off quickly ( and denied by its author for years ) , `` Casey at the Bat '' had a profound effect on American popular culture . It has been recited , re-enacted , adapted , dissected , parodied and subjected to just about every other treatment one could imagine . Sequels ( edit ) `` Casey 's Revenge '' , by Grantland Rice ( 1907 ) , gives Casey another chance against the pitcher who had struck him out in the original story . It was written in 1906 , and its first known publication was in the quarterly magazine The Speaker in June 1907 , under the pseudonym of James Wilson . In this version , Rice cites the nickname `` Strike - Out Casey '' , hence the influence on Casey Stengel 's name . Casey 's team is down three runs by the last of the ninth , and once again Casey is down to two strikes -- with the bases full this time . However , he connects , hits the ball so far that it is never found . In response to the popularity of the 1946 Walt Disney animated adaptation , Disney made a sequel , Casey Bats Again ( 1954 ) , in which Casey 's nine daughters redeem his reputation . In 1988 , on the 100th anniversary of the poem , Sports Illustrated writer Frank Deford constructed a fanciful story ( later expanded to book form ) which posited Katie Casey , the subject of the song `` Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' , as being the daughter of the famous slugger from the poem . In 2010 , Ken Eagle wrote `` The Mudville Faithful '' , covering a century of the Mudville nine 's fortunes since Casey struck out . Faithful fans still root for the perpetually losing team , and are finally rewarded by a trip to the World Series , led by Casey 's great - grandson who is also named Casey . Parodies ( edit ) Of the many parodies made of the poem , some of the notable ones include : Mad magazine republished the original version of the poem in the 1950s with artwork by Jack Davis and no alterations to the text . Later lampoons in Mad included `` ' Cool ' Casey at the Bat '' ( 1960 ) , an interpretation of the poem in beatnik style , with artwork by Don Martin ; `` Casey at the Dice '' in 1969 , about a professional gambler ; `` Casey at the Talks '' in 1977 , a `` modern '' version of the famed poem in which Mudville tries unsuccessfully to sign free agent Casey ( the last line of which is `` Mighty Casey has held out '' ) ; `` Baseball at the Bat '' , a satire on baseball itself , `` Howard at the Mike '' , about Howard Stern ; `` Casey at the Byte '' ( 1985 ) , a tale of a cocky young computer expert who accidentally erases the White House Budget Plan ; `` Clooney as the Bat '' , a mockery of George Clooney 's role as Batman in Batman and Robin ; and in 2006 as `` Barry at the Bat '' , poking fun at Barry Bonds ' alleged involvement in the BALCO scandal , and in 2001 , `` Jordan at the Hoop '' , satirizing Michael Jordan 's return to the NBA and his time with the Washington Wizards . Another parody is set in the USSR , and ends with `` Kasey '' in a gulag prison . A `` Poetry Round Robin '' where famous poems are rewritten in the style of the next poet in line , featured Casey at the Bat as written by Edgar Allan Poe . Foster Brooks ( `` the Lovable Lush '' ) wrote `` Riley on the Mound '' , which recounts the story from the pitcher 's perspective . ( 1 ) Radio performer Garrison Keillor 's parodic version of the poem reimagines the game as a road game , instead of a home game , for the Mudville team . The same events occur with Casey striking out in the ninth inning as in the original poem , but with everything told from the perspective of other team . An episode of Tiny Toon Adventures featured a short titled `` Buster at the Bat '' , where Sylvester provides narration as Buster goes up to bat . The poem was parodied again for an episode of Animaniacs , this time with Wakko as the title character and Yakko narrating . In The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron : Boy Genius episode `` Return of the Nanobots '' , Cindy 's poem is identical to the ending of `` Casey at the Bat '' but replaces Mudville with Retroville and the last famed line with `` cause Jimmy is an idiot ! '' An episode of the show U.S. Acres was titled `` Orson at the Bat '' . The New York Times published a parody by Hart Seely and Frank Cammuso in which the poem was narrated by Phil Rizzuto , a New York Yankees announcer who was known to veer off on tangents while calling the game . The poem was later published in Seely and Cammuso 's book , 2007 Eleven And Other American Comedies . Issue # 92 of the comic Fables employs a paraphrased version of `` Casey at the Bat '' appropriating the character names to those of the Fable players . It is preceded by a mock apology to Ernest Thayer for the mangling of `` his beloved poem '' . David Pogue penned a parody version titled ' A Desktop Critic : Steven Saves the Mac ' for Macworld magazine that ran in their October 1999 issue . It tells the story of Steve Jobs ' triumphant return to a struggling Apple Inc and his early efforts to reverse the company 's fortunes . Dick Flavin wrote a version titled Teddy at the Bat , after Boston Red Sox legend Ted Williams died in July , 2002 . Flavin performed the poem at Fenway Park during the night - long tribute to Williams done at the park later that month . The poem replaced Flynn and Blake with Bobby Doerr and Johnny Pesky , the batters who preceded Williams in the 1946 Red Sox lineup . In 2000 , Michael J. Farrand adapted the rhyming scheme , tone , and theme of the poem -- while reversing the outcome -- to create his poem `` The Man Who Gave All the Dreamers in Baseball Land Bigger Dreams to Dream '' about Kirk Gibson 's home run off Dennis Eckersley in Game 1 of the 1988 World Series . The poem appears at the Baseball Almanac . Norman Jackman wrote a reversed - outcome version in 1951 called `` Bobby Thomson at the Bat , '' which went unknown for over 60 years until the San Francisco Giants published it in 2012 . It 's about Thomson 's famous home run in a 1951 Giant - Dodger playoff game . In 2016 , the poem was accepted into the poetry files of the National Baseball Library and Archive of the Hall of Fame . New York Times best - selling author and poet laureate of The Ringer , Shea Serrano , penned a loving tribute to NBA player Gordon Hayward in the vein of `` Casey at the Bat '' in 2017 . Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster created `` Shakespearean Baseball '' , featuring William Shakespeare-esque characters and dialogue in a skit based upon the poem . They performed the play on The Ed Sullivan Show and on Canadian TV numerous times between the 1950s and 1980s . Translations ( edit ) There are three known translations of the poem into a foreign language , one in French , written in 2007 by French Canadian linguist Paul Laurendeau , with the title Casey au bâton , and two in Hebrew . One by the sports journalist Menachem Less titled `` התור של קייסי לחבוט '' ( Hator Shel Casey Lachbot ) , and the other more recent and more true to the original cadence and style by Jason H. Elbaum called קֵיסִי בַּמַּחְבֵּט ( Casey BaMachbayt ) . Names ( edit ) Casey Stengel describes in his autobiography how his original nickname `` K.C. '' ( for his hometown , Kansas City , Missouri ) evolved into `` Casey '' . It was influenced not just by the name of the poem , which was widely popular in the 1910s , but also because he tended to strike out frequently in his early career so fans and writers started calling him `` strikeout Casey '' . Contemporary culture ( edit ) Games ( edit ) The poem is referenced in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game EarthBound , where a weapon is named the Casey Bat , which is the strongest weapon in the game , but will only hit 25 % of the time . Television ( edit ) A one - time character in the Pokémon anime , a girl who is a very enthusiastic fan of baseball , is named `` Casey '' in the English version in reference to the poem . A baseball - themed episode of The Twilight Zone was named The Mighty Casey in reference to the poem 's lead character , though the plot is unrelated . Theme parks ( edit ) Casey 's Corner is a baseball - themed restaurant in Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom , which serves primarily hotdogs . Pictures of Casey and the pitcher from the Disney animated adaptation are hanging on the walls , and a life - size statue of a baseball player identified as `` Casey '' stands just outside the restaurant . Additionally , the scoreboard in the restaurant shows that Mudville lost to the visitors by two runs . A hot dog restaurant featuring the Disney character can be found at Disneyland Paris ' Disneyland Park since its opening in 1992 , under the name Casey 's Corner . A game called Casey at the Bat is in the Games of the Boardwalk at the Disneyland Resort 's Disney California Adventure . Postage stamp ( edit ) On July 11 , 1996 , the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp depicting `` Mighty Casey . '' The stamp was part of a set commemorating American folk heroes . Other stamps in the set depicted Paul Bunyan , John Henry , and Pecos Bill . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Casey at the Bat '' . Baseball Almanac . Jump up ^ Armenti , Peter ( 4 June 2013 ) . `` The First Publication of `` Casey at the Bat '' `` . From the Catbird Seat . Library of Congress . ^ Jump up to : Gardner , Martin ( October 1967 ) . `` Casey At The Bat '' . American Heritage . 18 ( 6 ) . Retrieved 20 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Casey at the Bat '' . Joslin Hall . Retrieved June 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Gardner , Martin ( October 1967 ) . `` Casey At The Bat '' . American Heritage . 18 ( 6 ) . Retrieved June 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Canale , Larry ( November 6 , 2012 ) . `` Casey Might Have Struck Out , But Related Memorabilia Does Not '' . Sports Collectors Digest . Retrieved June 3 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Rosenberg , Howard W. ( 2004 ) . Cap Anson 2 : The Theatrical and Kingly Mike Kelly : U.S. Team Sport 's First Media Sensation and Baseball 's Original Casey at the Bat . Tile Books . ISBN 0 - 9725574 - 1 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` Ernest Lawrence Thayer and `` Casey at the Bat '' `` . Joslin Hall Rare Books News List . Retrieved June 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Moore , Jim ; Vermilyea , Natalie ( 1994 ) . Ernest Thayer 's `` Casey at the bat '' : background and characters of baseball 's most famous poem . Jefferson , N.C. : McFarland & Co. p. 2 . ISBN 9780899509976 . Jump up ^ `` Casey at the Bat '' . Current Literature. 21 ( 2 ) : 129 . February 1897 . Jump up ^ Koppett , Leonard ( August 4 , 1979 ) . `` Casey at Bat ? He Was Fraud ! '' . The Sporting News . p. 16 . Jump up ^ https://archive.org/details/furthur2013-07-14.AKGc1000s Jump up ^ `` Casey At The Bat '' . Casey at the Bat -- James Earl Jones . YouTube . Retrieved 3 June 2011 . Jump up ^ 1998 CD : Play Ball ! -- Erich Kunzel -- Cincinnati Pops Orchestra , Recorded 1996 with Arranger / Composer Steven Reineke and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra ( insert credits ) -- https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0000064U5 Jump up ^ Osterberg , Gayle ( 3 June 2013 ) . `` A Special Recording to Celebrate Casey 's 125th '' . Library of Congress Blog . Jump up ^ Zezima , Katie ( 31 March 2004 ) . `` Mudville Journal ; In ' Casey ' Rhubarb , 2 Cities Cry ' Foul ! ' '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Stockton Mudville Nine '' . Baseball Reference.com . Jump up ^ `` Progressive Silent Film List : Casey at the Bat '' . Silent Era . Jump up ^ `` How I Met Your Mother Episode Bedtime Stories Scripts '' . springfieldspringfield.co.uk . Retrieved 7 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Casey at the Bat , poem by Ernest L. Thayer , a setting for concert band and narrator by Randol Alan Bass . Alfred Publishing Co. , Inc. , 2008 Jump up ^ Gardner , Martin ( 1995 ) . The Annotated Casey at the Bat : A Collection of Ballads About the Mighty Casey . Dover Publications . p. 38 . ISBN 0 - 486 - 28598 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` For A Guy Who Struck Out 100 Years Ago , Mighty Casey Is Still '' . tribunedigital - chicagotribune . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ Keillor , Garrison . `` Casey at the Bat ( Road Game ) '' . Baseball Almanac . Jump up ^ Pogue , David ( October 1999 ) . `` The Desktop Critic : Steven Saves the Mac '' . Macworld . Jump up ^ MLB.com/blogs ( 2 February 2012 ) . `` Bobby Thomson at the Bat '' . SF Giants Photos . Retrieved 12 December 2016 . Jump up ^ https://theringer.com/gordon-hayward-utah-jazz-poem-nbshea-ea66d15584be Jump up ^ הספורט הגדולה מכולן ! Archived July 11 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Elbaum , Jason H. `` Casey at the Bat in Hebrew '' . Jump up ^ Stengel , Casey ; Paxton , Harry T. ( 1962 ) . Casey at the Bat : The Story of My Life in Baseball . New York : Random House . p. 11 . Jump up ^ http://bulbapedia.bulbagarden.net/wiki/Casey_(anime ) . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Mighty Casey '' . US Stamp Gallery . External links ( edit ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : Casey at the Bat `` Casey at the Bat '' on MLB.com . Hear Hopper recite the poem . Library of Congress essay on its inclusion into the National Recording Registry . Casey at the Bat cylinder recording by Russell Hunting , from the Cylinder Audio Archive at the University of California , Santa Barbara Library . `` Casey at the Bat '' Web site with biographical details on Thayer , Hopper , Mike `` King '' Kelly and chronology of the poem 's publication . `` Casey at the Bat '' as told in baseball cards Poems about Casey 's later life , including another by Grantland Rice , and one by Garrison Keillor Casey at the Bat public domain audiobook at LibriVox American folklore and tall tales Folkloric figures Alfred Bulltop Stormalong Annie Christmas Br'er Rabbit Brother Jonathan Casey at the Bat Casey Jones Cordwood Pete Evangeline Feathertop Febold Feboldson Francis Marion , the Swamp Fox Ichabod Crane Joe Magarac John Henry Johnny Kaw Mose Humphrey Ola Värmlänning Ole Pete Paul Bunyan and Babe the Blue Ox Pecos Bill Rip Van Winkle Santa Claus Tony Beaver Uncle Sam Windwagon Smith Fearsome critters Agropelter Axehandle hound Ball - tailed cat Cactus cat Fur - bearing trout Glawackus Hidebehind Hodag Hoop snake Jackalope Jersey Devil Joint snake Sidehill gouger Skunk ape Snallygaster Splintercat Squonk Teakettler Wampus cat Legends Bloodstopping Confederate gold Fountain of Youth Lincoln 's ghost Lost Dutchman 's Gold Mine Lost Ship of the Desert Seven Cities of Gold White Lady Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Casey_at_the_Bat&oldid=803671217 '' Categories : American poems Baseball poems Fictional baseball players American folklore 1888 poems Works originally published in The San Francisco Examiner United States National Recording Registry recordings Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Articles with hAudio microformats Articles needing additional references from May 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles with LibriVox links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français 日本 語 Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 3 October 2017 , at 22 : 29 . 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Reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species - wikipedia Reactive oxygen species Jump to : navigation , search Play media An explanation of cellular injury caused by reactive oxygen species . Major cellular sources of ROS in living non-photosynthetic cells . From a review by Novo and Parola , 2008 . Reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) are chemically reactive chemical species containing oxygen . Examples include peroxides , superoxide , hydroxyl radical , and singlet oxygen . In a biological context , ROS are formed as a natural byproduct of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signaling and homeostasis . However , during times of environmental stress ( e.g. , UV or heat exposure ) , ROS levels can increase dramatically . This may result in significant damage to cell structures . Cumulatively , this is known as oxidative stress . The production of ROS is strongly influenced by stress factor responses in plants , these factors that increase ROS production include , drought , salinity , chilling , nutrient deficiency , metal toxicity and UV - B radiation . ROS are also generated by exogenous sources such as ionizing radiation . Contents ( hide ) 1 Formation and decomposition 1.1 Exogenous ROS 1.2 Endogenous ROS 1.3 Superoxide dismutase 1.4 Singlet oxygen 2 Damaging effects 2.1 Pathogen response 2.2 Oxidative damage 3 Cause of aging 4 Cancer 4.1 Carcinogenesis 4.2 Cell proliferation 4.3 Cell death 4.4 Tumor cell invasion , angiogenesis and metastasis 4.5 Chronic inflammation and cancer 4.6 Cancer therapy 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Formation and decomposition ( edit ) Free Radical Mechanisms in Tissue Injury . Free radical toxicity induced by xenobiotics and the subsequent detoxification by cellular enzymes ( termination ) . The reduction of molecular oxygen ( O ) produces superoxide ( O ) and is the precursor of most other reactive oxygen species : O + e → O Dismutation of superoxide produces hydrogen peroxide ( H O ) : 2 H + O + O → H O + O Hydrogen peroxide in turn may be partially reduced to hydroxyl radical ( OH ) or fully reduced to water : H O + e → HO + OH 2 H + 2 e + H O → 2 H O Exogenous ROS ( edit ) Exogenous ROS can be produced from pollutants , tobacco , smoke , drugs , xenobiotics , or radiation . Ionizing radiation can generate damaging intermediates through the interaction with water , a process termed radiolysis . Since water comprises 55 -- 60 % of the human body , the probability of radiolysis is quite high under the presence of ionizing radiation . In the process , water loses an electron and becomes highly reactive . Then through a three - step chain reaction , water is sequentially converted to hydroxyl radical ( OH ) , hydrogen peroxide ( H O ) , superoxide radical ( O ) and ultimately oxygen ( O ) . The hydroxyl radical is extremely reactive and immediately removes electrons from any molecule in its path , turning that molecule into a free radical and thus propagating a chain reaction . However , hydrogen peroxide is actually more damaging to DNA than the hydroxyl radical , since the lower reactivity of hydrogen peroxide provides enough time for the molecule to travel into the nucleus of the cell , subsequently reacting with macromolecules such as DNA . Endogenous ROS ( edit ) ROS are produced intracellularly through multiple mechanisms and depending on the cell and tissue types , the major sources being the `` professional '' producers of ROS : NADPH oxidase ( NOX ) complexes ( 7 distinct isoforms ) in cell membranes , mitochondria , peroxisomes , and endoplasmic reticulum . Mitochondria convert energy for the cell into a usable form , adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) . The process in which ATP is produced , called oxidative phosphorylation , involves the transport of protons ( hydrogen ions ) across the inner mitochondrial membrane by means of the electron transport chain . In the electron transport chain , electrons are passed through a series of proteins via oxidation - reduction reactions , with each acceptor protein along the chain having a greater reduction potential than the previous . The last destination for an electron along this chain is an oxygen molecule . In normal conditions , the oxygen is reduced to produce water ; however , in about 0.1 -- 2 % of electrons passing through the chain ( this number derives from studies in isolated mitochondria , though the exact rate in live organisms is yet to be fully agreed upon ) , oxygen is instead prematurely and incompletely reduced to give the superoxide radical ( O ) , most well documented for Complex I and Complex III . Superoxide is not particularly reactive by itself , but can inactivate specific enzymes or initiate lipid peroxidation in its protonated form , hydroperoxyl HO . The pK of hydroperoxyl is 4.8 . Thus , at physiological pH , the majority will exist as superoxide anion . If too much damage is present in mitochondria , a cell undergoes apoptosis or programmed cell death . Bcl - 2 proteins are layered on the surface of the mitochondria , detect damage , and activate a class of proteins called Bax , which punch holes in the mitochondrial membrane , causing cytochrome C to leak out . This cytochrome C binds to Apaf - 1 , or apoptotic protease activating factor - 1 , which is free - floating in the cell 's cytoplasm . Using energy from the ATPs in the mitochondrion , the Apaf - 1 and cytochrome C bind together to form apoptosomes . The apoptosomes bind to and activate caspase - 9 , another free - floating protein . The caspase - 9 then cleaves the proteins of the mitochondrial membrane , causing it to break down and start a chain reaction of protein denaturation and eventually phagocytosis of the cell . Superoxide dismutase ( edit ) Main article : Superoxide dismutase Superoxide dismutases ( SOD ) are a class of enzymes that catalyze the dismutation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide . As such , they are an important antioxidant defense in nearly all cells exposed to oxygen . In mammals and most chordates , three forms of superoxide dismutase are present . SOD1 is located primarily in the cytoplasm , SOD2 in the mitochondria and SOD3 is extracellular . The first is a dimer ( consists of two units ) , while the others are tetramers ( four subunits ) . SOD1 and SOD3 contain copper and zinc ions , while SOD2 has a manganese ion in its reactive centre . The genes are located on chromosomes 21 , 6 , and 4 , respectively ( 21q22. 1 , 6q25. 3 and 4p15. 3 - p15. 1 ) . The SOD - catalysed dismutation of superoxide may be written with the following half - reactions : M − SOD + O → M − SOD + O M − SOD + O + 2H → M − SOD + H O . where M = Cu ( n = 1 ) ; Mn ( n = 2 ) ; Fe ( n = 2 ) ; Ni ( n = 2 ) . In this reaction the oxidation state of the metal cation oscillates between n and n + 1 . Catalase , which is concentrated in peroxisomes located next to mitochondria , reacts with the hydrogen peroxide to catalyze the formation of water and oxygen . Glutathione peroxidase reduces hydrogen peroxide by transferring the energy of the reactive peroxides to a very small sulfur - containing protein called glutathione . The sulfur contained in these enzymes acts as the reactive center , carrying reactive electrons from the peroxide to the glutathione . Peroxiredoxins also degrade H O , within the mitochondria , cytosol , and nucleus . 2 H O → 2 H O + O ( catalase ) 2GSH + H O → GS -- SG + 2H O ( glutathione peroxidase ) Singlet oxygen ( edit ) Another type of reactive oxygen species is singlet oxygen ( O ) which is produced for example as byproduct of photosynthesis in plants . In the presence of light and oxygen , photosensitizers such as chlorophyll may convert triplet ( O ) to singlet oxygen : O 2 3 → photosensitizer light O 2 1 ( \ displaystyle ( \ ce ( ( ^ ( 3 ) O2 ) - > ( ( \ ce ( light ) ) ) ( ( \ ce ( photosensitizer ) ) ) ( ^ ( 1 ) O2 ) ) ) ) Singlet oxygen is highly reactive , especially with organic compounds that contain double bonds . The resulting damage caused by singlet oxygen reduces the photosynthetic efficiency of chloroplasts . In plants exposed to excess light , the increased production of singlet oxygen can result in cell death . Various substances such as carotenoids , tocopherols and plastoquinones contained in chloroplasts quench singlet oxygen and protect against its toxic effects . In addition to direct toxicity , singlet oxygen acts a signaling molecule . Oxidized products of β - carotene arising from the presence of singlet oxygen act as second messengers that can either protect against singlet oxygen induced toxicity or initiate programmed cell death . Levels of jasmonate play a key role in the decision between cell acclimation or cell death in response to elevated levels of this reactive oxygen species . Damaging effects ( edit ) Effects of ROS on cell metabolism are well documented in a variety of species . These include not only roles in apoptosis ( programmed cell death ) but also positive effects such as the induction of host defence genes and mobilization of ion transport systems . This implicates them in control of cellular function . In particular , platelets involved in wound repair and blood homeostasis release ROS to recruit additional platelets to sites of injury . These also provide a link to the adaptive immune system via the recruitment of leukocytes . Reactive oxygen species are implicated in cellular activity to a variety of inflammatory responses including cardiovascular disease . They may also be involved in hearing impairment via cochlear damage induced by elevated sound levels , in ototoxicity of drugs such as cisplatin , and in congenital deafness in both animals and humans . ROS are also implicated in mediation of apoptosis or programmed cell death and ischaemic injury . Specific examples include stroke and heart attack . In general , harmful effects of reactive oxygen species on the cell are most often : damage of DNA or RNA oxidations of polyunsaturated fatty acids in lipids ( lipid peroxidation ) oxidations of amino acids in proteins oxidative deactivation of specific enzymes by oxidation of co-factors Pathogen response ( edit ) When a plant recognizes an attacking pathogen , one of the first induced reactions is to rapidly produce superoxide ( O ) or hydrogen peroxide ( H O ) to strengthen the cell wall . This prevents the spread of the pathogen to other parts of the plant , essentially forming a net around the pathogen to restrict movement and reproduction . In the mammalian host , ROS is induced as an antimicrobial defense . To highlight the importance of this defense , individuals with chronic granulomatous disease who have deficiencies in generating ROS , are highly susceptible to infection by a broad range of microbes including Salmonella enterica , Staphylococcus aureus , Serratia marcescens , and Aspergillus spp . The exact manner in which ROS defends the host from invading microbe is not fully understood . One of the more likely modes of defense is damage to microbial DNA . Studies using Salmonella demonstrated that DNA repair mechanisms were required to resist killing by ROS . More recently , a role for ROS in antiviral defense mechanisms has been demonstrated via Rig - like helicase - 1 and mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein . Increased levels of ROS potentiate signaling through this mitochondria - associated antiviral receptor to activate interferon regulatory factor ( IRF ) - 3 , IRF - 7 , and nuclear factor kappa B ( NF - κB ) , resulting in an antiviral state . Respiratory epithelial cells were recently demonstrated to induce mitrochondrial ROS in response to influenza infection . This induction of ROS led to the induction of type III interferon and the induction of an antiviral state , limiting viral replication . In host defense against mycobacteria , ROS play a role , although direct killing is likely not the key mechanism ; rather , ROS likely affect ROS - dependent signalling controls , such as cytokine production , autophagy , and granuloma formation . Reactive oxygen species are also implicated in activation , anergy and apoptosis of T cells . Oxidative damage ( edit ) In aerobic organisms the energy needed to fuel biological functions is produced in the mitochondria via the electron transport chain . In addition to energy , reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) with the potential to cause cellular damage are produced . ROS can damage lipid , DNA , RNA , and proteins , which , in theory , contributes to the physiology of aging . ROS are produced as a normal product of cellular metabolism . In particular , one major contributor to oxidative damage is hydrogen peroxide ( H O ) , which is converted from superoxide that leaks from the mitochondria . Catalase and superoxide dismutase ameliorate the damaging effects of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide , respectively , by converting these compounds into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide ( which is later converted to water ) , resulting in the production of benign molecules . However , this conversion is not 100 % efficient , and residual peroxides persist in the cell . While ROS are produced as a product of normal cellular functioning , excessive amounts can cause deleterious effects . Memory capabilities decline with age , evident in human degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer 's disease , which is accompanied by an accumulation of oxidative damage . Current studies demonstrate that the accumulation of ROS can decrease an organism 's fitness because oxidative damage is a contributor to senescence . In particular , the accumulation of oxidative damage may lead to cognitive dysfunction , as demonstrated in a study in which old rats were given mitochondrial metabolites and then given cognitive tests . Results showed that the rats performed better after receiving the metabolites , suggesting that the metabolites reduced oxidative damage and improved mitochondrial function . Accumulating oxidative damage can then affect the efficiency of mitochondria and further increase the rate of ROS production . The accumulation of oxidative damage and its implications for aging depends on the particular tissue type where the damage is occurring . Additional experimental results suggest that oxidative damage is responsible for age - related decline in brain functioning . Older gerbils were found to have higher levels of oxidized protein in comparison to younger gerbils . Treatment of old and young mice with a spin trapping compound caused a decrease in the level of oxidized proteins in older gerbils but did not have an effect on younger gerbils . In addition , older gerbils performed cognitive tasks better during treatment but ceased functional capacity when treatment was discontinued , causing oxidized protein levels to increase . This led researchers to conclude that oxidation of cellular proteins is potentially important for brain function . Cause of aging ( edit ) According to the Free - radical theory , oxidative damage initiated by reactive oxygen species is a major contributor to the functional decline that is characteristic of aging . While studies in invertebrate models indicate that animals genetically engineered to lack specific antioxidant enzymes ( such as SOD ) , in general , show a shortened lifespan ( as one would expect from the theory ) , the converse manipulation , increasing the levels of antioxidant enzymes , has yielded inconsistent effects on lifespan ( though some studies in Drosophila do show that lifespan can be increased by the overexpression of MnSOD or glutathione biosynthesizing enzymes ) . Also contrary to this theory , deletion of mitochondrial SOD2 can extend lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans . In mice , the story is somewhat similar . Deleting antioxidant enzymes , in general , yields shorter lifespan , though overexpression studies have not ( with some recent exceptions ) consistently extended lifespan . Cancer ( edit ) ROS are constantly generated and eliminated in the biological system and are required to drive regulatory pathways . Under normal physiological conditions , cells control ROS levels by balancing the generation of ROS with their elimination by scavenging system . But under oxidative stress conditions , excessive ROS can damage cellular proteins , lipids and DNA , leading to fatal lesions in cell that contribute to carcinogenesis . Cancer cells exhibit greater ROS stress than normal cells do , partly due to oncogenic stimulation , increased metabolic activity and mitochondrial malfunction . ROS is a double - edged sword . On one hand , at low levels , ROS facilitates cancer cell survival since cell - cycle progression driven by growth factors and receptor tyrosine kinases ( RTK ) require ROS for activation and chronic inflammation , a major mediator of cancer , is regulated by ROS . On the other hand , a high level of ROS can suppress tumor growth through the sustained activation of cell - cycle inhibitor and induction of cell death as well as senescence by damaging macromolecules . In fact , most of the chemotherapeutic and radiotherapeutic agents kill cancer cells by augmenting ROS stress . The ability of cancer cells to distinguish between ROS as a survival or apoptotic signal is controlled by the dosage , duration , type , and site of ROS production . Modest levels of ROS are required for cancer cells to survive , whereas excessive levels kill them . Metabolic adaptation in tumours balances the cells ' need for energy with equally important need for macromolecular building blocks and tighter control of redox balance . As a result , production of NADPH is greatly enhanced , which functions as a cofactor to provide reducing power in many enzymatic reactions for macromolecular biosynthesis and at the same time rescuing the cells from excessive ROS produced during rapid proliferation . Cells counterbalance the detrimental effects of ROS by producing antioxidant molecules , such as reduced glutathione ( GSH ) and thioredoxin ( TRX ) , which rely on the reducing power of NADPH to maintain their activities . Most risk factors associated with cancer interact with cells through the generation of ROS . ROS then activate various transcription factors such as nuclear factor kappa - light - chain - enhancer of activated B cells ( NF - κB ) , activator protein - 1 ( AP - 1 ) , hypoxia - inducible factor - 1α and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 ( STAT3 ) , leading to expression of proteins that control inflammation ; cellular transformation ; tumor cell survival ; tumor cell proliferation ; and invasion , agiogenesis as well as metastasis . And ROS also control the expression of various tumor suppressor genes such as p53 , retinoblastoma gene ( Rb ) , and phosphatase and tensin homolog ( PTEN ) . Carcinogenesis ( edit ) ROS - related oxidation of DNA is one of the main causes of mutations , which can produce several types of DNA damage , including non-bulky ( 8 - oxoguanine and formamidopyrimidine ) and bulky ( cyclopurine and etheno adducts ) base modifications , abasic sites , non-conventional single - strand breaks , protein - DNA adducts , and intra / interstrand DNA crosslinks . It has been estimated that endogenous ROS produced via normal cell metabolism modify approximately 20,000 bases of DNA per day in a single cell . 8 - oxoguanine is the most abundant among various oxidized nitrogeneous bases observed . During DNA replication , DNA polymerase mispairs 8 - oxoguanine with adenine , leading to a G → T transversion mutation . The resulting genomic instability directly contributes to carcinogenesis . Cellular transformation leads to cancer and interaction of atypical PKC - ζ isoform with p47phox controls ROS production and transformation from apoptotic cancer stem cells through blebbishield emergency program , . Cell proliferation ( edit ) Uncontrolled proliferation is a hallmark of cancer cells . Both exogenous and endogenous ROS have been shown to enhance proliferation of cancer cells . The role of ROS in promoting tumor proliferation is further supported by the observation that agents with potential to inhibit ROS generation can also inhibit cancer cell proliferation . Although ROS can promote tumor cell proliferation , a great increase in ROS has been associated with reduced cancer cell proliferation by induction of G2 / M cell cycle arrest ; increased phosphorylation of ataxia telangiectasia mutated ( ATM ) , checkpoint kinase 1 ( Chk 1 ) , Chk 2 ; and reduced cell division cycle 25 homolog c ( CDC25 ) . Cell death ( edit ) A cancer cell can die in three ways : apoptosis , necrosis and autophagy . Excessive ROS can induce apoptosis through both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways . In the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis , ROS are generated by Fas ligand as an upstream event for Fas activation via phosphorylation , which is necessary for subsequent recruitment of Fas - associated protein with death domain and caspase 8 as well as apoptosis induction . In the intrinsic pathway , ROS function to facilitate cytochrome c release by activating pore - stabilizing proteins ( Bcl - 2 and Bcl - xL ) as well as inhibiting pore - destabilizing proteins ( Bcl - 2 - associated X protein , Bcl - 2 homologous antagonist / killer ) . The intrinsic pathway is also known as the caspase cascade and is induced through mitochondrial damage which triggers the release of cytochrome c . DNA damage , oxidative stress , and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential lead to the release of the pro-apoptotic proteins mentioned above stimulating apoptosis . Mitochondrial damage is closely linked to apoptosis and since mitochondria are easily targeted there is potential for cancer therapy . The cytotoxic nature of ROS is a driving force behind apoptosis , but in even higher amounts , ROS can result in both apoptosis and necrosis , a form of uncontrolled cell death , in cancer cells . Numerous studies have shown the pathways and associations between ROS levels and apoptosis , but a newer line of study has connected ROS levels and autophagy . ROS can also induce cell death through autophagy , which is a self - catabolic process involving sequestration of cytoplasmic contents ( exhausted or damaged organelles and protein aggregates ) for degradation in lysosomes . Therefore , autophagy can also regulate the cell 's health in times of oxidative stress . Autophagy can be induced by ROS levels through many different pathways in the cell in an attempt to dispose of harmful organelles and prevent damage , such as carcinogens , without inducing apoptosis . Autophagic cell death can be prompted by the over expression of autophagy where the cell digests too much of itself in an attempt to minimize the damage and can no longer survive . When this type of cell death occurs , an increase or loss of control of autophagy regulating genes is commonly co-observed . Thus , once a more in - depth understanding of autophagic cell death is attained and its relation to ROS , this form of programmed cell death may serve as a future cancer therapy . Autophagy and apoptosis are two different cell death mechanisms brought on by high levels of ROS in the cells , however ; autophagy and apoptosis rarely act through strictly independent pathways . There is a clear connection between ROS and autophagy and a correlation seen between excessive amounts of ROS leading to apoptosis . The depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane is also characteristic of the initiation of autophagy . When mitochondria are damaged and begin to release ROS , autophagy is initiated to dispose of the damaging organelle . If a drug targets mitochondria and creates ROS , autophagy may dispose of so many mitochondria and other damaged organelles that the cell is no longer viable . The extensive amount of ROS and mitochondrial damage may also signal for apoptosis . The balance of autophagy within the cell and the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis mediated by ROS is crucial for a cell 's survival . This crosstalk and connection between autophagy and apoptosis could be a mechanism targeted by cancer therapies or used in combination therapies for highly resistant cancers . Tumor cell invasion , angiogenesis and metastasis ( edit ) After growth factor stimulation of RTKs , ROS can trigger activation of signaling pathways involved in cell migration and invasion such as members of the mitogen activated protein kinase ( MAPK ) family -- extracellular regulated kinase ( ERK ) , c - jun NH - 2 terminal kinase ( JNK ) and p38 MAPK . ROS can also promote migration by augmenting phosphorylation of the focal adhesion kinase ( FAK ) p130Cas and paxilin . Both in vitro and in vivo , ROS have been shown to induce transcription factors and modulate signaling molecules involved in angiogenesis ( MMP , VEGF ) and metastasis ( upregulation of AP - 1 , CXCR4 , AKT and downregulation of PTEN ) . Chronic inflammation and cancer ( edit ) Experimental and epidemiologic research over the past several years has indicated close associations among ROS , chronic inflammation , and cancer . ROS induces chronic inflammation by the induction of COX - 2 , inflammatory cytokines ( TNFα , interleukin 1 ( IL - 1 ) , IL - 6 ) , chemokines ( IL - 8 , CXCR4 ) and pro-inflammatory transcription factors ( NF - κB ) . These chemokines and chemokine receptors , in turn , promote invasion and metastasis of various tumor types . Cancer therapy ( edit ) Both ROS - elevating and ROS - eliminating strategies have been developed with the former being predominantly used . Cancer cells with elevated ROS levels depend heavily on the antioxidant defense system . ROS - elevating drugs further increase cellular ROS stress level , either by direct ROS - generation ( e.g. motexafin gadolinium , elesclomol ) or by agents that abrogate the inherent antioxidant system such as SOD inhibitor ( e.g. ATN - 224 , 2 - methoxyestradiol ) and GSH inhibitor ( e.g. PEITC , buthionine sulfoximine ( BSO ) ) . The result is an overall increase in endogenous ROS , which when above a cellular tolerability threshold , may induce cell death . On the other hand , normal cells appear to have , under lower basal stress and reserve , a higher capacity to cope with additional ROS - generating insults than cancer cells do . Therefore , the elevation of ROS in all cells can be used to achieve the selective killing of cancer cells . Radiotherapy also relies on ROS toxicity to eradicate tumor cells . Radiotherapy uses X-rays , γ - rays as well as heavy particle radiation such as protons and neutrons to induce ROS - mediated cell death and mitotic failure . Due to the dual role of ROS , both prooxidant and antioxidant - based anticancer agents have been developed . However , modulation of ROS signaling alone seems not to be an ideal approach due to adaptation of cancer cells to ROS stress , redundant pathways for supporting cancer growth and toxicity from ROS - generating anticancer drugs . Combinations of ROS - generating drugs with pharmaceuticals that can break the redox adaptation could be a better strategy for enhancing cancer cell cytotoxicity . James Watson and others have proposed that lack of intracellular ROS due to a lack of physical exercise may contribute to the malignant progression of cancer , because spikes of ROS are needed to correctly fold proteins in the endoplasmatic reticulum and low ROS levels may thus aspecifically hamper the formation of tumor suppressor proteins . Since physical exercise induces temporary spikes of ROS , this may explain why physical exercise is beneficial for cancer patient prognosis . Moreover , high inducers of ROS such as 2 - deoxy - D - glucose and carbohydrate - based inducers of cellular stress induce cancer cell death more potently because they exploit cancer cell high avidity for sugars . 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PMID 22960576 . ^ Jump up to : Kong Q , Beel JA , Lillehei KO ( Jul 2000 ) . `` A threshold concept for cancer therapy '' . Medical Hypotheses. 55 ( 1 ) : 29 -- 35 . doi : 10.1054 / mehy. 1999.0982 . PMID 11021322 . Jump up ^ Schumacker PT ( Sep 2006 ) . `` Reactive oxygen species in cancer cells : live by the sword , die by the sword '' . Cancer Cell. 10 ( 3 ) : 175 -- 6 . doi : 10.1016 / j. ccr. 2006.08. 015 . PMID 16959608 . Jump up ^ Trachootham D , Alexandre J , Huang P ( Jul 2009 ) . `` Targeting cancer cells by ROS - mediated mechanisms : a radical therapeutic approach ? '' . Nature Reviews . Drug Discovery . 8 ( 7 ) : 579 -- 91 . doi : 10.1038 / nrd2803 . PMID 19478820 . Jump up ^ Watson JD ( Mar 2014 ) . `` Type 2 diabetes as a redox disease '' . Lancet . 383 ( 9919 ) : 841 -- 3 . doi : 10.1016 / s0140 - 6736 ( 13 ) 62365 - x . PMID 24581668 . ^ Jump up to : Molenaar RJ , van Noorden CJ ( Sep 2014 ) . `` Type 2 diabetes and cancer as redox diseases ? '' . Lancet . 384 ( 9946 ) : 853 . doi : 10.1016 / s0140 - 6736 ( 14 ) 61485 - 9 . PMID 25209484 . Jump up ^ Irwin ML , Smith AW , McTiernan A , Ballard - Barbash R , Cronin K , Gilliland FD , Baumgartner RN , Baumgartner KB , Bernstein L ( Aug 2008 ) . `` Influence of pre - and postdiagnosis physical activity on mortality in breast cancer survivors : the health , eating , activity , and lifestyle study '' . Journal of Clinical Oncology. 26 ( 24 ) : 3958 -- 64 . doi : 10.1200 / jco. 2007.15. 9822 . PMC 2654316 . PMID 18711185 . Jump up ^ Ndombera , Fidelis T. ; VanHecke , Garrett C. ; Nagi , Shima ; Ahn , Young - Hoon . `` Carbohydrate - based inducers of cellular stress for targeting cancer cells '' . Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 26 : 1452 -- 1456 . doi : 10.1016 / j. bmcl. 2016.01. 063 . PMID 26832785 . Further reading ( edit ) Sen CK ( 2003 ) . `` The general case for redox control of wound repair '' . Wound Repair and Regeneration. 11 ( 6 ) : 431 -- 8 . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1524 - 475X. 2003.11607. x . PMID 14617282 . Krötz F , Sohn HY , Gloe T , Zahler S , Riexinger T , Schiele TM , Becker BF , Theisen K , Klauss V , Pohl U ( Aug 2002 ) . `` NAD ( P ) H oxidase - dependent platelet superoxide anion release increases platelet recruitment '' . Blood . 100 ( 3 ) : 917 -- 24 . doi : 10.1182 / blood. V100. 3.917 . PMID 12130503 . Pignatelli P , Pulcinelli FM , Lenti L , Gazzaniga PP , Violi F ( Jan 1998 ) . `` Hydrogen peroxide is involved in collagen - induced platelet activation '' . Blood . 91 ( 2 ) : 484 -- 90 . PMID 9427701 . Guzik TJ , Korbut R , Adamek - Guzik T ( Dec 2003 ) . `` Nitric oxide and superoxide in inflammation and immune regulation '' . Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology . 54 ( 4 ) : 469 -- 87 . PMID 14726604 . External links ( edit ) Nobel laureate James Watson 's novel hypothesis Antioxidants do n't work , but no one wants to hear it . http://ncrc.appstate.edu/research-focus/current-and-upcoming-research NDL : 00576850 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reactive_oxygen_species&oldid=826568034 '' Categories : Free radicals Oxygen Senescence Carcinogenesis Cancer Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009 Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Español Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Melayu 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2018 , at 21 : 33 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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where are reactive oxygen species produced in the body
[ "In aerobic organisms the energy needed to fuel biological functions is produced in the mitochondria via the electron transport chain. In addition to energy, reactive oxygen species (ROS) with the potential to cause cellular damage are produced. ROS can damage lipid, DNA, RNA, and proteins, which, in theory, contributes to the physiology of aging." ]
[ "in the mitochondria" ]
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Monoamine oxidase inhibitor
Monoamine oxidase inhibitor - wikipedia Monoamine oxidase inhibitor Jump to : navigation , search `` MAOI '' redirects here . For the Easter Island statues , see Moai . Monoamine oxidase inhibitor Drug class Ribbon diagram of human monoamine oxidase B . From PDB : 1GOS ​ . Class identifiers Synonyms MAOI , RIMA Use Treatment of major depressive disorder , atypical depression , Parkinson 's disease , and several other disorders ATC code N06AF Mechanism of action Enzyme inhibitor Biological target Monoamine oxidase enzymes : MAO - A and / or MAO - B External links MeSH D008996 In Wikidata Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs ) are class of drugs that inhibit the activity of one or both monoamine oxidase enzymes : monoamine oxidase A ( MAO - A ) and monoamine oxidase B ( MAO - B ) . They have a long history of use as medications prescribed for the treatment of depression . They are particularly effective in treating atypical depression . They are also used in the treatment of Parkinson 's disease and several other disorders . Reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A ( RIMAs ) are a subclass of MAOIs that selectively and reversibly inhibit the MAO - A enzyme . RIMAs are used clinically in the treatment of depression and dysthymia , though they have not gained widespread market share in the United States . Because of their reversibility and selectivity , RIMAs are safer than the older MAOIs like phenelzine and tranylcypromine . Because of potentially lethal dietary and drug interactions , monoamine oxidase inhibitors have historically been reserved as a last line of treatment , used only when other classes of antidepressant drugs ( for example selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants ) have failed . New research into MAOIs indicates that much of the concern over their dangerous dietary side effects stems from misconceptions and misinformation , and that despite the proven effectiveness of this class of drugs , it is underutilized and misunderstood in the medical profession . New research also questions the validity of the perceived severity of dietary reactions , which has historically been based on outdated research . However , this research also notes that many practitioners have a poor understanding of drug interactions , and `` drug interactions can be serious , and concomitant medication use must be stringently overseen '' as they `` can cause a dangerous or fatal serotonin syndrome / toxicity '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Medical uses 2 Side effects 2.1 Hypertensive crisis 2.2 Drug interactions 2.3 Withdrawal 2.4 Interactions 3 Mechanism of action 3.1 Reversibility 3.2 Selectivity 4 History 5 List of MAO inhibiting drugs 5.1 Marketed MAOIs 5.2 MAOIs that have been withdrawn from the market 5.3 List of RIMAs 6 References Medical uses ( edit ) Skeletal formula of moclobemide , the prototypical RIMA . Newer MAOIs such as selegiline ( typically used in the treatment of Parkinson 's disease ) and the reversible MAOI moclobemide provide a safer alternative and are now sometimes used as first - line therapy . MAOIs have been found to be effective in the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia , social phobia , atypical depression or mixed anxiety disorder and depression , bulimia , and post-traumatic stress disorder , as well as borderline personality disorder . MAOIs appear to be particularly effective in the management of bipolar depression according to a recent retrospective - analysis . There are reports of MAOI efficacy in obsessive - compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , trichotillomania , dysmorphophobia , and avoidant personality disorder , but these reports are from uncontrolled case reports . MAOIs can also be used in the treatment of Parkinson 's disease by targeting MAO - B in particular ( therefore affecting dopaminergic neurons ) , as well as providing an alternative for migraine prophylaxis . Inhibition of both MAO - A and MAO - B is used in the treatment of clinical depression and anxiety . MAOIs appear to be particularly indicated for outpatients with dysthymia complicated by panic disorder or hysteroid dysphoria , which involves repeated episodes of depressed mood in response to feeling rejected . Side effects ( edit ) Hypertensive crisis ( edit ) People taking MAOIs generally need to change their diets to limit or avoid foods and beverages containing tyramine . If large amounts of tyramine are consumed , they may suffer hypertensive crisis , which can be fatal . Examples of foods and beverages with potentially high levels of tyramine include animal liver and fermented substances , such as alcoholic beverages and aged cheeses . Excessive concentrations of tyramine in blood plasma can lead to hypertensive crisis by increasing the release of norepinephrine ( NE ) , which causes blood vessels to constrict by activating alpha - 1 adrenergic receptors . Ordinarily , MAO - A would destroy the excess NE ; however , when MAO - A is inhibited , NE levels get too high , leading to dangerous increases in blood pressure . RIMAs are displaced from MAO - A in the presence of tyramine , rather than inhibiting its breakdown in the liver as general MAOIs do . Additionally , MAO - B remains free and continues to metabolize tyramine in the stomach , although this is less significant than the liver action . Thus , RIMAs are unlikely to elicit tyramine - mediated hypertensive crisis ; moreover , dietary modifications are not usually necessary when taking a reversible inhibitor of MAO - A ( i.e. , moclobemide ) or low doses of selective MAO - B inhibitors ( e.g. , selegiline 6 mg / 24 hours transdermal patch ) . Drug interactions ( edit ) The most significant risk associated with the use of MAOIs is the potential for drug interactions with over-the - counter and prescription medicines , illicit drugs or medications , and some dietary supplements ( e.g. , St. John 's wort , tryptophan ) . It is vital that a doctor supervise such combinations to avoid adverse reactions . For this reason , many users carry an MAOI - card , which lets emergency medical personnel know what drugs to avoid . ( E.g. , adrenaline dosage should be reduced by 75 % , and duration is extended . ) Tryptophan supplements should not be consumed with MAOIs as the potentially fatal serotonin syndrome may result . MAOIs should not be combined with other psychoactive substances ( antidepressants , painkillers , stimulants , both legal and illegal etc . ) except under expert care . Certain combinations can cause lethal reactions , common examples including SSRIs , tricyclics , MDMA , meperidine , tramadol , and dextromethorphan . Drugs that affect the release or reuptake of epinephrine , norepinephrine , or dopamine typically need to be administered at lower doses due to the resulting potentiated and prolonged effect . MAOIs also interact with tobacco - containing products ( e.g. , cigarettes ) and may potentiate the effects of certain compounds in tobacco . This may be reflected in the difficulty of smoking cessation , as tobacco contains naturally occurring MAOI compounds in addition to the nicotine . While safer than general MAOIs , RIMAs still possess significant and potentially serious drug interactions with many common drugs ; in particular , they can cause serotonin syndrome or hypertensive crisis when combined with almost any antidepressant or stimulant , common migraine medications , certain herbs , or even most cold medicines ( including decongestants , antihistamines , and cough syrup ) . Withdrawal ( edit ) Antidepressants including MAOIs have some dependence - producing effects , the most notable one being a withdrawal syndrome , which may be severe especially if MAOIs are discontinued abruptly or too rapidly . However , the dependence - producing potential of MAOIs or antidepressants in general is not as significant as benzodiazepines . Withdrawal symptoms can be managed by a gradual reduction in dosage over a period of weeks , months or years to minimize or prevent withdrawal symptoms . MAOIs , as with any antidepressant medications , do not alter the course of the disorder , so it is possible that discontinuation can return the patient to the pre-treatment state . This consideration greatly complicates switching a patient between a MAOI and a SSRI , because it is necessary to clear the system completely of one drug before starting another . If one also tapers dosage gradually , the result is that for weeks a depressed patient will have to bear the depression without chemical help during the drug - free interval . This may be preferable to risking the effects of an interaction between the two drugs , but it is often not easy for the patient . Interactions ( edit ) This section needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources . Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can . Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) The MAOIs are infamous for their numerous drug interactions , including the following kinds of substances : Substances that are metabolized by monoamine oxidase , as they can be boosted by up to several-fold . Substances that increase serotonin , norepinephrine , or dopamine activity , as too much of any of these neurochemicals can result in severe acute consequences , including serotonin syndrome , hypertensive crisis , and psychosis , respectively . Such substances that can react with MAOIs include : Phenethylamines : 2C - B , mescaline , phenethylamine ( PEA ) , etc . Amphetamines : amphetamine , MDMA , dextroamphetamine , methamphetamine , DOM , etc . Tryptamines : DMT , psilocin / psilocybin ( `` Magic Mushrooms '' ) , etc . Lysergamides : ergolines / LSA , LSD ( `` Acid '' ) , etc . Norepinephrine , and / or dopamine reuptake inhibitors : Serotonin - norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors ( SNRIs ) : desvenlafaxine , duloxetine , milnacipran , venlafaxine . Norepinephrine - dopamine reuptake inhibitors ( NDRIs ) : amineptine , bupropion , methylphenidate , nomifensine . Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors ( NRIs ) : atomoxetine , mazindol , reboxetine . Tricyclic antidepressants ( TCAs ) : amitriptyline , butriptyline , clomipramine , desipramine , dosulepin , doxepin , imipramine , lofepramine , nortriptyline , protriptyline , trimipramine . Tetracyclic antidepressants ( TeCAs ) : amoxapine , maprotiline . Phenylpiperidine derivative opioids : meperidine / pethidine , tramadol , methadone , fentanyl , dextropropoxyphene , propoxyphene . Others : brompheniramine , chlorpheniramine , cocaine , cyclobenzaprine , dextromethorphan ( DXM ) , ketamine , MDPV , nefazodone , phencyclidine ( PCP ) , pheniramine , sibutramine , trazodone Serotonin , norepinephrine , and / or dopamine releasers : 4 - methylaminorex ( 4 - MAR ) , amphetamine , benzphetamine , cathine , cathinone , diethylcathinone , ephedrine , levmetamfetamine , lisdexamfetamine , MDMA ( `` Ecstasy '' ) , methamphetamine , pemoline , phendimetrazine , phenethylamine ( PEA ) , phentermine , propylhexedrine , pseudoephedrine , phenylephrine , tyramine . Local and general anesthetic in surgery and dentistry , in particular those containing epinephrine . There is no universally taught or accepted practice regarding dentistry and use of MAOIs such as phenelzine , and therefore it is vital to inform all clinicians , especially dentists , of the potential effect of MAOIs and local anesthesia . In preparation for dental work , withdrawal from phenelzine is specifically advised , however since this takes two weeks it is not always a desirable or practical option . Dentists using local anesthesia are advised to use a non-epinephrine anesthetic such as mepivacaine at a level of 3 % . Specific attention should be paid to blood pressure during the procedure , and the level of the anesthetic should be regularly and appropriately topped - up , for non-epinephrine anesthetics take longer to come into effect and wear off faster . Patients taking phenelzine are advised to notify their psychiatrist prior to any dental treatment . Certain other supplements : Hypericum perforatum ( `` St John 's wort '' ) , inositol , Rhodiola rosea , S - adenosyl - L - methionine ( SAMe ) , L - theanine . Antibiotics such as Linezolid Other monoamine oxidase inhibitors . Mechanism of action ( edit ) Ribbon diagram of a monomer of human MAO - A , with FAD and clorgiline bound , oriented as if attached to the outer membrane of a mitochondrion . From PDB : 2BXS ​ . MAOIs act by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase , thus preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters and thereby increasing their availability . There are two isoforms of monoamine oxidase , MAO - A and MAO - B. MAO - A preferentially deaminates serotonin , melatonin , epinephrine , and norepinephrine . MAO - B preferentially deaminates phenethylamine and certain other trace amines ; in contrast , MAO - A preferentially deaminates other trace amines , like tyramine , whereas dopamine is equally deaminated by both types . Reversibility ( edit ) The early MAOIs covalently bound to the monoamine oxidase enzymes , thus inhibiting them irreversibly ; the bound enzyme could not function and thus enzyme activity was blocked until the cell made new enzymes . The enzymes turn over approximately every two weeks . A few newer MAOIs , a notable one being moclobemide , are reversible , meaning that they are able to detach from the enzyme to facilitate usual catabolism of the substrate . The level of inhibition in this way is governed by the concentrations of the substrate and the MAOI . Harmaline found in Peganum harmala , Banisteriopsis caapi , and Passiflora incarnata is a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A ( RIMA ) . Selectivity ( edit ) In addition to reversibility , MAOIs differ by their selectivity of the MAO enzyme subtype . Some MAOIs inhibit both MAO - A and MAO - B equally , other MAOIs have been developed to target one over the other . MAO - A inhibition reduces the breakdown of primarily serotonin , norepinephrine , and dopamine ; selective inhibition of MAO - A allows for tyramine to be metabolised via MAO - B. Agents that act on serotonin if taken with another serotonin - enhancing agent may result in a potentially fatal interaction called serotonin syndrome or with irreversible and unselective inhibitors ( such as older MAOIs ) , of MAO a hypertensive crisis as a result of tyramine food interactions is particularly problematic with older MAOIs . Tyramine is broken down by MAO - A and MAO - B , therefore inhibiting this action may result in its excessive build - up , so diet must be monitored for tyramine intake . MAO - B inhibition reduces the breakdown mainly of dopamine and phenethylamine so there are no dietary restrictions associated with this . MAO - B would also metabolize tyramine , as the only differences between dopamine , phenethylamine , and tyramine are two phenylhydroxyl groups on carbons 3 and 4 . The 4 - OH would not be a steric hindrance to MAO - B on tyramine . Two MAO - Bi drugs , selegiline and rasagiline have been approved by the FDA without dietary restrictions , except in high - dosage treatment , wherein they lose their selectivity . History ( edit ) MAOIs started off due to the serendipitous discovery that iproniazid was a potent MAO inhibitor ( MAOI ) . Originally intended for the treatment of tuberculosis , in 1952 , iproniazid 's antidepressant properties were discovered when researchers noted that the depressed patients given iproniazid experienced a relief of their depression . Subsequent in vitro work led to the discovery that it inhibited MAO and eventually to the monoamine theory of depression . MAOIs became widely used as antidepressants in the early 1950s . The discovery of the 2 isoenzymes of MAO has led to the development of selective MAOIs that may have a more favorable side - effect profile . The older MAOIs ' heyday was mostly between the years 1957 and 1970 . The initial popularity of the ' classic ' non-selective irreversible MAO inhibitors began to wane due to their serious interactions with sympathomimetic drugs and tyramine - containing foods that could lead to dangerous hypertensive emergencies . As a result , the use by medical practitioners of these older MAOIs declined . When scientists discovered that there are two different MAO enzymes ( MAO - A and MAO - B ) , they developed selective compounds for MAO - B , ( for example , selegiline , which is used for Parkinson 's disease ) , to reduce the side - effects and serious interactions . Further improvement occurred with the development of compounds ( moclobemide and toloxatone ) that not only are selective but cause reversible MAO - A inhibition and a reduction in dietary and drug interactions . Moclobemide , was the first reversible inhibitor of MAO - A to enter widespread clinical practice . A transdermal patch form of the MAOI selegiline , called Emsam , was approved for use in depression by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States on 28 February 2006 . List of MAO inhibiting drugs ( edit ) Marketed MAOIs ( edit ) Nonselective MAO - A / MAO - B inhibitors Hydrazines Isocarboxazid ( Marplan ) Nialamide ( Niamid ) Phenelzine ( Nardil , Nardelzine ) Hydracarbazine Non-hydrazines Tranylcypromine ( Parnate , Jatrosom ) Selective MAO - A inhibitors Bifemelane ( Alnert , Celeport ) ( available in Japan ) Moclobemide ( Aurorix , Manerix ) Pirlindole ( Pirazidol ) ( available in Russia ) Toloxatone ( Humoryl ) ( available in France ) Selective MAO - B inhibitors Rasagiline ( Azilect ) Selegiline ( Deprenyl , Eldepryl , Emsam , Zelapar ) Safinamide ( Xadago ) Linezolid is an antibiotic drug with weak MAO - inhibiting activity . Methylene blue , the antidote indicated for drug - induced methemoglobinemia , among a plethora of other off - label uses , is a highly potent , reversible MAO inhibitor . MAOIs that have been withdrawn from the market ( edit ) Nonselective MAO - A / MAO - B inhibitors Hydrazines Benmoxin ( Nerusil , Neuralex ) Iproclozide ( Sursum ) Iproniazid ( Marsilid , Iprozid , Ipronid , Rivivol , Propilniazida ) ( discontinued worldwide except for France ) Mebanazine ( Actomol ) Octamoxin ( Ximaol , Nimaol ) Pheniprazine ( Catron ) Phenoxypropazine ( Drazine ) Pivalylbenzhydrazine ( Tersavid ) Safrazine ( Safra ) ( discontinued worldwide except for Japan ) Non-hydrazines Caroxazone ( Surodil , Timostenil ) Selective MAO - A inhibitors Minaprine ( Cantor ) List of RIMAs ( edit ) Marketed pharmaceuticals Brofaromine ( Consonar ) Caroxazone ( Surodil , Timostenil ) Eprobemide ( Befol ) Methylene blue Metralindole ( Inkazan ) Minaprine ( Cantor ) Moclobemide ( Aurorix , Manerix ) Pirlindole ( Pirazidol ) Toloxatone ( Humoryl ) Naturally occurring RIMAs in plants Curcumin ( selectivity for MAO - A is disputed ) Harmaline Harmine Research compounds Amiflamine ( FLA - 336 ) Befloxatone ( MD - 370,503 ) Cimoxatone ( MD - 780,515 ) Esuprone Sercloremine ( CGP - 4718 - A ) Tetrindole CX157 ( TriRima ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Cristancho , Mario . `` Atypical Depression in the 21st Century : Diagnostic and Treatment Issues '' . 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Antidepressants ( N06A ) ( hide ) Specific reuptake inhibitors and / or receptor modulators SSRIs Citalopram Escitalopram Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Indalpine Paroxetine Sertraline Zimelidine SNRIs Desvenlafaxine Duloxetine Levomilnacipran Milnacipran Tofenacin Venlafaxine NRIs Atomoxetine Reboxetine Viloxazine NDRIs Amineptine Bupropion Nomifensine NaSSAs Mianserin Mirtazapine Setiptiline SARIs Etoperidone Nefazodone Trazodone SMS Vilazodone Vortioxetine Others Agomelatine Amisulpride Esketamine Etryptamine Indeloxazine flupentixol Ketamine Medifoxamine Metryptamine Oxaflozane Pivagabine Tandospirone Teniloxazine Tianeptine ( hide ) Tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants TCAs Amineptine Amitriptyline Amitriptylinoxide Butriptyline Clomipramine Demexiptiline Desipramine Dibenzepin Dimetacrine Dosulepin Doxepin Imipramine Imipraminoxide Iprindole Lofepramine Melitracen Metapramine Nitroxazepine Nortriptyline Noxiptiline Opipramol Pipofezine Propizepine Protriptyline Quinupramine Tianeptine Trimipramine TeCAs Amoxapine Maprotiline Mianserin Mirtazapine Setiptiline Others Tiazesim ( hide ) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Non-selective Irreversible : Benmoxin Iproclozide Iproniazid Isocarboxazid Isoniazid Linezolid Mebanazine Nialamide Octamoxin Phenelzine Pheniprazine Phenoxypropazine Pivhydrazine Safrazine Tedizolid Tranylcypromine Reversible : Caroxazone Mixed : Bifemelane MAO - selective Reversible : Eprobemide Metralindole Minaprine Moclobemide Pirlindole Tetrindole Toloxatone MAO - selective Irreversible : Selegiline ( hide ) Adjunctive therapies Atypical antipsychotics ( aripiprazole , brexpiprazole , lurasidone , olanzapine , quetiapine , risperidone ) Buspirone Lithium ( lithium carbonate , lithium citrate ) Thyroid hormones ( triiodothyronine ( T ) , levothyroxine ( T ) ) ( hide ) Miscellaneous Ademetionine ( SAMe ) Hypericum perforatum ( St. John 's Wort ) Oxitriptan ( 5 - HTP ) Rubidium chloride ( RbCl ) Tryptophan WHO - EM Withdrawn from market Clinical trials : Phase III Never to phase III Pharmacology : enzyme inhibition Class Competitive inhibition Uncompetitive inhibition Non-competitive inhibition Suicide inhibition Mixed inhibition Substrate Oxidoreductase ( EC 1 ) 1.1 Aldose reductase HMG - CoA reductase 1.3 5α - Reductase 1.4 Monoamine oxidase 1.5 Dihydrofolate reductase 1.13 Lipoxygenase 1.14 Aromatase COX - 2 1.17 Xanthine oxidase Ribonucleotide reductase Transferase ( EC 2 ) 2.1 COMT Thymidylate synthase 2.4 PARP 2.5 Dihydropteroate synthetase Farnesyltransferase 2.6 GABA transaminase 2.7 Nucleotidyltransferase Integrase Reverse transcriptase Protein kinase Tyrosine - kinase Janus kinase Hydrolase ( EC 3 ) 3.1 Phosphodiesterase Acetylcholinesterase Ribonuclease 3.2 Polygalacturonase Neuraminidase Alpha - glucosidase 3.4 Protease : Exopeptidase DPP - 4 ACE Endopeptidase Trypsin Renin Mixed Enkephalinase Matrix metalloproteinase Oxytocinase 3.5 Histone deacetylase Beta - lactamase Lyase ( EC 4 ) 4.1 Dopa decarboxylase 4.2 Carbonic anhydrase Miscellaneous Steroidogenesis inhibitor Monoamine metabolism modulators Non-specific AAAD Substrates → Products : L - DOPA ( levodopa ) → Dopamine 5 - HTP → Serotonin L - Histidine → Histamine Phenylalanine → Phenethylamine L - Tyrosine → Tyramine Tryptophan → Tryptamine Inhibitors : Benserazide Carbidopa DFMD Genistein Methyldopa MAO Substrates → Products ( with ALDH / ALR ) : Epinephrine ( adrenaline ) → DHMA Metanephrine → MHPG / VMA Norepinephrine ( noradrenaline ) → DHMA Normetanephrine → MHPG / VMA Dopamine → DOPAC 3 - Methoxytyramine → HVA Serotonin → 5 - HIAA Inhibitors : Non-selective : Benmoxin Caroxazone Echinopsidine Furazolidone Guineesine Hydralazine Indantadol Iproclozide Iproniazid Isocarboxazid Isoniazid Linezolid Mebanazine Metfendrazine Nialamide Octamoxin Paraxazone Phenelzine Pheniprazine Phenoxypropazine Pivhydrazine Procarbazine Safrazine Tranylcypromine Inhibitors : MAO - A-selective : Amiflamine Bazinaprine Befloxatone Brofaromine Cimoxatone Clorgiline CX157 ( Tyrima ) Eprobemide Esuprone Harmala alkaloids ( e.g. , harmine , harmaline , harman , norharman , tetrahydroharmine ) Methylene blue Metralindole Minaprine Moclobemide Pirlindole Sercloremine Tetrindole Toloxatone Inhibitors : MAO - B selective : Adarigiline Almoxatone D - Deprenyl Ethanol Ladostigil Lazabemide Milacemide Mofegiline Nicotine Pargyline Rasagiline Safinamide Selegiline ( L - Deprenyl ) Sembragiline Phenethylamines ( dopamine , epinephrine , norepinephrine ) PAH Substrates → Products : Phenylalanine → Tyrosine Inhibitors : 3 , 4 - Dihydroxystyrene TH Substrates → Products : Tyrosine → L - DOPA ( levodopa ) Inhibitors : 2 - Hydroxyestradiol 2 - Hydroxyestrone 3 - Iodotyrosine Aquayamycin Bulbocapnine Metirosine Oudenone DBH Substrates → Products : Dopamine → Norepinephrine ( Noradrenaline ) Inhibitors : Bupicomide Disulfiram Dopastin Fusaric acid Nepicastat Phenopicolinic acid Tropolone PNMT Substrates → Products : Norepinephrine ( noradrenaline ) → Epinephrine ( adrenaline ) Inhibitors : CGS - 19281A SKF - 64139 SKF - 7698 COMT Substrates → Products : Dopamine → 3 - Methoxytyramine DOPAC → Homovanillic acid Norepinephrine → Normetanephrine Epinephrine → Metanephrine DOPEG → MOPEG DOMA → VMA 2 - Hydroxyestradiol → 2 - Methoxyestradiol 2 - Hydroxyestrone → 2 - Methoxyestrone 4 - Hydroxyestradiol → 4 - Methoxyestradiol 4 - Hydroxyestrone → 4 - Methoxyestrone Inhibitors : 2 - Hydroxyestradiol 2 - Hydroxyestrone Entacapone Nitecapone Opicapone Tolcapone Tryptamines ( serotonin , melatonin ) TPH Substrates → Products : Tryptophan → 5 - HTP Inhibitors : AGN - 2979 Fenclonine ( PCPA ) Telotristat ethyl AANAT Substrates → Products : Serotonin → N - Acetylserotonin ASMT Substrates → Products : N - Acetylserotonin → Melatonin Histamine HDC Substrates → Products : L - Histidine → Histamine Inhibitors : Catechin Meciadanol Naringenin Tritoqualine HNMT Substrates → Products : Histamine → N - Methylhistamine Inhibitors : Amodiaquine Diphenhydramine Harmaline Metoprine Quinacrine SKF - 91,488 Tacrine DAO Substrates → Products : Histamine → Imidazole acetic acid Inhibitors : Pimagedine ( aminoguanidine ) See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Adrenergics Dopaminergics Melatonergics Serotonergics Monoamine reuptake inhibitors Monoamine releasing agents Monoamine neurotoxins Serotonin receptor modulators 5 - HT 5 - HT Agonists : 8 - OH - DPAT Adatanserin Amphetamine Antidepressants ( e.g. , etoperidone , hydroxynefazodone , nefazodone , trazodone , triazoledione , vilazodone , vortioxetine ) Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , aripiprazole , asenapine , brexpiprazole , cariprazine , clozapine , lurasidone , quetiapine , ziprasidone ) Azapirones ( e.g. , buspirone , eptapirone , gepirone , perospirone , tandospirone ) Bay R 1531 Befiradol BMY - 14802 Cannabidiol Dimemebfe Dopamine Ebalzotan Eltoprazine Enciprazine Ergolines ( e.g. , bromocriptine , cabergoline , dihydroergotamine , ergotamine , lisuride , LSD , methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) , methysergide , pergolide ) F - 11461 F - 12826 F - 13714 F - 14679 F - 15063 F - 15599 Flesinoxan Flibanserin Flumexadol Lesopitron LY - 293284 LY - 301317 mCPP MKC - 242 Naluzotan NBUMP Osemozotan Oxaflozane Pardoprunox Piclozotan Rauwolscine Repinotan Roxindole RU - 24969 S - 14506 S - 14671 S - 15535 Sarizotan Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) SSR - 181507 Sunepitron Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - CT , 5 - MeO - DMT , 5 - MT , bufotenin , DMT , indorenate , N - Me - 5 - HT , psilocin , psilocybin ) TGBA01AD U-92016A Urapidil Vilazodone Xaliproden Yohimbine Antagonists : Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , iloperidone , risperidone , sertindole ) AV965 Beta blockers ( e.g. , alprenolol , carteolol , cyanopindolol , iodocyanopindolol , isamoltane , oxprenolol , penbutolol , pindobind , pindolol , propranolol , tertatolol ) BMY - 7378 CSP - 2503 Dotarizine Ergolines ( e.g. , metergoline ) Flopropione GR - 46611 Isamoltane Lecozotan Mefway Metitepine ( methiothepin ) MIN - 117 ( WF - 516 ) MPPF NAN - 190 Robalzotan S - 15535 SB - 649915 SDZ 216 - 525 Spiperone Spiramide Spiroxatrine UH - 301 WAY - 100135 WAY - 100635 Xylamidine Unknown / unsorted : Acetryptine Ergolines ( e.g. , ergometrine ( ergonovine ) ) 5 - HT Agonists : CGS - 12066A CP - 93129 CP - 94253 CP - 122,288 CP - 135807 Eltoprazine Ergolines ( e.g. , bromocriptine , dihydroergotamine , ergotamine , methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) , methysergide , pergolide ) mCPP RU - 24969 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g. , avitriptan , donitriptan , eletriptan , sumatriptan , zolmitriptan ) TFMPP Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - BT , 5 - CT , 5 - MT , DMT ) Vortioxetine Antagonists : AR - A000002 Beta blockers ( e.g. , alprenolol , carteolol , isamoltane , oxprenolol , penbutolol , propranolol , tertatolol ) Elzasonan Ergolines ( e.g. , metergoline ) GR - 127935 Isamoltane LY - 393558 Metitepine ( methiothepin ) SB - 216641 SB - 224289 SB - 236057 Yohimbine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g. , cabergoline , ergometrine ( ergonovine ) , lisuride ) 5 - HT Agonists : CP - 122,288 CP - 135807 CP - 286601 Ergolines ( e.g. , bromocriptine , cabergoline , dihydroergotamine , ergotamine , LSD , methysergide ) GR - 46611 L - 694247 L - 772405 mCPP PNU - 109291 PNU - 142633 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) TGBA01AD Triptans ( e.g. , almotriptan , avitriptan , donitriptan , eletriptan , frovatriptan , naratriptan , rizatriptan , sumatriptan , zolmitriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - BT , 5 - CT , 5 - Et - DMT , 5 - MT , 5 - ( nonyloxy ) tryptamine , DMT ) Antagonists : Alniditan BRL - 15572 Elzasonan Ergolines ( e.g. , metergoline ) GR - 127935 Ketanserin LY - 310762 LY - 367642 LY - 393558 LY - 456219 LY - 456220 Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Mianserin Ritanserin Yohimbine Ziprasidone Unknown / unsorted : Acetryptine Ergolines ( e.g. , lisuride , lysergol , pergolide ) 5 - HT Agonists : BRL - 54443 Ergolines ( e.g. , methysergide ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g. , eletriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g. , tryptamine ) Antagonists : Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g. , ergometrine ( ergonovine ) , lysergol , methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) 5 - HT Agonists : BRL - 54443 CP - 122,288 Ergolines ( e.g. , bromocriptine , lysergol , methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) methysergide ) Lasmiditan LY - 334370 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g. , eletriptan , naratriptan , sumatriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - MT ) Antagonists : Mianserin Metitepine ( methiothepin ) 5 - HT 5 - HT Agonists : 25H / NB series ( e.g. , 25I - NBF , 25I - NBMD , 25I - NBOH , 25I - NBOMe , 25B - NBOMe , 25C - NBOMe , 25TFM - NBOMe , 2CBCB - NBOMe , 25CN - NBOH , 2CBFly - NBOMe ) 2Cs ( e.g. , 2C - B , 2C - E , 2C - I , 2C - T - 2 , 2C - T - 7 , 2C - T - 21 ) 2C - B - FLY 2CB - Ind 5 - Methoxytryptamines ( 5 - MeO - DET , 5 - MeO - DiPT , 5 - MeO - DMT , 5 - MeO - DPT , 5 - MT ) α - Alkyltryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - Cl - αMT , 5 - Fl - αMT , 5 - MeO - αET , 5 - MeO - αMT , α - Me - 5 - HT , αET , αMT ) AL - 34662 AL - 37350A Bromo - DragonFLY Dimemebfe DMBMPP DOx ( e.g. , DOB , DOC , DOI , DOM ) Efavirenz Ergolines ( e.g. , 1P - LSD , ALD - 52 , bromocriptine , cabergoline , ergine ( LSA ) , ergometrine ( ergonovine ) , ergotamine , lisuride , LA - SS - Az , LSB , LSD , LSD - Pip , LSH , LSP , methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) , pergolide ) Flumexadol Jimscaline Lorcaserin MDxx ( e.g. , MDA ( tenamfetamine ) , MDMA ( midomafetamine ) , MDOH , MMDA ) O - 4310 Oxaflozane PHA - 57378 PNU - 22394 PNU - 181731 RH - 34 Phenethylamines ( e.g. , lophophine , mescaline ) Piperazines ( e.g. , BZP , quipazine , TFMPP ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) TCB - 2 TFMFly Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - BT , 5 - CT , bufotenin , DET , DiPT , DMT , DPT , psilocin , psilocybin , tryptamine ) Antagonists : 5 - I - R91150 5 - MeO - NBpBrT AC - 90179 Adatanserin Altanserin Antihistamines ( e.g. , cyproheptadine , hydroxyzine , ketotifen , perlapine ) AMDA Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , amperozide , aripiprazole , asenapine , blonanserin , brexpiprazole , carpipramine , clocapramine , clorotepine , clozapine , fluperlapine , gevotroline , iloperidone , lurasidone , melperone , mosapramine , ocaperidone , olanzapine , paliperidone , quetiapine , risperidone , sertindole , zicronapine , ziprasidone , zotepine ) Cinanserin CSP - 2503 Deramciclane Dotarizine Eplivanserin Ergolines ( e.g. , amesergide , LY - 53857 , LY - 215840 , mesulergine , metergoline , methysergide , sergolexole ) Fananserin Flibanserin Glemanserin Irindalone Ketanserin KML - 010 Landipirdine LY - 393558 mCPP Medifoxamine Metitepine ( methiothepin ) MIN - 101 MIN - 117 ( WF - 516 ) Naftidrofuryl Nantenine Nelotanserin Opiranserin ( VVZ - 149 ) Pelanserin Phenoxybenzamine Pimavanserin Pirenperone Pizotifen Pruvanserin Rauwolscine Ritanserin S - 14671 Sarpogrelate Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors ( e.g. , etoperidone , hydroxynefazodone , lubazodone , mepiprazole , nefazodone , triazoledione , trazodone ) SR - 46349B TGBA01AD Teniloxazine Temanogrel Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amoxapine , aptazapine , esmirtazapine , maprotiline , mianserin , mirtazapine ) Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amitriptyline ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g. , chlorpromazine , fluphenazine , haloperidol , loxapine , perphenazine , pimozide , pipamperone , prochlorperazine , setoperone , spiperone , spiramide , thioridazine , thiothixene , trifluoperazine ) Volinanserin Xylamidine Yohimbine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g. , dihydroergotamine , nicergoline ) 5 - HT Agonists : 4 - Methylaminorex Aminorex Amphetamines ( e.g. , chlorphentermine , cloforex , dexfenfluramine , fenfluramine , levofenfluramine , norfenfluramine ) BW - 723C86 DOx ( e.g. , DOB , DOC , DOI , DOM ) Ergolines ( e.g. , cabergoline , dihydroergocryptine , dihydroergotamine , ergotamine , methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) , methysergide , pergolide ) Lorcaserin MDxx ( e.g. , MDA ( tenamfetamine ) , MDMA ( midomafetamine ) , MDOH , ( MMDA ( drug ) Antagonists : Agomelatine Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , amisulpride , aripiprazole , asenapine , brexpiprazole , cariprazine , clozapine , N - desalkylquetiapine ( norquetiapine ) , N - desmethylclozapine ( norclozapine ) , olanzapine , pipamperone , quetiapine , risperidone , ziprasidone ) Cyproheptadine EGIS - 7625 Ergolines ( e.g. , amesergide , bromocriptine , lisuride , LY - 53857 , LY - 272015 , mesulergine ) Ketanserin LY - 393558 mCPP Metadoxine Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Pirenperone Pizotifen Propranolol PRX - 08066 Rauwolscine Ritanserin RS - 127445 Sarpogrelate SB - 200646 SB - 204741 SB - 206553 SB - 215505 SB - 221284 SB - 228357 SDZ SER - 082 Tegaserod Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amoxapine , mianserin , mirtazapine ) Trazodone Typical antipsychotics ( e.g. , chlorpromazine ) TIK - 301 Yohimbine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g. , ergometrine ( ergonovine ) ) 5 - HT Agonists : 2Cs ( e.g. , 2C - B , 2C - E , 2C - I , 2C - T - 2 , 2C - T - 7 , 2C - T - 21 ) 5 - Methoxytryptamines ( 5 - MeO - DET , 5 - MeO - DiPT , 5 - MeO - DMT , 5 - MeO - DPT , 5 - MT ) α - Alkyltryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - Cl - αMT , 5 - Fl - αMT , 5 - MeO - αET , 5 - MeO - αMT , α - Me - 5 - HT , αET , αMT ) A-372159 AL - 38022A Alstonine CP - 809101 Dimemebfe DOx ( e.g. , DOB , DOC , DOI , DOM ) Ergolines ( e.g. , ALD - 52 , cabergoline , dihydroergotamine , ergine ( LSA ) , ergotamine , lisuride , LA - SS - Az , LSB , LSD , LSD - Pip , LSH , LSP , pergolide ) Flumexadol Lorcaserin MDxx ( e.g. , MDA ( tenamfetamine ) , MDMA ( midomafetamine ) , MDOH , MMDA ) MK - 212 Org 12962 Org 37684 Oxaflozane PHA - 57378 Phenethylamines ( e.g. , lophophine , mescaline ) Piperazines ( e.g. , aripiprazole , BZP , mCPP , quipazine , TFMPP ) PNU - 22394 PNU - 181731 Ro60 - 0175 Ro60 - 0213 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - BT , 5 - CT , bufotenin , DET , DiPT , DMT , DPT , psilocin , psilocybin , tryptamine ) Vabicaserin WAY - 629 WAY - 161503 YM - 348 Antagonists : Adatanserin Agomelatine Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , asenapine , clorotepine , clozapine , fluperlapine , iloperidone , melperone , olanzapine , paliperidone , quetiapine , risperidone , sertindole , ziprasidone , zotepine ) Captodiame CEPC Cinanserin Cyproheptadine Deramciclane Desmetramadol Dotarizine Eltoprazine Ergolines ( e.g. , amesergide , bromocriptine , LY - 53857 , LY - 215840 , mesulergine , metergoline , methysergide , sergolexole ) Etoperidone Fluoxetine FR - 260010 Irindalone Ketanserin Ketotifen Latrepirdine ( dimebolin ) Medifoxamine Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Nefazodone Pirenperone Pizotifen Propranolol Ritanserin RS - 102221 S - 14671 SB - 200646 SB - 206553 SB - 221284 SB - 228357 SB - 242084 SB - 243213 SDZ SER - 082 Tedatioxetine Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amoxapine , aptazapine , esmirtazapine , maprotiline , mianserin , mirtazapine ) TIK - 301 Tramadol Trazodone Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amitriptyline , nortriptyline ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g. , chlorpromazine , loxapine , pimozide , pipamperone , thioridazine ) Xylamidine Unknown / unsorted : Efavirenz Ergolines ( e.g. , ergometrine ( ergonovine ) , methylergometrine ( methylergonovine ) ) 5 - HT 5 - HT Agonists : Alcohols ( e.g. , butanol , ethanol ( alcohol ) , trichloroethanol ) m - CPBG Phenylbiguanide Piperazines ( e.g. , BZP , mCPP , quipazine ) RS - 56812 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) SR - 57227 SR - 57227A Tryptamines ( e.g. , 2 - Me - 5 - HT , 5 - CT , bufotenidine ( 5 - HTQ ) ) Volatiles / gases ( e.g. , halothane , isoflurane , toluene , trichloroethane ) YM - 31636 Antagonists : Alosetron AS - 8112 Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , clozapine , olanzapine , quetiapine ) Azasetron Batanopride Bemesetron ( MDL - 72222 ) Bupropion Cilansetron CSP - 2503 Dazopride Dolasetron Galanolactone Granisetron Hydroxybupropion ICS - 205930 Lerisetron Memantine Ondansetron Palonosetron Ramosetron Renzapride Ricasetron Tedatioxetine Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amoxapine , mianserin , mirtazapine ) Thujone Tropanserin Tropisetron Typical antipsychotics ( e.g. , loxapine ) Volatiles / gases ( e.g. , nitrous oxide , sevoflurane , xenon ) Vortioxetine Zacopride Zatosetron Unknown / unsorted : LY - 53857 Piperazines ( e.g. , naphthylpiperazine ) 5 - HT Agonists : 5 - MT BIMU8 Capeserod Cinitapride Cisapride CJ - 033466 Dazopride Metoclopramide Minesapride Mosapride Prucalopride PRX - 03140 Renzapride RS - 67333 RS - 67506 Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tegaserod Velusetrag Zacopride Antagonists : GR - 113808 GR - 125487 L - Lysine Piboserod RS - 39604 RS - 67532 SB - 203186 SB - 204070 5 - HT Agonists : Ergolines ( e.g. , 2 - Br - LSD ( BOL - 148 ) , ergotamine , LSD ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - CT ) Valerenic Acid Antagonists : Asenapine Latrepirdine ( dimebolin ) Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Ritanserin SB - 699551 Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g. , metergoline , methysergide ) Piperazines ( e.g. , naphthylpiperazine ) 5 - HT Agonists : Ergolines ( e.g. , dihydroergocryptine , dihydroergotamine , ergotamine , lisuride , LSD , mesulergine , metergoline , methysergide ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Tryptamines ( e.g. , 2 - Me - 5 - HT , 5 - BT , 5 - CT , 5 - MT , Bufotenin , E-6801 , E-6837 , EMD - 386088 , EMDT , LY - 586713 , N - Me - 5 - HT , tryptamine ) WAY - 181187 WAY - 208466 Antagonists : ABT - 354 Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , aripiprazole , asenapine , clorotepine , clozapine , fluperlapine , iloperidone , olanzapine , tiospirone ) AVN - 101 AVN - 211 AVN - 322 AVN - 397 BGC20 - 760 BVT - 5182 BVT - 74316 Cerlapirdine EGIS - 12233 GW - 742457 Idalopirdine Ketanserin Landipirdine Latrepirdine ( dimebolin ) Metitepine ( methiothepin ) MS - 245 PRX - 07034 Ritanserin Ro 04 - 6790 Ro 63 - 0563 SB - 258585 SB - 271046 SB - 357134 SB - 399885 SB - 742457 Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amoxapine , mianserin ) Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amitriptyline , clomipramine , doxepin , nortriptyline ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g. , chlorpromazine , loxapine ) Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g. , 2 - Br - LSD ( BOL - 148 ) , bromocriptine , lergotrile , pergolide ) Piperazines ( e.g. , naphthylpiperazine ) 5 - HT Agonists : 8 - OH - DPAT AS - 19 Bifeprunox E-55888 Ergolines ( e.g. , LSD ) LP - 12 LP - 44 RU - 24969 Sarizotan Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) Triptans ( e.g. , frovatriptan ) Tryptamines ( e.g. , 5 - CT , 5 - MT , bufotenin , N - Me - 5 - HT ) Antagonists : Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , amisulpride , aripiprazole , asenapine , brexpiprazole , clorotepine , clozapine , fluperlapine , olanzapine , risperidone , sertindole , tiospirone , ziprasidone , zotepine ) Butaclamol DR - 4485 EGIS - 12233 Ergolines ( e.g. , 2 - Br - LSD ( BOL - 148 ) , amesergide , bromocriptine , cabergoline , dihydroergotamine , ergotamine , LY - 53857 , LY - 215840 , mesulergine , metergoline , methysergide , sergolexole ) JNJ - 18038683 Ketanserin LY - 215840 Metitepine ( methiothepin ) Ritanserin SB - 258719 SB - 258741 SB - 269970 SB - 656104 SB - 656104A SB - 691673 SLV - 313 SLV - 314 Spiperone SSR - 181507 Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amoxapine , maprotiline , mianserin , mirtazapine ) Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amitriptyline , clomipramine , imipramine ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g. , acetophenazine , chlorpromazine , chlorprothixene , fluphenazine , loxapine , pimozide ) Vortioxetine Unknown / unsorted : Ergolines ( e.g. , lisuride , pergolide ) Piperazines ( e.g. , naphthylpiperazine ) See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Adrenergics Dopaminergics Melatonergics Monoamine reuptake inhibitors and releasing agents Monoamine metabolism modulators Monoamine neurotoxins Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monoamine_oxidase_inhibitor&oldid=809871361 '' Categories : Antidepressants Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Reversible inhibitors of MAO - A Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2016 CS1 Polish - language sources ( pl ) CS1 errors : dates Use dmy dates from October 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2010 Articles needing additional medical references from November 2013 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Italiano עברית Latviešu Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 November 2017 , at 00 : 22 . 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drugs that inhibit the activity of monoamine oxidase (maoi)
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Harry Potter (character)
Harry Potter ( character ) - wikipedia Harry Potter ( character ) Harry Potter Harry Potter character Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 First appearance Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone Last appearance Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Created by J.K. Rowling Portrayed by Daniel Radcliffe House Gryffindor Information Family James Potter ( father ) Lily Potter ( mother ) Spouse ( s ) Ginny Weasley Children James Potter ( son ) Albus Potter ( son ) Lily Potter ( daughter ) Relatives Fleamont Potter ( grandfather ) Euphemia Potter ( grandmother ) Petunia Dursley ( aunt ) Vernon Dursley ( uncle ) Dudley Dursley ( cousin ) Harry James Potter is the title character and protagonist of J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series . The majority of the books ' plot covers seven years in the life of the orphan Potter , who , on his eleventh birthday , learns he is a wizard . Thus , he attends Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry to practice magic under the guidance of the kindly headmaster Albus Dumbledore and other school professors . Harry also discovers that he is already famous throughout the novel 's magical community , and that his fate is tied with that of Lord Voldemort , the internationally feared Dark Wizard and murderer of his parents , Lily and James . Contents ( hide ) 1 Concept and creation 2 Harry Potter books 2.1 Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone 2.2 Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets 2.3 Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban 2.4 Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire 2.5 Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix 2.6 Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince 2.7 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows 2.7. 1 Epilogue 3 Film appearances 4 Characterisation 4.1 Outward appearance 4.2 Personality 4.3 Magical abilities and skills 4.4 Possessions 4.5 Family tree 5 Reception 6 In popular culture 6.1 Parodies 7 References 8 External links Concept and creation According to Rowling , the idea for both the Harry Potter books and its eponymous character came while waiting for a delayed train from Manchester , England to London in 1990 . She stated that her idea for `` this scrawny , black - haired , bespectacled boy who did n't know he was a wizard became more and more real to me '' . While developing the ideas for her book , she also decided to make Harry an orphan who attended a boarding school called Hogwarts . She explained in a 1999 interview with The Guardian : `` Harry had to be an orphan -- so that he 's a free agent , with no fear of letting down his parents , disappointing them ... Hogwarts has to be a boarding school -- half the important stuff happens at night ! Then there 's the security . Having a child of my own reinforces my belief that children above all want security , and that 's what Hogwarts offers Harry . '' Her own mother 's death on 30 December 1990 inspired Rowling to write Harry as a boy longing for his dead parents , his anguish becoming `` much deeper , much more real '' than in earlier drafts because she related to it herself . In a 2000 interview with The Guardian , Rowling also established that the character of Wart in T.H. White 's novel The Once and Future King is `` Harry 's spiritual ancestor . '' Finally , she established Harry 's birth date as 31 July , the same as her own . However , she maintained that Harry was not directly based on any real - life person : `` he came just out of a part of me '' . Rowling has also maintained that Harry is a suitable real - life role model for children . `` The advantage of a fictional hero or heroine is that you can know them better than you can know a living hero , many of whom you would never meet ( ... ) if people like Harry and identify with him , I am pleased , because I think he is very likeable . '' Harry Potter books Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone Harry first appears in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone ( published in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone ) . Starting in 1981 , when Harry was just one year old , his parents , James and Lily , were murdered by the most powerful Dark Wizard , Lord Voldemort ( subsequently called `` You - Know - Who '' and `` He - Who - Must - Not - Be-Named '' by those too superstitious to use his actual name ) . He attempted to kill Harry too , but was unsuccessful and only left a lightning bolt shaped scar on Harry 's forehead . Voldemort 's body was destroyed , but his soul was not . Harry later learns that the reason why he survived was because his mother sacrificed herself for him , and her love was something that Voldemort could not destroy . According to Rowling , fleshing out this back story was a matter of reverse planning : `` The basic idea ( is that ) Harry ... did n't know he was a wizard ... and so then I kind of worked backwards from that position to find out how that could be , that he would n't know what he was ... That 's ... When he was one year old , the most evil wizard for hundreds and hundreds of years attempted to kill him . He killed Harry 's parents , and then he tried to kill Harry -- he tried to curse him ... Harry has to find out , before we find out . And for some mysterious reason , the curse did n't work on Harry . So he 's left with this lightning - bolt shaped scar on his forehead , and the curse rebounded upon the evil wizard who has been in hiding ever since '' . As a result , Harry is written as an orphan living with his only remaining family , the Dursleys , who are neglectful and abusive . On his eleventh birthday in 1991 , Harry learns he is a wizard when Rubeus Hagrid arrives to tell him that he is to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . There he learns about the wizarding world , his parents , and his connection to the Dark Lord . When he is sorted into Gryffindor House , he becomes fast friends with classmates Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , and foils Voldemort 's attempt to steal the Philosopher 's Stone . He also forms a rivalry with characters Draco Malfoy , a classmate from an elitist wizarding family , and the cold , condescending Potions master , Severus Snape , Draco 's mentor and the head of Slytherin House . Both feuds continue throughout the series and are settled at the series 's end ( Draco 's in the West End play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child and Snape 's on his deathbed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows . In a 1999 interview , Rowling stated that Draco is based on several prototypical schoolyard bullies she encountered and Snape on a sadistic teacher of hers who abused his power . Rowling has stated that the `` Mirror of Erised '' chapter in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone is her favourite ; the mirror reflects Harry 's deepest desire , namely to see his dead parents and family . Her favourite funny scene is when Harry inadvertently sets a boa constrictor free from the zoo in the horrified Dursleys ' presence . Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets In the second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , Rowling pits Harry against Tom Riddle , Lord Voldemort 's `` memory '' within a secret diary which has possessed Ron 's younger sister Ginny . When Muggle - born students are suddenly being Petrified , many suspect that Harry may be behind the attacks , further alienating him from his peers . Furthermore , Harry begins to doubt his worthiness for House of Gryffindor , particularly considering he discovers he shares Lord Voldemort 's ability to communicate with snakes via Parseltongue . In the climax , Ginny disappears . To rescue her , Harry battles Riddle and the monster he controls that is hidden in the Chamber of Secrets . To defeat the monster , Harry summons the Sword of Godric Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat supplied by Dumbledore 's pet phoenix , Fawkes . In doing so , Dumbledore later restores Harry 's self - esteem by explaining that that feat is clear proof of his worthiness of his present house . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban In the third book , Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban , Rowling uses a time travel premise . Harry learns that his parents were betrayed to Voldemort by their friend Peter Pettigrew , who framed Harry 's godfather Sirius Black for the crimes , condemning him to Azkaban , the wizard prison . When Sirius escapes to find Harry , Harry and Hermione use a Time Turner to save him and a hippogriff named Buckbeak . When Pettigrew escapes , an innocent Sirius becomes a hunted fugitive once again . Harry learns how to create a Patronus , which takes the form of a stag , the same as his late father 's . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire In the previous books , Harry is written as a child , but Rowling states that in the fourth novel , Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , `` Harry 's horizons are literally and metaphorically widening as he grows older . '' Harry 's developing maturity becomes apparent when he becomes romantically interested in Cho Chang , a student in Ravenclaw house . Tension mounts , however , when Harry is mysteriously chosen by the Goblet of Fire to compete in the dangerous Triwizard Tournament , even though another Hogwarts champion , Cedric Diggory , has already been selected. Voldemort uses the Tournament for an elaborate scheme to lure Harry into a deadly trap . During the Tournament 's final challenge , Harry and Cedric are transported to a graveyard , using a portkey , where Cedric is killed by Peter Pettigrew , and Voldemort , aided by Pettigrew , uses Harry 's blood in a gruesome ritual to resurrect his body . When Harry duels Voldemort , their wands ' magical streams connect , forcing the spirit echoes of Voldemort 's victims , including Cedric and James and Lily Potter , to be expelled from his wand . The spirits briefly protect Harry as he escapes to Hogwarts with Cedric 's body . For Rowling , this scene is important because it shows Harry 's bravery , and by retrieving Cedric 's corpse , he demonstrates selflessness and compassion . Says Rowling , `` He wants to save Cedric 's parents additional pain . '' She added that preventing Cedric 's body from falling into Voldemort 's hands is based on the classic scene in the Iliad where Achilles retrieves the body of his best friend Patroclus from the hands of Hector . Rowling also mentioned that book four rounds off an era in Harry 's life , and the remaining three books are another , `` He 's no longer protected . He 's been very protected until now . But he 's very young to have that experience . Most of us do n't get that until a bit later in life . He 's only just coming up to 15 and that 's it now . '' Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix In the fifth book , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , the Ministry of Magic has been waging a smear campaign against Harry and Dumbledore , disputing their claims that Voldemort has returned . Harry is made to look like an attention - seeking liar , and Dumbledore a trouble - maker . A new character is introduced when the Ministry of Magic appoints Dolores Umbridge as the latest Hogwarts ' Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor ( and Ministry spy ) . Because the paranoid Ministry suspects that Dumbledore is building a wizard army to overthrow them , Umbridge refuses to teach students real defensive magic . She gradually gains more power , eventually ousting Dumbledore and seizing control of the school . As a result , Harry 's increasingly angry and erratic behaviour nearly estranges him from Ron and Hermione . Rowling says she put Harry through extreme emotional stress to show his emotional vulnerability and humanity -- a contrast to his nemesis , Voldemort . `` ( Harry is ) a very human hero , and this is , obviously , a contrast , between him , as a very human hero , and Voldemort , who has deliberately dehumanised himself . And Harry , therefore , did have to reach a point where he did almost break down , and say he did n't want to play any more , he did n't want to be the hero any more -- and he 'd lost too much . And he did n't want to lose anything else . So that -- Phoenix was the point at which I decided he would have his breakdown . '' At Hermione 's urging , Harry forms a secret student organisation called Dumbledore 's Army to teach more meaningful defence against the dark arts as Professor Umbridge is making them read off a textbook . Their plan is thwarted , however , when a Dumbledore 's Army member , Marietta Edgecombe , betrays them and informs Umbridge about the D.A. , causing Dumbledore to be ousted as Headmaster . Harry suffers another emotional blow , when his beloved godfather , Sirius , is killed during a duel with Sirius ' cousin , the Death Eater Bellatrix Lestrange , at the Department of Mysteries , but Harry ultimately defeats Voldemort 's plan to steal an important prophecy . Rowling stated : `` And now he ( Harry ) will rise from the ashes strengthened . '' A side plot of Order of the Phoenix involves Harry 's romance with Cho Chang , but the relationship quickly unravels . Says Rowling : `` They were never going to be happy , it was better that it ended early ! '' Harry Potter and the Half - blood Prince In the sixth book , Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince Harry enters a tumultuous puberty that , Rowling says , is based on her and her younger sister 's own difficult teenage years . Rowling also made an intimate statement about Harry 's personal life : `` Because of the demands of the adventure that Harry is following , he has had less sexual experience than boys of his age might have had . '' This inexperience with romance was a factor in Harry 's failed relationship with Cho . Now his thoughts concern Ginny , and a vital plot point in the last chapter includes Harry ending their budding romance to protect her from Voldemort . A new character appears when former Hogwarts Potions master Horace Slughorn replaces Snape , who assumes the Defence Against the Dark Arts post . Harry suddenly excels in Potions , using an old textbook once belonging to a talented student known only as `` The Half - Blood Prince . '' The book contains many handwritten notes , revisions , and new spells ; Hermione , however , believes Harry 's use of it is cheating . Through private meetings with Dumbledore , Harry learns about Voldemort 's orphaned youth , his rise to power , and how he splintered his soul into Horcruxes to achieve immortality . Two Horcruxes have been destroyed -- the diary and a ring ; and Harry and Dumbledore locate another , although it is a fake . When Death Eaters invade Hogwarts , Snape kills Dumbledore . As Snape escapes , he proclaims that he is the Half - Blood Prince ( being the son of a muggle father and the pure - blood Eileen Prince ) . It now falls upon Harry to find and destroy Voldemort 's remaining Horcruxes and to avenge Dumbledore 's death . In a 2005 interview , Rowling stated that ( after the events in the sixth book ) Harry has , `` taken the view that they are now at war . He does become more battle - hardened . He 's now ready to go out fighting . And he 's after revenge ( against Voldemort and Snape ) . '' This book also focuses on the mysterious activities of Harry 's rival Draco Malfoy . Voldemort has coerced a frightened Malfoy into attempting to kill Dumbledore . During a duel in Moaning Myrtle 's bathroom , Harry uses the Half - Blood Prince 's spell , Sectumsempra , on Malfoy , who suffers near - fatal injuries as a result . Harry is horrified by what he has done and also comes to feel sympathy for Draco , after learning he was forced to do Voldemort 's bidding under the threat of his and his parents ' deaths . Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , Harry , Ron , and Hermione leave Hogwarts to complete Dumbledore 's task : to search for and destroy Voldemort 's remaining four Horcruxes , then find and kill the Dark Lord . The three pit themselves against Voldemort 's newly formed totalitarian police state , an action that tests Harry 's courage and moral character . Voldemort 's seizure of the Ministry of Magic leads to discriminatory and genocidal policies against Muggle - borns , fuelled by propaganda and fear . According to J.K. Rowling , telling scenes are when Harry uses Cruciatus Curse and Imperius Curse , unforgivable curses for torture and mind - control , on Voldemort 's servants , and also when he casts Sectumsempra on Draco Malfoy during the bathroom fight in the sixth book . Each time shows a `` flawed and mortal '' side to Harry . However , she explains , `` He is also in an extreme situation and attempting to defend somebody very good against a violent and murderous opponent . '' Harry experiences occasional disturbing visions of Draco being forced to perform the Death Eaters ' bidding and feels `` ... sickened ... by the use to which Draco was now being put by Voldemort , '' again showing his compassion for an enemy . Each Horcrux Harry must defeat can not be destroyed easily . They must be destroyed with basilisk venom , Godric Gryffindor 's sword , or some other destructive substance . In Book Two , Harry destroys the first horcrux , Tom Riddle 's diary , with a basilisk fang , and in Book Six Dumbledore destroys the ring with Gryffindor 's sword . Ron destroys Slytherin 's locket with the sword , Hermione destroys Hufflepuff 's cup with a basilisk fang , and Crabbe destroys Ravenclaw 's diadem with Fiendfyre ( cursed flame ) . Neville kills the snake Nagini with the sword , and Voldemort destroys the final accidental Horcrux : a fragment of soul embedded in Harry 's scar . Harry comes to recognise that his own single - mindedness makes him predictable to his enemies and often clouds his perceptions . When Voldemort kills Snape later in the story , Harry discovers that Snape was not the traitorous murderer he believed him to be , but a tragic antihero who was loyal to Dumbledore . In Chapter 33 ( ' The Prince 's Tale ' ) Snape 's memories reveal that he loved Harry 's mother Lily , but their friendship ended over his association with future Death Eaters and his `` blood purity '' beliefs . When Voldemort murdered the Potters , a grieving Snape vowed to protect Lily 's child , although he loathed young Harry for being James Potter 's son . The memories also reveal that Snape did not murder Dumbledore , but carried out Dumbledore 's prearranged plan . Dumbledore , dying from a slow - spreading curse , wanted to protect Snape 's position within the Death Eaters and to spare Draco from completing Voldemort 's task of murdering him . To defeat Harry , Voldemort steals the most powerful wand ever created , the Elder Wand , from Dumbledore 's tomb and twice casts the Killing Curse on Harry with it . The first attempt merely stuns Harry into a deathlike state ; the murder attempt fails because Voldemort used Harry 's blood in his resurrection during book four . The protection that his mother gave Harry with her sacrifice tethers Harry to life , as long as his blood and her sacrifice run in the veins of Voldemort . In the chapter `` King 's Cross , '' Dumbledore 's spirit talks to Harry whilst in this deathlike state . Dumbledore informs Harry that when Voldemort disembodied himself during his failed attempt to kill Harry as a baby , Harry became an unintentional Horcrux ; Harry could not kill Voldemort while the Dark Lord 's soul shard remained within Harry 's body . The piece of Voldemort 's soul within Harry was destroyed through Voldemort 's first killing curse with the Elder Wand because Harry willingly faced death , which cast a sacrificial protection on the defenders of Hogwarts . In the book 's climax , Voldemort 's second Killing Curse hurled at Harry also fails and rebounds upon Voldemort , finally killing him . The spell fails because Harry , not Voldemort , had become the Elder Wand 's true master and the wand could not harm its own master . Harry has each of the Hallows ( the Invisibility Cloak , the Resurrection Stone , and the Elder Wand ) at some point in the story but never unites them . However , J.K. Rowling said the difference between Harry and Voldemort is that Harry willingly accepts mortality , making him stronger than his nemesis . `` The real master of Death accepts that he must die , and that there are much worse things in the world of the living . '' At the very end , Harry decides to leave the Elder Wand in Dumbledore 's tomb and the Resurrection Stone hidden in the forest , but he keeps the Invisibility Cloak because it had belonged to his father . Epilogue In the epilogue of Deathly Hallows , which is set 19 years after Voldemort 's death , Harry and Ginny are a couple and have three children : James Sirius Potter , who has already been at Hogwarts for at least one year , Albus Severus Potter , who is starting his first year there , and Lily Luna Potter , who is two years away from her first year at the school . According to Rowling , after Voldemort 's defeat , Harry joins the `` reshuffled '' Auror Department under Kingsley Shacklebolt 's mentoring , and ends up eventually rising to become Head of said department in 2007 . Rowling said that his old rival Draco has a grudging gratitude towards Harry for saving his life in the final battle , but the two are not friends . Film appearances In the eight Harry Potter films screened from 2001 to 2011 , Harry Potter has been portrayed by British actor Daniel Radcliffe . Radcliffe was asked to audition for the role of Harry in 2000 by producer David Heyman , while in attendance at a play titled Stones in His Pockets in London . The role has been highly lucrative for Radcliffe ; as of 2015 , he had an estimated wealth of $110 million and was paid a collective $53 million for the last two films . In a 2007 interview with MTV , Radcliffe stated that , for him , Harry is a classic coming of age character : `` That 's what the films are about for me : a loss of innocence , going from being a young kid in awe of the world around him , to someone who is more battle - hardened by the end of it . '' He also said that for him , important factors in Harry 's psyche are his survivor 's guilt in regard to his dead parents and his lingering loneliness . Because of this , Radcliffe talked to a bereavement counsellor to help him prepare for the role . Radcliffe was quoted as saying that he wished for Harry to die in the books , but he clarified that he `` ca n't imagine any other way they can be concluded . '' After reading the last book , where Harry and his friends do indeed survive and have children , Radcliffe stated he was glad about the ending and lauded Rowling for the conclusion of the story . Radcliffe stated that the most repeated question he has been asked is how Harry Potter has influenced his own life , to which he regularly answers it has been `` fine , '' and that he did not feel pigeonholed by the role , but rather sees it as a huge privilege to portray Harry . Radcliffe 's Harry was named the 36th greatest movie character of all time by Empire . Characterisation Outward appearance Throughout the series , Harry is described as having his father 's perpetually untidy black hair , his mother 's bright green eyes , and a lightning bolt - shaped scar on his forehead . He is further described as `` small and skinny for his age '' with `` a thin face '' and `` knobbly knees '' , and he wears round eyeglasses . In the first book , his scar is described as `` the only thing Harry liked about his own appearance '' . When asked about the meaning behind Harry 's lightning bolt scar , Rowling said , `` I wanted him to be physically marked by what he has been through . It was an outward expression of what he has been through inside ... It is almost like being the chosen one or the cursed one , in a sense . '' Rowling has also stated that Harry inherited his parents ' good looks . In the later part of the series Harry grows taller , and by the seventh book is said to be ' almost ' the height of his father , and ' tall ' by other characters . Rowling explained that Harry 's image came to her when she first thought up Harry Potter , seeing him as a `` scrawny , black - haired , bespectacled boy '' . She also mentioned that she thinks Harry 's glasses are the clue to his vulnerability . Personality According to Rowling , Harry is strongly guided by his own conscience , and has a keen feeling of what is right and wrong . Having `` very limited access to truly caring adults '' , Rowling said , Harry `` is forced to make his own decisions from an early age on . '' He `` does make mistakes '' , she conceded , but in the end , he does what his conscience tells him to do . According to Rowling , one of Harry 's pivotal scenes came in the fourth book when he protects his dead schoolmate Cedric Diggory 's body from Voldemort , because it shows he is brave and selfless . Rowling has stated that Harry 's character flaws include anger and impulsiveness ; however , Harry is also innately honourable . `` He 's not a cruel boy . He 's competitive , and he 's a fighter . He does n't just lie down and take abuse . But he does have native integrity , which makes him a hero to me . He 's a normal boy but with those qualities most of us really admire . '' For the most part , Harry shows humility and modesty , often downplaying his achievements ; though he uses a litany of his adventures as examples of his maturity early in the fifth book . However , these very same accomplishments are later employed to explain why he should lead Dumbledore 's Army , at which point he asserts them as having just been luck , and denies that they make him worthy of authority . After the seventh book , Rowling commented that Harry has the ultimate character strength , which not even Voldemort possesses : the acceptance of the inevitability of death . Magical abilities and skills Throughout the series , Harry Potter is described as a gifted wizard apprentice . He has a particular talent for flying , which manifests itself in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone the first time he tries it , and gets him a place on a Quidditch team one year before the normal minimum joining age . He captains it in his sixth year . In his fourth year ( Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire ) , Harry is able to confront a dragon on his broomstick . Harry is also gifted in Defence Against the Dark Arts , in which he becomes proficient due to his repeated encounters with Voldemort and various monsters . In his third year , Harry becomes able to cast the very advanced Patronus Charm , and by his fifth year he has become so talented at the subject that he is able to teach his fellow students in Dumbledore 's Army , some even older than him how to defend themselves against Dark Magic . At the end of that year , he achieves an ' Outstanding ' Defence Against the Dark Arts O.W.L. , something that not even Hermione achieved . He is a skilled duellist , the only one of the six Dumbledore 's Army members to be neither injured nor incapacitated during the battle with Death Eaters in the Department of Mysteries in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix . He also fends off numerous Death Eaters during his flight to the Burrow at the beginning of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows . Harry also had the unusual ability to speak and understand `` Parseltongue '' , a language associated with Dark Magic . This , it transpires , is because he harbours a piece of Voldemort 's soul . He loses this ability after the part of Voldemort 's soul inside him is destroyed at the end of The Deathly Hallows . Possessions Harry 's parents left behind a somewhat large pile of wizard 's gold , used as currency in the world of magic , in a vault in the wizarding bank , Gringotts . After Sirius ' death later in the series , all of his remaining possessions are also passed along to Harry , including Number Twelve , Grimmauld Place , and Sirius 's vast amount of gold were transferred into Harry 's account at Gringotts . Rowling noted that `` Harry 's money never really is that important in the books , except that he can afford his books and uniforms and so on . '' Among the school items Harry purchases in Diagon Alley after discovering his gold inheritance is his first wand , an 11 - inch - long holly and phoenix feather model that he learns is the twin of Voldemort 's wand , as the feathers that both wands contain as their cores both comes from Fawkes , the phoenix that Dumbledore keeps as a pet in his office until his death in Half - Blood Prince . Harry 's wand is broken in Deathly Hallows . For a time , he borrows Hermione 's wand , and later steals Draco 's . With his defeat of Voldemort at the end of the series , he comes into the possession of the Elder Wand , but uses it only to repair his holly wand , before returning it to Dumbledore 's tomb , from which Voldemort had stolen it . In the film version of Deathly Hallows Part 2 , Harry destroys the Elder Wand . Harry also inherits indirectly two of his father 's prized possessions . One is the Marauder 's Map , given to him by interim owners Fred and George Weasley , which endows Harry with comprehensive knowledge of Hogwarts ' facilities , grounds , and occupants . The other is his father 's Invisibility Cloak , given to him by Dumbledore , which eventually proves Harry 's descent from the Peverell family . Harry uses these tools both to aid in excursions at school and to protect those he cares about ; the Invisibility Cloak , in particular , can hide two full - grown people . If three fully - grown people hide under the cloak their feet will be visible . When Harry reaches his age of maturity at seventeen , Molly Weasley gives him a pocket watch which had once belonged to her brother Fabian Prewett , as it is traditional to give a boy a watch when he turns seventeen . Throughout the majority of the books , Harry also has a pet owl named Hedwig , used to deliver and receive messages and packages . Hedwig is killed in the seventh book , about which Rowling says : `` The loss of Hedwig represented a loss of innocence and security . She has been almost like a cuddly toy to Harry at times . I know that death upset a lot of people ! '' As a Quidditch player , Harry has owned two high - quality brooms . The first , a Nimbus Two Thousand , was procured for him by Professor Minerva Mcgonagall when Harry was added to Gryffindor 's Quidditch team despite being a first - year student . This broom was destroyed by the Whomping Willow during a match in Harry 's third year . It was replaced by a Firebolt , an even faster ( and more expensive ) broom , purchased for Harry by Sirius ; however , as Sirius was believed to be trying to murder Harry at the time , the broom was subjected to stringent security inspections before Harry was allowed to ride it . Harry used it throughout his Hogwarts career until it , along with Hedwig , was lost during the July escape from Privet Drive in the final book . Harry also owns a mokeskin pouch , or small ' bag ' that is used for storing items , which no one but the owner can get out . He receives this from Hagrid as a 17th birthday present . Harry uses the pouch throughout the course of Deathly Hallows to keep several sentimental ( yet , as he himself admits , otherwise worthless ) objects such as the Marauder 's Map , a shard of the magical mirror given to him by his god - father Sirius , the fake Horcrux locket that had belonged to Sirius 's brother R.A.B. ( Regulus Arcturus Black ) , the Snitch bequeathed to him by Dumbledore , containing the Resurrection Stone that had previously been set into Voldemort 's grandfather Marvolo Gaunt 's signet ring , which Harry discovers is actually the second Hallow , a letter from his mother to Sirius with part of a photo ( of him and his father , James ) , and eventually , his own broken wand ( which Harry later repairs with the Elder Wand ) . Family tree In the novels , Harry is the only child of James and Lily Potter , orphaned as an infant . Rowling made Harry an orphan from the early drafts of her first book . She felt an orphan would be the most interesting character to write about . However , after her mother 's death , Rowling wrote Harry as a child longing to see his dead parents again , incorporating her own anguish into him . Harry is categorised as a `` half - blood '' wizard in the series , because although both his parents were magical , Lily was `` Muggle - born '' , and James was a pure - blood . Harry 's aunt and uncle kept the truth about his parents ' deaths from Harry , telling him that they had died in a car crash . James Potter is a descendant of Ignotus Peverell , the third of the three original owners of the Deathly Hallows , and thus so is Harry , a realisation he makes during the course of the final book . The lineage continues at the end of the saga through his three children with Ginny : James Sirius Potter , Albus Severus Potter and Lily Luna Potter . In an original piece published on the Pottermore website in September 2015 , Rowling described the history of the Potter family in greater detail , beginning with the 12th - century wizard Linfred of Stinchcombe , `` a locally well - beloved and eccentric man , whose nickname , ' the Potterer ' , became corrupted in time to ' Potter ' '' . Linfred was the inventor of a number of remedies that evolved into potions still used in the modern day , including Skele - Gro and Pepperup Potion . These successful products garnered Linfred the earnings that formed the basis of the family 's wealth , which grew with the work of successive generations . Linfred 's oldest son , Hardwin , married a beautiful young witch from Godric 's Hollow named Iolanthe Peverell , the granddaughter of Ignotus Peverell , who continued the tradition of passing down Ignotus ' Invisibility Cloak through the generations . Two of Harry Potter 's ancestors have sat on the Wizengamot : Ralston Potter and Henry Potter . Ralston was a member from 1612 - 1652 , and an ardent supporter of the Statute of Secrecy . Henry Potter , known as `` Harry '' to his closest loved ones , was a direct descendant of Hardwin and Iolanthe , and a paternal great - grandfather of Harry Potter . Henry served on the Wizengamot from 1913 - 1921 , and caused a minor controversy when he publicly condemned then Minister for Magic , Archer Evermonde , for prohibiting the magical community from helping Muggles waging the First World War . Henry 's son , Fleamont Potter , who was given his grandmother 's surname as his given name in order to grant the dying wish of Henry 's mother to continue her family name , garnered a reputation for his duels at Hogwarts , which were provoked when others mocked him for his name . Fleamont quadrupled the family gold by creating magical Sleekeazy 's Hair Potion , selling his company at a vast profit when he retired . Fleamont and his wife , Euphemia , had given up hope of having a child when she became pregnant with their son , James , who would go on to marry Lily Evans and bear a son of their own , Harry Potter . Fleamont and Euphemia lived to see James and Lily marry , but they would never meet their famous grandson , as they both died of dragon pox , stemming from their advanced age . Reception In 2002 , Harry Potter was voted No. 85 among the `` 100 Best Fictional Characters '' by Book magazine and also voted the 35th `` Worst Briton '' in Channel 4 's `` 100 Worst Britons We Love to Hate '' programme . Entertainment Weekly ranked Harry Potter number two on its 2010 `` 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years '' list , saying `` Long after we 've turned the last page and watched the last end credit , Harry still feels like someone we know . And that 's the most magical thing about him . '' UGO Networks listed Harry as one of their best heroes of all time , who said that `` Harry is a hero to the often oppressed and downtrodden young fan boys and girls out there , who finally have an icon that is respected and revered by those who might otherwise look down on robe - wearing and wand waving as dork fodder '' . Harry Potter was also ranked number thirty - six on Empire 's 2008 list of `` 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time '' . IGN said that Harry Potter was their favourite Harry Potter character , calling him a `` sympathetic figure '' and saying in response to his fights against Voldemort that `` everybody loves an underdog story of good vs. evil '' . Despite being the main character , Watchmojo.com ranked him # 2 on their `` Top 10 Harry Potter Characters '' list in 2014 ( Severus Snape was ranked # 1 on the list ) . In popular culture Harry and the Potters perform at the Horace Mann School in Riverdale , Bronx , New York . Note the artists ' black hair and spectacles . According to halloweenonline.com , Harry Potter sets were the fifth - best selling Halloween costume of 2005 . In addition , wizard rock bands like Harry and the Potters and others regularly dress up in the style of Harry Potter , sporting painted forehead scars , black wigs , and round bottle top glasses . Wizard rock is a musical movement dating from 2002 that consists of at least 200 bands made up of young musicians , playing songs about Harry Potter . The movement started in Massachusetts with the band Harry and the Potters , who cosplay as Harry during live performances . Parodies Main article : Parodies of Harry Potter In April 2009 , a group of University of Michigan students eventually known as StarKid Productions performed Harry Potter : The Musical , a two - act musical parody that featured major elements from all seven books and an original score . They posted the entire musical on their YouTube channel but removed it in late June , to edit some more mature elements from the videos . The musical , re-titled A Very Potter Musical , was reposted on 5 July 2009 , starring Darren Criss as Harry Potter . A sequel was premiered at the 2010 HPEF Harry Potter Conference Infinitus , and released on YouTube on 22 July at 8 pm EST . The sequel was called A Very Potter Sequel and featured the Death Eaters using the Time - Turner to go back in time to Harry 's first year in Hogwarts . Harry Potter is spoofed in the Barry Trotter series by American writer Michael Gerber , where a `` Barry Trotter '' appears as the eponymous antihero . On his homepage , Gerber describes Trotter as an unpleasant character who `` drinks too much , eats like a pig , sleeps until noon , and owes everybody money . '' The author stated `` ( s ) ince I really liked Rowling 's books ( ... ) I felt obligated to try to write a spoof worthy of the originals '' . References ^ Jump up to : `` J.K. Rowling Official Site -- Section Biography '' . Archived from the original on 17 December 2008 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Carey , Joanna . `` Who has n't met Harry ? '' . The Guardian . 16 February 1999 . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` JK ( JOANNE KATHLEEN ) ROWLING ( 1966 -- ) '' . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Raincoast Books interview transcript , Raincoast Books ( Canada ) '' . March 2001 . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Barnes and Noble interview '' . 19 March 1999 . Archived from the original on 28 February 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets ( when Harry Potter is 12 years old ) , chapter 8 , partly focusing on the celebration of 500 years since the death of Nearly Headless Nick , J.K. Rowling describes Nearly Headless Nick 's birthday cake , which indicate Nick died in 1492 , showing that this part of the book happen in the fall of 1992 . As Harry is 12 years in the year of 1992 , he must have been at the age of 1 in 1981 . Jump up ^ `` J.K. Rowling on The Diane Rehm Show '' . WAMU Radio Washington , D.C. ,. 20 October 1999 . Archived from the original on 30 July 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Lydon , Christopher . J.K. Rowling interview transcript , '' . The Connection ( WBUR Radio ) . 12 October 1999 . Archived from the original on 6 August 2012 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Jensen , Jeff ( 7 September 2000 ) . `` ' Fire ' Storm , '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` J.K. Rowling Interview , '' . CBCNewsWorld : Hot Type. 13 July 2000 . Archived from the original on 23 April 2011 . Retrieved 9 April 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Living With Harry Potter '' . Archived from the original on 2 June 2009 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` JK Rowling 's World Book Day Chat '' . 4 March 2004 . Archived from the original on 16 August 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Richard & Judy Show '' . Archived from the original on 4 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Grossman , Lev . `` J.K. Rowling Hogwarts And All '' . Time Magazine . 17 July 2005 . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Couric , Katie. : ' J.K. Rowling , the author with the magic touch : ' It 's going to be really emotional to say goodbye , ' says Rowling as she writes the last book in the Harry Potter saga , ' '' . Dateline NBC ,. 17 July 2005 . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' J.K. Rowling Web Chat Transcript '' . Archived from the original on 30 December 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Wizard of the Month for October '' . J.K. Rowling. 20 October 2007 . Archived from the original on 2 March 2009 . Retrieved 20 October 2007 . Jump up ^ McLean , Craig ( 15 July 2007 ) . `` Hobnobs & broomsticks '' . Sunday Herald . Archived from the original on 18 July 2007 . Retrieved 15 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Koltnow , Barry ( 8 July 2007 ) . `` One enchanted night at theatre , Radcliffe became Harry Potter '' . East Valley Tribune . Retrieved 15 July 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Daniel Radcliffe Net Worth '' . Archived from the original on 20 July 2015 . Retrieved 29 July 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Vineyard , Jennifer . `` Daniel Radcliffe Talks Harry Potter 's First Kiss '' . MTV . Archived from the original on 11 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Daniel Radcliffe : My Take on Deathly Hallows '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Lawson , Terry . `` Daniel Radcliffe Talks Harry Potter '' . Archived from the original on 16 August 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time : 36 . Harry Potter '' . Empire . Archived from the original on 14 August 2011 . Retrieved 4 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Interview of J.K. Rowling , Detroit News , 19 March 2001 Archived 28 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Zimmerman , W. Frederick ( 2005 ) . Unauthorized Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows News : Harry Potter Book Seven and Half - Blood Prince Analysis . Nimble Books . p. 37 . ISBN 0 - 9765406 - 0 - 6 . Jump up ^ Boquet , Tim . ( December 2000 ) . `` J.K. Rowling : The Wizard Behind Harry Potter , '' . Reader 's Digest . Archived from the original on 4 April 2008 . Retrieved 9 April 2008 . Jump up ^ J.K. Rowling interview transcript , The Connection ( WBUR Radio ) , 12 October 1999 Archived 7 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ J.K. Rowling at Carnegie Hall Reveals Dumbledore is Gay ; Neville Marries Hannah Abbott , and Much More Archived 11 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ O'Malley , Judy . ( July 1999 ) . `` '' Talking With ... J.K. Rowling , '' Book Links `` . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Harry Potter author dreading closing final chapter ( interview by Owen Jones ) , '' Ireland On - line , 17 July 2005 Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Wands '' Archived 30 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine ... The Harry Potter Lexicon . Retrieved September 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Rowling , J.K. ( September 2015 ) . `` The Potter Family '' Archived 23 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine ... Pottermore . Retrieved September 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Flood , Alison ( 22 September 2015 ) . `` JK Rowling traces Harry Potter 's family tree back to the middle ages '' Archived 17 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine ... The Guardian . Jump up ^ Book Magazine Harry Potter among best characters in fiction since 1900 Archived 16 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine. , npr.com . Jump up ^ Channel 4 -- 100 Worst Britons Archived 25 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine . channel4.com . Jump up ^ Geier , Thom ; Jensen , Jeff ; Jordan , Tina ; Lyons , Margaret ; Markovitz , Adam ; Nashawaty , Chris ; Pastorek , Whitney ; Rice , Lynette ; Rottenberg , Josh ; Schwartz , Missy ; Slezak , Michael ; Snierson , Dan ; Stack , Tim ; Stroup , Kate ; Tucker , Ken ; Vary , Adam B. ; Vozick - Levinson , Simon ; Ward , Kate ( 11 December 2009 ) , `` THE 100 Greatest MOVIES , TV SHOWS , ALBUMS , BOOKS , CHARACTERS , SCENES , EPISODES , SONGS , DRESSES , MUSIC VIDEOS , AND TRENDS THAT ENTERTAINED US OVER THE PAST 10 YEARS '' . Entertainment Weekly . ( 1079 / 1080 ) : 74 - 84 Jump up ^ UGO Team ( 21 January 2010 ) . `` Best Heroes of All Time '' . UGO Networks . Archived from the original on 15 June 2011 . Retrieved 3 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Empire 's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time '' . Empire . Archived from the original on 6 January 2010 . Retrieved 26 November 2008 . Jump up ^ Brian Linder ; Phil Pirrello ; Eric Goldman ; Matt Fowler ( 14 July 2009 ) . `` Top 25 Harry Potter Characters '' . IGN . Archived from the original on 19 July 2009 . Retrieved 3 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Halloween Online Resource Center '' . Archived from the original on 14 March 2012 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ Brady , Shaun ( 28 November 2006 ) . `` Yule Ball rolls into Philly '' . The Philadelphia Daily News . Retrieved 27 February 2007 . Jump up ^ Humphries , Rachel ( 13 July 2007 ) . `` Harry Potter ' Wrockers ' Conjure Musical Magic '' . ABC News . Archived from the original on 18 July 2007 . Retrieved 31 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Davies , Shaun ( 20 July 2007 ) . `` The unexpected wizards of rock and roll '' . MSN . Archived from the original on 25 May 2012 . Retrieved 31 July 2007 . Jump up ^ Sweeney , Emily ( 16 September 2004 ) . `` Sibling musicians bring out the ' punk ' in Harry Potter '' . The Boston Globe . Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Retrieved 26 January 2007 . Jump up ^ Milam , Whitney ( 24 July 2010 ) . Team StarKid tops Glee and Gaga on iTunes , talks new projects . Hollywood Movie News . Archived from the original on 12 July 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Barry Trotter -- Glossary '' . Archived from the original on 16 July 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Barry Trotter -- Frequently Asked Questions '' . Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 . Retrieved 15 August 2007 . External links Harry Potter portal Fictional characters portal Book : Harry Potter Harry Potter on Harry Potter Wiki , an external wiki Harry Potter : Quick facts from the Harry Potter lexicon Harry Potter quotes from Mugglenet Harry Potter Bibliography : Research and Criticism Harry Potter biography at The Harry Potter Encyclopedia Harry Potter on IMDb Harry Potter images from The Movie on Leaky . Dan Radcliffe as Harry Potter Images on Leaky . Works by or about Harry Potter in libraries ( WorldCat catalog ) hide The Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling Novels The Philosopher 's Stone ( 1997 ) The Chamber of Secrets ( 1998 ) The Prisoner of Azkaban ( 1999 ) The Goblet of Fire ( 2000 ) The Order of the Phoenix ( 2003 ) The Half - Blood Prince ( 2005 ) The Deathly Hallows ( 2007 ) Film series Films The Philosopher 's Stone ( 2001 ) The Chamber of Secrets ( 2002 ) The Prisoner of Azkaban ( 2004 ) The Goblet of Fire ( 2005 ) The Order of the Phoenix ( 2007 ) The Half - Blood Prince ( 2009 ) The Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 ( 2010 ) The Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ( 2011 ) Music The Philosopher 's Stone The Chamber of Secrets The Prisoner of Azkaban The Goblet of Fire The Order of the Phoenix The Half - Blood Prince The Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 The Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 Related Cast members Production of The Deathly Hallows Characters Main Harry Potter Ron Weasley Hermione Granger Lord Voldemort Albus Dumbledore Severus Snape Rubeus Hagrid Draco Malfoy Supporting Ginny Weasley Hogwarts staff Order of the Phoenix Dumbledore 's Army Death Eaters Fictional universe Hogwarts Magic Magical creatures Magical objects Ministry of Magic Muggle Places Potions Quidditch Related works Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them Quidditch Through the Ages The Tales of Beedle the Bard Prequel Pottermore The Cursed Child Hogwarts : An Incomplete and Unreliable Guide Short Stories from Hogwarts of Power , Politics and Pesky Poltergeists Short Stories from Hogwarts of Heroism , Hardship and Dangerous Hobbies Games and toys Quidditch World Cup Lego Harry Potter : Years 1 -- 4 Lego Harry Potter : Years 5 -- 7 Lego Creator : Harry Potter Creator : Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets The Philosopher 's Stone The Chamber of Secrets The Prisoner of Azkaban The Goblet of Fire The Order of the Phoenix The Half - Blood Prince The Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 The Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 Book of Spells Book of Potions Trading Card Game Hogwarts Mystery Wizards Unite Attractions The Wizarding World of Harry Potter Orlando Japan Hollywood Dragon Challenge Flight of the Hippogriff Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey Hogwarts Express Harry Potter Movie Magic Experience Warner Bros. Studio Tour London Exhibitions Harry Potter : The Exhibition Harry Potter : A History of Magic Fandom Harry Potter Alliance The Leaky Cauldron MuggleNet LeakyCon Wizard rock Wrockstock Severus Snape and the Marauders Voldemort : Origins of the Heir My Immortal Related Wizarding World Influences and analogues Legal disputes Parodies Politics Religious debates Translation A Very Potter Musical The Harry Potter Lexicon The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter Potter Puppet Pals Portkey Games List of organisms named after the Harry Potter series Book Portal GND : 122613139 LCCN : n2014027906 NKC : jo2016908846 VIAF : 308752753 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_Potter_(character)&oldid=846353463 '' Categories : Child characters in film Child characters in literature Fictional characters introduced in 1997 Fictional characters who can turn invisible Fictional English people Fictional members of secret societies Fictional orphans Fictional police officers Fictional victims of bullies Fictional victims of child abuse Harry Potter characters Male characters in film Male characters in literature Teenage characters in film Teenage characters in literature Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2017 Webarchive template wayback links Articles with dead external links from June 2010 Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Use British English from January 2013 Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Use dmy dates from January 2013 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano עברית ქართული Кырык мары Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 64 more Edit links This page was last edited on 18 June 2018 , at 06 : 19 ( UTC ) . 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who does harry potter have a baby with
[ "In the epilogue of Deathly Hallows, which is set 19 years after Voldemort's death, Harry and Ginny are a couple and have three children: James Sirius Potter, who has already been at Hogwarts for at least one year, Albus Severus Potter, who is starting his first year there, and Lily Luna Potter, who is two years away from her first year at the school." ]
[ "Ginny" ]
800358696722175141
Queen of the South (TV series)
Queen of the South ( tv series ) - wikipedia Queen of the South ( tv series ) Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Queen of the South ( disambiguation ) . Queen of the South Genre Action Crime Drama Thriller Created by M.A. Fortin Joshua John Miller Based on La Reina del Sur by Arturo Pérez - Reverte Written by Scott Rosenbaum M.A. Fortin Joshua John Miller Arturo Pérez - Reverte Starring Alice Braga Veronica Falcon Justina Machado Peter Gadiot Hemky Madera Gerardo Taracena Joaquim de Almeida Jon - Michael Ecker Nick Sagar Theme music composer Giorgio Moroder Raney Shockne Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 26 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) David Friendly Scott Rosenbaum M.A. Fortin Joshua John Miller Producer ( s ) Robert J. Wilson Lorenzo O'Brien Cinematography Cameron Duncan Alejandro Martinez Production company ( s ) Frequency Films Friendly Films Skeeter Rosenbaum Productions Fox 21 Television Studios Universal Cable Productions Distributor NBCUniversal Television Distribution 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment ( MOD releases ) Release Original network USA Network Original release June 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 23 ) -- present External links Website www.usanetwork.com/queenofthesouth/ Queen of the South is an American television crime drama - thriller series . It premiered June 23 , 2016 , on USA Network and is an adaptation of the successful telenovela La Reina del Sur , which airs on USA 's sister network Telemundo , which in turn is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Spanish author Arturo Pérez - Reverte . On September 6 , 2016 , USA Network renewed the series for a second season which premiered June 8 , 2017 . On August 10 , 2017 , USA renewed the series for a third season . Contents ( hide ) 1 Main cast 1.1 Recurring cast 2 Critical reception 3 Episodes 3.1 Series overview 3.2 Season 1 ( 2016 ) 3.3 Season 2 ( 2017 ) 4 Broadcast 5 References 6 External links Main cast ( edit ) The cast and crew of the TV show Queen of the South at the ATX Television Festival presentation of the show . From left : Moderator Jarett Wieselman , David T. Friendly , Alice Braga , Veronica Falcón , Joaquim De Almeida , Jon - Michael Ecker , Justina Machado , Peter Gadiot , Gerardo Taracena , Hemky Madera and Gerardo Taracena Alice Braga as Teresa Mendoza Veronica Falcon as Doña Camila Vargas , Don Epifanio 's estranged wife and head of the American chapter of the Vargas Cartel in Dallas , Texas Justina Machado as Brenda Parra , Teresa 's best friend , Chino 's wife , and Tony 's mother ( Season 1 ) Peter Gadiot as James Valdez , Camila 's right - hand man Hemky Madera as Pote Galvez , a lieutenant in the Vargas Cartel Gerardo Taracena as Cesar `` Batman '' Guemes , Don Epifanio Vargas ' right - hand man ( Season 1 - 2 ) Joaquim de Almeida as Don Epifanio Vargas , Camilla Vargas ' husband , head of the Vargas Cartel ( see : Sinaloa Cartel ) , and a candidate for the governor of the Mexican state of Sinaloa ( Seasons 1 - 2 ) Jon - Michael Ecker as Raymundo `` El Güero '' Davila ( Season 2 , recurring season 1 ) Nick Sagar as DEA agent Alonzo Loya Recurring cast ( edit ) Mark Consuelos as Teo Aljarafe James Martinez as Gato Fierros , a lieutenant in the Vargas Cartel Carlos Gomez as Javier Acosta Rafael Amaya as Aurelio Casillas Ximena Duque as Eva Buemeros ( season 2 ) Michel Duval as Enrique `` Kique '' Jiménez ( season 2 ) Critical reception ( edit ) Queen of the South 's first season received mixed to positive feedback from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , it has a rating of 69 % , based on 16 reviews . The site 's consensus reads : `` Queen of the South enlivens an overdone premise with action and narrative vigor -- and shows hints of intriguing potential . '' On Metacritic , the first season scored 59 out of 100 , based on 15 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . Episodes ( edit ) Series overview ( edit ) Season Episodes Originally aired First aired Last aired 13 June 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 23 ) September 15 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 15 ) 13 June 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 08 ) August 31 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 31 ) Season 1 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) `` Piloto '' Charlotte Sieling M.A. Fortin & Joshua John Miller June 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 23 ) 101 1.39 `` Cuarenta Minutos '' Matthew Penn Scott Rosenbaum June 30 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 30 ) 102 1.35 `` Estrategia de Entrada '' Scott Peters Scott Rosenbaum July 7 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 07 ) 103 1.26 `` Lirio de los Valles '' Zetna Fuentes Scott Rosenbaum July 14 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 14 ) 104 1.26 5 5 `` Un Alma . Un Mapa . Dos Futuros . '' T.J. Scott Scott Rosenbaum July 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 21 ) 105 1.22 6 6 `` El Engaño Como la Regla '' Dave Rodriguez Scott Rosenbaum July 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 28 ) 106 1.22 7 7 `` El Hombre Pájaro '' David Platt Benjamin Daniel Lobato & David Ehrman August 4 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 04 ) 107 1.21 8 8 `` Billete de Magia '' David Boyd Gregg Hurwitz August 11 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 11 ) 108 1.06 9 9 `` Coge Todo lo Que Puede Llevar '' Jamie Payne Benjamin Daniel Lobato & David Ehrman August 18 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 18 ) 109 1.05 10 10 `` Esta Cosa Que Es Nuestra '' Scott Peters Benjamin Daniel Lobato & David Ehrman August 25 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 25 ) 110 1.20 11 11 `` Punto sin Retorno '' Constantine Makris Kyle Lierman September 1 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 01 ) 111 1.16 12 12 `` Quinientos Mil '' David Rodriguez Benjamin Daniel Lobato & David Ehrman September 8 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 08 ) 112 1.12 13 13 `` Cicatriz '' Matthew Penn Scott Rosenbaum September 15 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 15 ) 113 1.35 Season 2 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 14 `` El Cuerpo de Cristo '' David Boyd Natalie Chaidez June 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 08 ) 201 1.25 15 `` Dios y el Abogado '' Nick Gomez Jason Ganzel June 15 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 15 ) 202 1.27 16 `` Un Pacto Con el Diablo '' Eduardo Sanchez Dailyn Rodriguez June 22 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 22 ) 203 1.08 17 `` El Beso de Judas '' Ami Canaan Mann Benjamin Daniel Lobato June 29 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 29 ) 204 0.90 18 5 `` El Nacimiento de Bolivia '' Nick Copus Joe Loya July 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 06 ) 205 1.11 19 6 `` El Camino de la Muerte '' David Boyd Ryan O'Nan July 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 13 ) 206 1.10 20 7 `` El Precio de la Fe '' Joe Menendez Jorge A. Reyes July 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 20 ) 207 1.18 21 8 `` Sacar Con Sifón el Mar '' Bronwen Hughes Tina Mabry July 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 07 - 27 ) 208 1.16 22 9 `` Sólo el Amor de Una Madre '' David Rodriguez Tina Mabry & Dailyn Rodriguez August 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 03 ) 209 1.02 23 10 `` Que Manden los Payasos '' Loni Peristere Jason Ganzel & Jorge A. Reyes August 10 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 10 ) 210 1.18 24 11 `` La Noche Oscura del Alma '' Tina Mabry Benjamin Daniel Lobato August 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 17 ) 211 1.24 25 12 `` Todas las Horas Hieren '' Eduardo Sanchez Ryan O'Nan August 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 24 ) 212 1.24 26 13 `` La Última Hora Mata '' David Boyd Natalie Chaidez & Ryan O'Nan August 31 , 2017 ( 2017 - 08 - 31 ) 213 1.33 Broadcast ( edit ) Internationally , the series premiered in Australia on Showcase on August 4 , 2016 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Lincoln , Ross A. `` ' Queen of The South ' Composers Giorgio Moroder & Raney Shockne -- Interview '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 2016 - 07 - 01 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Queen of the South '' . NBCUniversal Media Village . Archived from the original on 2016 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ Lambert , David ( April 14 , 2017 ) . `` Queen of the South - DVDs Are Coming Soon for the First Season of the USA Network Series ! '' . TVShowsonTV.com . Retrieved April 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ N'Duka , Amanda ( 9 June 2016 ) . `` Queen Of The South EP & Cast Talk Female Empowerment And The Importance of Keeping It Real '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 13 June 2016 . Retrieved 24 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( 23 September 2014 ) . `` La Reina Del Sur Adaptation Picked Up By USA Network As Drama Pilot '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 24 February 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( August 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Queen Of The South ' Renewed For Season 3 By USA '' . Deadline . Retrieved August 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise . `` Justina Machado Joins ' Queen Of The South ' ; Kyle Gallner In ' Outsiders ' '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 9 March 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise . `` Peter Gadiot Joins USA Drama Series ' Queen Of The South ' '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 21 February 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . Jump up ^ The Deadline Team . `` Loretta Devine Joins Jerrod Carmichael Comedy Pilot ; Hemky Madera In ' Queen Of The South ' '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 21 February 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise . `` Kyle Dean Massey Cast In ' Nashville ' , Joaquim De Almeida In ' Queen Of The South '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 22 February 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . Jump up ^ The Deadline Team . `` James Martinez Cast In ' Queen Of The South ' ; Luis Guzman & Finesse Mitchell Tour With ' Roadies ' '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 21 February 2016 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise . `` Carlos Gomez Joins USA Drama Series ' Queen Of The South ' '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on 29 December 2015 . Retrieved 23 February 2016 . Jump up ^ Hansen , Lena . `` Rafael Amaya habla sobre su papel en la serie Queen of the South '' . People en Español ( in Spanish ) . Archived from the original on 16 April 2016 . Retrieved 14 April 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Trejos , Carolina . `` Ximena Duque y Michel Duval se unen a Queen of the South '' . People en Español ( in Spanish ) . Archived from the original on 2 April 2017 . Retrieved 4 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Queen of the South : Season 1 ( 2016 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Archived from the original on October 12 , 2016 . Retrieved July 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Queen of the South : Season 1 '' . Metacritic . Archived from the original on July 22 , 2016 . Retrieved July 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( 2016 - 06 - 24 ) . `` Thursday cable ratings : NBA Draft wins the night '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on 2016 - 06 - 29 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 30 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( 2016 - 07 - 05 ) . `` Thursday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' dips '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on 2016 - 07 - 07 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( 2016 - 07 - 08 ) . `` Thursday cable ratings : CNN wins the night '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on 2016 - 07 - 10 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( 2016 - 07 - 18 ) . `` Thursday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' holds steady '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on 2016 - 07 - 20 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 19 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( 2016 - 07 - 22 ) . `` Thursday cable ratings : Republican National Convention dominates the night '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on 2016 - 07 - 24 . 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Characters of Devil May Cry
Characters of Devil May Cry - wikipedia Characters of Devil May Cry The recurring characters from Devil May Cry as seen : Vergil in background , Trish , Dante and Lady , in the middle , and Nero in the botttom Devil May Cry is a series of video games set in the present , developed by Capcom and created by Hideki Kamiya . The series ' success has led to comic books , novelizations , an anime series , guides , collectibles and a variety of action figures . The series centers on Dante 's mission to avenge the death of his mother , Eva , by exterminating demons . In the process he encounters his long - lost twin brother , Vergil , with whom he has a dysfunctional relationship . As the series progresses a demon emperor , Mundus , is found to be responsible for the murder of Dante 's mother and the enslavement of his brother . Although Dante is often featured as the main playable character , the player also controls other characters . The characters in Devil May Cry were conceived by Hideki Kamiya , a video - game designer with Capcom and Clover Studio . Nero and several characters in Devil May Cry 4 were created by Tatsuya Yoshikawa , who said that designing Nero was one of the greatest challenges of his career . Each game in the series introduces a new antagonist and supporting characters . Contents 1 Conception and influences 2 Protagonists 2.1 Dante 2.2 Nero 2.3 Lucia 3 Antagonists 3.1 Vergil 3.2 Mundus 3.3 Lilith 3.4 Arius 3.5 Argosax the Chaos 3.6 Arkham 3.7 Sanctus 3.8 Agnus 4 Supporting characters 4.1 Sparda 4.2 Eva 4.3 Trish 4.4 Matier 4.5 Lady 4.6 Credo 4.7 Kyrie 4.8 Kat 4.9 Enzo Ferino 5 Cultural impact 5.1 Critical reception 5.2 Merchandise 6 References Conception and influences ( edit ) Series creator Hideki Kamiya said that the title character from the manga series Cobra , by Buichi Terasawa , was the basis for Dante . Dante wears a red cloak to make the character 's actions more eye - catching ; red is the traditional Japanese color for a hero . The game is very loosely based on the Italian poem Divine Comedy by the use of allusions , including the game 's protagonist Dante ( named after Dante Alighieri ) and other characters like Vergil ( Virgil ) and Trish ( Beatrice Portinari ) . Shortly after the release of Devil May Cry 2 , Itsuno decided the staff should develop a new video game , Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening . Morihashi was once again employed but this time took a bigger role during game development . As he had not experienced doing planning , he was given the role of writing the scenario . The game 's main character , Dante , was given a different characterization than in the first Devil May Cry due to his original creator , Hideki Kamiya , not being involved within the project . While feeling his own take on the character did not equal the popularity of the original one , Morihashi enjoyed Dante 's role in the game . Besides Dante , Morihashi felt challenging the making of Vergil due to how he had no prior design yet he still had to come up with an entire new one for the artists . Early concept art for Devil May Cry , showing Dante with a submachine gun Devil May Cry 4 producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi said before the game 's release that he wanted to make Dante appear more powerful than the other protagonist , Nero , to contrast the strength of a `` veteran '' with that of a `` rookie '' . The series ' storyline also required Dante to demonstrate his power after first game and its prequel , Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening . Kobayashi said , `` When creating a sequel , you do n't want to make a character weak again from the start for no good reason . Everyone wanted to see Dante be just as powerful as they remembered him , '' emphasizing that playing as Dante without his previous abilities would otherwise feel `` very strange . '' Both main characters ' capabilities were part of the series ' early development . Several weapons in the series are character - specific . One example is Pandora , a firearm designed by Kobayashi , who noted that he wanted to include a `` transforming , multi-purpose AWD ( sic ) in Dante 's arsenal . Something that could be used as an over the shoulder rocket launcher , or a crossbow , etc . In its final form , I wanted it to transform into something that would be even bigger than Dante himself . '' The weapon was inspired by anime series such as Macross and Gundam . Character designer Tatsuya Yoshikawa said , `` When working on this sort of game , the design does n't come from just one person , it is necessary to take the history of the series and the feelings of the fans into consideration . '' Before designing the characters in Devil May Cry 4 , Yoshikawa consulted staff members who had previously worked on the series to familiarize himself with previous elements . The characters were designed to emphasize their motion , and some demonic antagonists in Devil May Cry 4 resemble angels . These characters were designed to be attractive , while providing a contrast to other demons in the game . Yoshikawa noted that several main characters were somewhat difficult to design , but Nero was one of the greatest challenges of his career since the character would have to be accepted by the public and fit in the series ' universe . Protagonists ( edit ) Dante ( edit ) Main article : Dante ( Devil May Cry ) Dante , the series ' primary protagonist , is a mercenary specializing in the paranormal and the main playable character in the first three Devil May Cry games . He is distinguishable by his red clothing , short silver hair , quick wit , dark sense of humor and cocky attitude . Dante usually has two heavily customized M1911 pistols ( called Ebony and Ivory ) or a two - handed sword known as Rebellion . The character was voiced by Drew Coombs in the original Devil May Cry and Matthew Kaminsky in Devil May Cry 2 . Reuben Langdon received the role in Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening , and has returned to the role in Devil May Cry 4 , Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds and Devil May Cry : The Animated Series . Dante 's Japanese voice in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds , Project X Zone , The Animated Series , 4 Special Edition and Project X Zone is provided by Toshiyuki Morikawa . DmC : Devil May Cry features a different Dante from a parallel universe separate from the original series . This version of Dante ( a `` nephilim '' , described in the game 's mythology as a half - angelic , half - demonic hybrid ) is voiced by Tim Phillipps . In this version , Dante initially has black hair , which turns white near the end of the game . While he is still just as sarcastic and cocky as the original Dante , his attitude is significantly more punk - like than the laid back demeanor of the original counterpart . Changes to his signature weapons include a slimmer version of the Rebellion sword , as well as his guns Ebony and Ivory resembling Desert Eagle handguns with the grips twisting to a sharp point , which makes it lack any detachable magazines or a magazine release . Nero ( edit ) Main article : Nero ( Devil May Cry ) Nero is one of the protagonists of Devil May Cry 4 and Devil May Cry 5 . An orphan adopted by the Sparda - worshipping Order of the Sword , Nero grew up to become a Holy Knight of the Order . He does not get along well with others and prefers to work alone , so he is usually given the Order 's `` special assignments . '' During the first half of Devil May Cry 4 Nero thinks Dante is his enemy , but as the story progresses he realizes that the Order is his real adversary . Nero becomes a renegade , looking for answers and trying to save Kyrie ( his childhood friend and love interest ) . Nero and Dante join forces to defeat the Savior , a flying statue possessed by a demon . They part on good terms when Dante entrusts him with the Yamato . Nero wields a large , mechanical sword named Red Queen , a double - barrel revolver called Blue Rose and the Devil Bringer , his demonic right arm . By defeating demons , Nero increases the Devil Bringer 's reach . When he obtains Yamato , a Devil Trigger summons a devil - samurai avatar to fight with him . Like Dante , Nero has Sparda 's blood and powers ; however , his relationship with Dante is explored only in the novelization when Dante notes that Nero resembles Vergil . The character is voiced by Johnny Yong Bosch in English , and by Kaito Ishikawa in the Japanese version of Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition . Nero will return as one of the primary protagonists in Devil May Cry 5 . Lucia ( edit ) Lucia , along with Dante , is one of the two primary protagonists in Devil May Cry 2 . An agile fighter , she uses two ornately carved curved daggers . Like Dante , she can Devil Trigger ( transform into a `` harpy , '' a birdlike demon of light ) . Lucia is voiced by Francoise Gralewski . Lucia is a member of Protectorate , a clan of guardians in the Vie de Marli with the blood of devils . She invites Dante to her island so her adoptive mother , Matier , can ask him to help them defeat Arius ( a man who has turned their land into a devils ' paradise ) . Dante accepts , and he and Lucia begin their quests . The player later learns that Lucia is actually Chi , a devil bred by Arius but abandoned as defective . When she reaches Arius , Dante has already defeated him and rides his motorcycle to the demon world to stop an ancient demon . After Dante leaves , Arius ( now a monster ) rises from the ruins and attacks Lucia ; she defeats him , and awaits Dante 's return . Antagonists ( edit ) Vergil ( edit ) Main article : Vergil ( Devil May Cry ) Although Vergil is Dante 's identical twin brother , they are very different ; Vergil embraces his demonic side and is obsessed with gaining power . He is the secondary antagonist in Devil May Cry 3 and a playable character in the game 's special edition . Vergil appears in Devil May Cry as Nelo Angelo , corrupted and controlled by Emperor Mundus . He also appears as a playable character in the crossover fighting game , Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 . In English , Vergil is voiced by Daniel Southworth in Devil May Cry 3 and Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition , and David de Lautour in DmC : Devil May Cry ; Nelo Angelo is voiced by David Kelley in Devil May Cry . In Japanese , he is voiced by Hiroki Hirata in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , Project X Zone 2 and Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition . Mundus ( edit ) Mundus is the sadistic king of the demon world . Resembling a seraph , he was defeated by Sparda 2,000 years ago . Mundus is dozens of feet tall , with white feathered wings and a third eye on his forehead . He is disloyal , killing one of his generals simply for failing to defeat Dante . Mundus , the nemesis of Dante and Sparda , is responsible for the death of Dante 's mother and the corruption of his brother . He is the primary antagonist in Devil May Cry , creating Trish to resemble Eva so she could lure Dante to Mallet Island . Mundus and his servants try to kill Dante but Dante is victorious , winning Trish 's loyalty and defeating Mundus ( who promises to return ) . Mundus is the only demon Dante can not kill , even with Trish 's help . A statue of Mundus is seen briefly in Devil May Cry 2 . Using this form in the first game ( until Dante confronts him ) , he breaks out of the `` shell '' with an angelic appearance and a scar across his chest . Mundus appears in a bonus scene at the end of Devil May Cry 3 , when Vergil sees him as three red glowing orbs in the sky surrounded by electricity ( his original form in Devil May Cry ) . In Dante 's storyline in the PlayStation 2 version of Viewtiful Joe , he possesses Captain Blue to take revenge on Dante and Trish . Mundus also appears in the second Devil May Cry novel in a parallel universe , where he is confronted by Dante and Nelo Angelo 's forces . In DmC : Devil May Cry , Mundus is the primary antagonist : the solidly built Kyle Ryder , a ruthless banker who controls the world through debt and demonic control . He and Sparda rose through the demonic ranks 9,000 years before the game 's events . The triangular `` Mundus '' symbol appears on his forehead as a scar , and he is defeated after the Hellgate was shut down . Mundus is voiced by Tony Daniels in Devil May Cry and Louis Herthum in DmC : Devil May Cry . Lilith ( edit ) Lilith is Mundus 's mistress in DmC : Devil May Cry , and is pregnant with his child . She owns the Nightclub and , while she is attentive to her lover , she wants more power . When she fights , she summons her unborn child : a grotesque demon , who comes out of his mother 's head and shelters her in his stomach . After her defeat she is traded for Kat , who was kidnapped by the SWAT team on Mundus ' orders . During the exchange , Vergil kills her and her unborn child with a rifle . The character is voiced by Robin Riker . Arius ( edit ) Arius , the primary antagonist in Devil May Cry 2 , is an insane , wealthy businessman who owns an international company , Uroboros . He wants to find the legendary Arcana , artifacts which would allow him to raise Argosax from the demonic realm and use his power to control the world . Human at the beginning of the game , Arius has access to powerful magic ( which enables him to fight demon hunters like Dante ) and can create his own demons . Near the end of the game , in Lucia 's scenario Arius survives his battle with Dante . Infused with the power of Argosax , he attacks Lucia ( first as a demonic version of himself ) . As he begins to lose , he mutates into a giant creature . Argosax the Chaos ( edit ) Argosax the Chaos is an ancient and powerful , demonic lord with a host shell consisting of characters from the first and second games who had ruled the demon world centuries ago . In the shell is his true form : the Despair Embodied , a powerful , diabolical , sex - changing , fiery and horned angelic being . Despair changes his appearance during his fight , from a man attacking with a sword to a woman attacking with a whip . He fights the final battle in Dante 's scenario . Arius opened a door , allowing Argosax to enter the human world . To stop him , Dante went to the demonic world and defeated him before he could enter . Arkham ( edit ) Arkham is the primary antagonist in Devil May Cry 3 . He first appears in a cutscene during the game 's first mission , walking into Dante 's office and offering him an invitation from Vergil . Arkham is a scholar with supernatural abilities and knowledge of demonic folklore . He is taller than Dante and Vergil , hairless and has a scar ( which sometimes pulses ) covering the left side of his face from a botched ritual to turn himself into a devil when he sacrificed his wife . Like his daughter Mary ( Lady ) , Arkham 's eyes are different colors . In most of his scenes ( even in combat ) , he holds a book . Arkham pits Dante , Vergil and Lady against each other by exploiting their personalities . With Vergil he is sycophantic , pretending to help while plotting against him . He taunts and enrages Lady ( who is driven by her need to avenge her mother ) , convincing her that his actions were Vergil 's fault . To Dante he appears as Jester , a resident of the tower who mocks , advises and challenges him . Opening the gate to the demonic world , Arkham retrieves the Force Edge and combines its power with the restored halves of Eva 's amulet ( acquiring a large part of Sparda 's power and temporarily assuming the demon 's original form ) . However , the power overwhelms him and he becomes a shapeless creature when he fights Dante . The brothers team up , casting him into the human world ( where Lady kills him ) . The character is voiced and motion - captured ( as Arkham and Jester ) by Adam D Clark . Arkham 's name was intended to be Hyne ( pronounced `` Hai - neh '' ) , but Reuben Langdon ( who voices Dante ) thought it would be inappropriate in English and convinced Capcom to change it . Jester 's name was intended to be `` Joker '' . Sanctus ( edit ) Sanctus is the primary antagonist in Devil May Cry 4 . The proclaimed Vicar of Sparda , the spiritual leader of the Order of the Sword , Sanctus is apparently killed by Dante at the beginning of the game . He is regarded as one of the greatest leaders in the Order 's history , and was general of the Holy Knights . Sanctus is behind the events in Devil May Cry 4 . After Dante 's mission , the character is resurrected in an ascension ceremony ( during which a human receives the essence of a demon ) and continues as leader of the Order . He orders Credo ( captain of the Holy Knights ) to arrest Nero after Agnus ( an alchemist working for the Order ) tells Sanctus that he has demonic power . When Credo can not do this , Agnus kidnaps Kyrie ( Nero 's childhood sweetheart ) ; Nero tries to rescue her after defeating Agnus , but Sanctus intervenes and leaves with her . He uses Kyrie as building material for the Savior , a demonic structure which has been collecting demonic energy for centuries . When Nero confronts him Sanctus defeats him , telling him that he originally intended to use Dante for the Savior 's core . Using the Savior 's strength , Nero is absorbed into it and Sanctus uses Yamato to open the gates of hell . When demons attack residents of Fortuna he controls the Savior and some of the Order 's Angels , ordering them to exterminate the demons and announcing the arrival of the Savior . Sanctus merges with the structure , and does not reappear until ( through Dante 's efforts ) Nero is released and fights him . Nero defeats him , and he is absorbed into the Savior 's core ; the structure is his body until Nero destroys him with the Devil Bringer . The character is voiced by Liam O'Brien in English , and Ikuya Sawaki in Japanese version of Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition . Agnus ( edit ) Agnus is the chief technology researcher and alchemist of the Holy Knights of the Order of Sparda in Devil May Cry 4 , developing demon - killing weapons for the Knights . An introverted workaholic , he rarely appears outside his office and few people in the cult know about him . It is later learned that he has been experimenting with the broken Yamato and creating demon - based weapons . Agnus has an alternate form ( resembling a cross between a beetle and a moth ) , and stutters when stressed . Near the end of the game , he is killed by Dante when he tries to keep the Yamato . The character is voiced by T.J. Storm in English , and Yuya Uchida in Japanese version of Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition . Supporting characters ( edit ) Sparda ( edit ) Sparda is the demonic knight who rebelled for humanity 's sake 2,000 years before the events of Vergil 's Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition . He defeated many demons and their emperor , Mundus , before sealing the gateway between the demonic and human worlds . Sparda 's heroism made him legendary in the human world , and he is known as `` the Legendary Dark Knight '' . In Devil May Cry and its successors , Sparda left his power in his sword ( known as the Force Edge or the Sparda ) in the demonic realm . ( `` Sparda '' is the Japanese inflection for `` spada '' , a Latin word for `` sword '' . ) To seal the gateway between the worlds Sparda sacrificed his blood and that of a mortal priestess , using two complementary amulets as a key which he brought into the human world . To work , the amulets must be joined . At DMC , near the end of his life Sparda took a human wife ( Eva ) and fathered twin sons ( Dante and Vergil ) . He gave the amulets to Eva , who passed them on to their sons . Vergil and Dante each received a powerful , enchanted sword from their father ; Dante 's sword was Rebellion , and Vergil 's was Yamato . It is unknown how Sparda died , and Dante believed that there was confusion surrounding his father and his legacy . In DmC : Devil May Cry , Sparda was Mundus ' brother , closest ally and most - trustworthy lieutenant after they rose through the demonic ranks 9,000 years before the events of the game . Sparda fell in love with , and married , Eva ( an angel ) ; they had twin sons , Nephilim named Dante and Vergil . Eva was later killed by Mundus , and Sparda was imprisoned in eternal torment . Mundus and the other demons considered the Nephilim threatening , because they had angelic and demonic powers and could kill a demonic king . Eva ( edit ) Eva , Sparda 's wife and mother of Dante and Vergil , was killed in a demonic attack . Eva has long red hair . She gave each of her sons half of Sparda 's amulet as a birthday gift , and rebooting of regular `` Devil May Cry '' Trish is resemble of her . Her only appearance was DmC : Devil May Cry and changed Eva 's race from human to angelic . She fell in love with Sparda and birthed him twin Nephilim sons , Dante and Vergil . She and her family are found by Mundus ; Sparda is imprisoned and Eva is killed , Mundus ripping out and eating her heart in front of Dante . Mundus casts her soul into Hell and has her tortured for all eternity . In the DLC Vergil 's Downfall , Vergil undergoes a near - death experience and falls into Hell , where he hears Eva 's voice directing him to get out of Hell . Vergil finds her and frees her from her tormentor , but tells her that he has no heart and has killed Dante . He then walks away , leaving her alone in Hell . Rebecca Blackson in DmC : Devil May Cry , and Andrea Deck in Vergil 's Downfall . Trish ( edit ) Main article : Trish ( Devil May Cry ) Trish , a human priestess who resembles Dante 's and Vergil 's mother , was controled by the demon emperor Mundus . She has enhanced strength and agility , accelerated healing and the ability to use lightning . In English , Trish is voiced by Sarah Lafleur in Devil May Cry , and Viewtiful Joe : Red Hot Rumble , Danielle Burgio in Devil May Cry 4 and Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , and Luci Christian in The Animated Series . In Japanese , she is voiced by Atsuko Tanaka in The Animated Series , Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , and Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition . Matier ( edit ) Matier , a supporting character in Devil May Cry 2 , is an old woman and ( like Lucia ) part of the Protectorate clan . When she was younger , she and her clan fought the demons with Sparda . Matier is cheerful and optimistic , certain of Dante 's eventual victory . She guides Lucia to reunite the Arcanas ( mystical relics ) and lure Dante ( whom she calls `` Son of Sparda '' ) to their island . Although it is first claimed that Matier is Lucia 's mother , it is later revealed that Lucia was created by Arius ( who planned to dispose of her when Matier found and raised her ) . The character is voiced by Flo DiRe . Lady ( edit ) Main article : Lady ( Devil May Cry ) Lady is a freelance demon hunter . A human , she is skilled in acrobatics and armed close quarters combat . Lady has black hair , eyes of different colors and a signature weapon , the Kalina - Ann ( a customized missile launcher , similar to MANPADS ) . When fighting , she uses a CZ75 pistol with a compensator and a VZ61 submachine gun with a bayonet attached to it . She was named Mary by her father , Arkham , but she renounced the name when he murdered her mother in a ritual to obtain demonic power , an act which drove Mary to psychosis and obsessive vengeance . Lady first appears in Devil May Cry 3 , when she refuses to identify herself to Dante ; he replies , `` Whatever , lady ! '' Lady formalizes her name in the game 's denouement when she shoots Arkham , telling him that `` Mary '' is dead . Although she is not a villain , her role in Devil May Cry 3 is that of an antagonist , as she seeks to deter Dante and even fights him twice before finally coming to terms with him . Credo ( edit ) Credo , captain of hundreds of Holy Knights , is a strict , just man who is admired for his prowess on the battlefield . Kyrie 's older brother , he sees Nero as family but finds him unreliable . He orders Nero to capture Dante for Sanctus ' `` assassination '' , but is part of Sanctus ' plan to bring about the Order 's `` Savior '' . Credo tries to arrest Nero after he learn about the latter 's demonic power , and transforms into a winged creature he believes is angelic . When Kyrie is kidnapped , to be used by the Order for Sanctus 's grand plan , Credo loses his faith in the Order for using his sister as a tool and tries to help Nero save her . He is mortally wounded by Sanctus while trying to save Nero from capture , and Nero is absorbed into the Savior . Dying , Credo asks Dante to save Nero and Kyrie as his body dissipates into light . He is voiced by TJ Rotolo in English , and Rikiya Koyama in Japanese version of Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition . Kyrie ( edit ) Kyrie , a supporting character in Devil May Cry 4 , was born and raised in Fortuna . She is Credo 's sister , a singer for the Order of the Sword and Nero 's childhood friend and love interest . After being misled into thinking that Nero is evil , Kyrie is recently held hostage by Agnus under orders of Sanctus , to lure Nero to the Savior , with which Kyrie is fused before he arrives , and also leading his brother Credo defects the Orders because of Santus ' evil scheme . When Dante frees Nero from captivity in the Savior , Nero can free Kyrie ( who has accepted Nero again and wants to spend her days with him ) . The character is voiced by Stephanie Sheh in English and Saori Hayami in a Japanese version of Devil May Cry 4 : Special Edition , and motion - captured by Laura Napoli . Kat ( edit ) Kat , a main character in DmC : Devil May Cry , is a psychic and a member of the Order . Orphaned young , she was raised by an abusive , demonic foster father whom she later killed . When Kat met Vergil , he convinced her to help him fight the demons enslaving humanity . She meets Dante early in the game , and later convinces him to join her and Vergil . Kat can see limbo , an alternate realm between the afterlife and the physical world to which Dante , Vergil , Kat and most species in the demonic and angelic realms have access . She is kidnapped by a SWAT team sent by Mundus and , when rescued , tells Dante and Vergil how to reach his lair . When Vergil 's motivation for defeating Mundus comes to light , Kat and Dante object ; the brothers fight , with Dante victorious . He nearly kills his brother before Kat intervenes . She appears in the PlayStation All - Stars Battle Royale as an unlockable minion , and is voiced by Sage Mears . Enzo Ferino ( edit ) Although Enzo Ferino does not appear in any of the Devil May Cry games , he is mentioned as an associate of Dante in the first game 's manual . He has appeared in several novels , manga and anime as Dante 's friend and contact in the mercenary world . In the first Devil May Cry drama CD ( based on The Animated Series ) , Enzo is featured and voiced by Yasunori Matsumoto . As shown in the manga , he has also appeared in Bayonetta as an informant for the titular superhuman ( who is looking for a black - market gem ) . Cultural impact ( edit ) Critical reception ( edit ) When Devil May Cry was released Dante 's personality was praised , with IGN describing the character as a `` maverick head - hunter '' `` believable '' and `` awesome '' . His confident , fearless attitude have made him popular ; the character ranked seventh on GameCrush 's Top 10 : Most Badass Video Game Characters list and third on ScrewAttack 's Top Ten Coolest Video Game Characters list . The original game 's demonic enemies were `` ferocious '' , the sub-bosses `` incredibly tough '' and the bosses ( particularly Vergil ) `` very tough '' , providing many of the game 's challenges . Eurogamer called the demons `` some of the most bizarre - looking creatures you will find this side of American McGee 's Alice '' and the bosses `` vast '' , with their battles requiring a variety of strategies ( although the fight with Nightmare was considered repetitive ) . In its review of Devil May Cry 2 , GameSpot said that the characters lacked personality ( based on the removal of distinctive traits from Dante ) . It also felt that Lucia 's role was too small , not allowing the character time to develop . The website called the game 's enemies `` mindless '' , noting that most ( including the bosses ) could be defeated with the default attacks . The missions where the player controls Vergil in Devil May Cry 3 : Special Edition added `` an all - new and unique play style '' . Being able to play his story arc was `` such a blast that Capcom could probably have released his modes separately for $19.99 and gotten away with it '' . The characters in Devil May Cry 4 were said to resemble a `` legion of seraphim the likes of which gamers have never seen before , and it puts an interesting spin on what all of our preconceptions of ' good ' are in a video game '' . 1UP.com noted that the enemies shared visual elements with the military personnel of actual religions : `` Considering the visual nature of the heavily - armored , winged , angelic warriors scattered around the various missions , it 'd be easy to confuse these characters with crusaders of Christian origin . '' Merchandise ( edit ) In addition to the games , anime and manga , Devil May Cry characters have appeared in merchandise including novels , comic books , a skin variety on the PlayStation Portable , a special edition of the PlayStation 3 console and several soundtracks . Capcom has made other merchandise available , including concept art for The Animated Series , T - shirts , rings , collars and handbags . The series ' popularity led to a line of action figures produced by Toycom ; Kaiyodo produced a similar line for Devil May Cry 2 and a Devil May Cry 3 Dante action figure . Kotobukiya produced statues ( including Vergil and Dante ) based on the characters after the release of The Animated Series and Devil May Cry 4 , and other merchandise includes posters and framed stamps for the series ' 10th anniversary . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Devil May Cry director Hideki Kamiya Interview : Translated from Devil May Cry : Graphic Edition '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 09 - 28 . Retrieved 2007 - 03 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` PS2 News : CVG goes straight to hell with Devil May Cry director - ComputerAndVideoGames.com '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 01 - 13 . Retrieved 2007 - 03 - 03 . Jump up ^ Mielke , James . `` Postmortem on DMC3 : SE '' . 1UP.com . Archived from the original on June 24 , 2013 . Retrieved June 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Devil May Cry : 3142 Graphic Arts . Capcom , Udon Entertainment . 2015 . pp. 11 -- 12 . ISBN 978 - 1927925485 . ^ Jump up to : James Mielke ( 2008 - 01 - 31 ) . `` Previews : Devil May Cry 4 '' . 1up.com . Archived from the original on 2013 - 01 - 16 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Demon 's Legacy : Dante , '' . Game Informer. 179 ( March 2008 ) : 112 - 113 . Jump up ^ `` Interview with MvC3 Voice Actors '' . Jump up ^ `` DmC Devil May Cry Takes Place In A Parallel World With A Different Dante '' . ^ Jump up to : `` Official English language DMC4 site from Capcom Japan '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 04 - 06 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Devil May Cry 5 gives Nero some YouTuber swagger and a robot arm '' . Venture Beat. 10 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Demon 's Legacy : Lucia , '' GameInformer 179 ( March 2008 ) : 113 . ^ Jump up to : Matier : Oh yes ... We are the guardians of ... this land , Vie de Marii ... Our clan once fought against the demons with Sparda . Son of Sparda , we must ask this favor of you . You see , there 's a man who 's transformed out land into a demon 's paradise . His name is Arius , and although he is the president of an international public corporation , he uses the demon power . Please deal with Arius and his master ? Dante : Looks like it 's your lucky day . ( Devil May Cry 2 ) Capcom , 2003 Jump up ^ Arius : You are my creation . Lucia : Liar ! Matier is my mother . Arius ' secretary removes her mask , revealing the fact her face is identical to Lucia 's . Arius : She merely found you when you were about to be disposed of , and then raised you as a soldier . Is that what you consider to be a mother ? ( Devil May Cry 2 ) Capcom , 2003 Jump up ^ `` Demon 's Legacy : Vergil , '' GameInformer 179 ( March 2008 ) : 113 . Jump up ^ GameSpot - Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 roster leaked Archived 2011 - 07 - 22 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Demon 's Legacy : Mundus , '' GameInformer 179 ( March 2008 ) : 112 - 113 . ^ Jump up to : Narrator : `` Two millenniums ( sic ) ago there was a war , between the human world and the other , the under world , but somebody from the underworld woke up to justice , and stood up against this legion , alone . His name was Sparda . Later he quietly reigned the human world , and continued to preserve harmony until his death . He became a legend . '' The legendary dark knight , Sparda ( Devil May Cry ) Capcom , 2001 ^ Jump up to : Mundus : Those eyes ... deep in them I see the same light as in Sparda 's eyes . Dante : Why my mother ? Mundus : That useless being ? If you need a mother , I can create as many as you want . Just like I created Trish . Dante : Silence ! ( Devil May Cry ) Capcom , 2001 Jump up ^ Mundus : Dante , I will return ... And I will rule this world ! ( Devil May Cry ) Capcom , 2001 ^ Jump up to : `` IMDB entry for Devil May Cry '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 16 . Jump up ^ Arius : I must obtain the power of Argosax ... Or I can not transcend all living things ! ( Devil May Cry 2 ) Capcom , 2003 Jump up ^ Devil May Cry 2 's instruction manual : `` One recent tale , only a few hundred years old , told of a great swordsman appearing from `` the outside '' to aid in exorcising the most evil god of all time . '' Jump up ^ `` Demon 's Legacy : Arkham , '' GameInformer 179 ( March 2008 ) : 113 . Jump up ^ Jester : It was quite a ride , you know ! If any of you had died before getting here , our little plan would have gone to waste ! Therefore , my job was to get you to battle each other in order to weaken you . But at the same time , I needed to guide you here and make sure you were kept alive . I even went so far as dressing like a complete idiot ! ( Devil May Cry 3 ) Capcom , 2005 Jump up ^ Arkham : He plucks the threads that make us dance , finger and toe ! We surrender in joy to the lowest of the foul and rank ; we submerge through darkness , rancid filth . Hour by hour , we move downward , ever closer to Hell , in a slow , steady gait . Now , let the world resonate ! Sloth ! Gluttony ! Greed ! Envy ! Lust ! Wrath ! And pride ! A bell of chaos that tolls human desires ! After two thousand long years , the once sealed gate to the demonic world will open ! Destruction ! Carnage and Despair ! Let your instincts drive you ! Entrap this world in fear ! As its very name Temen - ni - gru strikes terror into the heart of mankind . Then I will become the ultimate ruler of this wasteland engulfed with pandemonium . The demonic power that Sparda once imprisoned ... will be mine ! ( Devil May Cry 3 ) Capcom , 2005 Jump up ^ `` IMDB entry for Devil May Cry 3 '' . IMDB . Retrieved 2007 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Fan report from Tales of Anime convention '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 15 . Jump up ^ T.J Storm on IMDb Jump up ^ `` Demon 's Legacy : Force Edge / Sparda , '' GameInformer 179 ( March 2008 ) : 112 . Jump up ^ Arkham : `` Two amulets ... a setmore key . He sacrificed two things to suppress the tremendous force of this tower : His own Devil 's blood , and a mortal priestess . I needed you , in whose body flows the same blood as the sacrificed woman . His spell can not be undone without your blood ! '' ( Devil May Cry 3 ) Capcom , 2005 Jump up ^ Vergil : The portal to the human world is closing Dante , because the amulets have been separated . ( Devil May Cry 3 ) Capcom , 2005 ^ Jump up to : Eva : Vergil ... Dante ... Happy Birthday Dante : Wow ! Cool ! ! Vergil : I want chocolate ! ! Dante : No , I want chocolate ! ! ( DMC Devil May Cry ) Capcom , 2013 Jump up ^ Jester : And of course , your brother Vergil is the one who controls it by using your mommy 's amulet . Dante : Amulet ? Jester : He 's headed to the control room in the basement . If you do n't hop down there quick like a bunny , he 'll open the gate to hell . Is n't that a scary thought ? ( Devil May Cry 3 ) Capcom , 2005 Jump up ^ Devil May Cry 3 , Capcom , 2005 Jump up ^ Dante : `` Well from what I can figure there 's a lot of confusion surrounding him '' ( Devil May Cry 4 ) Capcom , 2008 Jump up ^ `` Flo Di Re page on IMDB '' . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Demon 's Legacy : Lady , '' GameInformer 179 ( March 2008 ) : 113 . Jump up ^ Dante : You 're right . So tell me , what 's your name ? Lady : I do n't have a name . Dante : Oh , then what should I call you ? Lady : I do n't care . Whatever you want . Dante : Whatever , lady . I 'll leave this to you , because I do n't want to miss the party . ( Devil May Cry 3 ) Capcom , 2005 Jump up ^ Lady : Mary died a long time ago . My name is Lady . Devil May Cry 3 Capcom , 2005 Jump up ^ The Art of Devil May Cry 4 . Capcom . 2008 . p. 38 . Jump up ^ `` IMDB Resume for Stephanie Sheh '' . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 24 . Jump up ^ Laura Napoli on IMDb ^ Jump up to : Doug Perry ( 2001 - 10 - 16 ) . `` Review : Devil May Cry '' . IGN.com . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ Rocco Inzauto , Edward ( 2007 - 02 - 25 ) . `` Top 10 : Most Badass Video Game Characters '' . Archived from the original on January 29 , 2009 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Top ten coolest games '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 08 - 09 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 20 . Jump up ^ Gestalt ( 2001 - 12 - 08 ) . `` Devil May Cry : Review '' . Eurogamer . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ Giancarlo Varanini ( 2003 - 01 - 30 ) . `` Devil May Cry 2 : Reviews '' . GameSpot . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Most Disappointing Game '' . Gamespot . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ James Mielke ( 2008 - 01 - 30 ) . `` Retro / Active : Devil May Cry '' . 1up.com . Archived from the original on 2009 - 02 - 26 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 25 . Jump up ^ James Mielke ( 2008 - 01 - 28 ) . `` Previews : Devil May Cry 4 '' . 1up.com . Archived from the original on 2011 - 05 - 22 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Devil May Cry concept art '' ( in Japanese ) . Capcom . Archived from the original on 2008 - 02 - 04 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Merchandise directory '' ( in Japanese ) . Capcom . Archived from the original on 2008 - 02 - 04 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Merchandise directory '' ( in Japanese ) . Capcom . Archived from the original on 2008 - 02 - 07 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ Borst , Brian ( 2003 - 06 - 01 ) . `` Devil May Cry Action Figures review '' . Archived from the original on May 16 , 2006 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 20 . Devil May Cry series Original series Devil May Cry Devil May Cry 2 Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening Devil May Cry 4 Devil May Cry 5 Reboot DmC : Devil May Cry Media Music Novels Manga Anime episodes Characters Dante Trish Vergil Lady Nero People Hideki Kamiya Shinji Mikami Hideaki Itsuno Bingo Morihashi Related Viewtiful Joe ( Red Hot Rumble ) Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne Marvel vs. Capcom 3 ( Ultimate ) PlayStation All - Stars Battle Royale Project X Zone ( 2 ) Book : Devil May Cry series Category : Devil May Cry Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Characters_of_Devil_May_Cry&oldid=854225989 '' Categories : Devil May Cry characters Lists of Capcom characters Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Magyar Português 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 August 2018 , at 20 : 16 ( UTC ) . 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what is the relationship between dante and nero
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Surjective function
Surjective function - wikipedia Surjective function Jump to : navigation , search `` Onto '' redirects here . For other uses , see wiktionary : onto . Function x ↦ f ( x ) Examples by domain and codomain X → B , B → X , B → X → Z , Z → X X → R , R → X , R → X X → C , C → X , C → X Classes / properties Constant Identity Linear Polynomial Rational Algebraic Analytic Smooth Continuous Measurable Injective Surjective Bijective Constructions Restriction Composition λ Inverse Generalizations Partial Multivalued Implicit In mathematics , a function f from a set X to a set Y is surjective ( or onto ) , or a surjection , if for every element y in the codomain Y of f there is at least one element x in the domain X of f such that f ( x ) = y . It is not required that x is unique ; the function f may map one or more elements of X to the same element of Y . A surjective function from domain X to codomain Y . The function is surjective because every point in the codomain is the value of f ( x ) for at least one point x in the domain . The term surjective and the related terms injective and bijective were introduced by Nicolas Bourbaki , a group of mainly French 20th - century mathematicians who under this pseudonym wrote a series of books presenting an exposition of modern advanced mathematics , beginning in 1935 . The French prefix sur means over or above and relates to the fact that the image of the domain of a surjective function completely covers the function 's codomain . Any function induces a surjection by restricting its codomain to its range . Every surjective function has a right inverse , and every function with a right inverse is necessarily a surjection . The composite of surjective functions is always surjective . Any function can be decomposed into a surjection and an injection . Contents ( hide ) 1 Definition 2 Examples 3 Properties 3.1 Surjections as right invertible functions 3.2 Surjections as epimorphisms 3.3 Surjections as binary relations 3.4 Cardinality of the domain of a surjection 3.5 Composition and decomposition 3.6 Induced surjection and induced bijection 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References Definition ( edit ) Further information on notation : Function ( mathematics ) § Notation A surjective function is a function whose image is equal to its codomain . Equivalently , a function f with domain X and codomain Y is surjective if for every y in Y there exists at least one x in X with f ( x ) = y ( \ displaystyle f ( x ) = y ) . Surjections are sometimes denoted by a two - headed rightwards arrow ( U+ 21A0 ↠ RIGHTWARDS TWO HEADED ARROW ) , as in f : X ↠ Y . Symbolically , If f : X → Y ( \ displaystyle f \ colon X \ rightarrow Y ) , then f ( \ displaystyle f ) is said to be surjective if ∀ y ∈ Y , ∃ x ∈ X , f ( x ) = y ( \ displaystyle \ forall y \ in Y , \ , \ exists x \ in X , \ ; \ ; f ( x ) = y ) . Examples ( edit ) A non-surjective function from domain X to codomain Y . The smaller oval inside Y is the image ( also called range ) of f . This function is not surjective , because the image does not fill the whole codomain . In other words , Y is colored in a two - step process : First , for every x in X , the point f ( x ) is colored yellow ; Second , all the rest of the points in Y , that are not yellow , are colored blue . The function f is surjective only if there are no blue points . For any set X , the identity function id on X is surjective . The function f : Z → ( 0 , 1 ) defined by f ( n ) = n mod 2 ( that is , even integers are mapped to 0 and odd integers to 1 ) is surjective . The function f : R → R defined by f ( x ) = 2x + 1 is surjective ( and even bijective ) , because for every real number y we have an x such that f ( x ) = y : an appropriate x is ( y − 1 ) / 2 . The function f : R → R defined by f ( x ) = x − 3x is surjective , because the pre-image of any real number y is the solution set of the cubic polynomial equation x − 3x − y = 0 and every cubic polynomial with real coefficients has at least one real root . However , this function is not injective ( and hence not bijective ) since e.g. the pre-image of y = 2 is ( x = − 1 , x = 2 ) . ( In fact , the pre-image of this function for every y , − 2 ≤ y ≤ 2 has more than one element . ) The function g : R → R defined by g ( x ) = x is not surjective , because there is no real number x such that x = − 1 . However , the function g : R → R defined by g ( x ) = x ( with restricted codomain ) is surjective because for every y in the nonnegative real codomain Y there is at least one x in the real domain X such that x = y . The natural logarithm function ln : ( 0 , + ∞ ) → R is a surjective and even bijective mapping from the set of positive real numbers to the set of all real numbers . Its inverse , the exponential function , is not surjective as its range is the set of positive real numbers and its domain is usually defined to be the set of all real numbers . The matrix exponential is not surjective when seen as a map from the space of all n × n matrices to itself . It is , however , usually defined as a map from the space of all n × n matrices to the general linear group of degree n , i.e. the group of all n × n invertible matrices . Under this definition the matrix exponential is surjective for complex matrices , although still not surjective for real matrices . The projection from a cartesian product A × B to one of its factors is surjective unless the other factor is empty . In a 3D video game , vectors are projected onto a 2D flat screen by means of a surjective function . Interpretation for surjective functions in the Cartesian plane , defined by the mapping f : X → Y , where y = f ( x ) , X = domain of function , Y = range of function . Every element in the range is mapped onto from an element in the domain , by the rule f . There may be a number of domain elements which map to the same range element . That is , every y in Y is mapped from an element x in X , more than one x can map to the same y . Left : Only one domain is shown which makes f surjective . Right : two possible domains X and X are shown . Non-surjective functions in the Cartesian plane . Although some parts of the function are surjective , where elements y in Y do have a value x in X such that y = f ( x ) , some parts are not . Left : There is y in Y , but there is no x in X such that y = f ( x ) . Right : There are y , y and y in Y , but there are no x , x , and x in X such that y = f ( x ) , y = f ( x ) , and y = f ( x ) . Properties ( edit ) A function is bijective if and only if it is both surjective and injective . If ( as is often done ) a function is identified with its graph , then surjectivity is not a property of the function itself , but rather a relationship between the function and its codomain . Unlike injectivity , surjectivity can not be read off of the graph of the function alone . Surjections as right invertible functions ( edit ) The function g : Y → X is said to be a right inverse of the function f : X → Y if f ( g ( y ) ) = y for every y in Y ( g can be undone by f ) . In other words , g is a right inverse of f if the composition f o g of g and f in that order is the identity function on the domain Y of g . The function g need not be a complete inverse of f because the composition in the other order , g o f , may not be the identity function on the domain X of f . In other words , f can undo or `` reverse '' g , but can not necessarily be reversed by it . Every function with a right inverse is necessarily a surjection . The proposition that every surjective function has a right inverse is equivalent to the axiom of choice . If f : X → Y is surjective and B is a subset of Y , then f ( f ( B ) ) = B. Thus , B can be recovered from its preimage f ( B ) . For example , in the first illustration , above , there is some function g such that g ( C ) = 4 . There is also some function f such that f ( 4 ) = C. It does n't matter that g ( C ) can also equal 3 ; it only matters that f `` reverses '' g . Surjective composition : the first function need not be surjective . Another surjective function . ( This one happens to be a bijection ) A non-surjective function . ( This one happens to be an injection ) Surjections as epimorphisms ( edit ) A function f : X → Y is surjective if and only if it is right - cancellative : given any functions g , h : Y → Z , whenever g o f = h o f , then g = h . This property is formulated in terms of functions and their composition and can be generalized to the more general notion of the morphisms of a category and their composition . Right - cancellative morphisms are called epimorphisms . Specifically , surjective functions are precisely the epimorphisms in the category of sets . The prefix epi is derived from the Greek preposition ἐπί meaning over , above , on . Any morphism with a right inverse is an epimorphism , but the converse is not true in general . A right inverse g of a morphism f is called a section of f . A morphism with a right inverse is called a split epimorphism . Surjections as binary relations ( edit ) Any function with domain X and codomain Y can be seen as a left - total and right - unique binary relation between X and Y by identifying it with its function graph . A surjective function with domain X and codomain Y is then a binary relation between X and Y that is right - unique and both left - total and right - total . Cardinality of the domain of a surjection ( edit ) The cardinality of the domain of a surjective function is greater than or equal to the cardinality of its codomain : If f : X → Y is a surjective function , then X has at least as many elements as Y , in the sense of cardinal numbers . ( The proof appeals to the axiom of choice to show that a function g : Y → X satisfying f ( g ( y ) ) = y for all y in Y exists . g is easily seen to be injective , thus the formal definition of Y ≤ X is satisfied . ) Specifically , if both X and Y are finite with the same number of elements , then f : X → Y is surjective if and only if f is injective . Given two sets X and Y , the notation X ≤ Y is used to say that either X is empty or that there is a surjection from Y onto X . Using the axiom of choice one can show that X ≤ Y and Y ≤ X together imply that Y = X , a variant of the Schröder -- Bernstein theorem . Composition and decomposition ( edit ) The composite of surjective functions is always surjective : If f and g are both surjective , and the codomain of g is equal to the domain of f , then f o g is surjective . Conversely , if f o g is surjective , then f is surjective ( but g , the function applied first , need not be ) . These properties generalize from surjections in the category of sets to any epimorphisms in any category . Any function can be decomposed into a surjection and an injection : For any function h : X → Z there exist a surjection f : X → Y and an injection g : Y → Z such that h = g o f . To see this , define Y to be the set of preimages h ( z ) where z is in h ( X ) . These preimages are disjoint and partition X . Then f carries each x to the element of Y which contains it , and g carries each element of Y to the point in Z to which h sends its points . Then f is surjective since it is a projection map , and g is injective by definition . Induced surjection and induced bijection ( edit ) Any function induces a surjection by restricting its codomain to its range . Any surjective function induces a bijection defined on a quotient of its domain by collapsing all arguments mapping to a given fixed image . More precisely , every surjection f : A → B can be factored as a projection followed by a bijection as follows . Let A / ~ be the equivalence classes of A under the following equivalence relation : x ~ y if and only if f ( x ) = f ( y ) . Equivalently , A / ~ is the set of all preimages under f . Let P ( ~ ) : A → A / ~ be the projection map which sends each x in A to its equivalence class ( x ) , and let f : A / ~ → B be the well - defined function given by f ( ( x ) ) = f ( x ) . Then f = f o P ( ~ ) . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Surjectivity . Look up surjective , surjection , or onto in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Bijection , injection and surjection Cover ( algebra ) Covering map Enumeration Fiber bundle Index set Section ( category theory ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Miller , Jeff , `` Injection , Surjection and Bijection '' , Earliest Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics , Tripod . Jump up ^ `` Arrows -- Unicode '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ Goldblatt , Robert ( 2006 ) ( 1984 ) . Topoi , the Categorial Analysis of Logic ( Revised ed . ) . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 45026 - 1 . Retrieved 2009 - 11 - 25 . References ( edit ) Bourbaki , Nicolas ( 2004 ) ( 1968 ) . Theory of Sets . Springer . ISBN 978 - 3 - 540 - 22525 - 6 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surjective_function&oldid=832103124 '' Categories : Functions and mappings Basic concepts in set theory Mathematical relations Types of functions Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Ido Íslenska Italiano עברית Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 38 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 March 2018 , at 21 : 26 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
if g is a function defined over the set of all real numbers and g(x-1)
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Belshazzar's feast
Belshazzar 's feast - wikipedia Belshazzar 's feast Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Belshazzar 's Feast ( disambiguation ) . `` The writing on the wall '' redirects here . For other uses , see The writing on the wall ( disambiguation ) . John Martin , Belshazzar 's Feast , c. 1821 ; half - size sketch held by the Yale Center for British Art Belshazzar 's feast , or the story of the writing on the wall ( chapter 5 in the Book of Daniel ) tells how Belshazzar holds a great feast and drinks from the vessels that had been looted in the destruction of the First Temple . A hand appears and writes on the wall . The terrified Belshazzar calls for his wise men , but they are unable to read the writing . The queen advises him to send for Daniel , renowned for his wisdom . Daniel reminds Belshazzar that his father Nebuchadnezzar , when he became arrogant , was thrown down until he learned that God has sovereignty over the kingdom of men . Belshazzar had likewise blasphemed God , and so God sent this hand . Daniel then reads the message and interprets it : God has numbered Belshazzar 's days , he has been weighed and found wanting , and his kingdom will be given to the Medes and the Persians . That very night Belshazzar the Chaldean ( Babylonian ) king was killed , and Darius the Mede received the kingdom . -- Daniel 5 : 30 -- 31 The message of Daniel 5 is the contrast it offers between Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar : Nebuchadnezzar is humbled by God , learns his lesson ( he acknowledges the ultimate kingship of the Jewish God ) , and is restored to his throne ; Belshazzar , in contrast , learns nothing from Nebuchadnezzar 's example , blasphemes against God , and has his kingdom given to others . Contents ( hide ) 1 Summary 1.1 Narrative summary 1.2 Writing on the wall 2 Composition and structure 3 Historical background 4 In art and popular culture 4.1 Belshazzar 's Feast 4.2 Writing on the wall 5 See also 6 References Summary ( edit ) Rembrandt , Belshazzar 's Feast , 1635 , ( National Gallery , London ) . The message is written in vertical lines starting at the top right corner , with `` upharsin '' taking two lines . Narrative summary ( edit ) This summarizes the narrative , as found in C.L. Seow 's translation of the text in his commentary on Daniel . King Belshazzar holds a great feast for a thousand of his lords , and commands that the Temple vessels from Jerusalem be brought in so that they can drink from them , but as the Babylonians drink , a hand appears and writes on the wall . Belshazzar calls for his magicians and diviners to interpret the writing , but they are unable even to read them . The queen advises Belshazzar to send for Daniel , renowned for his wisdom . Daniel is brought in , and the king offers to make him third in rank in the kingdom if he can interpret the writing . Daniel declines the honour , but agrees to the request . He reminds Belshazzar that Nebuchadnezzar 's greatness was the gift of God , and that when he became arrogant God threw him down until he learned humility : `` the Most High God has sovereignty over the kingdom of mortals , and sets over it whomever He will . '' Belshazzar has drunk from the vessels of God 's Temple and praised his idols , but he has not given honour to God , and so God sent this hand and wrote these words : מנא מנא תקל ופרסין ‎ Daniel reads the words `` MENE , MENE , TEKEL , and PARSIN '' and interprets them for the king : `` MENE , God has numbered the days of your kingdom and brought it to an end ; TEKEL , you have been weighed ... and found wanting ; '' and `` PERES , your kingdom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians . Then Belshazzar gave the command , and Daniel was clothed in purple , a chain of gold was put around his neck , and a proclamation was made ... that he should rank third in the kingdom ; ( and ) that very night Belshazzar the Chaldean ( Babylonian ) king was killed , and Darius the Mede received the kingdom . '' Writing on the wall ( edit ) The Chaldean wise men are unable to read or interpret the writing on the wall , but Daniel does so by supplying vowels in two different ways , first reading them as nouns , then interpreting them as verbs . The nouns are monetary weights : a mənê , equivalent to a Jewish mina or sixty shekels ( several ancient versions have only one mənê instead of two ) , a təqêl , equivalent to a shekel , and p̄arsîn , meaning `` half - pieces '' . The last involves a word - play on the name of the Persians ( pārās in Hebrew ) , suggesting not only that they are to inherit Belshazzar 's kingdom , but that they are two peoples , Medes and Persians . Daniel then interprets the words as verbs , based on their roots : mənê is interpreted as meaning `` numbered '' , təqêl , from a root meaning to weigh , as meaning `` weighed '' ( and found wanting ) , and pərês ( פְּרַס ) , the singular form of p̄arsîn , from a root meaning `` to divide '' , denoting that the kingdom is to be `` divided '' and given to the Medes and Persians . If the `` half - pieces '' means two half - shekels , then the various weights -- a mənê or sixty shekels , another shekel , and two half - shekels -- add up to 62 , which the tale gives as the age of Darius the Mede , indicating that God 's will is being worked out . Composition and structure ( edit ) Chapters of the Book of Daniel Chapter 1 : Induction into Babylon Chapter 2 : Nebuchadnezzar 's Dream Chapter 3 : The Fiery Furnace Chapter 4 : Nebuchadnezzar 's Madness Chapter 5 : Belshazzar 's Feast Chapter 6 : Daniel in the Lions 's Den Chapter 7 : The Four Beasts Chapter 8 : The Ram , He - Goat and Horn Chapter 9 : The Seventy Weeks Chapters 10 - 12 : Daniel 's final vision Additions to Daniel Song of the Three Holy Children Susanna and the Elders Bel and the Dragon Main article : Book of Daniel § structure It is generally accepted that the Book of Daniel originated as a collection of folktales among the Jewish community in Babylon in the Persian and early Hellenistic periods ( 5th to 3rd centuries BC ) , and was later expanded in the Maccabean era ( mid-2nd century ) with the visions of chapters 7 -- 12 . Modern scholarship agrees that Daniel is a legendary figure , and it is possible that his name was chosen for the hero of the book because of his reputation as a wise seer in Hebrew tradition . Chapters 2 -- 7 of the book form a chiasm ( a poetic structure in which the main point or message of a passage is placed in the centre and framed by further repetitions on either side ) : A. ( chapter 2 ) -- A dream of four kingdoms replaced by a fifth B. ( chapter 3 ) -- Daniel 's three friends in the fiery furnace C. ( chapter 4 ) -- Daniel interprets a dream for Nebuchadnezzar C '. ( chapter 5 ) -- Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall for Belshazzar B '. ( chapter 6 ) -- Daniel in the lions ' den A '. ( chapter 7 ) -- A vision of four world kingdoms replaced by a fifth Daniel 5 is thus composed as a companion - piece to Daniel 4 , the tale of the madness of Nebuchadnezzar , the two giving variations on a single theme . This is spelled out in chapter 5 when Daniel draws a direct parallel between the two kings : the fate of Belshazzar illustrates what happens when a king does not repent . Daniel 5 does not divide neatly into scenes and scholars do not agree on its structure . The following is one possible outline : The king 's banquet and the mysterious oracle : the king desecrates the sacred vessels , the hand writes on the wall ( verses 1 -- 6 ) Attempts to interpret the oracle : the Chaldean sages fail , the queen recommends Daniel ( verses 7 -- 12 ) Daniel appears before Belshazzar : Daniel addresses and rebukes the king , interprets the oracle , and is rewarded ( verses 10 -- 12 ) Conclusion : Belshazzar 's death , Darius ' accession ( verses 30 -- 31 ) Historical background ( edit ) The story is set around the fall of Babylon , when on 12 October 539 BC the Persian conqueror Cyrus the Great entered the city . Its last king , Nabonidus , was captured , and his fate is unknown , although he may have been exiled . Several details in the text do not match the known historical facts . Belshazzar is portrayed as king of Babylon and son of Nebuchadnezzar , but was actually the son of King Nabonidus , one of Nebuchadnezzar 's successors , and never became king . The conqueror is named as Darius the Mede , but no such individual is known to history ; and the invaders were not Medes , but Persians . This is typical of the story 's genre , in which historical accuracy is not an essential element . The constituent elements of the Book of Daniel were assembled shortly after the end of the Maccabean crisis , which is to say shortly after 164 BC . The tales making up chapters 2 to 6 are the earliest part , dating from the late 4th or early 3rd centuries . Their setting is Babylon , and there is no reason to doubt that they were composed in the Babylonian diaspora ( i.e. , among the Jewish community living in Babylon and Mesopotamia under Persian and then Greek rule ) . They reflect a society in which foreign rulers were not necessarily malevolent ( Belshazzar rewards Daniel and raises him to high office ) ; this is a marked contrast with the visions of chapters 7 -- 12 , where the sufferings of the Jews are the result of actions by the evil 2nd century king Antiochus IV Epiphanes . Belshazzar 's feast is a legend , conforming to the subgenre of the `` tale of court contest '' . This has been complicated by the inclusion of Daniel 's indictment of Belshazzar 's pride and his failure to honour the God of Israel ; as a result the tale has a double ending , in which Daniel is first showered with rewards and honours for interpreting the omen , and the king is then punished to fulfill the sentence pronounced by Daniel . Chapters 2 and 7 tell how all worldly kingdoms will come to an end and be replaced by the kingdom of God , and chapters 3 and 6 tell how pious Jews withstand the arrogance of earthly kings and are rescued by the God of Israel . Chapters 4 and 5 form the centre and carry the most important message in their parallel but contrasting tales of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar . The first is humbled by God , learns his lesson ( he acknowledges the ultimate kingship of the Jewish God ) , and is restored to his throne ; Belshazzar , in contrast , learns nothing from Nebuchadnezzar 's example , blasphemes against God , and has his kingdom given to others . In art and popular culture ( edit ) Belshazzar 's feast ( edit ) There are many depictions of `` Belshazzar 's Feast '' in the arts . These include , in chronological order : Visual arts 1635 : The painting Belshazzar 's Feast by Rembrandt 1821 : The painting Belshazzar 's Feast by the English artist John Martin 1817 -- 1843 : The painting Belshazzar 's Feast by the American artist Washington Allston 1983 -- 1984 : Belshazzar 's Feast , the Writing on Your Wall , installation artwork by artist Susan Hiller Music 13th -- 15th century : The Play of Daniel from Beauvais Cathedral 1745 : The oratorio Belshazzar by George Frideric Handel 1840 : The ballad Belsatzar by Robert Schumann 1860 : The cantata Belshazzar 's Feast . The Fall of Babylon : A Dramatic Cantata in Ten Scenes by Civil War - era songwriter George Frederick Root 1906 : The incidental music to Hjalmar Procopé 's play by Jean Sibelius 1931 : The choral work Belshazzar 's Feast by the English composer William Walton 1937 : Mene , Mene , Tekel song in the musical review Pins and Needles by Arthur Arent , Marc Blitzstein , Emmanuel Eisenberg , Charles Friedman , David Gregory , Joseph Schrank , Arnold B. Horwitt , John Latouche , and Harold Rome and music and lyrics by Harold Rome . 1957 : A song by Johnny Cash and the Tennessee Two ( also covered but unreleased by Bob Dylan & The Band during the 1967 Basement Tapes sessions ) 1995 : Belshazzar 's Feast ( band ) , Folk duo Paul Sartin ( vocals , violin , oboe and whistle ) and Paul Hutchinson ( accordion ) . 1998 : The song God 's Magic Finger by The Residents , released on the album Wormwood 2006 : The song `` Writing On The Wall '' by Underoath 2007 : Belsatzar after Heine for Speaking Voice and Cello by Graham Waterhouse 2013 : Referenced in Sting 's song The Last Ship 2015 : The song Mene by Brand New ( band ) 2015 : `` Writing 's on the Wall '' ( Sam Smith song ) , from the James Bond film Spectre Literature 1815 : The poem Vision of Belshazzar by Lord Byron in his Hebrew Melodies 1820s : The poem Belsazar by Heinrich Heine 1906 : The play by Hjalmar Procopé 1930s : In Howard Phillips Lovecraft 's novella , The Shadow Over Innsmouth , the character Zadok Allen says `` Mene , mene , tekel , upharsin '' to the narrator . Writing on the wall ( edit ) In The Hand - Writing upon the Wall ( 1803 ) , James Gillray caricatured Napoleon in the role of Belshazzar . References to the `` writing on the wall '' include : The incident is recounted and illustrated in the Pearl Poet 's poem Cleanness . In John Cheever 's short story `` Mene , Mene , Tekel , Upharsin , '' the narrator encounters graffiti ( one example running several pages ) in various public washrooms . In Robert Louis Stevenson 's book The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde , Jekyll explains that his experience as Mr. Hyde was `` like the Babylonian finger on the wall , to be spelling out the letters of my judgment '' . In the musical revue Pins and Needles , a song titled `` Mene , Mene , Tekel '' uses the tale as allegory describing contemporary social injustices . In Samuel Beckett 's Endgame , Hamm asks of Clov , `` and what do you see on your wall ? Mene , mene ? Naked bodies ? '' In Voltairine de Cleyre 's last poem , `` Written in Red '' , the first verse begins : Written in red their protest stands , For the Gods of the World to see ; On the dooming wall their bodiless hands Have blazoned `` Upharsin , '' and flaring brands Illumine the message : `` Seize the lands ! Open the prisons and make men free ! '' Flame out the living words of the dead Written -- in -- red . In José Rizal 's second novel El filibusterismo , Crisostomo Ibarra , disguised as Simoun , planted an explosive disguised as a kerosene lamp in a reception party in Captain Tiago 's house in an attempt to kill all high - ranking officials of the society and the church attending . He also leaves a note behind , `` Mene , Thecel , Pares '' , plus his name in his own handwriting . In the novel City of Ashes , part of The Mortal Instruments series by Cassandra Clare , Clary uses her stele to write a rune on Valentine 's boat . Although the rune simply means `` Open '' , Clary 's extraordinary powers amplify it so as to destroy the ship by ripping apart its bolts . Valentine looks on in awed horror and says , `` mene mene tekel upharsin '' , because he realizes that Clary 's powers represent a massive change in the order of things , which will lead to the Clave 's , or his own , doom . In Philip K. Dick 's novel A Maze of Death , Seth and Mary Morley lived in `` Tekel Upharsin Kibbutz '' before moving to Delmak - O . In V. by Thomas Pynchon , Rachel leaves a written note on a wall to the schlemihl Benny Profane . In response to it , Stencil states to Profane , `` Mene , mene , tekel , upharsin '' , implying his impending demise . ( Chapt. 15 , pg 448 ) The Einstürzende Neubauten song Wüste also has the line `` mene , mene tekel , upharshin '' in the lyrics . `` The Writing on the Wall '' is the finale song of the musical adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel , The Mystery of Edwin Drood . The characters of Bertie and Aunt Dahlia discuss a reference to Belshazzar 's Feast in chapter 9 of the novel Right Ho , Jeeves by P.G. Wodehouse The song `` Kodachrome '' , also by Paul Simon , includes the lyric `` my lack of education has n't hurt me none / I can read the writing on the wall . '' In Chapter 119 ( The Candles ) of Moby - Dick by Herman Melville , Ishmael ominously describes the appearance of St. Elmo 's fire ( `` The corpusants ! '' ) on their whaling ship , the Pequod , when he writes , `` when God 's burning finger has been laid on the ship , when His ' Mene , Mene , Tekel , Upharsin ' has been woven into the shrouds and the cordage . '' In Defrage 's song `` Save Us from Religion '' , the first song on their album Jackal , `` Mene , Mene , Tekel , Upharsin '' is sung at 3 : 01 . In Andrei Tarkovsky 's film Stalker , the Writer says `` Mene , Mene , Tekel , Upharsin '' while talking to the Professor ( around 01 : 14 : 00 , or in TV version - 2 episode , around 00 : 11 : 00 ) . The song `` The Last Ship '' by Sting hyperbolically narrates the pilgrimage to Newcastle carried out most notably by the risen Jesus of Nazareth , and other guests haunted by the significance of the last ship sailing from Newcastle 's morbid shipbuilding industry , understanding the occasion as though it were `` that strange moving finger at Balthazar 's feast '' . In the episode `` Season 's Beatings '' , from season 7 of American Dad ! , Steve becomes an Apostate of Satan and repeats the phrases , `` Satana , Satana '' , and `` Mene , Mene , Tekel , '' throughout the duration of his apostasy . The song Mene , by the American band , Brand New , references the idiom with the lyrics `` Written on the wall , the letters plain and tall '' . In the song `` Omen '' by The Prodigy , there is a line `` Now the writing 's on the wall , it wo n't go away '' . The post-hardcore band Underoath 's song `` Writings On The Walls '' Miklós Bánffy 's The Transylvanian Trilogy consists of the volumes They Were Counted , They Were Found Wanting and They Were Divided . See also ( edit ) Babylon Fall of Babylon References ( edit ) Notes ^ Jump up to : Seow 2003 , pp. 74 -- 75 . ^ Jump up to : Albertz 2001 , p. 178 . Jump up ^ Seow 2003 , pp. 75 . Jump up ^ Seow 2003 , p. 80 . ^ Jump up to : Seow 2003 , pp. 82 -- 83 . Jump up ^ Seow 2003 , pp. 83 . Jump up ^ Seow 2003 , p. 84 . Jump up ^ Collins 1984 , pp. 29 , 34 -- 35 . Jump up ^ Collins 1984 , p. 28 . Jump up ^ Redditt 2008 , pp. 176 -- 77 , 180 . Jump up ^ Redditt 2008 , p. 177 . Jump up ^ Collins 1984 , pp. 67 , 70 . Jump up ^ Newsom & Breed 2014 , p. 165 . Jump up ^ Waters 2014 , pp. 44 -- 45 . ^ Jump up to : Seow 2003 , pp. 4 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Collins 1984 , p. 41 . Jump up ^ Collins 2001 , p. 2 . Jump up ^ Seow 2003 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Collins 1984 , p. 67 . Jump up ^ Ward , David ( 15 July 2002 ) . `` David Ward , `` The six greatest works of William Walton '' . ' ' The Guardian ' ' , 15 July 2002 `` . London : Guardian . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 20 . Bibliography Albertz , Rainer ( 2001 ) . `` Social Setting of Daniel '' . In Collins , John J. ; Flint , Peter W. ; VanEpps , Cameron . The Book of Daniel : Composition and Reception . I. Brill . ISBN 9004116753 . Collins , John J. ( 1984 ) . Daniel : With an Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature . Eerdmans . ISBN 9780802800206 . Collins , John J. ( 2001 ) . `` Current Issues in the Study of Daniel '' . In Collins , John J. ; Flint , Peter W. ; VanEpps , Cameron . The Book of Daniel : Composition and Reception . I. Brill . ISBN 0391041274 . Newsom , Carol A. ; Breed , Brennan W. ( 2014 ) . Daniel : A Commentary . Presbyterian Publishing Corp . ISBN 9780664220808 . Redditt , Paul L. ( 2008 ) . Introduction to the Prophets . Eerdmans . ISBN 9780802828965 . Seow , C.L. ( 2003 ) . Daniel . Westminster John Knox Press . ISBN 9780664256753 . Waters , Matt ( 2014 ) . Ancient Persia : A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire , 550 -- 330 BC . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9781107652729 . ( hide ) Book of Daniel Bible Daniel 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Additions to Daniel Places Babylon Susa People Abednego Belshazzar Cyrus Daniel Darius Gabriel Meshach Michael Nebuchadnezzar Shadrach Jehoiakim Terms Abomination of desolation Belshazzar 's feast Four kingdoms Lion 's den Prophecy of Seventy Weeks Territorial spirit Writing on the wall Sources Hebrew Bible Septuagint Latin Vulgate Wycliffe Version King James Version American Standard Version World English Version ← Book of Ezekiel ( chapter 48 ) Book of Hosea ( chapter 1 ) → Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Belshazzar%27s_feast&oldid=815825811 '' Categories : Book of Daniel chapters Book of Daniel Jewish Babylonian history Hebrew Bible words and phrases Aramaic words and phrases Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български עברית Latina Português Română Edit links This page was last edited on 17 December 2017 , at 12 : 01 . 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Social model of disability
Social model of disability - wikipedia Social model of disability Jump to : navigation , search For specific activity related to implementation of certain aspects of this model , see the article Inclusion ( disability rights ) and the other articles and links there . Disability Theory and models ( show ) Disability theory Ableism / Disablism Medical model Social model Education ( show ) Mainstreaming Individualized Education Program ( IEP ) Special needs Special school Special education Learning disability Therapy ( show ) Physical Occupational Speech Societal implications ( show ) Disability rights movement Inclusion Normalization People - first language Pejorative terms Personal assistance ( show ) Unlicensed assistive personnel ( ADLs ) Orthotics and braces Prosthetics Assistive technology Assisted living Mobility aid Physical accessibility Universal design Web accessibility Socioeconomic assistance ( show ) Social Security Disability Insurance Supplemental Security Income Ticket to Work Disability Living Allowance Disabled students allowance Disabled Persons Railcard Freedom Pass Assured Income for the Severely Handicapped Groups Organizations ( show ) National Telecommuting Institute Society for Disability Studies Disabled Peoples ' International ( DPI ) Visitability Disabled sports ( show ) Special Olympics Paralympic Games Deaflympics Invictus Games Culture ( show ) Disability in the arts Disability art Disability in the media Disability portal Disability Lists The social model of disability is a reaction to the dominant medical model of disability which in itself is a functional analysis of the body as machine to be fixed in order to conform with normative values . The social model of disability identifies systemic barriers , negative attitudes and exclusion by society ( purposely or inadvertently ) that mean society is the main contributory factor in disabling people . While physical , sensory , intellectual , or psychological variations may cause individual functional limitation or impairments , these do not have to lead to disability unless society fails to take account of and include people regardless of their individual differences . The origins of the approach can be traced to the 1960s ; the specific term emerged from the United Kingdom in the 1980s . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Components and usage 3 Law and public policy 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History ( edit ) In 1975 , the UK organization Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation ( UPIAS ) claimed : `` In our view it is society which disables physically impaired people . Disability is something imposed on top of our impairments by the way we are unnecessarily isolated and excluded from full participation in society . '' In 1983 , the disabled academic Mike Oliver coined the phrase `` social model of disability '' in reference to these ideological developments . Oliver focused on the idea of an individual model ( of which the medical was a part ) versus a social model , derived from the distinction originally made between impairment and disability by the UPIAS . The `` social model '' was extended and developed by academics and activists in Australia , the UK , US and other countries , and extended to include all disabled people , including those who have learning difficulties / learning disabilities / or who are mentally handicapped , or people with emotional , mental health or behavioural problems . Oliver did not intend the `` social model of disability '' to be an all encompassing theory of disability , rather a starting point in reframing how society views disability . Components and usage ( edit ) A fundamental aspect of the social model concerns equality . The struggle for equality is often compared to the struggles of other socially marginalized groups . Equal rights are said to give empowerment and the `` ability '' to make decisions and the opportunity to live life to the fullest . A related phrase often used by disability rights campaigners , as with other social activism , is `` Nothing About Us Without Us . '' The social model of disability focuses on changes required in society . These might be in terms of : Attitudes , for example a more positive attitude toward certain mental traits or behaviors , or not underestimating the potential quality of life of those with impairments , Social support , for example help dealing with barriers ; resources , aids or positive discrimination to overcome them , for example providing a buddy to explain work culture for an autistic employee , Information , for example using suitable formats ( e.g. braille ) or levels ( e.g. simplicity of language ) or coverage ( e.g. explaining issues others may take for granted ) , Physical structures , for example buildings with sloped access and elevators , or Flexible work hours for people with circadian rhythm sleep disorders or , for example , for people who experience anxiety / panic attacks in rush hour traffic . The social model of disability implies that attempts to change , `` fix '' or `` cure '' individuals , especially when used against the wishes of the patient , can be discriminatory and prejudiced . This attitude , which may be seen as stemming from a medical model and a subjective value system , can harm the self - esteem and social inclusion of those constantly subjected to it ( e.g. being told they are not as good or valuable , in an overall and core sense , as others ) . Some communities have actively resisted `` treatments '' , while , for example , defending a unique culture or set of abilities . In the deaf community , sign language is valued even if most people do not know it and some parents argue against cochlear implants for deaf infants who can not consent to them . People diagnosed as being on the autism spectrum may argue against efforts to change them to be more like others . They argue instead for acceptance of neurodiversity and accommodation to different needs and goals . Some people diagnosed with a mental disorder argue that they are just different and do n't necessarily conform . The biopsychosocial model of disease / disability is a holistic attempt by practitioners to address this . The social model implies that practices such as eugenics are founded on social values and a prejudiced understanding of the potential and value of those labeled disabled . `` Over 200,000 disabled people were the first victims of the Holocaust . '' A 1986 article stated : `` It is important that we do not allow ourselves to be dismissed as if we all come under this one great metaphysical category ' the disabled ' . The effect of this is a depersonalization , a sweeping dismissal of our individuality , and a denial of our right to be seen as people with our own uniqueness , rather than as the anonymous constituents of a category or group . These words that lump us all together - ' the disabled ' , ' spina bifida ' , ' tetraplegic ' , ' muscular dystrophy ' , - are nothing more than terminological rubbish bins into which all the important things about us as people get thrown away . '' The social model of disability is based on a distinction between the terms `` impairment '' and `` disability . '' Impairment is used to refer to the actual attributes ( or lack of attributes ) , the abnormality , of a person , whether in terms of limbs , organs or mechanisms , including psychological . Disability is used to refer to the restrictions caused by society when it does not give equivalent attention and accommodation to the needs of individuals with impairments . The social model also relates to economics . It proposes that people can be disabled by a lack of resources to meet their needs . It addresses issues such as the under - estimation of the potential of people to contribute to society and add economic value to society , if given equal rights and equally suitable facilities and opportunities as others . Economic research on companies that attempt to accommodate disability in their workforce suggest they outperform competitors . In Autumn 2001 , the UK Office for National Statistics identified that approximately one fifth of the working age population was disabled - 7.1 million disabled people as opposed to 29.8 million able people - and in this analysis also provided insight into some of the reasons why disabled people were unwilling to enter the labour market , such as that the reduction in disability benefits in entering the labour market would not make it worthwhile to enter into employment . A three - pronged approach was suggested : `` incentives to work via the tax and benefit system , for example through the Disabled Person 's Tax Credit ; helping people back into work , for example via the New Deal for Disabled People ; and tackling discrimination in the workplace via anti-discrimination policy . Underpinning this are the Disability Discrimination Act ( DDA ) 1995 and the Disability Rights Commission . '' Law and public policy ( edit ) In the United Kingdom , the Disability Discrimination Act defines disability using the medical model - disabled people are defined as people with certain conditions , or certain limitations on their ability to carry out `` normal day - to - day activities . '' But the requirement of employers and service providers to make `` reasonable adjustments '' to their policies or practices , or physical aspects of their premises , follows the social model . By making adjustments , employers and service providers are removing the barriers that disable - according to the social model , they are effectively removing the person 's disability . In 2006 , amendments to the act called for local authorities and others to actively promote disability equality . This enforcement came in the shape of the Disability Equality Duty in December 2006 . In 2010 , The Disability Discrimination Act ( 1995 ) was amalgamated into the Equality Act 2010 along with other pertinent discrimination legislation . It extends the law on discrimination to indirect discrimination . For example , if a carer of a person with a disability is discriminated against , this is now also unlawful . Since October 2010 , when it came into effect , employers may not legally ask questions about illness or disability at interview for a job or for a referee to comment on such in a reference , except where there is a need to make reasonable adjustments for an interview to proceed . Following an offer of a job , an employer can lawfully ask such questions . In the United States , the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ( ADA ) , revision of 2008 effective in January 2009 , is a wide - ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability . It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which made discrimination based on race , religion , sex , national origin , and other characteristics illegal . Certain specific conditions are excluded , such as alcoholism and transsexualism . In 2007 , the European Court of Justice in the Chacon Navas v Eurest Colectividades SA court case , defined disability narrowly according to a medical definition that excluded temporary illness , when considering the Directive establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation ( Council Directive 2000 / 78 / EC ) . The directive did not provide for any definition of disability , despite discourse in policy documents previously in the EU about endorsing the social model of disability . This allowed the Court of Justice to take a narrow medical definition . See also ( edit ) Ableism Models of deafness Equality Act References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Paley , John ( 1 October 2002 ) . `` The Cartesian melodrama in nursing '' . Nursing Philosophy. 3 ( 3 ) : 189 -- 192 . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1466 - 769X. 2002.00113. x . Jump up ^ `` THE UNION OF THE PHYSICALLY IMPAIRED AGAINST SEGREGATION and THE DISABILITY ALLIANCE discuss Fundamental Principles of Disability '' ( PDF ) . UPIAS . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Fundamental Principles of Disability - Comments on the discussion held between the Union and the Disability Alliance on 22nd November , 1975 '' ( PDF ) . UPIAS . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 23 . Jump up ^ Michael Oliver ; Bob Sapey ( 27 April 2006 ) . Social work with disabled people . Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4039 - 1838 - 3 . Retrieved 23 October 2010 . Jump up ^ MIKE OLIVER ( 23 July 1990 ) . `` THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL MODELS OF DISABILITY '' ( PDF ) . leeds.ac.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Disabling Imagery ? Ways of thinking about disability : ' Medical Model ' vs ' Social Model ' Learning resources BFI '' . Old.bfi.org.uk. 2010 - 03 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 14 . Jump up ^ Goodley , Dan ( 1 March 2001 ) . `` ' Learning Difficulties ' , the Social Model of Disability and Impairment : Challenging epistemologies '' . Disability & Society . 16 ( 2 ) : 207 -- 231 . doi : 10.1080 / 09687590120035816 . Jump up ^ Oliver , Mike . `` The social model of disability : thirty years on '' . Disability & Society . 28 ( 7 ) : 1024 -- 1026 . doi : 10.1080 / 09687599.2013. 818773 . Jump up ^ James I. Charlton ( 2000 ) . Nothing about us without us : disability oppression and empowerment . University of California Press . p. 3 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 22481 - 0 . Retrieved 23 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` EHRC - Examples of reasonable adjustments in the workplace '' . Equalityhumanrights.com. 1 October 2010 . Archived from the original on 23 October 2012 . Retrieved 10 November 2012 . Jump up ^ NASEO . `` Sound from Silence - Sidebar - Cochlear Implan '' . Beyonddiscovery.org . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ Seidel , Kathleen ( 2004 - 08 - 20 ) . `` the autistic distinction '' . neurodiversity.com . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ Engel , G. ( 8 April 1977 ) . `` The need for a new medical model : a challenge for biomedicine '' . Science . 196 ( 4286 ) : 129 -- 136 . Bibcode : 1977Sci ... 196 ... 129E . doi : 10.1126 / science. 847460 . PMID 847460 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived 17 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Brisenden , Simon ( 1 January 1986 ) . `` Independent Living and the Medical Model of Disability '' . Disability , Handicap & Society . 1 ( 2 ) : 173 -- 178 . doi : 10.1080 / 02674648666780171 . Jump up ^ Pam Thomas ; Lorraine Gradwell ; Natalie Markham . `` Defining Impairment within the Social Model of Disability '' ( PDF ) . leeds.ac.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Disability and business : The new green '' . The Economist. 8 September 2012 . Retrieved 26 April 2015 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Archived 10 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Definition of disability under the Equality Act 2010 - GOV.UK '' . Direct.gov.uk. 2012 - 10 - 22 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` コア サーバー dotheduty.org '' . Dotheduty.org . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Home Office '' . Equalities . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Previous Issues of The Bottom Line Online '' . Thebottomlineonline.co.uk . Archived from the original on 20 March 2012 . Retrieved 10 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT OF 1990 , AS AMENDED '' ( PDF ) . Ada.gov . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 14 . External links ( edit ) UK Disability Rights Commission : The Social Model of Disability . Accessed 2009 - 10 - 15 . Article on Disability Perspectives and Data Sources from Government of Canada . Chapireau F , Colvez A ; Colvez ( July 1998 ) . `` Social disadvantage in the international classification of impairments , disabilities , and handicap '' . Soc Sci Med. 47 ( 1 ) : 59 -- 66 . doi : 10.1016 / S0277 - 9536 ( 98 ) 00033 - 1 . PMID 9683379 . Kearney , PM ; Pryor , J ( April 2004 ) . `` The International Classification of Functioning , Disability and Health ( ICF ) and nursing '' . J Adv Nurs. 46 ( 2 ) : 162 -- 70 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2648.2003. 02976. x . PMID 15056329 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_model_of_disability&oldid=842427110 '' Categories : Disability Disability rights Disability studies Accessibility Medical sociology Medical models Political theories Sociological theories Social theories Social constructionism Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from August 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français עברית Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 22 May 2018 , at 11 : 09 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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who came up with the social model of disability
[ "In 1983, the disabled academic Mike Oliver coined the phrase \"social model of disability\" in reference to these ideological developments.[4] Oliver focused on the idea of an individual model (of which the medical was a part) versus a social model, derived from the distinction originally made between impairment and disability by the UPIAS.[5]" ]
[ "Mike Oliver" ]
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The Originals (season 5)
The Originals ( season 5 ) - wikipedia The Originals ( season 5 ) The Originals ( season 5 ) Promotional poster Starring Joseph Morgan Daniel Gillies Phoebe Tonkin Charles Michael Davis Yusuf Gatewood Riley Voelkel Danielle Rose Russell Steven Krueger Country of origin United States No. of episodes 13 Release Original network The CW Original release April 18 ( 2018 - 04 - 18 ) -- August 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 08 - 01 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 4 List of The Originals episodes The Originals , a one - hour American supernatural drama , was renewed for a fifth season by The CW on May 10 , 2017 . The 2016 -- 17 United States television season debut of The Originals was pushed to midseason , as with the fourth season premiere . On July 20 , 2017 , Julie Plec announced via Twitter that the upcoming season would be the series ' last . The fifth season consists of 13 episodes and debuted on April 18 , 2018 . The series finale aired on August 1 , 2018 . Contents 1 Cast 1.1 Main 1.2 Recurring 1.3 Special guest 1.4 Guest 1.5 Notes 2 Episodes 3 Ratings 4 References Cast ( edit ) See also : List of The Originals characters Main ( edit ) Joseph Morgan as Niklaus `` Klaus '' Mikaelson Daniel Gillies as Elijah Mikaelson Phoebe Tonkin as Hayley Marshall Charles Michael Davis as Marcellus `` Marcel '' Gerard Yusuf Gatewood as Vincent Griffith Riley Voelkel as Freya Mikaelson Danielle Rose Russell as Hope Mikaelson Steven Krueger as Joshua `` Josh '' Rosza Recurring ( edit ) Nathaniel Buzolic as Kol Mikaelson Torrance Coombs as Declan O'Connell Jedidiah Goodacre as Roman Sienna Christina Moses as Keelin Alexis Louder as Lisina Nadine Lewington as Greta Sienna Nicholas Alexander as Henry Benoit Shiva Kalaiselvan as Ivy Jaime Murray as Antoinette Sienna Robert Baker as Emmett Special guest ( edit ) Claire Holt as Rebekah Mikaelson Candice King as Caroline Forbes Danielle Campbell as Davina Claire Matt Davis as Alaric Saltzman Leah Pipes as Camille `` Cami '' O'Connell Guest ( edit ) Demetrius Bridges as Dorian Williams Katie Jane Cook as Poppy Summer Fontana as young Hope Mikaelson Rick Espaillat as Pierre Malone Thomas as Colette Jason Burkey as David Jamie Thomas King as August Muller Colin Woodell as Aiden Ian Pala as Max Jimmy Ray Pickens as Bill Allison Gobuzzi as Elizabeth `` Lizzie '' Saltzman Bella Samman as Josette `` Josie '' Saltzman Aria Shahghasemi as Landon Kirby Nathan Parsons as Jackson Kenner Sam Ashby as Connor Sebastian Roché as Mikael Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tonkin is credited as a series regular in episodes 1 , 6 , 8 , 11 , 12 , and 13 . In all other episodes , she is not credited and does not appear . Jump up ^ Krueger is credited as a series regular from episode 1 to 10 . From episode 11 to 13 , he is not credited and does not appear . Episodes ( edit ) See also : List of The Originals episodes No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code US viewers ( millions ) 80 `` Where You Left Your Heart '' Lance Anderson Marguerite MacIntyre April 18 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 18 ) T46. 10001 0.97 Desperate to see by her father Klaus after seven years , Hope resorts to drastic measures to bring her father back to New Orleans . Hayley attempts to minimize the fallout from Hope 's actions , but not before news of what she has done ripples through the city . Meanwhile , Freya 's guilt over not being able to reunite her family gets in the way of her happiness with Keelin , while Rebekah struggles with her inability to fully commit to Marcel . Finally , struggling without Elijah by his side , Klaus 's murderous rampage throughout Europe leads to an unexpected encounter with Caroline Forbes . 81 `` One Wrong Turn on Bourbon '' Carol Banker Carina Adly MacKenzie April 25 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 25 ) T46. 10002 1.03 When a mysterious disappearance brings Klaus back to New Orleans , Hope looks forward to the prospect of seeing her father again . However , when the dark magic that had been keeping them apart begins to manifest in dangerous ways across the city , Vincent turns to Ivy for guidance about what it may mean . Elsewhere , Marcel returns to New Orleans amidst increased tensions between the supernatural factions , while Freya makes a decision about her future with Keelin . Finally , Roman 's surprise visit to the Mikaelson compound forces Hope to reveal some dark truths about her family . Josh also appears . 82 `` Ne Me Quitte Pas '' Joseph Morgan K.C. Perry & Michelle Paradise May 2 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 02 ) T46. 10003 0.90 With no memories , Elijah moves to New York and meets Antoinette , a female vampire who does not own a daylight ring . In New York , Elijah runs into Marcel who warns him to stay away from New York , due to Rebekah also living there . However , Elijah 's obsession with his past leads to Antoinette breaking things off with him . Elijah decides to move to France to look for her . Flash forward seven years , Elijah has found happiness with his simple life in France and proposes to Antoinette . Just as they are about to celebrate , Klaus arrives and announces his plans to take his brother back . 83 `` Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea '' Michael Grossman Beau DeMayo & Kyle Arrington May 9 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 09 ) T46. 10004 0.76 Klaus ends up threatening the werewolves , witches , and vampires following Hayley 's disappearence . When his attempts to find her fail , he decides to take hostages , including Josh . Although Marcel attempts to calm him down , Klaus 's hostage situation takes a turn for the worse . Meanwhile , Freya visits Hope at the Salvatore School to give her advice about life as a firstborn Mikaelson witch . 84 5 `` Do n't It Just Break Your Heart '' Jeffrey W. Byrd Story by : Bianca Sams & Jeffrey Lieber Teleplay by : Jeffrey Lieber May 16 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 16 ) T46. 10005 0.80 Marcel and Klaus stampede the vampire 's household , killing everyone , except Greta , who admits to being the one who kidnapped Hayley . As they bleed her of vervain , she confesses that her husband was killed by Klaus and that Hayley will be delivered to them safely if Hope undergoes the same spell Klaus did to suppress his werewolf side . Marcel contacts Freya , who attempts the spell reluctantly , but Klaus stops it . In France , Antoinette tells Elijah that she had met him before their encounter in New York . Their relationship is strained as Antoinette talks about her father , Auguste , a vampire zealot who slaughtered werewolves , an artist who Elijah and Klaus had threatened in the 1930s . During that time , Klaus ultimately murdered Auguste along with his villagers , claiming that anyone who could pick up a coin laying next to his body would be shown mercy . Auguste 's wife scrambles out of their house and picks up the coin , begging Klaus to show mercy on her , her daughter , and her son -- respectively Greta , Antoinette , and Roman . In the present , Roman and Hope sneak out of the Salvatore School . 85 6 `` What , Will , I , Have , Left '' Charles Michael Davis Marguerite MacIntyre May 30 , 2018 ( 2018 - 05 - 30 ) T46. 10006 0.82 With the two of them being cloaked , Roman eventually leads Hope to Hayley where he chains up Hope and defends his mother 's action . Caroline and Klaus also team up to search for her , and on the way reflect on their past . Meanwhile , Freya and Vincent argue about whether they should tell Declan about Hayley 's life , with Vincent being afraid of Declan suffering the same fate as Cami . Vincent keeps quiet after seeing that Declan is related to Cami . Greta visits Antoinette where she convinces Elijah to try to stop Klaus from killing Roman . Hayley eventually agrees to having her werewolf side suppressed , which will cause a beacon so Freya and Vincent can track her . Greta , Elijah , Klaus , and Caroline arrive . Caroline is quickly subdued , Hope ends up passing out from Greta , and Roman stands by and watches as Greta and Hayley duel . Elijah and Klaus manage to take their fight inside the house right as Hayley sacrifices herself to kill Greta . 86 7 `` God 's Gonna Trouble the Water '' Carl Seaton Bianca Sams & Julie Plec June 6 , 2018 ( 2018 - 06 - 06 ) T46. 10007 0.77 Elijah and Antoinette visit the army Greta has created . There , Klaus shows up , bites Antoinette and imprisons them both . When Elijah spots her wound , he decides to make an offer to Klaus : Elijah will restore his memory if Klaus gives Antoinette his blood . When Klaus refuses , Elijah asks Marcel and Vincent , who agree . They conduct the spell which ends up failing . Meanwhile , Hope struggles with her mother 's death , blaming herself . Klaus tries to comfort her , via astral projection done by Ivy , but Hope ends up pushing him away . Ivy manages to convince him to stay away from Hope , noting predictions of natural disasters made by a seer in the 1700s , which have all come true . The prediction states that if all of the disasters occur , all of the firstborns in New Orleans will die . Eventually , Hayley 's funeral occurs , with another prediction happening . Klaus briefly stays with Hope before running off to prevent her from harm . On his path , he ends up trapped in a spell that transports him back to the Mikaelson residence where Elijah is also trapped . 87 8 `` The Kindness of Strangers '' Kellie Cyrus Beau DeMayo & Carina Adly MacKenzie June 13 , 2018 ( 2018 - 06 - 13 ) T46. 10008 0.86 All of the Mikaelson siblings end up trapped in the Chambre de Chasse as well as Marcel . It is there that they find out they are trapped in a spell with representational magic , each one of them having to find a key to unlock a door . Marcel tells them that Hope is planning to draw The Hollow out of all of their bodies . Kol and Marcel then discover a room that had been gone for over a century , meaning Hope could not have known about its existence . They deduce that it was Freya who cast the spell . She ends up vanishing after advising Klaus to let Hope do the spell . Everyone ends up unlocking the door only to enter Elijah 's consciousness . There , everyone escapes and Elijah retains his memories . This results in him leaving Antoinette to mourn Hayley . 88 9 `` We Have Not Long to Love '' Bethany Rooney K.C. Perry & Michelle Paradise June 20 , 2018 ( 2018 - 06 - 20 ) T46. 10009 0.77 Hope blames Elijah for Hayley 's death , disregarding the fact that Elijah had lost his memories then . When the whispers in Hope 's head grow stronger , Hope visits Declan . Elijah is also there . Hope proceeds to release her anger onto Elijah . Hope confesses to Klaus that by hurting Elijah , the whispers in her voice stopped . Meanwhile , the vampires post flyers around the city , warning the werewolves that if they do not evacuate New Orleans , they will be forced out . This threat results in a faceoff between the werewolves and the vampires . When Vincent attempts to burn them , he finally realizes that they have a witch on their side . He realizes that Ivy is in danger and rushes to protect her ; however , it is too late and she dies . 89 10 `` There in the Disappearing Light '' Daniel Gillies Eva McKenna & Jeffrey Lieber July 11 , 2018 ( 2018 - 07 - 11 ) T46. 10010 0.77 After many failed attempts to rid Hope of the voices in her head , Klaus tracks down Roman and takes him . Antionette finds out about his abduction and asks Elijah to try to reason with Klaus . Hope ends up torturing Roman but is unwilling to kill him . Elijah comes up with a plan that will help Hope in ridding of the voices . Meanwhile , Marcel manages to track down the extremists but ends up getting captured and drained of his venom . Josh arrives to rescue him and in the process ends up dying . Antoinette gathers up the extremists in a church and Marcel , Hope , Klaus , and Elijah show up . There , Hope releases her anger , quieting the voices . Unbeknownst to them , Declan and Bill , who was finding documents for Declan , were up in the attic , with both of them getting affected by Hope 's magic . Bill has died , causing Hope to trigger her curse . 90 11 `` ' Til the Day I Die '' Geoff Shotz Kyle Arrington & Marguerite MacIntyre July 18 , 2018 ( 2018 - 07 - 18 ) T46. 10011 0.68 After Bill 's death , Klaus notices a strange symptom present on Hope . He asks Davina for assistance , who conducts a spell but ends up finding out that Hope 's condition will only worsen and will eventually kill her . Freya takes advantage of the Mikaelson reuniting and decides to have her wedding . Freya ends up asking Rebekah to be the maid of honor , Vincent to be the best man , Kol to officiate , and Elijah to walk her down the aisle . Elijah and Vincent turn down the offer . Elijah reminisces about Andrea , a woman he met in France , who was actually Hayley . After reading a letter from her , Elijah and Klaus decide to ask Freya down the aisle together . Meanwhile , Declan finds out about Marcel and threatens him , saying that he will gather the humans in retaliation . Marcel and Declan eventually come to a truce . 91 12 `` The Tale of Two Wolves '' Rudy Persico Carina Adly MacKenzie & Julie Plec July 25 , 2018 ( 2018 - 07 - 25 ) T46. 10012 0.85 To save Hope 's life , Klaus takes her to Mystic Falls with Elijah . There he asks Caroline to help him with the power of her daughters . His plan is to carry out the magic from Hope and to put it in his body . Caroline is not happy about Klaus ' decision but she accepts to help him , but Alaric disagrees , and he only accepts too when Klaus tells them he wants to kill himself after the spell . Hope faints and meets her mother , who shows her she has found peace . Hope wakes up in her father 's arms . At midnight , while Hope is in transition for her first transformation in werewolf , Caroline 's daughters complete the spell . 92 13 `` When the Saints Go Marching In '' Lance Anderson Story by : Julie Plec Teleplay by : Jeffrey Lieber August 1 , 2018 ( 2018 - 08 - 01 ) T46. 10013 0.86 Klaus ' attempt to kill himself is interrupted by Hope and he is chained up . He hallucinates Mikael which causes him to break free , and Cami who stops him from killing Hope in time for Elijah to snap his neck . Freya asks Vincent to be a surrogate to start a family , but he declines and intends to leave the city . Kol leaves town , to Rebekah 's displeasure . Klaus awakes to find that Elijah has absorbed some of the magic so he can say goodbyes , though he does not want to . Caroline holds Klaus to his promise to tour New Orleans then share a parting kiss . Marcel , Rebekah , Elijah , Freya , Keelin reminisce on memories of Klaus as they are join by Kol , then Klaus himself . They have dinner and have a wish burning ceremony where Klaus says his goodbyes to everyone , then to Hope separately . Rebekah is promised the cure to vampirism to live her life , then says goodbye to Klaus and Elijah at park bench where Klaus intends to stake himself . Vincent changes his mind to accepting a family with Freya and Keelin , and Marcel tells the vampires to leave the city . Rebekah finally accepts Marcel 's marriage proposal . Elijah reveals his plan to die by Klaus ' side , having already said his goodbyes , as his life 's purpose to redeem Klaus is fulfilled , and he also tells Klaus that whatever lay ahead , they would face it together . They stake each other and begin to turn to ash . Ratings ( edit ) No . Title Air date Rating / share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( millions ) DVR ( 18 -- 49 ) DVR viewers ( millions ) Total ( 18 -- 49 ) Total viewers ( millions ) `` Where You Left Your Heart '' April 18 , 2018 0.4 / 2 0.97 0.3 0.67 0.7 1.64 `` One Wrong Turn on Bourbon '' April 25 , 2018 0.4 / 2 1.03 0.4 0.79 0.8 1.82 `` Ne Me Quitte Pas '' May 2 , 2018 0.4 / 2 0.90 0.4 0.91 0.8 1.80 `` Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea '' May 9 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.76 0.4 0.85 0.7 1.61 5 `` Do n't It Just Break Your Heart '' May 16 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.80 0.4 0.81 0.7 1.61 6 `` What , Will , I , Have , Left '' May 30 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.82 0.3 0.80 0.6 1.62 7 `` God 's Gonna Trouble the Water '' June 6 , 2018 0.2 / 1 0.77 0.4 0.79 0.6 1.56 8 `` The Kindness of Strangers '' June 13 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.86 0.4 0.93 0.7 1.79 9 `` We Have Not Long to Love '' June 20 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.77 0.4 0.84 0.7 1.61 10 `` There in the Disappearing Light '' July 11 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.77 0.3 0.81 0.6 1.57 11 `` ' Til the Day I Die '' July 18 , 2018 0.2 / 1 0.68 0.3 0.72 0.5 1.40 12 `` The Tale of Two Wolves '' July 25 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.85 TBD TBD TBD TBD 13 `` When the Saints Go Marching In '' August 1 , 2018 0.3 / 1 0.86 TBD TBD TBD TBD References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The CW Renews 11 Shows '' . spoilertv.com . May 20 , 2017 . Retrieved November 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andy Swift . `` The Originals to End After Season 5 '' . TVLine . Jump up ^ @ julieplec ( July 20 , 2017 ) . `` An announcement ... # TheOriginals '' ( Tweet ) -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ `` The CW Midseason Schedule Update '' . The Futon Critic . March 30 , 2018 . Retrieved March 30 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Highfill , Samantha ( July 17 , 2017 ) . `` The Originals casts Danielle Rose Russell as teenage Hope for season 5 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Anop , Nirat ( July 19 , 2017 ) . `` The Originals -- Season 5 -- Steven Krueger Promoted to Series Regular '' . SpoilerTV.com . Retrieved November 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Plec , Julie ( @ julieplec ) ( November 20 , 2017 ) . `` We will see them together . Episode 511 '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved December 23 , 2017 -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ `` The Originals : Candice King to Appear as TVD 's Caroline in Season Premiere '' . TVLine . February 7 , 2017 . Retrieved March 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( July 6 , 2018 ) . `` Ask Ausiello : Spoilers on Psych , Lucifer , Originals , Bold Type , Suits , Handmaid 's , Younger , Casual , Killjoys and More ! '' . TVLine . Jump up ^ Pipes , Leah ( @ leahmariepipes ) ( December 7 , 2017 ) . `` Jig is up ... 😊 `` Leah Pipes Will Return For ' The Originals ' Series Finale www.justjaredjr.com/2017/12/06/leah-pipes-will-return-for-the-originals-series-finale/ ... via @ JustJaredJr '' '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved January 7 , 2018 -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` The Originals Final Season Scoop : Meet the Human Who Catches Hope 's Eye '' . TVLine . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 19 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Voice ' and ' Empire ' adjust up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 19 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( April 26 , 2018 ) . `` ' Empire ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 3 , 2018 ) . `` ' Modern Family ' adjusts down to series low : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 3 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 10 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Blacklist ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 10 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 17 , 2018 ) . `` ' Survivor ' and ' The Blacklist ' finale adjust up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 17 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 1 , 2018 ) . `` ' Masterchef ' premiere adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 2 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( June 7 , 2018 ) . `` NBA Finals and ' American Ninja Warrior ' adjust up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 7 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( June 14 , 2018 ) . `` ' Shark Tank ' rerun adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 14 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( June 21 , 2018 ) . `` ' Masterchef ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 21 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( July 12 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Originals ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV By The Numbers . Retrieved July 12 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( July 19 , 2018 ) . `` ' The ESPY Awards ' stay low , all shows hold : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV By The Numbers . Retrieved July 19 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( July 26 , 2018 ) . `` ' American Housewife ' encore adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved July 26 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( August 2 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Goldbergs ' reruns adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV By the Numbers . Retrieved August 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 7 , 2018 ) . `` ' Scandal ' and ' Criminal Minds ' get biggest finale bumps in week 30 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 10 , 2018 ) . `` ' Agents of SHIELD , ' 13 more shows double in week 31 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( May 15 , 2018 ) . `` Live + 7 Weekly Ratings : ' The Originals ' on CW More Than Doubles its Live Plus Same Day Figures in Delayed Viewing '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved May 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 24 , 2018 ) . `` ' Chicago PD ' wins the Windy City battle in week 33 's broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( May 29 , 2018 ) . `` Live + 7 Weekly Ratings : ABC Finale of ' Designated Survivor ' Tops Broadcast Network Telecasts ' Viewers Percentage Gains '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved May 29 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( June 18 , 2018 ) . `` Live + 7 Weekly Ratings : ' America 's Got Talent ' Season Premiere on NBC Leads in Raw Gains '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved June 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 21 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Originals ' triples in broadcast Live + 7 ratings for June 4 -- 10 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( June 27 , 2018 ) . `` Live + 7 Weekly Ratings : ' Code Black ' Tops Scripted Telecasts in Gains Among Total Viewers and Adults 18 - 49 '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved June 27 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( July 3 , 2018 ) . `` Live + 7 Weekly Ratings : ' Code Black ' Gains Nearly 3 Million More Viewers to Again Dominate Scripted Telecasts '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved July 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( July 24 , 2018 ) . `` Live + 7 Weekly Ratings : ' Code Black ' Earns Third Straight Week of Broadcast Network Scripted Leadership in Delayed Viewing Boosts '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved July 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pucci , Douglas ( July 31 , 2018 ) . `` Live + 7 Weekly Ratings : ' Code Black ' Concludes its CBS Series Run as Broadcast Network Scripted Leader in Gains for Four Consecutive Weeks '' . Programming Insider . Retrieved July 31 , 2018 . The Vampire Diaries Episodes Season 1 `` Pilot '' `` The Night of the Comet '' `` Friday Night Bites '' `` Family Ties '' `` You 're Undead to Me '' `` Lost Girls '' `` Haunted '' `` 162 Candles '' `` History Repeating '' `` The Turning Point '' `` Bloodlines '' `` Unpleasantville '' `` Children of the Damned '' `` Fool Me Once '' `` A Few Good Men '' `` There Goes the Neighborhood '' `` Let the Right One In '' `` Under Control '' `` Miss Mystic Falls '' `` Blood Brothers '' `` Isobel '' `` Founder 's Day '' Season 2 `` The Return '' `` Brave New World '' `` Bad Moon Rising '' `` Memory Lane '' `` Kill or Be Killed '' `` Plan B '' `` Masquerade '' `` Rose '' `` Katerina '' `` The Sacrifice '' `` By the Light of the Moon '' `` The Descent '' `` Daddy Issues '' `` Crying Wolf '' `` The Dinner Party '' `` The House Guest '' `` Know Thy Enemy '' `` The Last Dance '' `` Klaus '' `` The Last Day '' `` The Sun Also Rises '' `` As I Lay Dying '' Season 3 `` The Birthday '' `` The Hybrid '' `` The End of the Affair '' `` Disturbing Behavior '' `` The Reckoning '' `` Smells Like Teen Spirit '' `` Ghost World '' `` Ordinary People '' `` Homecoming '' `` The New Deal '' `` Our Town '' `` The Ties That Bind '' `` Bringing Out the Dead '' `` Dangerous Liaisons '' `` All My Children '' `` The Departed '' Season 4 `` Growing Pains '' `` Memorial '' `` The Rager '' `` The Five '' `` The Killer '' `` We All Go a Little Mad Sometimes '' `` My Brother 's Keeper '' `` We 'll Always Have Bourbon Street '' `` O Come , All Ye Faithful '' `` After School Special '' `` Catch Me If You Can '' `` A View to a Kill '' Season 5 `` I Know What You Did Last Summer '' `` True Lies '' `` Original Sin '' `` For Whom the Bell Tolls '' `` Monster 's Ball '' `` Handle with Care '' `` Death and the Maiden '' `` Dead Man on Campus '' `` The Cell '' `` Fifty Shades of Grayson '' `` 500 Years of Solitude '' `` The Devil Inside '' `` Total Eclipse of the Heart '' `` No Exit '' `` Gone Girl '' `` While You Were Sleeping '' `` Rescue Me '' `` Resident Evil '' `` Man on Fire '' `` What Lies Beneath '' `` Promised Land '' `` Home '' Season 6 `` I 'll Remember '' `` Yellow Ledbetter '' `` Welcome to Paradise '' `` Black Hole Sun '' `` The World Has Turned and Left Me Here '' `` The More You Ignore Me , the Closer I Get '' `` Do You Remember the First Time ? '' `` Fade Into You '' `` I Alone '' Season 7 `` Gods and Monsters '' Season 8 `` I Was Feeling Epic '' Characters Elena Gilbert Katherine Pierce Stefan Salvatore Damon Salvatore Related Awards and nominations Novel series L.J. Smith Original Vampires The Originals episodes season 1 5 characters Legacies Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Originals_(season_5)&oldid=854190386 '' Categories : The Originals Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from November 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Italiano Português Edit links This page was last edited on 9 August 2018 , at 15 : 26 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia
how many episodes are in the originals last season
[ "The Originals, a one-hour American supernatural drama, was renewed for a fifth season by The CW on May 10, 2017.[1] The 2016–17 United States television season debut of The Originals was pushed to midseason, as with the fourth season premiere. On July 20, 2017, Julie Plec announced via Twitter that the upcoming season would be the series' last. The fifth season consists of 13 episodes and debuted on April 18, 2018.[2][3][4] The series finale aired on August 1, 2018.\n" ]
[ "13" ]
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List of Dallas Cowboys starting quarterbacks
List of Dallas Cowboys starting quarterbacks - wikipedia List of Dallas Cowboys starting quarterbacks Jump to : navigation , search NFL lists Current season ( show ) 2017 season Quarterbacks ( show ) Starting quarterbacks by touchdowns / touchdowns ( playoffs ) / yardage / 5000 yard seasons / completion / wins by team BUF MIA NE NYJ BAL CIN CLE PIT HOU IND JAX TEN DEN KC LAC OAK DAL NYG PHI WAS CHI DET GB MIN ATL CAR NO TB ARI LAR SF SEA Most wins Playoff records Most consecutive starts Most consecutive games with touchdown pass Win -- loss records 2012 Running backs ( show ) Career rushing attempts leaders Career rushing yards leaders Career rushing touchdowns leaders Annual rushing yards leaders Annual rushing touchdowns leaders 2,000 - yard club 1,000 - yard duos Receivers ( show ) Career receptions leaders Career receiving yards leaders Career receiving touchdowns leaders Annual receptions leaders Annual receiving yards leaders Annual receiving touchdowns leaders Defense ( show ) Career sacks leaders Annual sacks leaders Career interceptions leaders Annual interceptions leaders Special teams ( show ) Longest field goals Career field goals leaders Career punting yards leaders Career punt return yards leaders Career kickoff return yards leaders Annual field goals leaders Annual punting yards leaders Annual punt return yards leaders Annual kickoff return yards leaders Other lists ( show ) Most consecutive starts ( and games played ) Career all - purpose yards leaders Career scoring leaders Brett Favre 's career achievements Peyton Manning 's career achievements Dak Prescott ( 2016 -- present ) These quarterbacks have started at least one game for the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League . They are listed in order of the date of each player 's first start at quarterback for the Cowboys . Contents ( hide ) 1 Starting quarterbacks 1.1 Regular season 1.2 Postseason 2 Most games as starting quarterback 3 Team career passing records Starting quarterbacks ( edit ) The number of games they started during the season is listed to the right : Regular season ( edit ) Matt Cassel ( 2015 ) Stephen McGee ( 2010 ) Tony Romo ( 2006 -- 2015 ) Brad Johnson ( 2008 ) Drew Bledsoe ( 2005 -- 2006 ) Troy Aikman ( 1989 -- 2000 ) Roger Staubach ( 1969 -- 1971 , 1973 -- 1979 ) Don Meredith ( 1960 -- 1968 ) Season ( s ) Quarterback ( s ) 2017 Dak Prescott ( 16 ) 2016 Dak Prescott ( 16 ) 2015 Tony Romo ( 4 ) / Brandon Weeden ( 3 ) / Matt Cassel ( 7 ) / Kellen Moore ( 2 ) 2014 Tony Romo ( 15 ) / Brandon Weeden ( 1 ) 2013 Tony Romo ( 15 ) / Kyle Orton ( 1 ) 2012 Tony Romo ( 16 ) 2011 Tony Romo ( 16 ) Tony Romo ( 6 ) / Jon Kitna ( 9 ) / Stephen McGee ( 1 ) 2009 Tony Romo ( 16 ) 2008 Tony Romo ( 13 ) / Brad Johnson ( 3 ) 2007 Tony Romo ( 16 ) 2006 Tony Romo ( 10 ) / Drew Bledsoe ( 6 ) 2005 Drew Bledsoe ( 16 ) Vinny Testaverde ( 15 ) / Drew Henson ( 1 ) 2003 Quincy Carter ( 16 ) 2002 Chad Hutchinson ( 9 ) / Quincy Carter ( 7 ) 2001 Quincy Carter ( 8 ) / Anthony Wright ( 3 ) / Ryan Leaf ( 3 ) / Clint Stoerner ( 2 ) 2000 Troy Aikman ( 11 ) / Randall Cunningham ( 3 ) / Anthony Wright ( 2 ) 1999 Troy Aikman ( 14 ) / Jason Garrett ( 2 ) 1998 Troy Aikman ( 11 ) / Jason Garrett ( 5 ) 1997 Troy Aikman ( 16 ) Troy Aikman ( 15 ) / Wade Wilson ( 1 ) 1995 Troy Aikman ( 16 ) 1994 Troy Aikman ( 14 ) / Rodney Peete ( 1 ) / Jason Garrett ( 1 ) 1993 Troy Aikman ( 14 ) / Bernie Kosar ( 1 ) / Jason Garrett ( 1 ) 1992 Troy Aikman ( 16 ) 1991 Troy Aikman ( 12 ) / Steve Beuerlein ( 4 ) 1990 Troy Aikman ( 15 ) / Babe Laufenberg ( 1 ) 1989 Troy Aikman ( 11 ) / Steve Walsh ( 5 ) 1988 Steve Pelluer ( 14 ) / Kevin Sweeney ( 2 ) Danny White ( 9 ) / Steve Pelluer ( 4 ) / Kevin Sweeney ( 2 ) 1986 Steve Pelluer ( 9 ) / Danny White ( 6 ) / Reggie Collier ( 1 ) 1985 Danny White ( 14 ) / Gary Hogeboom ( 2 ) 1984 Gary Hogeboom ( 10 ) / Danny White ( 6 ) Danny White ( 16 ) 1982 Danny White ( 9 ) 1981 Danny White ( 15 ) / Glenn Carano ( 1 ) 1980 Danny White ( 16 ) 1979 Roger Staubach ( 16 ) 1978 Roger Staubach ( 15 ) / Danny White ( 1 ) 1977 Roger Staubach ( 14 ) 1976 Roger Staubach ( 14 ) Roger Staubach ( 13 ) / Clint Longley ( 1 ) Roger Staubach ( 14 ) 1973 Roger Staubach ( 14 ) 1972 Craig Morton ( 14 ) 1971 Roger Staubach ( 10 ) / Craig Morton ( 4 ) 1970 Craig Morton ( 11 ) / Roger Staubach ( 3 ) 1969 Craig Morton ( 13 ) / Roger Staubach ( 1 ) 1968 Don Meredith ( 13 ) / Craig Morton ( 1 ) 1967 Don Meredith ( 11 ) / Craig Morton ( 3 ) 1966 Don Meredith ( 13 ) / Jerry Rhome ( 1 ) 1965 Don Meredith ( 11 ) / Jerry Rhome ( 2 ) / Craig Morton ( 1 ) 1964 Don Meredith ( 10 ) / John Roach ( 4 ) 1963 Don Meredith ( 13 ) / Eddie LeBaron ( 1 ) 1962 Don Meredith ( 9 ) / Eddie LeBaron ( 5 ) 1961 Eddie LeBaron ( 10 ) / Don Meredith ( 4 ) 1960 Eddie LeBaron ( 10 ) / Don Meredith ( 1 ) / Don Heinrich ( 1 ) Postseason ( edit ) Season Quarterback ( s ) 1966 Don Meredith ( 0 -- 1 ) 1967 Don Meredith ( 1 -- 1 ) 1968 Don Meredith ( 0 -- 1 ) 1969 Craig Morton ( 0 -- 1 ) 1970 Craig Morton ( 2 -- 1 ) 1971 Roger Staubach ( 3 - 0 ) 1972 Craig Morton ( 1 - 0 ) Roger Staubach ( 0 - 1 ) 1973 Roger Staubach ( 1 - 1 ) Roger Staubach ( 2 - 1 ) 1976 Roger Staubach ( 0 - 1 ) 1977 Roger Staubach ( 3 - 0 ) 1978 Roger Staubach ( 2 - 1 ) 1979 Roger Staubach ( 0 - 1 ) 1980 Danny White ( 2 - 1 ) 1981 Danny White ( 1 - 1 ) 1982 Danny White ( 2 - 1 ) Danny White ( 0 - 1 ) 1985 Danny White ( 0 - 1 ) 1991 Steve Beuerlein ( 1 - 1 ) 1992 Troy Aikman ( 3 - 0 ) 1993 Troy Aikman ( 3 - 0 ) 1994 Troy Aikman ( 1 - 1 ) 1995 Troy Aikman ( 3 - 0 ) Troy Aikman ( 1 - 1 ) 1998 Troy Aikman ( 0 - 1 ) 2003 Quincy Carter ( 0 - 1 ) 2006 Tony Romo ( 0 - 1 ) 2007 Tony Romo ( 0 - 1 ) 2009 Tony Romo ( 1 - 1 ) 2014 Tony Romo ( 1 - 1 ) 2016 Dak Prescott ( 0 - 1 ) Most games as starting quarterback ( edit ) These quarterbacks have the most starts for the Cowboys in regular season games ( as of Week 17 of the 2017 season ) . Name GP Games played GS Games started Number of wins as starting quarterback Number of losses as starting quarterback Number of ties as starting quarterback Pct Winning Percentage as starting quarterback Name Period GP GS % Aikman , Troy 1989 - 2000 165 165 94 71 - . 570 Romo , Tony 2006 - 2015 156 127 78 49 - . 614 Staubach , Roger 1969 - 1979 131 114 85 29 - . 746 White , Danny 1976 - 1988 166 92 62 30 - . 674 Meredith , Don 1960 - 1968 104 85 48 33 . 588 Morton , Craig 1965 - 1974 101 47 32 14 . 691 Prescott , Dak 2016 - present 32 32 22 10 . 688 Carter , Quincy 2001 - 2003 31 31 16 15 - . 516 Team career passing records ( edit ) ( As of Week 17 of 2017 season ) Name Comp Att % Yds TD Int Aikman , Troy 2,898 4,715 61.4 % 32,942 165 141 Romo , Tony 2,829 4,335 65.3 % 34,183 248 117 White , Danny 1,761 2,950 59.7 % 21,959 155 132 Staubach , Roger 1,685 2,958 57.0 % 22,700 153 109 Meredith , Don 1,170 2,308 50.7 % 17,199 135 111 Morton , Craig 685 1,308 52.4 % 10,279 80 73 Prescott , Dak 619 949 65.2 % 6,991 45 17 Dallas Cowboys Founded in 1960 Based in Arlington , Texas Headquartered in Frisco , Texas Franchise Franchise History Coaches Players Seasons Expansion draft Draft history Starting quarterbacks First - round draft picks The Ford Center at The Star Stadiums Cotton Bowl Texas Stadium AT&T Stadium Culture NFL on Thanksgiving Day America 's Team Cheerleaders Doomsday Defense Crazy Ray Rowdy Jerry Jones Black Sunday ( film ) King of the Hill Lore Tom Landry Tex Schramm Captain Comeback Ice Bowl Hail Mary The Catch Herschel Walker trade Dirty Dozen Ring of Honor Bounty Bowl series Rivalries New York Giants Philadelphia Eagles Washington Redskins Green Bay Packers San Francisco 49ers Pittsburgh Steelers Houston Oilers / Texans Division championships ( 23 ) 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1981 1985 1992 1993 1994 1995 1998 2007 2009 2014 2016 Conference championships ( 10 ) 1966 1967 1970 1971 1977 1978 1992 1993 1995 League Championships ( 5 ) 1971 ( VI ) 1977 ( XII ) 1992 ( XXVII ) 1993 ( XXVIII ) 1995 ( XXX ) Ring of Honor Bob Lilly Don Meredith Don Perkins Chuck Howley Mel Renfro Roger Staubach Lee Roy Jordan Tom Landry Tony Dorsett Randy White Bob Hayes Tex Schramm Cliff Harris Rayfield Wright Troy Aikman Michael Irvin Emmitt Smith Drew Pearson Charles Haley Larry Allen Darren Woodson Media Broadcasters Radio network KRLD - FM Brad Sham Babe Laufenberg Current league affiliations League : National Football League Conference : National Football Conference Division : East Division Seasons ( 58 ) 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Championship seasons in bold Dallas Cowboys starting quarterbacks Eddie LeBaron ( 1960 -- 1963 ) Don Meredith ( 1960 -- 1968 ) Don Heinrich ( 1960 ) John Roach ( 1964 ) Jerry Rhome ( 1965 -- 1966 ) Craig Morton ( 1965 , 1967 -- 1972 ) Roger Staubach ( 1969 -- 1971 , 1973 -- 1979 ) Clint Longley ( 1975 ) Danny White ( 1978 , 1980 -- 1987 ) Glenn Carano ( 1981 ) Gary Hogeboom ( 1984 -- 1985 ) Steve Pelluer ( 1986 -- 1988 ) Reggie Collier ( 1986 ) Kevin Sweeney ( 1987 -- 1988 ) Troy Aikman ( 1989 -- 2000 ) Steve Walsh ( 1989 ) Babe Laufenberg ( 1990 ) Steve Beuerlein ( 1991 ) Bernie Kosar ( 1993 ) Jason Garrett ( 1993 -- 1994 , 1998 -- 1999 ) Rodney Peete ( 1994 ) Wade Wilson ( 1996 ) Randall Cunningham ( 2000 ) Anthony Wright ( 2000 -- 2001 ) Quincy Carter ( 2001 -- 2003 ) Ryan Leaf ( 2001 ) Clint Stoerner ( 2001 ) Chad Hutchinson ( 2002 ) Vinny Testaverde ( 2004 ) Drew Henson ( 2004 ) Drew Bledsoe ( 2005 -- 2006 ) Tony Romo ( 2006 -- 2015 ) Brad Johnson ( 2008 ) Jon Kitna ( 2010 ) Stephen McGee ( 2010 ) Kyle Orton ( 2013 ) Brandon Weeden ( 2014 -- 2015 ) Matt Cassel ( 2015 ) Kellen Moore ( 2015 ) Dak Prescott ( 2016 -- present ) List of most recent starting quarterbacks in the National Football League ( as of Week 17 of the 2017 NFL season ) American Football Conference AFC East AFC North AFC South AFC West Tyrod Taylor ( Buffalo Bills ) Jay Cutler ( Miami Dolphins ) Tom Brady ( New England Patriots ) Bryce Petty ( New York Jets ) Joe Flacco ( Baltimore Ravens ) Andy Dalton ( Cincinnati Bengals ) DeShone Kizer ( Cleveland Browns ) Landry Jones ( Pittsburgh Steelers ) T.J. Yates ( Houston Texans ) Jacoby Brissett ( Indianapolis Colts ) Blake Bortles ( Jacksonville Jaguars ) Marcus Mariota ( Tennessee Titans ) Paxton Lynch ( Denver Broncos ) Patrick Mahomes II ( Kansas City Chiefs ) Philip Rivers ( Los Angeles Chargers ) Derek Carr ( Oakland Raiders ) National Football Conference NFC East NFC North NFC South NFC West Dak Prescott ( Dallas Cowboys ) Eli Manning ( New York Giants ) Nick Foles ( Philadelphia Eagles ) Kirk Cousins ( Washington Redskins ) Mitchell Trubisky ( Chicago Bears ) Matthew Stafford ( Detroit Lions ) Brett Hundley ( Green Bay Packers ) Case Keenum ( Minnesota Vikings ) Matt Ryan ( Atlanta Falcons ) Cam Newton ( Carolina Panthers ) Drew Brees ( New Orleans Saints ) Jameis Winston ( Tampa Bay Buccaneers ) Drew Stanton ( Arizona Cardinals ) Sean Mannion ( Los Angeles Rams ) Jimmy Garoppolo ( San Francisco 49ers ) Russell Wilson ( Seattle Seahawks ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Dallas_Cowboys_starting_quarterbacks&oldid=818133588 '' Categories : Lists of National Football League quarterbacks Dallas Cowboys players Dallas Cowboys lists Talk Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2018 , at 20 : 12 . 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who was the dallas cowboys first ever starting quarterback
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Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme
Integrated Guided missile Development programme - wikipedia Integrated Guided missile Development programme Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) An Agni - II during the Republic Day parade in 2004 . The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme ( IGMDP ) was an Indian Ministry of Defence programme for the research and development of the comprehensive range of missiles . The programme was managed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation ( DRDO ) and Ordnance Factories Board in partnership with other Indian government political organisations . The project started in 1982 -- 83 with popular political support from the successive governments and bestowed under the leadership of Abdul Kalam who oversaw its ending in 2008 after these strategic missiles were successfully developed . On 8 January 2008 , the DRDO formally announced the successful completion of the IGMDP . It added that the strategic integrated guided missile programme was completed with its design objectives achieved since most of the missiles in the programme had been developed and inducted by the Indian armed forces . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Hurdles 2 Prithvi 3 Agni Re-entry Technology 4 Trishul 5 Akash 6 Nag 7 See also 8 External links 9 References History ( edit ) Main article : Guided Missiles of India § History By the start of the 1980s , the DRDL had developed competence and expertise in the fields of propulsion , navigation and manufacture of aerospace materials based on the Soviet rocketry technologies . Thus , India 's political leadership , which included Prime Minister Indira Gandhi , Defence Minister R. Venkataraman , V.S. Arunachalam ( Political Advisor to the Defence Minister ) , decided that all these technologies should be consolidated . This led to the birth of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme with Dr. Abdul Kalam , who had previously been the project director for the SLV - 3 programme at ISRO , was inducted as the DRDL Director in 1983 to conceive and lead it . While the scientists proposed the development of each missile consecutively , the Defence Minister R. Venkataraman asked them to reconsider and develop all the missiles simultaneously . Thus , four projects , to be pursued concurrently , were born under the IGMDP : Short range surface - to - surface missile ( code - named Prithvi ) Short range low - level surface - to - air missile ( code - named Trishul ) Medium range surface - to - air missile ( code - named Akash ) and Third - generation anti-tank missile ( code - named Nag ) . The Agni missile was initially conceived in the IGMDP as a technology demonstrator project in the form of a re-entry vehicle , and was later upgraded to a ballistic missile with different ranges . As part of this program , the Interim Test Range at Balasore in Orissa was also developed for missile testing . Hurdles ( edit ) Main article : Guided Missiles of India § Diplomatic and Technological Hurdles After India test - fired the first Prithvi missile in 1988 , and the Agni missile in 1989 , the Missile Technology Control Regime ( then an informal grouping established in 1987 by Canada , France , Germany , Italy , Japan , the United Kingdom and the United States ) decided to restrict access to any technology that would help India in its missile development program . To counter the MTCR , the IGMDP team formed a consortium of DRDO laboratories , industries and academic institutions to build these sub-systems , components and materials . Though this slowed down the progress of the program , India successfully developed indigenously all the restricted components denied to it by the MTCR . Prithvi ( edit ) Main article : Prithvi missile Missile Type Warhead Payload ( kg ) Range ( km ) Dimension ( m ) Fuel / Stages Weight ( kg ) In service CEP ( m ) Prithvi - I Tactical Nuclear , HE , submunitions , FAE , chemical 1,000 150 8.55 X1. 1 Single stage liquid 4,400 30 -- 50 Prithvi - II Tactical Nuclear , HE , submunitions , FAE , chemical 350 -- 750 350 8.55 X1. 1 Single stage liquid 4,600 10 -- 15 Prithvi - III Tactical Nuclear , HE , submunitions , FAE , chemical 500 -- 1,000 350 -- 600 8.55 X1 Single stage solid 5,600 10 -- 15 The Prithvi missile ( from Sanskrit पृथ्वी pṛthvī `` Earth '' ) is a family of tactical surface - to - surface short - range ballistic missiles ( SRBM ) and is India 's first indigenously developed ballistic missile . Development of the Prithvi began in 1983 , and it was first test - fired on 25 February 1988 from Sriharikota , SHAR Centre , Pottisreeramulu Nellore district , Andhra Pradesh . It has a range of up to 150 to 300 km . The land variant is called Prithvi while the naval operational variant of Prithvi I and Prithvi II class missiles are code named Dhanush ( meaning Bow ) . Both variants are used for surface targets . The Prithvi is said to have its propulsion technology derived from the Soviet SA - 2 surface - to - air missile . Variants make use of either liquid or both liquid and solid fuels . Developed as a battlefield missile , it could carry a nuclear warhead in its role as a tactical nuclear weapon . The initial project framework of the IGMDP envisioned the Prithvi missile as a short - range ballistic missile with variants for the Indian Army , Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy . Over the years the Prithvi missile specifications have undergone a number of changes . The Prithvi I class of missiles were inducted into the Indian Army in 1994 , and it is reported that Prithvi I missiles are being withdrawn from service , being replaced with Prahar missiles . Prithvi II missiles were inducted in 1996 . Prithvi III class has a longer - range of 350 km , and was successfully test fired in 2004 . Agni re-entry technology ( edit ) A technology demonstrator for re-entry technology called Agni was added to IGMDP as Prithvi was unable to be converted to a longer ranged missile . The first flight of Agni with re-entry technology took place in 1989 . The re-entry system used resins and carbon fibres in its construction and was able to withstand a temperature of upto 3000 ° C. The technologies developed in this project were eventually used in the Agni series of missiles . Trishul ( edit ) Main article : Trishul ( missile ) Trishul ( Sanskrit : त्रिशूल , meaning trident ) is the name of a short range surface - to - air missile developed by India as a part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program . It has a range of 12 km and is fitted with a 5.5 kg warhead . Designed to be used against low - level ( sea skimming ) targets at short range , the system has been developed to defend naval vessels against missiles and also as a short - range surface - to - air missile on land . According to reports , the range of the missile is 12 km and is fitted with a 15 kg warhead . The weight of the missile is 130 kg . The length of the missile is 3.1 m . India officially shut down the project on 27 February 2008 . In 2003 , Defence Minister George Fernandes had indicated that the Trishul missile had been de-linked from user service and would be continued as a technology demonstrator . Akash ( edit ) Main article : Akash missile An Akash missile being test fired from the Integrated Test Range ( ITR ) , Chandipur , Orissa . The launch platform is a BMP - 2 vehicle Akash ( Sanskrit : आकाश meaning Sky ) is a medium - range surface - to - air missile developed as part of India 's Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme to achieve self - sufficiency in the area of surface - to - air missiles . It is the most expensive missile project ever undertaken by the Union government in the 20th century . Development costs skyrocketed to almost US $ 120 million , which is far more than other similar systems . Akash is a medium - range surface - to - air missile with an intercept range of 30 km . It has a launch weight of 720 kg , a diameter of 35 cm and a length of 5.8 metres . Akash flies at supersonic speed , reaching around Mach 2.5 . It can reach an altitude of 18 km . A digital proximity fuse is coupled with a 55 kg pre-fragmented warhead , while the safety arming and detonation mechanism enables a controlled detonation sequence . A self - destruct device is also integrated . It is propelled by a solid fuelled booster stage . The missile has a terminal guidance system capable of working through electronic countermeasures . The entire Akash SAM system allows for attacking multiple targets ( up to 4 per battery ) . The Akash missile 's use of ramjet propulsion system allows it to maintain its speed without deceleration , unlike the Patriot missiles . The missile is supported by a multi-target and multi-function phased array fire control radar called the ' Rajendra ' with a range of about 80 km in search , and 60 km in terms of engagement . The missile is completely guided by the radar , without any active guidance of its own . This allows it greater capability against jamming as the aircraft self - protection jammer would have to work against the high - power Rajendra , and the aircraft being attacked is not alerted by any terminal seeker on the Akash itself . Design of the missile is similar to that of the SA - 6 , with four long tube ramjet inlet ducts mounted mid-body between wings . For pitch / yaw control four clipped triangular moving wings are mounted on mid-body . For roll control four inline clipped delta fins with ailerons are mounted before the tail . However , internal schema shows a completely modernised layout , including an onboard computer with special optimised trajectories , and an all - digital proximity fuse . The Akash system meant for the Army uses the T - 72 tank chassis for its launcher and radar vehicles . The Rajendra derivative for the Army is called the Battery Level Radar - III . The Air Force version uses an Ashok Leyland truck platform to tow the missile launcher , while the Radar is on a BMP - 2 chassis and is called the Battery Level Radar - II . In either case , the launchers carry three ready - to - fire Akash missiles each . The launchers are automated , autonomous and networked to a command post and the guidance radar . They are slewable in azimuth and elevation . The Akash system can be deployed by rail , road or air . The first test flight of Akash missile was conducted in 1990 , with development flights up to March 1997 . The IAF has initiated the process to induct the Akash surface - to - air missiles developed as a part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme . The Multiple target handling capability of Akash weapon system was demonstrated by live firing in a C4I environment during the trials . Two Akash missiles intercepted two fast moving targets in simultaneous engagement mode in 2005 itself . The Akash System 's 3 - D central acquisition radar ( 3 - D car ) group mode performance was then fully established . In December 2007 Indian Air Force completed user trials for the Akash missile system . The trials , which were spread over ten days , were successful , and the missile hit its target on all five occasions . Before the ten - day trial at Chandipur , the Akash system 's ECCM Evaluation tests were carried out at Gwalior Air force base while mobility trials for the system vehicles were carried out at Pokhran . The IAF had evolved the user Trial Directive to verify the Akash 's consistency in engaging targets . The following trials were conducted : Against low - flying near - range target , long - range high - altitude target , crossing and approaching target and ripple firing of two missiles from the same launcher against a low - altitude receding target . Following this , the IAF declared that it would initiate the induction of 2 squadrons strength ( each squadron with 2 batteries ) of this missile system , to begin with . Once deliveries are complete , further orders would be placed to replace retiring SA - 3 GOA ( Pechora ) SAM systems . In February 2010 , the Indian Air Force ordered six more squadrons of the Akash system , taking orders to eight of the type . The Indian Army is also expected to order the Akash system . Nag ( edit ) Main article : Nag Missile Nag Missile Nag ( Sanskrit : नाग meaning cobra ) is India 's third generation `` Fire - and - forget '' anti-tank missile . It is an all weather , top attack missile with a range of 3 to 7 km . The missile uses an 8 kg tandem HEAT warhead capable of defeating modern armour including ERA ( Explosive Reactive Armour ) and composite armour . Nag uses Imaging Infra - Red ( IIR ) guidance with day and night capability . Mode of launch for the IIR seeker is LOBL ( Lock on Before Launch ) . Nag can be mounted on an infantry vehicle ; a helicopter launched version will also be available with integration work being carried out with the HAL Dhruv . Separate versions for the Army and the Air Force are being developed . For the Army , the missiles will be carried by specialist carrier vehicles ( NAMICA - Nag Missile Carrier ) equipped with a thermographic camera for target acquisition . NAMICA is a modified BMP - 2 IFV licence produced as `` Sarath '' in India . The carriers are capable of carrying four ready - to - fire missiles in the observation / launch platform which can be elevated with more missiles available for reload within the carrier . For the Air Force , a nose - mounted thermal imaging system has been developed for guiding the missile 's trajectory `` Helina '' . The missile has a complete fiberglass structure and weighs around 42 kg . Nag was test fired for the 45th time on 19 March 2005 from the Test Range at Ahmednagar ( Maharashtra ) , signalling the completion of the developmental phase . It will now enter production phase , subject to user trials and acceptance by the Indian Army . Further versions of the missile may make use of an all - weather Milli Metric Wave ( MMW ) seeker as an additional option . This seeker has reportedly been developed and efforts are on to integrate it into the missile . See also ( edit ) India portal Military of India portal Rajendra Radar SA - 6 Gainful Agni missile system List of missiles Dongfeng External links ( edit ) CSIS Missile Threat - India Bharat Rakshak 's page of Akash Bharat Rakshak 's page on Trishul Nag Missile References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Indian Ordnance Factories : Ordnance Factory Itarsi '' . Ofb.gov.in . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : `` Integrated Guided Missile Development Program '' . Archived from the original on 21 March 2012 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` India scraps integrated guided missile programme '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . 9 January 2008 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . ^ Jump up to : T.S. , Subramanian ( 31 January 2009 ) . `` Missile shield '' . Frontline . India . Archived from the original on 7 February 2013 . Retrieved 31 May 2012 . Jump up ^ John Pike . `` Prithvi -- India Missile Special Weapons Delivery Systems '' . Globalsecurity.org . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 08 . Jump up ^ Centre for Non Proliferation Studies Archive Archived 2 December 2001 at the Library of Congress accessed 18 October 2006 . Jump up ^ `` After 17 years in service , the Prithvi I missile will give way to smaller and better Prahar '' . defense-update.com . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Dhanush / Sagarika ( Project K - 15 ) ( India ) -- Jane 's Naval Weapon Systems '' . Janes.com . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : T.S. Subramanian ( 31 January -- 13 February 2009 ) . `` Missile shield '' . Frontline . Vol. 26 no . 3 . Kasturi . ISSN 0970 - 1710 . Jump up ^ T.S. Subramanian ( 21 August 2015 ) . `` Technologist to the core '' . Frontline . Kasturi . ISSN 0970 - 1710 . Jump up ^ PIB Delhi ( 13 August 2012 ) . `` Missile Development Programme '' . Jump up ^ `` Trishul Surface To Air Missile Not A Failure Says Government '' . India-defence.com. 17 May 2007 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 31 . ^ Jump up to : `` India Shuts Down Trishul Missile Project '' Rediff.com 27 February 2008 Jump up ^ T.S. Subramanian ( 11 December 2005 ) `` Akash missile achieves a milestone '' The Hindu ' . ' Retrieved 18 October 2006 . Jump up ^ Global Security.Org article accessed 18 October 2006 . Jump up ^ `` IAF initiates process for inducting Akash and Trishul SAM 's '' . Frontierindia.net. 3 May 2007 . Archived from the original on 25 March 2010 . Retrieved 31 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Air Force Impressed With Akash Surface To Air Missiles Performance '' . India-defence.com . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` DRDO report on Akash Air Defence Weapon System '' DRDO Jump up ^ `` IAF to induct indigenous Akash missile '' . Sify News . 26 December 2007 . Retrieved 27 December 2007 . Jump up ^ Ajai Shukla ( 23 January 2008 ) `` Missile mission meets target '' Business Standard Missiles of the Republic of India Surface - to - surface Ballistic missiles Intercontinental Agni V * * Agni VI * Surya * Intermediate range Agni - III Agni IV Medium range Agni - II Short range Agni - I Prithvi - I Prithvi - II Prithvi - III Prahar Submarine - launched K - 15 Sagarika Dhanush K - 4 * * K - 5 * Cruise missiles Hypersonic Shaurya BrahMos - II * Supersonic BrahMos - I Subsonic Klub Bazalt Nirbhay * * Anti-ship Ametist Termit Moskit Gabriel SwitchBlade 3M - 54 Klub BrahMos - I Exocet * * Anti-tank missiles Nag Amogha Konkurs Malyutka Fagot Kornet MILAN MILAN 2T LAHAT Spiral Sniper CLGM 3UBK - Invar DRDO Anti Tank Missile ENTAC Spike * * FGM - 148 Javelin * * Torpedoes Shyena AEG - SUT Mod - 1 A244 - S 53 - 65 torpedo Type 53 Advanced Light Weight Torpedo SUT AS / ASW SET - 65E ASW TEST - 71 AS / ASW Mark 54 MAKO Lightweight Torpedo * Varunastra Heavy Weight Torpedo Black Shark torpedo * * Anti-submarine weapon Indigenous Anti-Submarine missile Air - to - surface Cruise missiles Hypersonic BrahMos - II * Supersonic BrahMos - I Subsonic Crystal Maze Kh - 59ME Nirbhay * * Anti-ship KH - 29 Kedge KH - 31 Krypton KH - 59MK Kh - 35E Harpoon Sea Eagle BrahMos - I Anti-tank missiles MILAN LAHAT SS. 11 Scorpion Ataka Scallion Helina * * Torpedoes Shyena Advanced Light Weight Torpedo A244 - S APR - 3E APR - 1 ASW Laser - guided bomb Sudarshan laser - guided bomb KAB - 500L KAB - 1500L Paveway LGB KAB - 500KR CBU - 105 SFW LGB Griffin LGB Smart Anti-Airfield Weapon * Anti-radiation missile Martel Kh - 25 Kh - 31 Kh - 29 Medium range attack AS - 30L Short range attack Sea Skua Surface - to - air Anti-ballistic missiles S - 300PMU - 2 Prithvi Air Defence ( PAD ) * * Advanced Air Defence ( AAD ) * * Medium range SAM Akash SA - 5 Gammon SA - 6 Gainful SA - 11 Gadfly SA - 17 Grizzly Barak 8 * * Short range SAM Trishul Tunguska SA - 8 Gecko SA - 3 Goa SA - 9 Gaskin SA - 2 Guideline SA - 13 Gopher Seacat Tigercat Barak 1 SPYDER Maitri * * MANPADS SA - 16 Gimlet SA - 7 Grail SA - 14 Gremlin SA - 18 Grouse FIM - 92 Stinger Air - to - air Visual range Python Super 530 R. 550 Magic - 1 R. 550 Magic - 2 K - 13S R - 40 R - 60 R - 73 Beyond visual range R - 27ER R - 27ET R - 27R R - 27T R - 77 Derby Python - 4 R - 23R R - 23T Super 530 MBDA MICA MBDA ASRAAM Astra * * K - 100 * * Notes : ( * ) Undergoing development ( * * ) Undergoing trials Indian Armed Forces Defence Research and Development Organisation ( DRDO ) Aeronautics Avionics Tejas Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft Other HAL programmes HJT - 36 HTT - 40 Dhruv Rudra Light Combat Helicopter Light Utility Helicopter Unmanned aerial vehicles Nishant Rustom Lakshya Kapothaka Ulka Fluffy AURA UAV Imperial Eagle Netra Armaments Small arms INSAS Vidhwansak MSMC MCIWS Artillery systems and ammunition Pinaka Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher M - 46 Catapult Bhim - T6 Dhanush Howitzer Armoured fighting vehicles Tanks Arjun Arjun Mk - II Tank EX DRDO light tank Infantry fighting vehicle Abhay IFV Other vehicles Carrier Mortar Tracked Armoured Engineer Reconnaissance Vehicle Light Armoured Vehicle Kartik BLT Daksh Electronics and Computer Sciences Electronic warfare Samyukta Tarang Radars INDRA Rajendra Radar Swordfish Long Range Tracking Radar Multi-mode radar 3D Airborne Warning and Control Super Vision - 2000 BFSR - SR 3D - CAR Swathi Weapon Locating Radar Software NETRA Missile systems Ballistic missiles Agni Agni - I Agni - II Agni - III Agni - IV Agni - V Agni - VI Prithvi II III Dhanush SRBM Shaurya Prahaar SLBM K - 15 K - 4 K - 5 Cruise missiles Nirbhay BrahMos II HSTDV Air - to - air missiles Astra BVRAAM DRDO Anti-Radiation Missile Anti-tank missiles Nag DRDO Anti Tank Missile Surface - to - air Akash Trishul Maitri missile Barak 8 Air - to - surface Helina BrahMos Air launched Variant Anti-ballistic Prithvi Air Defence ( PAD ) Advanced Air Defence ( AAD ) Torpedoes Advanced Light Torpedo Shyena Varunastra Heavy Weight Torpedo Bombs Laser - guided Sudarshan Smart Anti-Airfield Weapon People Scientists Maj General Ranjit Lal Jetley Ram Narain Agarwal A.P.J. Abdul Kalam A. Sivathanu Pillai W Selvamurthy V.K. Saraswat V.K. Aatre Raja Ramanna V.S. Mahalingam Keshav Dattatreya Nayak Engines GTX 37 - 14U GTX - 35VS Kaveri Kaveri Marine Gas Turbine GATET engine Important programmes Project Indigo Project Valiant Project Devil IGMDP Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme Indian Missile Programme Indian Armed Forces Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Integrated_Guided_Missile_Development_Programme&oldid=825283314 '' Categories : Missile defense Short - range ballistic missiles Defence Research and Development Organisation Surface - to - air missiles of India Nuclear weapons programme of India Nuclear weapons of India Military projects Secret military programs 1983 establishments in India Hidden categories : Webarchive template other archives Articles needing additional references from March 2016 All articles needing additional references Use British English from March 2013 Use dmy dates from March 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia മലയാളം Norsk தமிழ் తెలుగు Edit links This page was last edited on 12 February 2018 , at 14 : 39 . About Wikipedia
which of the following is not a missile tested in indian missile programme
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Ready Player One (film)
Ready Player One ( film ) - wikipedia Ready Player One ( film ) Jump to : navigation , search Ready Player One Teaser poster Directed by Steven Spielberg Produced by Donald De Line Dan Farah Kristie Macosko Krieger Steven Spielberg Screenplay by Zak Penn Ernest Cline Based on Ready Player One by Ernest Cline Starring Tye Sheridan Olivia Cooke Ben Mendelsohn Mark Rylance Simon Pegg T.J. Miller Music by Alan Silvestri Cinematography Janusz Kamiński Edited by Michael Kahn Production company Warner Bros . Amblin Partners Amblin Entertainment Village Roadshow Pictures De Line Pictures Farah Films & Management Distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures Release date March 30 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 30 ) Country United States Language English Ready Player One is an upcoming American science fiction adventure film co-produced and directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Zak Penn and Ernest Cline , based on Cline 's novel of the same name . The film stars Tye Sheridan , Olivia Cooke , Ben Mendelsohn , Mark Rylance , Simon Pegg , and T.J. Miller . The film is scheduled to be released on March 30 , 2018 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Premise 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Casting 3.2 Filming 3.3 Cultural references 4 Music 5 Release 6 References 7 External links Premise ( edit ) In the year 2045 , much of Earth 's population centers have become slum - like cities due to overpopulation , pollution , corruption , and climate change . To escape their desolation , people engage in the virtual reality world of the OASIS ( Ontologically Anthropocentric Sensory Immersive Simulation ) , where they can engage in numerous activities for work , education , and entertainment . Wade Owen Watts is a teenager from Oklahoma City , Oklahoma - who later moves to Columbus , Ohio - who frequents the OASIS and attempts to win `` Anorak 's Game '' , a game created by the recently - deceased creator of the OASIS , James Halliday , in search of its Easter Egg . The winner is to be granted full ownership of the OASIS and Halliday 's $240 billion fortune . While Wade works with several friends from the OASIS to discover Anorak 's treasure , the corporate giant Innovative Online Industries ( IOI ) employs a number of players to try to discover the treasure first and seize control of OASIS for themselves . Cast ( edit ) Tye Sheridan as Wade Owen Watts / Parzival Olivia Cooke as Samantha Evelyn Cook / Art3mis Ben Mendelsohn as Nolan Sorrento Mark Rylance as James Donovan Halliday / Anorak Simon Pegg as Ogden Morrow T.J. Miller as `` a bounty hunter with an amusing personality '' Win Morisaki as Daito Lena Waithe as Aech Hannah John - Kamen Philip Zhao as Shoto Ralph Ineson as Rick Letitia Wright as Reb Production ( edit ) Warner Bros. and De Line Pictures won an auction for the rights to Ernie Cline 's book Ready Player One in 2010 , before it had been published . Cline was set to write the script for the film , which Donald De Line and Dan Farah would produce . Eric Eason rewrote Cline 's script , and Zak Penn was hired to rewrite the previous drafts by Cline and Eason . Village Roadshow Pictures came aboard to co-finance and co-produce the film with WB . Steven Spielberg signed on to direct and produce the film , which Kristie Macosko Krieger would also produce along with Line and Farah . Casting ( edit ) Director Steven Spielberg and Ernest Cline with the cast of Ready Player One at San Diego Comic - Con Three actresses were top - runners for the role of Art3mis : Elle Fanning , Olivia Cooke , and Lola Kirke ; In September 2015 , Cooke was announced as the female lead role . Ben Mendelsohn was cast in the film to play the villainous role as an executive for an OASIS - based corporation . Tye Sheridan was confirmed for the lead role of Wade at the end of February 2016 . In mid-March 2016 , Simon Pegg entered final talks to join the cast in the role of Ogden Morrow , co-creator of the OASIS . Mark Rylance joined the cast as James Halliday , the creator of OASIS . In June 2016 , T.J. Miller was cast in the film to play a bounty hunter , Hannah John - Kamen was cast for an unspecified supporting role , and Japanese singer - actor Win Morisaki was cast as Toshiro Yoshiaki , also known as Daito . Filming ( edit ) Production was slated to begin in July 2016 . Screenwriter Zak Penn tweeted on July 1 , 2016 , that the first week of filming was completed . In August and September 2016 , filming took place in Birmingham , England , which included Livery Street in the Jewellery Quarter area which also utilized the backpackers hostel Hatters for internal filming ; other locations in the city included the formal industry area of Digbeth . The film is set in Ohio . Cultural References ( edit ) As with the book , the film has numerous homages to the popular culture of the 1980s . Among licensed characters and elements used in the film are The Iron Giant , the DeLorean time machine from Back to the Future , outfitted with KITT from Knight Rider , the DC Comics universe , The Lord of the Rings , Freddy Krueger , Duke Nukem , the possessed car from Christine , the van from The A-Team , the modified Ford Falcon used in Mad Max , the monster truck Bigfoot , and Kaneda 's motorcycle from Akira . Spielberg recognized that his past films were a significant part of the 1980s popular culture cited in the book , and to avoid being accused of `` vanity '' , he opted to avoid using many references to his own films . Music ( edit ) On June 9 , 2016 , Variety stated that Spielberg 's regular collaborator John Williams was planning to compose the film 's score . However in July 2017 , it was reported that Williams had left the project to work on Spielberg 's The Papers instead , with Alan Silvestri hired to take over scoring duties for Ready Player One . Release ( edit ) Ready Player One was scheduled to be released on December 15 , 2017 . The date was pushed back until March 30 , 2018 , to avoid competition with Star Wars : The Last Jedi . Warner Bros. Pictures will distribute the film worldwide , and Village Roadshow Pictures will distribute in several overseas territories . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Burlingame , Jon ( July 7 , 2017 ) . `` John Williams and Alan Silvestri to Score Steven Spielberg 's Next Films ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Film Releases '' . Variety Insight . Retrieved September 16 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Chitwood , Adam ( February 24 , 2016 ) . `` Tye Sheridan Lands Lead in Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' '' . Collider . ^ Jump up to : Kit , Borys ( September 11 , 2015 ) . `` Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' Finds Female Lead in Olivia Cooke ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media Inc . Retrieved September 13 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kit , Borys ( January 6 , 2016 ) . `` Ben Mendelsohn Eyed for Villain Role in Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media Inc . Retrieved January 7 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : McNary , Dave ( 13 April 2016 ) . `` Mark Rylance Joins Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' '' . Variety . Retrieved 9 June 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Kit , Borys ( March 17 , 2016 ) . `` Simon Pegg in Talks to Join Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media Inc . Retrieved March 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Kit , Borys ( June 1 , 2016 ) . `` ' Silicon Valley ' Star T.J. Miller Joins Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media Inc . Retrieved September 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' Adds Japanese Actor - Singer Win Morisaki '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media Inc . Retrieved August 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` See an exclusive first look at Steven Spielberg 's Ready Player One '' . Entertainment Weekly . ^ Jump up to : Busch , Anita ( June 24 , 2016 ) . `` Hannah John - Kamen Lands Role In Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Busch , Anita ( July 29 , 2016 ) . `` Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' Casts Young Newcomer Philip Zhao '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved July 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Freddy Krueger Appears in Epic ' Ready Player One ' Trailer ! # SDCC - Bloody Disgusting '' . bloody-disgusting.com . ^ Jump up to : Fleming Jr , Mike ( June 18 , 2010 ) . `` Warner Bros and De Line Pictures Win Book Auction For ' Ready Player One ' '' . deadline.com . Retrieved March 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Sneider , Jeff ( January 13 , 2012 ) . `` Eason to rewrite ' Player ' script '' . variety.com . Retrieved March 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Sneider , Jeff ; Shaw , Lucas ( June 23 , 2014 ) . `` ' X-Men ' Scribe Zak Penn to Rewrite ' Ready Player One ' for Warner Bros. ( Exclusive ) '' . thewrap.com . Retrieved March 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( March 25 , 2015 ) . `` Steven Spielberg to Direct Sci - Fi Novel ' Ready Player One ' for Warner Bros . '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media Inc . Retrieved March 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Jeff , Sneider ( September 1 , 2015 ) . `` Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' Shortlist Includes Elle Fanning , Olivia Cooke , Lola Kirke ( Exclusive ) '' . thewrap.com . Retrieved September 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Variety Staff ( June 5 , 2016 ) . `` Japan 's Win Morisaki Joins Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' '' . Variety . Jump up ^ Busch , Anita ( 24 June 2016 ) . `` Hannah John - Kamen Lands Role In Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' '' . Jump up ^ `` First week of ReadyPlayerOne finished . Surreal '' . Jump up ^ Evry , Max ( August 16 , 2016 ) . `` Ready Player One Set Photos Show a Grungy Dystopia '' . ComingSoon.net . Retrieved August 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Young , Graham ; Beardsworth , Luke ; Bains , Sanjeeta ( September 6 , 2016 ) . `` Recap : Spielberg films Ready Player One in JQ - another set location revealed plus car chase filmed '' . Birmingham Mail . Retrieved September 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Elderkin , Beth ( July 24 , 2017 ) . `` A Breakdown of All the Clues , ' 80s References , and Surprises in the Ready Player One Trailer '' . io9 . Retrieved July 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Brenzican , Anthony ( July 24 , 2017 ) . `` Ready Player One : All the Pop Culture References in the First Trailer '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved July 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Couch , Aaron ( July 22 , 2017 ) . `` Steven Spielberg Brings Ambitious ' Ready Player One ' Footage to Comic - Con '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Jon ( 9 June 2016 ) . `` AFI Honoree John Williams Looks Back on Six Decades of Iconic Themes '' . Variety . Retrieved 9 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Fleming Jr , Mike ( August 6 , 2015 ) . `` Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' Slotted For December 2017 '' . deadline.com . Retrieved August 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Chitwood , Adam ( February 9 , 2016 ) . `` Steven Spielberg 's ' Ready Player One ' Flees ' Star Wars ' , Sets New 2018 Release Date '' . Collider . Retrieved June 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Warner Bros. Pictures Gets Ready to Run the Gamut at Comic - Con International : San Diego '' . Warner Bros. Pictures . Retrieved July 9 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Official website Ready Player One on IMDb Ready Player One at Metacritic Ready Player One at Rotten Tomatoes Steven Spielberg Filmography Awards and nominations Films directed Firelight ( 1964 ) Slipstream ( 1967 ) Amblin ' ( 1968 ) Night Gallery ( `` Eyes '' segment , 1969 ) L.A. 2017 ( 1971 ) Duel ( 1971 ) Something Evil ( 1972 ) Savage ( 1973 ) The Sugarland Express ( 1974 , also wrote ) Jaws ( 1975 ) Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 , also wrote ) 1941 ( 1979 ) Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial ( 1982 ) Twilight Zone : The Movie ( `` Kick the Can '' segment , 1983 ) Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom ( 1984 ) The Color Purple ( 1985 ) Empire of the Sun ( 1987 ) Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade ( 1989 ) Always ( 1989 ) Hook ( 1991 ) Jurassic Park ( 1993 ) Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) The Lost World : Jurassic Park ( 1997 ) Amistad ( 1997 ) Saving Private Ryan ( 1998 ) A.I. Artificial Intelligence ( 2001 , also wrote ) Minority Report ( 2002 ) Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) The Terminal ( 2004 ) War of the Worlds ( 2005 ) Munich ( 2005 ) Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull ( 2008 ) The Adventures of Tintin ( 2011 ) War Horse ( 2011 ) Lincoln ( 2012 ) Bridge of Spies ( 2015 ) The BFG ( 2016 ) The Post ( 2017 ) Ready Player One ( 2018 ) Films written Ace Eli and Rodger of the Skies ( 1973 ) Poltergeist ( 1982 , also produced ) The Goonies ( 1985 ) Films produced An American Tail : Fievel Goes West ( 1991 ) Memoirs of a Geisha ( 2005 ) Flags of Our Fathers ( 2006 ) Letters from Iwo Jima ( 2006 ) Super 8 ( 2011 ) The Hundred - Foot Journey ( 2014 ) Television Amazing Stories ( 1985 -- 87 ) High Incident ( 1996 -- 97 ) Invasion America ( 1998 ) See also Steven Spielberg bibliography Amblin Partners Amblin Entertainment Amblin Television DreamWorks Television Amblimation DreamWorks USC Shoah Foundation Institute for Visual History and Education Works by Zak Penn Director Incident at Loch Ness ( 2004 ) The Grand ( 2007 ) Writer only Last Action Hero ( 1993 ) PCU ( 1994 ) Inspector Gadget ( 1999 ) Behind Enemy Lines ( 2001 ) X2 ( 2003 ) Suspect Zero ( 2004 ) Elektra ( 2005 ) X-Men : The Last Stand ( 2006 ) The Incredible Hulk ( 2008 ) The Avengers ( 2012 ) Ready Player One ( 2018 ) Television Alphas ( 2011 - 2012 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ready_Player_One_(film)&oldid=802535560 '' Categories : Upcoming films 2018 films English - language films Films set in 2045 2010s science fiction films 2010s adventure films American films American science fiction films American adventure films IMAX films Dystopian films Films about video games Films about virtual reality Films based on American novels Performance capture in film Films shot in England Films set in Ohio Amblin Entertainment films Village Roadshow Pictures films Warner Bros. films Films directed by Steven Spielberg Films produced by Steven Spielberg Film scores by Alan Silvestri Techno - thriller films Treasure hunt films Hidden categories : Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands Português Русский Suomi Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 26 September 2017 , at 19 : 46 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
when does the movie ready player one come out
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Jessica Jones (season 2)
Jessica Jones ( season 2 ) - wikipedia Jessica Jones ( season 2 ) Jessica Jones ( season 2 ) Promotional poster Starring Krysten Ritter Rachael Taylor Eka Darville J.R. Ramirez Terry Chen Leah Gibson Carrie - Anne Moss Janet McTeer Country of origin United States No. of episodes 13 Release Original network Netflix Original release March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 1 Next → Season 3 List of Jessica Jones episodes The second season of the American web television series Jessica Jones , which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , follows Jones as she takes on a new case after the events surrounding her encounter with Kilgrave . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise . The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Tall Girls Productions , with Melissa Rosenberg serving as showrunner . Krysten Ritter stars as Jones , with Rachael Taylor , Carrie - Anne Moss , and Eka Darville also returning from the first season , as well as Wil Traval and David Tennant in guest roles . They are joined by J.R. Ramirez , Terry Chen , Leah Gibson , and Janet McTeer . The second season was ordered in January 2016 , with filming beginning in April 2017 , back - to - back with the miniseries Marvel 's The Defenders . Filming concluded in September 2017 . The season was released on March 8 , 2018 . It received mostly positive reviews from critics , who once again praised Ritter 's performance and the series ' female focus , but felt the season suffered from pacing issues and a lack of a compelling villain after Tennant 's Kilgrave from season one . A third season of Jessica Jones was ordered on April 12 , 2018 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Episodes 2 Cast and characters 2.1 Main 2.2 Recurring 2.3 Notable guests 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Writing 3.3 Casting 3.4 Filming 3.5 Music 3.6 Marvel Cinematic Universe tie - ins 4 Release 4.1 Marketing 5 Critical response 6 References 7 External links Episodes ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original release date 14 `` AKA Start at the Beginning '' Anna Foerster Melissa Rosenberg March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Super-powered private investigator Jessica Jones has become known as a vigilante hero around New York City since she killed her tormentor Kilgrave . Trish Walker , Jones 's best friend and adopted sister , attempts to convince Jones to investigate her past and IGH , the company that gave her abilities , but Jones is not interested . Walker is dealing with declining ratings for her radio show Trish Talk , and sees her ex-boyfriend Will Simpson -- who was also experimented on by IGH -- following her . Pryce Cheng , another investigator , seeks to absorb Jones into his company at the request of lawyer Jeri Hogarth . When Jones attacks and injures Cheng , he plans to sue her with Hogarth , who is already facing a lawsuit from her former assistant and lover . Jones is approached by Robert Coleman , who also calls himself `` Whizzer '' and was given superspeed by IGH . When he is killed in an apparent construction accident , Jones traces his medication to an abandoned building which she remembers being taken to and experimented on . 15 `` AKA Freak Accident '' Minkie Spiro Aïda Mashaka Croal March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Jones goes to the home of Miklos Kozlov , the IGH doctor who had experimented on Simpson . She finds a shiva for Kozlov , who has died in a `` freak accident '' . One of Kozlov 's army patients believes that Simpson is behind this , and Jones suspects that he also killed Coleman . Walker asks Malcolm Ducasse , Jones 's neighbor and work partner , to help her rather than further involve the reluctant Jones . Walker confronts Maximilian Tatum , a director , about the sexual relationship they had when she was a child actress working for him , threatening to publicly reveal this unless he helps her get access to records at a hospital he has influence over . After Tatum refuses , Walker runs into Simpson . Jones also arrives , having tracked Walker down when she did not answer her phone . Simpson claims that someone else who was experimented on by IGH has killed Kozlov and Coleman , and that he is just there to protect Walker since she was noticed investigating IGH . This other person soon appears and kills Simpson while Jones gets Walker to safety . 16 `` AKA Sole Survivor '' Mairzee Almas Lisa Randolph March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Hogarth is diagnosed with ALS , and her law - firm partners Steven Benowitz and Linda Chou plan to buy her out based on a clause in their contracts . Jones agrees to investigate the other partners to find blackmail material for Hogarth . Jones receives an eviction notice from her building 's new superintendent Oscar Arocho , who fears Jones 's abilities . She also discovers the name Leslie Hansen in the abandoned IGH building . Hansen was a doctor at the hospital where Jones was taken following the accident that killed her family . Jones and Walker find Hansen 's apartment empty , and a charred human head in the basement . Walker uses her radio show to ask the public for information on Hansen , and receives a call from a woman claiming to be Hansen . Jones meets with her , and learns that she died after the accident but was brought back to life by IGH ; the superpowers were a side - effect . Jones angers the woman who escapes using abilities similar to Jones ' . DNA analysis shows that the charred head belongs to the real Leslie Hansen . 17 `` AKA God Help the Hobo '' Deborah Chow Jack Kenny March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Hogarth looks into ways to painlessly end her life , which her doctor does not support . Cheng fires Hogarth for no longer prioritizing him and his lawsuit , and also offers Ducasse a job at his company ; Ducasse turns down the role , and Jones promises to work with him better . Jones and Walker try to find out who the mysterious woman posing as Hansen was , and Jones scares Tatum into getting the IGH files from the hospital . In addition to Jones and Coleman , there is a file on Inez Green . They find her living on the streets , where she explains that she was a nurse at the hospital who was seriously injured by the mysterious woman . Jones and Walker promise to keep her safe . Cheng sends one of his men to steal all of Jones 's research from her office , hoping to find something to use against her . The man is attacked by the mysterious woman , who tears him apart . When Jones arrives , she is arrested for the murder . Walker tries to help her using an IGH performance enhancer she took from Simpson , but is also arrested . Ducasse takes Green to safety . 18 5 `` AKA The Octopus '' Millicent Shelton Jamie King March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Jones spends a day at the police station before Hogarth convinces her to tell the truth . Detective Eddy Costa believes Jones , and releases her with the promise that she will keep Costa informed of her investigation . Walker , bailed out by her mother , struggles with after - effects of using the IGH drug . Her new boyfriend Griffin Sinclair asks her to marry him , but Walker turns him down . She takes the IGH drug again . Ducasse takes Green to Hogarth , who agrees to protect her . Hogarth asks Green about IGH 's experiments . Jones meets with David Kawecki , an inmate at a mental hospital serving time for the murder of Green 's fellow nurse , who was actually killed by the mysterious woman . Jones learns of a shared interest in octopi that Kawecki has with an IGH doctor , and visits the aquarium . She recognizes the doctor , Karl Malus , in a new memory from after the accident . He meets with the mysterious woman , who upon discovering Jones surveilling them , smashes the glass enclosure of an aquarium in order to create a commotion to cover their escape . 19 6 `` AKA Facetime '' Jet Wilkinson Raelle Tucker March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Walker becomes addicted to the IGH drug , and starts looking for criminals to attack . Security footage from outside the aquarium shows Malus drugging the woman and forcing her to leave with him , despite the pair appearing to be a loving couple before . Jones sends Ducasse to his old university -- where he was suspended for his previous drug habit -- to investigate Malus ; they learn of Justis Ambrose , who attended university with Malus and appears to have been paying for all his personal expenses for years . Jones confronts Ambrose , who explains that his son Eric was born with a fatal genetic defect which Malus cured with his experimental treatments . Eric appears to have no special abilities , and Jones threatens him to gain Malus ' location . Green realizes that Hogarth has ALS , and tells her that there was an IGH patient that could heal people by touching them , and he saved her life after the woman had attacked her . Jones goes to the location , where she finds Malus and the woman living together . The latter claims to be Jones 's mother . 20 7 `` AKA I Want Your Cray Cray '' Jennifer Getzinger Hilly Hicks Jr . March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Years earlier , after Brian Jones and his son Phillip are killed in an accident , his wife Alisa and daughter Jessica are rushed to hospital . Dr. Leslie Hansen secretly takes them to IGH . Jessica is saved and returned to hospital in 20 days , but Alisa 's injuries are severe and her treatments take years , altering her looks and causing increased strength and extreme mood swings . Jessica is adopted by the Walkers , but grows away from her foster family over time especially after her adopted sister Trish becomes a drug addict at the beginning of her pop star career . Intent on seeing Jessica , Alisa escapes IGH by killing a nurse and severely injuring Green . She finds Jessica living with a new boyfriend , Stirling Adams , but sees him apparently attempt to exploit her and kills him in a fit of rage . Returning to IGH , Malus promises Alisa that he will cure her of the side effects . Adams ' death leads to Jessica re-connecting with Trish , helping her become sober . Now , Jessica refuses to forgive Alisa and attacks her ; Malus renders Jessica unconscious with a sedative . 21 8 `` AKA Ai n't We Got Fun '' Zetna Fuentes Gabe Fonseca March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Trish sleeps with Ducasse , and he notices that she has become addicted to the IGH drug . When she refuses to admit this , he leaves and decides to continue Jessica 's investigation into Hogarth 's partners . He discovers that Benowitz is secretly gay , and frequents a gay bar unbeknownst to his wife . Ducasse tells Benowitz that Chou had hired him , and Benowitz gives Ducasse blackmail material that he has on her . Outside of the gay bar , Ducasse is attacked by homophobic thugs . Trish rescues him , and gives him some of the IGH drug to help him heal , but it is too much for Ducasse and he runs off . Hogarth visits Shane Ryback , the man who can heal people with his hands . He is in prison , but she takes him on as a client . Jessica calls the police to Malus ' house , and he flees . Alisa decides to stay with Jessica and hopes to prove that she is the same person who raised Jessica , despite looking different and having extreme mood swings . They go to Jessica 's apartment , where they are shot at from outside . Jessica is hit , enraging Alisa . 22 9 `` AKA Shark in the Bathtub , Monster in the Bed '' Rosemary Rodriguez Jenny Klein March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Wanting revenge for the death of his man , Cheng tries to kill Alisa . Shooting at her from across the street , he only hits Jessica . Alisa races to find and kill Cheng , but Jessica is able to render him unconscious first , and convinces Alisa to find a solution other than murder . Ryback is released from prison , and attempts to heal Hogarth , but can not promise that it will work . During a live broadcast of her radio show , Trish , under the influence of the IGH drug , rails against the superficiality of her show 's programming and quits . She is offered a desirable job on television , but realizes that she has run out of the drug . Arocho , whose relationship with Jessica has become less hostile and more romantic , comes to Jessica when his ex-wife kidnaps their son Vido . Jessica and Alisa race to save Vido , using their abilities for good . Alisa sees the potential of a life with Jessica doing good like this , but still wants to protect Jessica by killing Cheng and running away . Jessica frees Cheng , and when Alisa gives chase she is confronted by police , and surrenders to them . 23 10 `` AKA Pork Chop '' Neasa Hardiman Aïda Mashaka Croal March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Hogarth arranges a plea deal for Alisa , where she can avoid the Raft , a superhuman prison , if she gives up Malus . Alisa agrees when Jessica promises to keep Malus safe . Trish struggles with withdrawals during her television audition , where she overhears that the super-powered killer has been caught . Jessica explains everything to Trish and Ducasse , but tells them to stay away . She finds Malus and convinces him to go to a country with no extradition so Alisa can talk about him without fear of him being caught . He first waits for a new passport provided by Arocho , and also tells Jessica that he never treated Ryback . Hogarth does not believe Jessica when she says this , but arrives home to find Green and Ryback have robbed her ( and thus realizes she was not cured ) . Trish and Ducasse decide to track down Malus themselves , while Jessica discovers that Alisa is being tormented by one of her guards , Dale Holiday . Investigating him , Jessica finds evidence that he has murdered inmates before . He attacks her , and she accidentally kills him in self - defense . 24 11 `` AKA Three Lives and Counting '' Jennifer Lynch Jack Kenny & Lisa Randolph March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Jessica makes Holiday 's death look like suicide , and begins having hallucinations of Kilgrave . Trish knocks Ducasse out and restrains him , and asks Malus to give her abilities like Jessica 's . Jessica arrives with the passport from Arocho to give to Malus , to find him gone . She tracks them down just as Ducasse escapes , but Trish manages to get away with Malus . With Holiday dead , Alisa gets a new guard who treats her well . Jessica berates Ducasse for not trusting her , and for taking advantage of their working relationship . They both agree that he should no longer work for her . Malus takes Trish to the old IGH facility , where he begins to put her through the same process that changed Jessica and Alisa . Jessica arrives and stops the procedure , and then is almost convinced by her hallucination of Kilgrave to murder Malus . She stops herself , but he decides to end his own life . Malus destroys the facility with himself inside it , while Jessica gets Trish to the hospital . Alisa learns of Malus ' death via a news report , kills her new guard and escapes from prison . 25 12 `` AKA Pray for My Patsy '' Liz Friedlander Raelle Tucker & Hilly Hicks Jr . March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Alisa goes looking for Trish , blaming her for Malus ' death . She terrorizes the Trish Talk studio , before seeing Trish 's mother in an interview discussing why Trish is now hospitalized . She finds Jessica protecting Trish at the hospital , but still attempts to kill the latter . When Costa and his partner , Ruth Sunday , arrive they try to arrest Alisa . Jessica tries to talk Alisa down , but Alisa grabs Sunday and jumps out of the hospital , letting Sunday fall to her death . Costa tells Jessica to stay out of the way of the police , but Jessica secretly organizes to meet with Alisa at Trish 's apartment . Meanwhile , Trish is angry at Jessica for stopping the procedure early , but soon begins to have violent convulsions . Hogarth tracks down Green , and tells her a fabricated story about Ryback secretly conning multiple women . Giving Green a gun , Hogarth watches her confront Ryback and shoot him . Hogarth then calls the police . At Trish 's apartment , Jessica considers killing Alisa , but is unable to do it . Alisa knocks Jessica out and kidnaps her . 26 13 `` AKA Playland '' Uta Briesewitz Story by : Jesse Harris Teleplay by : Melissa Rosenberg March 8 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) Jessica attempts to resist Alisa , but eventually decides to work with her . They drive towards the Mexico -- U.S. border , saving a family caught in a traffic accident on the way . Jessica meets with Arocho to arrange new papers so they can cross the border , but he is followed by the police . Jessica and Alisa then drive towards the Canada -- U.S. border , but are confronted with police road blocks . They then go to the nearby amusement park Playland , where Alisa decides to wait until the police arrive . Trish sees a news report on the traffic accident and talks to Costa about the road blocks . Remembering that the Jones family had visited Playland before the accident , Trish goes there and kills Alisa . Jessica takes the blame , but does not forgive Trish . Trish later discovers that her reflexes appear to be heightened . Ducasse gives the blackmail material he found to Hogarth , allowing her to leave the law firm with enough money to start her own . Ducasse then begins working for Hogarth as part of Cheng 's agency . Jessica embraces some aspects of normal life with Arocho . Cast and characters ( edit ) Main article : List of Jessica Jones characters Main ( edit ) Krysten Ritter as Jessica Jones Rachael Taylor as Patricia `` Trish '' Walker Eka Darville as Malcolm Ducasse J.R. Ramirez as Oscar Arocho Terry Chen as Pryce Cheng Leah Gibson as Inez Green Carrie - Anne Moss as Jeri Hogarth Janet McTeer as Alisa Jones Recurring ( edit ) Hal Ozsan as Griffin Sinclair Maury Ginsberg as Steven Benowitz Kevin Chacon as Vido Arocho Rebecca De Mornay as Dorothy Walker John Ventimiglia as Eddy Costa Lisa Tharps as Ruth Sunday Callum Keith Rennie as Karl Malus Eden Marryshow as Shane Ryback Notable guests ( edit ) Wil Traval as Will Simpson Elden Henson as Foggy Nelson Daniel Marcus as Maury Tuttlebaum David Tennant as Kilgrave Rob Morgan as Turk Barrett Tijuana Ricks as Thembi Wallace Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) In January 2015 , Netflix COO Ted Sarandos stated that Jessica Jones the series was `` eligible to go into multiple seasons for sure '' and Netflix would look at `` how well ( they ) are addressing both the Marvel fanbase but also the broader fanbase '' in terms of determining if additional seasons would be appropriate . In July 2015 , Sarandos said some of the Defender series would `` selectively have multiple seasons as they come out of the gate , '' with series showrunner Melissa Rosenberg saying she was hopeful Jessica Jones would get an additional season before Marvel 's The Defenders . Rosenberg later expanded on this , saying that Marvel Television and Netflix were working out the placement of a potential second season , though `` ( i ) t might not be possible from a logistical standpoint '' to have a second season of Jessica Jones debut before The Defenders ; Sarandos later confirmed this to be the case , stating that the season would air after The Defenders released in 2017 . On January 17 , 2016 , Netflix ordered a second season of 13 episodes . Raelle Tucker joined the season as an executive producer and writer , replacing Liz Friedman from the first season , who departed the series to work on the pilot for the ABC series , Conviction . Writing ( edit ) Rosenberg and the season 's writers were halfway through the writing process by August 2016 , with the scripts completed by the end of October 2016 . Writing during the 2016 United States presidential election , Rosenberg noted she `` was just so angry '' and that she and the writing team tried to tap `` into the rage Hillary ( Clinton ) must have felt every day '' for the characters . With The Defenders releasing before the season , Rosenberg used the miniseries as an opportunity to help `` set up '' elements for the season , working with The Defenders executive producers and writers Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez to do so . Rosenberg wanted to `` continue with ( the Jessica Jones ) character '' in the season , saying , `` She 's a very damaged character , her damage goes beyond ( David Tennant 's ) Kilgrave . There 's a lot to mine from in her backstory and in her present day situation '' . Actress Krysten Ritter said that the second season would evolve from the first , and that for Jones , `` The first season was in her head and the second season is in her heart , '' adding that Jones `` is in a pretty dark headspace '' at the beginning of the season and that the season would be `` more of an emotional thriller this time . '' On whether Tennant could return for the second season , Rosenberg said , `` Sure , when you have David Tennant , you want him around forever ... But the show is called Jessica Jones and the story is about Jessica 's arc and how does that play out in its best form ? '' It was noted that Kilgrave would be `` hard to top '' , though , with Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb saying , `` One of the things that 's important about any Marvel show is your hero is often defined by how strong your antagonist is , '' with Rosenberg adding that the objective for the new villain , or villains , for the season would be not to match or do what was done with Kilgrave . As Kilgrave does appear in the season , Rosenberg felt it was important to have him return to `` be that mirror again '' for Jones , as he is `` such a part of her construction and her dilemma '' . Rosenberg also hoped to `` further expand on the ensemble and on Jessica 's world '' by giving more screen time to supporting characters , noting that in the first season , `` the trick of a show that 's called Jessica Jones ( is if ) she 's not in the scene , it 's not a guarantee that scene will end up in the final picture . You have to earn secondary character stories . You have to flesh them out enough so that they can eventually carry stories of their own '' in future seasons . She also wanted to continue to explore the relationship between Jones and Trish Walker , stating `` That is the core relationship in the piece . It is about female friendship , it is about how friends evolve -- they 're sisters , really -- and it 's about how they evolve and ping off each other . '' On Jones becoming famous after her heroics in the first season , Ritter said , `` She keeps her circle small because she does n't want people in her life , so there 's no textbook on how to deal with new popularity or new eyes on you . '' Speaking on the social issues she hoped to tackle in the season , after covering `` issues of choice , interracial relationships , domestic violence , ( and ) issues of consent '' while also exploring `` feminism and being a woman in this world '' in the first , Rosenberg said , `` I 'm not quite sure yet what the social issues are that we 're dealing with ( in season 2 ) . We 're just trying to find some resonance for ( Jessica Jones ) and a new place to push her , to give Krysten something new to play and really push the boundaries of the character . '' After much of the first season was taken from the Alias comic book , Rosenberg wanted to continue that trend with the second season , but acknowledged that `` the MCU is very different from the comics in terms of its mythology . In the books there were things building towards Civil War and all that , and here that 's not the case . The nature of that is we 're probably not going to be able to continue to do parallel storylines ( to Alias ) '' . On having Jones continue to struggle with the same issues in the second season , Loeb said , `` The end of the ( first season ) -- and it was one of the things that was very important when we talked about the end of the first ( season ) -- was that it was n't , ' Ooh , I triumphed and now I can get in my hovercar and join the Avengers . ' That was n't the story we were interested in telling . '' Rosenberg elaborated by comparing the Jessica Jones to her previous series Dexter , saying that she learned `` you can advance the character , but you never want to cure the character . With Dexter , the moment he felt guilt or accepted that he was ' bad , ' the show 's over . He 's no longer a sociopath . The equivalent for us would be if Jessica somehow recovered from the damage that had been done to her . People do n't just heal '' . She added that Jones ' killing of Kilgrave at the end of the first season was `` a life changing experience '' and something that would affect the character going forward . Rosenberg also stated that the season would be `` about digging deeper into this chaos and peeling back those layers ( of Jones ' life ) , just going to the core of her being '' after the first season focused on Jones ' trauma and facing her abuser . Casting ( edit ) After the season was ordered , several main cast members revealed that they would return for the second season , including Ritter as Jessica Jones , Rachael Taylor as Patricia `` Trish '' Walker , and Carrie - Anne Moss as Jeri Hogarth . Eka Darville also reprises his role as Malcolm Ducasse . In March 2017 , J.R. Ramirez was cast as Oscar Arocho , which was revealed in July after the airing of his character 's death on Power . In April 2017 , Janet McTeer was cast in an undisclosed role , described as someone who has `` an enormous impact on Jessica 's life . '' She was revealed to be playing Alisa Jones , Jessica 's mother , who was briefly portrayed in flashbacks by Miriam Shor in the first season . By July , Leah Gibson had also joined the cast , in the role of Inez Green . Also joining in the season is Terry Chen as Pryce Cheng . In August 2017 , David Tennant was confirmed to be reprising his role as Kilgrave , appearing as a hallucination , with Wil Traval also returning as Will Simpson . Recurring characters in the season include Rebecca De Mornay reprises her role as Dorothy Walker , Kevin Chacon as Vido Arocho and Callum Keith Rennie as Karl Malus . Elden Henson and Rob Morgan reprise their roles as Foggy Nelson and Turk Barrett from previous Marvel Netflix series , respectively . Filming ( edit ) Filming began the week of April 3 , 2017 in New York City , once again using the working title Violet . This followed the end of production on The Defenders in March , with Ritter having indicated in May 2016 that the season would film back - to - back with The Defenders . Filming occurred at the Long Island Aquarium and Exhibition Center . Filming for the season wrapped on September 14 , 2017 . Approaching the second season , Rosenberg wanted to increase the number of female directors working on the series as a further push for representation . This was a goal that `` Marvel was completely on board with '' , and given the demand of many talented female directors at the time , the series ' producers looked to book only female directors first , and approach male directors later in the pre-production phase if needed . Another member of the production suggested that the series book only female directors for the season , which Rosenberg `` had n't contemplated ( as a ) concept prior to that conversation '' . She quickly made that the goal of the production , and in October 2016 , Rosenberg confirmed that all 13 episodes of the season would be directed by women . Oscar 's paintings in the season were created by comic book artist David Mack , who has drawn covers for Jessica Jones comics . Music ( edit ) A soundtrack album for the season was released by Hollywood Records and Marvel Music digitally on March 16 , 2018 , featuring selections of the original score for the season composed by Sean Callery , as well as the original song `` I Want Your Cray Cray '' . All music composed by Sean Callery . show Track listing No . Title Length 1 . `` Jessica Jones Main Title ( Double Shot Version ) '' 5 : 11 2 . `` The Experiment Room '' 2 : 12 3 . `` Malcolm Suits Up '' 1 : 11 4 . `` The Bear on the Wall '' 5 : 13 5 . `` Alisa 's Theme '' 2 : 32 6 . `` Run Whizzer Run '' 2 : 51 7 . `` I Want Your Cray Cray '' ( performed by Rachael Taylor & Kandi Mark ) 2 : 49 8 . `` Hogarth 's Unexpected News '' 1 : 34 9 . `` Malcolm and Trish '' 1 : 21 10 . `` Gunpoint '' 3 : 16 11 . `` Rooftop Movie Night '' 1 : 20 12 . `` Alisa Surrounded '' 4 : 11 13 . `` It Did n't Have to Be You '' 2 : 51 14 . `` Hogarth Getting Even '' 1 : 54 15 . `` Roadside Assistance '' 3 : 27 16 . `` The Abandoned Lab '' 4 : 09 17 . `` Cheng Window Shot '' 2 : 00 18 . `` Escaping the Fire '' 4 : 18 19 . `` The Ferris Wheel '' 3 : 28 20 . `` Starting at the Beginning '' 1 : 17 Total length : 51 : 75 Marvel Cinematic Universe tie - ins ( edit ) The season makes several references to the events of Captain America : Civil War , including Vido Arocho 's toy Captain America 's shield being broken , as well as mention of the Raft prison . The season also mentions the Rand Corporation from Iron Fist , and makes multiple references to Spider - Man . Release ( edit ) The second season of Jessica Jones was released on March 8 , 2018 , to coincide with International Women 's Day , on the streaming service Netflix worldwide , in Ultra HD 4K and high dynamic range . Marketing ( edit ) In December 2017 , a teaser trailer for the season was released , along with announcing the season release date . A trailer was released on February 7 , 2018 . Ahead of the season releasing , Netflix revealed the episode titles and creative teams with pulp comic covers for each episode created by women artists . The artists included , in respective order for each episode : Stephanie Hans , Jen Bartel , Elizabeth Torque , Kate Niemczyk , Colleen Doran , Erica Henderson , Audrey Mox , Joyce Chin , Jenny Frison , Amy Reeder , Emanuela Lupacchino , June Brigman , and Annie Wu . The season held its red carpet premiere on March 7 , 2018 at the AMC Loews Lincoln Square . Critical response ( edit ) On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the season has an approval rating of 87 % with an average rating of 7.06 / 10 , based on 68 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , `` While Jessica Jones is a slower burn with less focus than its inaugural season , its enticing new character arc more fully details the most charismatic Defender . '' Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned the season a score of 70 out of 100 based on 19 critics , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . In her review of the first five episodes of the season , Allison Keene of Collider gave the season 4 out of 5 stars . She felt `` ( t ) he season really starts to kick into gear ... once we 're introduced to the central mystery : the truth behind IGH , '' with the season getting `` better and better as it goes along . '' However , as with previous Marvel Netflix series , the season suffered from pacing issues , featuring `` a minimal or non-existent score , scenes that go on for too long , and a limited number of edits that add up to everything feeling like it 's happening in real time . It 's not as bad as any other Marvel series on Netflix in this regard -- not even close -- but it 's still a problem , and one that has unbelievably still not been addressed in terms of episode count ( or shorter runtimes within episodes ) . '' Keene also felt the season missed a `` driving force '' by not having David Tennant back as Kilgrave , but was glad the season largely ignored the events of The Defenders to focus on Jones and her relationships . Awarding the season a `` B '' , Liz Shannon Miller from IndieWire said the season 's all - female directors kept `` the show 's noir bent in place though does n't push too hard into the realm of art -- but the clean approach works , as does Ritter 's always grounded and believable performance . '' She also enjoyed the Hogarth medical storyline , saying it was `` one of the most compelling new storylines '' , despite it not connecting to the overall larger narrative through the first five episodes . For Miller , Janet McTeer was `` the most dynamic element of these early episodes . While she has potential as a foil , there 's not enough of her to keep us hooked , not to mention the lack of the emotional hook that we had with Kilgrave in season 1 . '' Miller also felt the plot lacked direction , and agreed with Keene about the pacing issues . Digital Spy 's Jo Berry said in her review , `` While the beginning of the new season lacks the focus of the first , and is missing a truly menacing bad guy for Jessica to go up against , the new additions and expanded storylines do n't detract from Ritter 's powerhouse performance ... Pacing quibbles aside , this is a darkly enjoyable return for Jessica Jones , thanks to the strong scripts , slick direction and Ritter 's gripping performance . '' In a more mixed review , The Washington Post 's David Betancourt noted the season `` lacks shock value '' . While Ritter `` still brings her A-game ... It 's the lack of Kilgrave that at first seems to be what 's missing from season 2 . '' He did praise the supporting cast , feeling Darville `` has a standout performance '' as Malcolm , with his connection to the larger storyline `` surprising and enjoyable to watch '' , and also praising Taylor , adding it `` would n't hurt to bring ( Taylor ) in '' as her comics alter ego Hellcat , to help the season that `` lags at the beginning '' . Conversely , Susana Polo from Polygon was left disappointed and bored by the early episodes , also noting the lack of compelling antagonist for the season . She said , `` I do n't see Jessica Jones ' second season winning over anyone who was lukewarm about her first -- or anyone who skipped it entirely . I 'm a big fan , and even I left these first five episodes wondering exactly what had happened to the series that gripped me and never let go in 2015 . '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( April 12 , 2018 ) . `` Marvel 's ' Jessica Jones ' Renewed For Season 3 By Netflix '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on April 13 , 2018 . Retrieved April 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Arrant , Chris ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` JESSICA JONES Renewed For Second Season '' . Newsarama . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved January 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Beard , Jim ( February 3 , 2016 ) . `` Rachael Taylor Deals with Trish Walker 's Inner Demons in ' Marvel 's Jessica Jones ' '' . Marvel.com . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2016 . Retrieved February 5 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Perry , Spencer ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` Jessica Jones Season 2 Set Photos Tease How Kilgrave Returns '' . ComingSoon.net . Archived from the original on August 18 , 2017 . Retrieved August 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Dinh , Christine ( July 31 , 2017 ) . `` J.R. Ramirez Joins ' Marvel 's Jessica Jones ' '' . Marvel.com . Archived from the original on July 31 , 2017 . Retrieved July 31 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Bundel , Ani ( March 7 , 2018 ) . `` Who Is Pryce Cheng On ' Jessica Jones ' ? Here 's What You Should Know About The New Character '' . Elite Daily . Archived from the original on March 11 , 2018 . Retrieved March 11 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Latour , Rob ( July 12 , 2017 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 Adds ' Twilight ' Actress Leah Gibson ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Archived from the original on July 13 , 2017 . Retrieved July 12 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Watch : Jessica Jones Season 2 Red Carpet '' . Syfy Wire . March 10 , 2018 . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2018 . Retrieved March 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Beard , Jim ( February 5 , 2016 ) . `` Carrie - Anne Moss Pays for Hogarth 's Sins in ' Marvel 's Jessica Jones ' '' . Marvel.com . Archived from the original on February 6 , 2016 . Retrieved February 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Wigler , Josh ( March 9 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Star Janet McTeer Pulls Back the Curtain on Her Top - Secret Season 2 Role '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2018 . Retrieved March 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Trumbore , Dave ( March 13 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' : All the Season 2 Easter Eggs You Might Have Missed '' . Collider . Archived from the original on March 14 , 2018 . Retrieved March 14 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Berry , Jo ( February 27 , 2018 ) . `` Jessica Jones season 2 spoiler - free review : Darkly enjoyable , but lacking in focus '' . Digital Spy . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2018 . Retrieved February 28 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Hornshaw , Phil ( March 11 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 Shows Fans the Origins of Superhero Hellcat '' . TheWrap . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2018 . Retrieved March 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Drum , Nicole ( March 11 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 's ' Daredevil ' Connection Revealed '' . Comicbook.com . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2018 . Retrieved March 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Li , Shirley ( August 14 , 2017 ) . `` Marvel 's Jessica Jones : David Tennant to appear in season 2 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2017 . Retrieved August 14 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Siede , Caroline ( March 9 , 2018 ) . `` Jessica Jones ' penultimate episode has deadly ( and non-deadly ) consequences '' . The A.V. Club . Archived from the original on March 13 , 2018 . Retrieved March 13 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Schwartz , Terri ( January 7 , 2015 ) . `` Netflix announces ' Daredevil , ' ' Bloodline , ' ' Kimmy Schmidt ' premiere dates '' . Zap2It . Archived from the original on January 10 , 2015 . Retrieved January 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldman , Eric ( July 28 , 2015 ) . `` Netflix On Marvel Series Release Plan And If Punisher Could Get A Spinoff '' . IGN . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2015 . Retrieved July 28 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Weintraub , Steve ( October 12 , 2015 ) . `` Krysten Ritter & Showrunner Melissa Rosenberg Talk ' Jessica Jones ' at NYCC '' . Collider . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2015 . Retrieved October 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ryan , Maureen ( November 20 , 2015 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Showrunner Melissa Rosenberg Talks About Her Tough Heroine '' . Variety . Archived from the original on November 21 , 2015 . Retrieved November 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick , Kevin ( July 27 , 2016 ) . `` New ' Jessica Jones , ' ' Daredevil ' and ' Punisher ' No Earlier Than 2018 ? '' . ScreenCrush . Archived from the original on July 29 , 2016 . Retrieved July 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Friedlander , Whitney ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Renewed for Season 2 on Netflix '' . Variety . Archived from the original on January 17 , 2016 . Retrieved January 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( March 31 , 2016 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' : Raelle Tucker Joins Netflix Series As Executive Producer '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on April 1 , 2016 . Retrieved March 31 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Dibdin , Emma ( September 20 , 2016 ) . `` What To Expect From the Second Season of Jessica Jones '' . Esquire . Archived from the original on September 20 , 2016 . Retrieved September 20 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Ryan , Maureen ( October 22 , 2016 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Hires All Women Directors for Season 2 , Showrunner Says '' . Variety . Archived from the original on October 23 , 2016 . Retrieved October 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Press , Joy ( March 2 , 2018 ) . `` The Creator of ' Jessica Jones ' Serves Up a Dark Mirror for Our Moment '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on March 5 , 2018 . Retrieved March 5 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Schwartz , Terri ( August 9 , 2016 ) . `` Jessica Jones Showrunner Melissa Rosenberg Previews The Defenders Aftermath And Season 2 Plans '' . IGN . Archived from the original on August 10 , 2016 . Retrieved August 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Ge , Linda ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Showrunner on Season 2 : ' Her Damage Goes Beyond Killgrave ' '' . TheWrap . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved January 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Atkinson , S. ( August 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 Clues From Krysten Ritter Should Get Fans Jonsin ' For New Episodes '' . Bustle . Archived from the original on August 21 , 2017 . Retrieved August 21 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Li , Shirley ( December 8 , 2017 ) . `` Marvel 's Jessica Jones : David Tennant 's Kilgrave returns to torment Jessica in season 2 first look '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on December 28 , 2017 . Retrieved December 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bentley , Jean ( January 18 , 2016 ) . `` Do Jessica Jones and Luke Cage Have a Future ? Krysten Ritter Hopes So '' . E !. Archived from the original on January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved January 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Abrams , Natalie ( August 12 , 2016 ) . `` Jessica Jones boss teases Jessica - Trish dynamic in season 2 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on August 13 , 2016 . Retrieved August 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Patten , Dominic ( November 18 , 2015 ) . `` ' Marvel 's Jessica Jones ' EP Melissa Rosenberg On Luke Cage , Season 2 , ' Supergirl ' & Gender Parity In Hollywood '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on November 19 , 2015 . Retrieved November 18 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Ritter , Stephanie ( May 12 , 2016 ) . Jessica Jones Season Two Details Revealed ! ( Exclusive ! ) . Nerdist Industries . Retrieved May 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Schwartz , Terri ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` How Jessica Jones ' Final Triumph Is n't An Easy Resolution '' . IGN . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2016 . Retrieved January 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldman , Eric ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` Jessica Jones : Rachael Taylor on Trish 's Potential Hellcat Future in Season 2 '' . IGN . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved January 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Radish , Christina ( January 28 , 2016 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Cast on Season 2 Possibilities , Sex Scenes , and ' Luke Cage ' '' . Collider . Archived from the original on January 29 , 2016 . Retrieved January 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberley ( July 31 , 2017 ) . `` Power 's J.R. Ramirez Breaks Down Julio 's Ultimate Mistake , Plus : What Marvel Show Is He Headed To ? '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2017 . Retrieved August 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , Jame ( April 6 , 2017 ) . `` Jessica Jones casts Oscar nominee in major season 2 mystery role '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on April 6 , 2017 . Retrieved April 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hayes , Britt ( January 17 , 2016 ) . `` Where Marvel 's ' Jessica Jones ' Could Go in Season 2 '' . ScreenCrush . Archived from the original on March 14 , 2018 . Retrieved March 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Rianne Houghton ( March 16 , 2018 ) . `` Here 's why David Tennant returned for that Jessica Jones season 2 storyline '' . DigitalSpy . Archived from the original on March 26 , 2018 . Retrieved March 25 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Arrant , Christ ( April 6 , 2017 ) . `` Maleficent Actor Cast As ' Undisclosed Character ' For Jessica Jones ' 2nd Season '' . Newsarama . Archived from the original on April 8 , 2017 . Retrieved April 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hood , Cooper ( March 19 , 2017 ) . `` The Defenders Has Finished Filming '' . Screen Rant . Archived from the original on March 20 , 2017 . Retrieved March 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Russell , Scarlett ( May 11 , 2016 ) . `` Defenders and Jessica Jones season 2 will be filmed back to back , says Krysten Ritter '' . Digital Spy . Archived from the original on May 12 , 2016 . Retrieved May 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Zegers , Kelly ( June 6 , 2017 ) . `` Netflix hit ' Jessica Jones ' films at Long Island Aquarium '' . Northforker . Archived from the original on June 12 , 2017 . Retrieved June 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ridgely , Charlie ( September 15 , 2017 ) . `` Filming Wraps on ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 '' . Comicbook.com . Archived from the original on September 15 , 2017 . Retrieved September 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Francisco , Eric ( March 9 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 Easter Eggs Include a Major ' Civil War ' Connection '' . Inverse . Archived from the original on March 14 , 2018 . Retrieved March 14 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : filmmusicreporter ( March 15 , 2018 ) . `` Soundtrack Album for ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 to Be Released '' . Film Music Reporter . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2018 . Retrieved March 17 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Ramos , Dino - Ray ( December 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Marvel 's Jessica Jones ' : Season 2 Premiere Date Set For Netflix Superhero Series '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on December 10 , 2017 . Retrieved December 10 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Otterson , Joe ( February 7 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 Trailer Explores Hard - Drinking Hero 's Origin ( Watch ) '' . Variety . Archived from the original on February 7 , 2018 . Retrieved February 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Marvel 's Jessica Jones '' . Netflix . Archived from the original on September 7 , 2016 . Retrieved September 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Moye , David ; Dahlen , Damon ( March 6 , 2018 ) . `` These ' Jessica Jones ' Pulp - Style Covers Offer Spoiler Hints Galore '' . HuffPost . Archived from the original on March 6 , 2018 . Retrieved March 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Marvel 's Jessica Jones : Season 2 ( 2018 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Fandango Media . Retrieved April 12 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Marvel 's Jessica Jones : Season 2 Reviews '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved March 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Keene , Alison ( February 27 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' Season 2 Review : Fighting the Monster Within '' . Collider . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2018 . Retrieved February 28 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Miller , Liz Shannon ( February 27 , 2018 ) . `` ' Marvel 's Jessica Jones ' Season 2 Review : A Too - Slow Start Still Leaves Us Optimistic For Our Favorite Hard - Drinking Non-Hero '' . IndieWire . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2018 . Retrieved February 28 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Betancourt , David ( February 27 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jessica Jones ' does n't wow in Season 2 , but it 's not as off the mark as ' Iron Fist ' '' . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2018 . Retrieved February 28 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Polo , Susana ( February 27 , 2018 ) . `` Jessica Jones season 2 pre-review : sophomore slump '' . Polygon . Archived from the original on February 28 , 2018 . Retrieved February 28 , 2018 . External links ( edit ) Marvel 's Jessica Jones on IMDb Marvel 's Jessica Jones at TV.com Jessica Jones Brian Michael Bendis Michael Gaydos Supporting characters Luke Cage Carol Danvers Jessica Drew Ben Urich Enemies Man Mountain Marko Purple Man Publications Alias The Pulse Jessica Jones In other media Jessica Jones season 1 characters Related articles Daily Bugle New Avengers Marvel Cinematic Universe Feature films Phase One Iron Man The Incredible Hulk Iron Man 2 Thor Captain America : The First Avenger The Avengers accolades Phase Two Iron Man 3 Thor : The Dark World Captain America : The Winter Soldier Guardians of the Galaxy Avengers : Age of Ultron Ant - Man Phase Three Captain America : Civil War Doctor Strange Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 Spider - Man : Homecoming Thor : Ragnarok Black Panther Avengers : Infinity War production Ant - Man and the Wasp Captain Marvel Untitled Avengers film production Television series ABC Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episodes season 1 5 characters Agent Carter season 1 characters Inhumans `` Behold ... The Inhumans '' `` Those Who Would Destroy Us '' Netflix Daredevil season 1 characters Jessica Jones season 1 characters Luke Cage season 1 characters Iron Fist season 1 characters The Defenders The Punisher season 1 Hulu Runaways `` Reunion '' Freeform Cloak & Dagger Other Most Wanted New Warriors Other media Short films Item 47 Agent Carter All Hail the King Digital series WHIH Newsfront Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. : Slingshot Tie - in comics Fury 's Big Week Cast and characters Film cast Television series cast Phil Coulson Erik Selvig Trevor Slattery Tony Stark Claire Temple Music Soundtracks Iron Man The Incredible Hulk Iron Man 2 Thor Captain America : The First Avenger The Avengers Iron Man 3 Thor : The Dark World Captain America : The Winter Soldier Guardians of the Galaxy Avengers : Age of Ultron Ant - Man Captain America : Civil War Luke Cage Doctor Strange Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 Spider - Man : Homecoming Thor : Ragnarok Black Panther Avengers : Infinity War Singles `` Live to Rise '' `` All the Stars '' `` King 's Dead '' `` Pray for Me '' MCU - inspired media Video games Iron Man The Incredible Hulk Iron Man 2 Thor : God of Thunder Captain America : Super Soldier Iron Man 3 Lego Marvel 's Avengers Disney Parks Iron Man Experience Marvel - themed areas Guardians of the Galaxy -- Mission : Breakout ! Other Team Thor Book Portal Marvel Cinematic Universe portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jessica_Jones_(season_2)&oldid=846465158 '' Categories : 2018 American television seasons Jessica Jones ( TV series ) Marvel Cinematic Universe seasons Hidden categories : Track listings with input errors Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Italiano Polski Português Edit links This page was last edited on 18 June 2018 , at 23 : 08 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
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Road Redemption
Road Redemption - Wikipedia Road Redemption Jump to : navigation , search Road Redemption Developer ( s ) Pixel Dash Studios EQ Games Engine Unity Platform ( s ) Linux Microsoft Windows OS X PlayStation 4 Wii U Xbox One Release Linux , Microsoft Windows , OS X WW : October 4 , 2017 PlayStation 4 , Wii U , Xbox One WW : 2018 Genre ( s ) Vehicular combat , racing Mode ( s ) Single - player Road Redemption is a vehicular combat racing video game being developed by Pixel Dash Studios and EQ Games as a spiritual successor to the Road Rash series of vehicular combat racing video games . An in - progress version is available through Steam Early Access , with final release planned for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux on October 4 , 2017 . Console versions of Road Redemption are planned for 2018 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Gameplay 2 Development 3 Reception 3.1 Pre-release 4 References 5 External links Gameplay ( edit ) The game plays a spiritual successor to the Road Rash series of vehicular combat racing video games . The game aims to replicate the arcade - like simplicity and silliness of the Road Rash games , while introducing more modern graphics and gameplay mechanics . In addition to the melee weapons featured in Road Rash , Road Redemption introduces firearms in the players options for weapons as well . The game will feature split screen multiplayer modes , including the computer - based ones , which is more of a rarity for the platform . The proposed Wii U version will also feature the ability for multiplayer sessions to take place with one player on the television and the other using just the Wii U GamePad screen . Development ( edit ) In 2009 , Ian Fisch , a long time fan of the Road Rash series wrote a blog post on why the game needed a revival . He had intended for the blog post to be a call for developers Electronic Arts to revisit the series , but following the commercial failures of racing / combat hybrids such as Split / Second and Blur , he believed there would be no appetite for such game from an established publisher , so began working on his own take on the game . The game was first announced April 2013 , alongside a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign . The campaign raised over $173,000 , successfully exceeding its $160,000 goal . While the game was funded for development , it missed the 198,000 stretch goal for a virtual reality Oculus Rift version . Paul Fisch , a developer on the game elaborated on reasons why their Kickstarter campaign did not `` take off '' in a piece for The Penny Arcade Report . In it , he blamed the timing of the campaign launch and general crowdfunding fatigue . The game was initially intended for an August 2014 release , which was pushed back to November 2014 at the release of the alpha version in April 2014 . While an early beta version was released through Steam Early Access in September 2014 , the game missed its 2014 release date , and a lack of further updates in 2015 lead to fears of the game being cancelled . An update in April 2016 clarified that development was still proceeding , with a Q3 2016 release date planned for Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux . PlayStation 4 , Xbox One , and Wii U versions are planned for sometime afterwards . Initial 2016 updates did not mention the Wii U as a platform , again causing speculation towards cancellation of that particular version , but DarkSeas Games clarified that the Wii U version was still planned , but was relegated to a release window after the PS4 and Xbox One versions , citing extra work that would have to be done to get the game running on the less - powerful Wii U . After the game 's release , DarkSeas Game 's also intends on making the game open source , allowing for people to create mods for the game . DarkSeas Game 's also teamed up with Yacht Club Games to bring their Shovel Knight character to the game as a playable character . Reception ( edit ) Pre-release ( edit ) In Eurogamer 's Steam Early Access review of the game , Dan Whitehead praised the game despite its quirks and glitches , stating `` There are a lot of problems , in other words , and the development team has a lot of balancing and polishing to do if Road Redemption is to become a genuinely satisfying and well - rounded successor to its inspiration . Yet for all of the scruffiness , rough edges and half - baked ideas , the game works brilliantly where it matters . '' Polygon referred to the same early build as `` a crazier , deeper Road Rash '' that was `` as fast , crazed and violent as its obvious inspiration . '' The game 's $40 price point for an alpha release caught criticism from some websites . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Road Redemption Early Access review '' . Eurogamer.net. 9 October 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Savage , Phil . `` Road Redemption now available in alpha , providing you spend $40 '' . pcgamer . Jump up ^ Maiberg , Emanuel . `` Latest Road Redemption video shows promising progress '' . pcgamer . ^ Jump up to : Savage , Phil . `` Road Redemption takes a swipe at Road Rash with its combat - heavy Kickstarter '' . pcgamer . Jump up ^ Chalk , Andy . `` Road Redemption adds split - screen multiplayer , gets an E3 gameplay trailer '' . pcgamer . Jump up ^ `` Hands on with Road Redemption , a motorcycle combat racer coming to Xbox One and Windows '' . Windows Central . ^ Jump up to : `` Road Redemption slated for PC this summer '' . Eurogamer.net. 1 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Martin Robinson ( 2014 - 05 - 16 ) . `` How Road Redemption is reviving a lost genre '' . Eurogamer . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : `` Road Redemption Developer Says It 's Still `` Actively Pursuing Wii U Development '' `` . Nintendo Life . ^ Jump up to : Prescott , Shaun . `` Road Rash - inspired Road Redemption secures Kickstarter funding '' . pcgamer . Jump up ^ Paul Fisch ; DarkSeas Games ( 2013 - 05 - 09 ) . `` Road Rashed : 5 reasons why the Road Redemption Kickstarter failed to take off '' . The Penny Arcade Report . Archived from the original on 2013 - 05 - 28 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ Chalk , Andy . `` Road Redemption roars out onto Steam Early Access '' . pcgamer . Jump up ^ Prescott , Shaun . `` Road Redemption gets playable Shovel Knight character '' . pcgamer . Jump up ^ DanielleRiendeau . `` Road Redemption is like a crazier , deeper Road Rash '' . Polygon . Jump up ^ `` Do n't Be Rash : Road Redemption Alpha Out Now '' . Rock Paper Shotgun . External links ( edit ) Official website ( hide ) Road Rash series Video games Road Rash 3D 64 Jailbreak Related Electronic Arts Road Redemption Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Road_Redemption&oldid=806231100 '' Categories : 2017 video games Crowdfunded video games Kickstarter projects Linux games Multiplayer and single - player video games MacOS games PlayStation 4 games Racing video games Road Rash Vehicular combat games Video games developed in the United States Wii U games Windows games Xbox One games Hidden categories : Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Português Edit links This page was last edited on 20 October 2017 , at 16 : 23 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
when does road redemption come out for ps4
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Death by natural causes
Death by natural causes - Wikipedia Death by natural causes Jump to : navigation , search `` Natural death '' redirects here . For Horse the Band 's album , see A Natural Death . `` Natural causes '' redirects here . For other uses , see Natural causes ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A death by natural causes , as recorded by coroners and on death certificates and associated documents , is one that is primarily attributed to an illness or an internal malfunction of the body not directly influenced by external forces . Contrary to the statement before , everything is natural at some point . For example , a person dying from complications from influenza ( an infection ) or a heart attack ( an internal body malfunction ) or sudden heart failure would be listed as having died from natural causes . Health departments discourage listing old age as the cause of death because doing so does not benefit public health or medical research . Old age is not a scientifically recognized cause of death ; there is always a more direct cause , although it may be unknown in certain cases and could be one of a number of aging - associated diseases . By contrast , death caused by active intervention is called unnatural death . The `` unnatural '' causes are usually given as accident ( implying no unreasonable voluntary risk ) , misadventure ( accident following a willful and dangerous risk , which can include drug or alcohol overdose ) , suicide , or homicide . In some settings , other categories may be added . For example , a prison may track the deaths of inmates caused by acute intoxication separately . Additionally , a cause of death can be recorded as `` undetermined '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Reporting Causes of Death for the Elderly '' ( PDF ) . Oregon Health Authority . Retrieved 15 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Bryant , Clifton D. ( 2003 ) . Handbook of death & dying . Thousand Oaks : Sage Publications . p. 968 . ISBN 0 - 7619 - 2514 - 7 . Jump up ^ Stark , Martha ( 2000 ) . A physician 's guide to clinical forensic medicine . Totowa , NJ : Humana Press . p. 225 . ISBN 0 - 89603 - 742 - 8 . Jump up ^ Palmer , Brian ( 21 December 2009 ) . `` What , Exactly , Are `` Natural Causes '' ? `` . Slate.com . External links ( edit ) Death by Natural Causes Bristol Royal Infirmary Inquiry , Annex A : ' Unnatural death ' and ' death by natural causes ' Actual Causes of Death in the US , 2000 Death Outline In medicine Cell death Necrosis Avascular necrosis Coagulative necrosis Liquefactive necrosis Gangrenous necrosis Caseous necrosis Fat necrosis Fibrinoid necrosis Temporal lobe necrosis Programmed cell death AICD Anoikis Apoptosis Autophagy Intrinsic apoptosis Necroptosis Paraptosis Parthanatos Phenoptosis Pseudoapoptosis Pyroptosis Autolysis Autoschizis Eschar Immunogenic cell death Ischemic cell death Pyknosis Karyorrhexis Karyolysis Mitotic catastrophe Suicide gene Abortion Autopsy Brain death Brainstem death Clinical death DOA Death by natural causes Death rattle Dysthanasia End - of - life care Euthanasia Lazarus sign Lazarus syndrome Medical definition of death Organ donation Terminal illness Unnatural death Lists Causes of death by rate Expressions related to death Natural disasters People by cause of death Premature obituaries Preventable causes of death Notable deaths by year Unusual deaths TV actors who died during production Mortality Birthday effect Child mortality Gompertz -- Makeham law of mortality Immortality Biological Digital Infant mortality Karōshi Maternal death Maternal mortality in fiction Memento mori Micromort Mortality displacement Mortality rate RAMR Mortality salience Perinatal mortality After death Body Stages Pallor mortis Algor mortis Rigor mortis Livor mortis Putrefaction Decomposition Skeletonization Fossilization Preservation Cryopreservation Cryonics Neuropreservation Embalming Maceration Mummification Plastination Prosection Taxidermy Disposal Burial Bed burial Burial at sea Chariot burial Jar burial Natural burial Premature burial Secondary burial Ship burial Sky burial Space burial Cannibalism Cremation Dismemberment Excarnation Promession Resomation Beating heart cadaver Body donation Cadaveric spasm Coffin birth Death erection Dissection Gibbeting Postmortem Caloricity Post-mortem interval Other aspects Afterlife Cemetery Consciousness Customs Death mask Eternal oblivion Examination Funeral Grief Intermediate state Internet Mourning Obituary Resurrection Taboo on the dead Vigil Paranormal Ghosts Near - death experience Near - death studies Necromancy Out - of - body experience Reincarnation research Séance Legal Abortion law Administration Capital punishment Cause of death Civil death Coroner Death - qualified jury Death certificate Declared death in absentia Death row Dying declaration Faked death Inquest Legal death Murder Prohibition of death Right to die Suspicious death Trust law Will Fields Forensic pathology Funeral director Mortuary science Necrobiology Post-mortem chemistry Post-mortem photography Taphonomy Biostratinomy Thanatology Other Apparent death Dark tourism Darwin Awards Dead pool Death and culture Death anniversary Death anxiety Death deity Personification of death Dying - and - rising god Psychopomp Death camp Death drive Death education Death from laughter Death hoax Death knell Death march Death messenger Death notification Death panel Death poem Death pose Death squad Death threat Death trajectory Dignified death Extinction Fan death Festival of the Dead Fascination with death Homicide Information - theoretic death Last rites Martyr Megadeath Museum of Death Necronym Necrophilia Necrophobia The Order of the Good Death Predation Sacrifice human animal Spiritual death Suicide Assisted suicide Thanatosensitivity Undead Voodoo death Portal WikiProject This death - related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Death_by_natural_causes&oldid=808753106 '' Categories : Causes of death Medical terminology Death stubs Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from February 2016 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2015 All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia Eesti Euskara فارسی 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Polski Русский Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 4 November 2017 , at 22 : 59 . About Wikipedia
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Surface tension
Surface tension - Wikipedia Surface tension Jump to : navigation , search For the short story by James Blish , see Surface Tension ( short story ) . Play media Surface tension and hydrophobicity interact in this attempt to cut a water droplet . Play media Surface tension experimental demonstration with soap Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible . Surface tension allows insects ( e.g. water striders ) , usually denser than water , to float and stride on a water surface . At liquid -- air interfaces , surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other ( due to cohesion ) than to the molecules in the air ( due to adhesion ) . The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane . Thus , the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces , which is probably where the term `` surface tension '' came from . Because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds , water has a higher surface tension ( 72.8 millinewtons per meter at 20 ° C ) compared to that of most other liquids . Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity . Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length , or of energy per unit area . The two are equivalent , but when referring to energy per unit of area , it is common to use the term surface energy , which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids . In materials science , surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy . Contents ( hide ) 1 Causes 2 Effects of surface tension 2.1 Water 2.2 Surfactants 3 Physics 3.1 Physical units 3.2 Surface area growth 3.3 Surface curvature and pressure 3.4 Floating objects 3.5 Liquid surface 3.6 Contact angles 3.6. 1 Special contact angles 4 Methods of measurement 5 Effects 5.1 Liquid in a vertical tube 5.2 Puddles on a surface 5.3 The breakup of streams into drops 6 Thermodynamics 6.1 Thermodynamic theories of surface tension 6.2 Thermodynamics of soap bubbles 6.2. 1 Influence of temperature 6.2. 2 Influence of solute concentration 6.2. 3 Influence of particle size on vapor pressure 7 Surface tension of water and of seawater 7.1 Surface tension of water 7.2 Surface tension of seawater 8 Data table 9 Gallery of effects 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Causes ( edit ) Diagram of the forces on molecules of a liquid The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension . In the bulk of the liquid , each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules , resulting in a net force of zero . The molecules at the surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards . This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area . The forces of attraction acting between the molecules of same type are called cohesive forces while those acting between the molecules of different types are called adhesive forces . When cohesive forces are stronger than adhesives forces , the liquid acquires a convex meniscus ( as mercury in a glass container ) . On the other hand , when adhesive forces are stronger , the surface of the liquid curves up ( as water in a glass ) Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets . Although easily deformed , droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer . In the absence of other forces , including gravity , drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical . The spherical shape minimizes the necessary `` wall tension '' of the surface layer according to Laplace 's law . Water droplet lying on a damask . Surface tension is high enough to prevent floating below the textile Another way to view surface tension is in terms of energy . A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone ( not in contact with a neighbor ) . The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have , but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors ( compared to interior molecules ) and therefore have a higher energy . For the liquid to minimize its energy state , the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized . The minimized number of boundary molecules results in a minimal surface area . As a result of surface area minimization , a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can ( mathematical proof that `` smooth '' shapes minimize surface area relies on use of the Euler -- Lagrange equation ) . Since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area , a higher energy will also result . Consequently , the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy . Effects of surface tension ( edit ) Water ( edit ) Several effects of surface tension can be seen with ordinary water : Beading of rain water on a waxy surface , such as a leaf . Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself , so water clusters into drops . Surface tension gives them their near - spherical shape , because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio . Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched . The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer keep the drop linked to the faucet . It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere . If a stream of water was running from the faucet , the stream would break up into drops during its fall . Gravity stretches the stream , then surface tension pinches it into spheres . Flotation of objects denser than water occurs when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension . For example , water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond in the following way . The nonwettability of the water strider 's leg means there is no attraction between molecules of the leg and molecules of the water , so when the leg pushes down on the water , the surface tension of the water only tries to recover its flatness from its deformation due to the leg . This behavior of the water pushes the water strider upward so it can stand on the surface of the water as long as its mass is small enough that the water can support it . The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film : the insect 's feet cause indentations in the water 's surface , increasing its surface area and tendency of minimization of surface curvature ( so area ) of the water pushes the insect 's feet upward . Separation of oil and water ( in this case , water and liquid wax ) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids . This type of surface tension is called `` interface tension '' , but its chemistry is the same . Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage . Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol ; it is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water . A. Water beading on a leaf B. Water dripping from a tap C. Water striders stay atop the liquid because of surface tension D. Lava lamp with interaction between dissimilar liquids : water and liquid wax E. Photo showing the `` tears of wine '' phenomenon . Surfactants ( edit ) Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena , especially when surfactants are used to decrease it : Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass . Bubbles in pure water are unstable . The addition of surfactants , however , can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles ( see Marangoni effect ) . Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more . Emulsions are a type of colloid in which surface tension plays a role . Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses . But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension , which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water ( or vice versa ) . Physics ( edit ) Physical units ( edit ) Surface tension , usually represented by the symbol γ , is measured in force per unit length . Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per centimeter is also used . γ = 1 d y n c m = 1 e r g c m 2 = 1 m N m = 0.001 N m = 0.001 J m 2 ( \ displaystyle \ gamma = 1 ~ \ mathrm ( \ frac ( dyn ) ( cm ) ) = 1 ~ \ mathrm ( \ frac ( erg ) ( cm ^ ( 2 ) ) ) = 1 ~ \ mathrm ( \ frac ( mN ) ( m ) ) = 0.001 ~ \ mathrm ( \ frac ( N ) ( m ) ) = 0.001 ~ \ mathrm ( \ frac ( J ) ( m ^ ( 2 ) ) ) ) Surface area growth ( edit ) This section may be confusing or unclear to readers . In particular , this whole section is not clear . Please help us clarify the section . There might be a discussion about this on the talk page . ( May 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This diagram illustrates the force necessary to increase the surface area . This force is proportional to the surface tension . Surface tension can be defined in terms of force or energy . In terms of force : surface tension γ of a liquid is the force per unit length . In the illustration on the right , the rectangular frame , composed of three unmovable sides ( black ) that form a `` U '' shape , and a fourth movable side ( blue ) that can slide to the right . Surface tension will pull the blue bar to the left ; the force F required to hold the immobile side is proportional to the length L of the movable side . Thus the ratio F / L depends only on the intrinsic properties of the liquid ( composition , temperature , etc . ) , not on its geometry . For example , if the frame had a more complicated shape , the ratio F / L , with L the length of the movable side and F the force required to stop it from sliding , is found to be the same for all shapes . We therefore define the surface tension as γ = 1 2 F L . ( \ displaystyle \ gamma = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ) ( \ frac ( F ) ( L ) ) . ) The reason for the 1 / 2 is that the film has two sides , each of which contributes equally to the force ; so the force contributed by a single side is γL = F / 2 . In terms of energy : surface tension γ of a liquid is the ratio of the change in the energy of the liquid , and the change in the surface area of the liquid ( that led to the change in energy ) . This can be easily related to the previous definition in terms of force : if F is the force required to stop the side from starting to slide , then this is also the force that would keep the side in the state of sliding at a constant speed ( by Newton 's Second Law ) . But if the side is moving to the right ( in the direction the force is applied ) , then the surface area of the stretched liquid is increasing while the applied force is doing work on the liquid . This means that increasing the surface area increases the energy of the film . The work done by the force F in moving the side by distance Δx is W = FΔx ; at the same time the total area of the film increases by ΔA = 2LΔx ( the factor of 2 is here because the liquid has two sides , two surfaces ) . Thus , multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of γ = 1 / 2F / L by Δx , we get γ = F 2 L = F Δ x 2 L Δ x = W Δ A ( \ displaystyle \ gamma = ( \ frac ( F ) ( 2L ) ) = ( \ frac ( F \ Delta x ) ( 2L \ Delta x ) ) = ( \ frac ( W ) ( \ Delta A ) ) ) . This work W is , by the usual arguments , interpreted as being stored as potential energy . Consequently , surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm . Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy , a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape , which has the minimum surface area for a given volume . The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis . Surface curvature and pressure ( edit ) Surface tension forces acting on a tiny ( differential ) patch of surface . δθ and δθ indicate the amount of bend over the dimensions of the patch . Balancing the tension forces with pressure leads to the Young -- Laplace equation If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface , the surface must remain flat . But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side , the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force . In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure , the surface must be curved . The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch . When all the forces are balanced , the resulting equation is known as the Young -- Laplace equation : Δ p = γ ( 1 R x + 1 R y ) ( \ displaystyle \ Delta p = \ gamma \ left ( ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( R_ ( x ) ) ) + ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( R_ ( y ) ) ) \ right ) ) where : Δp is the pressure difference , known as the Laplace pressure . γ is surface tension . R and R are radii of curvature in each of the axes that are parallel to the surface . The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact ( twice ) the mean curvature of the surface ( depending on normalisation ) . Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops , puddles , menisci , soap bubbles , and all other shapes determined by surface tension ( such as the shape of the impressions that a water strider 's feet make on the surface of a pond ) . The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius . For not very small drops the effect is subtle , but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size . ( In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless . ) Δp for water drops of different radii at STP Droplet radius 1 mm 0.1 mm 1 μm 10 nm Δp ( atm ) 0.0014 0.0144 1.436 143.6 Floating objects ( edit ) Cross-section of a needle floating on the surface of water . F is the weight and F are surface tension resultant forces . When an object is placed on a liquid , its weight F depresses the surface , and if surface tension and downward force becomes equal than is balanced by the surface tension forces on either side F , which are each parallel to the water 's surface at the points where it contacts the object . Notice that small moment in the body may cause the object sink as the angle of contact decreases surface tension decreases the horizontal components of the two F arrows point in opposite directions , so they cancel each other , but the vertical components point in the same direction and therefore add up to balance F. The object 's surface must not be wettable for this to happen , and its weight must be low enough for the surface tension to support it . F w = 2 F s cos ⁡ θ ⇔ ρ w A w L g = 2 γ L cos ⁡ θ ( \ displaystyle F_ ( \ mathrm ( w ) ) = 2F_ ( \ mathrm ( s ) ) \ cos \ theta \ quad \ Leftrightarrow \ quad \ rho _ ( \ mathrm ( w ) ) A_ ( \ mathrm ( w ) ) Lg = 2 \ gamma L \ cos \ theta ) Liquid surface ( edit ) Minimal surface To find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using strictly mathematical means can be a daunting task . Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap - solution , a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap - film within seconds . The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature , as seen in the Young -- Laplace equation . For an open soap film , the pressure difference is zero , hence the mean curvature is zero , and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature . Contact angles ( edit ) Main article : Contact angle The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium . The top surface of a pond , for example , is an interface between the pond water and the air . Surface tension , then , is not a property of the liquid alone , but a property of the liquid 's interface with another medium . If a liquid is in a container , then besides the liquid / air interface at its top surface , there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container . The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different ( greater than ) its surface tension with the walls of a container . And where the two surfaces meet , their geometry must be such that all forces balance . Forces at contact point shown for contact angle greater than 90 ° ( left ) and less than 90 ° ( right ) Where the two surfaces meet , they form a contact angle , θ , which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface . Note that the angle is measured through the liquid , as shown in the diagrams above . The diagram to the right shows two examples . Tension forces are shown for the liquid -- air interface , the liquid -- solid interface , and the solid -- air interface . The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid -- solid and solid -- air surface tension , γ − γ , is less than the liquid -- air surface tension , γ , but is nevertheless positive , that is γ l a > γ l s − γ s a > 0 ( \ displaystyle \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) > \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( ls ) ) - \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( sa ) ) > 0 ) In the diagram , both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point , known as equilibrium . The horizontal component of f is canceled by the adhesive force , f . f A = f l a sin ⁡ θ ( \ displaystyle f_ ( \ mathrm ( A ) ) = f_ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) \ sin \ theta ) The more telling balance of forces , though , is in the vertical direction . The vertical component of f must exactly cancel the force , f . f l s − f s a = − f l a cos ⁡ θ ( \ displaystyle f_ ( \ mathrm ( ls ) ) - f_ ( \ mathrm ( sa ) ) = - f_ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) \ cos \ theta ) Liquid Solid Contact angle water soda - lime glass lead glass fused quartz 0 ° ethanol diethyl ether carbon tetrachloride glycerol acetic acid water paraffin wax 107 ° silver 90 ° methyl iodide soda - lime glass 29 ° lead glass 30 ° fused quartz 33 ° mercury soda - lime glass 140 ° Some liquid -- solid contact angles Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions , we also have : γ l s − γ s a = − γ l a cos ⁡ θ ( \ displaystyle \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( ls ) ) - \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( sa ) ) = - \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) \ cos \ theta ) where γ is the liquid -- solid surface tension , γ is the liquid -- air surface tension , γ is the solid -- air surface tension , θ is the contact angle , where a concave meniscus has contact angle less than 90 ° and a convex meniscus has contact angle of greater than 90 ° . This means that although the difference between the liquid -- solid and solid -- air surface tension , γ − γ , is difficult to measure directly , it can be inferred from the liquid -- air surface tension , γ , and the equilibrium contact angle , θ , which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles ( see main article contact angle ) . This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right . But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90 ° , the liquid -- solid / solid -- air surface tension difference must be negative : γ l a > 0 > γ l s − γ s a ( \ displaystyle \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) > 0 > \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( ls ) ) - \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( sa ) ) ) Special contact angles ( edit ) Observe that in the special case of a water -- silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90 ° , the liquid -- solid / solid -- air surface tension difference is exactly zero . Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180 ° . Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this . Contact angle of 180 ° occurs when the liquid -- solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid -- air surface tension . γ l a = γ l s − γ s a > 0 θ = 180 ∘ ( \ displaystyle \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) = \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( ls ) ) - \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( sa ) ) > 0 \ qquad \ theta = 180 ^ ( \ circ ) ) Methods of measurement ( edit ) Surface tension can be measured using the pendant drop method on a goniometer . Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects , it offers a number of paths to its measurement . Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured , the conditions under which its tension is to be measured , and the stability of its surface when it is deformed . Du Noüy ring method : The traditional method used to measure surface or interfacial tension . Wetting properties of the surface or interface have little influence on this measuring technique . Maximum pull exerted on the ring by the surface is measured . Du Noüy -- Padday method : A minimized version of Du Noüy method uses a small diameter metal needle instead of a ring , in combination with a high sensitivity microbalance to record maximum pull . The advantage of this method is that very small sample volumes ( down to few tens of microliters ) can be measured with very high precision , without the need to correct for buoyancy ( for a needle or rather , rod , with proper geometry ) . Further , the measurement can be performed very quickly , minimally in about 20 seconds . First commercial multichannel tensiometers ( CMCeeker ) were recently built based on this principle . Wilhelmy plate method : A universal method especially suited to check surface tension over long time intervals . A vertical plate of known perimeter is attached to a balance , and the force due to wetting is measured . Spinning drop method : This technique is ideal for measuring low interfacial tensions . The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is measured while both are rotated . Pendant drop method : Surface and interfacial tension can be measured by this technique , even at elevated temperatures and pressures . Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically . For pendant drops the maximum diameter and the ratio between this parameter and the diameter at the distance of the maximum diameter from the drop apex has been used to evaluate the size and shape parameters in order to determine surface tension . Bubble pressure method ( Jaeger 's method ) : A measurement technique for determining surface tension at short surface ages . Maximum pressure of each bubble is measured . Drop volume method : A method for determining interfacial tension as a function of interface age . Liquid of one density is pumped into a second liquid of a different density and time between drops produced is measured . Capillary rise method : The end of a capillary is immersed into the solution . The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below . Stalagmometric method : A method of weighting and reading a drop of liquid . Sessile drop method : A method for determining surface tension and density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact angle ( see Sessile drop technique ) . Vibrational frequency of levitated drops : The natural frequency of vibrational oscillations of magnetically levitated drops has been used to measure the surface tension of superfluid He . This value is estimated to be 0.375 dyn / cm at T = 0 K . Resonant oscillations of spherical and hemispherical liquid drop : The technique is based on measuring the resonant frequency of spherical and hemispherical pendant droplets driven in oscillations by a modulated electric field . The surface tension and viscosity can be evaluated from the obtained resonant curves . Effects ( edit ) Liquid in a vertical tube ( edit ) Main article : Capillary action Diagram of a mercury barometer An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury , and with a vacuum ( called Torricelli 's vacuum ) in the unfilled volume ( see diagram to the right ) . Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges , making the upper surface of the mercury dome - shaped . The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire cross-section of the tube . But the dome - shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury . Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy . Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus . We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury , including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass , because mercury does not adhere to glass at all . So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area , including where it is in contact with the glass . If instead of glass , the tube was made out of copper , the situation would be very different . Mercury aggressively adheres to copper . So in a copper tube , the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges ( that is , it would be a concave meniscus ) . In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container , we consider the part of the fluid 's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension . The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area . So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy . That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container . Illustration of capillary rise and fall . Red = contact angle less than 90 ° ; blue = contact angle greater than 90 ° If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong , surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action . The height to which the column is lifted is given by : h = 2 γ l a cos ⁡ θ ρ g r ( \ displaystyle h = ( \ frac ( 2 \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) \ cos \ theta ) ( \ rho gr ) ) ) where h is the height the liquid is lifted , γ is the liquid -- air surface tension , ρ is the density of the liquid , r is the radius of the capillary , g is the acceleration due to gravity , θ is the angle of contact described above . If θ is greater than 90 ° , as with mercury in a glass container , the liquid will be depressed rather than lifted . Puddles on a surface ( edit ) Profile curve of the edge of a puddle where the contact angle is 180 ° . The curve is given by the formula : x − x 0 = 1 2 H cosh − 1 ⁡ ( H h ) − H 1 − h 2 H 2 ( \ displaystyle x-x_ ( 0 ) = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ) H \ cosh ^ ( - 1 ) \ left ( ( \ frac ( H ) ( h ) ) \ right ) - H ( \ sqrt ( 1 - ( \ frac ( h ^ ( 2 ) ) ( H ^ ( 2 ) ) ) ) ) ) where H = 2 γ g ρ ( \ displaystyle H = 2 ( \ sqrt ( \ frac ( \ gamma ) ( g \ rho ) ) ) ) Small puddles of water on a smooth clean surface have perceptible thickness . Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness . The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimetre thick , and no thinner . Again this is due to the action of mercury 's strong surface tension . The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible , but the surface tension , at the same time , is acting to reduce the total surface area . The result of the compromise is a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness . The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water , lime water or even saline , but only on a surface made of a substance to which water does not adhere . Wax is such a substance . Water poured onto a smooth , flat , horizontal wax surface , say a waxed sheet of glass , will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass . The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180 ° is given by : h = 2 γ g ρ ( \ displaystyle h = 2 ( \ sqrt ( \ frac ( \ gamma ) ( g \ rho ) ) ) ) where h is the depth of the puddle in centimeters or meters . γ is the surface tension of the liquid in dynes per centimeter or newtons per meter . g is the acceleration due to gravity and is equal to 980 cm / s or 9.8 m / s ρ is the density of the liquid in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter Illustration of how lower contact angle leads to reduction of puddle depth In reality , the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180 ° with any liquid . When the contact angle is less than 180 ° , the thickness is given by : h = 2 γ l a ( 1 − cos ⁡ θ ) g ρ . ( \ displaystyle h = ( \ sqrt ( \ frac ( 2 \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( la ) ) \ left ( 1 - \ cos \ theta \ right ) ) ( g \ rho ) ) ) . ) For mercury on glass , γ = 487 dyn / cm , ρ = 13.5 g / cm and θ = 140 ° , which gives h = 0.36 cm . For water on paraffin at 25 ° C , γ = 72 dyn / cm , ρ = 1.0 g / cm , and θ = 107 ° which gives h = 0.44 cm . The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0 ° , the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface . Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid . The breakup of streams into drops ( edit ) Intermediate stage of a jet breaking into drops . Radii of curvature in the axial direction are shown . Equation for the radius of the stream is R ( z ) = R + A cos ( kz ) , where R is the radius of the unperturbed stream , A is the amplitude of the perturbation , z is distance along the axis of the stream , and k is the wave number Main article : Plateau -- Rayleigh instability In day - to - day life all of us observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets , no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet . This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateau -- Rayleigh instability , which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension . The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream . These are always present , no matter how smooth the stream is . If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components , we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time . Among those that grow with time , some grow at faster rates than others . Whether a component decays or grows , and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number ( a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter ) and the radii of the original cylindrical stream . Thermodynamics ( edit ) Thermodynamic theories of surface tension ( edit ) J.W. Gibbs developed the thermodynamic theory of capillarity based on the idea of surfaces of discontinuity . He introduced and studied thermodynamics of two - dimensional objects -- surfaces . These surfaces have area , mass , entropy , energy and free energy . As stated above , the mechanical work needed to increase a surface area A is dW = γ dA . Hence at constant temperature and pressure , surface tension equals Gibbs free energy per surface area : γ = ( ∂ G ∂ A ) T , P , n ( \ displaystyle \ gamma = \ left ( ( \ frac ( \ partial G ) ( \ partial A ) ) \ right ) _ ( T , P , n ) ) where G is Gibbs free energy and A is the area . Thermodynamics requires that all spontaneous changes of state are accompanied by a decrease in Gibbs free energy . From this it is easy to understand why decreasing the surface area of a mass of liquid is always spontaneous ( G < 0 ) , provided it is not coupled to any other energy changes . It follows that in order to increase surface area , a certain amount of energy must be added . Gibbs free energy is defined by the equation G = H − TS , where H is enthalpy and S is entropy . Based upon this and the fact that surface tension is Gibbs free energy per unit area , it is possible to obtain the following expression for entropy per unit area : ( ∂ γ ∂ T ) A , P = − S A ( \ displaystyle \ left ( ( \ frac ( \ partial \ gamma ) ( \ partial T ) ) \ right ) _ ( A , P ) = - S ^ ( A ) ) Kelvin 's equation for surfaces arises by rearranging the previous equations . It states that surface enthalpy or surface energy ( different from surface free energy ) depends both on surface tension and its derivative with temperature at constant pressure by the relationship . H A = γ − T ( ∂ γ ∂ T ) P ( \ displaystyle H ^ ( A ) = \ gamma - T \ left ( ( \ frac ( \ partial \ gamma ) ( \ partial T ) ) \ right ) _ ( P ) ) Fifteen years after Gibbs , J.D. van der Waals developed the theory of capillarity effects based on the hypothesis of a continuous variation of density . He added to the energy density the term c ( ∇ ρ ) 2 , ( \ displaystyle c ( \ nabla \ rho ) ^ ( 2 ) , ) where c is the capillarity coefficient and ρ is the density . For the multiphase equilibria , the results of the van der Waals approach practically coincide with the Gibbs formulae , but for modelling of the dynamics of phase transitions the van der Waals approach is much more convenient . The van der Waals capillarity energy is now widely used in the phase field models of multiphase flows . Such terms are also discovered in the dynamics of non-equilibrium gases . Thermodynamics of soap bubbles ( edit ) The pressure inside an ideal ( one surface ) soap bubble can be derived from thermodynamic free energy considerations . At constant temperature and particle number , dT = dN = 0 , the differential Helmholtz energy is given by d F = − P d V + γ d A ( \ displaystyle dF = - P \ , dV+ \ gamma \ , dA ) where P is the difference in pressure inside and outside of the bubble , and γ is the surface tension . In equilibrium , dF = 0 , and so , P d V = γ d A ( \ displaystyle P \ , dV = \ gamma \ , dA ) . For a spherical bubble , the volume and surface area are given simply by V = 4 3 π R 3 → d V ≈ 4 π R 2 d R , ( \ displaystyle V = ( \ tfrac ( 4 ) ( 3 ) ) \ pi R ^ ( 3 ) \ quad \ rightarrow \ quad dV \ approx 4 \ pi R ^ ( 2 ) \ , dR , ) and A = 4 π R 2 → d A ≈ 8 π R d R . ( \ displaystyle A = 4 \ pi R ^ ( 2 ) \ quad \ rightarrow \ quad dA \ approx 8 \ pi R \ , dR . ) Substituting these relations into the previous expression , we find P = 2 R γ , ( \ displaystyle P = ( \ frac ( 2 ) ( R ) ) \ gamma , ) which is equivalent to the Young -- Laplace equation when R = R. For real soap bubbles , the pressure is doubled due to the presence of two interfaces , one inside and one outside . Influence of temperature ( edit ) Temperature dependence of the surface tension between the liquid and vapor phases of pure water Temperature dependency of the surface tension of benzene Surface tension is dependent on temperature . For that reason , when a value is given for the surface tension of an interface , temperature must be explicitly stated . The general trend is that surface tension decreases with the increase of temperature , reaching a value of 0 at the critical temperature . For further details see Eötvös rule . There are only empirical equations to relate surface tension and temperature : Eötvös : γ V 2 3 = k ( T C − T ) . ( \ displaystyle \ gamma V ^ ( \ frac ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ) = k ( T_ ( \ mathrm ( C ) ) - T ) . ) Here V is the molar volume of a substance , T is the critical temperature and k is a constant valid for almost all substances . A typical value is k = 6993210000000000000 ♠ 2.1 × 10 JK mol . For water one can further use V = 18 ml / mol and T = 647 K ( 374 ° C ) . A variant on Eötvös is described by Ramay and Shields : γ V 2 3 = k ( T C − T − 6 ) ( \ displaystyle \ gamma V ^ ( \ frac ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ) = k \ left ( T_ ( \ mathrm ( C ) ) - T - 6 \ right ) ) where the temperature offset of 6 kelvins provides the formula with a better fit to reality at lower temperatures . Guggenheim -- Katayama : γ = γ ∘ ( 1 − T T C ) n ( \ displaystyle \ gamma = \ gamma ^ ( \ circ ) \ left ( 1 - ( \ frac ( T ) ( T_ ( \ mathrm ( C ) ) ) ) \ right ) ^ ( n ) ) γ ° is a constant for each liquid and n is an empirical factor , whose value is 11 / 9 for organic liquids . This equation was also proposed by van der Waals , who further proposed that γ ° could be given by the expression K 2 T C 1 3 P C 2 3 , ( \ displaystyle K_ ( 2 ) T_ ( \ mathrm ( C ) ) ^ ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ) P_ ( \ mathrm ( C ) ) ^ ( \ frac ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ) , ) where K is a universal constant for all liquids , and P is the critical pressure of the liquid ( although later experiments found K to vary to some degree from one liquid to another ) . Both Guggenheim -- Katayama and Eötvös take into account the fact that surface tension reaches 0 at the critical temperature , whereas Ramay and Shields fails to match reality at this endpoint . Influence of solute concentration ( edit ) Solutes can have different effects on surface tension depending on the nature of the surface and the solute : Little or no effect , for example sugar at water air , most organic compounds at oil air Increase surface tension , most inorganic salts at water air Non-monotonic change , most inorganic acids at water air Decrease surface tension progressively , as with most amphiphiles , e.g. , alcohols at water air Decrease surface tension until certain critical concentration , and no effect afterwards : surfactants that form micelles What complicates the effect is that a solute can exist in a different concentration at the surface of a solvent than in its bulk . This difference varies from one solute -- solvent combination to another . Gibbs isotherm states that : Γ = − 1 R T ( ∂ γ ∂ ln ⁡ C ) T , P ( \ displaystyle \ Gamma = - ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( RT ) ) \ left ( ( \ frac ( \ partial \ gamma ) ( \ partial \ ln C ) ) \ right ) _ ( T , P ) ) Γ is known as surface concentration , it represents excess of solute per unit area of the surface over what would be present if the bulk concentration prevailed all the way to the surface . It has units of mol / m C is the concentration of the substance in the bulk solution . R is the gas constant and T the temperature Certain assumptions are taken in its deduction , therefore Gibbs isotherm can only be applied to ideal ( very dilute ) solutions with two components . Influence of particle size on vapor pressure ( edit ) See also : Gibbs -- Thomson effect The Clausius -- Clapeyron relation leads to another equation also attributed to Kelvin , as the Kelvin equation . It explains why , because of surface tension , the vapor pressure for small droplets of liquid in suspension is greater than standard vapor pressure of that same liquid when the interface is flat . That is to say that when a liquid is forming small droplets , the equilibrium concentration of its vapor in its surroundings is greater . This arises because the pressure inside the droplet is greater than outside . P v f o g = P v ∘ e V 2 γ R T r k ( \ displaystyle P_ ( \ mathrm ( v ) ) ^ ( \ mathrm ( fog ) ) = P_ ( \ mathrm ( v ) ) ^ ( \ circ ) e ^ ( \ frac ( V2 \ gamma ) ( RTr_ ( \ mathrm ( k ) ) ) ) ) Molecules on the surface of a tiny droplet ( left ) have , on average , fewer neighbors than those on a flat surface ( right ) . Hence they are bound more weakly to the droplet than are flat - surface molecules . P ° is the standard vapor pressure for that liquid at that temperature and pressure . V is the molar volume . R is the gas constant r is the Kelvin radius , the radius of the droplets . The effect explains supersaturation of vapors . In the absence of nucleation sites , tiny droplets must form before they can evolve into larger droplets . This requires a vapor pressure many times the vapor pressure at the phase transition point . This equation is also used in catalyst chemistry to assess mesoporosity for solids . The effect can be viewed in terms of the average number of molecular neighbors of surface molecules ( see diagram ) . The table shows some calculated values of this effect for water at different drop sizes : P / P for water drops of different radii at STP Droplet radius ( nm ) 1000 100 10 P / P 1.001 1.011 1.114 2.95 The effect becomes clear for very small drop sizes , as a drop of 1 nm radius has about 100 molecules inside , which is a quantity small enough to require a quantum mechanics analysis . Surface tension of water and of seawater ( edit ) The two most abundant liquids on Earth are fresh water and seawater . This section gives correlations of reference data for the surface tension of both . Surface tension of water ( edit ) The surface tension of pure liquid water in contact with its vapor has been given by IAPWS as γ w = 235.8 ( 1 − T T C ) 1.256 ( 1 − 0.625 ( 1 − T T C ) ) mN / m , ( \ displaystyle \ gamma _ ( \ text ( w ) ) = 235.8 \ left ( 1 - ( \ frac ( T ) ( T_ ( \ text ( C ) ) ) ) \ right ) ^ ( 1.256 ) \ left ( 1 - 0.625 \ left ( 1 - ( \ frac ( T ) ( T_ ( \ text ( C ) ) ) ) \ right ) \ right ) ~ ( \ text ( mN / m ) ) , ) where both T and the critical temperature T = 647.096 K are expressed in kelvins . The region of validity the entire vapor -- liquid saturation curve , from the triple point ( 0.01 ° C ) to the critical point . It also provides reasonable results when extrapolated to metastable ( supercooled ) conditions , down to at least − 25 ° C . This formulation was originally adopted by IAPWS in 1976 and was adjusted in 1994 to conform to the International Temperature Scale of 1990 . The uncertainty of this formulation is given over the full range of temperature by IAPWS . For temperatures below 100 ° C , the uncertainty is ± 0.5 % . Surface tension of seawater ( edit ) Nayar et al. published reference data for the surface tension of seawater over the salinity range of 20 ≤ S ≤ 131 g / kg and a temperature range of 1 ≤ t ≤ 92 ° C at atmospheric pressure . The uncertainty of the measurements varied from 0.18 to 0.37 mN / m with the average uncertainty being 0.22 mN / m . This data is correlated by the following equation γ s w = γ w ( 1 + 3.766 × 10 − 4 S + 2.347 × 10 − 6 S t ) ( \ displaystyle \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( sw ) ) = \ gamma _ ( \ mathrm ( w ) ) \ left ( 1 + 3.766 \ times 10 ^ ( - 4 ) S + 2.347 \ times 10 ^ ( - 6 ) St \ right ) ) where γ is the surface tension of seawater in mN / m , γ is the surface tension of water in mN / m , S is the reference salinity in g / kg , and t is temperature in degrees Celsius . The average absolute percentage deviation between measurements and the correlation was 0.19 % while the maximum deviation is 0.60 % . The range of temperature and salinity encompasses both the oceanographic range and the range of conditions encountered in thermal desalination technologies . Data table ( edit ) Surface tension of various liquids in dyn / cm against air Mixture compositions denoted `` % '' are by mass dyn / cm is equivalent to the SI units of mN / m ( millinewton per meter ) Liquid Temperature ( ° C ) Surface tension , γ Acetic acid 20 27.60 Acetic acid ( 40.1 % ) + Water 30 40.68 Acetic acid ( 10.0 % ) + Water 30 54.56 Acetone 20 23.70 Diethyl ether 20 17.00 Ethanol 20 22.27 Ethanol ( 40 % ) + Water 25 29.63 Ethanol ( 11.1 % ) + Water 25 46.03 Glycerol 20 63.00 n - Hexane 20 18.40 Hydrochloric acid 17.7 M aqueous solution 20 65.95 Isopropanol 20 21.70 Liquid helium II − 273 0.37 Liquid nitrogen − 196 8.85 Mercury 15 487.00 Methanol 20 22.60 n - Octane 20 21.80 Sodium chloride 6.0 M aqueous solution 20 82.55 Sucrose ( 55 % ) + water 20 76.45 Water 0 75.64 Water 25 71.97 Water 50 67.91 Water 100 58.85 Toluene 25 27.73 Gallery of effects ( edit ) Breakup of a moving sheet of water bouncing off of a spoon . Photo of flowing water adhering to a hand . Surface tension creates the sheet of water between the flow and the hand . A soap bubble balances surface tension forces against internal pneumatic pressure . Surface tension prevents a coin from sinking : the coin is indisputably denser than water , so it must be displacing a volume greater than its own for buoyancy to balance mass . A daisy . The entirety of the flower lies below the level of the ( undisturbed ) free surface . The water rises smoothly around its edge . Surface tension prevents water filling the air between the petals and possibly submerging the flower . A metal paper clip floats on water . Several can usually be carefully added without overflow of water . An aluminium coin floats on the surface of the water at 10 ° C. Any extra weight would drop the coin to the bottom . A metal paperclip floating on water . A grill in front of the light has created the ' contour lines ' which show the deformation in the water surface caused by the metal paper clip . See also ( edit ) Underwater diving portal Anti-fog Capillary wave -- short waves on a water surface , governed by surface tension and inertia Cheerio effect -- the tendency for small wettable floating objects to attract one another . Cohesion Dimensionless numbers Bond number or Eötvös number Capillary number Marangoni number Weber number Dortmund Data Bank -- contains experimental temperature - dependent surface tensions Electrodipping force Electrowetting Electrocapillarity Eötvös rule -- a rule for predicting surface tension dependent on temperature Fluid pipe Hydrostatic equilibrium -- the effect of gravity pulling matter into a round shape Interface ( chemistry ) Meniscus -- surface curvature formed by a liquid in a container Mercury beating heart -- a consequence of inhomogeneous surface tension Microfluidics Sessile drop technique Sow - Hsin Chen Specific surface energy -- same as surface tension in isotropic materials . Spinning drop method Stalagmometric method Surface pressure Surface science Surface tension biomimetics Surface tension values Surfactants -- substances which reduce surface tension . Szyszkowski equation -- Calculating surface tension of aqueous solutions Tears of wine -- the surface tension induced phenomenon seen on the sides of glasses containing alcoholic beverages . Tolman length -- leading term in correcting the surface tension for curved surfaces . Wetting and dewetting Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ In a mercury barometer , the upper liquid surface is an interface between the liquid and a vacuum containing some molecules of evaporated liquid . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ US Geological Survey ( July 2015 ) . `` Surface Tension ( Water Properties ) -- USGS Water Science School '' . US Geological Survey . Retrieved November 6 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : White , Harvey E. ( 1948 ) . Modern College Physics . van Nostrand . ISBN 0 - 442 - 29401 - 8 . Jump up ^ Bush , John W.M. ( May 2004 ) . `` MIT Lecture Notes on Surface Tension , lecture 5 '' ( PDF ) . Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Retrieved April 1 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Bush , John W.M. ( May 2004 ) . `` MIT Lecture Notes on Surface Tension , lecture 3 '' ( PDF ) . Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Retrieved April 1 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Bush , John W.M. ( April 2004 ) . `` MIT Lecture Notes on Surface Tension , lecture 1 '' ( PDF ) . Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Retrieved April 1 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Mechanical definition of surface tension '' . Retrieved Dec 16 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Sears , Francis Weston ; Zemanski , Mark W. University Physics 2nd ed . Addison Wesley 1955 ^ Jump up to : Pierre - Gilles de Gennes ; Françoise Brochard - Wyart ; David Quéré ( 2002 ) . Capillarity and Wetting Phenomena -- Drops , Bubbles , Pearls , Waves . Alex Reisinger . Springer . ISBN 0 - 387 - 00592 - 7 . Jump up ^ Butt , Hans - Jürgen ; Graf , Karlheinz ; Kappl , Michael ( 2006 ) . `` Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces '' : 9 . Jump up ^ Aaronson , Scott ( March 2005 ) NP - complete Problems and Physical Reality . ACM SIGACT News ^ Jump up to : `` Surface Tension by the Ring Method ( Du Nouy Method ) '' ( PDF ) . PHYWE . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Surface and Interfacial Tension '' . Langmuir - Blodgett Instruments . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Surfacants at interfaces '' ( PDF ) . lauda.de . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ Calvert , James B. `` Surface Tension ( physics lecture notes ) '' . University of Denver . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Sessile Drop Method '' . Dataphysics . Archived from the original on August 8 , 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ Vicente , C. ; Yao , W. ; Maris , H. ; Seidel , G. ( 2002 ) . `` Surface tension of liquid 4He as measured using the vibration modes of a levitated drop '' . Physical Review B. 66 ( 21 ) . Bibcode : 2002PhRvB ... 66u4504V . doi : 10.1103 / PhysRevB. 66.214504 . Jump up ^ `` Droplet oscillations driven by an electric field '' . Colloids and Surfaces A : Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 460 : 351 -- 354 . doi : 10.1016 / j. colsurfa. 2013.12. 013 . Jump up ^ `` Electrically Driven Resonant Oscillations of Pendant Hemispherical Liquid Droplet and Possibility to Evaluate the Surface Tension in Real Time '' . Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 227 . doi : 10.1524 / zpch. 2013.0420 . Jump up ^ `` Oscillations of a Hanging Liquid Drop , Driven by Interfacial Dielectric Force '' . Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 225 : 405 -- 411 . doi : 10.1524 / zpch. 2011.0074 . Jump up ^ Gibbs , J.W. ( 2002 ) ( 1876 -- 1878 ) , `` On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances '' , in Bumstead , H.A. ; Van Nameeds , R.G. , The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs , 1 , Woodbridge , CT : Ox Bow Press , pp. 55 -- 354 , ISBN 0918024773 ^ Jump up to : Moore , Walter J. ( 1962 ) . Physical Chemistry , 3rd ed . Prentice Hall . ^ Jump up to : Adam , Neil Kensington ( 1941 ) . The Physics and Chemistry of Surfaces , 3rd ed . Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ van der Waals , J.D. ( 1979 ) ( 1893 ) , translated by Rowlinson , J.S. , `` The thermodynamic theory of capillarity under the hypothesis of a continuous variation of density '' , J. Stat . Phys. , 20 ( 2 ) : 197 -- 200 , Bibcode : 1979JSP ... 20 ... 197R , doi : 10.1007 / BF01011513 Jump up ^ Cahn , J.W. ; Hilliard , J.E. ( 1958 ) , `` Free energy of a nonuniform system . I. Interfacial free energy '' , J. Chem. Phys. : 258 -- 266 , Bibcode : 1958JChPh ... 28 ... 258C , doi : 10.1063 / 1.1744102 Jump up ^ Langer , J.S. ; Bar - On , M. ; Miller , H.D. ( 1975 ) , `` New computational method in the theory of spinodal decomposition '' , Phys. Rev. A : 1417 -- 1429. , Bibcode : 1975PhRvA ... 11.1417 L , doi : 10.1103 / PhysRevA. 11.1417 Jump up ^ Gorban , A.N. ; Karlin , I.V. ( 2016 ) , `` Beyond Navier -- Stokes equations : capillarity of ideal gas '' , Contemporary Physics ( Review article ) , Bibcode : 2017ConPh ... 58 ... 70G , arXiv : 1702.00831 , doi : 10.1080 / 00107514.2016. 1256123 ^ Jump up to : `` Physical Properties Sources Index : Eötvös Constant '' . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 16 . Jump up ^ Vargaftik , N.B. ; Volkov , B.N. ; Voljak , L.D. ( 1983 ) . `` International Tables of the Surface Tension of Water '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data . 12 ( 3 ) : 817 . Bibcode : 1983JPCRD ... 12 ... 817V . doi : 10.1063 / 1.555688 . Jump up ^ G. Ertl , H. Knözinger and J. Weitkamp ; Handbook of heterogeneous catalysis , Vol. 2 , page 430 ; Wiley - VCH ; Weinheim ; 1997 ISBN 3 - 527 - 31241 - 2 ^ Jump up to : International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam ( June 2014 ) . `` Revised Release on Surface Tension of Ordinary Water Substance '' . Jump up ^ K.G. Nayar ; D. Panchanathan ; G.H. McKinley & J.H. Lienhard V ( November 2014 ) . `` Surface tension of seawater '' . J. Phys . Chem. Ref . Data . 43 ( 4 ) : 43103 . Bibcode : 2014JPCRD ... 43d3103N . doi : 10.1063 / 1.4899037 . Jump up ^ F.J. Millero ; R. Feistel ; D.G. Wright & T.J. McDougall ( January 2008 ) . `` The composition of Standard Seawater and the definition of the Reference - Composition Salinity Scale '' . Deep - Sea Research Part I. 55 : 50 . Bibcode : 2008DSRI ... 55 ... 50M . doi : 10.1016 / j. dsr. 2007.10. 001 . Jump up ^ Lange 's Handbook of Chemistry ( 1967 ) 10th ed . pp 1661 -- 1665 ISBN 0 - 07 - 016190 - 9 ( 11th ed . ) Jump up ^ On the Surface Tension of Liquid Helium II External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Surface tension . On surface tension and interesting real - world cases Surface Tensions of Various Liquids Calculation of temperature - dependent surface tensions for some common components Surface tension calculator for aqueous solutions containing the ions H , NH + 4 , Na , K , Mg , Ca , SO 2 − 4 , NO − 3 , Cl , CO 2 − 3 , Br and OH . T. Proctor Hall ( 1893 ) New methods of measuring surface tension in liquids , Philosophical Magazine ( series 5 , 36 : 385 -- 415 ) , link from Biodiversity Heritage Library . The Bubble Wall ( Audio slideshow from the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory explaining cohesion , surface tension and hydrogen bonds ) C. Pfister : Interface Free Energy . Scholarpedia 2010 ( from first principles of statistical mechanics ) Fundamentals of surface and interfacial tension Surface and Interfacial Tension Branches of physics Divisions Applied Experimental Theoretical Energy Motion Thermodynamics Mechanics Classical Ballistics Lagrangian Hamiltonian Continuum Celestial Statistical Solid Fluid Quantum Waves Fields Gravitation Electromagnetism Optics Geometrical Physical Nonlinear Quantum Quantum field theory Relativity Special General By speciality Accelerator Acoustics Astrophysics Nuclear Stellar Heliophysics Solar Space Astroparticle Atomic -- molecular -- optical ( AMO ) Communication Computational Condensed matter Mesoscopic Solid - state Soft Digital Engineering Material Mathematical Molecular Nuclear Particle Phenomenology Plasma Polymer Statistical Physics in life science Biophysics Virophysics Biomechanics Medical physics Cardiophysics Health physics Laser medicine Medical imaging ‎ Nuclear medicine Neurophysics Psychophysics Physics with other sciences Agrophysics Soil Atmospheric Cloud Chemical Econophysics Geophysics Diving medicine , physiology , physics and environment Diving medicine Injuries and disorders Pressure Oxygen Freediving blackout Hyperoxia Hypoxia ( medical ) Oxygen toxicity Inert gases Atrial septal defect Avascular necrosis Decompression sickness Dysbaric osteonecrosis High - pressure nervous syndrome Hydrogen narcosis Isobaric counterdiffusion Nitrogen narcosis Taravana Uncontrolled decompression Carbon dioxide Hypercapnia Hypocapnia Aerosinusitis Air embolism Alternobaric vertigo Barodontalgia Barostriction Barotrauma Compression arthralgia Decompression illness Dental barotrauma Dysbarism Ear clearing Frenzel maneuver Valsalva maneuver Immersion Asphyxia Drowning Hypothermia Immersion diuresis Instinctive drowning response Salt water aspiration syndrome Swimming - induced pulmonary edema List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders Cramps Diving disorders Motion sickness Surfer 's ear Treatments Diving chamber Diving medicine Hyperbaric medicine Hyperbaric treatment schedules In - water recompression Oxygen therapy Diving physiology Artificial gills ( human ) Blood -- air barrier Blood shift Breathing Circulatory system CO2 retention Cold shock response Dead space ( physiology ) Decompression ( diving ) Decompression theory Diving reflex Gas exchange History of decompression research and development Lipid Maximum operating depth Metabolism Normocapnia Oxygen window in diving decompression Perfusion Physiological response to water immersion Physiology of decompression Pulmonary circulation Respiratory exchange ratio Respiratory quotient Respiratory system Systemic circulation Tissue ( biology ) Diving physics Ambient pressure Amontons ' law Anti-fog Archimedes ' principle Atmospheric pressure Boyle 's law Breathing performance of regulators Buoyancy Charles 's law Combined gas law Dalton 's law Diffusion Force Gay - Lussac 's law Henry 's law Hydrophobe Hydrostatic pressure Ideal gas law Molecular diffusion Neutral buoyancy Oxygen fraction Partial pressure Permeation Pressure Psychrometric constant Snell 's law Solubility Solution Supersaturation Surface tension Surfactant Torricellian chamber Underwater vision Weight Diving environment Algal bloom Breaking wave Ocean current Current ( stream ) Ekman transport Halocline Longshore drift Rip current Stratification Surf Surge ( wave action ) Thermocline Tides Turbidity Undertow ( water waves ) Upwelling Researchers in diving medicine , and physiology Arthur J. Bachrach Albert R. Behnke Paul Bert George F. Bond Robert Boyle Albert A. Bühlmann John R Clarke William Paul Fife John Scott Haldane Robert William Hamilton Jr . Leonard Erskine Hill Felix Hoppe - Seyler Christian J. Lambertsen Simon Mitchell Charles Momsen John Rawlins R.N. Charles Wesley Shilling Edward D. Thalmann Jules Triger Diving medical research organisations Aerospace Medical Association Divers Alert Network Diving Diseases Research Centre Fitness to dive List of diving hazards and precautions National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine Rubicon Foundation South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit Categories : Diving medicine Underwater diving physiology Underwater diving physics Physical oceanography Glossary Portal NDL : 00563859 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surface_tension&oldid=806118724 '' Categories : Fluid dynamics Surface science Intermolecular forces Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2016 All Wikipedia articles needing clarification All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from March 2015 Good articles Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Latviešu Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Shqip සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 October 2017 , at 20 : 36 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
what is the high surface tension of water due to
[ "At liquid–air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air (due to adhesion). The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces, which is probably where the term \"surface tension\" came from.[1] Because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface tension (72.8 millinewtons per meter at 20 °C) compared to that of most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity." ]
[ "the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air (due to adhesion)" ]
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Shan Hills
Shan Hills - wikipedia Shan Hills Jump to : navigation , search `` Shan Plateau '' redirects here . For the region and state in Myanmar , see Shan State . Shan Hills ရှမ်းရိုးမ / ฉาน โย มา View of the Shan Hills in southern Shan State Highest point Peak Loi Leng Elevation 2,673 m ( 8,770 ft ) Coordinates 22 ° 39 ′ N 98 ° 4 ′ E  /  22.650 ° N 98.067 ° E  / 22.650 ; 98.067 Length 560 km ( 350 mi ) N / S Width 330 km ( 210 mi ) E / W Geography Location of the Shan Hills Countries Myanmar and Thailand Region Southeast Asia Range coordinates 21 ° 30 ′ N 98 ° 00 ′ E  /  21.500 ° N 98.000 ° E  / 21.500 ; 98.000 Coordinates : 21 ° 30 ′ N 98 ° 00 ′ E  /  21.500 ° N 98.000 ° E  / 21.500 ; 98.000 Parent range Indo - Malayan System Geology Type of rock Granite , limestone Deforested landscape in the Shan Hills near Kalaw during the dry season . Anishakan waterfall near Pyin U Lwin . March 2011 earthquake location The Shan Hills ( Burmese : ရှမ်းရိုးမ , Thai : ฉาน โย มา ; Shan Yoma ) , also known as Shan Highland , is a vast mountainous zone that extends through Yunnan to Myanmar and Thailand . The whole region is made up of numerous mountain ranges separated mostly by narrow valleys as well as a few broader intermontane basins . The ranges in the area are aligned in such a way that they link to the foothills of the Himalayas further to the northwest . The highest point is Loi Leng , at 2,673 m high . Other peaks are 2,565 m Mong Ling Shan , 2,565 m Doi Inthanon and 2,563 m Loi Pangnao . All are ultra prominent peaks of Southeast Asia . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Geology 3 Geography 3.1 Subranges 4 History 5 Features 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Etymology ( edit ) The name of the massif or system of ranges , is derived from the Shan State and its peoples , said in its turn to be derived from the word `` Siam '' , that occupies most of the Shan Highland area . Since it was relatively unexplored until recent times , the Shan mountainous region was referred to as the `` Shan Plateau '' in geographic works of the British colonial period , a name that is still sometimes used . However , since the whole area lacks the expanses of relatively flat high terrain which are the main characteristic of a plateau , this label is rather incongruous . Geology ( edit ) Geologically in the Shan Hills and their southern subranges , layers of alluvium are superimposed on hard rock . Karstic ranges are common , for large tracts of the hills are limestone . The Shan Hills are an important silver and ruby mining area . Geography ( edit ) The area of the Shan Highland is a combination of hill ranges , steep river valleys and a few elevated plains , also known as the Shan Plateau . The area is the primary source of Myanmar 's sapphires , rubies and other gems , for which the country is famous ; it is also a principal source of lead , silver and zinc . The high plain averages about 1,000 metres ( 3,300 ft ) in elevation , and is sparsely populated . The Shan Hills straddle central eastern Myanmar and northwestern Thailand . They rise steeply from Myanmar 's central plain and stretch for hundreds of kilometres eastwards into Thailand 's northwest . The average elevation is around 1,000 m . The surface of the system is cut across by steep river gorges , part of the drainage basins of the Chao Phraya , the Irrawaddy , the Sittaung and the Salween or Thanlwin River which cuts across the plateau in a north / south direction . Subranges ( edit ) Daen Lao Range . The Daen Lao Range ( ทิว เขา แดน ลาว ) or ' Loi La Range ' is located in the southern and southeastern area of the Shan Hills . It separates the Salween watershed from the Mekong watershed . The Daen Lao Mountain Range begins at Chiang Saen in the east and Doi Chiang Dao ( 2,175 m ) is one of its highest points . The Daen Lao subrange includes Doi Nang Non ( The Sleeping Lady ) , a karstic formation at its southern end with waterfalls and caves . Karen Hills . The western end of the Shan Hills system is not clearly defined , with the Karen Hills in the southwestern area of the system beyond the Salween . Geographically the Karen Hills are the southwestern projection of the Shan Hills . They are also referred to as `` Kayah - Karen Mountains '' . Thanon Thong Chai Range . The Thanon Thong Chai Range ( เทือกเขา ถนน ธงชัย ) is the southernmost prolongation of the Shan Highland system . Southwards from the Daen Lao Range a series of mountain ranges extend in near - parallel fashion above the Shan Plateau rising up to heights of 2,500 m , with the Dawna Range in the west reaching the beginning of the Tenasserim Hills further south . Doi Inthanon , the highest point in Thailand , reaching 2,565 m ( 8,415 ft ) , is part of the Inthanon Range ( ทิว เขา อิน ท นนท์ ) , a high ridge of the Thanon Thong Chai subrange located in Chiang Mai Province . The tallest point of the Thanon Thong Chai Range in neighboring Mae Hong Son Province is Doi Mae Ya ( ยอด เขา แม่ ยะ ) ( 2,005 m ) , located on the western side of these mountains in Pai District . Other high peaks of this range are Doi Pui ( 1,685 m ) and Doi Suthep ( 1,676 m ) . Some geographers include the Thanon Thong Chai Range subsystem as part of the Daen Lao Range . History ( edit ) In British colonial times , the main hill station in Burma , Pyin Oo Lwin known in English as Maymyo , was built in the western region of the Shan Hills . At 1,000 m above sea level and about one - and a half hour drive from Mandalay , it was one of the retreats for colonial officials escaping the heat of the Burmese summer . Pyin Oo Lwin is still known for its botanical gardens and , like all British hill stations , has samples of colonial architecture . Presently Inle Lake near Yawnghwe is one of the tourist attractions of the Shan highlands . The Taunggyi Bird Sanctuary , established in 1906 as the Taunggyi Wildlife Reserve was redesignated as a bird sanctuary in 1989 . Owing to the insurgency and the activity of the Tatmadaw in the area many local people living in the mountainous areas of the Shan Hills moved across the border to Thailand where they live in refugee camps . Despite the ongoing insurgency , the Shan Hills is the area of Burma which accounts for most of the national potato production . On 24 March 2011 a magnitude 6.8 earthquake struck in Tarlay , Tachileik Township , in the Daen Lao range area on the eastern part of the hill system . It killed more than 70 and injured more than 100 people . Three hundred - ninety houses , 14 Buddhist monasteries and nine government buildings were damaged . Features ( edit ) The Shan Hills as seen from Inle Lake The Shan Hills in Mae Hong Son Province View over the Gokteik Gorge between Hsipaw and Pyin U Lwin The Shan Hills between Chiang Mai and the border with Myanmar See also ( edit ) List of Ultras of Southeast Asia Doi Inthanon Zomia ( geography ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Loi Leng , Myanmar Jump up ^ Mong Ling Shan , Myanmar Jump up ^ Loi Pangnao ( mountain ) - Region : Shan State , Myanmar Archived 2012 - 04 - 23 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Sarma , Satyendra Nath , Assamese Literature , Harrassowitz , Wiesbaden ( 1976 ) Jump up ^ Old maps of Shan Plateau ^ Jump up to : Avijit Gupta , The Physical Geography of Southeast Asia , Oxford University Press , 2005 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 924802 - 5 Jump up ^ Shan Plateau , Encyclopædia Britannica Jump up ^ Peter H. Molnar , Plateau ( Landform ) , Encyclopædia Britannica Jump up ^ Geology of Thailand - Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment , Bangkok Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica , 1988 , volume 10 , page 694 Jump up ^ Chiang Rai Tourism ( in Thai ) Jump up ^ Burma - Geography Archived 2012 - 02 - 07 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Kayah - Karen montane rain forests '' . Terrestrial Ecoregions . World Wildlife Fund . Jump up ^ Mae Ya Peak Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica - Burma . Part 3 Jump up ^ Myanmar Protected Areas - Context , Current Status and Challenges Archived 2012 - 04 - 17 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Karen Cultural Profile - Geography Jump up ^ Potato Production in Myanmar Jump up ^ Mydans , Seth ( 2011 - 03 - 24 ) . `` Earthquake Hits Myanmar '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Myanmar Earthquake 2011 : 6.8 Magnitude Temblor Hits Near Thailand '' . Huffington Post . 2011 - 03 - 24 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shan Hills . The Geology of Burma ( Myanmar ) Peakbagger - Shan - Western Thailand Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shan_Hills&oldid=841010367 '' Categories : Shan Hills Mountain ranges of Myanmar Mountain ranges of Thailand Hills of Myanmar Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with Thai - language external links Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Burmese - language text Articles containing Thai - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Eesti Français हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Lietuvių Nederlands Polski Русский Tiếng Việt 中文 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 May 2018 , at 14 : 15 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
what is the primary climate type found in the shan plateau
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Emergency contraception
Emergency contraception - wikipedia Emergency contraception Jump to : navigation , search Background Type Hormonal ( progestin or others ) or intrauterine First use 1970s Failure rates ( per use ) Perfect use ECP : see article text IUD : under 1 % Typical use % ( please see Effectiveness of ECPs below ) Usage User reminders Pregnancy test required if no period seen after 3 weeks Advantages and disadvantages STI protection No Periods ECP may disrupt next menstrual period by couple days . IUDs may make menstruation heavier and more painful Benefits IUDs may be subsequently left in place for ongoing contraception Risks As per methods Medical notes Combined estrogrogen / progestin pills of Yuzpe regimen now superseded by better - tolerated and more effective progestin - only pill . Progestin only ECP licensed for use within 3 days of unprotected intercourse , Ulipristal acetate and IUDs within 5 days . Take 2 times normal dosage birth control pill . Emergency contraception ( EC ) , or emergency postcoital contraception , are birth control measures that may be used after sexual intercourse to prevent pregnancy . Forms of EC include : Emergency contraceptive pills ( ECPs ) -- sometimes simply referred to as emergency contraceptives ( ECs ) or the `` morning - after pill '' -- are medications intended to disrupt or delay ovulation or fertilization , which are necessary for pregnancy . ECPs and abortion pills are not the same . ECPs work by preventing or delaying ovulation and therefore preventing pregnancy , not by abortion . Intrauterine devices ( IUDs ) -- usually used as a primary contraceptive method , but sometimes used as emergency contraception . Contents ( hide ) 1 Emergency contraceptive pills 1.1 Types 1.2 Effectiveness 1.3 Safety 1.3. 1 Interactions 2 Intrauterine device 3 As regular contraception 4 Relationship to high risk sex and abortion 5 EC and sexual assault 6 Mechanism of action 7 History 7.1 Calculating effectiveness 7.2 United States 7.2. 1 DES 7.2. 2 Preven 7.2. 3 Plan B 8 Availability 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Emergency contraceptive pills ( edit ) Emergency contraceptive pills ( ECPs ) ( sometimes referred to as emergency hormonal contraception , EHC ) may contain higher doses of the same hormones ( estrogens , progestins , or both ) found in regular combined oral contraceptive pills . Taken after unprotected sexual intercourse or contraceptive failure , such higher doses may prevent pregnancy from occurring . Types ( edit ) Three types of emergency contraceptive pills are available : combined estrogen and progestin pills , progestin - only ( levonorgestrel , LNG ) pills , and antiprogestin ( ulipristal acetate or mifepristone ) pills . Progestin - only and antiprogestin pills are available as dedicated ( specifically packaged for use as ) emergency contraceptive pills . Combined estrogen and progestin pills are no longer available as dedicated emergency contraceptive pills , but certain regular combined oral contraceptive pills may be used as emergency contraceptive pills . Progestin - only emergency contraceptive pills contain levonorgestrel , either as a single tablet or as a split dose of two tablets taken 12 hours apart , effective up to 72 hours after intercourse . Progestin - only ECPs are sold under many different brand names . Progestin - only ECPs are available over-the - counter ( OTC ) in several countries ( e.g. Bangladesh , Bulgaria , Canada , Cyprus , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , India , Malta , Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , Romania , Slovakia , South Africa , Sweden , United States ) , from a pharmacist without a prescription , and available with a prescription in some other countries . The antiprogestin ulipristal acetate is available as a micronized emergency contraceptive tablet , effective up to 120 hours after intercourse . Ulipristal acetate ECPs developed by HRA Pharma are available by prescription in over 50 countries under the brand names ellaOne , ella ( marketed by Watson Pharmaceuticals in the United States ) , Duprisal 30 , Ulipristal 30 , and UPRIS . The antiprogestin mifepristone ( also known as RU - 486 ) is available in five countries as a low - dose or mid-dose emergency contraceptive tablet , effective up to 120 hours after intercourse . Low - dose mifepristone ECPs are available by prescription in Armenia , Russia , Ukraine , and Vietnam and from a pharmacist without a prescription in China . Mid-dose mifepristone ECPs are available by prescription in China and Vietnam . Combined estrogen ( ethinylestradiol ) and progestin ( levonorgestrel or norgestrel ) pills used to be available as dedicated emergency contraceptive pills under several brand names : Schering PC4 , Tetragynon , Neoprimavlar , and Preven ( in the United States ) but were withdrawn after more effective dedicated progestin - only ( levonorgestrel ) emergency contraceptive pills with fewer side effects became available . If other more effective dedicated emergency contraceptive pills ( levonorgestrel , ulipristal acetate , or mifepristone ) are not available , specific combinations of regular combined oral contraceptive pills can be taken in split doses 12 hours apart ( the Yuzpe regimen ) , effective up to 72 hours after intercourse . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) approved this off - label use of certain brands of regular combined oral contraceptive pills in 1997 . As of 2014 , there are 26 brands of regular combined oral contraceptive pills containing levonorgestrel or norgestrel available in the United States that can be used in the emergency contraceptive Yuzpe regimen . Effectiveness ( edit ) Ulipristal acetate , and mid-dose mifepristone is more effective than levonorgestrel , which is more effective than the Yupse method . The effectiveness of emergency contraception is expressed as a percentage reduction in pregnancy rate for a single use of EC . Using an example of `` 75 % effective '' , the effectiveness calculation thus : ... these numbers do not translate into a pregnancy rate of 25 percent . Rather , they mean that if 1,000 women have unprotected intercourse in the middle two weeks of their menstrual cycles , approximately 80 will become pregnant . Use of emergency contraceptive pills would reduce this number by 75 percent , to 20 women . The progestin - only regimen ( using levonorgestrel ) has an 89 % effectiveness . As of 2006 , the labeling on the U.S. brand Plan B explained this effectiveness rate by stating , `` Seven out of every eight women who would have gotten pregnant will not become pregnant . '' In 1999 , a meta - analysis of eight studies of the combined ( Yuzpe ) regimen concluded that the best point estimate of effectiveness was 74 % . A 2003 analysis of two of the largest combined ( Yuzpe ) regimen studies , using a different calculation method , found effectiveness estimates of 47 % and 53 % . For both the progestin - only and Yuzpe regimens , the effectiveness of emergency contraception is highest when taken within 12 hours of intercourse and declines over time . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) suggested that reasonable effectiveness may continue for up to 120 hours ( 5 days ) after intercourse . For 10 mg of mifepristone taken up to 120 hours ( 5 days ) after intercourse , the combined estimate from three trials was an effectiveness of 83 % . A review found that a moderate dose of mifepristone is better than LNG or Yuzpe . HRA Pharma changed its packaging information for Norlevo ( which has dosage and chemical makeup identical to many other EHCs ) in November 2013 warning that the drug loses effectiveness in women who weigh more than 165 pounds and is completely ineffective for women who weigh over 176 pounds . Safety ( edit ) The most common side effect reported by users of emergency contraceptive pills was nausea ( 50.5 % of 979 Yuzpe regimen users and 23.1 % of 977 levonorgestrel - only users in the 1998 WHO trial ; 14.3 % of 2,720 levonorgestrel - only users in the 2002 WHO trial ) ; vomiting is much less common and unusual with levonorgestrel - only ECPs ( 18.8 % of 979 Yuzpe regimen users and 5.6 % of levonorgestrel - only users in the 1998 WHO trial ; 1.4 % of 2,720 levonorgestrel - only users in the 2002 WHO trial ) . Anti-emetics are not routinely recommended with levonorgestrel - only ECPs . If a woman vomits within 2 hours of taking a levonorgestrel - only ECP , she should take a further dose as soon as possible . Other common side effects ( each reported by less than 20 % of levonorgestrel - only users in both the 1998 and 2002 WHO trials ) were abdominal pain , fatigue , headache , dizziness , and breast tenderness . Side effects usually do not occur for more than a few days after treatment , and they generally resolve within 24 hours . Temporary disruption of the menstrual cycle is also commonly experienced . If taken before ovulation , the high doses of progestogen in levonorgestrel treatments may induce progestogen withdrawal bleeding a few days after the pills are taken . One study found that about half of women who used levonorgestrel ECPs experienced bleeding within 7 days of taking the pills . If levonorgestrel is taken after ovulation , it may increase the length of the luteal phase , thus delaying menstruation by a few days . Mifepristone , if taken before ovulation , may delay ovulation by 3 -- 4 days ( delayed ovulation may result in a delayed menstruation ) . These disruptions only occur in the cycle in which ECPs were taken ; subsequent cycle length is not significantly affected . If a woman 's menstrual period is delayed by two weeks or more , it is advised that she take a pregnancy test . ( Earlier testing may not give accurate results . ) Existing pregnancy is not a contraindication in terms of safety , as there is no known harm to the woman , the course of her pregnancy , or the fetus if progestin - only or combined emergency contraception pills are accidentally used , but EC is not indicated for a woman with a known or suspected pregnancy because it is not effective in women who are already pregnant . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) lists no medical condition for which the risks of emergency contraceptive pills outweigh the benefits . The American Academy of Pediatrics ( AAP ) and experts on emergency contraception have concluded that progestin - only ECPs may be preferable to combined ECPs containing estrogen in women with a history of blood clots , stroke , or migraine . There are no medical conditions in which progestin - only ECPs are contraindicated . Current venous thromboembolism , current or past history of breast cancer , inflammatory bowel disease , and acute intermittent porphyria are conditions where the advantages of using emergency contraceptive pills generally outweigh the theoretical or proven risks . ECPs , like all other contraceptives , reduce the absolute risk of ectopic pregnancy by preventing pregnancies and there is no increase in the relative risk of ectopic pregnancy in women who become pregnant after using progestin - only ECPs . Interactions ( edit ) The herbal preparation of St John 's wort and some enzyme - inducing drugs ( e.g. anticonvulsants or rifampicin ) may reduce the effectiveness of ECP , and a larger dose may be required . Intrauterine device ( edit ) An alternative to emergency contraceptive pills is the copper - T intrauterine device ( IUD ) which can be used up to 5 days after unprotected intercourse to prevent pregnancy . Insertion of an IUD is more effective than use of Emergency Contraceptive Pills - pregnancy rates when used as emergency contraception are the same as with normal IUD use . IUDs may be left in place following the subsequent menstruation to provide ongoing contraception ( 3 -- 10 years depending upon type ) . As regular contraception ( edit ) One brand of levonorgestrel pills was marketed as an ongoing method of postcoital contraception . However , there are serious drawbacks to such use of postcoital high - dose progestin - only oral contraceptive pills , especially if they are not used according to their package directions , but are instead used according to the package directions of emergency contraceptive pills : Due to the increasing severity of side effects with frequent use , Postinor is only recommended for women who have intercourse four or fewer times per month . If not used according to their package directions , but instead used according to the directions of levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills ( up to 72 hours after intercourse ) , they would be estimated to have a `` perfect - use '' ( when not used according to their package directions but used as directed on the package directions for levonorgestrel emergency contraception pills ) pregnancy rate of 20 % per year when used as the sole means of contraception ( as compared to a 40 % annual pregnancy rate for the Yuzpe regimen ) . These failure rates would be higher than those of almost all other birth control methods , including the rhythm method and withdrawal . Like all hormonal methods , postcoital high - dose progestin - only oral contraceptive pills do not protect against sexually transmitted infections . ECPs are generally recommended for backup or `` emergency '' use , rather than as the primary means of contraception . They are intended for use when other means of contraception have failed -- for example , if a woman has forgotten to take a birth control pill or when a condom is torn during sex . Relationship to high risk sex and abortion ( edit ) The current ( December 2012 ) American Academy of Pediatrics ( AAP ) Policy Statement on Emergency Contraception says : `` Despite multiple studies showing no increased risk behavior and evidence that hormonal emergency contraception will not disrupt an established pregnancy , public and medical discourse reflects that personal values of physicians and pharmacists continue to affect emergency - contraception access , particularly for adolescents . '' The latest ( December 2013 ) review by emergency contraception experts Trussell and Raymond says : `` Published evidence would seem to demonstrate convincingly that making ECPs more widely available does not increase risk - taking or adversely affect regular contraceptive use '' ... `` However , reanalysis of one of the randomized trials suggests that easier access to ECPs may have increased the frequency of coital acts with the potential to lead to pregnancy . '' and notes that four randomized controlled trials have found that advanced provision of emergency contraceptive pills did not increase rates of sexually transmitted infections or sexual risk taking . Trussell and Raymond noted that after one of the four studies had been reanalysed later , the data did show higher sexual risk - taking , specifically substituting in some cases emergency contraceptives for contraceptives such as condoms that are more effective . In France , Sweden , and Britain -- where Yuzpe - regimen EC had been available by prescription for more than a decade and progestin - only EC has been available without a prescription for 8 , 6 , and 2 years respectively -- the abortion rate was stable or higher during that time period . Another study concluded that distribution of free , advance supplies of EC to large numbers of women in Scotland did not reduce abortion rates . A randomized controlled trial of 2000 women in China compared women with advance access to EC to women without access , and noted that the pregnancy rate was the same between the two groups . The study observed that `` ... providing EC in advance increases use , but there is no direct evidence that it reduces unintended pregnancy '' and concluded that EC may not lower abortion rates . In September 2006 , emergency contraception expert Anna Glasier wrote a BMJ editorial entitled `` Emergency Contraception . Is it worth all the fuss ? '' that said in closing : `` So is emergency contraception worth the fuss ? If you are a woman who has had unprotected sex then of course it is , because emergency contraception will prevent pregnancy in some women some of the time -- and if you do n't want to get pregnant anything is better than nothing . If you are the CMAJ 's editor or FDA commissioner then yes , because scientific freedom is worth the fight . If you are looking for an intervention that will reduce abortion rates , emergency contraception may not be the solution , and perhaps you should concentrate most on encouraging people to use contraception before or during sex , not after it . '' EC and sexual assault ( edit ) Before EC was used in the general population or defined as `` emergency contraception , '' it was used , beginning in the 1960s and 70s , specifically for women who had been sexually assaulted . Pregnancy rates among rape victims of child - bearing age are around 5 % ; in the U.S. , about half of rape victims who become pregnant have abortions . Although EC is commonly used as an option for victims of sexual assault , some researchers believe such use is a public health measure that is not sufficiently widespread . Mechanism of action ( edit ) The primary mechanism of action of progestogen - only emergency contraceptive pills is to prevent fertilization by inhibition of ovulation . The best available evidence is that they do not have any post-fertilization effects such as the prevention of implantation . The U.S. FDA - approved labels and European EMA - approved labels ( except for HRA Pharma 's NorLevo ) levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills ( based on labels for regular oral contraceptive pills ) say they may cause endometrial changes that discourage implantation . Daily use of regular oral contraceptive pills can alter the endometrium ( although this has not been proven to interfere with implantation ) , but the isolated use of a levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pill does not have time to alter the endometrium . In March 2011 , the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics ( FIGO ) issued a statement that : `` review of the evidence suggests that LNG ( levonorgestreol ) ECPs can not prevent implantation of a fertilized egg . Language on implantation should not be included in LNG ECP product labeling . '' In June 2012 , a New York Times editorial called on the FDA to remove from the label the unsupported suggestion that levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills inhibit implantation . In November 2013 , the European Medicines Agency ( EMA ) approved a change to the label for HRA Pharma 's NorLevo saying it can not prevent implantation of a fertilized egg . Progestogen - only emergency contraceptive does not appear to affect the function of the Fallopian tubes or increase the rate of ectopic pregnancies . The primary mechanism of action of progesterone receptor modulator emergency contraceptive pills like low - dose and mid-dose mifepristone and ulipristal acetate is to prevent fertilization by inhibition or delay of ovulation . One clinical study found that post-ovulatory administration of ulipristal acetate altered the endometrium , but whether the changes would inhibit implantation is unknown . The European EMA - approved labels for ulipristal acetate emergency contraceptive pills do not mention an effect on implantation , but the U.S. FDA - approved label says : `` alterations to the endometrium that may affect implantation may also contribute to efficacy . '' The primary mechanism of action of copper - releasing intrauterine devices ( IUDs ) as emergency contraceptives is to prevent fertilization because of copper toxicity to sperm and ova . The very high effectiveness of copper - releasing IUDs as emergency contraceptives implies that they must also prevent some pregnancies by post-fertilization effects such as prevention of implantation . History ( edit ) In 1966 , gynecologist John McLean Morris and biologist Gertrude Van Wagenen at the Yale School of Medicine reported the successful use of oral high - dose estrogen pills as post-coital contraceptives in women and rhesus macaque monkeys , respectively . A few different drugs were studied , with a focus on high - dose estrogens , and it was originally hoped that postcoital contraception would prove viable as an ongoing contraceptive method . The first widely used methods were five - day treatments with high - dose estrogens , using diethylstilbestrol ( DES ) in the US and ethinylestradiol in the Netherlands by Dr. Haspels . In the early 1970s , the Yuzpe regimen was developed by A. Albert Yuzpe in 1974 ; progestin - only postcoital contraception was investigated ( 1975 ) ; and the copper IUD was first studied for use as emergency contraception ( 1975 ) . Danazol was tested in the early 1980s in the hopes that it would have fewer side effects than Yuzpe , but was found to be ineffective . The Yuzpe regimen became the standard course of treatment for postcoital contraception in many countries in the 1980s . The first prescription - only combined estrogen - progestin dedicated product , Schering PC4 ( ethinylestradiol and norgestrel ) , was approved in the UK in January 1984 and first marketed in October 1984 . Schering introduced a second prescription - only combined product , Tetragynon ( ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel ) in Germany in 1985. ( 1 ) By 1997 , Schering AG dedicated prescription - only combined products had been approved in only 9 countries : the UK ( Schering PC4 ) , New Zealand ( Schering PC4 ) , South Africa ( E-Gen - C ) , Germany ( Tetragynon ) , Switzerland ( Tetragynon ) , Denmark ( Tetragynon ) , Norway ( Tetragynon ) , Sweden ( Tetragynon ) and Finland ( Neoprimavlar ) ; and had been withdrawn from marketing in New Zealand in 1997 to prevent it being sold over-the - counter. ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) Regular combined oral contraceptive pills ( which were less expensive and more widely available ) were more commonly used for the Yuzpe regimen even in countries where dedicated products were available . Over time , interest in progestin - only treatments increased . The Special Program on Human Reproduction ( HRP ) , an international organization whose members include the World Bank and World Health Organization , `` played a pioneering role in emergency contraception '' by `` confirming the effectiveness of levonorgestrel . '' After the WHO conducted a large trial comparing Yuzpe and levonorgestrel in 1998 , combined estrogen - progestin products were gradually withdrawn from some markets ( Preven in the United States discontinued May 2004 , Schering PC4 in the UK discontinued October 2001 , and Tetragynon in France ) in favor of progestin - only EC , although prescription - only dedicated Yuzpe regimen products are still available in some countries . In 2002 , China became the first country in which mifepristone was registered for use as EC . Calculating effectiveness ( edit ) Early studies of emergency contraceptives did not attempt to calculate a failure rate ; they simply reported the number of women who became pregnant after using an emergency contraceptive . Since 1980 , clinical trials of emergency contraception have first calculated probable pregnancies in the study group if no treatment were given . The effectiveness is calculated by dividing observed pregnancies by the estimated number of pregnancies without treatment . Placebo - controlled trials that could give a precise measure of the pregnancy rate without treatment would be unethical , so the effectiveness percentage is based on estimated pregnancy rates . These are currently estimated using variants of the calendar method . Women with irregular cycles for any reason ( including recent hormone use such as oral contraceptives and breastfeeding ) must be excluded from such calculations . Even for women included in the calculation , the limitations of calendar methods of fertility determination have long been recognized . In their February 2014 emergency review article , Trussell and Raymond note : Calculation of effectiveness , and particularly the denominator of the fraction , involves many assumptions that are difficult to validate ... The risk of pregnancy for women requesting ECPs appears to be lower than assumed in the estimates of ECP efficacy , which are consequently likely to be overestimates . Yet , precise estimates of efficacy may not be highly relevant to many women who have had unprotected intercourse , since ECPs are often the only available treatment . In 1999 , hormonal assay was suggested as a more accurate method of estimating fertility for EC studies . United States ( edit ) DES ( edit ) In 1971 , a New England Journal of Medicine editorial calling attention to previously published studies on the use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive at Yale University , and a large study published in JAMA on the use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive at the University of Michigan , led to off - label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive becoming prevalent at many university health services . In May 1973 , in an attempt to restrict off - label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive to emergency situations such as rape , a FDA Drug Bulletin was sent to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists that said the FDA had approved , under restricted conditions , postcoital contraceptive use of DES . ( In February 1975 , the FDA Commissioner testified that the only error in the May 1973 FDA Drug Bulletin was that the FDA had not approved postcoital contraceptive use of DES . ) In September 1973 , the FDA published a proposed rule specifying patient labeling and special packaging requirements for any manufacturer seeking FDA approval to market DES as a postcoital contraceptive , inviting manufacturers to submit abbreviated new drug applications ( ANDAs ) for that indication , and notifying manufacturers that the FDA intended to order the withdrawal of DES 25 mg tablets ( which were being used off - label as postcoital contraceptives ) . In late 1973 , Eli Lilly , the largest U.S. manufacturer of DES , discontinued its DES 25 mg tablets and in March 1974 sent a letter to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists telling them it did not recommend use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive . Only one pharmaceutical company , Tablicaps , Inc. , a small manufacturer of generic drugs , ever submitted ( in January 1974 ) an ANDA for use of DES as an emergency postcoital contraceptive , and the FDA never approved it . In February 1975 , the FDA said it had not yet approved DES as a postcoital contraceptive , but would after March 8 , 1975 permit marketing of DES for that indication in emergency situations such as rape or incest if a manufacturer obtained an approved ANDA that provided patient labeling and special packaging as set out in a FDA final rule published in February 1975 . To discourage off - label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive , in February 1975 the FDA ordered DES 25 mg ( and higher ) tablets removed from the market and ordered the labeling of lower doses ( 5 mg and lower ) of DES still approved for other indications be changed to state : `` THIS DRUG PRODUCT SHOULD NOT BE USED AS A POSTCOITAL CONTRACEPTIVE '' in block capital letters on the first line of the physician prescribing information package insert and in a prominent and conspicuous location of the container and carton label . In March 1978 , a FDA Drug Bulletin was sent to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists which said : `` FDA has not yet given approval for any manufacturer to market DES as a postcoital contraceptive . The Agency , however , will approve this indication for emergency situations such as rape or incest if a manufacturer provides patient labeling and special packaging . To discourage ' morning after ' use of DES without patient labeling , FDA has removed from the market the 25 mg tablets of DES , formerly used for this purpose . '' In the 1980s , off - label use of the Yuzpe regimen superseded off - label use of DES for postcoital contraception . DES is no longer commercially available in the U.S. ; Eli Lilly , the last U.S. manufacturer , ceased production in spring 1997 . Preven ( edit ) On February 25 , 1997 , the FDA posted a notice in the Federal Register saying it had concluded that the Yuzpe regimen was safe and effective for off - label use as postcoital EC , was prepared to accept NDAs for COCPs labeled as ECPs , and listed 6 then available COCPs ( there are now 22 ) that could be used as ECPs . On September 1 , 1998 , the FDA approved the prescription Yuzpe regimen Preven Emergency Contraception Kit ( which contained a urine pregnancy test and 4 COCPs ) . Preven was discontinued in May 2004 . Plan B ( edit ) On July 28 , 1999 , the FDA approved the prescription progestin - only Plan B ( two 750 μg levonorgestrel pills ) emergency contraceptive . On August 24 , 2006 , the FDA approved nonprescription behind - the - counter access to Plan B from pharmacies staffed by a licensed pharmacist for women 18 or older ; a prescription - only form of Plan B was made available for younger females aged 17 and younger . On November 6 , 2006 , Barr Pharmaceuticals announced that its subsidiary , Duramed Pharmaceuticals , had initiated shipment of dual - label Plan B OTC / Rx and it would be available in pharmacies across the U.S. by mid-November 2006 . On March 23 , 2009 , a US judge ordered the FDA to allow 17 - year - olds to acquire Plan B without a prescription . This now changes the August 24 , 2006 ruling and Plan B is now available `` behind the counter '' for men and women . There is a prescription method available for girls under 17 . On April 30 , 2013 , the FDA approved ( with three - year marketing exclusivity ) Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Plan B One - Step for sale without a prescription to anyone age 15 or over who can show proof of age such as a driver 's license , birth certificate , or passport to a drug store retail clerk . Generic one - pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives and all two - pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives will remain restricted to sale from a pharmacist -- without a prescription to anyone age 17 or over who can show proof of age . On June 10 , 2013 , the Obama administration ceased trying to block the over-the - counter availability the pill for all women and girls . With this reversal it means that any woman or girl will be able to purchase the Plan B One - Step without a prescription . Availability ( edit ) Main article : Emergency contraceptive availability by country See also ( edit ) Rape crisis center Reproductive Health Supplies Coalition References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Leung , Vivian W.Y. ; Levine , Marc ; Soon , Judith A. ( February 2010 ) . `` Mechanisms of action of hormonal emergency contraceptives '' . Pharmacotherapy. 30 ( 2 ) : 158 -- 168 . doi : 10.1592 / phco. 30.2. 158 . PMID 20099990 . Jump up ^ Gemzell - Danielsson , Kristina ( November 2010 ) . `` Mechanism of action of emergency contraception '' . Contraception. 82 ( 5 ) : 404 -- 409 . doi : 10.1016 / j. contraception. 2010.05. 004 . PMID 20933113 . ^ Jump up to : Trussell , James ; Schwarz , Eleanor Bimla ( 2011 ) . `` Emergency contraception '' . In Hatcher , Robert A. ; Trussell , James ; Nelson , Anita L. ; Cates , Willard Jr. ; Kowal , Deborah ; Policar , Michael S. Contraceptive technology ( 20th revised ed . ) . New York : Ardent Media . pp. 113 -- 145 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59708 - 004 - 0 . ISSN 0091 - 9721 . OCLC 781956734 . p. 121 : Mechanism of action Copper - releasing IUCs When used as a regular or emergency method of contraception , copper - releasing IUCs act primarily to prevent fertilization . Emergency insertion of a copper IUC is significantly more effective than the use of ECPs , reducing the risk of pregnancy following unprotected intercourse by more than 99 % . This very high level of effectiveness implies that emergency insertion of a copper IUC must prevent some pregnancies after fertilization . Emergency contraceptive pills To make an informed choice , women must know that ECPs -- like the birth control pill , patch , ring , shot , and implant , and even like breastfeeding -- prevent pregnancy primarily by delaying or inhibiting ovulation and inhibiting fertilization , but may at times inhibit implantation of a fertilized egg in the endometrium . However , women should also be informed that the best available evidence indicates that ECPs prevent pregnancy by mechanisms that do not involve interference with post-fertilization events . ECPs do not cause abortion or harm an established pregnancy . Pregnancy begins with implantation according to medical authorities such as the US FDA , the National Institutes of Health and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists ( ACOG ) . Ulipristal acetate ( UPA ) . One study has demonstrated that UP can delay ovulation. ... Another study found that UPA altered the endometrium , but whether this change would inhibit implantation is unknown . p. 122 : Progestin - only emergency contraceptive pills . Early treatment with ECPs containing only the progestin levonorgestrel has been show to impair the ovulatory process and luteal function . p. 123 : Combined emergency contraceptive pills . Several clinical studies have shown that combined ECPs containing ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel can inhibit or delay ovulation . Jump up ^ `` Emergency contraception : Morning after pill and day after pill '' . ec.princeton.edu . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) ( February 25 , 1997 ) . `` Certain combined oral contraceptives for use as postcoital emergency contraception '' ( PDF ) . Federal Register . 62 ( 37 ) : 8610 -- 8612 . ^ Jump up to : Trussell , James ; Raymond , Elizabeth G. ; Cleland , Kelly ( February 2014 ) . `` Emergency contraception : a last chance to prevent unintended pregnancy '' ( PDF ) . Princeton : Office of Population Research at Princeton University , Association of Reproductive Health Professionals . Retrieved March 25 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Gemzell - Danielsson , Kristina ; Rabe , Thomas ; Cheng , Linan ( March 2013 ) . `` Emergency contraception -- an update '' . Gynecological Endocrinology. 29 ( Supplement 1 ) : 1 -- 14 . doi : 10.3109 / 09513590.2013. 774591 . PMID 23437846 . ^ Jump up to : Trussell , James ; Cleland , Kelly ( February 13 , 2013 ) . `` Dedicated emergency contraceptive pills worldwide '' ( PDF ) . Princeton : Office of Population Research at Princeton University , Association of Reproductive Health Professionals . Retrieved March 25 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : ICEC ( 2014 ) . `` EC pill types and countries of availability , by brand '' . New York : International Consortium for Emergency Contraception ( ICEC ) . Retrieved March 25 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : ECEC ( 2014 ) . `` Emergency contraception availability in Europe '' . New York : European Consortium for Emergency Contraception ( ECEC ) . Retrieved March 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ HRA Pharma ( March 2013 ) . `` Countries where ellaOne was launched '' . Paris : HRA Pharma . Retrieved March 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Shen , J ; Che , Y ; Showell , E ; Chen , K ; Cheng , L ( 2 August 2017 ) . `` Interventions for emergency contraception '' . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 8 : CD001324 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD001324. pub5 . PMID 28766313 . Jump up ^ Weismiller D ( 2004 ) . `` Emergency contraception '' . Am Fam Physician. 70 ( 4 ) : 707 -- 14 . PMID 15338783 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Plan B label information '' ( PDF ) . Food and Drug Administration . August 24 , 2006 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2007 - 01 - 24 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 03 . Jump up ^ Trussell J , Rodriguez G , Ellertson C ( 1999 ) . `` Updated estimates of the effectiveness of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception '' . Contraception. 59 ( 3 ) : 147 -- 51 . doi : 10.1016 / S0010 - 7824 ( 99 ) 00018 - 9 . PMID 10382076 . Jump up ^ Trussell J , Ellertson C , von Hertzen H , Bigrigg A , Webb A , Evans M , Ferden S , Leadbetter C ( 2003 ) . `` Estimating the effectiveness of emergency contraceptive pills '' . Contraception. 67 ( 4 ) : 259 -- 65 . doi : 10.1016 / S0010 - 7824 ( 02 ) 00535 - 8 . PMID 12684144 . ^ Jump up to : WHO Task Force on Postovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation ( August 8 , 1998 ) . `` Randomised controlled trial of levonorgestrel versus the Yuzpe regimen of combined oral contraceptives for emergency contraception '' . Lancet . 352 ( 9126 ) : 428 -- 433 . doi : 10.1016 / S0140 - 6736 ( 98 ) 05145 - 9 . PMID 9708750 . Jump up ^ Please add first missing authors to populate metadata. ( 1999 ) . `` Counsel women to take ECPs as soon as possible '' . Contracept Technol Update. 20 ( 7 ) : 75 -- 7 . PMID 12295381 . Jump up ^ WHO / HRP ( 1999 ) . `` Levonorgestrel is more effective , has fewer side - effects , than Yuzpe regimen '' . Prog Hum Reprod Res ( 51 ) : 3 -- 5 . PMID 12349416 . ^ Jump up to : von Hertzen , Helena ; Piaggio , Gilda ; Peregoudov , Alexandre ; Ding , Juhong ; Chen , Junling ; Song , Si ; Bártfai , György ; Ng , Ernest ; Gemzell - Danielsson , Kristina ; Oyunbileg , Amindavaa ; Wu , Shangchun ; Cheng , Weiyu ; Lüdicke , Frank ; Pretnar - Darovec , Alenka ; Kirkman , Rosemary ; Mittal , Suneeta ; Khomassuridze , Archil ; Apter , Dan ; WHO Research Group on Post-ovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation ( December 7 , 2002 ) . `` Low dose mifepristone and two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception : a WHO multicentre randomised trial '' . Lancet . 360 ( 9348 ) : 1803 -- 1810 . doi : 10.1016 / S0140 - 6736 ( 02 ) 11767 - 3 . PMID 12480356 . Jump up ^ Piaggio G , Heng Z , von Hertzen H , Bilian X , Linan C ( 2003 ) . `` Combined estimates of effectiveness of mifepristone 10 mg in emergency contraception '' . Contraception. 68 ( 6 ) : 439 -- 46 . doi : 10.1016 / S0010 - 7824 ( 03 ) 00110 - 0 . PMID 14698074 . Jump up ^ Cheng , L ; Che , Y ; Gülmezoglu , AM ( Aug 15 , 2012 ) . `` Interventions for emergency contraception '' . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 8 : CD001324 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD001324. pub4 . PMID 22895920 . Jump up ^ http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/11/plan-b-morning-after-pill-weight-limit-pounds Jump up ^ http://www.popsci.com/article/science/fyi-why-doesnt-plan-b-work-heavier-women?src=SOC&dom=fb ^ Jump up to : RCOG Faculty of Sexual ; Reproductive Healthcare ; Clinical Effectiveness Unit ( January 2012 ) . Clinical guidance : emergency contraception ( PDF ) . London : Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists . ISSN 1755 - 103X . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 30 . p. 3 : How does EC work ? In 2002 , a judicial review ruled that pregnancy begins at implantation , not fertilisation . The possible mechanisms of action should be explained to the patient as some methods may not be acceptable , depending on individual beliefs about the onset of pregnancy and abortion . Copper - bearing intrauterine device ( Cu - IUD ) . Copper is toxic to the ovum and sperm and thus the copper - bearing intrauterine device ( Cu - IUD ) is effective immediately after insertion and works primarily by inhibiting fertilisation . A systematic review on mechanisms of action of IUDs showed that both pre - and postfertilisation effects contribute to efficacy . If fertilisation has already occurred , it is accepted that there is an anti-implantation effect , Levonorgestrel ( LNG ) . The precise mode of action of levonorgestrel ( LNG ) is incompletely understood but it is thought to work primarily by inhibition of ovulation . Ulipristal acetate ( UPA ) . UPA 's primary mechanism of action is thought to be inhibition or delay of ovulation . Jump up ^ WHO Department of Reproductive Health and Research ( December 31 , 2004 ) . `` Question 20 . What can a woman do to prevent nausea and vomiting when taking emergency contraceptive pills ( ECPs ) ? '' . Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use ( 2nd ed . ) . Geneva : World Health Organization . ISBN 92 - 4 - 156284 - 6 . Jump up ^ WHO Department of Reproductive Health and Research ( December 31 , 2004 ) . `` Question 21 . What can a woman do if she vomits after taking emergency contraceptive pills ( ECPs ) ? '' . Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use ( 2nd ed . ) . Geneva : World Health Organization . ISBN 92 - 4 - 156284 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Raymond , Elizabeth G. ; Goldberg , Alisa ; Trussell , James ; Hays , Melissa ; Roach , Elizabeth ; Taylor , Douglas ( April 2006 ) . `` Bleeding patterns after use of levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills '' . Contraception. 73 ( 4 ) : 376 -- 381 . doi : 10.1016 / j. contraception. 2005.10. 006 . PMID 16531171 . Jump up ^ Gainer , Erin ; Kenfack , Bruno ; Mboudou , Emile ; Doh , Anderson Sama ; Bouyer , Jean ( August 2006 ) . `` Menstrual bleeding patterns following levonorgestrel emergency contraception '' . Contraception. 74 ( 2 ) : 118 -- 124 . doi : 10.1016 / j. contraception. 2006.02. 009 . PMC 1934349 . PMID 16860049 . Jump up ^ Gemzell - Danielsson , Kristina ; Marions , Lena ( July -- August 2004 ) . `` Mechanisms of action of mifepristone and levonorgestrel when used for emergency contraception '' . Hum Reprod Update. 10 ( 4 ) : 341 -- 348 . doi : 10.1093 / humupd / dmh027 . PMID 15192056 . ^ Jump up to : American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists ( May 2010 ) . `` ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 112 : Emergency contraception '' . Obstet Gynecol. 115 ( 5 ) : 1100 -- 1109 . doi : 10.1097 / AOG. 0b013e3181deff2a . PMID 20410799 . ^ Jump up to : American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence ( October 2005 ) . `` Emergency contraception '' . Pediatrics. 116 ( 4 ) : 1026 -- 1035 . doi : 10.1542 / peds. 2005 - 1877 . PMID 16147972 . ^ Jump up to : Grimes , David A. ; Raymond , Elizabeth G. ( August 6 , 2002 ) . `` Emergency contraception '' . Ann Intern Med. 137 ( 3 ) : 180 -- 189 . doi : 10.7326 / 0003 - 4819 - 137 - 3 - 200208060 - 00010 . PMID 12160366 . ^ Jump up to : FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research ( August 22 , 2006 ) . `` Plan B Rx to OTC switch Medical Reviews '' ( PDF ) . Beltsville , Md. : Food and Drug Administration . pp. 32 -- 7 , 133 -- 77 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 13 . ^ Jump up to : WHO Department of Reproductive Health and Research ( 2009 ) . `` Emergency contraceptive pills ( ECPs ) '' . Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use ( PDF ) ( 4th ed . ) . Geneva : World Health Organization . p. 63 . ISBN 978 - 92 - 4 - 156388 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : RCOG Faculty of Sexual ; Reproductive Healthcare ( 2009 ) . `` UK medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use : Emergency contraception '' ( PDF ) . London : Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists . pp. 107 -- 115 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ CDC Division of Reproductive Health ( June 18 , 2010 ) . `` U.S. Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use , 2010 '' ( PDF ) . MMWR Recomm Rep. 59 ( RR - 4 ) : 1 -- 86 . PMID 20559203 . Jump up ^ Davidoff , Frank ; Trussell , James ( October 11 , 2006 ) . `` Plan B and the politics of doubt ( commentary ) '' . JAMA. 296 ( 14 ) : 1775 -- 1778 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 296.14. 1775 . PMID 17032991 . ^ Jump up to : UNDP / UNFPA / WHO / World Bank Special Programme of Research , Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction ( HRP ) ( March 25 , 2010 ) . `` Fact sheet on the safety of levonorgestrel - alone emergency contraceptive pills ( LNG ECPs ) '' ( PDF ) . Geneva : World Health Organization . Can LNG ECPs cause an abortion ? LNG ECPs do not interrupt an established pregnancy or harm a developing embryo . The evidence available to date shows that LNG ECP use does not prevent a fertilized egg from attaching to the uterine lining . The primary mechanism of action is to stop or disrupt ovulation ; LNG ECP use may also prevent the sperm and egg from meeting . Jump up ^ Cleland , Kelly ; Raymond , Elizabeth ; Trussell , James ; Cheng , Linan ; Zhu , Haoping ( June 2010 ) . `` Ectopic pregnancy and emergency contraceptive pills : a systematic review '' . Obstet Gynecol. 115 ( 6 ) : 1263 -- 1266 . doi : 10.1097 / AOG. 0b013e3181dd22ef . PMC 3903002 . PMID 20502299 . Jump up ^ RCOG Faculty of Sexual ; Reproductive Healthcare ; Clinical Effectiveness Unit ( January 2012 ) . Clinical guidance : drug interactions with hormonal contraception ( PDF ) . London : Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists . ISSN 1755 - 103X . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2012 - 05 - 26 . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ Gottardi G , Spreafico A , de Orchi L ( 1986 ) . `` The postcoital IUD as an effective continuing contraceptive method '' . Contraception. 34 ( 6 ) : 549 -- 58 . doi : 10.1016 / S0010 - 7824 ( 86 ) 80011 - 7 . PMID 3549140 . ^ Jump up to : Ellertson , Charlotte ( March -- April 1996 ) . `` History and Efficacy of Emergency Contraception : Beyond Coca - Cola '' . Family Planning Perspectives . Guttmacher Institute . 28 ( 2 ) : 44 . doi : 10.2307 / 2136122 . Retrieved 2006 - 11 - 22 . Jump up ^ Chernev T , Ivanov S , Dikov I , Stamenkova R ( 1995 ) . `` Prospective study of contraception with levonorgestrel '' . Plan Parent Eur. 24 ( 2 ) : 25 . PMID 12290800 . ^ Jump up to : `` Effectiveness of Emergency Contraceptives '' . The Emergency Contraception Website . Office of Population Research at Princeton University and the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals . November 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 02 . Jump up ^ Bakhtiar , Saadia ; Mehboob Ashraf ( May 2000 ) . `` Contraception '' . Pakistan Journal of Family Medicine . 11 : 19 -- 24 . Archived from the original on 2006 - 11 - 02 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` What is Emergency Contraception ? '' . The Emergency Contraception Website . Office of Population Research at Princeton University and the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals . November 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 02 . Jump up ^ Committee on Adolescence ( December 2012 ) . `` Policy statement : Emergency contraception '' . Pediatrics. 130 ( 6 ) : 1174 -- 1182 . doi : 10.1542 / peds. 2012 - 2962 . PMID 23184108 . Retrieved December 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Gold , Melanie A. ; Wolford , Jennifer E. ; Smith , Kym A. ; Parker , Andrew M. ( April 2004 ) . `` The effects of advance provision of emergency contraception on adolescent women 's sexual and contraceptive behaviors '' . Journal of Pediatric & Adolescent Gynecology. 17 ( 2 ) : 87 -- 96 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jpag. 2003.11. 018 . PMID 15050984 . Jump up ^ Raine , Tina R. ; Harper , Cynthia C. ; Rocca , Corinne H. ; Fischer , Richard ; Padian , Nancy ; Klausner , Jeffrey D. ; Darney , Philip D. ( January 5 , 2005 ) . `` Direct access to emergency contraception through pharmacies and effect on unintended pregnancy and STIs : a randomized controlled trial '' . JAMA. 293 ( 1 ) : 54 -- 62 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 293.1. 54 . PMID 15632336 . Jump up ^ Raymond , Elizabeth G. ; Stewart , Felicia ; Weaver , Mark ; Monteith , Charles ; Van Der Pol , Barbara ( November 2006 ) . `` Impact of increased access to emergency contraceptive pills : a randomized controlled trial '' . Obstetrics & Gynecology. 108 ( 5 ) : 1098 -- 1106 . doi : 10.1097 / 01. AOG. 0000235708.91572. db . PMID 17077230 . Jump up ^ Ekstrand , Maria ; Larsson , Margareta ; Darj , Elisabeth ; Tydén , Tanja ( March 2008 ) . `` Advance provision of emergency contraceptive pills reduces treatment delay : a randomised controlled trial among Swedish teenage girls '' . Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 87 ( 3 ) : 354 -- 359 . doi : 10.1080 / 00016340801936024 . PMID 18307077 . Jump up ^ `` Emergency Contraception Does n't Lower Abortion Rates '' . Forbes . September 15 , 2006 . Archived from the original on 2006 - 10 - 09 . Retrieved 2006 - 09 - 23 . Jump up ^ Glasier A , Fairhurst K , Wyke S , Zieblad S , Seaman P , Walker J , Lakha F ( 2004 ) . `` Advanced provision of emergency contraception does not reduce abortion rates '' . Contraception. 69 ( 5 ) : 361 -- 6 . doi : 10.1016 / j. contraception. 2004.01. 002 . PMID 15105057 . Jump up ^ Hu X ; et al. ( 2005 ) . `` Advanced provision of emergency contraception to postnatal women in China makes no difference in abortion rates : a randomized controlled trial '' . Contraception. 72 ( 2 ) : 111 -- 6 . doi : 10.1016 / j. contraception. 2005.02. 004 . PMID 16022849 . Jump up ^ Glasier , A ( 2006 ) . `` Emergency contraception : Is it worth all the fuss ? '' . BMJ. 333 ( 7568 ) : 560 -- 1 . doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 38960.672998. 80 . PMC 1569992 . PMID 16973989 . Jump up ^ Glover D eta al ( 1976 ) . `` Diethylstilbestrol in the Treatment of Rape Victims '' . The Western journal of medicine . West J Med. 125 ( 4 ) : 331 -- 4 . PMC 1237330 . PMID 1032235 . Jump up ^ Diamond EF ( 1978 ) . `` Physician notes hazards of DES use to prevent pregnancy '' . Hosp Prog. 59 ( 3 ) : 6 -- 10 . PMID 631811 . Jump up ^ Holmes MM ; et al. ( 1996 ) . `` Rape - related pregnancy : estimates and descriptive characteristics from a national sample of women '' . Am J Obstet Gynecol. 175 ( 2 ) : 320 -- 4 . doi : 10.1016 / S0002 - 9378 ( 96 ) 70141 - 2 . PMID 8765248 Jump up ^ Stewart , Felicia H. ; James Trussell . ( November 2000 ) . `` Prevention of pregnancy resulting from rape : A neglected preventive health measure '' . American Journal of Preventive Medicine . 19 ( 4 ) : 228 -- 229 . doi : 10.1016 / S0749 - 3797 ( 00 ) 00243 - 9 . PMID 11064225 . ^ Jump up to : Speroff , Leon ; Darney , Philip D. ( 2011 ) . `` Special uses of oral contraception : emergency contraception , the progestin - only minipill '' . A clinical guide for contraception ( 5th ed . ) . Philadelphia : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . pp. 153 -- 166 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 60831 - 610 - 6 . p. 155 : Emergency postcoital contraception Levonorgestrel Mechanism and efficacy There is strong evidence that treatment with emergency contraception acts primarily by preventing or delaying ovulation and by preventing fertilization . Studies have indicated that emergency contraception does not prevent implantation . Experiments in monkeys and rats could detect no effect of a high dose of levonorgesterel administered postcoitally once fertilization had occurred . The evidence indicates that a postfertilization effect does not contribute to the efficacy of emergency contraception . Clinicians , pharmacists , and patients can be reassured that treatment with emergency contraception is not an abortifacient . p. 157 : The use of progesterone receptor modulators for emergency contraception Mifepristone . In randomized trials , 10 mg mifepristone was as effective as 25 , 50 , or 600 mg . preventing about 80 - 85 % of expected pregnancies ( the same efficacy and side effects as with the levonorgestrel method ) , with a slight decrease in efficacy when treatment was delayed to 5 days after intercourse . Ulipristal Acetate . Ulipristal acetate ( ellaOne ) has similar biologic effects as mifepristone and is approved for emergency contraception in Europe and is expected to become available in the U.S. in a single oral dose of 30 mg . Randomized trials demonstrated that ulipristal acetate is slightly more effective than the single 1.5 mg dose of levonorgestrel when used within 72 h after sexual intercourse and even between 72 h and 120h. ... Progesterone receptor modulators like ulipristal acetate and mifepristone suppress ovarian follicular growth and also delay endometrial maturation , manifested in a delay in menstruation after treatment . Ovulation can be temporarily postponed . Other methods Another method of emergency contraception is the insertion of a copper IUD , anytime during the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle and up to 5 days after ovulation . The failure rate ( in a small number of studies ) is very low , 0.1 % . This method definitely prevents implantation , but it is not suitable for women who are not candidates for intrauterine contraception , e.g. , multiple sexual partners or a rape victim . The use of a copper IUD for emergency contraception is expensive , but not if it is retained as an ongoing method of contraception . ^ Jump up to : Jensen , Jeffrey T. ; Mishell , Daniel R. Jr. ( 2012 ) . `` Family planning : contraception , sterilization , and pregnancy termination '' . In Lentz , Gretchen M. ; Lobo , Rogerio A. ; Gershenson , David M. ; et al. Comprehensive gynecology ( 6th ed . ) . Philadelphia : Mosby Elsevier . pp. 215 -- 272 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 323 - 06986 - 1 . p. 257 : Emergency contraception It is believed that the main mechanism of action of high - dose progestin emergency contraception is inhibition of ovulation , but other mechanisms may be involved ... Taken together , these data are highly supportive of the concept that levonorgestrel emergency contraception has little or no effect on postovulation events but is highly effective when taken before ovulation . Levonorgestrel emergency contraception does not affect implantation and is not abortifacient . Intrauterine insertion of a copper IUD within 5 to 10 days of midcycle coitus is a very effective method of preventing continuation of the pregnancy ... The LNG - IUS should not be used for emergency contraception . A study by the WHO reported that use of a single tablet of 10 mg of mifepristone was an effective emergency contraceptive with a pregnancy rate of 1.2 % . Ulipristal , also known as CDB - 2914 , has been studied as an emergency contraceptive pill ... In 2009 , European regulatory approval was granted for a 30 - mg tablet of ulipristal ( under the brand name of EllaOne ) as an emergency contraceptive pill for use up to 5 days after unprotected intercourse . An application for approval in the United States is under review . ^ Jump up to : Flatow , Ira ( June 15 , 2012 ) . `` How the morning - after pill works ( interview with Kristina Gemzell - Danielsson , MD , Professor and Chair , Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Karolinska Institute , Stockholm , Sweden ) '' . Talk of the Nation Science Friday . New York : NPR . ^ Jump up to : Belluck , Pam ( June 6 , 2012 ) . `` No abortion role seen for morning - after pill '' . The New York Times . p . A1 . Belluck , Pam ( June 6 , 2012 ) . `` Drug 's nickname may have aided politicization '' . The New York Times . p . A14 . Jump up ^ Bayer ( March 22 , 2010 ) . `` Summary of Product Characteristics : Levonelle One Step 1500 mcg ; 5.1 Pharmacodynamic properties '' . London : electronic Medicines Compendium ( eMC ) , Datapharm . The precise mode of action of Levonelle One Step is not known . At the recommended regimen , levonorgestrel is thought to work mainly by preventing ovulation and fertilisation if intercourse has taken place in the preovulatory phase , when the likelihood of fertilisation is the highest . It may also cause endometrial changes that discourage implantation . Levonelle One Step is not effective once the process of implantation has begun . HRA Pharma ( July 19 , 2011 ) . `` Summary of Product Characteristics : NorLevo 1.5 mg ; 5.1 Pharmacodynamic properties '' . Dublin : Irish Pharmaceutical Healthcare Association . The precise mode of action of Norlevo 1.5 mg is not known . At the used regimen , levonorgestrel is believed to suppress ovulation thus preventing fertilization if the intercourse has taken place in the preovulatory phase when the likelihood of fertilization is the highest . It could also prevent implantation . It is not effective once the process of implantation has begun . Jump up ^ Duramed Pharmaceuticals / Barr Pharmaceuticals ( now Teva Women 's Health ) ( July 9 , 2010 ) . `` Prescribing information : Plan B One - Step ; 12.1 Mechanism of action '' ( PDF ) . Silver Spring , Md. : FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research ( CDER ) . p. 4 . Emergency contraceptive pills are not effective if a woman is already pregnant . Plan B One - Step is believed to act as an emergency contraceptive principally by preventing ovulation or fertilization ( by altering tubal transport of sperm and / or ova ) . In addition , it may inhibit implantation ( by altering the endometrium ) . It is not effective once the process of implantation has begun . Jump up ^ International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics ( FIGO ) and International Consortium for Emergency Contraception ( ICEC ) ( April 4 , 2011 ) . `` Mechanism of action : How do levonorgestrel - only emergency contraceptive pills ( LNG ECPs ) prevent pregnancy ? '' ( PDF ) . London : International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics . Levonorgestrel - only emergency contraceptive pills : Interfere with the process of ovulation ; May possibly prevent the sperm and the egg from meeting . Implications of the research : Inhibition or delay of ovulation is LNG ECPs principal and possibly only mechanism of action . Review of the evidence suggests that LNG ECPs can not prevent implantation of a fertilized egg . Language on implantation should not be included in LNG ECP product labeling . The fact that LNG ECPs have no demonstrated effect on implantation explains why they are not 100 % effective in preventing pregnancy , and are less effective the later they are taken . Women should be given a clear message that LNG ECPs are more effective the sooner they are taken . LNG ECPs do not interrupt a pregnancy ( by any definition of the beginning of pregnancy ) . However , LNG ECPs can prevent abortions by reducing unwanted pregnancies . Jump up ^ editorial ( June 9 , 2012 ) . `` How morning - after pills really work '' . The New York Times . p . A20 . The F.D.A. now acknowledges that the emerging data suggest the morning - after pill , often called Plan B , does not inhibit implantation . It should remove that unsupported suggestion from the label . Jump up ^ Belluck , Pam ( November 26 , 2013 ) . `` New birth control label counters lawsuit claim ; European authorities found that a drug like Plan B One - Step can not prevent fertilized eggs from implanting in the womb '' . The New York Times . Retrieved March 5 , 2014 . HRA Pharma ( November 2013 ) . `` NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Patient Information Leaflet ( PIL ) '' ( PDF ) . Dublin : Irish Medicines Board . Retrieved March 5 , 2014 . NorLevo works by stopping your ovaries from releasing an egg . It can not stop a fertilized egg from attaching to the womb . HRA Pharma ( November 2013 ) . `` NorLevo 1.5 mg tablet Summary of Product Characteristics : 5.1 Pharmacodynamic properties ( SPC ) '' . Dublin : Irish Pharmaceutical Healthcare Association . Retrieved March 5 , 2014 . European Medicines Agency ( January 24 , 2014 ) . `` Review of emergency contraceptives started '' . London : European Medicines Agency . Retrieved March 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Davidoff , F ; Trussell , J ( 11 October 2006 ) . `` Plan B and the politics of doubt '' . JAMA. 296 ( 14 ) : 1775 -- 8 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 296.14. 1775 . PMID 17032991 . Jump up ^ Cheng , Linan ; Che , Yan ; Gülmezoglu , A. Metin ( August 15 , 2012 ) . `` Interventions for emergency contraception '' . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 8 : CD001324 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD001324. pub4 . PMID 22895920 . Jump up ^ Stratton , Pamela ; Levens , Eric D. ; Hartog , Beth ; Piquion , Johann ; Wei , Qingxiang ; Merino , Maria ; Nieman , Lynnette K. ( April 2010 ) . `` Endometrial effects of a single early luteal dose of the selective progesterone receptor modulator CDB - 2914 '' . Fertility and Sterility. 93 ( 6 ) : 2035 -- 2041 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fertnstert. 2008.12. 057 . PMC 2911236 . PMID 19200989 . Post-ovulatory early luteal phase administration of 10 -- 100 mg of ulipristal acetate resulted in a statistically significant dose - dependent 0.6 ± 2.2 mm decrease in endometrial thickness from a baseline of 10.3 ± 2.3 mm to 9.7 ± 1.8 mm ( vs. a 1.3 ± 2.3 mm increase in endometrial thickness from a baseline of 10.2 ± 3.2 mm to 11.5 ± 4.1 mm with placebo administration ) which the authors hypothesized could hamper implantation . Jump up ^ HRA Pharma ( March 15 , 2012 ) . `` Summary of Product Characteristics : ellaOne 30 mg ; 5.1 Pharmacodynamic properties '' ( PDF ) . London : European Medicines Agency . p. 7 . Ulipristal acetate is an orally - active synthetic selective progesterone receptor modulator which acts via high - affinity binding to the human progesterone receptor . The primary mechanism of action is inhibition or delay of ovulation . Pharmacodynamic data show that even when taken immediately before ovulation is scheduled to occur , ulipristal acetate is able to postpone follicular rupture in some women . Jump up ^ Watson Pharma ( under license from HRA Pharma ) ( May 2 , 2012 ) . `` Prescribing information : Ella ; 12.1 Mechanism of action '' ( PDF ) . Silver Spring , Md. : FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research ( CDER ) . pp. 4 -- 5 . When taken immediately before ovulation is to occur , ella postpones follicular rupture . The likely primary mechanism of action of ulipristal acetate for emergency contraception is therefore inhibition or delay of ovulation ; however , alterations to the endometrium that may affect implantation may also contribute to efficacy ... The pharmacodynamics of ulipristal acetate depends on the timing of administration in the menstrual cycle . Administration in the mid-follicular phase causes inhibition of folliculogenesis and reduction of estradiol concentration . Administration at the time of the luteinizing hormone peak delays follicular rupture by 5 to 9 days . Dosing in the early luteal phase does not significantly delay endometrial maturation but decreases endometrial thickness by 0.6 ± 2.2 mm ( mean ± SD ) . Jump up ^ `` Birth Control : The Morning - After Pill '' . Time . 1966 - 05 - 06 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ < Please add first missing authors to populate metadata. > ( 1967 ) . `` Postcoital contraception '' . IPPF Med Bull . 1 ( 4 ) : 3 . PMID 12254703 . Jump up ^ Demers L ( 1971 ) . `` The morning - after pill '' . N Engl J Med. 284 ( 18 ) : 1034 -- 6 . doi : 10.1056 / NEJM197105062841813 . PMID 5553470 . Jump up ^ < Please add first missing authors to populate metadata. > ( 1973 ) . `` FDA considers DES safe as ' morning - after ' pill '' . JAMA. 224 ( 12 ) : 1581 -- 2 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 1973.03220260003002 . PMID 12257949 . Jump up ^ Johnson JH ( 1984 ) . `` Contraception -- the morning after '' . Fam Plann Perspect. 16 ( 6 ) : 266 -- 270 . doi : 10.2307 / 2134916 . JSTOR 2134916 . PMID 6519238 . Jump up ^ Yuzpe A , Thurlow H , Ramzy I , Leyshon J ( 1974 ) . `` Post coital contraception -- A pilot study '' . J Reprod Med. 13 ( 2 ) : 53 -- 8 . PMID 4844513 . Jump up ^ Valle G ( 1975 ) . `` The problem of postcoital contraception using oral progestins '' . Aggiorn Ostet Ginecol. 8 ( 3 ) : 127 -- 8 . PMID 12334868 . Jump up ^ < Please add first missing authors to populate metadata. > ( 1975 ) . `` Copper IUD , inserted after coitus averts pregnancy and provides continuing contraceptive protection '' . Int Fam Plann Dig. 1 ( 3 ) : 11 -- 2 . doi : 10.2307 / 2948217 . JSTOR 2948217 . PMID 12307393 . Jump up ^ `` Danazol '' . Medscape. 2002 . Retrieved 2006 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Contraception : past , present and future '' . UK Family Planning Association . April 2006 . Archived from the original on 2006 - 09 - 28 . Retrieved 2006 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ FDA ( February 25 , 1997 ) . `` Certain combined oral contraceptives for use as postcoital emergency contraception '' . Fed Regist. 62 ( 37 ) : 8610 . `` Since the United Kingdom approved emergency contraceptive pills in 1984 , more than 4 million prescriptions have been recorded . However , the actual use is much greater because providers have found it less expensive to provide tablets of identical drugs taken from products packaged as combined oral contraceptives . '' Jump up ^ `` Sponsors '' . Fertility. 2002 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 01 . Jump up ^ Task Force on Postovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation ( 1998 ) . `` Randomised controlled trial of levonorgestrel versus the Yuzpe regimen of combined oral contraception for emergency contraception '' . Lancet . 352 ( 9126 ) : 428 -- 433 . doi : 10.1016 / S0140 - 6736 ( 98 ) 05145 - 9 . PMID 9708750 . Jump up ^ Guillebaud J ( 1998 ) . `` Time for emergency contraception with levonorgestrel alone '' . Lancet . 352 ( 9126 ) : 416 -- 417 . doi : 10.1016 / S0140 - 6736 ( 98 ) 22032 - 0 . PMID 9708743 . Jump up ^ Dixon GW , Schlesselman JJ , Ory HW , Blye RP ( 1980 ) . `` Ethinyl estradiol and conjugated estrogens as postcoital contraceptives '' . JAMA. 244 ( 12 ) : 1336 -- 9 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 244.12. 1336 . PMID 6251288 . Jump up ^ Trussell J , Ellertson C , Stewart F ( 1996 ) . `` The effectiveness of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception '' . Fam Plann Perspect. 28 ( 2 ) : 58 -- 64 , 87 . doi : 10.2307 / 2136125 . JSTOR 2136125 . PMID 8777940 . Archived from the original on 2007 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ Espinos JJ , Rodriguez - Espinosa J , Senosiain R , Aura M , Vanrell C , Gispert M , Vega C , Calaf J ( 1999 ) . `` The role of matching menstrual data with hormonal measurements in evaluating effectiveness of postcoital contraception '' . Contraception. 60 ( 4 ) : 243 -- 7 . doi : 10.1016 / S0010 - 7824 ( 99 ) 00090 - 6 . PMID 10640171 . Jump up ^ Demers LM ( 1971 ) . `` The morning - after pill '' . N Engl J Med. 284 ( 18 ) : 1034 -- 6 . doi : 10.1056 / NEJM197105062841813 . PMID 5553470 . Jump up ^ Kuchera LK ( 1971 ) . `` Postcoital contraception with diethylstilbestrol '' . JAMA. 218 ( 4 ) : 562 -- 3 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 218.4. 562 . PMID 5171004 . Jump up ^ FDA ( May 1973 ) . `` Postcoital diethylstilbestrol '' . FDA Drug Bull . 119 ( 2 ) : 87 -- 8 . PMC 1455105 . PMID 18730987 . ^ Jump up to : U.S. Senate ( 1975 ) . Regulation of diethylstilbestrol ( DES ) , 1975 : Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Health and the Subcommittee on Administrative Practice and Procedure , 94th Congress , 1st Session on S. 963 , February 27 , 1975 . Washington : U.S. Govt . Print . Off . Jump up ^ FDA ( September 26 , 1973 ) . `` Diethylstilbestrol . Use as postcoital contraceptive ; patient labeling '' . Fed Regist. 38 ( 186 ) : 26809 -- 11 . ^ Jump up to : FDA ( February 26 , 1975 ) . `` Estrogens for oral or parenteral use . Drugs for human use ; drug efficacy study ; amended notice '' . Fed Regist. 40 ( 39 ) : 8242 . Jump up ^ FDA ( September 26 , 1973 ) . `` Certain estrogens for oral use . Notice of withdrawal of approval of new drug applications '' . Fed Regist. 38 ( 186 ) : 26824 -- 6 . ^ Jump up to : Dutton , Diana B. ( 1988 ) . Worse than the disease : pitfalls of medical progress . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 34023 - 3 . Jump up ^ FDA ( February 5 , 1975 ) . `` Diethylstilbestrol as postcoital oral contraceptive ; patient labeling '' . Fed Regist. 40 ( 25 ) : 5351 -- 5 . Jump up ^ FDA ( February 5 , 1975 ) . `` Certain estrogens for oral use or parenteral use . Drugs for human use ; drug efficacy study implementation ; follow - up notice '' . Fed Regist. 40 ( 25 ) : 5384 . Jump up ^ FDA ( March -- April 1978 ) . `` DES and Breast Cancer '' . FDA Drug Bull . 8 ( 2 ) : 10 . Jump up ^ Hatcher , Robert A. ; Stewart , Gary K. , Stewart , Felicia ; Guest , Felicia ; Schwartz , David W. ; Jones , Stephanie A. ( 1980 ) . Contraceptive Technology 1980 -- 1981 ( 10th ed . ) . New York : Irvington Publishers . pp. 128 -- 33 . ISBN 0 - 8290 - 0084 - 4 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Hatcher , Robert A. ; Stewart , Gary K. , Stewart , Felicia ; Guest , Felicia ; Josephs , Nancy ; Dale , Janet ( 1982 ) . Contraceptive Technology 1982 -- 1983 ( 11th ed . ) . New York : Irvington Publishers . pp. 152 -- 7 . ISBN 0 - 8290 - 0705 - 9 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Ibarreta , Dolores ; Swain , Shanna H. ( 2001 ) . `` The DES story : long - term consequences of prenatal use '' . In in Harremoës , Poul ; Gee , David ; Vaz , Sofia Guedes . Late lessons from early warnings : the precautionary principle 1896 -- 2000 ( PDF ) . Copenhagen : European Environmental Agency . pp. 84 -- 92 . ISBN 92 - 9167 - 323 - 4 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 07 . Jump up ^ FDA ( September 1 , 1998 ) . `` Preven approval package '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2006 - 10 - 11 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ California Board of Pharmacy ( December 22 , 2004 ) . `` Pharmacists protocol for dispensing emergency contraception '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on December 11 , 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ FDA ( July 28 , 1999 ) . `` Plan B approval package '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 10 - 11 . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ FDA ( August 24 , 2006 ) . `` Plan B information page '' . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ Barr Pharmaceuticals ( November 6 , 2006 ) . `` Barr Launches Plan B OTC / Rx Dual - Label Product ; Awarded 3 Years New Product Exclusivity '' . Retrieved 2006 - 12 - 12 . Jump up ^ Harris , Gardiner ( April 22 , 2009 ) . `` F.D.A. Easing Access to ' Morning After ' Pill '' . The New York Times . ^ Jump up to : Kliff , Sarah ( May 1 , 2013 ) . `` Plan B will be available to 15 - year - olds , but they might need a passport to get it '' . Wonkblog . washingtonpost.com . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 02 . . ( April 30 , 2013 ) . `` FDA approves Plan B One - Step emergency contraceptive without a prescription for women 15 years of age and older '' . Silver Spring , Md. : U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Drops Bid to Limit Sales of Morning - After Pill '' . NY Times . Retrieved 11 June 2013 . External links ( edit ) The Emergency Contraception Website ( not-2-late.com ) -- by the Office of Population Research at Princeton University and the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals . Information for women who need emergency contraception now . Planned Parenthood web site . Educational web site with information for women who need emergency contraception now . International Consortium for Emergency Contraception Policy - oriented web site directed at professionals . Emergency contraception by the Adolescent Medicine Committee , Canadian Pediatric Society ( CPS ) , Paediatrics and Child Health ACSA - CAAH Use of Emergency Contraception Among Women Aged 15 - 44 , United States , 2006 - 2010 National Center for Health Statistics Birth control methods ( G02B , G03A ) Comparison Comparison of birth control methods Long - acting reversible contraception ( LARC ) Behavioral Avoiding vaginal intercourse : Abstinence Anal sex Masturbation Non-penetrative sex Oral sex Including vaginal intercourse : Breastfeeding infertility ( LAM ) Calendar - based methods ( rhythm , etc . ) Fertility awareness ( Billings ovulation method Creighton Model , etc . ) Withdrawal Barrier and / or spermicidal Cervical cap Condom Contraceptive sponge Diaphragm Female condom Spermicide Hormonal ( formulations ) Combined estrogen - progestogen Contraceptive patch Extended cycle Injectable Combined vaginal ring Pill Progestogen - only Depo - Provera Etonogestrel implant ( Nexplanon ) Levonorgestrel implant ( Norplant ) Progestogen - only pill Progesterone vaginal ring Anti-estrogen Ormeloxifene ( Centchroman ) Post-intercourse Emergency contraception ( Ulipristal acetate Yuzpe regimen Levonorgestrel ) Intrauterine device Copper IUDs Hormonal IUDs ( progestogens ) Sterilization Female : Essure Tubal ligation Male : Vasectomy Experimental Reversible inhibition of sperm under guidance ( Vasalgel ) Long - acting reversible contraception ( LARC ) Intrauterine device ( Hormonal IUD Copper IUD ) Contraceptive implant ( Etonogestrel implant , Levonorgestrel implant ) Hormonal contraception ( G02B , G03A ) Androgens Male - only : Dimethandrolone Testosterone buciclate Testosterone undecanoate Trestolone Estrogens Diethylstilbestrol Estradiol Estradiol benzoate Estradiol cypionate Estradiol enanthate Estradiol valerate Ethinylestradiol Mestranol Ormeloxifene Progestogens First generation ( estranes ) Ethisterone Etynodiol diacetate Lynestrenol Norethisterone ( norethindrone ) Norethisterone acetate Norethisterone enanthate Noretynodrel Quingestanol Second generation Estranes : Norethisterone enanthate Norgestrienone Gonanes : Levonorgestrel Norelgestromin Norgestrel Third generation ( gonanes ) Desogestrel Etonogestrel Gestodene Norgestimate Fourth generation Estranes : Dienogest Norpregnanes : Demegestone Nomegestrol acetate Promegestone Trimegestone Spironolactone derivatives : Drospirenone Pregnanes Chlormadinone acetate Medrogestone Medroxyprogesterone acetate Megestrol acetate Miscellaneous Mifepristone Ulipristal acetate Algestone acetophenide Dydrogesterone Gestrinone Progesterone Proligestone Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emergency_contraception&oldid=822610701 '' Categories : Hormonal contraception Intrauterine contraception Hidden categories : Articles with inconsistent citation formats All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2006 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles with dead external links from May 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย 中文 14 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 January 2018 , at 12 : 16 . 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when did plan b one step come out
[ "On April 30, 2013, the FDA approved (with three-year marketing exclusivity) Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Plan B One-Step for sale without a prescription to anyone age 15 or over who can show proof of age such as a driver's license, birth certificate, or passport to a drug store retail clerk.[112] Generic one-pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives and all two-pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives will remain restricted to sale from a pharmacist—without a prescription to anyone age 17 or over who can show proof of age.[112]" ]
[ "April 30, 2013" ]
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Mercedes-AMG
Mercedes - AMG - Wikipedia Mercedes - AMG Jump to : navigation , search Mercedes - AMG GmbH Type Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung Industry Automobile manufacturing Engine manufacturing Fate acquired by DaimlerChrysler ( 1999 ) , and operating under Daimler AG Predecessor AMG Motorenbau und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH Founded Burgstall a.d. Murr , Germany ( 1967 ( 1967 ) ) Founder Hans Werner Aufrecht Erhard Melcher Headquarters Affalterbach , Germany Area served Worldwide Key people Tobias Moers ( CEO ) Products AMG A AMG C AMG CLA AMG CLK AMG CLS AMG E AMG ML AMG G AMG GLA AMG GLC AMG GLE AMG GLS AMG GT AMG R AMG S AMG SL AMG SLC Services Research and development Owner Daimler AG Number of employees ~ 1400 Parent Daimler AG Website www.mercedes-amg.com Mercedes - AMG GmbH , commonly known as AMG , is the high performance division of Mercedes - Benz . AMG independently hires engineers , manufactures and customizes Mercedes - Benz AMG vehicles . Mercedes - AMG is headquartered in Affalterbach , Baden - Württemberg , Germany . AMG was originally an independent engineering firm specializing in performance improvements for Mercedes - Benz vehicles ; Daimler - Benz AG took a controlling interest in 1999 , then became sole owner of AMG in 2005 . Mercedes - AMG GmbH is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Daimler AG . AMG models typically have more aggressive looks , a higher level of performance , better handling , better stability and more extensive use of carbon fibre than their regular Mercedes - Benz counterparts . AMG models are typically the most expensive and highest - performing variant of each Mercedes - Benz class . AMG variants are usually badged with two numerals , as opposed to regular Mercedes - Benz vehicles , which have three ( e.g. , C 63 as opposed to C 350 ) . Traditionally , the two numerical digits signified the engine 's displacement size , however , recent models have deviated from such correlation . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Development of the product range 1.2 Motor racing 1.3 Relationship with Pagani 1.4 Relationship with Aston Martin 2 Current AMG models 2.1 `` 45 '' M133 2.0 L Inline - 4 Turbo 2.2 `` 43 '' M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo 2.3 `` 63 '' M157 5.5 L V8 Bi-Turbo 2.4 `` 65 '' M275 6.0 L V12 Bi-Turbo 2.5 M178 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo 3 Previous AMG models 3.1 `` 55 '' M152 5.5 L V8 3.2 `` 63 '' M156 6.2 L V8 3.3 `` 30 '' 3.0 L I5 diesel 3.4 `` 32 '' 3.2 L V6 KOMPRESSOR 3.5 `` 55 '' 5.4 L V8 KOMPRESSOR 3.5. 1 Previous 55 AMG models 3.6 `` 63 '' M137 6.3 L V12 3.7 `` 60 '' , `` 73 '' , `` 70 '' , `` 55 '' 3.8 `` 63 '' M156 6.2 L V8 3.9 Black Series 3.10 Electric Drive 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Notes 5.2 Bibliography 6 External links History ( edit ) AMG logo on a Mercedes C63 AMG ( W204 ) AMG was founded as a racing engine forge in 1967 under the name AMG Motorenbau und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH ( AMG Engine Production and Development , Ltd . ) , by former Mercedes - Benz engineers Hans Werner Aufrecht and Erhard Melcher in Burgstall an der Murr , near Stuttgart . The letters `` AMG '' stand for Aufrecht , Melcher and Großaspach ( Aufrecht 's birth town ) . In 1976 most of AMG moved to Affalterbach , with the racing - engine development remaining at the old location in Burgstall . At this time Erhard Melcher ceased to be a partner , but continued to be an employee at the Burgstall location . In 1993 , with AMG having become a high - profile purveyor of modified Mercedes - Benz cars , Daimler - Benz AG and AMG signed a contract of cooperation , allowing AMG to leverage Daimler - Benz 's extensive dealer network and leading to commonly developed vehicles ( the first one being the Mercedes - Benz C36 AMG , in 1993 ) . On 1 January 1999 DaimlerChrysler , as it was called between 1998 and 2007 , acquired 51 percent of AMG shares , and AMG was renamed to Mercedes - AMG GmbH . Racing engine development was divested and continues to exist in Burgstall under the name HWA ( Aufrecht 's initials ) . On 1 January 2005 Aufrecht sold his remaining shares to DaimlerChrysler , and since then Mercedes - AMG GmbH has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Daimler AG . Development of the product range ( edit ) AMG Five Spoke Road Wheel 8JX16 Version 1 AMG started off by designing and testing racing engines . It expanded its business into building custom road cars based upon standard Mercedes cars . AMG initially produced a range of unofficial upgrade and accessories packages mainly for the Mercedes - Benz R107 and C107 ( 1971 - 1989 SL roadster ) , Mercedes - Benz W116 ( 1972 - 1980 S - class ) , Mercedes - Benz W123 ( 1976 - 1985 E-class ) , Mercedes - Benz W124 ( 1984 - 1997 E-class ) , Mercedes - Benz W126 ( 1979 - 1992 S - class ) , Mercedes - Benz R129 ( 1989 - 2001 SL roadster ) , and Mercedes - Benz W201 ( 1982 - 1993 C - class ) models . During the early 1980s and up until 1990 , AMG offered a variety of engine performance packages , alloy wheels and styling products as an entirely independent company from Daimler - Benz . In 1990 , AMG signed a co-operation agreement with Daimler - Benz , and AMG options and cars were then offered in Mercedes - Benz showrooms ; in 1999 Daimler AG , then known as DaimlerChrysler AG , bought the controlling share of AMG and made them part of the official Mercedes - Benz line - up . Typical AMG performance enhancements , which the buyer could custom order , included increased engine displacements ( 5.2 litre , 5.4 litre ) , performance top ends with port and polished heads and intake , lightened valve train , and more aggressive cams . The DOHC 32V engine had also just been developed and was the pinnacle of AMG performance . A Getrag five - speed manual transmission could be ordered from AMG , and Mercedes had not offered a manual transmission V8 since the early 1970s . The performance wheels offered during the same period were 15 - inch or 16 - inch ATS AMG Five Spoke Road Wheels , commonly referred to as Pentas . Penta was actually a UK - based company that supplemented the high demand for the AMG wheel at the time with a replica and only a very slight styling difference , but they were not made or endorsed by AMG . The genuine AMG wheels were often coupled with an AMG performance suspension package that included uprated and lowered springs , and re-valved shock absorbers . Another popular cosmetic upgrade were the AMG body kits . These ranged from subtle front spoilers , to an aggressive Wide Body kits for the W126 coupes . Other options included Recaro seats , smaller diameter steering wheels , instrument clusters , chrome delete option ( all brightworks colour - coded or painted satin black ) , refrigerators , shift knobs , hi - fi stereo systems , custom upholstery and enhanced interior wood packages . The release of the AMG Hammer sedan in 1986 , based on the W124 E-Class , took AMG 's performance modifications for a fast midsized sedan to a new level . AMG made the world 's fastest passenger sedan at the time , nicknamed the Hammer , by squeezing Mercedes 5.6 - litre V8 tuned by AMG to 360 hp into a midsized sedan . It was very aggressive for the era , with 32 - valve cylinder heads and twin camshafts , and said to be faster than the Lamborghini Countach from 60 to 120 mph . Later models were even more powerful and introduced the 17 - inch AMG Aero 1 Hammer wheels . 1986 was also the year Mercedes introduced the 560 M117 engine . This provided yet another opportunity for customers to order the largest AMG displacement available at the time , the 6L 100 mm bore SOHC or DOHC engines available for both the W126 coupe and sedans . Through the early 2000s , AMG focused principally on supercharged V8 and V6 engines , but the company officially abandoned this technology in 2006 with the introduction of the naturally aspirated 6.2 L M156 V8 . On 16 January 2006 , Mercedes - AMG Chairman Volker Mornhinweg told AutoWeek that the company would use turbocharging for higher output rather than supercharging . For 2011 , AMG released the M157 5.5 L biturbo V8 , which has supplanted the M156 in its full - sized cars such as the S - Class and CL - Class ( and is trickling down to the CLS , E-Class and ML - class ) . In 2012 , Mercedes - AMG Chairman Olla Kallenius said that Mercedes - AMG will not produce diesel engines to compete with BMW 's tri-turbo diesels ( BMW M Performance range ) . Mercedes AMG DTM car ( 2003 ) Although there were some AMG models in the 1980s with manual transmissions , almost all recent models have used automatics ( 5G - Tronic and later 7G - Tronic with Speedshift ) , in contrast to BMW M , which used manuals and recently semi-automatic transmissions ( the current type being a dual clutch transmission ) . Starting in 2009 , however , AMG began adopting the seven - speed AMG SpeedShift MCT automatic transmission . Although these are considered the most well known in - house tuning divisions , Mercedes - AMG has a considerably different philosophy than BMW M. Mercedes - AMG has created high - performance versions of many of its nameplates , including flagship sedans and SUVs , while BMW M has emphasized tuning only vehicles with `` Lateral agility '' ( which has long been only their 3 Series , 5 Series , and roadsters ) . Compared to BMW M , Mercedes - AMG is `` less narrow in its sporting focus , yet still combining sledgehammer performance with relaxed handling , cultured comfort , and practicality '' . While founders Hans Werner Aufrecht and Erhard Melcher had emphasized proper racing cars , Mercedes - AMG had diverged considerably from this philosophy in recent years , with their offerings being well known for straight - line acceleration but poor handling dynamics . However , current Mercedes - AMG chairman Volker Mornhinweg has urged the division to return to its roots of building sports cars . Motor racing ( edit ) In the late 1960s and early 1970s , AMG entered the big Mercedes - Benz 300SEL 6.3 V8 saloon , affectionately named the `` Red Sow '' , in the 1971 Spa 24 Hours , and the European Touring Car Championship . AMG and Mercedes worked together on Mercedes - Benz W201 cars for the 1988 Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft ( DTM , German Touring Car Championship ) . AMG was made the official partner . When DaimlerChrysler acquired a majority share of AMG in 1999 , the motor racing department was divested into HWA AG . Their first car was the ill - fated Mercedes - Benz CLR . Since 2000 , HWA builds and runs the cars for Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters ( DTM ) , as well as the M271 engine tuned for use in Formula 3 . AMG engine display at the Pagani factory Six successive lightly modified Mercedes - Benz AMG models ( including , most recently , an SL 63 AMG ) have acted as the safety cars for the FIA Formula One World Championship . Since 2010 , the Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG GT3s has been competing in GT competitions around the world , such as the FIA GT3 European Championship , Blancpain Endurance Series , Blancpain Sprint Series , VLN , 24 Hours of Nurburgring , British GT Championship , Super GT , Australian GT Championship , Bathurst 12 Hour , Dubai 24 Hour , Macau GT Cup and Pirelli World Challenge . In late 2011 , after the end of the Formula One season , Mercedes GP Petronas announced that it would be using the AMG branding for its F1 efforts , changing its name to Mercedes AMG Petronas for the 2012 season onwards . Three AMG E Class V8 Supercars began competing Australian V8 Supercars Championship from 2013 , with the newly formed partnership of Erebus Motorsport and Stone Brothers Racing Teams operating under a Customer Sports Program of AMG . Relationship with Pagani ( edit ) AMG also provides engines for the Zonda and Huayra cars . The engines used are variants of the M120 7,291 cc displacement V12 engine originally used in the 1995 SL73 AMG . The M120 is the largest displacement naturally aspirated engine provided by AMG and is now exclusively used by Pagani . Relationship with Aston Martin ( edit ) On July 25 , 2013 , Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd and Daimler AG announced moves towards a technical partnership with Mercedes - AMG GmbH . The deal will see Aston Martin access significant Mercedes - AMG GmbH and Mercedes - Benz Cars ' resources , allowing the development of bespoke V8 powertrains and the use of certain components of electric / electronic architecture . Daimler AG now owns a stake of 5 % of non-voting shares in Aston Martin , joining existing shareholders Investment DAR , Adeem Investment and Investindustrial . The technical partnership will support Aston Martin 's launch of a new generation of models and newly developed bespoke V8 powertrains . Current AMG models ( edit ) AMG carbon fibre engine cover All AMG engines - with the exception of the `` 43 '' M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo engine - are hand built using a `` one man , one engine '' philosophy at the current AMG plant in Affalterbach , Germany . To signify this , each AMG engine builder stamps the engines they produce with an engraved plaque depicting their signature . According to Mercedes - Benz , there are only about 50 AMG engine builders . As part of the official Mercedes product line , the AMG models are sold side - by - side with regular production models , unlike those offered by other Mercedes tuning firms such as Brabus . E63 AMG carbon ceramic brake Geneva auto show 2011 `` 45 '' M133 20 L inline - 4 Turbo ( edit ) Mercedes - AMG A 45 Mercedes - AMG CLA 45 Mercedes - AMG GLA 45 The 2.0 L Turbo I4 was created for use in the smaller , 45 AMG models , such as the A-Class , CLA - Class , and GLA - Class , which all share the same platform . The M133 produces 360 PS and 332 ft - lb , making it the most powerful turbo 4 - cylinder in production , and with a 190.5 - horsepower per liter , one of the most power dense engines in production . Models with the M133 Turbo 4 are paired with a 7 - speed AMG SPEEDSHIFT Dual - Clutch Transmission . The CLA45 AMG can accelerate from 0 - 60 in 4.2 seconds , according to Motor Trend 's first test of the vehicle . `` 43 '' M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo ( edit ) Mercedes - AMG SLC 43 Mercedes - AMG C 43 Mercedes - AMG GLC 43 Mercedes - AMG E 43 Mercedes - AMG GLE 43 `` 63 '' M157 5.5 L V8 Bi-Turbo ( edit ) M157 L 5.5 V8 models ( Twin - turbo ) Mercedes - AMG CLS 63 Mercedes - AMG E 63 Mercedes - AMG G 63 Mercedes - AMG GLE 63 Mercedes - AMG GLS 63 Mercedes - AMG S 63 Mercedes - AMG SL 63 Rumoured in 2009 and confirmed in 2010 , AMG developed the M157 , a 5.5 - litre V8 with direct fuel injection and twin turbochargers. Power is rated at up to 577 bhp ( 430 kW ; 585 PS ) at 5,250 - 5,750 rpm with a peak torque of 664 lb ft ( 900 N m ) made between 2,000 rpm and 4,500 rpm ( the amount of power and torque depends on model , but these are the maximum ratings ) . Both engines are mated to Mercedes - Benz 's 7 - speed MCT transmission . Mercedes - Benz CLS63 AMG E63 AMG 4MATIC T Unlike the M156 naturally aspirated 6.2 L V8 , which was developed entirely within AMG , the M157 is based upon the M278 used in the regular Mercedes - Benz S - Class and CL - Class . The M157 boasts 25 % better fuel economy ( 10.5 litres per 100 kilometres versus 14.4 L / 100 km in the European driving cycle ) over the M156 , meaning it avoids the US Gas Guzzler Tax for the first time ever , despite having up to 47 horsepower more . The M157 's increased torque from both the regular version and performance package means the engine can be shifted into a taller gear sooner , keeping engine revs and fuel consumption to a minimum . The new M157 has an engine start / stop mode and is lightweight at 204 kg . The M157 is said to be ideal for powering full - size sedans such as the S - Class , but the older M156 remains in production , as its more precise throttle response is still well suited to smaller sportier models ( the C - Class ) , until the 2015 model arrives , which is powered by a 4.0 liter V8 . 5.5 L V8 BiTurbo models carry the `` 63 '' model designation , shared with the 6.2 L V8 models . Visually , the 2011 S63 AMG is differentiated from the 2010 model ( itself face - lifted over the 2009 S63 ) by the more angular design of the chromed dual exhaust tips , which also sport embossed AMG logos , as well as new forged wheels . For the CL63 AMG , the new M157 engine coincides with the facelift of the CL - Class for the 2011 model year . Despite common belief , 63 AMG models are typically faster than their 65 AMG counterparts . An S63 AMG accelerates faster and handles better than an S65 AMG ( due to 4 - wheel drive and decreased weight ) , and an SL63 AMG accelerates faster than an SL65 AMG due to decreased torque , lower weight , and better balance by use of the V8 . Since 2013 , AMG models with the S - Model package feature all - wheel drive , which allows for better handling and better acceleration . The Mercedes - Benz CLS63 AMG S has been tested to accelerate to 60 mph in just 3.2 seconds , with a quarter mile time of 11.6 seconds . This made it the quickest production sedan at the time . MotorTrend tested the 2014 E63 AMG S with the M157 engine to produce an estimated 676 bhp ( 504 kW ; 685 PS ) and 631 lb ft ( 856 N m ) . `` 65 '' M275 60 L V12 Bi-Turbo ( edit ) Mercedes - Benz SL65 AMG ( 2012 ) The models listed below are powered by a variant of the Mercedes - Benz M275 engine . AMG G 65 AMG S 65 AMG SL 65 The AMG power - plant has an all - new design of the bi-turbo system , which features larger turbochargers and a new , more powerful charge - air cooling system , and the increase in the engine displacement ( to 5980 cc ) as well as many other engine design measures . This allows it to produce a claimed 621 horsepower and 738 lb - ft of torque . `` 65 '' models used a 5 - speed automatic transmission for a long time , as the newer 7G - Tronic was n't able to handle the torque from the V12 engines . This was changed with the introduction of 2012 SL65 AMG , which uses the same AMG SpeedShift MCT transmission as the rest of the AMG line - up . Coinciding with the facelift of the CL - Class for the 2011 model year , the 2011 CL65 AMG had an enhanced engine . AMG redesigned the exhaust gas turbochargers and added new engine electronics . It produced 621 horsepower , pushing the car from 0 to 60 mph in 4.2 seconds ( 0.2 seconds faster than the 2011 CL63 ) , with an electronically limited top speed of 186 mph . The update also improved fuel economy and reduced carbon emissions by 3.5 % over the outgoing model . M178 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo ( edit ) AMG C 63 AMG E 63 AMG GT AMG S63 AMG GLC 63 AMG GLC 63 Coupe Mercedes - AMG GT Launched to the UK market in April 2015 , the 4 - liter M178 V8 uses an unusual configuration where the position of the intake and exhaust are reversed , to create a more compact engine and hence vehicle design . This `` hot inside v '' configuration , as AMG calls it , has the exhaust gasses exiting into the central v area of the engine block where the engine 's twin turbochargers are also mounted . Previous AMG models ( edit ) In addition to the models listed below , there were also predecessors to the current AMG models . `` 55 '' M152 5.5 L V8 ( edit ) AMG SLK 55 The M152 is a naturally aspirated , detuned version of the M157 Biturbo V8 . This V8 will be used for the 2012 SLK55 AMG , and it produces 415 hp and 398 lb - ft . This engine was discontinued in 2016 with the introduction of the SLC43 AMG `` 63 '' M156 6.2 L V8 ( edit ) M156 L 6.2 V8 models currently in production 2008 C63 AMG ( Sedan and Wagon ) ( facelifted for the 2012 model year ) 2010 SLS AMG ( M159 ) AMG developed its own V8 engine ( dubbed M156 in development ) for the DTM series . The M156 produces 451 horsepower and 443 ft - lbs of torque . The M156 , in various states of tune , was used in models such as the SL63 , E63 , CLS63 , and S63 until it was replaced by the M157 5.5 L Biturbo V8 . In 2009 , AMG developed the M159 engine , which is based on the M156 engine , to use in SLS AMG . The M159 produces 583 horsepower and 489 lb - ft of torque in the Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG GT , and 622 horsepower and 468 lb - ft in the SLS AMG Black Series . There are also other AMG nameplates no longer in production : 1988 -- 1993 190E AMG 3.2 1988 -- 1993 300E AMG 3.4 E , AMG 3.4 CE , AMG 3.4 TE 1992 `` The Hammer '' AMG Widebody Coupe 1993 -- 1994 E60 AMG 1994 -- 1995 E36 AMG 1995 , 1997 S70 AMG 1995 , 1998 -- 2001 SL73 AMG 1996 -- 1998 SL60 AMG 1995 -- 1997 C36 AMG 1997 -- 2000 C43 AMG 1996 -- 1998 E36 AMG 1996 -- 1997 E50 AMG 1999 -- 2002 E55 AMG 1998 -- 2002 CLK - GTR AMG 2001 -- 2004 SLK32 AMG 2002 - 2004 C32 AMG 2005 -- 2006 C55 AMG 2005 -- 2006 CLK DTM AMG 2007 R63 AMG 2009 CLK63 AMG and CLK63 AMG Black Series `` 30 '' 3.0 L I5 diesel ( edit ) OM612 3.0 L `` 30 '' I5 Diesel models C30 CDI AMG ( sedan , wagon , and Sportcoupé ) `` 3.2 '' 3.2 L V6 Kompressor ( edit ) 2003 UK version of C32 Estate ( S203 ) in Brilliant Silver . Powertrain consists of AMG Speedshift 5 - speed automatic transmission mated to an AMG 3.2 - litre V6 Kompressor engine with an output of 260 kW / 349 hp and 332 lb ft ( 450 N m ) @ 4,400 rpm . The engine is a special version of the 3.2 L ( 3199 cc ) M112 E32 , fitted with a helical twin - screw supercharger and water - to - air intercooler . The supercharger was developed in conjunction with IHI and features Teflon - coated rotors producing overall boost of 14.5 psi ( 1 bar ) . Compared to the standard M112 engine , the AMG version also has a new crankshaft , new connecting rods and pistons , an oil pump with a 70 - percent increased capacity , lightweight camshafts , and harder valve springs for a redline of 6200 rpm , an increase of 200 rpm . While rival BMW M developed the SMG II semi-automatic for the BMW M3 , the C32 and SLK32 have a 5 - speed automatic transmission 's `` Speedshift '' system , which now has quicker response ( up to 35 percent ) to accelerator and shift selector movements . Interestingly , the C32 had a smaller engine than its predecessors , the C36 AMG with the M104 3.6 L I6 engine , and the C43 AMG powered by the M113 4.3 L V8 engine . The C32 AMG can do 0 -- 60 mph in 5.2 sec 0 -- 100 in 12.6 with a 1 / 4 mile of 13.6@106 mph ( C&D comparison test May 2003 ) 3.2 L Supercharged M112 V6 AMG 2002 -- 2004 C32 AMG ( sedan , wagon ( S203 ) , and Sportcoupé ) 2001 -- 2004 SLK32 AMG 2005 -- 2006 Chrysler Crossfire SRT - 6 `` 5.5 '' 5.4 L V8 Kompressor ( edit ) 2004 AMG CL55 Kompressor . This model was nicknamed the `` Hammer '' after the original 1986 AMG Hammer ( a W124 E-Class sedan with an AMG - tuned 360 hp 5.6 - litre V8 ) . The 2003 E55 AMG could do 0 -- 60 mph in 4.4 seconds . The main engine is a 5.4 L V8 engine This engine comes in two configurations . The first configuration is a naturally aspirated V8 with 354.12 PS ( 260.45 kW ; 349.28 hp ) that is used in the C55 AMG , CLK55 AMG , SLK55 AMG , and ML55 AMG . The C43 AMG ( model years 1998 -- 2000 ) was powered by a naturally aspirated V8 engine from the M113 family , but at a reduced displacement of 4.3 L , hence the ' 43 ' designation . The other configuration is a similar unit but with a highly efficient Lysholm type twin screw supercharger . manufactured by Eaton , is in the rest of the AMG 55 models , which are typically midsized or larger vehicles . The published output according to Mercedes varies from 476 PS ( 350 kW ; 469 hp ) to 517 PS ( 380 kW ; 510 hp ) and 700 N m ( 520 lb ft ) to 720 N m ( 530 lb ft ) , depending on various methods of power measurements and different ECU programming for national legislations . For instance , the E55 AMG 's engine was at the low end , nonetheless it was still Mercedes - Benz 's fastest sedan at the time , while the SL55 AMG 's engine had the top output . Mercedes has claimed that a more restrictive exhaust system was responsible for cutting output on the E55 AMG , however some enthusiasts have managed to bump up horsepower to 505 on the E55 by incorporating some parts from the SL55 . The supercharged 5.4 L 32 valve V8 engine was mated to the Speedshift 5 - speed automatic transmission , which has a torque capacity of 796 lb ft ( 1,079 N m ) , as the newer 7G - Tronic introduced in 2003 is limited to 542 lb ft ( 735 N m ) , not enough to handle the torque from the supercharged V8 . The V8 S55 AMG had comparable output to the V12 - powered S600 throughout their production . The S55 AMG ( 2001 -- 02 ) was outfitted with a 5.4 L 354 hp ( 264 kW ) V8 motor while the later versions ( 2003 -- 06 ) sported the same motor , but supercharged to a rated 493 hp ( 368 kW ) . The S600 ( 2001 -- 02 ) was outfitted with a 5.8 L 362 hp ( 270 kW ) V12 engine while the later versions ( 2003 -- 06 ) sported a twin - turbocharged ( or Bi-Turbo ) 493 hp ( 368 kW ) 5.5 L V12 . The justification for having two models with the same power is that the S55 AMG is sportier and more responsive , while the costlier S600 is more luxurious with a smoother ride . AMG phased out both the naturally aspirated and supercharged 5.4 L engines in favor of the new M156 V8 beginning in 2006 , which was paired with 7G - Tronic . However , some enthusiasts were disappointed because the M156 produces less torque than the M113K ( which is supercharged ) . For the Model Year 2009 : M113 5.4 L `` 55 '' V8 models ( naturally aspirated ) SLK55 AMG M113 5.4 L `` 55 '' V8 models ( supercharged ) G55 AMG Previous 55 AMG models ( edit ) 1999 -- 2002 E55 AMG 2003 -- 2006 E55 AMG 2000 -- 2003 ML55 AMG 2003 -- 2005 C55 AMG 2001 -- 2002 CLK55 AMG 2003 -- 2006 CLK55 AMG 2004 -- 2007 CLS55 AMG 2001 -- 2008 SL55 AMG 2001 -- 2006 S55 AMG 2001 -- 2006 CL55 AMG 2005 -- 2006 C55 AMG 2001 -- 2009 G55 AMG `` 63 '' M137 63 L V12 ( edit ) The `` 63 '' badging was used on the short - lived 2001 S63 AMG , 2001 CL63 AMG and 2002 G63 AMG . These were produced in limited quantities for one month and only offered through AMG to select customers in Europe and Asia , purportedly state leaders . The CL63 AMG was the rarest W215 CL of all , and just 26 examples were built in November 2001 ( 51 plate ) , with some UK being registered in March 2002 . These had a base price of £ 110,000 ( ~ US $ 200,000 ) . The G63 AMG was the rarest W463 of all with just 5 examples built in September 2002 and sold in Germany at over EURO 250,000 each . These are powered by a naturally aspirated 6.3 L V12 producing 444 PS ( 438 hp / 327 kW ) . This engine is based on the M137 5.8 L V12 used in the S600 and CL600 , but the AMG variants have a larger displacement , a new management system , a new crank case and cooling system , weight - optimized pistons , and a new camshaft with greater valve lift and modified valves . 390 lb ft ( 530 N m ) of torque are available between 2500 -- 5800rpm with a peak of 457 at 4400 rpm while horsepower grows by almost 80 over the 5.8 L V12 . It is mated to a 5 - speed automatic transmission . The 2001 S63 AMG V12 had 100 hp more than the 2001 S55 AMG , and was a few tenths faster . `` 60 '' , `` 73 '' , `` 70 '' , `` 5.5 '' ( edit ) The Mercedes - Benz SL - Class ( R129 ) had several AMG variants during its production run from 1989 to 2001 . The SL 60 AMG was the most numerous of these rare cars . Sold from 1993 to 1998 , it used a 6.0 litre V8 engine producing 381 PS ( 280 kW ; 376 hp ) at 5500 rpm . AMG claimed a 0 -- 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) speed of 5.6 seconds . Its top speed was limited to 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , but with the limiter removed , it was capable of approximately 185 mph ( 298 km / h ) . AMG later unofficially conceded that 0 -- 60 mph was more like 5.0 seconds and the engine produced between 405 -- 410 bhp . Extremely rare was the SL 73 AMG , sold through Mercedes - AMG in 1995 , and offering the most powerful V12 engine ever put into an SL up to that time . After a brief hiatus , the SL73 was offered again from 1998 to 2001 . The same 7.3 L V12 was later used by Pagani in the Zonda . Even rarer is the SL 70 AMG ( 7.0 L ( 7055 cc ) V12 engine ) . The SL 55 AMG was sold in the R129 bodystyle from 1998 to 2001 in limited numbers ( 5.4 L V8 , 354 PS ( 260 kW ; 349 hp ) at 5500 rpm ) . It was the predecessor of the production R230 SL55 AMG sold later , albeit was normally aspirated in the R129 and not supercharged as in its R230 successor . `` 63 '' M156 6.2 L V8 ( edit ) The `` 63 '' M156 is currently in production in the C63 AMG , and tuned as the M159 in the SLS AMG , although there were many models that were previously in production . This naturally aspirated V8 will also be used to replace most of the `` 55 '' models . The published output according to Mercedes varies from 457 PS ( 336 kW ; 451 hp ) on the C63 AMG , to 525 PS ( 386 kW ; 518 hp ) on the C / CLK / R / ML / GL / S / SL / CL / E 63 AMG . The 2008 S63 / CL63 / SL63s that used the M156 engine at 518 horsepower edged out that of the S600 / CL600 / SL600 , the latter powered by the 510 horsepower 5.5 - liter twin - turbo V12 , while also having a higher redline . However , the S600 / CL600 / SL600 are more expensive and have more torque at 612 pound - feet ( 830 N m ) . The S63 / CL63 / SL63 however do have quicker acceleration times than their S600 / CL600 / SL600 counterparts and are the fastest in the lineup in 2014 , due to the added weight and torque of the 65s , thus decreasing the 0 - 60 times and the handling limits . Compared to the `` 55 '' supercharged 5.4 L V8 engine -- which was restricted to the Speedshift 5G - Tronic five - speed automatic transmission , as it had a torque capacity of 796 lb ft ( 1,079 N m ) -- the reduced torque of the `` 63 '' M156 6.2 L V8 means it can be mated with the more efficient 7G - Tronic , which can withstand a limit of 542 lb ft ( 735 N m ) . Despite the reduction in torque , the increased horsepower and more efficient transmission enables the `` 63 '' models to match or surpass the acceleration of the `` 55 '' models . Most of the M156 - engined models used the 7G - Tronic automatic transmission , however the more recent 2009 SL63 , 2010 E63 , and 2012 C63 use the 7 - speed MCT transmission . Previous M156 Models 2007 - 2010 S63 AMG 2007 - 2010 CL63 AMG 2007 - 2011 ML63 AMG 2007 R63 AMG 2007 - 2009 CLK63 AMG ( introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show ) ( used as Safety Car for the 2006 and 2007 F1 World Championship ) 2007 - 2011 CLS63 AMG ( introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show ) 2007 - 2009 E63 AMG ( Sedan and Wagon ) 2009 - 2012 SL63 AMG 2010 - 2012 E63 AMG ( Sedan and Wagon ) Black Series ( edit ) SLK55 AMG Black Series CLK63 AMG Black Series SL65 AMG Black Series C63 AMG Black Series SLS AMG Black Series The AMG Performance Studio in Affalterbach is responsible for the upgrades that make an AMG into an AMG Black Series model . The Black Series treatment is only available on 2 door vehicles , which includes weight reduction , bucket seats , exterior alterations , interior alterations , higher power , greater traction , handling , and significantly greater overall performance . Black Series models are known as street legal race cars . The SLS AMG Black Series was tested by Motor Trend to have a 0 - 60 time of 3.2 seconds , and a quarter mile time of 11.1 seconds at 129.8 mph . The SLS AMG Black Series `` demolished '' the Motor Trend figure eight in just 23.1 seconds , beating the McLaren MP4 - 12C , Ferrari 458 Italia , Audi R8 V10 Plus , and the SRT Viper . The SLS AMG Black Series is currently the 22nd fastest car to lap the Nürburgring . The SLS AMG Black Series had the same 1 : 19 time as the Lamborghini Murciélago LP670 - 4 SuperVeloce , the Ferrari Enzo , and beat the Ferrari 458 Italia , Lamborghini Gallardo LP 560 - 4 , Porsche 997 GT2 , and Nissan GT - R around the Top Gear test track . Electric Drive ( edit ) In 2013 , Mercedes - AMG announced the SLS AMG Coupe Electric Drive , which was to be the first zero emissions vehicle from AMG . The vehicle used technology derived from Formula 1 , and was the fastest electric car . The SLS AMG Electric Drive has 740 horsepower and 738 lb - ft of torque , and Mercedes - AMG claims a 0 - 60 time of 3.9 seconds . See also ( edit ) List of German cars Audi S and RS models BMW M Opel Performance Center Street and Racing Technology Special Vehicle Team Super Sport Gran Turismo References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Statement of Investments pursuant to Sections 285 and 313 of the German Commercial Code ( HGB ) for the Company and Consolidated Financial Statements of Daimler AG as of December 31 , 2011 '' ( PDF ) . daimler.com . Daimler AG . 2012 - 02 - 09 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 2012 - 08 - 07 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mercedes - Benz AMG '' . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` 2002 Mercedes - Benz C32 AMG Road Test '' . Edmunds . Retrieved 6 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Newhardt , David . `` Behind the Scenes : Mercedez - Benz AMG '' . MotorTrend . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ Hall , Jim . `` Rhapsody in Red : 500SL AMG '' Motor Trend Magazine , October , 1983 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes - AMG : The AMG Story beginning '' . Retrieved 6 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` AMG 's Hammer '' Auto Week , June 23 , 1986 . Jump up ^ Setright , LJK . `` Firebrand : AMG Hammer Sedan '' Car Magazine , December , 1986 . Pp. 149 - 155 Jump up ^ `` AMG 's new chief has big plans for 2006 - AutoWeek Magazine '' . Autoweek.com. 2006 - 01 - 20 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` 2005 BMW M5 vs. 2005 Mercedes - Benz e55 AMG - Full Metal Rockets - Luxury Road Test '' . Motor Trend . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ June 2001 BY PETER ROBINSON. `` 2002 Mercedes - Benz C32 AMG and SLK32 AMG - First Drive Review - Page 2 '' . Caranddriver.com . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` 2009 Mercedes - Benz SL - Class '' . Autoblog.com . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes adds AMG moniker to Formula 1 team name '' . Autosport. 2011 - 12 - 05 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Erebus Motorsport on the V8 Supercar Grid in 2013 name '' . Archived from the original on 2012 - 09 - 27 . Retrieved 2012 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Aston Martin in technical partnership with Mercedes - AMG GmbH '' . Retrieved 6 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes - AMG GmbH and Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd. to enter technical partnership '' . 25 July 2013 . Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 . Retrieved 6 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Aston Martin signs Letter of Intent for technical partnership with AMG '' . Autoblog. 2013 - 07 - 25 . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mercedes - AMG : A High Performance Driving Experience '' . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` All - New 2014 CLA45 AMG 4 - Door Coupe '' . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes A 45 AMG : The most powerful 4 - cylinder turbo engine in the world - Car Engineer '' . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Mercedes - Benz CLA45 AMG First Test - Motor Trend '' . 2013 - 11 - 13 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` CLS63 4 - Door Coupe Mercedes - Benz '' . mbusa.com . Archived from the original on 2017 - 06 - 08 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` SL63 AMG Convertible Roadster Mercedes - Benz '' . mbusa.com . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : `` Engines : 5.5 L - V8 '' . Mercedes - AMG. 2009 - 10 - 14 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 11 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mercedes AMG New Twin - Turbo 5.5 Litre V8 Engine Revealed '' . Worldcarfans.com . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : `` AMG Replacing 6.3 V8 with 5.5 L Twin Turbo V8 '' . Carthrottle.com. 2010 - 03 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2011 Mercedes - Benz S63 AMG - 2010 Geneva Auto Show Coverage , New Car Reviews , Concept Cars - Automobile Magazine '' . Automobilemag.com . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2011 Mercedes - Benz S63 AMG '' . Canada.com. 2010 - 07 - 05 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2012 Mercedes - Benz E63 AMG First Drive '' . Motor Trend . 2011 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` First Drive : 2011 Mercedes - Benz S63 AMG '' . Nationalpost.com . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2015 Mercedes - Benz S65 AMG Photos and Info -- News -- Car and Driver '' . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes - Benz SL63 / SL65 AMG Reviews - Mercedes - Benz SL63 / SL65 AMG Price , Photos , and Specs - CAR and DRIVER '' . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Mercedes - Benz CLS63 AMG S Track Sheet '' ( PDF ) . caranddriver.com . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Luxury Super Sports Sedan Comparison - Audi RS7 , Mercedes - Benz CLS63 AMG S , Porsche Panamera Turbo - Motor Trend '' . motortrend.com . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ PeterH ( 2009 - 12 - 04 ) . `` Mercedes - Benz CL 65 AMG and S 65 AMG Mercedes '' . 500sec.com . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mercedes - Benz AMG 6.3 - liter V8 '' . Insideline.com. 2005 - 07 - 19 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes ' new CL65 AMG will now pack 621 horses - Drive On : A conversation about the cars and trucks we drive - USATODAY.com '' . Content.usatoday.com. 2010 - 07 - 24 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2011 Mercedes CL63 & CL65 AMG revealed '' . Worldcarfans.com . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes AMG GT 2015 '' . askaprice.com. 2014 - 09 - 25 . Retrieved 25 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes - Benz details new variable - displacement V8 for SLK55 AMG '' . Autoblog. 2011 - 07 - 21 . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : `` 2014 Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive Photos and Info -- News -- Car and Driver '' . 2014 - 09 - 10 . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG Black Series Test -- Review -- Car and Driver '' . December 2013 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 08 . Jump up ^ June 2001 BY PETER ROBINSON. `` 2002 Mercedes - Benz C32 AMG and SLK32 AMG - First Drive Review - Car Reviews '' . Car and Driver . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes - Benz C32 AMG First Drive -- Full Review of the New Mercedes - Benz C32 AMG at '' . Roadandtrack.com. 2001 - 07 - 01 . Archived from the original on 2011 - 10 - 19 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` 2003 Audi S4 vs. BMW M3 , M-B C32 AMG '' . Car and Driver . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` C / D Test Results '' ( PDF ) . caranddriver.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ Kim Wolfkill ( January 2003 ) . `` First Drives - Mercedes - Benz E55 AMG ( 1 / 2003 ) '' ( PDF ) . RoadandTrack.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 30 . Jump up ^ December 2002 BY PETER ROBINSON . `` Mercedes - Benz E55 AMG - First Drive Review - Car Reviews '' . Car and Driver . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Test Drive : 2004 Mercedes - Benz E55 AMG - Autos.ca '' . Canadiandriver.com. 2003 - 10 - 26 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` 2004 Mercedes Benz E55 AMG '' . Retrieved 6 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Mercedes E55 AMG '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mercedes - Benz S63 AMG ( W220 ) - World 's Fastest Sedans '' . Fantasycars.com. 2006 - 12 - 14 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . ^ Jump up to : `` MERCEDES BENZ S 63 AMG ( W220 ) 2001 - 2001 '' . autoevolution . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ http://www.supercars.net/garages/marcusmv3/126v2.html Jump up ^ Automobil Revue , catalogue edition 1995 , p. 380 . Jump up ^ `` 2008 Mercedes - Benz CL63 AMG and S63 AMG - First Drive Review - Auto Reviews '' . Car and Driver . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG Black Series First Test - Motor Trend '' . 2013 - 08 - 06 . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Lap Records Nürburgring Lap Times '' . Jump up ^ List of Top Gear test track Power Lap Times Bibliography ( edit ) Becker , Clauspeter ; Bolsinger , Markus ; Clauss , Michael ( 2013 ) . AMG 45 : The Story - The Cars . Bielefeld , Germany : Delius Klasing . ISBN 9783768834940 . Bolsinger , Markus ( 2013 ) . Mercedes - Benz SLS AMG . Bielefeld , Germany : Delius Klasing . ISBN 9783768833707 . Clarke , R.M. , ed. ( 2007 ) . Mercedes AMG Gold Portfolio 1983 - 1999 . Road Test Portfolio Series . Cobham , Surrey , UK : Brooklands Books . ISBN 9781855207455 . Clarke , R.M. , ed. ( 2007 ) . Mercedes AMG Ultimate Portfolio 2000 - 2006 . Road Test Portfolio Series . Cobham , Surrey , UK : Brooklands Books . ISBN 9781855207486 . Mühling , Frank ; Bolsinger , Markus ( 2006 ) . AMG : Reaching for the Stars . Bielefeld , Germany : Delius Klasing . ISBN 3768818098 . Rigatto , Alessandro ( 2011 ) . Typenkompass Mercedes - AMG Serien - und Rennsportwagen seit 1967 ( Typenkompass Mercedes - AMG Production and Racing Cars since 1967 ) . Typenkompass series ; Basiswissen für Auto - Freunde series ( in German ) . Stuttgart : Motorbuch Verlag . ISBN 9783613032736 . External links ( edit ) Official website Daimler AG Divisions and subsidiaries Cars Current Mercedes - Benz Mercedes - AMG Mercedes - Maybach Smart Trucks and vans Current BharatBenz Freightliner Manufacturing Commercial Vehicles Master Motors ( 80 % ) Mercedes - Benz Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus ( 85 % ) Western Star Defunct American LaFrance Sterling Trucks Buses Current BharatBenz Freightliner Manufacturing Commercial Vehicles Master Motors Mercedes Benz Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Setra / EvoBus Thomas Defunct Orion Motorsport Mercedes AMG Petronas Motorsport Mercedes AMG High Performance Powertrains Other Alliance Truck Parts car2Go Daimler Financial Services Mercedes - Benz Bank Detroit Diesel Mercedes - Benz India Mercedes - Benz Mexico Shareholdings and joint ventures Automotive Fuel Cell Cooperation ( 50.1 % ) Beijing Benz ( 50 % ) Denza ( 50 % ) Tognum AG ( 50 % ) Fujian Benz ( 50 % ) Here ( 33 % ) EADS ( 22.41 % ) Kamaz ( 10 % ) MV Agusta ( 25 % ) Tesla Motors ( 10 % ) Tata Motors ( 7 % ) Aston Martin ( 5 % ) Predecessors Benz & Company ( 1883 -- 1926 ) Daimler - Motoren - Gesellschaft AG ( 1890 -- 1926 ) Daimler - Benz AG ( 1926 -- 98 ) DaimlerChrysler AG ( 1998 -- 2007 ) Technologies Active Cylinder Control BlueTec People Wolfgang Bernhard Karlfried Nordmann Andreas Renschler Hans Scherenberg Jürgen E. Schrempp Karl Wilfert Joachim Zahn Dieter Zetsche Other DaimlerChrysler -- Mitsubishi alliance BeiBen Truck Commons Automotive industry in Germany Automotive industry Economy of Germany Transport in Germany Companies Active vehicle producers BMW BMW i BMW Motorrad Borgward Daimler Mercedes - Benz Setra / EvoBus Smart Maybach Apollo Automobil Krauss - Maffei Rheinmetall RMMV Volkswagen Group Audi MAN RMMV Porsche Volkswagen Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles Foreign owned Ford of Europe Ford - Werke Iveco Magirus Opel Hyundai Europe Defunct vehicle producers Auto Union DKW Horch NSU Wanderer Trabant Hansa Goliath North German Automobile and Engine Artega Automobile Fuldamobil Goggomobil Components ATR Behr Bosch Blaupunkt ETAS Group BBS Bühler Motor Continental Dräxlmaier Group Dürr AG Getrag Hella Hermann Peters KSPG Löwe Automobil Mahle Mann + Hummel Petri Schaeffler Voith ZF Friedrichshafen ZF Sachs Motorsport and tuners Abt Sportsline AC Schnitzer Alpina Audi Sport AMG Bitter Brabus BMW M Carlsson G - Power Gemballa Hamann Motorsport Hartge Je Design Koenig Specials Mansory Opel Performance Center PPI Automotive Design Rieger Tuning Ruf Automobile Steinmetz Opel Tuning Services Daimler Financial Services Mercedes - Benz Bank Sixt Related topics ADAC AMI Leipzig ASAM DTM Frankfurt Motor Show German Association of the Automotive Industry Nürburgring Defunct companies and marques above are shown in italics Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercedes-AMG&oldid=807769768 '' Categories : Daimler AG subsidiaries Official motorsports and performance division of automakers Mercedes - Benz Auto parts suppliers of Germany Wheel manufacturers Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1967 1967 establishments in West Germany German brands Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters teams FIA GT Championship teams 24 Hours of Le Mans teams Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2010 Pages using deprecated image syntax CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 October 2017 , at 01 : 22 . 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what does the amg stand for in mercedes benz
[ "AMG was founded as a racing engine forge in 1967 under the name AMG Motorenbau und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH (AMG Engine Production and Development, Ltd.), by former Mercedes-Benz engineers Hans Werner Aufrecht and Erhard Melcher in Burgstall an der Murr, near Stuttgart. The letters \"AMG\" stand for Aufrecht, Melcher and Großaspach (Aufrecht's birth town). In 1976 most of AMG moved to Affalterbach, with the racing-engine development remaining at the old location in Burgstall. At this time Erhard Melcher ceased to be a partner, but continued to be an employee at the Burgstall location." ]
[ "Aufrecht, Melcher and Großaspach" ]
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List of superhero debuts
List of superhero debuts - wikipedia List of superhero debuts Jump to : navigation , search The following is a list of the first known appearances of various superhero fictional characters and teams . A superhero ( also known as a super hero or super-hero ) is a fictional character `` of unprecedented physical prowess dedicated to acts of derring - do in the public interest . '' Since the debut of Superman in 1938 by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster , stories of superheroes -- ranging from brief episodic adventures to continuing years - long sagas -- have dominated American comic books and crossed over into other media . A female superhero is sometimes called a superheroine or super heroine . By most definitions , characters need not have actual superhuman powers to be deemed superheroes , although sometimes terms such as costumed crimefighters are used to refer to those without such powers who have many other common traits of superheroes . For a list of comic book supervillain debuts , see List of comic book supervillain debuts . This literature - related list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it . This film , television or video - related list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it with reliably sourced additions . Contents ( hide ) 1 1850 -- 1900 2 1900 -- 1909 2.1 Newspaper comics 2.2 Play 3 1910s 3.1 Magazine 4 1920s 4.1 Notable non-superhero characters that influenced the superhero genre 5 1930s 5.1 Radio 5.2 Pulp fiction 5.3 Newspaper comics 5.4 Other media 5.5 Notable non-superhero characters that influenced the superhero genre 5.6 Comic book 6 1940s 6.1 Newspaper comics 6.2 Comic book 6.3 Other media 7 1950s 7.1 Comic book 7.2 Television 8 1960s 8.1 Comic book 8.2 Television 9 1970s 9.1 Comic book 9.2 Television 10 1980s 10.1 Comic book 10.2 Television 11 1990s 11.1 Comic book 11.2 Movies 11.3 Television 12 2000s 12.1 Comic book 12.2 Movies 12.3 Television 13 2010s 13.1 Comic book 13.2 Movies 13.3 Television 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 External links 1850 -- 1900 ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance Spring Heeled Jack 1878 George Augustus Sala or Alfred Burrage as `` Charlton Lea '' Spring - Heeled Jack , the Terror of London The folkloric Spring - heeled Jack came to be featured in a series of Penny Dreadfuls as a villain . However , in the late 1970s and early 1980s , he was reinvented as a crime - fighter with a disguise , secret lair , and gadgets , hallmarks of superheroes . 1900 -- 1909 ( edit ) Newspaper Comics ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance Hugo Hercules 1902 Wilhelm Heinrich Detlev Körner Chicago Tribune Despite its short run , it 's widely seen as the earliest superhero fiction comic . Play ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance The Scarlet Pimpernel 1903 Baroness Emmuska Orczy The Scarlet Pimpernel Often cited as perhaps the earliest superhero akin to those to become popularized through American comic books . 1910s ( edit ) Magazine ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance John Carter of Mars 1911 Edgar Rice Burroughs A Princess of Mars Tarzan the Apeman 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan of the Apes The Night Wind 1913 Varick Vanardy ( Frederick Van Rensselaer Dey ) Alias the Night Wind The Gray Seal 1914 Frank L. Packard `` The Adventures of Jimmie Dale '' 1917 book version of 1914 and 1915 stories in People 's Magazine The Scarecrow 1915 Russell Thorndike Doctor Syn : A Tale of the Romney Marsh Zorro 1919 Johnston McCulley `` The Curse of Capistrano '' All Weekly Story 1920s ( edit ) Notable non-superhero characters that influenced the superhero genre ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Creator / s Media First appearance The Red Shadow 1926 Oscar Hammerstein II , Otto Harbach , and Frank Mandel Play The Desert Song Buck Rogers January 7 , 1929 Philip Francis Nowlan Newspaper Comic Buck Rogers in the 25th Century A.D adapted from the story `` Armageddon 2419 A.D. '' ( Amazing Stories , August , 1928 ) . 1930s ( edit ) Radio ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance The Shadow ( as announcer voice ) 1930 ( July 31 ) Maxwell Grant ( Walter B. Gibson ) Detective Stories The Lone Ranger 1933 ( January 30 ) George W. Trendle The Lone Ranger Tonto 1933 ( February 25 ) Fran Striker The Lone Ranger The Green Hornet and Kato 1936 ( January 31 ) George W. Trendle and Fran Striker The Green Hornet Pulp fiction ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance The Shadow ( as character ) 1931 ( April ) Maxwell Grant ( Walter B. Gibson ) `` The Living Shadow '' The Shadow Magazine # 1 Conan the Barbarian 1932 ( December ) Robert E. Howard `` The Phoenix on the Sword '' Weird Tales Doc Savage 1933 ( March ) Kenneth Robeson ( Lester Dent ) The Man of Bronze The Avenger 1939 ( September ) Kenneth Robeson ( Paul Ernst ) `` Justice , Inc . '' The Avenger Magazine # 1 Newspaper comics ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s Series Mandrake the Magician 1934 ( June 11 ) Lee Falk Mandrake the Magician The Phantom Magician 1935 ( April 15 ) Mel Graff ( fr ) The Adventures of Patsy The Phantom 1936 ( February 17 ) Lee Falk The Phantom Other media ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Creator / s Media Ôgon Batto ( the Golden Bat ) 1930 Takeo Nagamatsu Kamishibai ( Japanese scroll show ) Hugo Danner 1930 Philip Wylie Gladiator ( novel ) Notable non-superhero characters that influenced the superhero genre ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Creator / s Media Dan Dunn 1933 Norman Marsh Original Comic Book Character Dick Tracy 1931 ( October 4 ) Chester Gould Newspaper Comic Flash Gordon 1934 ( January 7 ) Alex Raymond Newspaper Comic Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Doctor Occult ( Doctor Mystic ) 1935 ( October ) DC Jerry Siegel , Joe Shuster New Fun Comics # 6 The Clock 1936 ( November ) Comics Magazine Co George Brenner Funny Pages # 6 or Funny Picture Stories # 1 Sheena , Queen of the Jungle 1937 Fiction House Will Eisner and S.M. `` Jerry '' Iger Wags # 1 Superman ( Clark Kent ) 1938 ( June ) DC Jerry Siegel , Joe Shuster Action Comics # 1 Zatara 1938 ( June ) DC Fred Guardineer Action Comics # 1 Americommando ( Harold Thompson ) 1938 ( June ) DC Ken Fitch , Bernard Baily Action Comics # 1 Fatman ( Bob Daley ) 1938 ( July ) DC Ken Fitch , Bernard Baily Action Comics # 2 Arrow 1938 ( September ) Centaur Publications Paul Gustavson Funny Pages vol. 2 # 10 ( or # 21 ) Crimson Avenger ( Lee Travis ) 1938 ( October ) DC Jim Chambers Detective Comics # 20 Batman ( Bruce Wayne ) 1939 ( March ) DC Bob Kane , Bill Finger Detective Comics # 27 Namor the Sub-Mariner 1939 ( April ) Marvel / Timely Bill Everett Motion Picture Funnies Weekly # 1 Wonder Man ( Fox ) 1939 ( May ) Fox Publications Will Eisner Wonder Comics # 1 The Flame ( Gary Preston ) 1939 ( June ) Fox Publications Will Eisner Wonderworld Comics # 3 The Sandman ( Wesley Dodds ) 1939 ( July ) DC Gardner Fox , Bert Christman World 's Fair Comics # 1 Blue Beetle ( Dan Garret ) 1939 ( August ) Fox Publications Charles Nicholas Mystery Men Comics # 1 Bozo the Iron Man 1939 ( August ) Quality Comics George Brenner Smash Comics # 1 Amazing Man ( Centaur Publications ) 1939 ( September ) Centaur Publications Bill Everett Amazing - Man Comics # 5 The Human Torch ( Jim Hammond , original ) 1939 ( October ) Marvel / Timely Carl Burgos Marvel Comics # 1 The Angel ( Thomas Halloway ) 1939 ( October ) Marvel / Timely Paul Gustavson Marvel Comics # 1 Shock Gibson 1939 ( October ) Brookwood Publications Maurice Scott Speed Comics # 1 The Ultra-Man ( Gary Concord , Jr . ) 1939 ( November ) DC Jon L. Blummer All - American Comics # 8 Doll Man 1939 ( December ) Quality Comics Will Eisner Feature Comics # 27 1940s ( edit ) Newspaper comics ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s Series The Spirit 1940 ( June 2 ) Will Eisner The Spirit Invisible Scarlet O'Neil 1940 ( June 3 ) Russell Stamm Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Flash ( comics ) ( Jay Garrick , original ) 1940 ( January ) DC Gardner Fox , Harry Lampert Flash Comics # 1 Hawkman ( Carter Hall , original ) 1940 ( January ) DC Gardner Fox Flash Comics # 1 Johnny Thunder 1940 ( January ) DC John W. Wentworth , Stan Asch Flash Comics # 1 Whip ( Rodney Gaynor ) 1940 ( January ) DC John B. Wentworth , George Storm Flash Comics # 1 The Shield ( Archie ) 1940 ( January ) MLJ / Archie Harry Shorten , Irv Novick Pep Comics # 1 Captain Marvel ( DC Comics ) 1940 ( February ) Fawcett Comics / DC C.C. Beck , Bill Parker ( comics ) Whiz Comics # 2 Electro ( comics ) 1940 ( February ) Marvel / Timely Steve Dahlman Marvel Mystery # 4 Spectre ( comics ) ( Jim Corrigan ) 1940 ( February ) DC Jerry Siegel More Fun Comics # 52 Doc Strange 1940 ( February ) Nedor Comics Richard E. Hughes , Alexander Kostuk Thrilling Comics # 1 Hourman ( Rex Tyler ) 1940 ( March ) DC Ken Fitch , Bernard Bailey Adventure Comics # 48 Black Marvel ( Daniel Lyons ) 1940 ( March ) Marvel / Timely Al Gabriele and unknown writer Mystic Comics # 5 Blazing Skull ( Mark Todd ) 1940 ( March ) Marvel / Timely Mystic Comics # 5 Robin ( comics ) ( Dick Grayson , original ) 1940 ( April ) DC Bob Kane , Bill Finger , Jerry Robinson Detective Comics # 38 Catwoman ( Selina Kyle ) 1940 ( April ) DC Bob Kane , Bill Finger Batman # 1 Bulletman and Bulletgirl 1940 ( May ) Fawcett Comics / DC Bill Parker ( comics ) Nickel Comics # 1 Doctor Fate ( Kent Nelson & Nabu ) 1940 ( May ) DC Gardner Fox , Howard Sherman More Fun Comics # 55 Scarlet Avenger 1940 ( June ) Harry Shorten , Irv Novick Zip Comics # 1 Uncle Sam ( comics ) 1940 ( July ) Quality Comics / DC Will Eisner National Comics # 1 Green Lantern ( Alan Scott , original ) 1940 ( July ) DC Martin Nodell , Bill Finger All - American Comics # 16 The Red Bee 1940 ( July ) Quality Comics / DC Toni Blum , Charles Nicholas Hit Comics # 1 Daredevil ( Gleason Publications ) 1940 ( September ) Gleason Publications Jack Binder ( comics ) Silver Streak # 6 Atom ( Al Pratt ) 1940 ( October ) DC Ben Flinton , Bill O'Conner All - American Comics # 19 Vision ( Timely Comics ) 1940 ( November ) Marvel / Timely Joe Simon , Jack Kirby Marvel Mystery Comics # 13 Red Tornado ( Ma Hunkel ) 1940 ( November ) DC Sheldon Mayer All - American Comics # 20 Quicksilver ( Max Mercury ) 1940 ( November ) Quality Comics / DC Jack Cole ( artist ) , Chuck Mazoujian National Comics # 5 Justice Society of America 1940 ( Winter ) DC Gardner Fox All Star Comics # 3 Black Terror 1941 ( January ) Nedor Comics Richard E. Hughes , Don Gabrielson Exciting Comics # 9 Professor Supermind and Son 1941 ( February ) Dell Comics Popular Comics # 60 Captain America ( Steve Rogers ) 1941 ( March ) Marvel / Timely Joe Simon , Jack Kirby Captain America Comics # 1 Starman ( Ted Knight ) ( Ted Knight ) 1941 ( April ) DC Gardner Fox , Jack Burnley Adventure Comics # 61 Doctor Mid-Nite ( Charles McNider ) 1941 ( April ) DC Charles Reizenstein , Stanley Aschmeier All - American Comics # 25 Sargon the Sorcerer 1941 ( May ) DC John B. Wentworth , Howard Purcell All American Comics # 26 Hawkgirl ( Shiera Sanders Hall ) 1941 ( July ) DC Gardner Fox Evelyn Gaines All - Star Comics # 5 Whizzer ( Robert Frank ) 1941 ( August ) Marvel / Timely Al Avison , Al Gabriele USA Comics # 1 American Crusader 1941 ( August ) Nedor Comics Writer and artist unknown Thrilling Comics # 19 Blackhawk ( DC Comics ) 1941 ( August ) Quality Comics / DC Will Eisner , Chuck Cuidera Military Comics # 1 Miss America ( DC Comics ) 1941 ( August ) Quality Comics / DC Military Comics # 1 711 ( Quality Comics ) 1941 ( August ) Quality Comics / DC George Brenner Police Comics # 1 Human Bomb 1941 ( August ) Quality Comics / DC Paul Gustavson Police Comics # 1 Plastic Man 1941 ( August ) Quality Comics / DC Jack Cole ( artist ) Police Comics # 1 Phantom Lady 1941 ( August ) Quality Comics / DC Arthur Peddy Police Comics # 1 Nelvana of the Northern Lights 1941 ( August ) Hillborough Studios ( Canada ) Adrian Dingle Triumph Comics # 1 Johnny Quick ( Johnny Chambers ) 1941 ( September ) DC Mort Weisinger , Chad Grothkopf More Fun Comics # 71 Captain Flag 1941 ( September ) MLJ / Archie Joe Blair , Lin Streeter Blue Ribbon Comics # 16 Fighting Yank 1941 ( September ) Nedor Comics Richard Hughes , Jon Blummer Startling Comics # 10 Aquaman 1941 ( November ) DC Mort Weisinger , Paul Norris More Fun Comics # 73 Green Arrow ( Oliver Queen ) and Speedy ( comics ) 1941 ( November ) DC Mort Weisinger , Greg Papp More Fun Comics # 73 Sandy the Golden Boy 1941 ( December ) DC Joe Simon and Jack Kirby Adventure Comics # 69 Seven Soldiers of Victory 1941 ( December ) DC Mort Weisinger Leading Comics # 1 Wonder Woman ( Diana Prince ) 1941 ( December ) DC William Moulton Marston , H.G. Peter All Star Comics # 8 / Sensation Comics # 1 Liberator ( Nedor ) 1941 ( December ) Nedor Comics Writer and artist unknown Exciting Comics # 15 Captain Marvel , Jr . 1941 ( December ) Fawcett Comics / DC Ed Herron , Mac Raboy Whiz Comics # 25 Wildcat ( comics ) 1942 ( January ) DC Bill Finger , Irwin Hasen Sensation Comics # 1 Mister Terrific ( comics ) ( Terry Sloane ) 1942 ( January ) DC Chuck Reizenstein , Hal Sharp Sensation Comics # 1 Air Wave 1942 ( February ) DC Murray Boltinoff or Mort Weisinger , and Lee Harris ( illustrator ) Detective Comics # 60 Johnny Canuck ( as superhero ) 1942 ( February ) ( Canada ) Leo Bachle Dime Comics # 1 Manhunter ( comics ) ( Paul Kirk ) 1942 ( April ) DC Jack Kirby , Joe Simon Adventure Comics # 73 Manhunter ( comics ) ( Dan Richards ) 1942 ( March ) Quality Comics / DC Police Comics # 8 Robotman ( Robert Crane ) 1942 ( April ) DC Jerry Siegel , Leo Nowak Star - Spangled Comics # 7 Commando Yank 1942 ( July ) Fawcett Comics / DC Wow Comics # 6 Captain Commando 1942 ( August ) S.M. `` Jerry '' Iger , Alex Blum Pep Comics # 30 Kid Eternity 1942 ( December ) Quality Comics / DC Otto Binder , Sheldon Moldoff Hit Comics # 25 Mary Marvel 1942 ( December ) Fawcett Comics / DC Otto Binder , Marc Swayze Captain Marvel Adventures # 18 Canada Jack 1943 ( March ) George Menendez Rae Canadian Heroes Vol. 1 , # 5 Miss America ( Marvel Comics ) 1943 ( November ) Marvel / Timely Otto Binder , Al Gabriele Marvel Mystery Comics # 49 Grim Reaper ( Nedor ) 1944 ( May ) Nedor Comics Author unknown , artist Al Camy Fighting Yank # 7 Superboy ( Clark Kent ) 1945 ( January ) DC Don Cameron , Jerry Siegel , Joe Shuster More Fun Comics # 101 All - Winners Squad 1946 ( Fall ) Marvel / Timely Martin Goodman ( publisher ) , Bill Finger All Winners Comics # 19 Black Canary 1947 ( August ) DC Robert Kanigher , Carmine Infantino Flash Comics # 86 Moon Girl 1947 ( Fall ) Gardner Fox , Sheldon Moldoff The Happy Houligans # 1 Golden Girl ( Betsy Ross ) 1947 ( December ) Marvel / Timely Captain America # 1 ( As Betsy Ross ) ; Captain America # 66 ( As Golden Girl ) Other media ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance Maximo 1940 Russell Winterbotham Maximo , the Amazing Superman ( Big Little Book ) 1950s ( edit ) Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Captain Comet 1951 ( June ) DC John Broome , Carmine Infantino Strange Adventures # 9 Phantom Stranger 1952 ( August ) DC John Broome , Carmine Infantino , Sy Barry Phantom Stranger # 1 Marvelman ( later Miracleman ) 1954 ( February ) ( U.K. ) Mick Anglo Marvelman # 25 Captain Flash 1954 ( November ) Mike Sekowsky ( artist , writer unknown ) Captain Flash # 1 Martian Manhunter 1955 ( November ) DC Joseph Samachson , Joe Certa Detective Comics # 225 Batwoman ( Kathy Kane , 1st ver ) 1956 ( July ) DC Edmond Hamilton , Sheldon Moldoff Detective Comics # 233 Flash ( Barry Allen , 2nd ver ) 1956 ( October ) DC Robert Kanigher , Carmine Infantino Showcase # 4 Challengers of the Unknown 1957 ( February ) DC Jack Kirby Showcase # 6 Legion of Super-Heroes 1958 ( April ) DC Mort Weisinger , Otto Binder Adventure Comics # 247 Super Girl ( tryout version ) 1958 ( August ) DC Otto Binder , Al Plastino Superman # 123 Adam Strange 1958 ( November ) DC Gardner Fox , Mike Sekowsky Showcase Comics # 17 Herbie Popnecker 1958 ( December ) Richard E. Hughes , Ogden Whitney Forbidden Worlds # 73 Lady Blackhawk 1959 ( February ) DC Jack Schiff and Dick Dillin Blackhawks # 133 Supergirl ( Kara Zor - El ) 1959 ( May ) DC Otto Binder , Al Plastino Action Comics # 252 The Fly ( Archie Comics ) 1959 ( June ) Archie Comics Joe Simon , Jack Kirby The Double Life of Private Strong # 1 Green Lantern ( Hal Jordan ) ( Hal Jordan , 2nd ver ) 1959 ( October ) DC Julius Schwartz , John Broome , Gil Kane Showcase # 22 Kid Flash 1959 ( December ) DC John Broome , Carmine Infantino The Flash # 110 Television ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance Captain Video 1955 ( April 1 ) Captain Video Gekko Kamen ( Moonlight Mask ) 1958 Kōhan Kawauchi Moonlight Mask 1960s ( edit ) Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Justice League 1960 ( February ) DC Gardner Fox The Brave and the Bold # 28 Captain Atom 1960 ( March ) Charlton Comics / DC Joe Gill , Steve Ditko Space Adventures # 33 Elongated Man 1960 ( May ) DC John Broome , Carmine Infantino The Flash vol. 1 # 112 Groot 1960 ( November ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Tales to Astonish # 13 Hawkman ( Katar Hol , 2nd ver ) 1961 ( February ) DC Gardner Fox , Joe Kubert The Brave and the Bold # 34 Flygirl 1961 ( July ) Archie Comics Robert Bernstein , John Rosenberger Adventures of the Fly # 13 The Jaguar 1961 ( September ) Archie Comics Robert Bernstein The Adventures of the Jaguar # 1 The Atom ( Ray Palmer , 2nd ver ) 1961 ( October ) DC Julius Schwartz , Gardner Fox , Gil Kane Showcase # 34 Fantastic Four ( Mister Fantastic , Invisible Girl , Human Torch ( Johnny Storm ) , The Thing ) 1961 ( November ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby The Fantastic Four # 1 Ant - Man ( Henry Pym ) 1962 ( January ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Tales to Astonish # 27 The Hulk ( Bruce Banner ) 1962 ( May ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby The Incredible Hulk # 1 Spider - Man ( Peter Parker ) 1962 ( August ) Marvel Stan Lee , Steve Ditko Amazing Fantasy # 15 Thor ( Thor Odinson ) 1962 ( August ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Journey into Mystery # 83 Doctor Solar 1962 ( October ) Gold Key Comics Paul S. Newman , Matt Murphy Doctor Solar , Man of the Atom # 1 Wonder Wart - Hog 1962 Underground Gilbert Shelton Bacchanal Magnus , Robot Fighter 1963 ( February ) Gold Key Comics Chase Craig , Russ Manning Magnus Robot Fighter 4000 A.D. # 1 Iron Man ( Tony Stark ) 1963 ( March ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby , Don Heck Tales of Suspense # 39 Doom Patrol ( The Chief , Robotman ( Cliff Steele ) , Elasti - Girl ( Rita Farr ) , Negative Man ) 1963 ( June ) DC Bob Haney , Arnold Drake , Bruno Premiani My Greatest Adventure # 80 Wasp 1963 ( June ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Tales to Astonish # 44 Doctor Strange ( Stephen Strange ) 1963 ( July ) Marvel Stan Lee , Steve Ditko Strange Tales # 110 X-Men ( Professor X , Cyclops , Angel ( Warren Worthington ) , Beast , Iceman , Marvel Girl ) 1963 ( September ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby X-Men # 1 The Avengers 1963 ( September ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby , Dick Ayers Avengers # 1 Quicksilver 1964 ( March ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby X-Men # 4 Scarlet Witch 1964 ( March ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby X-Men # 4 Black Widow 1964 ( April ) Marvel Stan Lee , Don Rico , Don Heck Tales of Suspense # 52 Daredevil ( Matt Murdock ) 1964 ( April ) Marvel Stan Lee , Bill Everett Daredevil # 1 Hawkeye ( Clint Barton ) 1964 ( July ) Marvel Stan Lee , Don Heck Tales of Suspense # 57 Teen Titans 1964 ( July ) DC Robert Haney , Bruno Premiani The Brave and the Bold # 54 Wonder Man 1964 ( October ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Avengers # 9 Zatanna 1964 ( November ) DC Gardner Fox , Murphy Anderson Hawkman # 4 Metamorpho 1965 ( January ) DC Bob Haney , Ramona Fradon The Brave and the Bold # 57 Hercules 1965 ( June ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Journey into Mystery Annual # 1 Animal Man 1965 ( September ) DC Dave Wood , Carmine Infantino Strange Adventures # 180 Mighty Crusaders 1965 Archie Comics Jerry Siegel , Paul Reinman Fly - Man # 31 Silver Surfer 1966 ( March ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Fantastic Four # 48 Black Panther 1966 ( July ) Marvel Stan Lee , Jack Kirby Fantastic Four # 52 Nightshade 1966 ( September ) Charlton Comics / DC Joe Gill , Steve Ditko Captain Atom # 82 Blue Beetle ( Ted Kord , 2nd ver ) 1966 ( November ) Charlton Comics / DC Steve Ditko Captain Atom # 83 Batgirl ( Barbara Gordon ) 1967 ( January ) DC Gardner Fox , Carmine Infantino Detective Comics # 359 Banshee 1967 ( January ) Marvel Roy Thomas , Werner Roth X-Men # 28 Question 1967 ( June ) Charlton Comics / DC Steve Ditko Blue Beetle # 1 Black Knight 1967 ( December ) Marvel Roy Thomas , John Buscema Avengers # 47 Captain Marvel ( Mar - Vell ) 1967 ( December ) Marvel Stan Lee , Gene Colan Marvel Super Heroes # 12 Carol Danvers ( a.k.a. Ms. Marvel , Binary , Warbird ) 1968 ( March ) Marvel Roy Thomas , Gene Colan Marvel Super Heroes # 13 The Creeper 1968 ( March ) DC Steve Ditko Showcase # 73 Vision 1968 ( October ) Marvel Roy Thomas , John Buscema Avengers # 57 Polaris 1968 ( October ) Marvel Arnold Drake , Don Heck , Werner Roth , Jim Steranko X-Men # 49 Guardians of the Galaxy ( 1st version ) 1969 ( January ) Marvel Arnold Drake , Gene Colan Marvel Super-Heroes # 18 Havok 1969 ( March ) Marvel Arnold Drake , Don Heck , Neal Adams X-Men # 54 Falcon ( Sam Wilson ) 1969 ( September ) Marvel Stan Lee , Gene Colan Captain America # 117 Television ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance Ultraman 1966 Eiji Tsuburaya Ultraman Captain Nice 1967 ( January ) Buck Henry Captain Nice Mister Terrific ( Stanley Beamish ) 1967 ( January ) Mr. Terrific The Mighty Heroes ( Strong Man , Cuckoo Man , Tornado Man , Rope Man , Diaper Man ) 1966 Ralph Bakshi Mighty Mouse Playhouse Space Ghost 1966 Alex Toth William Hanna & Joseph Barbera Space Ghost and Dino Boy Birdman 1967 Alex Toth William Hanna & Joseph Barbera Birdman and the Galaxy Trio Ultra Seven 1967 Eiji Tsuburaya Ultra Seven 1970s ( edit ) Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Sunfire 1970 ( January ) Marvel Roy Thomas , Don Heck X-Men # 64 Valkyrie 1970 ( December ) Marvel Roy Thomas , John Buscema The Avengers # 83 Squadron Supreme 1971 ( February ) Marvel Roy Thomas , Sal Buscema The Avengers # 85 - 86 The Forever People 1971 ( February ) DC Jack Kirby The Forever People # 1 New Gods 1971 ( February ) DC Jack Kirby New Gods # 1 Mister Miracle 1971 ( March ) DC Jack Kirby Mister Miracle # 1 Big Barda 1971 ( March ) DC Jack Kirby Mister Miracle # 1 Man - Thing 1971 ( May ) Marvel Roy Thomas , Gerry Conway , Gray Morrow Savage Tales # 1 Swamp Thing 1971 ( July ) DC Len Wein , Bernie Wrightson House of Secrets # 92 The Defenders 1971 ( December ) Marvel Roy Thomas Marvel Feature # 1 Luke Cage a.k.a. Power Man 1972 ( June ) Marvel Archie Goodwin , George Tuska Luke Cage , Hero for Hire # 1 Ghost Rider ( Johnny Blaze ) 1972 ( August ) Marvel Roy Thomas , Gary Friedrich , Mike Ploog Marvel Spotlight # 5 Drax The Destroyer 1973 ( February ) Marvel Mike Friedrich , Jim Starlin Iron Man # 55 Brother Voodoo 1973 ( September ) Marvel Len Wein , Gene Colan Strange Tales # 169 Shang - Chi 1973 ( December ) Marvel Steve Englehart , Jim Starlin Special Marvel Edition # 15 Punisher ( Frank Castle ) 1974 ( February ) Marvel Gerry Conway , Ross Andru The Amazing Spider - Man # 129 Iron Fist 1974 ( May ) Marvel Roy Thomas , Gil Kane Marvel Premiere # 15 Deathlok 1974 ( August ) Marvel Rich Buckler , Doug Moench Astonishing Tales # 25 Wolverine 1974 ( October ) Marvel Len Wein , Herb Trimpe Incredible Hulk # 180 ( cameo last panel ) , # 181 first full appearance Captain Canuck Richard Comely , Ron Leishman Captain Canuck # 1 All - New , All - Different X-Men ( Storm , Nightcrawler , Colossus , Thunderbird ) 1975 ( May ) Marvel Len Wein , Dave Cockrum Giant - Size X-Men # 1 Gamora 1975 ( June ) Marvel Jim Starlin Strange Tales # 180 Moon Knight 1975 ( August ) Marvel Doug Moench , Don Perlin Werewolf by Night # 32 Power Girl 1976 ( January ) DC Gerry Conway All - Star Comics # 58 Star - Lord 1976 ( January ) Marvel Steve Englehart , Steve Gan Marvel Preview # 4 Captain Britain 1976 Marvel Chris Claremont , Herb Trimpe Captain Britain Weekly # 1 Spider - Woman 1977 ( February ) Marvel Archie Goodwin , Jim Mooney Marvel Spotlight # 32 Black Lightning 1977 ( April ) DC Tony Isabella , Trevor Von Eeden Black Lightning # 1 3 - D Man 1977 ( April ) Marvel Roy Thomas Marvel Premiere # 35 Firestorm 1978 ( March ) DC Gerry Conway , Allen Milgrom Firestorm , The Nuclear Man # 1 Alpha Flight 1979 ( April ) Marvel Chris Claremont , John Byrne Uncanny X-Men # 120 Black Cat 1979 ( July ) Marvel Marv Wolfman , Keith Pollard The Amazing Spider - Man # 194 Television ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance El Chapulín Colorado 1970 Roberto Gomez Bolaños Chespirito ( segment : El Chapulín Colorado ) Kamen Rider 1971 Shotaro Ishinomori Kamen Rider G - Force 1972 Kagaku ninja tai Gatchaman ( Battle of the Planets ) Six Million Dollar Man 1973 ( March 7 ) Martin Caiden The Six Million Dollar Man movie ( based on 1972 novel Cyborg ) The Bionic Woman 1975 ( March 16 ) Kenneth Johnson The Six Million Dollar Man ( episode : `` The Bionic Woman '' ) 1980s ( edit ) Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Kitty Pryde 1980 ( January ) Marvel Chris Claremont , John Byrne Uncanny X-Men # 129 Emma Frost 1980 ( January ) Marvel Chris Claremont , John Byrne Uncanny X-Men # 129 Dazzler 1980 ( February ) Marvel Tom DeFalco , Louise Simonson , Roger Stern Uncanny X-Men # 130 She - Hulk 1980 ( February ) Marvel Stan Lee , John Buscema Savage She - Hulk # 1 Elektra 1981 ( January ) Marvel Frank Miller Daredevil # 168 Omega Men 1981 ( January ) DC Marv Wolfman , Joe Staton Green Lantern # 136 Rogue 1981 ( August ) Marvel Chris Claremont , Michael Golden Avengers Annual # 10 Rocket Raccoon 1982 ( May ) Marvel Bill Mantlo , Keith Giffen Incredible Hulk # 271 Monica Rambeau ( a.k.a. Captain Marvel , Photon , Pulsar ) 1982 ( December ) Marvel Roger Stern , John Romita , Jr . The Amazing Spider - Man Annual # 16 New Mutants 1982 ( December ) Marvel Chris Claremont The New Mutants , Marvel Graphic Novel # 4 The Maxx 1982 Comico Sam Kieth Primer # 5 ( as Max the Hare ) , The Maxx # 1 ( as The Maxx ) Robin ( Jason Todd ) 1983 ( March ) DC Comics Jim Starlin , Max Collins `` Batman '' # 357 Lobo ( DC Comics ) 1983 ( June ) DC Roger Slifer , Keith Giffen Omega Men # 3 Outsiders 1983 ( July ) DC Mike Barr , Jim Aparo The Brave and the Bold # 200 American Flagg 1983 ( October ) First Comics Howard Chaykin American Flagg # 1 Atari Force 1984 ( January ) DC Gerry Conway , Roy Thomas , Ross Andru Atari Force # 1 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 1984 ( May ) Mirage Kevin Eastman , Peter Laird Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles # 1 Power Pack 1984 ( August ) Marvel Louise Simonson , June Brigman Power Pack ( Vol. 1 ) # 1 West Coast Avengers 1984 ( September ) Marvel Roger Stern , Bob Hall West Coast Avengers ( Vol. 1 ) # 1 Femforce 1984 ( September ) AC Comics Bill Black , Stephanie Sanderson , Mark Heike Femforce Special Julia Carpenter ( a.k.a. Spider - Woman , Arachne ) 1984 ( October ) Marvel Jim Shooter , Mike Zeck Secret Wars # 6 - 7 Northguard 1984 ( Canada ) Mark Shainblum , Gabriel Morrissette New Triumph featuring Northguard # 1 Zot 1984 Eclipse Comics Scott McCloud Zot ! # 1 Mr. Monster 1984 Michael T. Gilbert Vanguard Illustrated # 7 Fleur de Lys 1985 ( Canada ) Mark Shainblum , Gabriel Morrissette New Triumph featuring Northguard # 5 X-Factor 1986 ( February ) Marvel Bob Layton , Jackson Guice , Josef Rubinstein X-Factor # 1 Booster Gold 1986 ( February ) DC Dan Jurgens Booster Gold # 1 Savage Dragon 1986 ( February ) Erik Larsen Megaton # 3 Watchmen 1986 ( September ) DC Alan Moore , Dave Gibbons Watchmen # 1 Excalibur Marvel Chris Claremont , Alan Davis Excalibur : The Sword is Drawn The Crow 1989 ( January ) Caliber James O'Barr Caliber Presents # 1 Robin ( Tim Drake ) 1989 ( August ) DC Comics Marv Wolfman Batman # 436 New Warriors 1989 ( December ) Marvel Tom DeFalco , Ron Frenz Thor # 411 Dawn 1989 ( December ) Sirius Entertainment Joseph Michael Linsner Cry for Dawn # 1 Television ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance Ralph Hinkley 1981 ( March ) The Greatest American Hero Thundercats 1985 Tobin `` Ted '' Wolf & Rankin / Bass Productions Silverhawks 1986 Rankin / Bass Productions Tigersharks Rankin / Bass Productions 1990s ( edit ) Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Cable ( comics ) 1990 ( March ) Marvel Louise Simonson , Rob Liefeld The New Mutants # 87 X-Men # 201 ( January 1986 , as Nathan Summers ) Gambit ( comics ) 1990 ( August ) Marvel Chris Claremont , Jim Lee X-Men # 266 Darkhawk 1991 ( February ) Marvel Tom Defalco , Mike Manley Marvel Age # 97 Deadpool 1991 ( February ) Marvel Rob Liefeld , Fabian Nicieza The New Mutants # 98 X-Force 1991 ( April ) Marvel Rob Liefeld The New Mutants # 100 Jesse Quick ( daughter of Johnny Quick and Liberty Belle ) 1991 ( April ) DC Len Strazewski , Mike Parobeck Justice Society of America ( vol. 2 ) # 1 Next Men 1991 ( September ) Dark Horse John Byrne Dark Horse Presents # 54 Bishop ( comics ) 1991 ( November ) Marvel Whilce Portacio Jim Lee X-Men # 282 Spawn 1992 ( May ) Image Todd McFarlane Spawn # 1 War Machine 1992 ( June ) Marvel Len Kaminski , Kev Hopgood Iron Man # 281 Eternal Warrior 1992 ( June ) Valiant Comics Solar : Man of the Atom # 10 Supreme 1992 ( August ) Image Rob Liefeld Youngblood # 3 Stormwatch 1993 ( March ) Image Jim Lee Stormwatch # 1 Gen13 1993 ( September ) Image Jim Lee , Brandon Choi Deathmate # Black Hellboy 1993 ( December ) Dark Horse Mike Mignola Next Men # 21 Prime 1993 Malibu Comics Gerard Jones , Len Strazewski , Norm Breyfogle Prime # 1 Static 1993 DC Dwayne McDuffie , John Paul Leon Static # 1 Purgatori 1994 Chaos ! Comics Brian Pulido , Steven Hughes Lady Death # 3 Generation X 1994 Marvel Scott Lobdell , Chris Bachalo X-Men # 318 Starman ( Jack Knight ) 1994 DC James Robinson , Tony Harris Starman # 0 Astro City 1995 Image Kurt Busiek , Brent Anderson Astro City # 1 Mr. Hero the Newmatic Man 1995 Neil Gaiman , James Vance , Ted Slampyak Neil Gaiman 's Mr. Hero , The Newmatic Man # 1 X-Man 1995 Marvel Jeph Loeb , Steve Skroce X-Man # 1 The Thunderbolts 1997 Marvel Kurt Busiek , Mark Bagley The Incredible Hulk # 449 The Authority 1999 Warren Ellis , Bryan Hitch The Authority vol. 1 # 1 Movies ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance The Rocketeer 1991 Dave Stevens Meteor Man 1993 Television ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance The Adventures of T - Rex Lee Gunther & Michael Wehl Power Rangers 1993 Haim Saban Mighty Morphin Power Rangers VR Troopers 1994 Haim Saban VR Troopers Masked Rider 1995 Haim Saban Masked Rider Beetleborgs Haim Saban Big Bad Beetleborgs Astralborgs 1997 Haim Saban Beetleborgs Metallix Shaktimaan 1997 Mukesh Khanna Shaktimaan 2000s ( edit ) Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Black Fox ( Dr. Robert William Paine ) 2000 Roger Stern , John Byrne Marvel : The Lost Generation # 12 Buzz 2000 Marvel Tom DeFalco , Ron Frenz Spider - Girl # 18 Night Eagle 2000 DC J.M. DeMatteis , Mike Miller The Adventures of Superman # 586 Sentry 2000 Marvel Paul Jenkins , Jae Lee , Rick Veitch The Sentry # 1 Typeface 2000 Marvel Paul Jenkins , Mark Buckingham Peter Parker : Spider - Man v2 # 23 Orpheus 2001 DC Alex Simmons , Dwayne Turner Batman : Orpheus Rising # 1 Spike 2001 Marvel Peter Milligan , Mike Allred X-Force # 121 Ultimate Marvel characters 2001 Marvel various Ultimate Spider - Man # 1 X-Statix 2001 Marvel Peter Milligan , Mike Allred X-Force # 116 X-Treme X-Men 2001 Marvel Chris Claremont X-Treme X-Men # 1 Runaways 2002 Marvel Brian K. Vaughan , Adrian Alphona Runaways vol. 1 # 1 Invincible 2002 Robert Kirkman , Cory Walker Noble Causes : Family Secrets # 3 Super Buddies 2003 DC Keith Giffen , J.M. DeMatteis , Kevin Maguire , Joe Rubinstein Formerly Known as the Justice League # 1 X-23 2003 Marvel Craig Kyle NYX # 3 Anya Corazon Marvel Fiona Avery , Mark Brooks Amazing Fantasy vol. 2 # 1 Doc Frankenstein Geof Darrow , Steve Skroce , Wachowski Brothers Doc Frankenstein # 1 Freakshow Chris Claremont Excalibur vol. 3 # 1 Young Avengers 2005 Marvel Allan Heinberg , Jim Cheung Young Avengers # 1 Blue Beetle ( Jamie Reyes , 3rd ver ) 2006 DC Keith Giffen , John Rogers , Cully Hamner Infinite Crisis # 5 Crimson Chin 2006 Butch Hartman The Fairly OddParents # 1 Miss Martian 2006 DC Geoff Johns , Tony Daniel Teen Titans vol. 3 , # 37 Atomic Robo 2007 Brian Clevinger , Scott Wegener Atomic Robo # 46 Bob , Agent of HYDRA 2007 Marvel Fabian Nicieza Cable & Deadpool # 38 Forerunner 2007 Jimmy Palmiotti , Justin Gray , Jesus Saiz . Countdown # 46 Anna Mercury 2008 Warren Ellis Anna Mercury # 1 Blue Marvel 2008 Kevin Grevioux Adam : Legend of the Blue Marvel # 1 Kick - Ass 2008 Mark Millar Kick - Ass # 1 She - Hulk ( Lyra ) 2008 Marvel Jeff Parker , Mitch Breitweiser Hulk : Raging Thunder # 1 Guardians of the Galaxy 2nd version 2008 ( April ) Marvel Dan Abnett , Andy Lanning Annhiliation Conquest # 6 Achilles Warkiller 2009 Gail Simone , Aaron Lopresti Wonder Woman ( vol. 3 ) # 30 Haunt 2009 Robert Kirkman , Todd McFarlane Haunt # 1 King Chimera 2009 DC Matthew Sturges , Fernando Pasarin Justice Society of America ( vol. 3 ) # 24 Mot 2009 Nick Simmons Incarnate # 1 Movies ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance David Dunn 2000 M. Night Shyamalan Unbreakable ( film ) The Incredibles , Frozone Brad Bird The Incredibles Catwoman ( Patience Phillips , 2nd ver ) Catwoman Sky High students and graduates 2005 Paul Hernandez , Robert Schooley , Mark McCorkle Sky High Krrish 2006 Rakesh Roshan Krrish Zenith Team ( Captain Zoom , Concussion , Mega-Boy , Wonder , Houdini , Princess , Marsha Holloway ) 2006 Adam Rifkin Zoom John Hancock 2008 Vincent Ngo Hancock Television ( edit ) Character / Team / Series Year Debuted Creator / s First Appearance Danny Phantom Butch Hartman Danny Phantom Ben Tennyson 2005 Man of Action ( Duncan Rouleau , Joe Casey , Joe Kelly , and Steven T. Seagle ) Ben 10 Heroes 2006 Tim Kring Heroes Kamen Rider Dragon Knight 2009 Steve Wang Kamen Rider : Dragon Knight 2010s ( edit ) Comic book ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Soundman 2012 Brian Bondurant `` Power Couple ! '' ( part of Kumate Works anthology ) Spider - Gwen 2014 Marvel Jason Latour and Robbi Rodriguez Edge of Spider - Verse # 2 Gwenpool 2016 Marvel Chris Bachalo Howard the Duck Vol 6 # 1 Movies ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Cutthroat , Charge , Shadow , The Wall 2011 Jason Trost Vs Andrew Detmer , Matt Garetty , Steve Montgomery 2012 Max Landis , Josh Trank Chronicle Television ( edit ) Character / Team Year Debuted Company Creator / s First Appearance Powell family Greg Berlanti , Jon Harmon Feldman No Ordinary Family The Cape 2011 Tom Wheeler The Cape Alphas 2011 Zak Penn , Michael Karnow Alphas See also ( edit ) List of years in comics List of comic book supervillain debuts Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ National Periodical Publications v. Empire Comics , New York Court of Appeals , April 21 , 1954 . Jump up ^ Per Lawrence Journal - World ( March 17 , 2006 ) : `` ' V for Vendetta ' is S for Subversive '' , by Jon Niccum , `` The Dark Knight : Batman -- A NonSuper Superhero '' , GameSpot : PS2 Games : Batman Begins , Spotlight Comics Annual # 2 ( May 2002 ) ; `` The Religious Affiliation of Comic Book Characters : Rev. Dr. Christopher Syn , the Scarecrow of Romney Marsh ( one of the world 's first masked crime - fighters ) '' ( no date ) , and other sources . Jump up ^ The Complete Spring Heeled Jack Page Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ ( 3 ) Jump up ^ ( 4 ) Jump up ^ ( 5 ) Jump up ^ ( 6 ) Jump up ^ ( 7 ) References ( edit ) Daniels , Les . The Golden Age of DC Comics : 365 Days . New York : H.N. Abrams , 2004 . External links ( edit ) Comic Book Timeline Guardians of the North `` The Comic Book Villain , Dr. Fredric Wertham , M.D. '' The Silver Age and the Marvel Age at Web Cite The Bronze Age at Web Cite The Gimmick Age at Web Cite Coville , Jamie . `` The History of Superhero Comic Books '' , `` Part 1 : Comic Strips Lead to a New Form '' Evanier , Mark . `` News from Me '' , POV Online , August 26 , 2001 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_superhero_debuts&oldid=800624350 '' Categories : Comics - related lists Comic book publication histories Superhero fiction Hidden categories : Incomplete literature lists Interlanguage link template link number Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 14 September 2017 , at 18 : 07 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
who was the first dc superhero ever created
[ "\nDoctor Occult (Doctor Mystic)\n1935 (October)\nDC\nJerry Siegel, Joe Shuster\nNew Fun Comics #6\n" ]
[ "Doctor Occult (Doctor Mystic)" ]
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Visa requirements for Irish citizens
Visa requirements for Irish citizens - Wikipedia Visa requirements for Irish citizens An Irish passport Visa requirements for Irish citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Ireland . As of May 2018 , Irish citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 185 countries and territories , ranking the Irish passport 5th in terms of travel freedom ( tied with Belgian , Canadian , Danish and Swiss passports ) according to the Henley Passport Index . Contents 1 Visa requirements map 2 Visa requirements 3 Territories 4 Non-ordinary passports 5 Non-visa restrictions 5.1 Passport validity length 5.2 Blank passport pages 5.3 Vaccination 5.4 Israeli stamps 5.5 Armenian ethnicity 5.6 Persona non grata 5.7 Fingerprinting 5.8 Criminal record 6 Common Travel Area 7 Right to consular protection in non-EU countries 8 See also 9 References and Notes Visa requirements map ( edit ) Visa requirements for Irish citizens Ireland Freedom of movement Visa not required Visa on arrival eVisa Visa available both on arrival or online Visa required prior to arrival Visa requirements ( edit ) Country Visa requirement Allowed stay Notes ( excluding departure fees ) Reciprocity Afghanistan Visa required √ Albania Visa not required 90 days X Algeria Visa required √ Andorra Visa not required √ Angola eVisa 30 days Visitors who were granted online pre-visa are then issued with visa on arrival at Luanda International Airport . For a maximum total stay of 90 days within year period . X Antigua and Barbuda Visa not required 1 month √ Argentina Visa not required 90 days √ Armenia Visa not required 180 days X Australia eVisitor 90 days eVisitor , if granted , allows 90 day stay per visit for 12 months . eVisitor is issued free of charge . X Austria EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Azerbaijan eVisa 30 days X Bahamas Visa not required 3 months Extension of stay is possible . √ Bahrain eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months Visa on arrival is single entry , subject to a fee . Multiple entry visa available on arrival for 1 month stay . Irish citizens can also apply for eVisas as an alternative . X Bangladesh Visa on arrival 30 days Visitors can apply to extend their stay when in the country . X Barbados Visa not required 6 months Visitors must have proof of onward travel , whereby their final destination is their country of residence or origin . √ Belarus Visa not required 5 days Travellers must arrive via Minsk International Airport to avail of visa - free access . Travellers must also depart from Minsk International Airport , to a destination outside of Belarus and Russia . Visa on arrival is not available to tourists travelling from Russia . X Belgium EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Belize Visa not required 1 month √ Benin eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days / 8 days Must have an international vaccination certificate . X Bhutan Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Visitors are required to book with a registered tour operator in Bhutan . √ Bolivia Visa not required 90 days 90 days within any year period √ Bosnia and Herzegovina Visa not required 90 days 90 days within any 6 - month period X Botswana Visa not required 90 days Extension to the visa - free period must be applied for in advance . √ Brazil Visa not required 90 days Extension of stay is possible . √ Brunei Visa not required 90 days √ Bulgaria EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Burkina Faso Visa on arrival 1 month X Burundi Visa required Passengers holding an entry authorisation letter from the authorities may obtain a visa on arrival for a maximum stay of 1 month . √ Cambodia eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days Visa is also obtainable online . Visitors are not permitted to make day - trips to Cambodia ( except in certain circumstances ) . X Cameroon Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . √ Canada Visa not required 6 months eTA required if arriving by air . √ Cape Verde Visa on arrival X Central African Republic Visa required √ Chad Visa required Visitors holding an ' entry authorisation ' letter can pick up a visa on arrival . √ Chile Visa not required 90 days Visitors are issued an immigration card on arrival and will be prevented from leaving Chile without it . √ China Visa required 72 - hours visa free visit when in transit at , Changsha , Chengdu , Chongqing , Guangzhou , Guilin , Harbin , Kunming , Qingdao , Wuhan , Xi'an and Xiamen . 144 - hours visa free visit when in transit at Beijing ( Beijing Capital International Airport ) , Dalian , Hangzhou , Hebei ( Shijiazhuang Zhengding International Airport ) , Nanjing , Shanghai ( Hongqiao and Pudong international airports , Railway Station and port ) , Shenyang and Tianjin ( Tianjin Binhai International Airport ) Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan do count as third countries under the 72 and 144 - hours transit policy . √ Colombia Visa not required 90 days Visitors may only enter Colombia for up to 180 days in any calendar year . X Comoros Visa on arrival 45 days X Republic of the Congo Visa required √ Democratic Republic of the Congo Visa required √ Costa Rica Visa not required 90 days √ Côte d'Ivoire eVisa 3 months eVisa holders must arrive via Port Bouet Airport X Croatia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Cuba Tourist Card required √ Cyprus EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Czech Republic EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Denmark EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Djibouti eVisa 31 days X Dominica Visa not required 6 months √ Dominican Republic Visa not required X Ecuador Visa not required 90 days Extension of stay is possible . X Egypt eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days X El Salvador Visa not required 3 months √ Equatorial Guinea Visa required √ Eritrea Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . √ Estonia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Ethiopia eVisa / Visa on arrival Only available at Addis Ababa Bole International Airport X Fiji Visa not required 4 months √ Finland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ France EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Gabon eVisa / Visa on arrival 90 days Electronic visa holders must arrive via Libreville International Airport . X Gambia Visa not required 90 days X Georgia Visa not required 1 year X Germany EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Ghana Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . √ Greece EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Grenada Visa not required 3 months √ Guatemala Visa not required 90 days √ Guinea Visa required √ Guinea - Bissau eVisa / Visa on arrival 90 days X Guyana Visa not required 3 months √ Haiti Visa not required 90 days X Honduras Visa not required 3 months √ Hungary EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Iceland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ India e-Visa 60 days e-Visa holders must arrive via 25 designated airports or 3 designated seaports . e-Tourist Visa can be obtained twice in a calendar year . X Indonesia Visa not required 30 days Not available at all entry points . X Iran Visa on arrival 30 days A visa on arrival is only available at Qeshm , Kish , Mashhad , Isfahan , Shiraz , Tabriz and Tehran . Extension of stay is possible . Women will be refused entry if not wearing Islamic head cover , scarf , long sleeves or stockings . All foreigners must report to the Iranian police within 8 days of arrival . Visa on arrival excludes all reporters , journalists , photographers and cameramen , who must obtain a visa prior to entering Iran . A visa on arrival for business travellers is available if holding a letter of invitation from a government agency which is issued at least 2 days prior to arrival . X Iraq Visa required Visa on arrival is available at Sulaimaniyah and Erbil airports and stays are limited to 15 days , with an extension of stay possible . √ Israel Visa not required 3 months Extension of stay is possible . √ Italy EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Jamaica Visa not required 90 days X Japan Visa not required 90 days Extension of stay is possible . √ Jordan Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 6 months A free visa on arrival may be obtained only when travel is organised through an authorised tour operator in Jordan . The tour group must not consist of less than 5 people and there must be a minimum 2 night stay in Jordan . A return ticket must be presented to avail of this visa option . All other passengers who are not travelling as part of a tour group may obtain a visa on arrival , subject to a fee . The visa on arrival has a maximum validity of 6 months . X Kazakhstan Visa not required 30 days X Kenya eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months X Kiribati Visa not required 30 days √ North Korea Visa required √ South Korea Visa not required 90 days √ Kuwait eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months X Kyrgyzstan Visa not required 60 days X Laos Visa on arrival 30 days Not available at all entry points . Visa on arrival can be extended once . X Latvia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Lebanon Free visa on arrival 1 month Free visa on arrival can be granted whenever a telephone number and address in Lebanon is provided . Visa can be extended for an additional two months . X Lesotho Visa not required 90 days √ Liberia Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival , subject to conditions . √ Libya Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Passengers arriving in Libya must hold a non-objection form issued by the Libyan Immigration Authorities . All travellers arriving in Libya for tourism must convert $1000 USD in freely convertible currency , or debit the amount from a credit card upon arrival in the country . √ Liechtenstein EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Lithuania EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Luxembourg EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Macedonia Visa not required 90 days X Madagascar Visa on arrival ! Visa on arrival 90 days A visa on arrival is only granted for those who have a return ticket . X Malawi Visa on arrival 90 days A residence permit must be obtained for those wishing to stay beyond 90 days . X Malaysia Visa not required 3 months If no return ticket is held , one must be purchased at the border or entry will be refused . √ Maldives Visa on arrival 30 days X Mali Visa required √ Malta EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Marshall Islands Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 90 days X Mauritania Visa on arrival Available at Nouakchott -- Oumtounsy International Airport . X Mauritius Visa not required 90 days 180 days maximum stay in any one calendar year . X Mexico Visa not required 180 days √ Micronesia Visa not required 30 days Extension of stay is possible . X Moldova Visa not required 90 days 90 days within any 180 day period X Monaco Visa not required √ Mongolia Visa required √ Montenegro Visa not required 90 days X Morocco Visa not required 90 days X Mozambique Visa on arrival 30 days Not available at all entry points . Extension of stay is possible . X Myanmar eVisa 28 days eVisa holders must arrive via Yangon , Nay Pyi Taw or Mandalay airports . √ Namibia Visa not required 3 months X Nauru Visa required Visa requirement waived for holders of an Entry Permit letter . X Nepal Visa on arrival 90 days Extension of stay is possible of up to 150 days . Business travellers can obtain a visa on arrival for a maximum stay of 5 years , subject to a fee and a license issued by the Ministry of Industry . X Netherlands EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement ( European Netherlands ) √ New Zealand Visa not required 3 months √ Nicaragua Visa not required 90 days Tourist card must be obtained on arrival , subject to a fee . Extension of stay is possible . √ Niger Visa required √ Nigeria Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . √ Norway EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Oman eVisa 30 days A visa waiver is in place for travellers who are arriving directly from the Emirate of Dubai who have a visa or an entrance stamp from Dubai , whereby the visa must be valid for 21 days at least upon arrival in Oman . A visa waiver is in place for travellers who are arriving directly from Qatar , whereby the visa must state as being valid for Oman and must be valid for at least one month on arrival . X Pakistan Visa required Visa on arrival when travelling on business valid for 30 days . Conditions apply . √ Palau Free visa on arrival 30 days Extension is possible for a fee . X Panama Visa not required 180 days √ Papua New Guinea Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 60 days Visa on arrival available at Port Moresby and Rabaul . Tourists can obtain a visa on arrival free of charge , whilst those travelling on business must pay in cash . X Paraguay Visa not required 90 days √ Peru Visa not required 183 days X Philippines Visa not required 30 days A visa on arrival is available for a maximum stay of 59 days . Extension of stay is only possible for those who obtained a visa on arrival , to a maximum of 1 year . X Poland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Portugal EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Qatar Visa not required 30 days Visa waiver available for Irish citizens with a 30 day extension available . X Romania EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Russia Visa required Visa waiver available for passengers arriving by cruise only who are staying in Russia for a maximum of 72 hours . √ Rwanda eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days X Saint Kitts and Nevis Visa not required 3 months Extension of stay is possible . √ Saint Lucia Visa not required 6 weeks Extension of stay is possible . √ Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Visa not required 1 month Extension of stay is possible . √ Samoa Visa on arrival ! Free Entry Permit on arrival 60 days Extension of stay is possible . √ San Marino Visa not required √ São Tomé and Príncipe Visa not required 15 days X Saudi Arabia Visa required Muslim female passengers are subject to restrictions when arriving for Umrah or Hajj . √ Senegal Visa not required 90 days X Serbia Visa not required 90 days Irish citizens may stay in Serbia for 90 days within any 6 - month period . Extension is possible . X Seychelles Visa on arrival ! Free Visitor 's Permit on arrival 3 months Irish citizens can extend their stay for three months , up to a maximum of 12 months . Visitor 's permit is issued free of charge , subject to documentation being provided at the entry point . √ Sierra Leone Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . √ Singapore Visa not required 90 days Extension of stay possible . √ Slovakia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Slovenia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Solomon Islands Visa on arrival ! Free Visitor 's permit on arrival 3 months √ Somalia Visa on arrival Available at Berbera , Borama , Burao , Erigavo and Hargeisa airports . 30 days , available at Bosaso , Galcaio and Mogadishu airports . X South Africa Visa not required 90 days Extension of stay possible for an additional 90 days . √ South Sudan Visa required √ Spain EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Sri Lanka eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days Extension of stay possible for an additional 150 days for Irish citizens . X Sudan Visa required √ Suriname Visa required Visa on arrival is available to countries without Suriname representation for a maximum of 2 months , subject to prearranged approval . √ Swaziland Visa not required 30 days Extension of stay possible for a maximum of 90 days in total . √ Sweden EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Switzerland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement √ Syria Visa required √ Tajikistan Visa on arrival 45 days Visa also available online . E-visa holders can enter through all border points . X Tanzania Visa on arrival Fee payable in USD at border . X Thailand Visa not required 30 days ACMECS Single Visa issued by Cambodia and Thailand are valid for 90 days from the date of issue and are valid for a stay of 60 days in Thailand . Extension of stay is possible . Maximum two visits annually if not arriving by air . X Timor - Leste Visa on arrival 30 days Extension of stay possible for up to 90 days . X Togo Visa on arrival 7 days Extension of stay possible for an additional 90 days , subject to a fee . X Tonga Visa on arrival ! Visa on arrival 31 days Visa on arrival is issued free of charge . Extension of stay for a further 5 months is possible . X Trinidad and Tobago Visa not required 90 days √ Tunisia Visa not required 3 months X Turkey eVisa 3 months X Turkmenistan Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . √ Tuvalu Visa on arrival 1 month X Uganda eVisa / Visa on arrival Must be applied for online before travel . An East Africa Tourist Visa issued by Kenya or Rwanda can also be used for entry . X Ukraine Visa not required 90 days 90 days within any 180 day period . X United Arab Emirates Free visa on arrival ! Visa on arrival 30 days Visa on arrival is free of charge to Irish citizens . Extension of stay is possible for a further 30 days . X United Kingdom EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement ( in Constituent countries ) √ United States Visa not required ! Visa Waiver Program 90 days ESTA required if arriving by air or cruise ship . ESTA is valid for two years when issued . Holders of non-biometric passports must obtain a visa for the United States as they are ineligible to apply for an ESTA . Leaving the United States and re-entering from Canada or Mexico will not reset the original 90 day maximum stay . You can only reset the timer by leaving North America . √ Uruguay Visa not required 90 days Extension of stay is possible for a further 90 days . √ Uzbekistan Visa required Simplified procedure for Irish citizens - no requirement for tourist voucher or invitation letter from Uzbekistan . Visitors with stays longer than three days must register with the local police . √ Vanuatu Visa not required 30 days √ Vatican City Visa not required √ Venezuela Visa not required 90 days Extension of stay is possible for a further 90 days . X Vietnam eVisa 30 days A single entry eVisa is available . Fee payable . X Yemen Visa required √ Zambia Visa not required 90 days For those travelling to Zambia for business , the maximum stay is 30 days in any one - year period . Tourists are allowed 90 days in any one - year period . X Zimbabwe eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months For those travelling to Zimbabwe for business , a visa on arrival can also be issued for a maximum stay of 30 days . X Territories ( edit ) Visa requirements for Irish citizens for visits to various territories , disputed areas , partially recognized countries and restricted zones : Europe Abkhazia -- Visa required . Artsakh -- Visa required ( issued for single entry for 21 days / 1 / 2 / 3 months or multiple entry visa for 1 / 2 / 3 months ) . Travellers with Artsakh visa ( expired or valid ) or evidence of travel to Artsakh ( stamps ) will be permanently denied entry to Azerbaijan . Mount Athos -- Special permit required ( 4 days : 25 euro for Orthodox visitors , 35 euro for non-Orthodox visitors , 18 euro for students ) . There is a visitors ' quota : maximum 100 Orthodox and 10 non-Orthodox per day and women are not allowed . Brest and Grodno -- Visa not required for 10 days . Crimea -- Visa issued by Russia is required . Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus -- Visa free access for 3 months . Passport required . UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus -- Access Permit is required for travelling inside the zone , except Civil Use Areas . Faroe Islands -- Visa not required . Gibraltar -- Visa not required . Guernsey -- Visa not required . Alderney -- Visa not required . Sark -- Visa not required . Isle of Man -- Visa not required . Jan Mayen -- permit issued by the local police required for staying for less than 24 hours and permit issued by the Norwegian police for staying for more than 24 hours . Jersey -- Visa not required . Kosovo -- visa free for 90 days . Closed cities and regions in Russia -- special authorization required . South Ossetia -- Visa free . Multiple entry visa to Russia and three - day prior notification are required to enter South Ossetia . Transnistria -- Visa free . Registration required after 24h . Africa Eritrea ( outside Asmara ) -- visa covers Asmara only ; to travel in the rest of the country , a Travel Permit for Foreigners is required ( 20 Eritrean nakfa ) . Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic ( Western Sahara controlled territory ) -- Visa not required up to 3 months . Somaliland -- Visa issued on arrival ( 30 days for 30 US dollars , payable on arrival ) . Sudan -- All foreigners traveling more than 25 kilometers outside of Khartoum must obtain a travel permit . Darfur -- Separate travel permit is required . Asia Hong Kong -- Visa not required for 90 days . India -- Protected Area Permit ( PAP ) required for whole states of Nagaland and Sikkim and parts of states Manipur , Arunachal Pradesh , Uttaranchal , Jammu and Kashmir , Rajasthan , Himachal Pradesh . Restricted Area Permit ( RAP ) required for all of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Sikkim . Some of these requirements are occasionally lifted for a year . Iraqi Kurdistan -- Visa on arrival for 15 days is available at Erbil and Sulaymaniyah airports . Kazakhstan -- Special permission required for the town of Baikonur and surrounding areas in Kyzylorda Oblast , and the town of Gvardeyskiy near Almaty . Kish Island -- Visitors to Kish Island do not require a visa . Macao -- Visa not required for 90 days . Sabah and Sarawak -- These states have their own immigration authorities and passport is required to travel to them , however the same visa applies . Maldives -- With the exception of the capital Malé , tourists are generally prohibited from visiting non-resort islands without the express permission of the Government of Maldives . North Korea outside Pyongyang -- People are not allowed to leave the capital city , tourists can only leave the capital with a governmental tourist guide ( no independent moving ) Palestine -- Visa not required . Arrival by sea to Gaza Strip not allowed . Taiwan -- Visa not required for 90 days . Gorno - Badakhshan Autonomous Province -- OIVR permit required ( 15 + 5 Tajikistani Somoni ) and another special permit ( free of charge ) is required for Lake Sarez . Turkmenistan -- A special permit , issued prior to arrival by Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is required if visiting the following places : Atamurat , Cheleken , Dashoguz , Serakhs and Serhetabat . Tibet Autonomous Region -- Tibet Travel Permit required ( 10 US Dollars ) . Korean Demilitarized Zone -- restricted zone . UNDOF Zone and Ghajar -- restricted zones . Phú Quốc -- can visit without a visa for up to 30 days . Yemen -- Special permission needed for travel outside Sana'a or Aden . Caribbean and North Atlantic Anguilla -- Visa not required for 3 months . Aruba -- Visa not required for 30 days . Bonaire , St. Eustatius and Saba -- Visa not required for 3 months . Bermuda -- Visa not required for 21 days ( extendable ) . British Virgin Islands -- Visa not required for 1 month ( extendable ) . Cayman Islands -- Visa not required for 6 months . Colombia -- Visitors arriving at San Andrés and Leticia must buy tourist cards on arrival . Curacao -- Visa not required for 3 months . Montserrat -- Visa not required for 6 months . Greenland -- Visa not required . Margarita Island -- All visitors are fingerprinted . Puerto Rico -- Visa not required under the Visa Waiver Program , for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years . ESTA required . Saint Pierre and Miquelon -- Visa not required . Sint Maarten -- Visa not required for 3 months . Turks and Caicos Islands -- Visa not required for 90 days . U.S. Virgin Islands -- Visa not required under the Visa Waiver Program , for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years . ESTA required . Oceania American Samoa -- Visa required ( entry permit ) . Ashmore and Cartier Islands -- special authorisation required . Clipperton Island -- special permit required . Cook Islands -- Visa free access for 31 days . Lau Province -- Special permission required . French Polynesia -- Visa not required . Guam -- Visa not required under the Visa Waiver Program , for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years . ESTA required . New Caledonia -- Visa not required for 3 months . Niue -- Visa on arrival valid for 30 days is issued free of charge . Northern Mariana Islands -- Visa not required . Pitcairn Islands -- 14 days visa free and landing fee 35 USD or tax of 5 USD if not going ashore . Tokelau -- Entry permit required . United States Minor Outlying Islands -- special permits required for Baker Island , Howland Island , Jarvis Island , Johnston Atoll , Kingman Reef , Midway Atoll , Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island . Wallis and Futuna -- Visa not required . South America Galápagos -- Online pre-registration is required . Transit Control Card must also be obtained at the airport prior to departure . South Atlantic and Antarctica Falkland Islands -- Visitor Permit valid for 4 weeks is issued on arrival . Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Ascension Island -- Entry Permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance ( 3 months for 20 / 30 pounds sterling , single / double entry ) . Saint Helena -- Entry Permit ( £ 25 ) for 183 days is issued on arrival . Tristan da Cunha -- Permission to land required for 15 / 30 pounds sterling ( yacht / ship passenger ) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island , Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands . South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands -- Pre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required ( 72 hours / 1 month for 110 / 160 pounds sterling ) . Antarctica and adjacent islands -- special permits required for French Southern and Antarctic Lands , Argentine Antarctica , Australian Antarctic Territory , Chilean Antarctic Territory , Heard Island and McDonald Islands , Peter I Island , Queen Maud Land , Ross Dependency . Non-ordinary passports ( edit ) Holders of diplomatic or official passports of Ireland have additional visa - free access to Kuwait . Holders of diplomatic or service passports of any country have visa - free access to Cape Verde , Ethiopia , Mali and Zimbabwe . Non-visa restrictions ( edit ) This section is transcluded from Non-visa travel restrictions . ( edit history ) Passport validity length ( edit ) Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival . Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens . Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan , Algeria , Anguilla , Bahrain , Bhutan , Botswana , British Virgin Islands , Brunei , Cambodia , Cameroon , Cayman Islands , Central African Republic , Chad , Comoros , Côte d'Ivoire , Curaçao , Ecuador , Egypt , El Salvador , Equatorial Guinea , Fiji , Gabon , Guinea Bissau , Guyana , Indonesia , Iran , Iraq ( except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah ) , Israel , Jordan , Kenya , Kiribati , Laos , Madagascar , Malaysia , Marshall Islands , Micronesia , Myanmar , Namibia , Nicaragua , Nigeria , Oman , Palau , Papua New Guinea , Philippines , Qatar , Rwanda , Saint Lucia , Samoa , Saudi Arabia , Singapore , Solomon Islands , Somalia , Somaliland , Sri Lanka , Sudan , Suriname , Taiwan , Tanzania , Thailand , Timor - Leste , Tokelau , Tonga , Tuvalu , Uganda , United Arab Emirates , Vanuatu , Venezuela , Vietnam , Yemen and Zimbabwe . Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia . Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries ( except Denmark , Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom , and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals ) , Albania , Belarus , Georgia , Honduras , Iceland , Jordan , Kuwait , Lebanon , Liechtenstein , Moldova , Monaco , Nauru , Panama , Saint Barthélemy , San Marino , Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates . Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry . Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea , Hong Kong , Macao , New Zealand and South Africa . Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay . Blank passport pages ( edit ) Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented , generally one or two pages . Endorsement pages which oftentimes appear after the visa pages are not counted . Vaccination ( edit ) Many African countries , including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Ghana , Guinea , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , São Tomé and Príncipe , Senegal , Sierra Leone , Uganda , and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area . Israeli stamps ( edit ) Kuwait , Lebanon , Libya , Saudi Arabia , Sudan , Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa , or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt . To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel . Since 15 January 2013 , Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport , giving passengers a card instead : `` Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival . You should keep this card with your passport until you leave . This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required , particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories . '' Passports are still ( as of 22 June 2017 ) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza . Also , passports are still stamped ( as of 22 June 2017 ) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan . Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old . Armenian ethnicity ( edit ) Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan , the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia , but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent , to the Republic of Azerbaijan ( although there have been exceptions , notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan ) . Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh ( the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh ) , its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki , Yuxarı Əskipara , Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia , without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan . Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their `` list of personae non gratae '' . As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons . Upon request , the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country . Persona non grata ( edit ) The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata , banning their entry into that country . In non-diplomatic use , the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily , usually because of unlawful activity . Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel . Fingerprinting ( edit ) Several countries including Argentina , Brunei , Cambodia , Japan , Malaysia , Saudi Arabia , Singapore , South Korea and the United States demand all travellers , or all foreign travellers , to be fingerprinted on arrival . Criminal record ( edit ) Some countries ( for example , Canada and the United States ) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record . Common travel Area ( edit ) Main article : Common Travel Area The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom , together with its Crown Dependencies of Guernsey , Jersey and the Isle of Man make up a Common Travel Area where : No ID is required for travel by land for British or Irish citizens Only photographic ID required for travel by air or sea for British or Irish citizens However , there are occasionally checks on coaches and trains moving between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland . Citizens of third countries must have passports and , if required , visas to travel between the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland . British visas do n't enable travel to Ireland for people without agreement with Ireland , and vice versa . ( Although both the UK and the Republic are members of the European Union , neither are members of the Schengen Area so Schengen visas are not valid for travel to the Common Travel Area . Air and sea passengers travelling between the Common Travel Area and the Schengen Area are subject to systematic passport / identity checks . ) Right to Consular protection in non-EU countries ( edit ) As citizens of the European Union , all Irish citizens have the right to seek consular assistance and protection from embassies of fellow EU member states when they are in a non-EU country without an Irish embassy . See also List of diplomatic missions of Ireland . Countries with Irish diplomatic missions See also ( edit ) Ireland portal European Union portal Visa policy of Ireland Visa requirements for the European Union citizens Irish passport References and notes ( edit ) References ^ `` Global Ranking - Passport Index 2018 '' ( PDF ) . Henley & Partners . Retrieved 22 May 2018 . ^ Visa information , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Afghanistan . ^ Visa regime for foreign citizens , Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs of Albania . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel to Andorra , Ministry of External Affairs of Andorra . ^ SME E-VISA ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ SME E-VISA ^ Angola : Migration Service to Speed Up Visa Exemption Procedure ^ SME cria condições para isenção e simplificação de vistos ^ Countries exempt from visa , Department of Immigration of Antigua and Barbuda . ^ Visa regime , National Directorate of Migrations of Argentina ( in Spanish ) . ^ Visa , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia . ^ Visitor visa options , Department of Home Affairs of Australia . ^ Schengen visa , Federal Ministry for Europe , Integration and Foreign Affairs of Austria . ^ Countries with visa - free travel regime , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan ( in Azerbaijani ) . ^ Electronic Visa System of Azerbaijan Republic ^ Visa requirements for foreigners travelling to the Bahamas , Government of the Bahamas , 18 February 2014 . ^ https://www.evisa.gov.bh/image/114.pdf ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Visa requirements for foreign nationals entering Barbados , Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade of Barbados , 3 June 2009 . ^ Visa - free travel , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Belarus . ^ Visa for Belgium , Federal Public Service Foreign Affairs of Belgium . ^ Countries not requiring an entry visa , Department of Immigration and Nationality Services of Belize , September 2016 . ^ Extendable length of stay . ^ Visa , Emigration and Immigration Directorate of Benin . ^ eVisa Benin ^ Visa , Tourism Council of Bhutan . ^ Requirements to enter Bolivia , General Directorate of Migration of Bolivia ( in Spanish ) . ^ Visas , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina . ^ Requirements for visa application , Government of Botswana . ^ Visas to travel to Brazil , Ministry of External Relations of Brazil ( in Portuguese and English ) . ^ Country category for visa application , Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Brunei.BN ^ Visa for Bulgaria , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ ( 1 ) ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ canada.ca/eTA ^ Entry requirements by country : Visa - exempt ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ `` 144 小时 过境 免 签 政策 '' ^ `` 144 小时 过境 免 签 政策 '' ^ `` 144 小时 过境 免 签 政策 '' ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Visa at International Airport Felix Houphouet Boigny in Abidjan ^ Visa requirements overview , Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of Croatia . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Visa policy , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus . ^ List of states whose citizens are exempt from visa requirement , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic , 13 July 2017 . ^ Countries with a visa requirement and visa - free countries , Danish Immigration Service , 8 December 2017 . ^ eVisa ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ `` Egypt e-Visa Portal '' . Ministry of Interior ( Egypt ) . Retrieved 3 December 2017 . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Who does not need a visa to visit Estonia ? , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Estonia , 2 November 2017 . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Visa requirement and travel documents accepted by Finland , Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland . ^ Foreign nationals holding ordinary passports exempt from visa requirements , Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs of France , January 2016 . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Overview of visa requirements / exemptions for entry into the Federal Republic of Germany , Federal Foreign Office of Germany . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Countries requiring or not requiring a visa , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Greece , 13 June 2017 . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Countries that do not need a visa , Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Hungary . ^ Who does not need a visa , Directorate of Immigration of Iceland . ^ `` Indian e-Visa '' . Ministry of Home Affairs , Government of India . ^ e-Visa ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Iran extends airport visa validity to 30 days ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Tourist visa table , Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs , 23 May 2017 . ^ Visa for Italy , Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation of Italy . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Republic of Kenya - eCitizen portal ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Kuwait eVisa ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Available at international airports Wattay Vientiane , Pakse Savannakhet and Luang Prabang , and at land borders Friendship Bridge , Vientiane and Savannakhet ; Nam Heuang Friendship Bridge , Sayabouly Province ; and border crossings at Boten - Mohan , Dansavan - Lao Bao , Houaysay - Chiang Khong , Thakhek - Nakhon Phanom , Nong Haet - Nam Kan , Nam Phao - Kao Cheo , Veun Kham - Dong Calor , and Vangtao - Chong Mek as well as Tha Naleng train station in Vientiane , which connects to the train station in Nongkhai , Thailand . Entry points Napao - Chalo , Taichang - Sophoun , Pakxan - Bungkan , and Xiengkok are open only to visa holders . ^ Countries whose citizens may enter Latvia without a visa , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia , 9 October 2017 . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Visa , Government of Liechtenstein ( in German ) . ^ Do I need a visa ? , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Lithuania , 30 August 2017 . ^ Staying in Luxembourg for less than 90 days , Government of Luxembourg . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Who requires a visa ? , Identity Malta . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Before you leave , Monaco Government Tourist Office . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Short - stay Schengen visa ( 90 days or less ) , Government of the Netherlands . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Persons who do not need a visa to visit Norway , Norwegian Directorate of Immigration . ^ Sultanate of Oman - Royal Oman Police - eVisa ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Business Visa . Ministry of Interior of Pakistan ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Visa - free countries , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland . ^ Third countries whose citizens are required to have a visa , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Portugal . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Do I need a visa ? , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Romania . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Border formalities , San Marino Tourism Board . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Consular information and travel visa , Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of Slovakia . ^ Visa regimes and visas , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Slovenia . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Entry requirements , Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation of Spain . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ List of foreign citizens who require visa for entry into Sweden , Government of Sweden . ^ Overview of ID and visa provisions according to nationality , State Secretariat for Migration of Switzerland . ^ ( 2 ) ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ https://www.evisa.tj ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Uganda Electronic Visa / Permit Application System ^ ( 3 ) ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ UK visa requirements : list for carriers , Government of the United Kingdom , 2 October 2017 . ^ Travel without a visa , United States Department of State . ^ ( 4 ) ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ http://mfa.uz/en/consular/visa/ ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ E-visa ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ Travel Information Manual , International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) . ^ ( 5 ) ^ ( 6 ) ^ ( 7 ) ^ ( 8 ) ^ ( 9 ) ^ ( 10 ) ^ ( 11 ) ^ Foreigners Now Need Russian Visa to Visit Crimea ^ ( 12 ) ( 13 ) ^ ( 14 ) ^ ( 15 ) ^ Visas and immigration , Government of Gibraltar . ^ ( 16 ) ^ ( 17 ) ^ ( 18 ) ^ ( 19 ) ^ ( 20 ) ^ ( 21 ) ^ ( 22 ) ^ ( 23 ) ^ ( 24 ) ^ ( 25 ) ^ ( 26 ) ^ ( 27 ) ^ ( 28 ) ^ ( 29 ) ^ ( 30 ) ^ ( 31 ) ^ ( 32 ) ^ ( 33 ) ^ ( 34 ) ^ Visit visa / entry permit requirements for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region , Immigration Department of Hong Kong , April 2017 . ^ ( 35 ) ^ ( 36 ) ^ ( 37 ) ^ ( 38 ) ^ ( 39 ) ^ ( 40 ) ^ ( 41 ) ^ ( 42 ) ^ ( 43 ) ^ Entry and exit of non-residents , Public Security Police Force of Macau . ^ ( 44 ) ^ ( 45 ) ^ Tourist visa table , Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs , 23 May 2017 . ^ ( 46 ) ^ Visa , Bureau of Consular Affairs of Taiwan . ^ ( 47 ) ^ ( 48 ) ^ ( 49 ) ^ ( 50 ) ^ ( 51 ) ^ ( 52 ) ^ ( 53 ) ^ ( 54 ) ^ ( 55 ) ^ Visa requirements for Anguilla , Government of Anguilla , October 2016 . ^ Do I need a visa for the Caribbean parts of the Kingdom ? , Government of the Netherlands . ^ ( 56 ) ^ Bermuda entry visas , Government of Bermuda . ^ ( 57 ) ^ Visas , Tourism Board of the British Virgin Islands . ^ ( 58 ) ^ Visa - free and visa - required countries , Department of Immigration of the Cayman Islands . ^ ( 59 ) ^ Timatic ^ Do I need a visa for the Caribbean parts of the Kingdom ? , Government of the Netherlands . ^ Countries not requiring a visa , Immigration Department of Montserrat . ^ ( 60 ) ^ Travel without a visa , United States Department of State . ^ ( 61 ) ^ Do I need a visa for the Caribbean parts of the Kingdom ? , Government of the Netherlands . ^ Requirements to obtain a Turks and Caicos visitor 's visa , Ministry of Border Control and Employment of the Turks and Caicos Islands . ^ ( 62 ) ^ Travel without a visa , United States Department of State . ^ General information , American Samoa Visitors Bureau . ^ ( 63 ) ^ ( 64 ) ^ ( 65 ) ^ ( 66 ) ^ ( 67 ) ^ Travel without a visa , United States Department of State . ^ ( 68 ) ^ ( 69 ) ^ Travel without a visa , United States Department of State . ^ ( 70 ) ^ ( 71 ) ^ ( 72 ) ^ ( 73 ) ^ https://www.timaticweb.com/cgi-bin/tim_website_client.cgi?FullText=1&COUNTRY=NZ&SECTION=VI&SUBSECTION=AI&user=KLMB2C&subuser=KLMB2C ^ ( 74 ) ^ ( 75 ) ^ ( 76 ) ^ ( 77 ) ^ ( 78 ) ^ ( 79 ) ^ ( 80 ) ^ ( 81 ) ^ Sistema de Calificación y Control de Residencia - Consejo de Gobierno de Galápagos ^ ( 82 ) ^ ( 83 ) ^ ( 84 ) ^ ( 85 ) ^ ( 86 ) ^ ( 87 ) ^ ( 88 ) ^ ( 89 ) ^ ( 90 ) ^ ( 91 ) ^ ( 92 ) ^ ( 93 ) ^ ( 94 ) ^ ( 95 ) ^ ( 96 ) ^ ( 97 ) ^ ( 98 ) ^ ( 99 ) ^ ( 100 ) ^ `` International Travel Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Archived from the original on 22 October 2013 . Retrieved 20 November 2013 . ^ `` Foreign Affairs Manual , 9 FAM 403.9 - 3 ( B ) ( 2 ) f '' . U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 10 October 2017 . ^ `` How long should my passport be valid when traveling to the United States ? '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 10 October 2017 . ^ Timatic ^ Timatic ^ `` Country Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 11 September 2017 . ^ Country list - Yellow fever vaccination requirements and recommendations ; and malaria situation ; and other vaccination requirement ^ `` Travel Report - Kuwait '' . Voyage.gc.ca. 2012 - 11 - 16 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 01 . ^ Travel Advice for Lebanon - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Archived 2008 - 12 - 24 at the Wayback Machine . and Lebanese Ministry of Tourism Archived 2009 - 03 - 27 at the Wayback Machine . ^ `` Travel Advice for Libya - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade '' . Smartraveller.gov.au . Archived from the original on 2013 - 06 - 22 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 01 . ^ Michael Freund , Canada defends Saudi policy of shunning tourists who visited Israel , 2008 - 12 - 07 , Jerusalem Post ^ `` Travel Advice for Sudan - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade '' . Smartraveller.gov.au . Archived from the original on 2013 - 07 - 05 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 01 . ^ Travel Advice for Syria - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Archived 2008 - 12 - 19 at the Wayback Machine . and Syrian Ministry of Tourism ^ `` Travel Advice for Yemen - Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade '' . Smartraveller.gov.au . Archived from the original on 2011 - 08 - 20 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 01 . ^ `` Israel travel advice - GOV.UK '' . www.gov.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 17 . ^ Azerbaijan Country Page Archived 2009 - 03 - 08 at the Wayback Machine ... NCSJ : Advocates on behalf of Jews in Russia , Ukraine , the Baltic States & Eurasia . Accessed 23 May 2010 . ^ Azerbaijan does n't allow Armenians in the country - Panarmenian.net ^ `` Azerbaijan Country Page of the NCSJ ( advocates on behalf of Jews in Russia , Ukraine , the Baltic States & Eurasia ) accessed 23 May 2010 '' . Archived from the original on 8 March 2009 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 26 . ^ `` Warning for the foreign nationals wishing to travel to the occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan '' . Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan . Retrieved 23 November 2017 . ^ `` List of foreign citizens illegally visited occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan '' . Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan . Retrieved 23 November 2017 . ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2014 - 04 - 13 . Retrieved 2014 - 04 - 10 . ^ ( 101 ) ^ `` Japan fingerprints foreigners as anti-terror move '' . 20 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 March 2017 -- via Reuters . ^ F_161 . `` S Korea to scan fingerprints of suspicious foreign visitors - People 's Daily Online '' . peopledaily.com.cn . Retrieved 3 March 2017 . ^ ( 102 ) ^ ( 103 ) ^ `` Saudi Arabia mandates fingerprints and biometrics for foreigners - SecureIDNews '' . secureidnews.com . Retrieved 3 March 2017 . ^ `` Office of Biometric Identity Management - Homeland Security '' . dhs.gov . Retrieved 3 March 2017 . ^ Government of Canada -- Overcome criminal convictions Notes Ahmedabad Amritsar Bagdogra Bengaluru Chandigarh Chennai Coimbatore Delhi Gaya Goa Guwahati Hyderabad Jaipur Kochi Kolkata Kozhikode Lucknow Mangaluru Mumbai Nagpur Pune Thiruvananthapuram Tiruchirappalli Varanasi Visakhapatnam Cochin Goa Mangalore Visa policies and requirements in the European Union Schengen Area Common Travel Area Special territories Policy / Requirements Policy / Requirements Policy / Requirements Overseas Visa policy of the British Overseas Territories Visa policy of the French overseas departments and territories Visa policy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Caribbean Candidates Albania Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Turkey Visa policy by country Visa Passport Travel document Africa Central Angola Cameroon Central African Republic Chad DR Congo R Congo Equatorial Guinea Gabon São Tomé and Príncipe Eastern Burundi Comoros Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Rwanda Seychelles Somalia ( Somaliland ) South Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Northern Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Sudan Tunisia Southern Botswana Lesotho Namibia Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Africa Swaziland Western Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Americas Caribbean Dutch Caribbean ( Aruba , Caribbean Netherlands , Curaçao , Sint Maarten ) Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Grenada Haiti Jamaica Montserrat Puerto Rico St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands United States Virgin Islands Central Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama North Bermuda Canada Mexico United States South Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Falkland Islands Guyana Paraguay Peru South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Central & North Afghanistan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russia Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan East China Hong Kong Macau Japan North Korea South Korea Mongolia Taiwan ( Republic of China ) South Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Southeast ( ASEAN ) Brunei Cambodia East Timor Indonesia Laos Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Western Abkhazia Akrotiri and Dhekelia Armenia Artsakh Azerbaijan Bahrain Cyprus Egypt Georgia Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Northern Cyprus Oman Palestine Qatar Saudi Arabia South Ossetia Syria Turkey United Arab Emirates Yemen Europe European Union / EFTA Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Czech Republic Cyprus Denmark Faroe Islands Estonia Finland France Overseas Germany Gibraltar Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Overseas Norway Svalbard Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Overseas Other Europe Abkhazia Akrotiri and Dhekelia Albania Andorra Armenia Artsakh Azerbaijan Belarus Bosnia and Herzegovina Georgia Kazakhstan Kosovo Macedonia Moldova Monaco Montenegro Northern Cyprus Russia San Marino Serbia South Ossetia Transnistria Turkey Ukraine Vatican City Oceania American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Pitcairn Islands Samoa Solomon Islands Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu British Overseas Territories . Open border with Schengen Area . Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia . The majority of its population ( 80 % ) lives in European Russia , therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here . Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe . Has part of its territory ( 3 % ) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace . Azerbaijan ( Artsakh ) and Georgia ( Abkhazia ; South Ossetia ) are transcontinental countries . Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus . Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country . Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe . Armenia and Cyprus ( Northern Cyprus ; Akrotiri and Dhekelia ) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe . Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East . Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula . Part of the Realm of New Zealand . Partially recognized . Unincorporated territory of the United States . Part of Norway , not part of the Schengen Area , special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty Visa requirements Visa Passport Travel document Africa Central Angolan Cameroonian Central African Republic Chadian DR Congo R Congo Equatorial Guinean Gabonese Santomean Eastern Burundian Comorian Djiboutian Eritrean Ethiopian Kenyan Malagasy Malawian Mauritian Mozambican Rwandan Seychellois Somali ( Somaliland ) South Sudanese Tanzanian Ugandan Zambian Zimbabwean Northern Algerian Egyptian Libyan Moroccan Sudanese Tunisian Southern Botswana Lesotho Namibian Saint Helena South African Swazi Western Beninese Burkinabe Cape Verdean Gambian Ghanaian Guinean Guinea - Bissauan Ivorian Liberian Malian Mauritanian Nigerian Nigerien Senegalese Sierra Leonean Togolese Americas Caribbean Anguillan Antigua and Barbuda Bahamian Barbadian British Virgin Islands Caymanian Cuban Dominica Dominican Republic Grenadian Haitian Jamaican Montserratian Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucian Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands Central Belizean Costa Rican El Salvador Guatemalan Honduran Nicaraguan Panamanian North Bermudian Canadian Mexican United States South Argentine Bolivian Brazilian Chilean Colombian Ecuadorian Guyanese Paraguayan Peruvian Surinamese Uruguayan Venezuelan Asia Central & North Afghanistani Kazakhstani Kyrgyzstani Russian Tajik Turkmen Uzbekistani East Chinese Hong Kongese Macanese Japanese North Korean South Korean Mongolian Taiwanese South Bangladeshi Bhutanese Indian Maldivian Nepalese Pakistani Sri Lankan Southeast Bruneian Cambodian East Timorese Indonesian Laotian Malaysian Myanmar Philippine Singaporean Thai Vietnamese Western Abkhaz Armenian Artsakh Azerbaijani Bahraini Cypriot Egyptian Georgian Emirati Iranian Iraqi Israeli Jordanian Kuwaiti Lebanese Northern Cypriot Omani Palestinian Qatari Saudi South Ossetian Syrian Turkish Yemeni Europe European Union Austrian Belgian British ( BOTC BN ( O ) BOC ) Bulgarian Croatian Cypriot Czech Danish Dutch Estonian ( Non-citizens ) Finnish French German Greek Hungarian Irish Italian Latvian ( Non-citizens ) Lithuanian Luxembourg Maltese Polish Portuguese Romanian Slovak Slovenian Spanish Swedish Other Europe Abkhaz Albanian Andorran Armenian Artsakh Azerbaijani Belarusian Bosnian and Herzegovinian Georgian Gibraltar Icelandic Kazakhstani Kosovan Liechtenstein Macedonia Moldovan Monégasque Montenegrin Northern Cypriot Norwegian Russian San Marino Serbian South Ossetian Sovereign Military Order of Malta Swiss Transnistrian Turkish Ukrainian Vatican City Oceania Australian Fijian Kiribati Marshallese Micronesian Nauruan New Zealand Palauan Papua New Guinean Pitcairn Islands Samoan Solomon Islands Tongan Tuvaluan Vanuatuan British Overseas Territories . Open border with Schengen Area . Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia . The vast majority of its population ( 80 % ) lives in European Russia . Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe . Has a small part of its territory ( 3 % ) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace . Abkhazia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries . Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus . Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country . Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe . Armenia , Artsakh , Cyprus , and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe . Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East . Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula . Partially recognized . 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Hook (film)
Hook ( film ) - wikipedia Hook ( film ) Jump to : navigation , search Hook Theatrical release poster by Drew Struzan Directed by Steven Spielberg Produced by Kathleen Kennedy Frank Marshall Gerald R. Molen Screenplay by Jim V. Hart Malia Scotch Marmo Story by Jim V. Hart Nick Castle Based on Peter and Wendy by J.M. Barrie Starring Dustin Hoffman Robin Williams Julia Roberts Bob Hoskins Maggie Smith Charlie Korsmo Music by John Williams Cinematography Dean Cundey Edited by Michael Kahn Production company Amblin Entertainment Distributed by TriStar Pictures Release date December 11 , 1991 ( 1991 - 12 - 11 ) Running time 144 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $70 million Box office $300.9 million Hook is a 1991 American fantasy adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by James V. Hart and Malia Scotch Marmo . It stars Robin Williams as Peter Banning / Peter Pan , Dustin Hoffman as Captain Hook , Julia Roberts as Tinker Bell , Bob Hoskins as Smee , Maggie Smith as Wendy , Caroline Goodall as Moira Banning , and Charlie Korsmo as Jack Banning . It acts as a sequel to J.M. Barrie 's 1911 novel Peter and Wendy focusing on an adult Peter Pan who has forgotten all about his childhood . In his new life , he is known as Peter Banning , a successful but unimaginative and workaholic corporate lawyer with a wife ( Wendy 's granddaughter ) and two children . However , when Captain Hook , the enemy of his past , kidnaps his children , he returns to Neverland in order to save them . Along the journey he reclaims the memories of his past . Spielberg began developing the film in the early 1980s with Walt Disney Productions and Paramount Pictures , which would have followed the story line seen in the 1924 silent film and 1953 animated film . It entered pre-production in 1985 , but Spielberg abandoned the project . James V. Hart developed the script with director Nick Castle and TriStar Pictures before Spielberg decided to direct in 1989 . It was shot almost entirely on sound stages at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City , California . It received mixed reviews from critics , and while it was a commercial success , its box office take was lower than expected . It was nominated in five categories at the 64th Academy Awards . It also spawned merchandise , including video games , action figures , and comic book adaptations . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Inspiration 3.2 Pre-production 3.3 Filming 4 Soundtrack 5 Video games 6 Reception 6.1 Box office 6.2 Critical response 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links Plot ( edit ) Peter Banning is a successful corporate lawyer living in San Francisco . As a workaholic , he spends little time with his wife , Moira , and children , 12 - year - old Jack and 7 - year - old Maggie , and even misses Jack 's Little League Baseball game , which is straining his relationships with them . They fly to London to visit Moira 's grandmother , Wendy Darling . Wendy is ostensibly the true creator of the Peter Pan stories , with J.M. Barrie , her childhood neighbor merely having transcribed the tales . During their stay , Peter angrily yells at the children while their playing disturbs his important call , leading to an audacious argument with Moira , who throws out his cellphone . Peter , Moira and Wendy go out to a charity dinner honoring Wendy 's long life of charitable service to orphans . Upon their return , they discover the house has been ransacked and the children have been abducted . A cryptic ransom note , signed Captain James Hook , has been pinned to the playroom door with a dagger . Wendy confesses to Peter that the stories of Peter Pan are true and that Peter himself is Pan , having lost all of his childhood memories when he fell in love with Moira . In disbelief , he gets drunk up in the playroom , but Tinker Bell appears and takes him to Neverland to rescue his children from Hook . Hook and his pirates confront Peter but become depressed when they realize he does not remember his former life and identity . Tinker Bell makes a deal with Hook that Peter will regain his memories in three days for a climactic battle . He is reacquainted with the Mermaids and meets the new generation of Lost Boys , led by Rufio , who refuses to believe that he is the real Peter Pan . They help him train , and in the process he regains his imagination and lost youth . One of them , Thud Butt , gives him marbles that were left behind by Tootles , who is now an old man living with Wendy . Elsewhere , Smee talks Hook into manipulating Jack and Maggie into loving him to break Peter 's will . While Maggie is not taken in , Jack comes to view Hook as a father figure . Hook arranges a makeshift baseball game for Jack , which Peter watches as Hook treats Jack like his own son . Horrified , Peter runs off and tries to fly , but is led to the old treehouse of the Lost Boys by his own shadow . Tinker Bell helps him remember his childhood and how he fell in love with Moira , and he realizes his happy thought is being a father . He flies up into the sky , returning as Peter Pan , and Rufio surrenders his sword and leadership back to him . The child - minded Peter returns to Tinker Bell who grows human - sized and kisses him , reminding him of his reason for being in Neverland . On the third day , he and the Lost Boys attack the pirates as promised , leading to a lengthy battle . He rescues Maggie and promises to be a better father to both her and Jack . Rufio fights a duel with Hook but is mortally wounded and dies in Peter 's arms . Peter and Hook duel , leading to Peter 's victory . Refusing to leave honorably , Hook attacks Peter one last time , but the stuffed crocodile , whom Hook once feared , springs to life and devours him . Peter gives his sword to Thud Butt , promoting him the new leader of the Lost Boys , and leaves Neverland for good . He awakens in Kensington Gardens , meeting a sweeper who bears a strong resemblance to Smee and bidding farewell to Tinker Bell , who confesses her unrequited love to him before vanishing . He climbs up the drain pipe of Wendy 's house , reuniting and reconciling with his family and returning Tootles ' marbles to him . Tootles discovers the bag contains pixie dust , and he flies out the window to visit Neverland . Wendy suggests that Peter 's adventures are over , but he replies , `` To live would be an awfully big adventure . '' Cast ( edit ) See also : Characters of Peter Pan Robin Williams as Peter Banning / Peter Pan Ryan Francis as teenage Peter Pan Max Hoffman as baby Peter Pan Dustin Hoffman as Captain Hook Julia Roberts as Tinker Bell Lisa Wilhoit as young Tinker Bell Bob Hoskins as Mr. Smee Charlie Korsmo as Jack Banning Amber Scott as Maggie Banning Maggie Smith as Wendy Darling Gwyneth Paltrow as young Wendy Darling Caroline Goodall as Moira Banning Laurel Cronin as Liza , Wendy 's maid Phil Collins as Inspector Good , the British police detective Arthur Malet as Tootles Isaiah Robinson as Pockets Jasen Fisher as Ace Dante Basco as Rufio Raushan Hammond as Thud Butt James Madio as Do n't Ask Thomas Tulak as Too Small Alex Zuckerman as Latchboy Ahmad Stoner as No Nap Kelly Rowan as Peter Pan 's mother David Crosby as Tickles , a member of Hook 's pirate crew Tony Burton and Nick Tate as Bill Jukes and Noodler , members of Hook 's pirate crew who serve as his security entourage Glenn Close as Gutless , a male pirate who is punished by Hook Jimmy Buffett ( uncredited ) as the pirate who attempts to steal Peter 's shoes George Lucas and Carrie Fisher ( both uncredited ) as the kissing couple on the bridge who are sprinkled with pixie dust as Tinker Bell carries Peter to Neverland Production ( edit ) Inspiration ( edit ) Spielberg found close personal connection to the Peter Pan story from his own childhood . The troubled relationship between Peter and Jack in the sequel echoed Spielberg 's relationship with his own father . Previous Spielberg films that explored a dysfunctional father - son relationship included E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade . Peter 's `` quest for success '' paralleled Spielberg starting out as a film director and transforming into a Hollywood business magnate . `` I think a lot of people today are losing their imagination because they are work - driven . They are so self - involved with work and success and arriving at the next plateau that children and family almost become incidental . I have even experienced it myself when I have been on a very tough shoot and I 've not seen my kids except on weekends . They ask for my time and I ca n't give it to them because I 'm working . '' Like Peter at the beginning of the film , Spielberg has a fear of flying . He feels that Peter 's `` enduring quality '' in the storyline is simply to fly . `` Anytime anything flies , whether it 's Superman , Batman , or E.T. , it 's got to be a tip of the hat to Peter Pan , '' Spielberg reflected in a 1992 interview . `` Peter Pan was the first time I saw anybody fly . Before I saw Superman , before I saw Batman , and of course before I saw any superheroes , my first memory of anybody flying is in Peter Pan . '' Pre-production ( edit ) J.M. Barrie considered writing a story in which Peter Pan grew up ; his 1920 notes for the latest stage revival of Peter Pan included possible titles for another play : The Man Who Could n't Grow Up or The Old Age of Peter Pan . The genesis of the film started when Spielberg 's mother often read him Peter and Wendy as a bedtime story . He explained in 1985 , `` When I was eleven years old I actually directed the story during a school production . I have always felt like Peter Pan . I still feel like Peter Pan . It has been very hard for me to grow up , I 'm a victim of the Peter Pan syndrome . '' In the early 1980s , Spielberg began to develop a film with Walt Disney Pictures that would have closely followed the storyline of the 1924 silent film and 1953 animated film . He also considered directing it as a musical with Michael Jackson in the lead . He expressed interest in the part , but was not interested in Spielberg 's vision of an adult Peter Pan who had forgotten about his past . The project was taken to Paramount Pictures , where James V. Hart wrote the first script with Dustin Hoffman already cast as Captain Hook . It entered pre-production in 1985 for filming to begin at sound stages in England . Elliot Scott had been hired as production designer . With the birth of his first son , Max , in 1985 , Spielberg decided to drop out . `` I decided not to make Peter Pan when I had my first child , '' Spielberg commented . `` I did n't want to go to London and have seven kids on wires in front of blue screens . I wanted to be home as a dad . '' Around this time , he considered directing Big , which carried similar motifs and themes with it . In 1987 , he `` permanently abandoned '' it , feeling he expressed his childhood and adult themes in Empire of the Sun . Meanwhile , Paramount and Hart moved forward on production with Nick Castle as director . Hart began to work on a new storyline when his son , Jake , showed his family a drawing . `` We asked Jake what it was and he said it was a crocodile eating Captain Hook , but that the crocodile really did n't eat him , he got away , '' Hart reflected . `` As it happens , I had been trying to crack Peter Pan for years , but I did n't just want to do a remake . So I went , ' Wow . Hook is not dead . The crocodile is . We 've all been fooled ' . In 1986 our family was having dinner and Jake said , ' Daddy , did Peter Pan ever grow up ? ' My immediate response was , ' No , of course not ' . And Jake said , ' But what if he did ? ' I realized that Peter did grow up , just like all of us baby boomers who are now in our forties . I patterned him after several of my friends on Wall Street , where the pirates wear three - piece suits and ride in limos . '' Filming ( edit ) By 1989 , Ian Rathbone changed the title to Hook , and took it from Paramount to TriStar Pictures , headed by Mike Medavoy , who was Spielberg 's first talent agent . Robin Williams signed on , but he and Hoffman had creative differences with Castle . Medavoy saw the film as a vehicle for Spielberg and Castle was dismissed , but paid a $500,000 settlement . Dodi Fayed , who owned certain rights to make a Peter Pan film , sold his interest to TriStar in exchange for an executive producer credit . Spielberg briefly worked together with Hart to rewrite the script before hiring Malia Scotch Marmo to rewrite Captain Hook 's dialog and Carrie Fisher for Tinker Bell 's . The Writers Guild of America gave Hart and Marmo screenplay credit , while Hart and Castle were credited with the story . Fisher went uncredited . Filming began on February 19 , 1991 , occupying nine sound stages at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City , California . Stage 30 housed the Neverland Lost Boys playground , while Stage 10 supplied Captain Hook 's ship cabin . Hidden hydraulics were installed to rock the setpiece to simulate a swaying ship , but the filmmakers found the movement distracted the dialogue , so the idea was dropped . Stage 27 housed the full - sized Jolly Roger and the surrounding Pirate Wharf . Industrial Light & Magic provided the visual effects sequences . This marked the beginning of Tony Swatton 's career , as he was asked to make weaponry for the film . It was financed by Amblin Entertainment and TriStar Pictures , with TriStar distributing it . Spielberg brought on John Napier as a `` visual consultant '' , having been impressed with his work on Cats . The original production budget was set at $48 million , but ended up between $60 -- 80 million . The primary reason for the increased budget was the shooting schedule , which ran 40 days over its original 76 - day schedule . Spielberg explained , `` It was all my fault . I began to work at a slower pace than I usually do . '' Spielberg 's on - set relationship with Julia Roberts was troubled , and he later admitted in an interview with 60 Minutes , `` It was an unfortunate time for us to work together . '' In a 1999 Vanity Fair interview , Roberts said that Spielberg 's comments `` really hurt my feelings . '' She `` could n't believe this person that I knew and trusted was actually hesitating to come to my defense ... it was the first time that I felt I had a turncoat in my midst . '' Soundtrack ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Hook : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack Film score by John Williams Released November 26 , 1991 ( 1991 - 11 - 26 ) ( original ) March 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 27 ) ( reissue ) Length 75 : 18 ( original ) 140 : 34 ( reissue ) Label Epic Records ( original ) La - La Land Records ( reissue ) John Williams chronology Home Alone String Module Error : Match not foundString Module Error : Match not found Hook JFK String Module Error : Match not foundString Module Error : Match not found The film score was composed and conducted by John Williams . He was brought in at an early stage when Spielberg was considering making the film as a musical . Accordingly , he wrote around eight songs for the project at this stage . The idea was later abandoned . Most of his song ideas were incorporated into the instrumental score , though two songs survive as songs in the finished film : `` We Do n't Wanna Grow Up '' and `` When You 're Alone '' , both with lyrics by Leslie Bricusse . The original 1991 issue was released by Epic Records . In 2012 , a limited edition of the soundtrack , called Hook : Expanded Original Motion Picture Soundtrack , was released by La - La Land Records and Sony Music . It contains almost the complete score with alternates and unused material . It also contains liner notes that explain the film 's production and score recording . Commercial songs from film , but not on soundtrack `` Pick'em Up '' -- Music by John Williams and lyrics by Leslie Bricusse `` Take Me Out to the Ball Game '' -- Written by Jack Norworth and Albert Von Tilzer Video games ( edit ) Main article : Hook ( video game ) A video game based on the film and bearing the same name was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1991 . The game was released for additional game consoles in 1992 . Reception ( edit ) Box Office ( edit ) Spielberg , Williams , and Hoffman did not take salaries for the film . Their deal called for them to split 40 % of TriStar Pictures ' gross revenues . They were to receive $20 million from the first $50 million in gross theatrical film rentals , with TriStar keeping the next $70 million in rentals before the three resumed receiving their percentage . The film was released in North America on December 11 , 1991 , earning $13,522,535 in its opening weekend . It went on to gross $119,654,823 in North America and $181,200,000 in foreign countries , accumulating a worldwide total of $300,854,823 . It is the sixth - highest - grossing `` pirate - themed '' film , behind all five films in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series . In North America totals , it was the sixth - highest - grossing film in 1991 , and fourth - highest - grossing worldwide . It ended up making a profit of $50 million for the studio , yet it was still declared a financial disappointment , having been overshadowed by the release of Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and a decline in box - office receipts compared to the previous years . Critical response ( edit ) Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 29 % of critics have given the film a positive review , based on 41 reviews , certifying it `` Rotten '' , with an average rating of 4.4 / 10 . The site 's consensus states : `` The look of Hook is lively indeed but Steven Spielberg directs on autopilot here , giving in too quickly to his sentimental , syrupy qualities . '' On Metacritic , the film has a 52 out of 100 rating , based on 19 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times stated that `` The sad thing about the screenplay for Hook is that it 's so correctly titled : This whole construction is really nothing more than a hook on which to hang a new version of the Peter Pan story . No effort is made to involve Peter 's magic in the changed world he now inhabits , and little thought has been given to Captain Hook 's extraordinary persistence in wanting to revisit the events of the past . The failure in Hook was its inability to re-imagine the material , to find something new , fresh or urgent to do with the Peter Pan myth . Lacking that , Spielberg should simply have remade the original story , straight , for the ' 90s generation . '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine felt it would `` only appeal to the baby boomer generation '' and highly criticized the sword - fighting choreography . Vincent Canby of The New York Times felt the story structure was not well balanced , feeling Spielberg depended too much on art direction . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post was one of few who gave it a positive review . Hinson elaborated on crucial themes of children , adulthood , and loss of innocence . However , he observed that Spielberg `` was stuck too much in a theme park world '' . Perry Seibert of allmovie gave the film his very low star rating , and described it as the worst film in Steven Spielberg 's Career . The film was nominated for five categories at the 64th Academy Awards . This included Best Production Design ( Norman Garwood , Garrett Lewis ) ( lost to Bugsy ) , Best Costume Design ( lost to Bugsy ) , Best Visual Effects ( lost to Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ) , Best Makeup ( lost to Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ) and Best Original Song ( `` When You 're Alone '' , lost to Beauty and the Beast ) . It lost the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film to Aladdin , in which Williams co-starred , while cinematographer Dean Cundey was nominated for his work by the American Society of Cinematographers . Hoffman was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy ( lost to Williams for The Fisher King ) . John Williams was given a Grammy Award nomination for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media ; Julia Roberts received a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actress ( lost to Sean Young as the dead twin in A Kiss Before Dying ) . In 2011 , Spielberg told Entertainment Weekly : `` There are parts of Hook I love . I 'm really proud of my work right up through Peter being hauled off in the parachute out the window , heading for Neverland . I 'm a little less proud of the Neverland sequences , because I 'm uncomfortable with that highly stylized world that today , of course , I would probably have done with live - action character work inside a completely digital set . But we did n't have the technology to do it then , and my imagination only went as far as building physical sets and trying to paint trees blue and red . '' Spielberg gave a more blunt assessment in a 2013 interview on Kermode & Mayo 's Film Review Show : `` I wan na see Hook again because I so do n't like that movie , and I 'm hoping someday I 'll see it again and perhaps like some of it . '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` HOOK ( PG ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . January 17 , 1992 . Retrieved January 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Joseph McBride ( 1997 ) . Steven Spielberg : A Biography . New York City : Faber and Faber . p. 411 . ISBN 0 - 571 - 19177 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Hook '' . TCM database . Turner Classic Movies . Retrieved February 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Phil Collins . Not Dead Yet . London , England : Century Books . p. 270 / 2 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 780 - 89513 - 0 . Jump up ^ McBride , p. 413 . ^ Jump up to : Ana Maria Bahiana ( March 1992 ) . `` Hook '' , Cinema Papers , pp. 67 -- 69 . Jump up ^ Andrew Birkin ( 2003 ) . J.M. Barrie and the Lost Boys . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 09822 - 8 . Jump up ^ McBride , p. 42 -- 43 ^ Jump up to : McBride , p. 409 . Jump up ^ `` Michael Jackson Was Steven Spielberg 's First Choice To Play Peter Pan In ' Hook ' '' . Starpulse.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 23 . Jump up ^ Myra Forsberg ( 1988 - 01 - 10 ) . `` Spielberg at 40 : The Man and the Child '' . The New York Times . access - date = requires url = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : McBride , p. 410 . Jump up ^ Medavoy , Mike and Young , Josh ( 2002 ) . You 're Only as Good as Your Next One : 100 Great Films , 100 Good Films , and 100 for Which I Should Be Shot ( p. 230 ) . New York City : Atria Books ^ Jump up to : DVD production notes ^ Jump up to : McBride , p. 412 . Jump up ^ http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/08/15-hollywood-set-feuds Jump up ^ `` HOOK 2CD Set Includes ' Over 65 minutes of Music Previously Unreleased ' '' . JWFan . Retrieved May 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Hook - John Williams '' . AllMusic . Retrieved August 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Marriott , Scott Alan . `` Hook -- Overview ( SNES ) '' . AllGame . Archived from the original on November 15 , 2014 . Retrieved August 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Hook '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Pirate Movies '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` 1991 Domestic Totals '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` 1991 Worldwide Grosses '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Dretzka , Gary . `` Medavoy 's Method . '' Chicago Tribune ( December 8 , 1996 ) . Jump up ^ Medavoy , Mike and Young , Josh ( 2002 ) . You 're Only as Good as Your Next One : 100 Great Films , 100 Good Films , and 100 for Which I Should Be Shot ( p. 234 - 235 ) . New York City : Atria Books Jump up ^ `` Hook '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Hook reviews '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Hook '' . Roger Ebert.com. 1991 - 12 - 11 . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Peter Travers ( 1991 - 12 - 11 ) . `` Hook '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Vincent Canby ( 1991 - 12 - 11 ) . `` Hook '' . The New York Times . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Hal Hinson ( 1991 - 12 - 11 ) . `` Hook '' . The Washington Post . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Hook '' . Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Past Saturn Awards '' . Saturn Awards.com . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2005 . Retrieved September 20 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` 7th Annual Awards '' . American Society of Cinematographers . Archived from the original on November 9 , 2006 . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` 49th Golden Globe Awards '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Grammy Awards of 1991 '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Twelfth Annual RAZZIE Awards '' . Golden Raspberry Award . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 15 . Jump up ^ Breznican , Anthony ( December 2 , 2011 ) , `` Steven Spielberg : The EW Interview '' , Entertainment Weekly . Jump up ^ `` Steven Spielberg interviewed by Kermode and Mayo '' . Youtube.com. 26 January 2013 . Bibliography ( edit ) Terry Brooks ( December 17 , 1991 ) . Hook ( Hardcover ) . novelization of the film . Ballantine Books . ISBN 0 - 449 - 90707 - 4 . Charles L.P. Silet ( 2002 ) . The Films of Steven Spielberg . Scarecrow Press . ISBN 0 - 8108 - 4182 - 7 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Hook Children 's literature portal Hook on IMDb Hook at the TCM Movie Database Hook at Box Office Mojo Hook at Rotten Tomatoes Hook at Metacritic Sony Imagesoft 's Hook at MobyGames Ocean 's Hook at MobyGames J.M. Barrie 's Peter Pan Characters and setting Main Peter Pan Wendy Darling Captain Hook Mr. Smee Tinker Bell Tiger Lily Other Neverland Lost Boys Pixie Hollow Cast members Literary adaptations Official books / plays The Little White Bird Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens Peter and Wendy ( play , book ) Peter Pan in Scarlet Starcatchers books Peter and the Starcatchers Peter and the Shadow Thieves Peter and the Secret of Rundoon Peter and the Sword of Mercy The Bridge to Never Land Never Land Books Film adaptations Peter Pan films Peter Pan ( 1924 ) Peter Pan ( 1953 ) Peter Pan ( 1988 ) Hook Return to Never Land Neverland Peter Pan ( 2003 ) Pan Tinker Bell films Tinker Bell Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue Pixie Hollow Games Secret of the Wings Pixie Hollow Bake Off The Pirate Fairy Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast Adaptations Television 1976 musical The Adventures of Peter Pan Peter Pan & the Pirates Jake and the Never Land Pirates Once Upon a Time Neverland Peter Pan Live ! Peter and Wendy Stage 1950 musical 1954 musical Peter Pan : A Musical Adventure Peter and the Starcatcher Peter Pan 360 Peter and Alice Finding Neverland ( musical ) Wendy & Peter Pan Peter Pan Goes Wrong Disney 's Peter Pan Jr . Video games Peter Pan and the Pirates Peter Pan : Adventures in Never Land Kingdom Hearts Hook Prose The Child Thief Graphic novels Peter Pank Lost Girls Marvel Fairy Tales Music Albums The Wendy Trilogy Faith , Trust , and Pixie Dust `` Lost Boy '' ( Ruth B song ) Somewhere in Neverland `` Peter Pan '' ( Kelsea Ballerini song ) Attractions Disney on Ice Fantasmic ! Peter Pan 's Flight ( ride ) Pixie Hollow Allusions Never Never Land Biographies The Lost Boys Finding Neverland Related Llewelyn Davies boys Peter Pan syndrome / Wendy dilemma Peter Pan copyright Disney franchise Peter Pan statue Steven Spielberg Filmography Awards and nominations Films directed Firelight ( 1964 ) Slipstream ( 1967 ) Amblin ' ( 1968 ) Night Gallery ( `` Eyes '' segment , 1969 ) L.A. 2017 ( 1971 ) Duel ( 1971 ) Something Evil ( 1972 ) Savage ( 1973 ) The Sugarland Express ( 1974 , also wrote ) Jaws ( 1975 ) Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 , also wrote ) 1941 ( 1979 ) Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial ( 1982 ) Twilight Zone : The Movie ( `` Kick the Can '' segment , 1983 ) Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom ( 1984 ) The Color Purple ( 1985 ) Empire of the Sun ( 1987 ) Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade ( 1989 ) Always ( 1989 ) Hook ( 1991 ) Jurassic Park ( 1993 ) Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) The Lost World : Jurassic Park ( 1997 ) Amistad ( 1997 ) Saving Private Ryan ( 1998 ) A.I. Artificial Intelligence ( 2001 , also wrote ) Minority Report ( 2002 ) Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) The Terminal ( 2004 ) War of the Worlds ( 2005 ) Munich ( 2005 ) Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull ( 2008 ) The Adventures of Tintin ( 2011 ) War Horse ( 2011 ) Lincoln ( 2012 ) Bridge of Spies ( 2015 ) The BFG ( 2016 ) The Post ( 2017 ) Ready Player One ( 2018 ) Films written Ace Eli and Rodger of the Skies ( 1973 ) Poltergeist ( 1982 , also produced ) The Goonies ( 1985 ) Films produced An American Tail : Fievel Goes West ( 1991 ) Memoirs of a Geisha ( 2005 ) Flags of Our Fathers ( 2006 ) Letters from Iwo Jima ( 2006 ) Super 8 ( 2011 ) The Hundred - Foot Journey ( 2014 ) Television Amazing Stories ( 1985 -- 87 ) High Incident ( 1996 -- 97 ) Invasion America ( 1998 ) See also Steven Spielberg bibliography Amblin Partners Amblin Entertainment Amblin Television DreamWorks Television Amblimation DreamWorks USC Shoah Foundation Institute for Visual History and Education Films produced by Gerald R. Molen Hook ( 1991 ) Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) Jurassic Park ( 1993 ) The Lost World : Jurassic Park ( 1997 ) The Other Side of Heaven ( 2001 ) Minority Report ( 2002 ) The Legend of Johnny Lingo ( 2003 ) 2016 : Obama 's America ( 2012 ) America : Imagine the World Without Her ( 2014 ) Hillary 's America : The Secret History of the Democratic Party ( 2016 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hook_(film)&oldid=800385833 '' Categories : 1991 films English - language films Peter Pan films American films 1990s adventure films 1990s comedy films 1990s fantasy films American adventure comedy films American fantasy adventure films American fantasy - comedy films Film scores by John Williams Films about lawyers Films directed by Steven Spielberg Films produced by Kathleen Kennedy Films produced by Frank Marshall Films set in London Films set in San Francisco Films set on airplanes Films shot in California Films shot in London Films shot in Los Angeles Mermaids in film Pirate films Amblin Entertainment films TriStar Pictures films Films produced by Gerald R. Molen Films adapted into comics Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Use mdy dates from January 2016 Articles needing additional references from October 2014 All articles needing additional references Music infoboxes with Module : String errors Articles with hAudio microformats Album infoboxes lacking a cover Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 September 2017 , at 06 : 09 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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who played peter pan's daughter in hook
[ "Amber Scott as Maggie Banning" ]
[ "Amber Scott" ]
-601012028181274724
Bally's Las Vegas
Bally 's Las Vegas - wikipedia Bally 's Las Vegas Jump to : navigation , search `` MGM Grand Hotel and Casino '' redirects here . For the current MGM Grand hotel , see MGM Grand Las Vegas . Bally 's Las Vegas Bally 's Las Vegas in 2006 Location Paradise , Nevada , U.S. Address 3645 South Las Vegas Boulevard Opening date December 5 , 1973 ; 43 years ago ( 1973 - 12 - 05 ) No. of rooms 2,814 Total gaming space 66,187 sq ft ( 6,149.0 m ) Permanent shows Tony n ' Tina 's Wedding Wayne Newton : Up Close and Personal Signature attractions Grand Bazzar Shops Notable restaurants Buca di Beppo BLT Steak Lavazza Coffee Nosh Sea : The Thai Experience Sterling Brunch Tequila Taqueria Owner Caesars Entertainment Corporation Architect Martin Stern , Jr . Previous names MGM Grand Hotel and Casino ( 1973 -- 1986 ) Renovated in 1981 , 1994 , 2004 , 2014 Coordinates 36 ° 06 ′ 50 '' N 115 ° 10 ′ 10 '' W  /  36.11389 ° N 115.16944 ° W  / 36.11389 ; - 115.16944 Coordinates : 36 ° 06 ′ 50 '' N 115 ° 10 ′ 10 '' W  /  36.11389 ° N 115.16944 ° W  / 36.11389 ; - 115.16944 Website caesars.com/ballys-las-vegas Bally 's Las Vegas ( formerly MGM Grand Hotel and Casino ) is a hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise , Nevada . It is owned and operated by Caesars Entertainment Corporation . The hotel features 2,814 extra-sized guestrooms that are 450 sq ft ( 42 m ) or larger and over 175,000 sq ft ( 16,300 m ) of banquet and meeting space . The casino occupies 66,187 sq ft ( 6,149.0 m ) . About 75 % of the rooms are in the Indigo Tower , and were renovated in 2004 . The remaining rooms are located in the Jubilee Tower , constructed in 1981 . The resort has a large shopping area a floor below its gaming level , including several restaurants , and there is a station along the Las Vegas Monorail at the rear of the property . Bally 's was home for the long - running production show Jubilee ! which opened in 1981 and ended on February 11 , 2016 . On November 21 , 1980 , the hotel , then operating as the MGM Grand , was the site of one of the worst high - rise fires in United States history , in which 85 people died . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 MGM Grand Hotel and Casino ( 1973 -- 1986 ) 1.2 Fire 1.3 Sale to Bally ( 1986 -- present ) 2 Media history 3 See also 4 Notes 5 External links History ( edit ) MGM Grand hotel and casino ( 1973 -- 1986 ) ( edit ) The 43 acres ( 17 ha ) site was first occupied by the Three Coins Motel , which opened in 1963 . The Bonanza Hotel and Casino opened on the site in July 1967 . It was later renamed the New Bonanza Hotel and Casino in 1973 shortly before construction of the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino , owned by Kirk Kerkorian , began . It opened on December 5 , 1973 with 2,084 rooms for the then - staggering cost of $106 m and was the largest hotel in the world at that time , and larger than the Empire State Building . The MGM Grand opened as one of Las Vegas 's first megaresorts on December 5 , 1973 . Dean Martin was the entertainer on opening night . It was the largest hotel in the world at its opening and would remain so for several years . When the hotel was built , it set a new standard of size and luxury in Las Vegas , and is considered to have made the biggest impact on Las Vegas until the construction of Steve Wynn 's Mirage Hotel in the late 1980s . The hotel had a movie theme to reflect Kirk Kerkorian 's interest in movies from his ownership of MGM and the hotel 's use of MGM in its name . The hotel was designed by architect Martin Stern , Jr . It featured many amenities , including numerous entertainment options . It offered live jai alai for betting and a large shopping arcade with numerous shops and restaurants . It was also one of the Strip 's most popular entertainment destinations . It featured two large theatres : The Ziegfeld Stage and the Celebrity Room . The Ziegfeld regularly featured productions by famed Las Vegas choreographer Donn Arden including the long running Jubilee ! and Hallelujah Hollywood . Dean Martin was the starring act for the Grand Opening on December 23 , 1973 . Sergio Franchi was the first entertainer signed to star in the Celebrity Room ( three - year contract starting February 1974 ) . Franchi 's frequent co-star was comedian Joan Rivers . The Celebrity Room also hosted such acts as the Carpenters and Barry Manilow . The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast shows were filmed at the hotel . Fire ( edit ) Main article : MGM Grand fire On November 21 , 1980 the MGM Grand suffered a fire that started in a casino restaurant and traveled up into the hotel , killing 87 guests and employees . The Grand was rebuilt in only eight months , and remodeling added a tower which opened in 1981 . The tower had been under construction at the time of the fire , but remained undamaged . The fire made such an impact on hotel safety that it led to the implementation of fire safety improvements worldwide . Sale to Bally ( 1986 -- present ) ( edit ) Bally 's Las Vegas Entrance in 2006 The hotel was sold in 1986 to Bally Manufacturing for $594 m , and the property 's name was changed to Bally 's ( the MGM Grand name was transferred to the former Marina Hotel , now known as MGM Grand Las Vegas ) . Bally Entertainment was purchased in 1995 by Hilton Hotels Corporation . On April 17 , 1997 , ground was broken on a sister property , Paris Las Vegas . In September 1999 , the new resort was opened and tightly integrated with Bally 's property by a promenade . For many years , the two resorts operated under a single gaming license . Hilton 's casino resorts division was subsequently spun off and became Caesars Entertainment , Inc. in 2003 . The hotel 's North tower was renovated in 2004 . Harrah 's Entertainment ( now Caesars Entertainment Corporation ) acquired the property with its purchase of Caesars in June 2005 . Caesars Entertainment Corporation announced in Spring 2013 that they were going to fully renovate the South tower and rename it `` Jubilee '' Tower by the end of 2013 . The name is inspired by their `` Jubilee ! '' production show . Media history ( edit ) Hosted The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast in the Ziegfeld Room from 1974 to 1984 . Featured in the 1985 film Rocky IV , as the site of Apollo Creed 's exhibition bout against Ivan Drago . The theater , and set pieces , for Jubilee ! are prominently displayed during the scene . Featured in the 1985 film Fever Pitch , evidently when the sale of the casino was pending . Featured prominently in the 1992 film Honeymoon in Vegas , starring Nicolas Cage and Sarah Jessica Parker . Featured in the 1995 film Leaving Las Vegas , also starring Cage and Elisabeth Shue . Featured in the 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas as the `` High Roller '' . Bally 's Las Vegas hosted Spike TV 's 2006 poker tournament series King of Vegas . Featured in the 2013 film The Incredible Burt Wonderstone , starring Steve Carell and Steve Buscemi . Bally 's Las Vegas hosted the second season of the 2015 syndicated game show Monopoly Millionaires ' Club . A head chef position at BLT Steak , located inside the hotel , will be awarded to the winner of Hell 's Kitchen 's 15th season . Has the studio for the American version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? since 2016 . See also ( edit ) Las Vegas Strip List of Caesars Entertainment properties Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` List of Las Vegas hotel fires through the years '' . Las Vegas Sun . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Las Vegas Essentials '' . Jump up ^ The Dallas Morning News . August 21 , 1973 . Dallas , Tex . Jump up ^ `` Harrah 's Empire News '' . vegastodayandtomorrow.com . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 31 . External links ( edit ) Las Vegas portal Official website Media related to Bally 's Las Vegas at Wikimedia Commons Las Vegas area casinos Las Vegas Strip Aria Bally 's Bellagio Caesars Palace Casino Royale Circus Circus Cosmopolitan Cromwell Encore Excalibur Flamingo Harrah 's The Linq Luxor Mandalay Bay MGM Grand Mirage Monte Carlo New York - New York O'Sheas Palazzo Paris Planet Hollywood Slots - A-Fun SLS Treasure Island Tropicana Venetian Wynn Boulder Strip Arizona Charlie 's Boulder Boulder Station Eastside Cannery Railroad Pass Sam 's Town Downtown Las Vegas Binion 's California Downtown Grand El Cortez Four Queens Fremont Golden Gate Golden Nugget Main Street Station Plaza The D Resort corridor ( surrounds The Strip ) Aztec Inn Ellis Island Gold Coast Hard Rock Hooters Lucky Dragon Orleans Palace Station Palms Rio Silver Sevens Stratosphere Tuscany Westgate Wild Wild West Other areas Airport Slots Aliante Arizona Charlie 's Decatur Cannery Eldorado Fiesta Henderson Fiesta Rancho Green Valley Ranch Jerry 's Nugget Jokers Wild Klondike Sunset Lucky Club MonteLago Opera House Poker Palace Rampart Red Rock Santa Fe Station Silver Nugget Silverton Skyline South Point Suncoast Sunset Station Texas Station Proposed Casinos never opened Fontainebleau Grand Central Hotel Las Vegas Plaza Resorts World Las Vegas Former Aladdin Bill 's Boardwalk Bourbon Street California Club Castaways ( Las Vegas Strip ) Castaways ( Boulder Strip ) Clarion Desert Inn Dunes El Rancho Casino El Rancho Vegas Gold Spike Frontier Hacienda Holy Cow Imperial Palace Key Largo Klondike La Bayou Landmark Las Vegas Club Marina Hotel Mermaids Mint Moulin Rouge Northern Club Pioneer Club Riviera Sands Sahara Silver City Silver Slipper Stardust Vacation Village Vegas World The Western Westin Westward Ho Las Vegas area hotels Las Vegas Strip Aria Bally 's Bellagio Caesars Palace Casino Royale Circus Circus Cosmopolitan Cromwell Delano Encore Excalibur Flamingo Four Seasons Harrah 's The Linq Luxor Mandalay Bay Mandarin Oriental MGM Grand Mirage Monte Carlo New York - New York Palazzo Paris Planet Hollywood SLS Signature Treasure Island Tropicana Trump Vdara Venetian Wynn Boulder Strip Arizona Charlie 's Boulder Boulder Station Eastside Cannery Railroad Pass Sam 's Town Downtown Las Vegas Binion 's California Downtown Grand El Cortez Four Queens Fremont Golden Gate Golden Nugget Las Vegas Club Main Street Station Plaza The D Resort corridor ( surrounds the Strip ) Artisan Aztec Inn Gold Coast Grand Chateau Hard Rock Hooters Lucky Dragon Orleans Palace Station Palms Platinum Rio Rumor Silver Sevens Stratosphere Tuscany Westgate Westin Wild Wild West Other areas Aliante Arizona Charlie 's Decatur Cannery Fiesta Henderson Fiesta Rancho Grandview Green Valley Ranch JW Marriott Lucky Club Red Rock Santa Fe Station Silverton Skyline South Point Suncoast Sunset Station Tahiti Village Texas Station Proposed Alon Las Vegas Charlie Palmer Hotel Crown Las Vegas Resorts World Las Vegas Fontainebleau Grand Central Hotel Harmon Las Vegas Plaza Former Aladdin Boardwalk Bourbon Street Castaways ( Las Vegas Strip ) Castaways ( Boulder Strip ) Clarion Desert Inn Dunes El Rancho Casino El Rancho Vegas Gold Spike Frontier Hacienda Key Largo Klondike La Concha Landmark Marina Hotel Mint Moulin Rouge Riviera Sands Silver Slipper Stardust Vacation Village Vegas World The Western Westward Ho Las Vegas area skyscrapers Las Vegas Strip Aria Bally 's Bellagio Caesars Palace Circus Circus Cosmopolitan Delano Elara Encore Excalibur Flamingo Harrah 's Hilton Linq Luxor Mandalay Bay Mandarin Oriental MGM Grand Mirage Monte Carlo New York - New York Palazzo Paris Planet Hollywood Riviera Signature Sky SLS Treasure Island Tropicana Trump Vdara Veer Venetian Wynn Boulder Strip Boulder Station Eastside Cannery Sam 's Town Downtown Las Vegas Binion 's California Downtown Grand El Cortez Four Queens Fremont Golden Nugget Las Vegas Club Main Street Station Plaza The D The Ogden World Market Center Resort corridor ( surrounds the Strip ) Allure Grand Chateau Hard Rock Hooters Lucky Dragon Orleans Palace Station Palms Palms Place Panorama Rio Stratosphere Turnberry Place Turnberry Towers Westgate Westin Other Aliante JW Marriott Red Rock Santa Fe Station South Point Suncoast Sunset Station Texas Station Proposed Alon Las Vegas Dynasty Flatiron Fontainebleau Grand Central St. Regis Resorts World Las Vegas Unbuilt Ivana Las Vegas Las Ramblas Resort Las Vegas Plaza Majestic / Conrad The Merrill Sandhurst Las Vegas W Las Vegas Former Aladdin Boardwalk Castaways Desert Inn Dunes Hacienda Harmon Landmark Sands Stardust Vegas World Las Vegas Strip South end Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign West side casinos Aria Bellagio Caesars Palace Circus Circus Cosmopolitan Excalibur Lucky Dragon Luxor Mandalay Bay The Mirage Monte Carlo New York - New York Resorts World ( proposed ) Slots - A-Fun Stratosphere Treasure Island East side casinos Bally 's Casino Royale Cromwell Encore Flamingo Fontainebleau ( on hold ) Harrah 's The Linq MGM Grand O'Sheas Palazzo Paris Planet Hollywood SLS Tropicana Venetian Wynn Former casinos Boardwalk Castaways Desert Inn Dunes El Rancho El Rancho Vegas Hacienda Klondike Marina New Frontier Riviera Sahara Sands Silver City Silver Slipper Stardust Thunderbird Westward Ho Shopping Crystals Fashion Show Mall The Forum Shops Grand Canal Shoppes Miracle Mile Shops Showcase Mall Attractions Adventuredome High Roller The Roller Coaster Shark Reef at Mandalay Bay Skyvue T - Mobile Arena Transportation Aria Express The Deuce Las Vegas Monorail Mandalay Bay Tram RTC Transit McCarran Airport Related List of Las Vegas Strip hotels Paradise , Nevada Winchester , Nevada Strip Gaming Area Caesars Entertainment Corporation Arizona Harrah 's Ak - Chin California Harrah 's Resort Southern California Illinois Harrah 's Joliet Harrah 's Metropolis Indiana Horseshoe Hammond Horseshoe Southern Indiana Iowa Harrah 's Council Bluffs Horseshoe Council Bluffs Mid-America Center Kentucky Bluegrass Downs Turfway Park ( 50 % ) Louisiana Harrah 's Louisiana Downs Harrah 's New Orleans Horseshoe Bossier City Maryland Horseshoe Baltimore Mississippi Biloxi Harrah 's Gulf Coast Tunica Horseshoe Tunica Roadhouse Missouri Harrah 's North Kansas City Nevada Lake Tahoe Harrah 's Harveys Las Vegas Bally 's Caesars Palace Bacchanal Buffet The Colosseum The Forum Shops Cromwell Flamingo Harrah 's The Linq High Roller O'Sheas Paris Planet Hollywood Miracle Mile Shops The AXIS Rio Laughlin Harrah 's Reno Harrah 's Golf Courses Rio Secco Golf Club New Jersey Atlantic City Bally 's Caesars Harrah 's Wild Wild West North Carolina Harrah 's Cherokee Harrah 's Cherokee Valley River Pennsylvania Harrah 's Philadelphia International United Kingdom London Clubs International Macau Caesars Golf Macau Ontario Caesars Windsor Uruguay Conrad Resort and Casino Programs Caesars Casino Online Total Rewards World Series of Poker Defunct Assets Casinos Bill 's Casino Lake Tahoe Bourbon Street Caesars Palace at Sea Harrah 's Tunica Brands LuckyMe Programs Connection Card Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bally%27s_Las_Vegas&oldid=799266134 '' Categories : 1973 establishments in Nevada Caesars Entertainment Corporation Casino hotels Casinos in the Las Vegas Valley Hotels established in 1973 Las Vegas Strip Resorts in the Las Vegas Valley Skyscraper hotels in Paradise , Nevada Hidden categories : Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Basa Jawa Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 6 September 2017 , at 17 : 36 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
where is bally's located in las vegas
[ "\nAddress\n3645 South Las Vegas Boulevard\n" ]
[ "3645 South Las Vegas Boulevard" ]
8826199107653366543
University of California, San Francisco
University of California , San Francisco - Wikipedia University of California , San Francisco Not to be confused with University of San Francisco or San Francisco State University . University of California , San Francisco Former name Toland Medical College ( 1864 ) The Medical Department of the University of California ( 1873 ) Motto Fiat lux ( Latin ) Motto in English Let there be light Type Public Research Established 1864 Founder Hugh Toland Parent institution University of California Endowment $2.76 billion ( 2017 ) Budget $5.9 billion ( 2016 ) Chancellor Sam Hawgood Vice-Chancellor Daniel Lowenstein Academic staff 3,000 Postgraduates 4,904 ( Fall 2014 ) Location San Francisco , California , United States 37 ° 45 ′ 46 '' N 122 ° 27 ′ 29 '' W  /  37.7627 ° N 122.4581 ° W  / 37.7627 ; - 122.4581 Coordinates : 37 ° 45 ′ 46 '' N 122 ° 27 ′ 29 '' W  /  37.7627 ° N 122.4581 ° W  / 37.7627 ; - 122.4581 Campus Urban , 255 acres ( 103 ha ) Colors UCSF Teal and Navy Blue Mascot Bear Website www.ucsf.edu The University of California , San Francisco ( UCSF ) is a research university in San Francisco , California , and part of the University of California system . The university , which is dedicated entirely to health sciences , is a major center of medical and biological research and teaching , and is ranked as one of the top universities in the biomedical field in the country and around the world . UCSF was founded as Toland Medical College in 1864 , and in 1873 it became affiliated with the University of California . The UCSF School of Medicine is the oldest medical school in the Western United States . Originally affiliated with the Berkeley campus , UCSF has gradually gained independence since the 1950s when the University of California started its restructuring and became separated from Berkeley . As of October 2018 , nine Nobel laureates have been affiliated with UCSF as faculty members or researchers . The UCSF School of Medicine is one of the most selective medical schools in the United States , based on average MCAT score , GPA , and acceptance rate . In 2017 , 8,078 people applied and 505 were interviewed for 145 positions in the entering class . UCSF is ranked 3rd among research - oriented medical schools in the United States and ranked 3rd for primary care by U.S. News and World Report , making it the only medical school to achieve a top - 5 ranking in both categories . UCSF is currently ranked 3rd among medical schools in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities ( Clinical Medicine , 2016 ) . The UCSF Medical Center is the nation 's 5th - ranked hospital and California 's highest - ranked hospital according to U.S. News & World Report . In 2014 , a national evaluation of residency programs named UCSF and the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine the top two physician training institutions in the United States . With 25,398 employees , UCSF is the second largest public agency employer in the San Francisco Bay Area . Contents 1 History 1.1 Beginnings 1.2 Expansion and growth 1.3 Post-War 20th century 1.4 Late 20th century 1.5 21st century 2 Campus 2.1 Parnassus 2.2 Mission Bay 2.3 Other centers , institutes , and programs 2.4 Health policy 3 Academics 3.1 Rankings 3.2 School of Medicine 3.3 Graduate Division 3.4 School of Nursing 3.5 School of Pharmacy 3.6 School of Dentistry 4 UCSF Health 4.1 UCSF Medical Center 5 Research 6 Student life 7 Notable people 7.1 Chancellors 7.2 Notable alumni and faculty 8 References 9 External links History ( edit ) Beginnings ( edit ) Toland Hall in 1887 . Toland Hall on Stockton was the first home of the school , before its transfer to the Parnassus campus . The University of California , San Francisco traces its history to Hugh Toland , a South Carolina surgeon who found great success and wealth after moving to San Francisco in 1852 . A previous school , the Cooper Medical College of the University of Pacific ( founded 1858 ) , entered a period of uncertainty in 1862 when its founder , Elias Samuel Cooper , died . In 1864 , Toland founded a new medical school , Toland Medical College , and the faculty of Cooper Medical College chose to suspend operations and join the new school . The University of California was founded in 1868 , and by 1870 Toland Medical School began negotiating an affiliation with the new public university . Meanwhile , some faculty of Toland Medical School elected to reopen the Medical Department of the University of the Pacific , which would later become Stanford University School of Medicine . Negotiations between Toland and UC were complicated by Toland 's demand that the medical school continue to bear his name , an issue on which he finally conceded . In March 1873 , the trustees of Toland Medical College transferred it to the Regents of the University of California , and it became The Medical Department of the University of California . '' At the same time , the University of California also negotiated the incorporation of the California College of Pharmacy , the first pharmacy school in the West , established in 1872 by the Californian Pharmaceutical Society . The Pharmacy College was affiliated in June 1873 , and together the Medical College and the Pharmacy College came to be known as ' Affiliated Colleges ' . The third college , the College of Dentistry , was established in 1881 . Expansion and growth ( edit ) Initially , the three Affiliated Colleges were located at different sites around San Francisco , but near the end of the 19th Century interest in bringing them together grew . To make this possible , San Francisco Mayor Adolph Sutro donated 13 acres in Parnassus Heights at the base of Mount Parnassus ( now known as Mount Sutro ) . The new site , overlooking Golden Gate Park , opened in the fall of 1898 , with the construction of the new Affiliated Colleges buildings . The school 's first female student , Lucy Wanzer , graduated in 1876 , after having to appeal to the UC Board of Regents to gain admission in 1873 . Until 1906 , the school faculty had provided care at the City - County Hospital ( San Francisco General Hospital , 1915 - 2016 , but Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center ( SFGH ) since 2016 ) , but did not have a hospital of its own . Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , more than 40,000 people were relocated to a makeshift tent city in Golden Gate Park and were treated by the faculty of the Affiliated Colleges . This brought the school , which until then was located on the western outskirts of the city , in contact with significant population and fueled the commitment of the school towards civic responsibility and health care , increasing the momentum towards the construction of its own health facilities . Finally , in April 1907 , one of the buildings was renovated for outpatient care with 75 beds . This created the need to train nursing students , and , in 1907 , the UC Training School for Nurses was established , adding a fourth professional school to the Affiliated Colleges . The Affiliated Colleges buildings in 1908 , with the streetcar that used to run on Parnassus Post-war 20th century ( edit ) The schools continued to grow in numbers and reputation in the following year . One notable event was the incorporation of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research in 1914 , a medical research institute second only to the Rockefeller Institute . This addition bolstered the prestige of the Parnassus site during a dispute over whether the schools should consolidate at Parnassus or in Berkeley , where some of the departments had transferred . The final decision came in 1949 when the Regents of the University of California designated the Parnassus campus as the UC Medical Center in San Francisco . The medical facilities were updated , and the departments returned to San Francisco from Berkeley . During this period a number of research institutes were established , and many new facilities were added , such as the 225 - bed UC Hospital ( 1917 ) , the Clinics Building ( 1934 ) , the Langley Porter Clinic ( 1942 ) and the Herbert C. Moffitt Hospital ( 1955 ) . In 1958 , the addition of the Guy S. Millberry Union offered dorms and services for students . The school gained more independence in the 1960s , when it started to be seen as a campus in its own right instead of as the medical center of the UC system . The four departments were renamed as `` School of ... '' and the Graduate Division was founded in 1961 . Further along this line , in 1964 the institution obtained full administrative independence under the name University of California , San Francisco Medical Center , becoming the ninth campus in the University of California system and the only one devoted exclusively to the health sciences . The first Chancellor under the new independent configuration was John B. de C.M. Saunders , previously Provost , who had a strong preference for medical training over research . This stance led to his resignation and the naming of Willard C. Fleming , DDS , as the second Chancellor in 1966 . Fleming brought balance between clinicians and researchers and a new found stability to the administration . By the end of the 1960s , the university was starting to become a leading research center , also bolstered by the opening of Health Sciences East and Health Sciences West the same year . Under the guidance of the third Chancellor , Philip R. Lee , the institution was renamed to its current form , the University of California , San Francisco ( UCSF ) . Lee also was crucial in guiding UCSF through the turmoil of the late 1960s and worked to increase minority recruitment and enrollment . By then , UCSF had already reached the top ranks of US schools in the health sciences through its innovative programs that blended basic science , research , and clinical instruction . This stature was further augmented by Francis A. Sooy , fourth Chancellor , who dedicated his ten years to recruiting the top physicians and scientists in the field . Late 20th century ( edit ) The 1970s saw a dramatic expansion of UCSF , both in its medical capacities and as a research institute . The increase in researchers , physicians and students brought a need for additional space . The nursing school opened its own building in 1972 and the medical center opened the Ambulatory Care Center in 1973 . The discovery of recombinant DNA technology by UCSF and Stanford scientists in the mid-1970s opened many new avenues of research and attracted more people . On the clinical side , great advances in patient care , diagnostics , and treatments advanced UCSF 's reputation in the health field . 1975 also saw the opening of the UCSF Center in Fresno . Panorama of UCSF and Golden Gate Park from Health Sciences West Julius R. Krevans , the fifth Chancellor from 1982 to 1993 , was a strong advocate of biomedical research and public policy in the health sciences . During his tenure , UCSF rose to become one of the leading recipients of NIH funding . This led to the need for new space , and additions included the Marilyn Reed Lucia Child Care Center in 1978 , the Dental Clinics Building ( 1980 ) , the new Joseph M. Long Hospital in 1983 ( which was integrated with the existing Moffitt Hospital ) , Beckman Vision Center and Koret Vision Research Laboratory ( 1988 ) , and Kalmanovitz Library ( 1990 ) . Due to the space constraints of the Parnassus Heights campus , UCSF started looking into expanding into other areas of the city . The university opened UCSF Laurel Heights in 1985 in the Laurel Heights neighborhood . Initially intended for pharmacy school laboratory research and instruction , neighborhood concerns pushed the university to instead employ the building for academic desktop research , social and behavioral science departments , and administrative offices . On the western side of the city , the university acquired Mount Zion Hospital in 1990 , which became the second major clinical site and since 1999 has hosted the first comprehensive cancer center in Northern California . Under the chancellorship of Joseph B. Martin , UCSF engaged in a health merger with Stanford Health and laid the groundwork for the expansion into Mission Bay . 21st century ( edit ) The Mission Bay Campus , UCSF 's second campus , developed starting in 1999 A pivotal moment in UCSF history was the deal between Vice Chancellor Bruce Spaulding and San Francisco Mayor Willie Brown for the development of the Mission Bay campus in 1999 . The development of a second campus in San Francisco was planned carefully and with business and community input . The Mission Bay neighborhood was occupied by old warehouses and rail yards . Initially , the campus consisted of 29.2 acres donated by the Catellus Development Corporation and 13.2 acres donated by the City and County of San Francisco . A later addition of a 14.5 - acre parcel brought the total campus area to about 57 acres . The Mission Bay expansion was overseen by a one - year chancellorship of surgeon Haile Debas . Under his guidance , UCSF further increased its lead in the field of surgery , transplant surgery , and surgical training . The Mission Bay Campus doubled the university 's research and provided new opportunities for biomedical discovery and student training . The first phase of construction cost $800 million and included four research buildings , a community center , a student housing complex , two parking structures , and development of large open spaces . Scientist J. Michael Bishop , a Nobel Prize in Medicine recipient , became the eighth Chancellor in 1998 . He oversaw one of UCSF 's transition and growth periods , including the expanding Mission Bay development and philanthropic support recruitment . During his tenure , he unveiled the first comprehensive , campus - wide , strategic plan to promote diversity and foster a supportive work environment . During this time , UCSF also adopted a new mission : advancing health worldwide TM . In 2009 , Susan Desmond - Hellmann became the ninth Chancellor and first woman to lead UCSF . She was tasked with guiding the university through the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 . In the same year , UCSF professor Elizabeth Blackburn won the Nobel Prize for Medicine and in 2012 UCSF professor Shinya Yamanaka won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . The Institute for Regeneration Medicine , designed by Rafael Viñoly and completed in 2010 The 2010s saw increased construction and expansion at Mission Bay , with the Smith Cardiovascular Research Building , the UCSF Medical Center at Mission Bay , the Benioff Children 's Hospital in 2010 , the Sandler Neuroscience Center in 2012 , Mission Hall and the Baker Cancer Hospital in 2013 . The Children 's Hospital was named after Marc Benioff , who donated $100 million toward the new facility . In 2011 , expansion also resumed at the Parnassus campus , with the construction of the Regeneration Medicine Building , a $123 million construction designed by New York architect Rafael Viñoly . The Stem Cell Center was named in honor of Eli Broad , who donated $25 million to the cause of research for diabetes , cardiovascular disease , Parkinson 's disease , HIV / AIDS , and cancer . In 2014 , UCSF celebrated its 150th anniversary with a year of events . That same year Neonatologist and Dean of the UCSF School of Medicine Sam Hawgood , MBBS , became the tenth Chancellor . In 2015 , the Mission Bay campus saw the grand opening of the new UCSF Medical Center at Mission Bay , a 289 - bed integrated hospital complex dedicated to serving children , women and cancer patients . Since 2015 UCSF has increased its focus on novel biomedical research and has attracted many acts of philanthropy . UCSF became one of the three institutions ( together with UC Berkeley and Stanford University ) which comprise the BioHub , which is housed on the Mission Bay campus . The project consists of a medical science research center funded by a $600 million commitment from Facebook CEO and founder Mark Zuckerberg and UCSF alumna pediatrician Priscilla Chan , his wife . In January 2017 , UCSF announced a $500 million gift from the Helen Diller Foundation to increase financial aid for faculty and students , invest in cutting - edge research projects , and expand scholarships for dental , medical , nursing and pharmacy students . This gift is tied with that of Nike Inc. co-founder Phil Knight for the largest single donation ever to a public university . In 2017 , UCSF launched a capital campaign , The Campaign , to raise $5 billion to increase the endowment and funds for research and medical services . In 2018 , UCSF received a commitment of $500 million for the construction of a new hospital , which will be built at Parnassus , replacing the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute . Campus ( edit ) UCSF operates four major campus sites within the city of San Francisco and one in Fresno , California , as well as numerous other minor sites scattered through San Francisco and the San Francisco Bay Area . Parnassus ( edit ) The Parnassus campus , home of many academic programs and the UCSF Medical Center , with Mount Sutro and the Sutro Tower in the background The Parnassus Heights campus was the site of the Affiliated Colleges , which later evolved into the present - day institution . The site was established along Parnassus Avenue in 1898 on land donated by Mayor Adolph Sutro . At the time , the site was in the remote and uninhabited western part of San Francisco , but its medical facilities became vital in saving lives when 40,000 people were hosted in the nearby Golden Gate Park after the 1906 earthquake . In the early 1900s , the medical research operations of the medical center were split between Parnassus and UC Berkeley , and discussions arose about which site should become the center of medical activity . In 1914 , the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research decided to move its research work to the Parnassus site , becoming the first medical research foundation in the United States to be incorporated into a university . This expansion led to a 1949 decision by the UC Board of Regents designating the UCSF campus , rather than UC Berkeley , as the main site for all medical sciences of the UC system . The 20th century saw remarkable growth , with the expansion of new research institutes and facilities , which led to the administrative independence of UCSF and the selection of John B. de C.M. Saunders as the first Chancellor in 1964 . Parnassus serves as the main campus of the University and includes administration offices , numerous research labs , the 600 - bed UCSF Medical Center , the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute , the Mulberry Student Union , and the UCSF Library . Additionally , the Schools of Dentistry , Pharmacy , Medicine , Nursing are also located at Parnassus . It also houses the UCSF neurology outpatient practice that serves as a referral center for most of northern California and Reno , Nevada . UCSF 's Beckman Vision Center is also located at the Parnassus campus . It is a center for the diagnosis , treatment , and research of all areas of eye care , including vision correction surgery . Also located on the Parnassus campus is the UCSF Fetal Treatment Center , a multidisciplinary care center dedicated to the diagnosis , treatment , and long - term follow - up of fetal birth defects . Mission Bay ( edit ) UCSF 's Mission Bay Campus , also located in San Francisco , is the largest ongoing biomedical construction project in the world . The 43 - acre ( 17 ha ) Mission Bay campus , opened in 2003 with construction still ongoing , contains additional research space and facilities to foster biotechnology and life sciences companies . It will double the size of UCSF 's research enterprise over the next 10 years . The biotechnology company Genentech contributed $50 million toward construction of a building as part of a settlement regarding alleged theft of UCSF technology several decades earlier . The Mission Bay campus , with Genentech Hall and the Rutter Community Center giving on Koret Quad Also located on the Mission Bay campus , the Arthur and Toni Rembe Rock Hall was designed by César Pelli and opened in February 2004 . The building is named in honor of Arthur Rock and his wife , who made a $25 million gift to the university . Byers Hall serves as the headquarters for the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences ( QB3 ) , a cooperative effort between the UC campuses at San Francisco , Berkeley , and Santa Cruz . The building is named after venture capitalist Brook Byers , co-chair of UCSF 's capital campaign that concluded in 2005 and raised over $1.6 billion . Additionally , the William J. Rutter Center , designed along with the adjacent 600 - space parking structure by Ricardo Legorreta , opened in October 2005 and contains a fitness and recreation center , swimming pools , student services , and conference facilities . The building is named in honor of William J. Rutter , former Chairman of the university 's Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics and co-founder of Chiron Corporation . A housing complex for 750 students and postdoctoral fellows and an 800 - space parking garage also opened in late 2005 . And a fourth research building , designed by Rafael Viñoly and named the Helen Diller Family Cancer Research Building , opened in June 2009 . Two additional research buildings designated for neuroscience and cardiovascular research are currently in the planning and design phase . A new specialty hospital focused on women , children , and cancer on the Mission Bay campus opened in February 2015 . Other centers , Institutes , and programs ( edit ) The Mount Zion Campus contains UCSF 's NCI - designated Comprehensive Cancer Center , its Women 's Health Center , the Osher Center for Integrative Medicine and outpatient resources . The San Francisco General Hospital campus cares for the indigent population of San Francisco and contains San Francisco 's only Level I trauma center . The hospital itself is owned and operated by the City and County of San Francisco , but many of its doctors carry UCSF affiliation and maintain research laboratories at the hospital campus . The earliest cases of HIV / AIDS were discovered at San Francisco General Hospital in the 1980s . To this day SF General Hospital has one of the world 's leading HIV / AIDS treatment and research centers . UCSF is also affiliated with the San Francisco VA Medical Center and the J. David Gladstone Institutes , a private biomedical research entity that has recently moved to a new building adjacent to UCSF 's Mission Bay campus . They are also affiliated with UCSF Benioff Children 's Hospital Oakland ( formerly Children 's Hospital & Research Center Oakland ) . UCSF has its own police department , which serves its two major campuses as well as all satellite sites within the city and South San Francisco . Health Policy ( edit ) Among the related Institutes that are part of UCSF is the Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies , founded in 1972 by Philip Randolph Lee . UCSF cooperates with the Hastings College of Law , a separate University of California institution located in San Francisco . This includes the formation of the UCSF / Hastings Consortium on Law , Science , and Health Policy . The program offers an LLM and MSL Degree program for health and science professionals . The Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies is a partner in this consortium . UCSF is home to the Legacy Tobacco Documents Library ( LTDL ) , a digital library of previously secret internal tobacco industry documents . The LTDL contains more than 20 million documents created by major tobacco companies related to their advertising , manufacturing , marketing , sales , and scientific research activities . Academics ( edit ) University of California , San Francisco is unique among University of California campuses in that it performs only biomedical and patient - centered research in its Schools of Medicine , Pharmacy , Nursing , and Dentistry , and the Graduate Division , and their hundreds of associated laboratories . The university is known for innovation in medical research , public service , and patient care . UCSF 's faculty includes five Nobel Prize winners , 31 members of the National Academy of Sciences , 69 members of the Institute of Medicine , and 30 members of the Academy of Arts and Sciences . UCSF confers a number of degrees , including Master of Science , Doctor of Philosophy , Doctor of Pharmacy , Doctor of Medicine , Doctor of Dental Surgery , and Doctor of Physical Therapy in a variety of fields . Rankings ( edit ) University rankings Global ARWU 5 ( Life Sciences ) U.S. News & World Report 15 USNWR graduate school rankings Medicine : Primary Care Medicine : Research Nursing Internal Medicine Pharmacy USNWR departmental rankings Biological Sciences 6 Biochemistry / Biophysics / Structural Biology 5 Biochemistry Cell Biology Immunology / Infectious Disease Molecular Biology Neuroscience / Neurobiology In 2016 , the Academic Ranking of World Universities , published annually by Shanghai Jiaotong University , ranked UCSF third in the world for Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy and fifth in the world for Life and Agricultural Sciences . Previously , UCSF had been second in the world for Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy from 2007 - 2015 , ceding the # 2 position to the University of Washington in 2016 . The professional schools of the University of California , San Francisco are among the top in the nation , according to current ( 2013 ) US News and World Report graduate school and other rankings . The schools also rank at or near the top in research funding from the National Institutes of Health . In addition , the UCSF Medical Center in 2013 was ranked by U.S. News & World Report the 7th - best hospital in the nation , making it the highest - ranked medical center in northern California . School of Medicine ( edit ) Main article : UCSF School of Medicine In 2015 , the School of Medicine ranked third overall among research - based medical schools by U.S. News & World Report . In rankings of medical schools for primary care , UCSF also ranked 3rd , making it the only U.S. medical school to hold a top five rank in both research and primary care . In addition , UCSF is nationally ranked as # 1 in AIDS , # 2 in Internal Medicine , Women 's Health , and Drug and Alcohol Abuse , # 4 in Family Medicine , # 6 in Geriatrics , and # 7 in Pediatrics . In 2016 , the School of Medicine was the number one recipient of National Institutes of Health research funds among all US medical schools for the fifth year in a row , receiving awards totaling $518 million . This figure rose from 2010 when the School of Medicine received a total of $475.4 million in NIH funds , but was still the largest public medical school recipient . Also in 2012 , the school of medicine received the most funding from NIH in medicine for the first time ( receiving funds totaling $448.7 million ) , and maintains this distinction as of 2016 . In 2016 , the School of Medicine launched the Bridges curriculum , more than half of which is dedicated to diagnostic reasoning . Graduate Division ( edit ) Main article : UCSF Graduate Division The Graduate Division , established in 1961 , is home to 1,600 students enrolled in 31 degree programs ( both PhD and Masters ) and 1,100 postdoctoral scholars . Programs are based basic , translational , clinical , social , and populational sciences , and focus on the understanding of the mechanisms of biology , analyzing the social , cultural , and historical determinants of health , alleviating human disease , reducing health disparities , and advancing health worldwide . U.S. News & World Report in 2012 ranked UCSF seventh best overall . In that survey , UCSF ranked second in immunology , third in neuroscience , fourth in cell biology , and microbiology , fifth in biochemistry / biophysics / structural biology , sixth in molecular biology , and eighth in genetics / genomics / bioinformatics . School of Nursing ( edit ) Main article : UCSF School of Nursing UCSF 's bear mascot depicted by Benny Bufano 's Bear and Cub sculpture outside Kalmanovitz Library The School of Nursing was established in 1907 , following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , which lead to UCSF becoming active in providing health care in San Francisco . It is recognized as one of the premier nursing schools in the United States . In the U.S. News & World Report for 2016 , the UCSF School of Nursing tied for 2nd overall in the nation . UCSF also ranked in the top 10 in all six of its rated nursing specialties , including ranking # 1 for its psychiatric / mental health nurse practitioner program , and ranking # 2 for its family nurse practitioner program . Previously , in 2012 , the nursing specialties were ranked as # 1 for adult / medical - surgical nurse , family nurse practitioner and psychiatric / mental health nurse programs , and # 2 for its adult nurse practitioner program . The School of Nursing in 2016 ranked first nationally in total NIH research funds with $7.85 million , for the 10th time in the last dozen years . This was the second year in a row that all four of UCSF 's professional schools ( Medicine , Nursing , Pharmacy , and Dentistry ) ranked first for `` federal biomedical research funding in their fields . '' School of Pharmacy ( edit ) Main article : UCSF School of Pharmacy Founded in 1872 , it is the oldest pharmacy school in California and the western United States . For 37 consecutive years it has been the number 1 pharmacy school by NIH funding , with $28.2 million in 2016 . In 2015 , U.S. News & World Report ranked the UCSF School of Pharmacy number three in its `` America 's Best Graduate Schools '' edition . In 2014 , the School of Pharmacy also ranked first in NIH research funding among all US pharmacy schools , receiving awards totaling $31.8 million . The UCSF School of Pharmacy was also ranked as the top program in the US , according to a 2002 survey published in The Annals of Pharmacotherapy , which weighed key criteria , including funding for research and the frequency of scientific publications by faculty , that are not considered in other rankings . In 2013 , the UCSF pharmacy program implemented the multiple mini interview , developed by McMaster University Medical School , as a replacement for the more traditional panel interview as the MMI had shown to be a better predictor of subsequent performance in school . School of Dentistry ( edit ) Main article : UCSF School of Dentistry Founded in 1881 , the School of Dentistry is the oldest dental school in the state of California and in the Western United States . It is accredited by the American Dental Association and offers the Doctor of Dental Surgery ( DDS ) , PhD in Oral and Craniofacial Sciences , MS in Oral and Craniofacial Sciences , and MS in Dental Hygiene degrees . The School of Dentistry in 2016 ranked first among all dental schools in NIH research funding for the 25th consecutive year , with $19.5 million in awards . In Quacquarelli Symonds 's first ever Dentistry Subject Ranking in 2015 , UCSF was ranked 24th in the world . Buildings at the Mission Bay campus UCSF health ( edit ) UCSF medical Center ( edit ) Main article : UCSF Medical Center In 2017 , U.S. News & World Report named the UCSF Medical Center the 5th hospital in the nation and the 1st in California . Among pediatric care centers , UCSF Children 's Hospital ranked no . 16 -- among the highest - rated children 's medical service in California . In the magazine 's `` America 's Best Hospitals '' survey , the UCSF Medical Center ranked best in Northern California -- as well as among the best in the nation -- in the following specialties : endocrinology , neurology / neurosurgery ; gynecology ; cancer ; kidney disease ; ophthalmology ; respiratory disorders ; rheumatology ; urology ; digestive disorders ; ear , nose , and throat ; psychiatry ; heart and heart surgery ; and pediatrics . The UCSF Medical Center at Mission Bay opened February 1 , 2015 and hosts three hospitals ( UCSF Benioff children 's hospital , UCSF Betty Irene Moore Women 's Hospital , and UCSF Bakar Cancer Hospital ) and an outpatient facility . Overall , the 6 - story medical center covers 878,000 - square - foot and has 289 beds . It also has 4.3 acres of green space , including 100,000 square feet of ground landscaping ( making it one of the greenest hospitals in the US ) and 60,000 square feet of rooftop gardens . UCSF Radiology research programs were ranked second in 2009 in America . The Radiology department is spearheaded by Dr Ronald L. Arenson who is an Alexander R. Margulis Distinguished Professor and also a part of Board of directors of RSNA ( Radiological Society of North America ) . Research ( edit ) UCSF is among the world 's leading institutions in biological and medical research . Its departments span all fields of biomedical science , from basic to translational sciences . UCSF Fresno The discovery of oncogenes and the conversion of normal cellular genes can be converted to cancer genes ( Nobel Prize in Medicine , J. Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus , 1989 ) The techniques of recombinant DNA , the seminal step in the creation of the biotechnology industry , together with Stanford The precise recombinant DNA techniques that led to the creation of a hepatitis B vaccine The first successful in - utero fetal surgery ( Michael R. Harrison ) First to clone an insulin gene into bacteria , leading to the mass production of recombinant human insulin to treat diabetes First to synthesize human growth hormone and clone into bacteria , setting the stage for genetically engineered human growth hormone First to develop prenatal tests for sickle cell anemia and thalassemia Discovery of prions , a unique type of infectious agent responsible for a variety of neurodegenerative diseases ( Nobel Prize in Medicine , Stanley B. Prusiner , 1997 ) Development of catheter ablation therapy for tachycardia Discovery of the molecular nature of telomeres Discovery that missing pulmonary surfactants are responsible for the death of newborns with respiratory distress syndrome ; first to develop a synthetic substitute for it , reducing infant death rates significantly The Gladstone Institutes , a partner research institute on the Mission Bay campus The first care units for AIDS patients and pioneer work in treatment of AIDS First to train pharmacists as drug therapy specialists First university west of the Mississippi to offer a doctoral degree in nursing First to develop an academic hospitalist program ( and coined the term `` hospitalist '' ) ( Robert M. Wachter ) First high volume HIV counseling and testing program at the UCSF Alliance Health Project First US medical school to offer an elective for medical students to get academic credit for editing health - related articles on Wikipedia . On June 5 , 2015 , surgeons at UCSF and California Pacific Medical Center successfully completed 18 surgeries in the nation 's first nine - way , two - day kidney transplant chain in a single city Student Life ( edit ) There are more than 180 registered campus organizations at UCSF . These groups and clubs cover a broad range of interests , including educational , social , cultural , artistic , recreational , political and spiritual . Every year , these organizations sponsor more than 1,200 activities and events . The Rutter Community Center , which serves as the hub of student life in the Mission Bay campus The student government at UCSF consists of the Graduate and Professional Student Association ( GPSA ) , which serves the collective interests of graduate and professional students . It aims at improving student life on a university and system - wide level with dialogue , action , and activities between students , faculty , and staff . It focuses on discussing University policy , informing constituents , advocating student interests , fostering relationships between academic programs , strengthening connections to better support students , and initiating actions and proposals , Synapse is the student newspaper at UCSF . It was founded in 1957 , and since 1997 the newspaper has been both in print and online . In the fall 2015 the newspaper rebranded from Synapse : The UCSF Newspaper to Synapse : UCSF Student Voices . The mission of Synapse is to serve as the forum for the campus community , and it covers campus news and events , entertainment , and restaurant reviews , and a wide range of feature stories , editorials , and weekly columns , to the entire UCSF community . The newspaper focuses heavily on science and health , but it also covers arts , national news , and opinion articles . UCSF students are eligible to become University of California student regent , a position on the University of California Board of Regents created by a 1974 California ballot proposition to represent University of California students on the university system 's governing board . Student regents serve an approximately one - year term as ' student regent - designate ' , followed by a one - year term as a full voting member of the Regents . Virtually any UC student in good academic standing may apply to be student regent . Traditionally , the position alternates between undergraduate and graduate students as well as between the various UC campuses . Notable people ( edit ) Chancellors ( edit ) John Bertrand deCusance Morant Saunders ( 1964 -- 1966 ) Willard Fleming ( 1966 -- 1969 ) Philip Randolph Lee ( 1969 -- 1972 ) Francis A. Sooy ( 1972 -- 1982 ) Julius R. Krevans ( 1982 -- 1993 ) Joseph B. Martin ( 1993 -- 1997 ) Haile Debas ( 1997 -- 1998 ) J. Michael Bishop ( 1998 -- 2009 ) Susan Desmond - Hellmann ( 2009 -- 2014 ) Sam Hawgood ( 2014 -- present ) Notable alumni and faculty ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Bruce Alberts , 2016 Albert Lasker Special Achievement Award for fundamental discoveries in DNA replication and protein biochemistry , 2012 National Medal of Science Andy Baldwin -- bachelor for the tenth season of The Bachelor J. Michael Bishop -- former UCSF Chancellor . Nobel laureate in Medicine ( 1989 ) , worked to discover the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes Elizabeth Blackburn , professor of biology and physiology at UCSF , Nobel laureate in Medicine ( 2009 ) , discoverer of the ribonucleoprotein enzyme , telomerase . Appointed a member of the President 's Council on Bioethics in 2001 and fired in February 2004 , reportedly for her public disagreements and political differences with Council chair Leon Kass and the Bush Administration , particularly on the issue of therapeutic cloning . Herbert Boyer , National Medal of Science ( 1990 ) and Shaw prize 2004 , cofounder of Genentech Richard Carmona -- former Surgeon General of the United States Priscilla Chan -- pediatrician , spouse of Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg John Clements , first to isolate surfactant and to develop it artificially Eric Coleman is an American geriatrician and academic . His is currently a professor at the University of Colorado . His research concerns care transitions . Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2012 . Haile T. Debas , former UCSF Chancellor ; former Dean , School of Medicine ; founding Executive Director , Department of Global Health Sciences Joseph DeRisi biochemist , specializing in molecular biology , parasitology , genomics , virology , and computational biology , in 2004 was named a MacArthur fellow ( the `` Genius '' award ) , in 2008 was awarded the 14th Annual Heinz Award for Technology , the Economy , and Employment , and in 2014 he received the John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science from the National Academy of Sciences , in 2016 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences . Michael V. Drake -- former University of California , Irvine Chancellor ; former University of California Vice President - Health Affairs ; current president of The Ohio State University Laura J. Esserman , surgeon and breast cancer oncology specialist , named in TIME Magazine 's 100 most influential people in the world in 2016 . Paul Ekman , who showed that human emotional expressions were universal and developed the Facial Action Coding System Richard Feachem , founding Executive Director of the Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria ( 2002 -- 2007 ) David E. Garfin , made significant contributions to electrophoresis in both the engineering and biology communities . Diana E. Forsythe , anthropologist noted for her work on artificial intelligence and medical informatics Julie Gerberding -- Director , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) Stanton Glantz , regarded as the Ralph Nader of the anti-big - tobacco movement Jere E. Goyan , former commissioner of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Walter S. Graf , cardiologist , pioneer in creation of emergency paramedic care system Victoria Hale , both alumna and professor , founded the nonprofit pharmaceutical company The Institute for OneWorld Health , 2006 MacArthur Fellow Joseph Gilbert Hamilton , Hamilton studied the medical effects of exposure to radioactive isotopes , which included the use of unsuspecting human subjects Eva Harris , professor in the School of Public Health at the University of California , Berkeley , and the founder and president of the Sustainable Sciences Institute . She focuses her research efforts on combating diseases that primarily afflict people in developing nations , 1997 MacArthur Fellows Program Michael R. Harrison -- developed the initial techniques for fetal surgery and performed the first fetal surgery in 1981 , and then went on to establish the UCSF Fetal Treatment Center , which was the first of its kind in the United States . Griffith R. Harsh - Vice Chair of the Stanford Department of Neurosurgery and the Director of the Stanford Brain Tumor Center . He is also the spouse of Meg Whitman . Ira Herskowitz , geneticist , noted for his work on cellular differentiation , 1987 MacArthur Fellows Program Julien Hoffman -- professor emeritus of pediatrics ; senior member of the Cardiovascular Research Institute Wolfgang Holzgreve -- pioneer in maternal - fetal medicine , involved in the introduction of chorionic villus sampling and methods of non-invasive prenatal testing Dorothy M. Horstmann ( 1911 -- 2001 ) , virologist who made important discoveries about polio . Janet Iwasa , cell biologist and animator David Julius worked on ion channles , Shaw prize in 2010 Sarah H. Kagan is an American gerontological nurse , and Lucy Walker Honorary Term Professor of Gerontological Nursing at the University of Pennsylvania . She is a MacArthur Fellow . Yuet Wai Kan , Lasker Award ( 1991 ) and Shaw Prize ( 2004 ) Selna Kaplan - former professor of pediatrics ; pediatric endocrinologist Stuart Kauffman is an American medical doctor , theoretical biologist , and complex systems researcher who studies the origin of life on Earth . He was a professor the University of Chicago , University of Pennsylvania , and University of Calgary . He has a number of awards including a MacArthur Fellowship and a Wiener Medal . Uzma Khanum , sister of Pakistani Politician Imran Khan . David Kessler -- former dean of the UCSF School of Medicine and Yale University School of Medicine , and former Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration in the Clinton Administration Peter Kollman -- developer of the AMBER force field in molecular dynamics simulation and an internationally renowned computational chemist Herbert Daniel Landahl , PhD , Professor Emeritus of Biophysics and Mathematical Biology - Basic research in mathematical biophysics of the central nervous system , cell division dynamics , population interactions , and control of insulin bioynthesis . Arthur Lander , M.D. PhD Developmental biologist at University of California , Irvine Jay A. Levy , who , along with Robert Gallo at the National Cancer Institute and Luc Montagnier at the Pasteur Institute , was among the first to identify and isolate HIV as the causative agent in AIDS Richard Locksley , medical doctor , professor and researcher of infectious diseases at the University of California , San Francisco Michael Marletta is currently Ch and Annie Li Chair in the Molecular Biology of Diseases at the University of California , Berkeley . 1995 MacArthur Fellow . C. Cameron Macauley , photographer and film producer Michael Merzenich , Professor emeritus neuroscientist -- brain plasticity research , basic and clinical sciences of hearing pioneer -- CEO Scientific Learning , Posit Science Thomas Novotny , former Assistant Surgeon General Dean Ornish , who first established that coronary artery disease could be reversed with lifestyle changes alone , author of the few bestseller books on the subject of healthy lifestyle choices Laura Otis is an American historian of science , and Professor of English , at Emory University , 2000 MacArthur Fellows Program William W. Parmley -- Former Editor of the Journal of the American College of Cardiology and General Authority of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints Stanley Prusiner -- Nobel laureate in Medicine ( 1997 ) , discovered and described prions Shuvo Roy , Inventor of artificial kidney William Seeley , alumni , neurology professor at UCSFv , where he leads the Selective Vulnerability Research Lab . He is a 2011 MacArthur Fellow . Steve Schroeder -- Former CEO , Robert Wood Johnson Foundation John Severinghaus - anesthesiologist & pioneer of the carbon dioxide electrode used in the first arterial blood gas analyzer Michelle Tam , creator of Nom Nom Paleo and James Beard Foundation Award nominated cookbook author , blogger , and food writer Julie Theriot , microbiologist , professor at the Stanford University School of Medicine , and heads the Theriot Lab . She was a Predoctoral Fellow , and Investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute , 2004 MacArthur Fellows Program Phillip Thygesson -- ophthalmologist , trachoma researcher , Thygesson Disease . Kay Tye -- neuroscientist Harold Varmus -- Nobel laureate in Medicine ( 1989 ) , worked with J. Michael Bishop to discover the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes . Also served as director of the National Institutes of Health during the Clinton Administration , as president of Memorial Sloan - Kettering Cancer Center from 2000 to 2010 , and currently as the director of the National Cancer Institute . Paul Volberding , whose pioneering work in the early days of the AIDS pandemic was noted in Randy Shilts ' book And the Band Played On Robert M. Wachter , a prominent expert in patient safety , who coined the term hospitalist and is considered the academic leader of the field of hospital medicine . Wachter is now chair of UCSF 's Department of Medicine . Peter Walter molecular biologist and biochemist , Shaw Prize ( 2014 ) and Lasker Award ( 2014 ) Ted Wong - United States Army Major General , Chief of the U.S. Army Dental Corps ( 2011 - 2014 ) David A. Wood former head of the Cancer Research Institute and former president of the American Cancer Society . Ron Vale molecular motors particularly on kinesin and dynein , he has received the Lasker Award ( 2012 ) and the Shaw Prize ( 2017 ) - Pablo DT Valenzuela -- co-founder of the American biotech company Chiron Corporation , the first Chilean biotech company Bios Chile , and of Fundacion Ciencia para la Vida in Santiago Chile . V. Sasisekharan , proposed an alternate model for the Watson - Crick double helix Eric M. Verdin , MD - fifth President and Chief Executive Officer of the Buck Institute for Research on Aging Rachel Wilson , professor of neurobiology at Harvard Medical School , 2008 MacArthur Fellow Shinya Yamanaka , who developed for reprogramming adult cells to pluripotential precursors , thus circumventing an approach in which embryos would be destroyed . Yamanaka won Shaw prize in 2008 and the Nobel prize for Medicine in 2012 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ As of June 30 , 2017 . `` Annual Endowment Report for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30 , 2017 '' ( PDF ) . University of California . Jump up ^ `` Chancellor Announces $5 B Campaign to Build for UCSF 's Future in 2017 State of the University '' . University of California , San Francisco . Jump up ^ https://www.ucsf.edu/sites/default/files/052516_About_UCSF.pdf Jump up ^ `` List of UCSF Chancellors '' . Jump up ^ `` UCSF Overview '' . UC San Francisco . ^ Jump up to : `` UC Financial Reports -- Campus Facts in Brief '' ( PDF ) . 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Retrieved June 21 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Academic Ranking of World Universities '' Jump up ^ `` 2017 - 18 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Overview '' U.S. News & World Report ( August 8 , 2017 ) Jump up ^ `` Doximity Announces 2014 Residency Program Rankings '' Business Insider ( September 10 , 2014 ) Jump up ^ `` Public Agency Employers : Ranked by Bay Area employees '' . www.bizjournals.com . Retrieved July 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Hugh Huger Toland ( 1806 -- 1880 ) , UCSF , Accessed October 6 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : A History of UCSF : San Francisco 's First Medical Institutions , UCSF , Accessed October 6 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : A History of UCSF : University Affiliation , UCSF , Accessed October 10 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Chronology of the Stanford University Medical Center , Stanford School of Medicine , Accessed June 11 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Chen , Jeffrey . `` 140 Years Later : The First Female Graduate of UCSF '' . UCSF School of Medicine . Retrieved December 18 , 2013 . 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Bundle branch block
Bundle branch block - wikipedia Bundle branch block Jump to : navigation , search Bundle branch block ECG showing a bundle branch block Classification and external resources Specialty cardiology ICD - 10 I44. 4 - I44. 7 , I45 ICD - 9 - CM 426.3 - 426.5 DiseasesDB 7352 11620 eMedicine ped / 2501 ped / 2500 MeSH D002037 ( edit on Wikidata ) A bundle branch block is a defect of the bundle branches or fascicles in the electrical conduction system of the heart . Contents ( hide ) 1 Anatomy and physiology 2 Mechanism 3 Diagnosis 3.1 Types 4 Treatment 5 See also 6 References Anatomy and physiology ( edit ) Main article : Electrical conduction system of the heart The heart 's electrical activity begins in the sinoatrial node ( the heart 's natural pacemaker ) , which is situated on the upper right atrium . The impulse travels next through the left and right atria and summates at the atrioventricular node . From the AV node the electrical impulse travels down the bundle of His and divides into the right and left bundle branches . The right bundle branch contains one fascicle . The left bundle branch subdivides into two fascicles : the left anterior fascicle and the left posterior fascicle . Other sources divide the left bundle branch into three fascicles : the left anterior , the left posterior , and the left septal fascicle . The thicker left posterior fascicle bifurcates , with one fascicle being in the septal aspect . Ultimately , the fascicles divide into millions of Purkinje fibres , which in turn interdigitise with individual cardiac myocytes , allowing for rapid , coordinated , and synchronous physiologic depolarization of the ventricles . Mechanism ( edit ) When a bundle branch or fascicle becomes injured ( by underlying heart disease , myocardial infarction , or cardiac surgery ) , it may cease to conduct electrical impulses appropriately . This results in altered pathways for ventricular depolarization . Since the electrical impulse can no longer use the preferred pathway across the bundle branch , it may move instead through muscle fibers in a way that both slows the electrical movement and changes the directional propagation of the impulses . As a result , there is a loss of ventricular synchrony , ventricular depolarization is prolonged , and there may be a corresponding drop in cardiac output . When heart failure is present , a specialized pacemaker may be used to resynchronize the ventricles . In theory a pacemaker like this will shorten the QRS interval , thus bringing the timing of contraction of the left and right ventricles closer together and slightly increasing the ejection fraction . Diagnosis ( edit ) A bundle branch block can be diagnosed when the duration of the QRS complex on the ECG exceeds 120 ms . A right bundle branch block typically causes prolongation of the last part of the QRS complex , and may shift the heart 's electrical axis slightly to the right . The ECG will show a terminal R wave in lead V1 and a slurred S wave in lead I . Left bundle branch block widens the entire QRS , and in most cases shifts the heart 's electrical axis to the left . The ECG will show a QS or rS complex in lead V1 and a monophasic R wave in lead I. Another normal finding with bundle branch block is appropriate T wave discordance . In other words , the T wave will be deflected opposite the terminal deflection of the QRS complex . Bundle branch block , especially left bundle branch block , can lead to cardiac dyssynchrony . The simultaneous occurrence of left and right bundle branch block leads to total AV block . Types ( edit ) Image showing the ECG characteristics of a right bundle branch block and a left bundle branch block . In both cases , the late portion of the widened QRS complex arises from an anomalously conducted depolarization impulse . The direction of this delayed depolarization vector differs based on the structure that is blocked ; the impulse travels anterior toward the right ventricle in RBBB and lateral toward the left ventricle in LBBB . Depending on the anatomical location of the defect which leads to a bundle branch block , the blocks are further classified into : Right bundle branch block Left bundle branch block The left bundle branch block can be further sub classified into : Left anterior fascicular block . In this case only the anterior half of the left bundle branch ( fascicle ) is involved Left posterior fascicular block . Only the posterior part of the left bundle branch is involved Other classifications of bundle branch blocks are ; Bifascicular block . This is a combination of right bundle branch block ( RBBB ) and either left anterior fascicular block ( LAFB ) or left posterior fascicular block ( LPFB ) Trifascicular block . This is a combination of right bundle branch block with either left anterior fascicular block or left posterior fascicular block together with a first degree AV block Tachycardia - dependent bundle branch block Treatment ( edit ) Some people with bundle branch blocks are born with this condition . Many others acquire it as a consequence of heart disease . People with bundle branch blocks may still be quite active , and may have nothing more remarkable than an abnormal appearance to their ECG . However , when bundle blocks are complex and diffuse in the bundle systems , or are associated with additional and significant ventricular muscle damage , they may be a sign of serious underlying heart disease . In more severe cases , a pacemaker may be required to restore an optimal electrical supply to the heart muscle . See also ( edit ) Cardiac pacemaker Heart block First degree AV block Second degree AV block Third degree AV block References ( edit ) Cecil Textbook of Medicine . W.B. Sanders. 2004 . Chapters 50 ; 58 . Rakel : Textbook of Family Practice , 6th ed. , 2002 . W.B. Saunders Company . pp. 699 -- 732 . Cardiovascular disease ( heart ) ( I00 -- I52 , 390 -- 429 ) Ischaemic Coronary disease Coronary artery disease ( CAD ) Coronary artery aneurysm Spontaneous coronary artery dissection ( SCAD ) Coronary thrombosis Coronary vasospasm Myocardial bridge Active ischemia Angina pectoris Prinzmetal 's angina Stable angina Acute coronary syndrome Myocardial infarction Unstable angina Sequelae hours Hibernating myocardium Myocardial stunning days Myocardial rupture weeks Aneurysm of heart / Ventricular aneurysm Dressler syndrome Layers Pericardium Pericarditis Acute Chronic / Constrictive Pericardial effusion Cardiac tamponade Hemopericardium Myocardium Myocarditis Chagas disease Cardiomyopathy Dilated Alcoholic Hypertrophic Restrictive Loeffler endocarditis Cardiac amyloidosis Endocardial fibroelastosis Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia Endocardium / valves Endocarditis infective endocarditis Subacute bacterial endocarditis non-infective endocarditis Libman -- Sacks endocarditis Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis Valves mitral regurgitation prolapse stenosis aortic stenosis insufficiency tricuspid stenosis insufficiency pulmonary stenosis insufficiency Conduction / arrhythmia Bradycardia Sinus bradycardia Sick sinus syndrome Heart block : Sinoatrial AV 1 ° 2 ° 3 ° Intraventricular Bundle branch block Right Left Left anterior fascicle Left posterior fascicle Bifascicular Trifascicular Adams -- Stokes syndrome Tachycardia ( paroxysmal and sinus ) Supraventricular Atrial Multifocal Junctional AV nodal reentrant Junctional ectopic Ventricular Accelerated idioventricular rhythm Catecholaminergic polymorphic Torsades de pointes Premature contraction Atrial Junctional Ventricular Pre-excitation syndrome Lown -- Ganong -- Levine Wolff -- Parkinson -- White Flutter / fibrillation Atrial flutter Ventricular flutter Atrial fibrillation Familial Ventricular fibrillation Pacemaker Ectopic pacemaker / Ectopic beat Multifocal atrial tachycardia Pacemaker syndrome Parasystole Wandering pacemaker Long QT syndrome Andersen -- Tawil Jervell and Lange - Nielsen Romano -- Ward Cardiac arrest Sudden cardiac death Asystole Pulseless electrical activity Sinoatrial arrest Other / ungrouped hexaxial reference system Right axis deviation Left axis deviation QT Short QT syndrome T wave alternans ST Osborn wave ST elevation ST depression Strain pattern Cardiomegaly Ventricular hypertrophy Left Right / Cor pulmonale Atrial enlargement Left Right Other Cardiac fibrosis Heart failure Diastolic heart failure Cardiac asthma Rheumatic fever Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bundle_branch_block&oldid=833198223 '' Categories : Cardiogenetic disorders Hidden categories : Infobox medical condition Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Français Italiano Nederlands 日本 語 Português Română Русский Svenska 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2018 , at 05 : 43 . 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left bundle branch block contractility and cardiac output
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List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2008
List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 2008 - wikipedia List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 2008 Flo Rida 's first U.S. number - one single `` Low '' was the longest - running number - one of 2008 , topping the chart for 10 consecutive weeks . The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best - performing singles of the United States . Published by Billboard magazine , the data is compiled by Nielsen SoundScan based collectively on each single 's weekly physical and digital sales , and airplay . In 2008 , there were 14 singles that topped the chart in 52 issues of the magazine . Rapper Flo Rida 's `` Low '' was the first number one of the year , and the longest - running single in 2008 , staying at number one for 10 consecutive weeks . It is the longest stay at the top for a single since R&B singer Beyoncé 's `` Irreplaceable '' reigned for 10 straight weeks starting in late 2006 . `` Low '' is the best - performing single of 2008 in the United States , ranking number one on Billboard 's year end chart of the Top Hot 100 Hits of 2008 . Other singles with extended runs at number one include Katy Perry 's `` I Kissed a Girl '' , which stayed at the top spot for seven straight weeks , and T.I. 's `` Whatever You Like '' , which topped the chart for seven non-consecutive weeks . In 2008 , seven acts gained their first U.S. number - one single : Flo Rida , Leona Lewis , Lil Wayne , Coldplay , and Perry , all of whom were lead artists , and Young Jeezy and Static Major as featured guests . T.I. earned his first number - one single as lead artist with `` Whatever You Like '' . He also had the most weeks on top with 13 , combining his two singles `` Whatever You Like '' and `` Live Your Life '' , the latter of which charted at number one for six non-consecutive weeks . Artists to have multiple number one hits during the year were Rihanna with three , ( one of those as a featured artist credit in `` Live Your Life '' ) , and T.I. with two . Rihanna spent the most time of any female at the top , spending nine non-consecutive weeks at number one on three different songs . Highlights of the 2008 Billboard Hot 100 issues included pop singer Britney Spears ' `` Womanizer '' , which was noted for its record - breaking leap to number - one , from number 96 . This is Spears ' second number - one single , and her first number - one single in nine years . Pop singer Mariah Carey earned her 18th U.S. number - one single with `` Touch My Body '' , which broke her tie with Elvis Presley , putting her in second position for artists with the most number ones in the rock era , which began in 1955 . Leaving Carey two behind The Beatles with twenty number one singles . Singer Leona Lewis ' `` Bleeding Love '' earned her the recognition of being the third female British act to have topped the Billboard Hot 100 with a debut single in the entire rock era . Perry 's `` I Kissed a Girl '' became the 1,000 th number - one song of the rock era . Although it occupied seven of summer 's thirteen weeks , critics remained divided over which is 2008 's Song of the Summer . Contents 1 Chart history 2 See also 3 References 4 Additional sources Chart History Pop singer Mariah Carey earned her 18th number - one single when `` Touch My Body '' topped the chart , which broke her tie with Elvis Presley and puts her in second place behind The Beatles with the most number - one hits . Singer Katy Perry earned her first U.S. number - one single , `` I Kissed a Girl '' , this year . The single became the 1,000 th number - one song of the rock era . Pop singer Britney Spears gained her second U.S. number one single , more than nine years after her debut single topped the chart . Pop singer Leona Lewis earned her first U.S. number - one single , becoming third - ever female British act to top the Billboard Hot 100 with a debut single in the entire rock era . Key Indicates best - performing single of 2008 Issue date Song Artist ( s ) Reference ( s ) January 5 `` Low '' Flo Rida featuring T - Pain January 12 January 19 January 26 February 2 February 9 February 16 February 23 March 1 March 8 March 15 `` Love in This Club '' Usher featuring Young Jeezy March 22 March 29 April 5 `` Bleeding Love '' Leona Lewis April 12 `` Touch My Body '' Mariah Carey April 19 April 26 `` Bleeding Love '' Leona Lewis May 3 `` Lollipop '' Lil Wayne featuring Static Major May 10 `` Bleeding Love '' Leona Lewis May 17 May 24 `` Take a Bow '' Rihanna May 31 `` Lollipop '' Lil Wayne featuring Static Major June 7 June 14 June 21 June 28 `` Viva la Vida '' Coldplay July 5 `` I Kissed a Girl '' Katy Perry July 12 July 19 July 26 August 2 August 9 August 16 August 23 `` Disturbia '' Rihanna August 30 September 6 `` Whatever You Like '' T.I. September 13 September 20 September 27 `` So What '' Pink October 4 `` Whatever You Like '' T.I. October 11 October 18 `` Live Your Life '' T.I. featuring Rihanna October 25 `` Womanizer '' Britney Spears November 1 `` Whatever You Like '' T.I. November 8 November 15 `` Live Your Life '' T.I. featuring Rihanna November 22 November 29 December 6 December 13 `` Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) '' Beyoncé December 20 `` Live Your Life '' T.I. featuring Rihanna December 27 `` Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) '' Beyoncé See also 2008 in music List of number - one hits ( United States ) Top Hot 100 Hits of 2008 References ^ Jump up to : Bronson , Fred ( December 29 , 2008 ) . `` Chart Beat : From ' Low ' to ' Single ' '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on May 23 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen , Jonathan ( February 28 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida Starts Tenth Week Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Bronson , Fred ( February 14 , 2008 ) . `` Chart Beat : The long and short of it '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Hot 100 Songs '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . December 2008 . Archived from the original on December 31 , 2008 . Retrieved January 9 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen , Jonathan ( October 30 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. Continues Hot 100 Dominance '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( December 27 , 2007 ) . `` Flo Rida Bumps Keys From Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( March 27 , 2008 ) . `` Leona Lewis Scores First U.S. No. 1 Hit '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen , Jonathan ( April 24 , 2008 ) . `` Lil Wayne Scores First Hot 100 Chart - Topper '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on December 6 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Caulfield , Keith ; Pietroluongo , Silvio ( June 18 , 2008 ) . `` Coldplay Headed To No. 1 On Billboard 200 , Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen , Jonathan ( June 26 , 2008 ) . `` Katy Perry Scores 1,000 th No. 1 Hit Of Rock Era '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on August 22 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Graff , Gary ( August 29 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. ' Overjoyed ' With Huge Leap To No. 1 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on April 14 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen , Jonathan ( December 11 , 2008 ) . `` Britney Debuts Big , But T.I. Tops Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Pietroluongo , Silvio ( October 15 , 2008 ) . `` Spears Scores Record - Setting Hot 100 Jump '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : Pietroluongo , Silvio ( April 2 , 2008 ) . `` Mariah , Madonna Make Billboard Chart History '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : Cohen , Jonathan ( April 3 , 2008 ) . `` Mariah 's Got The ' Touch ' With 18th No. 1 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Bronson , Fred ( March 27 , 2008 ) . `` Chart Beat : Top of the world '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on December 11 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ Gresehover , Ehren ( August 11 , 2008 ) . `` Six Reasons Katy Perry 's ' I Kissed a Girl ' Is n't the Song of the Summer '' . New York . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 10 . Jump up ^ Tyrangiel , Josh ( 2008 ) . `` The Songs of Summer 2008 '' . Time . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 10 . Jump up ^ Brown , Lane ; Kois , Dan ( May 25 , 2008 ) . `` And the Song of the Summer Will Be ... '' ( PDF ) . New York . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 10 . Jump up ^ Wilkinson , Amy ( December 3 , 2008 ) . `` Leona Lewis ' ' Bleeding Love ' : The song of 2008 ? '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 10 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( December 27 , 2007 ) . `` Flo Rida Bumps Keys From Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hasty , Katie ( January 3 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida Sets Digital Record , Remains No. 1 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Hasty , Katie ( January 10 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida 's ' Low ' Starts Third Week Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( January 17 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida 's ' Low ' Still Tops On Billboard Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( January 24 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida Remains No. 1 , But Brown Closes In '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( January 31 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida Dominating Pop , Digital Charts '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( February 7 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida 's ' Low ' Remains Hot 100 King '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( February 14 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida 's ' Low ' Continues To Rule Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on August 7 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( February 21 , 2008 ) . `` Flo Rida Makes It Nine Straight Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( March 6 , 2008 ) . `` Usher 's ' Club ' Rockets 50 Spots To Top Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on May 16 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Hasty , Katie ( March 13 , 2008 ) . `` Usher 's ' Club ' Remains Atop The Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( March 20 , 2008 ) . `` Usher Still Leads Hot 100 Amid Static Top 7 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( March 27 , 2008 ) . `` Leona Lewis Scores First U.S. No. 1 Hit '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved May 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( April 10 , 2008 ) . `` Mariah 's ' Body ' Remains Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on June 21 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( April 17 , 2008 ) . `` Leona Lewis Returns To No. 1 On The Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on June 26 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Hasty , Katie ( May 1 , 2008 ) . `` Leona Lewis Regains No. 1 On Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Hasty , Katie ( May 8 , 2008 ) . `` Leona Lewis Holds Onto Hot 100 No. 1 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Pietroluongo , Silvio ( May 14 , 2008 ) . `` Rihanna 's ' Bow ' Soars 52 Spots To Lead Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ; Hasty , Katie ( May 15 , 2008 ) . `` Rihanna Overtakes Leona Lewis On Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( May 22 , 2008 ) . `` Lil Wayne 's ' Lollipop ' Returns To Hot 100 Peak '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( May 29 , 2008 ) . `` Lil Wayne Tops Hot 100 Amid ' Idol ' Infusion '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( June 5 , 2008 ) . `` Lil Wayne Fends Off Coldplay , Perry On Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( June 12 , 2008 ) . `` Lil Wayne Continues Hot 100 Dominance '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( June 19 , 2008 ) . `` Digital Sales Drive Coldplay To Top Of Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on June 28 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Trust , Gary ( June 25 , 2008 ) . `` Capitol Gains : Perry , Coldplay Provide 1 - 2 Punch '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( July 3 , 2008 ) . `` Katy Perry Fends Off Jonas Bros. Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on June 23 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( July 10 , 2008 ) . `` Katy Perry Still Top ' Girl ' On Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on May 25 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( July 17 , 2008 ) . `` Katy Perry Starts Fourth Week Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on August 31 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( July 24 , 2008 ) . `` Digital Sales Keep Katy Perry Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( July 31 , 2008 ) . `` Katy Perry Starts Sixth Week Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( August 7 , 2008 ) . `` Katy Perry Remains In Control Of Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( August 14 , 2008 ) . `` Rihanna Topples Katy Perry On Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 31 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( August 21 , 2008 ) . `` Rihanna Fends Off Archuleta Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on October 21 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( September 4 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. 's ' Like ' Still Tops On Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( September 11 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. 's ' Like ' Starts Third Week Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( September 18 , 2008 ) . `` Pink Notches First Solo Hot 100 No. 1 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on April 30 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( September 25 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. Back Atop Hot 100 , Kanye Debuts High '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on May 2 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( October 2 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. 's ' Like ' Still Cruising Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( October 9 , 2008 ) . `` T.I Breaks Own Record With Hot 100 Burst '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on June 15 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Pietroluongo , Silvio ( October 15 , 2008 ) . `` Spears Scores Record - Setting Hot 100 Jump '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on April 14 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( October 16 , 2008 ) . `` Britney Fends Off Red - Hot T.I. Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( October 23 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. Returns To No. 1 On The Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on May 2 , 2013 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( November 6 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. Replaces Himself Again Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( November 13 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. Leads Hot 100 ; Kanye , Taylor Debut High '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( November 20 , 2008 ) . `` Taylor Swift Notches Six Hot 100 Debuts '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( November 27 , 2008 ) . `` T.I. Fends Off Beyonce , Remains Atop Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 11 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( December 4 , 2008 ) . `` Beyonce Assumes Control Of Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Cohen , Jonathan ( December 18 , 2008 ) . `` Beyonce Back In Control Of Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 07 . Additional sources Fred Bronson 's Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , 5th Edition ( ISBN 0 - 8230 - 7677 - 6 ) Joel Whitburn 's Top Pop Singles 1955 - 2008 , 12 Edition ( ISBN 0 - 89820 - 180 - 2 ) Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts : The 2000s ( ISBN 0 - 89820 - 182 - 9 ) Additional information obtained can be verified within Billboard 's online archive services and print editions of the magazine . Lists of Billboard number - one singles 1940 -- 1959 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 -- 1979 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 -- 1999 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 2000 -- present 2017 2018 By decade 1940s 1950 -- 1958 1958 -- 1969 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s See also Top - ten singles Hot 100 Year - end List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Billboard_Hot_100_number-one_singles_of_2008&oldid=787133819 '' Categories : 2008 record charts Lists of Billboard Hot 100 number - one songs 2008 in American music Hidden categories : Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Featured lists Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 8 more Edit links This page was last edited on 23 June 2017 , at 16 : 53 ( UTC ) . 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what song was number one on april 21 2008
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Working income tax benefit
Working income tax benefit - wikipedia Working income tax benefit Jump to : navigation , search The working income tax benefit ( WITB ) is a refundable tax credit in Canada , similar to the Earned Income Tax Credit ( EITC ) in the United States . Introduced in 2007 , it offers tax relief to working low - income individuals and encourages others to enter the workforce . The WITB has been expanded considerably since its introduction . Eligibility ( edit ) To be eligible for the WITB , the applicant or their spouse must be a Canadian resident for income tax purposes of at least 19 years of age as of December 31st , and can not be a full - time student . The WITB can be claimed on line 453 of the income tax return if their income exceeds $3,000 for the calendar year . However , the additional paperwork required to claim the credit is complex , involving a the 42 - step process on Schedule 6 of Canada 's main income - tax form . Benefits ( edit ) As of 2016 , the WITB is worth up to $1,028 for a single individual and $1,868 for couples and single - parent families . Benefits increase and then decrease with income . At an income of $18,529 for single individuals or $28,576 for families the benefits decrease to $0 . WITB is estimated to benefit 1.4 million working Canadians annually , at a cost to the federal government of CDN $ 1.2 billion . In October of 2017 , the Liberal government of Justin Trudeau promised to expand the benefit by $500 million annually , beginning in 2019 . Consistently since 2009 , only about 85 % of all working Canadians eligible for the WITB have claimed their benefit , with particularly low uptake in Atlantic Canada and the Prairie provinces . In 2017 , this left an estimated CDN $175 million in benefits unclaimed by 240,000 eligible low - income Canadians . This is thought by the Canada Revenue Agency ( CRA ) to be due to a mixture of lack of awareness and the complexity of the forms required to claim the benefit . CRA is working to increase uptake by CRA is expanding its support for free volunteer tax - preparation services and by scaling up a 2016 pilot project in New Brunswick , which highlighted the program to persons likely eligible for the program and was judged to have had a `` positive impact . '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Working income tax benefit ( WITB ) '' . Canada Revenue Agency . Jump up ^ CORAK , MILES ( Nov 8 , 2013 ) . `` This refundable tax credit could reduce income inequality '' . The Globe and Mail ( Wealth Paradox ) . Retrieved 25 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Wells , Paul . `` Harper changes Canada , a cut at a time '' . Maclean 's . Jump up ^ OECD ( 2010 ) . Tax expenditures in OECD countries . Paris : OECD . p. 81 . ISBN 9789264076907 . Retrieved 25 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Refundable tax credit for WITB : Application and Eligibility '' . Canada Revenue Agency . Retrieved 25 September 2015 . Jump up ^ JACKS , EVELYN ( Apr 7 , 2011 ) . `` Take advantage of changes to this year 's tax return '' . The Globe and Mail . ^ Jump up to : Beeby , Dean ( 29 November 2017 ) . `` $175 M in federal money for working poor goes unclaimed '' . CBC News . Retrieved 3 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Refundable tax credit for WITB : Calculation '' . Canada Revenue Agency . Poverty in Canada ( by province or territory ) Provinces Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Territories Northwest Territories Nunavut Yukon Book Category Portal WikiProject Canada History Year list ( Timeline ) Pre-colonization New France ( 1534 -- 1763 ) British Canada ( 1763 -- 1867 ) Post-Confederation ( 1867 -- 1914 ) World Wars and Interwar Years ( 1914 -- 1945 ) Modern times : 1945 -- 1960 1960 -- 1981 1982 -- 1992 since 1992 Topics Constitutional Crown & Aboriginals Economic Etymology Former colonies & territories Immigration Military Monarchical National Historic Sites Persons of significance Territorial evolution Women Provinces and territories Provinces Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Territories Northwest Territories Nunavut Yukon Government Law Constitution Monarch Governor General Parliament ( Senate House of Commons ) Prime Minister list Courts Supreme Court Military Local government Foreign relations Law enforcement Politics Elections LGBT rights Multiculturalism Geography Regions ( west to east ) Pacific Northwest Western Canada Great Plains Canadian Prairies Northern Canada Canadian Shield Great Lakes Central Canada The Maritimes Eastern Canada Atlantic Canada Topics Animals Cities Earthquakes Islands Mountains National Parks Plants Great Lakes Regions Rivers Volcanoes Economy Agriculture Banking Bank of Canada Dollar Communications Companies Energy Fishing Oil Stock exchange Taxation Tourism Transportation Science and technology Social programs Poverty Society Education Healthcare Crime Values Demographics Topics Canadians Immigration Languages Religion 2001 Census 2006 Census 2011 Census 2016 Census Population Top 100s Metropolitan areas and agglomerations Population centres Municipalities Culture Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Festivals Folklore People Holidays Identity Literature Music Nationalisms Online media Protectionism Sports Theatre Symbols Coat of arms Flags Provincial and territorial Royal Heraldic Article overviews Index Outline Topics Research Bibliography Historiography Book Category Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Working_income_tax_benefit&oldid=813336481 '' Categories : Taxation in Canada Tax credits Poverty in Canada Talk About Wikipedia Languages Add links This page was last edited on 3 December 2017 , at 04 : 14 . About Wikipedia
when did the working income tax benefit come into effect
[ "The working income tax benefit (WITB) is a refundable tax credit in Canada, similar to the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) in the United States. Introduced in 2007, it offers tax relief to working low-income individuals and encourages others to enter the workforce.[1] The WITB has been expanded considerably since its introduction.[2][3][4]" ]
[ "2007" ]
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Gold standard
Gold standard - Wikipedia Gold standard Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Gold standard ( disambiguation ) . Two golden 20 kr coins from the Scandinavian Monetary Union , which was based on a gold standard . The coin to the left is Swedish and the right one is Danish . Gold certificates were used as paper currency in the United States from 1882 to 1933 . These certificates were freely convertible into gold coins . Under a gold bullion standard , paper notes are convertible at a preset , fixed rate with gold bullion . A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold . Three types can be distinguished : specie , bullion , and exchange . In the gold specie standard the monetary unit is associated with the value of circulating gold coins , or the monetary unit has the value of a certain circulating gold coin , but other coins may be made of less valuable metal . The gold bullion standard is a system in which gold coins do not circulate , but the authorities agree to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price in exchange for the circulating currency . The gold exchange standard usually does not involve the circulation of gold coins . The main feature of the gold exchange standard is that the government guarantees a fixed exchange rate to the currency of another country that uses a gold standard ( specie or bullion ) , regardless of what type of notes or coins are used as a means of exchange . This creates a de facto gold standard , where the value of the means of exchange has a fixed external value in terms of gold that is independent of the inherent value of the means of exchange itself . Most nations abandoned the gold standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century , although many hold substantial gold reserves . A survey of leading American economists showed that they unanimously reject that a return to the gold standard would benefit the average American . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Origin 1.2 Silver 1.2. 1 United Kingdom 1.2. 2 United States 1.2. 3 International 1.2. 4 Japan 1.3 Bimetallic standard 1.3. 1 US : Pre-Civil War 1.3. 2 US : Post-Civil War 1.4 Fluctuations in the US gold stock , 1862 -- 1877 1.5 Gold exchange standard 1.6 Impact of World War I 1.7 Abandonment of the gold standard 1.8 Depression and World War II 1.8. 1 Great Depression 1.8. 2 World War II 1.9 Bretton Woods 2 Production of gold 3 Theory 3.1 Variations 3.2 Advantages 3.3 Disadvantages 3.4 Gold standard and Bitcoin 4 Advocates 4.1 US politics 5 Critics 6 See also 6.1 International institutions 7 References 7.1 Sources 8 Further reading 9 External links History This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) All references to `` dollars '' in this section refer to the United States dollar , unless otherwise stated . Origin The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency . Various commodities have been used as money ; typically , the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form . Chemically , gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion . The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor . During the early and high Middle Ages , the Byzantine gold solidus , commonly known as the bezant , was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean . However , as the Byzantine Empire 's economic influence declined , so too did the use of the bezant . In its place , European territories chose silver as their currency over gold , leading to the development of silver standards . Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa , circa CE 757 -- 796 . Similar coins , including Italian denari , French deniers , and Spanish dineros circulated in Europe . Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545 . International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar , the Maria Theresa thaler , and later , the United States trade dollar . In modern times , the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard . Following Queen Anne 's proclamation of 1704 , the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon . In 1717 , Sir Isaac Newton , the master of the Royal Mint , established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard . A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821 , when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816 . The United Province of Canada in 1853 , Newfoundland in 1865 , and the United States and Germany ( de jure ) in 1873 adopted gold . The United States used the eagle as its unit , Germany introduced the new gold mark , while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign . Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard , as did the British West Indies , while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin . Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney , Melbourne and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia 's rich gold deposits . The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I . Silver From 1750 to 1870 , wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China ( which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods ) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States . Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers , and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money . United Kingdom In the 1790s , the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage . It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued `` token '' silver coins and overstruck foreign coins . With the end of the Napoleonic Wars , the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns , circulating crowns , half - crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821 . The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins . The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820 , 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns . The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility , which was reached by 1821 . Throughout the 1820s , small notes were issued by regional banks . This was restricted in 1826 , while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches . In 1833 however , Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged . In 1844 , the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard . According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard , this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money . United States In the 1780s , Thomas Jefferson , Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system . This system would also apply to monies in the United States . The question was what type of standard : gold , silver or both . The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785 . International From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made , including one based on the gold and silver franc ; however , with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits , the expectation of scarce silver ended . The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period . The combination of a restricted supply of notes , a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly , a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability . Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises . Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems . Governments , demanding specie as payment , could drain the money out of the economy . Economic development expanded need for credit . The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed . Japan Following Germany 's decision after the 1870 -- 1871 Franco - Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard , Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895 . For Japan , moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets . Bimetallic standard US : pre-civil War In 1792 , Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act . It authorized the federal government 's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves , as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar . Gold and silver coins were legal tender , as was the Spanish real . In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver . Silver coins left circulation , exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War . In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins . This resulted in a derivative silver standard , since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves . This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard . The intention was to use gold for large denominations , and silver for smaller denominations . A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals ' absolute and relative market prices changed . The mint ratio ( the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay / receive for gold relative to silver ) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold , whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1 . With the Coinage Act of 1834 , Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1 . Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver ; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money . Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard - money standard . Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins . Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system . However , the mint ratio ( the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint ) continued to overvalue gold . In 1853 , the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage . In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver , with ripples through the developing international financial system . Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War , the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie ( gold bonds ) ; this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities ( bank notes and deposits ) into specie . In 1862 paper money was made legal tender . It was a fiat money ( not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie ) . These notes came to be called `` greenbacks '' . US : post-civil War After the Civil War , Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates . The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ( $20.67 per ounce of gold ) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price . This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output . By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold . The coinage act of 1873 ( also known as the Crime of ' 73 ) demonetized silver . This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation . Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 ( fractional currency ) . With the resumption of convertibility on June 30 , 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold , accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold . Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins . During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues , raised especially by William Jennings Bryan , the People 's Party and the Free Silver movement . In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established . Greenbacks , silver certificates , and silver dollars continued to be legal tender , all redeemable in gold . Fluctuations in the US gold stock , 1862 -- 1877 US gold stock 1862 59 tons 1866 81 tons 1875 50 tons 1878 78 tons The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces ( 59 t ) in 1862 . Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces ( 81 t ) in 1866 , declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces ( 50 t ) and rose to 2.5 million ounces ( 78 t ) in 1878 . Net exports did not mirror that pattern . In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant ; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels , but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879 . The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods , services , and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies . In the final years of the greenback period ( 1862 -- 1879 ) , gold production increased while gold exports decreased . The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions . The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle , and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade . The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power . Gold exchange standard This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Towards the end of the 19th century , some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States . In 1898 , British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d , while in 1906 , the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling , fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d . Around the start of the 20th century , the Philippines pegged the silver peso / dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents . This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3 , 1903 . Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar . When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908 , only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard . When adopting the gold standard , many European nations changed the name of their currency , for instance from Daler ( Sweden and Denmark ) or Gulden ( Austria - Hungary ) to Crown , since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins . Impact of World War I Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century . The real test , however , came in the form of World War I , a test which `` it failed utterly '' according to economist Richard Lipsey . By the end of 1913 , the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it . According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard 's failure to resume its previous position after World War 1 was `` the Bank of England 's precarious liquidity position and the gold - exchange standard . '' A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard ; convertibility was not legally suspended , but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before . In financing the war and abandoning gold , many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations . Price levels doubled in the US and Britain , tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy . Exchange rates changed less , even though European inflations were more severe than America 's . This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe . Between August 1914 and spring of 1915 , the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time . Ultimately , the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses ; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor , but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change . In any case , prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression , which served to kill off the system completely . For example , Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914 , and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves . During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank ( Reichsbank ) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations ; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class . The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war . The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to `` sterilize '' some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money . By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard . As a result of World War 1 the United States , which had been a net debtor country , had become a net creditor by 1919 . Abandonment of the gold standard William McKinley ran for president on the basis of the gold standard . The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I , when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns . Legally , the gold specie standard was not repealed . The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie . It was only in 1925 , when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended . The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard . The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins . Instead , the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price , but `` only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy ( 12 kg ) of fine gold '' . John Maynard Keynes , citing deflationary dangers , argued against resumption of the gold standard . By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86 , Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression , unemployment and the 1926 general strike . The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a `` historic mistake '' . Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard , this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation . This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression ( 1929 -- 1939 ) forced countries off the gold standard . In September 19 , 1931 , speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard . Loans from American and French Central Banks of £ 50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks , due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic . The British benefited from this departure . They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy . Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit . The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable , because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England 's reserve ratio . France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center , and it received large gold flows as well . In May 1931 a run on Austria 's largest commercial bank caused it to fail . The run spread to Germany , where the central bank also collapsed . International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls , followed by Austria in October . The Austrian and German experiences , as well as British budgetary and political difficulties , were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling , which occurred in mid-July 1931 . Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves . Depression and World War ii Ending the gold standard and economic recovery during the Great Depression . Great Depression Some economic historians , such as Barry Eichengreen , blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade . In the United States , adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy , fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could `` prime the pump '' for an expansion . Once off the gold standard , it became free to engage in such money creation . The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks ' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply . In the US , the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act ( 1913 ) to have gold backing 40 % of its demand notes . Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize - winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve , mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard . They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital , weaker securities markets , reduced net government contribution to income , the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs . The money supply peaked in March 1937 , with a trough in May 1938 . Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks . Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931 , reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation . This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system . Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks . As bank runs grew , a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply . Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold ( over 240 tons ) to European Central Banks . This transfer contracted the US money supply . The foreign loans became questionable once Britain , Germany , Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar . The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation . Even as nominal interest rates dropped , inflation - adjusted real interest rates remained high , rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it , further slowing the economy . Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain , in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done . In the early 1930s , the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates , trying to increase the demand for dollars . This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold . Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934 ; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury . In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes . The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar . Under this authority the president , on 31 January 1934 , changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce , a devaluation of over 40 % . Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot -- Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain , the failure of central banks to act responsibly , government policies designed to prevent wages from falling , such as the Davis -- Bacon Act of 1931 , during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices , thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security . The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25 % to 63 % in 1932 and to 79 % in 1936 , while the bottom rate increased over tenfold , from . 375 % in 1929 to 4 % in 1932 . The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl . The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust . Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931 . This act `` tore asunder '' any remaining confidence in the banking system . Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly ' great ' was the European banking crisis of 1931 . According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles , the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class . These classes went into debt , producing the credit explosion of the 1920s . Eventually the debt load grew too heavy , resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s . World War ii Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944 , the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility . The role of gold was severely constrained , as other countries ' currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar . Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold . Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies , with the American dollar becoming the favorite . The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates . Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation . Under the old standard , a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly . Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars , but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates . Therefore , most countries ' currencies were still basically inconvertible . In the late 1950s , the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements . Bretton Woods This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Main article : Bretton Woods system After the Second World War , a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a `` gold exchange standard '' was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements . Under this system , many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce ; this option was not available to firms or individuals . All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold . Starting in the 1959 -- 1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970 , France reduced its dollar reserves , exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate , reducing US economic influence . This , along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits , led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15 , 1971 ( the `` Nixon Shock '' ) . This was meant to be a temporary measure , with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant . Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan . No official revaluation or redemption occurred . The dollar subsequently floated . In December 1971 , the `` Smithsonian Agreement '' was reached . In this agreement , the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38 . Other countries ' currencies appreciated . However , gold convertibility did not resume . In October 1973 , the price was raised to $42.22 . Once again , the devaluation was insufficient . Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float . The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973 , long after it had been abandoned in practice . In October 1976 , the government officially changed the definition of the dollar ; references to gold were removed from statutes . From this point , the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money . Production of gold An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history , according to GFMS as of 2012 . This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or , in terms of volume , about 9,261 cubic metres ( 327,000 cu ft ) , or a cube 21 metres ( 69 ft ) on a side . There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined . One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years . Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined . In addition , it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities . World production for 2011 was circa 2,700 tonnes . Since the 1950s , annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth ( i.e. a doubling in this period ) although it has lagged behind world economic growth ( approximately 8-fold increase since the 1950s , and 4x since 1980 ) . Theory This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts . Furthermore , it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does . As such , commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing . Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity , durability , divisibility , fungibility and ease of identification , often in conjunction with silver . Silver was typically the main circulating medium , with gold as the monetary reserve . Commodity money was anonymous , as identifying marks can be removed . Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority . After the fall of South Vietnam , many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless . Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value , but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie . A US silver certificate , for example , could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver . Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy , as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression . Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs . Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner . For example , Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries , which left the gold standard in 1931 , recovered much earlier than France and Belgium , which remained on gold much longer . Countries such as China , which had a silver standard , almost entirely avoided the depression ( due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy ) . The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries , including developing countries . This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies . Variations A full or 100 % - reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate . It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it . Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement , saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices ; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold . Gold standard proponents have said , `` Once a money is established , any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income . '' While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold , the process may involve considerable economic disruption , as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards . In an international gold - standard system ( which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned ) , gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments . Under such a system , when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold , inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level . International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold . Advantages Long - term price stability has been described as one of the virtues of the gold standard . The gold standard makes it difficult for governments to inflate prices through expanding the money supply . Under the gold standard , significant inflation is rare , and hyperinflation is essentially impossible because the money supply can only grow at the rate that the gold supply increases . High inflation under a gold standard is seen only when warfare destroys a large part of an economy , reducing the production of goods , or when a major new gold source becomes available . In the U.S. , inflation occurred during the Civil War , which destroyed the economy of the South . Inflation also followed the California Gold Rush that made large amounts of gold available for minting . Historical data shows that the magnitude of short run swings in prices were far higher under the gold standard . The gold standard provides fixed international exchange rates between participating countries and thus reduces uncertainty in international trade . Historically , imbalances between price levels were offset by a balance - of - payment adjustment mechanism called the `` price -- specie flow mechanism '' . Gold used to pay for imports reduces the money supply of importing nations , causing deflation , which makes them more competitive , while the importation of gold by net exporters serves to increase their money supply , causing inflation , making them less competitive . A gold standard does not allow some types of financial repression . Financial repression acts as a mechanism to transfer wealth from creditors to debtors , particularly the governments that practice it . Financial repression is most successful in reducing debt when accompanied by inflation and can be considered a form of taxation . In 1966 Alan Greenspan wrote `` Deficit spending is simply a scheme for the confiscation of wealth . Gold stands in the way of this insidious process . It stands as a protector of property rights . If one grasps this , one has no difficulty in understanding the statists ' antagonism toward the gold standard . '' Disadvantages Gold prices ( US $ per troy ounce ) from 1914 , in nominal US $ and inflation adjusted US $ . The unequal distribution of gold deposits makes the gold standard more advantageous for those countries that produce gold . In 2010 the largest producers of gold , in order , were China , Australia , U.S. , South Africa and Russia . The country with the largest unmined gold deposits is Australia . Some economists believe that the gold standard acts as a limit on economic growth . `` As an economy 's productive capacity grows , then so should its money supply . Because a gold standard requires that money be backed in the metal , then the scarcity of the metal constrains the ability of the economy to produce more capital and grow . '' Mainstream economists believe that economic recessions can be largely mitigated by increasing the money supply during economic downturns . A gold standard means that the money supply would be determined by the gold supply and hence monetary policy could no longer be used to stabilize the economy . The gold standard is often blamed for prolonging the Great Depression , as under the gold standard , central banks could not expand credit at a fast enough rate to offset deflationary forces . Although the gold standard brings long - run price stability , it is historically associated with high short - run price volatility . It has been argued by Schwartz , among others , that instability in short - term price levels can lead to financial instability as lenders and borrowers become uncertain about the value of debt . Deflation punishes debtors . Real debt burdens therefore rise , causing borrowers to cut spending to service their debts or to default . Lenders become wealthier , but may choose to save some of the additional wealth , reducing GDP . The money supply would essentially be determined by the rate of gold production . When gold stocks increase more rapidly than the economy , there is inflation and the reverse is also true . The consensus view is that the gold standard contributed to the severity and length of the Great Depression . Hamilton contended that the gold standard is susceptible to speculative attacks when a government 's financial position appears weak . Conversely , this threat discourages governments from engaging in risky policy ( see moral hazard ) . For example , the U.S. was forced to contract the money supply and raise interest rates in September 1931 to defend the dollar after speculators forced the UK off the gold standard . Devaluing a currency under a gold standard would generally produce sharper changes than the smooth declines seen in fiat currencies , depending on the method of devaluation . Most economists favor a low , positive rate of inflation of around 2 % . This reflects fear of deflationary shocks and the belief that active monetary policy can dampen fluctuations in output and unemployment . Inflation gives them room to tighten policy without inducing deflation . A gold standard provides practical constraints against the measures that central banks might otherwise use to respond to economic crises . Creation of new money reduces interest rates and thereby increases demand for new lower cost debt , raising the demand for money . Gold standard and Bitcoin Bitcoin in grams of gold According to research produced by the Bank of Canada , the emerging Bitcoin economy has many similarities with the economy based on gold standard , in particular : limited and predictable supply of the anchor of the monetary system no central bank or monetary authority controls the supply low or non-existent inflation virtually no arbitrage costs for international transactions Governments have less control over their domestic economies Governments lose seigniorage revenues that they obtain from the ability to almost costlessly create money Edward Hadas and Michael Hiltzik noted that monetary systems based on Bitcoin and gold have some similar disadvantages : independence from government price declines less spending during crisis times George Gilder , a proponent of gold standard , proposed breaking `` the government monopoly on money '' by using a combination of Bitcoin for the internet and treating gold in tax terms as currency . Advocates A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982 , but found only minority support . In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations , using the Islamic gold dinar , defined as 4.25 grams of pure ( 24 - carat ) gold . Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations . This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt - backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest . As of 2013 the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency . Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman , Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of `` a small minority '' within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard . In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand , titled `` Gold and Economic Freedom '' , Greenspan argued the case for returning to a ' pure ' gold standard ; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as `` welfare statists '' intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending . More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation `` central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard '' , rendering a return to the standard unnecessary . Similarly , economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of `` monetary constitution '' is essential for stable , depoliticized monetary policy , the form this constitution takes -- for example , a gold standard , some other commodity - based standard , or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money -- is considerably less important . The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics , free - market libertarians and some supply - siders . US Politics In the United States , strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks . Some gold - standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional - reserve banking . Many similar alternatives have been suggested , including energy - based currencies , collections of currencies or commodities , with gold as one component . Former congressman Ron Paul is a long - term , high - profile advocate of a gold standard , but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy . In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes . As federally issued currency , the coins were already legal tender for taxes , although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value . Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states . The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama . In 2013 , the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439 , which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt , but the bill was vetoed by the Governor . In 2015 , some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard , based on concern that the Federal Reserve 's attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation . Economic historians did not agree with candidate 's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy . Critics In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them agreed with a claim that a return to the gold standard would result in `` price - stability and employment outcomes ( that ) would be better for the average American . '' The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners , former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents , and senior faculty from Harvard , Chicago , Stanford , MIT , and other well - known research universities . ( The specific question posed to the economists was : `` If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard , defining a ' dollar ' as a specific number of ounces of gold , the price - stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American . '' ) The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul 's advocacy of the gold standard since the 1970s . He sometimes summarizes his opposition by stating simply , `` ( W ) e do n't have the gold standard . It 's not because we do n't know about the gold standard , it 's because we do . '' See also Numismatics portal A Program for Monetary Reform ( 1939 ) -- The Gold Standard Bimetallism / Free Silver Black Friday ( 1869 ) -- Also referred to as the Gold Panic of 1869 Coinage Act of 1792 Coinage Act of 1873 Executive Order 6102 Full - reserve banking Gold as an investment Gold points Metal as money Metallism International institutions Bank for International Settlements International Monetary Fund United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference World Bank References Jump up ^ `` Gold standard Facts , information , pictures Encyclopedia.com articles about Gold standard '' . www.encyclopedia.com . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 05 . Jump up ^ William O. Scroggs . `` What Is Left of the Gold Standard ? '' . foreignaffairs.com . Retrieved 28 January 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Gold Standard '' . IGM Forum. 12 January 2012 . Retrieved 27 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Appelbaum , Binyamin ( 2015 - 12 - 01 ) . `` G.O.P. Candidates Viewing Economy 's Past Through Gold - Colored Glasses '' . The New York Times . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Lipsey 1975 , pp. 683 - 702 . Jump up ^ Bordo , Dittmar & Gavin 2003 `` in a world with two capital goods , the one with the lower depreciation rate emerges as commodity money '' Jump up ^ `` World 's Oldest Coin - First Coins '' . rg.ancients.info . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 05 . Jump up ^ Lopez , Robert Sabatino ( Summer 1951 ) . `` The Dollar of the Middle Ages '' . The Journal of Economic History . 11 ( 3 ) : 209 -- 234 . doi : 10.1017 / s0022050700084746 . JSTOR 2113933 . Jump up ^ Keary , Charles Francis . ( 2005 ) . A Catalogue of English Coins in the British Museum . Anglo - Saxon Series . Volume I. Poole , Reginald Stewart , ed . Elibron Classics . pp. ii , xxii -- xxv Jump up ^ Rothwell , Richard Pennefather. ( 1893 ) . Universal Bimetallism and An International Monetary Clearing House , together with A Record of the World 's Money , Statistics of Gold and Silver , Etc . New York : The Scientific Publishing Company . pp. 45 . Jump up ^ Andrei , Liviu C. ( 2011 ) . Money and Market in the Economy of All Times : Another World History of Money and Pre-Money Based Economies . Xlibris Corporation . pp. 146 -- 147 . ^ Jump up to : Walton & Rockoff 2010 . Jump up ^ Metzler , Mark ( 2006 ) . Lever of Empire : The International Gold Standard and the Crisis of Liberalism in Prewar Japan . Berkeley : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 24420 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Elwell 2011 . Jump up ^ Friedman & Schwartz 1963 , p. 79 . Jump up ^ Kemmerer , Edwin Walter ( 1994 ) . Gold and the Gold Standard : The Story of Gold Money Past , Present and Future . Princeton , NJ : McGraw - Hill Book , Company , Inc . pp. 154 ( 238 pg ) . ISBN 9781610164429 . Jump up ^ Nicholson , J.S. ( April 1915 ) . `` The Abandonment of the Gold Standard '' . The Quarterly Review . 223 : 409 -- 423 . Jump up ^ Officer Jump up ^ Eichengreen 1995 . Jump up ^ Drummond , Ian M. The Gold Standard and the International Monetary System 1900 -- 1939 . Macmillan Education , LTD , 1987 . Jump up ^ `` Gold Standard Act 1925 1. c. 2 '' . Jump up ^ `` Articles : Free the Planet : Gold Standard Act 1925 '' . Free the Planet . 2009 - 06 - 10 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 13 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ Keynes , John Maynard ( 1920 ) . Economic Consequences of the Peace . New York : Harcourt , Brace and Rowe . Jump up ^ `` Thatcher warned Major about exchange rate risks before ERM crisis '' . The Guardian . 2017 - 12 - 29 . Retrieved 2017 - 12 - 29 . Jump up ^ Cassel , Gustav . The Downfall of the Gold Standard . Oxford University Press , 1936 . Jump up ^ `` Chancellor 's Commons Speech '' . Freetheplanet.net . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 09 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ Eichengreen , Barry J. ( September 15 , 2008 ) . Globalizing Capital : A History of the International Monetary System . Princeton University Press . pp. 61 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 13937 - 1 . Retrieved November 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Officer , Lawrence . `` Breakdown of the Interwar Gold Standard '' . Eh.net . Archived from the original on November 24 , 2005 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ Officer , Lawrence . `` there was ongoing tension with France , that resented the sterling - dominated gold - exchange standard and desired to cash in its sterling holding for gold to aid its objective of achieving first - class financial status for Paris '' . Eh.net . Archived from the original on November 24 , 2005 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ International data from Maddison , Angus . `` Historical Statistics for the World Economy : 1 -- 2003 AD ''. . Gold dates culled from historical sources , principally Eichengreen , Barry ( 1992 ) . Golden Fetters : The Gold Standard and the Great Depression , 1919 -- 1939 . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 506431 - 3 . Jump up ^ Eichengreen 1995 , Preface . Jump up ^ American Economic Association ( 2000 -- 2011 ) . `` The Elasticity of the Federal Reserve Note '' . The American Economic Review . ITHAKA. 26 : 683 -- 690 . JSTOR 1807996 . Jump up ^ `` Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke At the Conference to Honor Milton Friedman '' . The Federal Reserve Board . November 8 , 2002 . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Friedman & Schwartz 1963 , p. 543 . Jump up ^ Friedman & Schwartz 1963 , p. 544 . ^ Jump up to : `` FRB : Speech , Bernanke - Money , Gold , and the Great Depression -- March 2 , 2004 '' . Federalreserve.gov. 2004 - 03 - 02 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` 1931 -- '' The Tragic Year `` '' . Ludwig von Mises Institute . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . The inflationary attempts of the government from January to October were thus offset by the people 's attempts to convert their bank deposits into legal tender '' `` Hence , the will of the public caused bank reserves to decline by $400 million in the latter half of 1931 , and the money supply , as a consequence , fell by over four billion dollars in the same period . Jump up ^ `` 1931 -- '' The Tragic Year `` '' . Ludwig von Mises Institute . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Throughout the European crisis , the Federal Reserve , particularly the New York Bank , tried its best to aid the European governments and to prop up unsound credit positions ... The New York Federal Reserve loaned , in 1931 , $125 million to the Bank of England , $25 million to the German Reichsbank , and smaller amounts to Hungary and Austria . As a result , much frozen assets were shifted , to become burdens to the United States . Jump up ^ `` '' In the 1930s , the United States was in a situation that satisfied the conditions for a liquidity trap . Over 1929 -- 1933 overnight rates fell to zero , and they remained on the floor through the 1930 's. `` '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original on 2004 - 07 - 22 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ The European Economy between Wars ; Feinstein , Temin , and Toniolo Jump up ^ Dominic Sandbrook ( 2011 - 12 - 31 ) . `` In August 1932 , the British colonies and dominions met in the Canadian capital , Ottawa , and agreed a policy of Imperial Preference , putting high tariffs on goods from outside the Empire '' . London : Dailymail.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ M. Friedman `` the severity of each of the major contractions -- 1920 -- 21 , 1929 -- 33 and 1937 -- 38 is directly attributable to acts of commission and omission by the Reserve authorities '' . Jump up ^ Robert P. Murphy . `` Another major factor is that governments in the 1930s were interfering with wages and prices more so than at any prior point in ( peacetime ) history '' . Mises.org . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` High Taxes and High Budget Deficits - The Hoover -- Roosevelt Tax Increases of the 1930s '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ `` per data from Economics Professor Mark J. Perry '' . Mjperry.blogspot.com. 2008 - 11 - 09 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ Eichengreen , Barry ; Mitchener , Kris ( August 2003 ) . `` The Great Depression as a Credit Boom Gone Wrong '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gold and Economic Freedom by Alan Greenspan 1966 `` Great Britain fared even worse , and rather than absorb the full consequences of her previous folly , she abandoned the gold standard completely in 1931 , tearing asunder what remained of the fabric of confidence and inducing a world - wide series of bank failures . '' Jump up ^ Farrell , Paul B. ( December 13 , 2011 ) . `` Our decade from hell will get worse in 2012 '' . MarketWatch . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . As financial historian Niall Ferguson writes in Newsweek : `` Double - Dip Depression ... We forget that the Great Depression was like a soccer match , there were two halves . '' The 1929 crash kicked off the first half . But what `` made the depression truly ' great ' ... began with the European banking crisis of 1931 . '' Sound familiar ? Jump up ^ Aftershock by Robert B. Reich , published 2010 Chapter 1 Eccles 's Insight . Jump up ^ Prior , Ed ( 1 April 2013 ) . `` How much gold is there in the world ? '' -- via www.bbc.com . Jump up ^ `` FAQs Investment World Gold Council '' . Gold.org . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Measuring Worth - GDP result '' . Jump up ^ `` Download entire World Economic Outlook database , April 2013 '' . Jump up ^ Krech , Shepard ; John Robert McNeill ; Carolyn Merchant ( 2004 ) . Encyclopedia of world environmental history . New York City : Routledge . p. 597 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 93734 - 5 . OCLC 174950341 . Jump up ^ Bernanke , Ben ( March 2 , 2004 ) , `` Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke : Money , Gold and the Great Depression '' , At the H. Parker Willis Lecture in Economic Policy , Washington and Lee University , Lexington , Virginia . Jump up ^ Hoppe , Hans - Herman ( 1992 ) . Mark Skousen , ed . Dissent on Keynes , A Critical Appraisal of Economics . pp. 199 -- 223 . Jump up ^ `` Gold as Money : FAQ '' . Mises.org . Ludwig von Mises Institute . Archived from the original on July 14 , 2011 . Retrieved 12 August 2011 . Jump up ^ The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics , 2nd edition ( 2008 ) , Vol. 3 , S. 695 ^ Jump up to : Bordo 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Advantages of the Gold Standard '' ( PDF ) . The Gold Standard : Perspectives in the Austrian School . The Ludwig von Mises Institute . Retrieved 9 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Ransom , Roger L. ( February 1 , 2010 ) . `` The Economics of the Civil War '' . Economic History Association . Archived from the original on December 13 , 2011 . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . the Union also experienced inflation as a result of deficit finance during the war ; the consumer price index rose from 100 at the outset of the war to 175 by the end of 1865 Jump up ^ Whaples , Robert ( February 5 , 2010 ) . `` California Gold Rush '' . Economic History Association . Archived from the original on November 24 , 2011 . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . from 1792 until 1847 cumulative U.S. production of gold was only about 37 tons . California 's production in 1849 alone exceeded this figure , and annual production from 1848 to 1857 averaged 76 tons ... Soaring gold output from the California and Australia gold rushes is linked with a 30 percent increase in wholesale prices from 1850 through 1855 Jump up ^ `` Why the Gold Standard Is the World 's Worst Economic Idea , in 2 Charts -- Matthew O'Brien '' . The Atlantic . 2012 - 08 - 26 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Reform of the International Monetary and Financial System '' ( PDF ) . Bank of England . December 2011 . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Countries with current account surpluses accumulated gold , while deficit countries saw their gold stocks diminish . This , in turn , contributed to upward pressure on domestic spending and prices in surplus countries and downward pressure on them in deficit countries , thereby leading to a change ... that should , eventually , have reduced imbalances . Jump up ^ `` Financial Repression Redux '' . International Monetary Fund . June 2011 . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Financial repression occurs when governments implement policies to channel to themselves funds that in a deregulated market environment would go elsewhere Jump up ^ Reinhart , Carmen M. and Rogoff , Kenneth S. , This Time is Different . Princeton and Oxford : Princeton University Press , 2008 , p. 143 Jump up ^ Government Revenue from Financial Repression Giovannini , Alberto and de Melo , Martha , The American Economic Review , Vol. 83 , No. 4 Sep. 1993 ( pp. 953 -- 963 ) Jump up ^ Greenspan , Alan ( 1966 ) . `` Gold and Economic Freedom '' . Constitution.org . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Goodman , George J.W. , Paper Money , 1981 , p. 165 -- 6 Jump up ^ Hill , Liezel ( January 13 , 2011 ) . `` Gold mine output hit record in 2010 , more gains likely this year -- GFMS '' . Mining Weekly . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ U.S. Geological Survey ( January 2011 ) . `` GOLD '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Geological Survey , Mineral Commodity Summaries . U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey . Retrieved 10 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Mayer , David A. Gold standard at Google Books The Everything Economics Book : From theory to practice , your complete guide to understanding economics today ( Everything Series ) ISBN 978 - 1 - 4405 - 0602 - 4 . 2010 . pp. 33 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Mankiw , N. Gregory ( 2002 ) . Macroeconomics ( 5th ed . ) . Worth . pp. 238 -- 255 . ISBN 0 - 324 - 17190 - 0 . Jump up ^ Krugman , Paul . `` The Gold Bug Variations '' . Slate.com . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 13 . Jump up ^ Timberlake , Richard H. ( 2005 ) . `` Gold Standards and the Real Bills Doctrine in US Monetary Policy '' . Econ Journal Watch . 2 ( 2 ) : 196 -- 233 . ^ Jump up to : Bordo , Dittmar & Gavin 2003 . Jump up ^ Keogh , Bryan ( May 13 , 2009 ) . `` Real Rate Shock Hits CEOs as Borrowing Costs Impede Recovery '' . Bloomberg . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Deflation hurts borrowers and rewards savers , '' said Drew Matus , senior economist at Banc of America Securities - Merrill Lynch in New York , in a telephone interview . `` If you do borrow right now , and we go through a period of deflation , your cost of borrowing just went through the roof . Jump up ^ Mauldin , John ; Tepper , Jonathan ( 2011 - 02 - 09 ) . Endgame : The End of the Debt SuperCycle and How It Changes Everything . Hoboken , N.J. : John Wiley . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 00457 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` The greater of two evils '' . The Economist . May 7 , 2009 . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ DeLong , Brad ( 1996 - 08 - 10 ) . `` Why Not the Gold Standard ? '' . Berkeley , California : University of California , Berkeley . Retrieved 2008 - 09 - 25 . Jump up ^ Warburton , Clark ( 1966 ) . `` The Monetary Disequilibrium Hypothesis '' . Depression , Inflation , and Monetary Policy : Selected Papers , 1945 -- 1953 . Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press . pp. 25 -- 35 . OCLC 736401 . ^ Jump up to : Hamilton 2005 . Jump up ^ Hamilton 1988 . Jump up ^ Christina D. Romer ( 20 December 2003 ) . `` Great Depression '' ( PDF ) . ELSA . University of California Regents . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 December 2011 . Retrieved 10 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Remarks by Governor Ben S. Bernanke '' . The Federal Reserve Board . March 2 , 2004 . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . `` In September 1931 , following a period of financial upheaval in Europe that created concerns about British investments on the Continent , speculators attacked the British pound , presenting pounds to the Bank of England and demanding gold in return ... Unable to continue supporting the pound at its official value , Great Britain was forced to leave the gold standard , ... With the collapse of the pound , speculators turned their attention to the U.S. dollar Jump up ^ McArdle , Megan ( 2007 - 09 - 04 ) . `` There 's gold in them thar standards ! '' . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 12 . Jump up ^ Hummel , Jeffrey Rogers . `` Death and Taxes , Including Inflation : the Public versus Economists '' ( January 2007 ). ( 1 ) p. 56 Jump up ^ Demirgüç - Kunt , Asli ; Enrica Detragiache ( April 2005 ) . `` Cross-Country Empirical Studies of Systemic Bank Distress : A Survey '' . National Institute Economic Review . 192 ( 1 ) : 68 -- 83 . doi : 10.1177 / 002795010519200108 . ISSN 0027 - 9501 . OCLC 90233776 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` the quantity of money supplied by the Fed must be equal to the quantity demanded by money holders '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 16 , 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ http://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/bitcoin-standard-lessons.pdf Jump up ^ `` What Would a Bitcoin Gold Standard Look Like ? - Motherboard '' . ^ Jump up to : Hadas , Edward . `` Bitcoin a Fool 's Gold Standard '' . Jump up ^ Hiltzik , Michael ( 20 December 2013 ) . `` Will Overstock.com be bitcoin 's great liberator ? '' -- via LA Times . Jump up ^ Money `` , George Gilder , author of `` The Scandal of ( 5 April 2016 ) . `` The Fed ' is a god that has failed ' : George Gilder '' . Jump up ^ `` Make America Gold Again : Calls for Everyone 's Favorite Standard Are Back '' . 17 May 2016 -- via www.bloomberg.com . Jump up ^ Paul , Ron ; Lewis Lehrman ( 1982 ) . The case for gold : a minority report of the U.S. Gold Commission ( PDF ) . Washington , D.C. : Cato Institute . p. 160 . ISBN 0 - 932790 - 31 - 3 . OCLC 8763972 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 12 . Jump up ^ al - ' Amraawi , Muhammad ; Al - Khammar al - Baqqaali ; Ahmad Saabir ; Al - Hussayn ibn Haashim ; Abu Sayf Kharkhaash ; Mubarak Sa'doun al - Mutawwa ' ; Malik Abu Hamza Sezgin ; Abdassamad Clarke ; Asadullah Yate ( 2001 - 07 - 01 ) . `` Declaration of ' Ulama on the Gold Dinar '' . Islam i Dag . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 14 . Jump up ^ McGregor , Richard ( 2011 - 01 - 16 ) . `` Richard McGregor : Hu questions future role of US dollar . Financial Times , January 16 , 2011 '' . Financial Times . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Conduct of Monetary Policy : Report of the Federal Reserve Board Pursuant to the Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978 , P.L. 95 - 523 and The State of the Economy : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy of the Committee on Banking and Financial Services , House of Representatives , One Hundred Fifth Congress , Second Session , July 22 , 1998 - FRASER - St. Louis Fed '' . Jump up ^ Greenspan , Alan ( July 1966 ) . `` Gold and Economic Freedom '' . The Objectivist. 5 ( 7 ) . Retrieved 2008 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ Paul , Ron . End the Fed . p. xxiii . Jump up ^ Salerno 1982 . Jump up ^ `` Time to Think about the Gold Standard ? Cato @ Liberty '' . Cato-at-liberty.org. 2009 - 03 - 12 . Retrieved 2010 - 07 - 24 . Jump up ^ Channel : CNBC . Show : Squawk Box . Date : 11 / 13 / 2009 . Interview with Ron Paul Jump up ^ Clark , Stephen ( March 3 , 2011 ) . `` Utah Considers Return to Gold , Silver Coins '' . Fox News . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Jump up ^ CNN ( 2011 - 03 - 29 ) . `` Utah : Forget dollars . How about gold ? '' . Jump up ^ Spillius , Alex ( 2011 - 03 - 18 ) . `` Tea Party legislation reveals anxiety at US direction under Barack Obama '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Jump up ^ http://www.azleg.gov/govlettr/51leg/1R/SB1439.pdf Jump up ^ Appelbaum , Binyamin ( 2015 - 12 - 01 ) . `` The Good Old Days of the Gold Standard ? Not Really , Historians Say '' . The New York Times . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 02 . Jump up ^ Bowyer , Jerry ( 23 October 2013 ) . `` My Friendly Debate On The Gold Standard With Allan Meltzer , The World 's Leading Monetarist '' . Forbes / Contributor Opinions . Retrieved 27 December 2015 . Sources Bordo , Michael D. ; Dittmar , Robert D. ; Gavin , William T. ( June 2003 ) . `` Gold , Fiat Money and Price Stability '' ( PDF ) . Working Paper Series . Research Division -- Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis . Retrieved December 24 , 2011 . Cassel , Gustav . The Downfall of the Gold Standard . Oxford University Press , 1936 . Drummond , Ian M. The Gold Standard and the International Monetary System 1900 -- 1939 . Macmillan Education , LTD , 1987 . Eichengreen , Barry J. ( 1995 ) . Golden Fetters : The Gold Standard and the Great Depression , 1919 -- 1939 . New York City : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 510113 - 8 . OCLC 34383450 . Elwell , Craig K. ( 2011 ) . Brief History of the Gold Standard in the United States . Congressional Research Service . Friedman , Milton ; Schwartz , Anna Jacobson ( 1963 ) . `` A Monetary History of the US 1867 -- 1960 '' . Princeton University Press . p. 543 . ISBN 0 - 691 - 04147 - 4 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 09 . Hamilton , James D. ( April 1988 ) . `` Role of the International Gold Standard in Propagating the Great Depression '' . Contemporary Economic Policy . 6 ( 2 ) : 67 -- 89 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1465 - 7287.1988. tb00286. x . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 12 . Lipsey , Richard G. ( 1975 ) . An introduction to positive economics ( fourth ed . ) . Weidenfeld & Nicolson . pp. 683 -- 702 . ISBN 0 - 297 - 76899 - 9 . Officer , Lawrence . `` Gold Standard . '' 1 February 2010 . EH.net. 13 April 2013 . Further reading Bensel , Richard Franklin ( 2000 ) . The political economy of American industrialization , 1877 -- 1900 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 77604 - X . OCLC 43552761 . Eichengreen , Barry J. ; Marc Flandreau ( 1997 ) . The gold standard in theory and history . New York City : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 15061 - 2 . OCLC 37743323 . Bordo , Michael D. ( 1999 ) . Gold standard and related regimes : collected essays . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 55006 - 8 . OCLC 59422152 . Bordo , Michael D ; Anna Jacobson Schwartz ; National Bureau of Economic Research ( 1984 ) . A Retrospective on the classical gold standard , 1821 -- 1931 . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 - 226 - 06590 - 1 . OCLC 10559587 . Coletta , Paolo E. `` Greenbackers , Goldbugs , and Silverites : Currency Reform and Politics , 1860 - 1897 , '' in H. Wayne Morgan ( ed . ) , The Gilded Age : A Reappraisal . Syracuse , NY : Syracuse University Press , 1963 ; pp. 111 -- 139 . Officer , Lawrence H. ( 2007 ) . Between the Dollar - Sterling Gold Points : Exchange Rates , Parity and Market Behavior . Chicago : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 03821 - 9 . OCLC 124025586 . Einaudi , Luca ( 2001 ) . Money and politics : European monetary unification and the international gold standard ( 1865 -- 1873 ) . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 924366 - 2 . OCLC 45556225 . Roberts , Mark A ( March 1995 ) . `` Keynes , the Liquidity Trap and the Gold Standard : A Possible Application of the Rational Expectations Hypothesis '' . The Manchester School of Economic & Social Studies . Blackwell Publishing . 61 ( 1 ) : 82 -- 92 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1467 - 9957.1995. tb00270. x . Thompson , Earl A. ; Charles Robert Hickson ( 2001 ) . Ideology and the evolution of vital institutions : guilds , the gold standard , and modern international cooperation . Boston : Kluwer Acad. Publ . ISBN 0 - 7923 - 7390 - 1 . OCLC 46836861 . Pollard , Sidney ( 1970 ) . The gold standard and employment policies between the Wars . London : Methuen . ISBN 0 - 416 - 14250 - 8 . OCLC 137456 . Hanna , Hugh Henry ; Charles Arthur Conant ; Jeremiah Jenks ( 1903 ) . Stability of international exchange : Report on the introduction of the gold - exchange standard into China and other silver - using countries . OCLC 6671835 . Banking in modern Japan . Tokyo : Fuji Bank . 1967 . ISBN 0 - 333 - 71139 - 4 . OCLC 254964565 . Officer , Lawrence H. ( 2008 ) . `` bimetallism '' . In Steven N. Durlauf and Lawrence E. Blume . The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics . The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics , 2nd Edition . Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan . p. 488 . doi : 10.1057 / 9780230226203.0136 . ISBN 0 - 333 - 78676 - 9 . OCLC 181424188 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 13 . Drummond , Ian M. ; The Economic History Society ( 1987 ) . The gold standard and the international monetary system 1900 -- 1939 . Houndmills , Basingstoke , Hampshire : Macmillan Education . ISBN 0 - 333 - 37208 - 5 . OCLC 18324084 . Hawtrey , Ralph George ( 1927 ) . The Gold Standard in theory and practice . London : Longman . ISBN 0 - 313 - 22104 - 9 . OCLC 250855462 . Flandreau , Marc ( 2004 ) . The glitter of gold : France , bimetallism , and the emergence of the international gold standard , 1848 -- 1873 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 925786 - 8 . OCLC 54826941 . Lalor , John ( 2003 ) ( 1881 ) . Cyclopedia of Political Science , Political Economy and the Political History of the United States . London : Thoemmes Continuum . ISBN 1 - 84371 - 093 - 5 . OCLC 52565505 . Bernanke , Ben ; Harold James ( October 1990 ) . The Gold Standard , Deflation , and Financial Crisis in the Great Depression : An International Comparison . Working Paper Series . 3488 . Cambridge , Massachusetts : National Bureau of Economic Research . OCLC 22840844 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 13 . Also published as : Bernanke , Ben ; Harold James ( 1991 ) . `` The Gold Standard , Deflation , and Financial Crisis in the Great Depression : An International Comparison '' . In R. Glenn Hubbard . Financial markets and financial crises . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . pp. 33 -- 68 . ISBN 0 - 226 - 35588 - 8 . OCLC 231281602 . Rothbard , Murray Newton ( 2006 ) . `` The World Currency Crisis '' . Making Economic Sense . Burlingame , California : Ludwig von Mises Institute . pp. 295 -- 299 . ISBN 0 - 945466 - 46 - 3 . OCLC 78624652 . Cassel , Gustav ( 1936 ) . The downfall of the gold standard . Oxford : Clarendon Press . OCLC 237252 . Braga de Macedo , Jorge ; Barry J. Eichengreen ; Jaime Reis ( 1996 ) . Currency convertibility : the gold standard and beyond . New York City : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 14057 - 9 . OCLC 33132906 . Russell , William H. ( 1982 ) . The Deceit of the Gold Standard and of Gold Monetization . American Classical College Press . ISBN 0 - 89266 - 324 - 3 . Mitchell , Wesley C. ( 1908 ) . Gold , prices , and wages under the greenback standard . Berkeley , California : The University Press . OCLC 1088693 . Mouré , Kenneth ( 2002 ) . The gold standard illusion : France , the Bank of France , and the International Gold Standard , 1914 -- 1939 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 924904 - 0 . OCLC 48544538 . Bayoumi , Tamim A. ; Barry J. Eichengreen and Mark P. Taylor ( 1996 ) . Modern perspectives on the gold standard . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 57169 - 3 . OCLC 34245103 . Keynes , John Maynard ( 1925 ) . The economic consequences of Mr. Churchill . London : Hogarth Press . OCLC 243857880 . Keynes , John Maynard ( 1930 ) . A treatise on money in two volumes . London : MacMillan . OCLC 152413612 . Ferderer , J. Peter ( 1994 ) . Credibility of the interwar gold standard , uncertainty , and the Great Depression . Annandale - on - Hudson , New York : Jerome Levy Economics Institute . OCLC 31141890 . Aceña , Pablo Martín ; Jaime Reis ( 2000 ) . Monetary standards in the periphery : paper , silver and gold , 1854 -- 1933 . London : Macmillan Press . ISBN 0 - 333 - 67020 - 5 . OCLC 247963508 . Gallarotti , Giulio M. ( 1995 ) . The anatomy of an international monetary regime : the classical gold standard , 1880 -- 1914 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 508990 - 1 . OCLC 30511110 . Dick , Trevor J.O. ; John E. Floyd ( 2004 ) . Canada and the Gold Standard : Balance of Payments Adjustment Under Fixed Exchange Rates , 1871 -- 1913 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 61706 - 5 . OCLC 59135525 . Kenwood , A.G. ; A.L. Lougheed ( 1992 ) . The growth of the international economy 1820 -- 1990 . London : Routledge . ISBN 91 - 44 - 00079 - 0 . Hofstadter , Richard ( 1996 ) . `` Free Silver and the Mind of `` Coin '' Harvey `` . The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays . Harvard : Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 65461 - 7 . OCLC 34772674 . Lewis , Nathan K. ( 2006 ) . Gold : The Once and Future Money . New York : Wiley . ISBN 0 - 470 - 04766 - 6 . OCLC 87151964 . Withers , Hartley ( 1919 ) . War - Time Financial Problems . London : J. Murray . OCLC 2458983 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 14 . Metzler , Mark ( 2006 ) . Lever of Empire : The International Gold Standard and the Crisis of Liberalism in Prewar Japan . Berkeley , California : University of California Press . p. ( 2 ) . ISBN 0 - 520 - 24420 - 6 . Pietrusza , David ( 2011 ) . ' It Shines for All ' : The Gold Standard Editorials of The New York Sun . New York City , New York : New York Sun Books . ISBN 1 - 4611 - 5612 - 2 . External links Listen to this article ( info / dl ) This audio file was created from a revision of the article `` Gold standard '' dated 2007 - 12 - 04 , and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article . ( Audio help ) More spoken articles What is The Gold Standard ? University of Iowa Center for International Finance and Development History of the Bank of England Bank of England Timeline : Gold 's history as a currency standard NDL : 00565826 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gold_standard&oldid=826455194 '' Categories : Gold standard Gold Economic history of Japan Economic history of the United States History of banking International trade Monetary policy Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown Wikipedia pages semi-protected from banned users Articles needing additional references from July 2010 All articles needing additional references All articles with self - published sources Articles with self - published sources from December 2017 Articles needing additional references from March 2013 All Wikipedia articles needing clarification Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2014 Articles needing additional references from October 2013 Articles needing additional references from May 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2009 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2013 All articles containing potentially dated statements Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Pages using Columns - list with deprecated parameters Spoken articles Articles with hAudio microformats Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Afrikaans Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ລາວ Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Русский Саха тыла Shqip සිංහල Suomi Svenska తెలుగు Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 文言 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 19 February 2018 , at 05 : 44 . 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The Bridges of Madison County
The Bridges of Madison County - wikipedia The Bridges of Madison County This article is about the book . For the film , see The Bridges of Madison County ( film ) . For the musical , see The Bridges of Madison County ( musical ) . For the bridges , see List of Madison County Covered Bridges . The Bridges of Madison County First edition Author Robert James Waller Country United States Language English Publisher Warner Books , Inc . Publication date Media type Print ( hardback & paperback ) Pages 192 pp ISBN 0 - 446 - 51652 - X OCLC 24246926 Dewey Decimal 813 /. 54 20 LC Class PS3573. A4347 B75 1992 Followed by A Thousand Country Roads The Bridges of Madison County is a 1992 best - selling novel by Robert James Waller that tells the story of a married but lonely Italian - American woman ( war bride ) living on a 1960s Madison County , Iowa , farm . While her husband and children are away at the State Fair , she engages in an affair with a National Geographic photographer from Bellingham , Washington , who is visiting Madison County to create a photographic essay on the covered bridges in the area . The novel is presented as a novelization of a true story , but it is in fact entirely fictional . However , the author stated in an interview that there were strong similarities between the main character and himself . The novel is one of the bestselling books of the 20th century , with 60 million copies sold worldwide . It has also been adapted into a feature film in 1995 and a musical in 2013 . Contents 1 Publication history 2 Reception 3 Film adaptation 4 Musical adaptation 5 References 6 External links Publication history ( edit ) It was originally published in the UK under the title Love in Black and White . A sequel entitled A Thousand Country Roads was published in 2002 . It tells the remainder of the two main characters ' story after their four - day affair . They never meet again , but their lives are interlocked until death . In 2005 , the trilogy was completed with High Plains Tango , which came about when Waller was writing A Thousand Country Roads and he realized he had two novels ' worth of material . `` High Plains Tango picks up the story of itinerant master carpenter Carlisle McMillan , Robert Kincaid 's illegitimate son , who settles in Salamander , S.D. There his life becomes intertwined with two very different women and almost overrun by the threats of eminent domain . '' Reception ( edit ) The San Francisco Chronicle praised the novel as `` lyrical ... sensuous and sensitive ... a tale of lasting love '' , while Entertainment Weekly called it `` a short , poignant story , moving precisely because it has the ragged edges of reality '' . Other reviewers criticized the novel as sentimental slush : featuring `` contrived , unrealistic dialog '' , and a `` trite '' storyline . The book debuted on the New York Times bestseller list in August 1992 and slowly climbed to number 1 , and remained on the list for over three years ( 164 consecutive weeks ) , through October 8 , 1995 . Film adaptation ( edit ) The Bridges of Madison County was made into a 1995 film of the same name , adapted by Richard LaGravenese and directed by Clint Eastwood . It stars Eastwood and Meryl Streep . Musical adaptation ( edit ) Main article : The Bridges of Madison County ( musical ) The Bridges of Madison County was adapted into a Tony Award - winning musical with music and lyrics by Jason Robert Brown and the book by Marsha Norman . The musical premiered at the Williamstown Theatre Festival on August 1 , 2013 . Directed by Bartlett Sher , the cast featured Elena Shaddow as Francesca and Steven Pasquale . The musical began previews on Broadway at the Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre on January 17 , 2014 and officially opened on February 20 , 2014 with Kelli O'Hara as Francesca and Steven Pasquale as Robert Kincaid . Directed by Bartlett Sher , the sets are by Michael Yeargan , costumes by Catherine Zuber , and lighting by Donald Holder . Hunter Foster played the role of Bud Johnson , the husband of Francesca . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Transcript of interview with Robert James Waller at http://www.readinggroupguides.com/guides3/thousand_country_roads2.asp#bio Archived 2013 - 05 - 13 at the Wayback Machine. , retrieved 4 Feb , 2008 Jump up ^ Love in Black and White , hardcover , Sinclair - Stevenson , 1992 . Jump up ^ Love in Black and White , paperback , Mandarin , 1993 . Jump up ^ Reid , Dixie . `` Waller 's ' Bridges ' trilogy ends with a ' Tango ' '' . azcentral.com . The Arizona Republic . Retrieved 20 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Klepp , L.S. `` BOOK REVIEW : The Bridges of Madison County '' June 12 , 1992 . Jump up ^ http://www.pophistorydig.com/?tag=bridges-of-madison-county-book Jump up ^ Lyall , Sarah ( 28 July 1993 ) . `` Book Notes : A Big Year for ' Bridges ' '' , The New York Times Jump up ^ ( 8 October 1995 ) . `` Best Seller List '' , The New York Times Jump up ^ Official site bridgesofmadisoncountymusical Jump up ^ Staff . `` Just the Winners , Please : Who Won the 68th Annual Tony Awards '' Archived 2014 - 06 - 09 at Archive.is playbill.com , June 8 , 2014 Jump up ^ `` The Tony Award Nominees - Shows - TonyAwards.com - The American Theatre Wing 's Tony Awards ® - Official Website by IBM '' . TonyAwards.com. 2014 - 02 - 18 . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 04 . Jump up ^ Hetrick , Adam . `` ' The Bridges of Madison County ' , Starring Steven Pasquale and Elena Shaddow , Premieres at Williamstown '' Archived 2013 - 08 - 03 at the Wayback Machine . playbill.com , August 1 , 2013 Jump up ^ Hetrick , Adam . `` ' The Bridges of Madison County ' , Starring Kelli O'Hara and Steven Pasquale , Arrives on Broadway Jan. 17 '' Archived 2014 - 02 - 01 at the Wayback Machine . playbill.com , January 17 , 2014 Jump up ^ Gioia , Michael and Hetrick , Adam . `` ' The Bridges of Madison County ' Will Open on Broadway One Week Earlier Than Expected '' Archived 2013 - 12 - 02 at the Wayback Machine . playbill.com , November 26 , 2013 Jump up ^ Staff. `` The Verdict : Critics Review ' The Bridges of Madison County ' '' Archived 2014 - 03 - 21 at the Wayback Machine . playbill.com , February 21 , 2014 Jump up ^ Hetrick , Adam . `` Hunter Foster Completes Love Triangle of Broadway Musical The Bridges of Madison County ' '' Archived 2013 - 12 - 06 at the Wayback Machine . playbill.com , December 3 , 2013 External links ( edit ) Study of reader response to the novel 20th - Century American Bestsellers entry Analysis of The Bridges of Madison County on Lit React Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bridges_of_Madison_County&oldid=846574759 '' Categories : 1992 American novels Debut novels American novels adapted into films Novels set in Iowa Madison County , Iowa Novels about photographers Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template archiveis links Pages to import images to Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia فارسی 한국어 हिन्दी Italiano עברית Kiswahili 日本 語 Polski Português Simple English Українська 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 19 June 2018 , at 16 : 16 ( UTC ) . 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Banking in Switzerland
Banking in Switzerland - wikipedia Banking in Switzerland `` Swiss Bank '' redirects here . For the former bank and predecessor to UBS , see Swiss Bank Corporation . Swiss banks are known for their banking secrecy and security . Pictured : the Mont Cervin Palace in Zermatt . A hub of tourism , many private banks service the city and maintain underground bunkers and storage facilities for gold at the foothills of the Swiss Alps . Part of a series on the Culture of Switzerland History People Languages Mythology and folklore ( show ) Mythology folklore Cuisine Festivals Religion ( show ) Christianity Catholicism Protestantism Islam Ahmadiyya Judaism Hinduism Art ( show ) Architecture Literature Music and performing arts ( show ) Music Media ( show ) Television Cinema Sport Monuments ( show ) World Heritage Sites Castles Heritage Sites Symbols ( show ) Flag Coat of arms Switzerland portal Banking in Switzerland began in the early 18th century through Switzerland 's merchant trade and has , over the centuries , grown into a complex , regulated , and international industry . Along with the Swiss Alps , Swiss chocolate , watchmaking and mountaineering , banking is seen as emblematic of Switzerland . Switzerland has a long , kindred history of banking secrecy and client confidentiality reaching back to the early 1700s . Started as a way to protect wealthy European banking interests , Swiss banking secrecy was codified in 1934 with the passage of the landmark federal law , the Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks . Controversial protection of foreign accounts and assets during World War II sparked a series of proposed financial regulations seeking to temper bank secrecy to little success . Switzerland , considered the `` grandfather of bank secrecy '' , has been one of the largest offshore financial centers and tax havens in the world since the mid-20th century . Despite an international push to meaningfully roll back banking secrecy laws in the country , Swiss social and political forces have minimized and reverted much of proposed roll backs . Disclosing client information has been considered a serious social and criminal offence since the early 1900s . Employees working in Switzerland and abroad at Swiss banks `` have long adhered to an unwritten code similar to that observed by doctors or priests '' . Since 1934 , banking secrecy laws have been violated by four people : Christoph Meili ( 1997 ) , Bradley Birkenfeld ( 2007 ) , Rudolf Elmer ( 2011 ) , and Hervé Falciani ( 2014 ) . After insurmountable professional setbacks , all the men were either fired or resigned from their banks , served with federal arrest warrants and fined . The Swiss Bankers Association ( SBA ) estimated in 2018 that Swiss banks held US $ 6.5 trillion in assets or 25 % of all global cross-border assets . Switzerland 's main lingual hubs , Geneva ( for French ) , Lugano ( for Italian ) , and Zürich ( for German ) service the different geographical markets . It consistently ranks in the top three states on the Financial Secrecy Index and was named first many times , most recently in 2018 . The three largest banks -- UBS , Credit Suisse , Julius Bär -- are all regulated by the Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority ( FINMA ) , and the Swiss National Bank ( NSB ) which derives its authority from a series of federal statutes . Banking in Switzerland has historically played , and still continues to play , a dominant role in the Swiss economy and society . According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , total banking assets amount to 467 % of total gross domestic product . Banking in Switzerland has been portrayed , to varying degrees of accuracy , in overall popular culture , books , movies , and television shows . Contents 1 History 2 Swiss economy 3 Regulation 4 Banking secrecy 4.1 History 4.2 Modern secrecy 4.3 Bank vaults and bunkers 4.4 Numbered bank accounts 5 Tax evasion 6 Major banks 6.1 UBS 6.2 Credit Suisse 7 Other banks 7.1 Central Bank 7.2 Private banks 7.3 Cantonal banks 8 In popular culture 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links History ( edit ) Further information : Banking in Switzerland § Banking secrecy During the 18th century , Swiss mercenaries brought home funds from their contracts that helped Swiss banks begin . Banking began in the eighteenth century by way of the riches of merchants . Wegelin & Co. , established in 1741 , was the oldest bank in Switzerland until it restructured into a new legal entity in 2013 . Hy Hentsch & Co. bank and Lombard Odier , were both founded in 1796 in Geneva as private banks , and The Pictet Group was established in 1805 as a merchant bank . Hentsch & Cie was a founding member of the Swiss National bank during 1852 . Swiss economy ( edit ) Main article : Economy of Switzerland Switzerland is a prosperous nation with a per capita gross domestic product higher than that of most Western European nations . The value of the Swiss franc ( CHF ) has been relatively stable compared with that of other currencies . Swiss neutrality and national sovereignty , long recognized by foreign nations , have fostered a stable environment for the banking sector to develop and thrive . Switzerland maintained neutrality through both World Wars , is not a member of the European Union , and did not join the United Nations until 2002 . The Bank of International Settlements ( BIS ) , an organization that facilitates cooperation among the world 's central banks , is headquartered in Basel . Founded in 1930 , the BIS chose to locate in Switzerland because of the country 's neutrality , which was important to the organization founded by countries that had been enemies in World War I . Banking has played a dominant role in the Swiss economy for two centuries . According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , total banking assets amount to 467 % of total gross domestic product . Regulation ( edit ) Main article : Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks § Revisions The Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority ( FINMA ) is a public law institution that supervises most banking - related activities as well as securities markets and investment funds . Regulatory authority is derived from the Swiss Financial Market Supervision Act ( FINMASA ) and Article 98 of the Swiss Federal Constitution . The office of the Swiss Banking Ombudsman , founded in 1993 , is sponsored by the Swiss Banking Ombudsman Foundation , which was established by the Swiss Bankers Association . The ombudsman 's services , which are offered free of charge , include mediation and assistance to persons searching for dormant assets . The ombudsman handles about 1,500 complaints raised against banks yearly . Banking secrecy ( edit ) History ( edit ) Swiss banking secrecy was born in Geneva during the 1700s . Bank secrecy in the Swiss region can be traced to the Great Council of Geneva which outlawed the disclosure of information about the European upper class in 1713 . As a way of avoiding the Protestant banking system , Catholic French Kings deposited their holdings in Geneva accounts . During the 1780s , Swiss bank accounts began insuring deposits which contributed to their reputation for financial security . In 1815 , the Congress of Vienna formally established Switzerland 's international neutrality which led to a large capital influx . The wealthy , landlocked Switzerland saw banking secrecy as a way to build an empire similar to that of France , Spain , and the United Kingdom . Swiss historian Sébastian Guex notes in The Origins of Secret Swiss Bank Accounts : This is what the Swiss bourgeoisie are thinking : ' That 's our future . We will play on the contradictions between the European powers and , protected by the shield of our neutrality , our arm will be industry and finance . ' After a small scale civil war in the 1840s between the Swiss cantons , the Swiss Federation was founded in 1848 . The formation of the state , through a direct democracy , contributed to the political stability needed for banking secrecy . The mountainous terrain of Switzerland provided a natural environment to excavate underground vaults for storage of gold and diamonds . During the 1910s , Swiss bankers traveled to France to advertise its banking secrecy during World War I . The war 's contribution to political and economic instability , sparked a rapid capital movement into Switzerland . As European countries began to increase taxes to finance the war , wealthy clients moved their holdings into Swiss accounts to avoid taxation . The French banked in Geneva , the Italians in Lugano , and the Germans in Zurich . While disclosing client information was a civil offence in Switzerland for centuries , the Swiss Federal Assembly made it a federal criminal offence in 1934 with the passage of the landmark legislation , the Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks . Colloquially known as the Banking Law of 1934 or the Swiss Banking Law of 1934 , it codified banking secrecy . The Federal Assembly enacted the law to quell controversy over the alleged tax evasion of wealthy French businessmen , military generals , and Catholic bishops . An additional provision , Article 47 ( b ) , was drafted before its ratification to protect Jewish assets from the Nazi party . Switzerland 's mountainous terrain helps to store gold in underground bunkers . Along with protecting German Jewish assets , Swiss banks collaborated with Nazi Germany and their allies by storing their gold and cash balances in underground vaults . Adolf Hitler maintained an account at the Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) estimated at 1.1 billion Reichsmarks . After the United States formally asked the bank to transfer the money in the 1990s , UBS wired US $ 400 to 700 million worth of Reichsmarks to U.S. authorities . Banking regulations in Switzerland limit the amount of orphaned assets allowed to leave a bank 's custody . UBS , with consent from the Swiss government , froze the account containing Hitler 's assets indefinitely , and clipped the Reichsmarks , stripping the currency of value . During World War II , UBS also maintained accounts for hundreds of German Jewish businesspeople and households . After the Banking Law of 1934 was passed , the bank aggressively protected assets of the `` enemies of Nazi Germany '' . When Hitler announced an ( aborted ) invasion of Switzerland in 1940 , UBS contracted the Swiss Armed Forces to blockade their retail banks and transport Jewish assets to underground military bunkers . The Swiss Bank Corporation ( SBC ) and Credit Suisse , did likewise but along with UBS , they were later fined hundreds of millions of dollars in reparations for their dealings with Nazi Germany . Throughout the 1980s and 1990s , numerous international proposals for bank secrecy rollbacks were made by foreign states with little success . International pressure to roll back banking secrecy is seen as an attack on Swiss culture and values . The Swiss parliament expressed an interest in adopting banking secrecy into their constitution in 2017 . After the 2008 financial crisis , Switzerland signed the European Union Savings Tax Directive ( EUSTD ) which obliges Swiss banks to report to 43 European countries non-identifying annual tax statistics . On December 3 , 2008 , the Federal Assembly increased the prison sentence for violations of banking secrecy from a maximum of six months to five years . In late 2008 , after an international , multi-state investigation into Switzerland 's role in U.S. tax evasion , the Swiss government entered into a limited , Deferred Prosecution Agreement ( DPA ) with the U.S. Department of Justice . The agreement initiated the landmark Birkenfeld Disclosure of information on more than 4,000 clients . `` If there is anything the Swiss take more seriously than the precision of their watches or the quality of their chocolate , its the secrecy of their banks . '' -- Steve Kroft , host of Banking : A Crack In the Swiss Vault In another step toward loosening banking secrecy , Switzerland signed the U.S. Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act ( FATCA ) , after rejecting it twice in parliament . The FATCA requires Swiss banks to disclose non-identifying U.S. client information annually to the Internal Revenue Service . The agreement does not guarantee the semi-automatic information transfers , which remain at the discretion of Swiss government authorities . If a client does not consent to having their information shared with the IRS , Swiss law prohibits the disclosure . If a client does consent , Swiss banks send the IRS tax - related information about the account holder but are prohibited from disclosing identities pursuant to Article 47 of the Banking Law of 1934 . The 2018 Financial Secrecy Index stated : `` this ( does ) not mean that Swiss banking secrecy was finished , as some excitable news reports suggest ... the breach was a partial ( dent ) '' . In March 2015 , the Swiss government entered into bilateral `` Rubik Agreements '' with Germany , Austria , and the United Kingdom allowing foreign holders of Swiss bank accounts to retain their anonymity in exchange for paying predetermined back taxes . Switzerland adopted the International Convention on the Automatic Exchange of Banking Information ( AEOI ) in 2017 , agreeing to automatically release limited financial information to certain countries for the sole purpose of tax auditing . This agreement includes the Common Reporting Standard ( CRS ) which obliges Swiss banks to automatically send foreign tax authorities the client 's name , address , domicile , tax number , date of birth , account number , account balance at years end , and the gross investment income . The CRS does not , however , override the Swiss Banking Law of 1934 , so the client 's expenses ( withdrawals ) and investments are not disclosed . Thus tax authorities can not `` go fishing '' for tax evaders , they must directly link a financial crime to the client 's account . The disclosed information can only be used for tax auditing and Swiss authorities may prevent disclosure . In December 2017 , the Swiss parliament launched a standing initiative and expressed an interest in formally embedding banking secrecy within the Swiss Constitution making it a federally - protected constitutional right . In January , 2018 , a U.S. district court ruled that Swiss bankers `` ( have ) nothing to do with the choice that an American taxpayer makes to not declare offshore assets '' , later clarifying they should not be seen as facilitating tax evasion but rather provide a legal service that is made illegal by the client . The Swiss Justice Ministry announced in March 2018 that disclosure of client information in a pending court case involving a Swiss bank is subject to federal espionage and extortion charges in addition to charges relating to banking secrecy laws . Modern secrecy ( edit ) Main article : Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks § Revisions `` ( Banking secrecy ) is comparable to medical confidentiality ... ( Switzerland ) must absolutely respect the private sphere ... ( no one should ) know what there is in your bank account . '' -- Ueli Maurer , former President of Switzerland in 2013 Switzerland , considered the `` grandfather of bank secrecy '' , has been one of the largest offshore financial centers and tax havens in the world since the mid-20th century . Despite an international push to meaningfully roll back banking secrecy laws in the country , Swiss social and political forces have minimized and reverted much of the proposed roll backs . Disclosing client information has been considered a serious social and criminal offense since the early 1900s . Whistleblowers , despite legal protections , have been treated with hostility from the public and often face professional set backs in Switzerland . Swiss bankers who maintain offices exclusively in Switzerland are shielded from a foreign state 's lawsuits , extradition requests , and criminal charges , as long as they remain within the country 's legal jurisdiction . In spite of minor adjustments to bank secrecy , bankers working in Switzerland and abroad at Swiss banks `` have long adhered to an unwritten code similar to that observed by doctors or priests '' . Switzerland 's main lingual hubs , Geneva ( for French ) , Lugano ( for Italian ) , and Zürich ( for German ) service the different geographical markets . It consistently ranks in the top three states on the Financial Secrecy Index and was named first many times , most recently in 2018 . The Swiss Bankers Association estimated in 2018 that Swiss banks held US $6.5 trillion in assets or 25 % of all global cross-border assets . Secrecy laws have been violated by four people since 1934 : Christoph Meili ( 1997 ) , Bradley Birkenfeld ( 2007 ) , Rudolf Elmer ( 2011 ) , and Hervé Falciani ( 2014 ) . In all four cases , the whistleblowers were served with federal arrest warrants , fined , and sustained professional setbacks in Switzerland . Bank vaults and bunkers ( edit ) Swiss banks maintain underground storage facilities for client assets similar to the one pictured . A handful of larger Swiss banks operate undisclosed or otherwise secretive bank vaults , storage facilities or underground bunkers for gold bars , diamonds , or other valuable physical assets . Most of these underground bunkers are located near or at the foothills of the mountainous regions of the Swiss Alps . These facilities are not subject to the same banking regulations as banks in Switzerland and do not have to report holdings to regulatory agencies . The Swiss defense department estimates that of the ten former military bunkers available for sale , six of them were sold to Swiss banks to house assets during the 1980s and 1990s . Storage in these underground bunkers and bank vaults is typically reserved for clients that pass a multi-stage security clearance . Some of these bunkers are not accessible by road or foot and require aircraft transportation . Numbered bank accounts ( edit ) Main article : Numbered bank account Many banks in Switzerland offer clients numbered bank accounts , accounts where the identity of the holder is replaced with a multi-digit number known only to the client and select private bankers . Although these accounts do add another layer of banking secrecy , they are not completely anonymous as the name of the client is still recorded by the bank and subject to limited , warranted disclosure . Some Swiss banks supplement the number with a code name such as `` Cardinal '' , `` Octopussy '' or `` Cello '' that identifies the client , alternatively . However , to open this type of account in Switzerland , clients must pass a multi-stage clearance procedure and prove to the bank the lawful origins of their assets . Tax evasion ( edit ) Citizens of Switzerland retain the country 's strictest , most expansive , and unalienable banking secrecy protections as it pertains to taxation . Further information : Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks § Revisions Many sovereign states do not legally require private bankers to confirm whether or not a client has or has not paid their taxes , in any capacity . On top of this , Switzerland 's banking secrecy laws prohibit the disclosure of client information under a variety of federal , cantonal , and civil policies . Many foreign nationals open Swiss bank accounts to take advantage of these laws and tax distinctions . While citizens of Switzerland retain the full force of banking secrecy protections , foreign clients are afforded some of the most stringent bank -- client confidentiality protections in the world . In exchange for banking services , the Swiss government charges `` a low , lump - sum option on the money they bank '' , after which Swiss tax authorities consider client tax burdens `` settled '' . After the Banking Law of 1934 was passed , Swiss bankers traveled across Europe to advertise its banking secrecy during World War II . As European countries began to increase taxes to finance the war , wealthy clients moved their holdings into Swiss accounts to avoid taxation . According to the 2018 Financial Secrecy Index , Switzerland 's banking secrecy laws have rendered it a premier tax haven since the 1900s . One of the most prominent attractions to the disclosure protection laws is the distinction between tax evasion ( non-reporting of income ) and tax fraud ( active deception ) . Akin to the distinction between legal tax avoidance and illegal tax evasion in the U.S. , the non-reporting of income is only a civil offense in Switzerland while tax fraud is a financial crime . When foreign clients deposit holdings into a Swiss bank account , the bank is legally prohibited from disclosing balances or client information to tax authorities . This prohibition can only be waved if the client has produced a written statement of consent or a financial crime has been directly linked to the bank account . More often than not , clients do n't consent to foreign tax authorities which leaves only the latter circumstance available . Many client services available in Switzerland ( e.g. numbered bank accounts ) are used to shield client data from tax authorities . Breaches of banking secrecy laws in Switzerland are automatically processed pursuant to Article 47 of the Banking Law of 1934 : those who disclose client information are subject to a maximum of five years imprisonment and 250,000 francs ( € 215,000 or US $ 250,000 ) in fines . Whistleblowers and leakers of client information often face hostility from the public and sustain professional set backs . Denounced as a criminal in Switzerland , a federal arrest warrant has been in place for Bradley Birkenfeld since 2008 , after he disclosed UBS client information to the U.S. Internal Revenue Service in 2007 . After the 2008 financial crisis , the Swiss Parliament initiated a series of international tax treaties that rolled back banking secrecy protections for foreign clients in response to pressure from the European Union , United States , and United Kingdom . Despite implementing nearly 50 information transfer agreements and numerous limitations to banking secrecy protections for foreign clients , Switzerland has been ranked among the top three tax havens in the world every single year since the financial crisis , most recently in 2018 . Major banks ( edit ) The largest bank in Switzerland : UBS The second largest bank in Switzerland : Credit Suisse As of 2018 , there are more than 400 securities dealers and banking instituons in Switzerland , ranging from the `` Two Big Banks '' down to small banks serving the needs of a single community or a few special clients . The largest and second largest Swiss banks are UBS Group AG and Credit Suisse Group AG , respectively . They account for over 50 % of all deposits in Switzerland ; each has extensive branch networks throughout the country and most international centers . Due to their size and complexity , UBS and Credit Suisse are subject to an extra degree of supervision from the Federal Banking Commission . UBS ( edit ) Main article : UBS UBS Group AG came into existence in June 1998 , when Union Bank of Switzerland , founded in 1862 , and Swiss Bank Corporation , founded in 1872 , merged . Headquartered in Zurich and Basel , it is Switzerland 's largest bank . It maintains seven main offices around the world ( four in the United States and one each in London , Tokyo , and Hong Kong ) and branches on five continents . Credit Suisse ( edit ) Main article : Credit Suisse Credit Suisse Group is the second - largest Swiss bank . Based in Zurich and founded in 1856 , Credit Suisse offers private banking , investment banking and asset management services . It acquired the First Boston Corporation in 1988 and merged with the Winterthur insurance company in 1997 ; the latter was sold to AXA in 2006 . The asset management services were sold to Aberdeen Asset Management during the 2008 financial crisis . Other banks ( edit ) Central bank ( edit ) Main article : Swiss National Bank The central bank of Switzerland , the Swiss National Bank ( SNB ) is headquartered in Bern . The Swiss National Bank ( SNB ) serves as the country 's central bank . Founded by the Federal Act on the Swiss National Bank ( 16 January 1906 ) , it began conducting business on 20 June 1907 . Its shares are publicly traded , and are held by the cantons , cantonal banks , and individual investors ; the federal government does not hold any shares . Although a central bank often has regulatory authority over the country 's banking system , the SNB does not ; regulation is solely the role of the Federal Banking Commission . Raiffeisen Banks `` assumes the role of central bank '' in providing treasury services , and is the third largest group consisting of 328 banks in 2011 , 390 in 2012 with 1,155 branches . During February 2012 , P. Vincenz was chief executive . During January , an announcement was made that the non-U.S. businesses of Wegelin & Co , the oldest Swiss bank , would be bought by the Raiffeisen group . The group has 3 million plus clients within Switzerland . Private banks ( edit ) The term private bank refers to a bank that offers private banking services and in its legal form is a partnership . The first private banks were created in St. Gallen in the mid-18th century and in Geneva in the late 18th century as partnerships , and some are still in the hands of the original families such as Hottinger and Mirabaud . In Switzerland , such private banks are called private bankers ( a protected term ) to distinguish them from the other private banks which are typically shared corporations . Historically in Switzerland a minimum of CHF1 million was required to open an account , however , over the last years many private banks have lowered their entry hurdles to CHF250 , 000 for private investors . Cantonal banks ( edit ) There are , as of 2006 , 24 cantonal banks ; these banks are state - guaranteed semi-governmental organizations controlled by one of Switzerland 's 26 cantons that engage in all banking businesses . The largest cantonal bank , the Zurich Cantonal Bank , had a 2005 net income of CHF810 million . In popular culture ( edit ) Banking in Switzerland , in particular Swiss banking secrecy practices , has been detailed in global popular culture to varying degrees of accuracy . According to official statements from the Swiss National Film Archives , inaccurate or exaggerated portrayals negatively impact Switzerland by reducing bankers to unflattering `` caricatures '' that are `` ever disposed to accept funds from questionable sources '' . In 2014 , Sindy Schmiegel , a spokeswoman for the Swiss Bankers Association ( SBA ) stressed that financial regulation in Switzerland is dramatically more strict than portrayed fictionally . The Economic Times noted that popular culture portrays Swiss bank accounts as `` completely anonymous '' later adding `` this is simply not true . '' Swiss banking was prominently featured in the following films and television shows : The Great Spy Chase ( 1964 ) : Francis Lagneau ( Lino Ventura ) engages with a Swiss banker to open a bank account containing patents to powerful weapons . This film is considered the first motion picture to reference banking in Switzerland . `` If you ca n't trust a Swiss banker , then what 's the world come to ? '' -- James Bond in The World Is Not Enough Swiss banking has been mentioned by James Bond in film and in literature dozens of times , it plays a central role in : Goldfinger ( 1964 ) : James Bond ( Sean Connery ) thwarts Goldfinger 's plans to rob a U.S. gold depository frequently citing Swiss underground gold bunkers and bank accounts numbers as motivation . This film was written after Switzerland 's role in World War II was at the forefront of international critique on bank secrecy . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) : supervillian Ernst Stavro Blofeld ( Telly Savalas ) tells James Bond ( George Lazenby ) that unless a large sum of money is deposited into a Swiss bank account , a bomb will detonate and kill thousands of people . Mentions of Swiss banking in the James Bond novels have been viewed as `` reinforcing a stereotype '' . The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 ) : James Bond ( Pierce Brosnan ) visits a Swiss bank in Spain called La Banque Suisse de L'Industrie to meet an associate before jumping out of a five - story window . Casino Royale ( 2006 ) : After a high stakes poker game is completed , the winnings of James Bond ( Daniel Craig ) is transferred to a Swiss bank account for security . The Godfather Part III ( 1990 ) : Frederick Keinszig ( Helmut Berger ) , a Swiss banker for the Vatican , gets into a shootout with the Corleone family over technicalities over bank -- client confidentiality . The movie was seen as establishing the `` Swiss banker trope '' within mainstream culture . The Bourne Identity ( 2002 ) : Jason Bourne ( Matt Damon ) , a secret operative for the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) suffering from retrograde amnesia , begins to recall life events after opening a bank deposit box containing a gun , large amounts of international currency and a variety of passports . The scene was seen as unduly `` ( emphasizing ) the issue of ( bank ) secrecy '' . `` Like most Swiss banks , our safe - deposit boxes are attached to a number , not a name . You have a key and a personal number known only to you . '' -- Dan Brown in The Da Vinci Code The Da Vinci Code ( 2006 ) : Robert Langdon ( Tom Hanks ) opens a Swiss bank account at the Paris - based `` Depository Bank of Zürich '' , a high - tech bank that allows clients to deposit and withdraw assets with complete anonymity . The usage of this type of numbered bank account is illegal both in France and Switzerland . The Wolf of Wall Street ( 2013 ) : Jordon Belfort ( Leonardo DiCaprio ) travels to the Geneva - based Union Bancaire Privée ( UBP ) to meet with private banker Jean Jacques Saurel ( Jean Dujardin ) who advises Belfort to open an account in the name of a relative with a European passport to avoid U.S. taxation . This is technically legal in Switzerland as Belfort was not charged with a financial crime ( at the time of meeting ) and extra banking secrecy is afforded to European citizens . Belfort 's bank -- client confidentiality was waved because Saurel traveled outside of Switzerland and was arrested on U.S. soil for a crime ( money laundering ) illegal in both countries . The fictional interaction was called `` a bit ridiculous and exaggerated '' and `` not very Swiss '' by the Swiss Bankers Association . See also ( edit ) List of Swiss financial market regulation List of banks in Switzerland References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Thomasson , Emma ( April 18 , 2013 ) . `` Special Report : The battle for the Swiss soul '' . Reuters . Retrieved May 19 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Financial Secrecy Index : Narrative Report on Switzerland ( 2018 ) , p. 2 Jump up ^ McPhee , John ( October 31 , 1983 ) . `` La Place de la Concorde Suisse - I '' . The New Yorker . p. 50 . Retrieved 22 July 2013 . Jump up ^ Bob Van Voris . `` Wegelin & Co . Must Forfeit $16 Million , U.S. Judge Rules '' . Bloomberg.com . Jump up ^ Neate , Ruper ( 4 January 2013 ) , `` Oldest Swiss bank Wegelin to close after admitting aiding US tax evasion '' , The Guardian Jump up ^ Denise H. Kenyon - Rouvinez , Gordon Adler , Guido Corbetta , Gianfilippo Cuneo ( 2011 ) - Sharing Wisdom , Building Values : Letters from Family Business Owners to Their Successors p. xvi Palgrave Macmillan , 11 January 2011 ISBN 1137510374 Accessed January 12th , 2018 Jump up ^ `` Wealth and Asset Manager - Private Banking - Swiss Private Bank - Pictet '' . pictet.com . Jump up ^ Pohl , Manfred ( 1994 ) . European Association for Banking History - Handbook on the History of European Banks . Youssef Cassis - Banks and Banking in Switzerland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries . Edward Elgar Publishing . ISBN 1852789190 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ Kenyon - Rouvinez , D. ( 2002 ) . Sharing Wisdom , Building Values : Letters from Family Business Owners to Their Successors . Family Enterprise Publisher . ISBN 1891652087 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` The World Factbook -- Switzerland -- Economy '' . Central Intelligence Agency . Archived from the original on 5 July 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` The World Factbook -- Switzerland -- Introduction '' . Central Intelligence Agency . 2006 - 06 - 13 . Archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Country profile : Switzerland '' . BBC News . 2006 - 03 - 26 . Archived from the original on 14 July 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Origins : Why Basel ? '' . Bank of International Settlements . Archived from the original on 15 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` About FINMA '' . Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Swiss Banking Ombudsman '' . Swiss Banking Ombudsman . Archived from the original on 20 July 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 17 . Jump up ^ Guex , Sébastian ( March 3 , 2015 ) . `` The Origins of Secret Swiss Bank Accounts JSTOR Daily '' . JSTOR Daily . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Financial Secrecy Index : Narrative Report on Switzerland ( 2018 ) , p. 3 Jump up ^ Komisar , Lucy ( Spring 2003 ) . `` Offshore banking , the secret threat to America '' . Dissent Magazine . Archived from the original on July 23 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Mueller , Kurt ( 1969 ) . `` The Swiss Banking Secret : From a Legal View '' . The International and Comparative Law Quarterly . 18 ( 2 ) : 361 -- 362 . doi : 10.1093 / iclqaj / 18.2. 360 . JSTOR 757529 . ^ Jump up to : Boggan , Steve ( September 5 , 1996 ) . `` Discovered : Hitler 's secret Swiss bank account '' . The Independent . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Declassified intelligence documents at the US National Archives show that one of Hitler 's closest confidantes opened the accounts at the Union Bank of Switzerland in Bern after the Fuhrer 's book became required reading in German schools . ^ Jump up to : Schütz , Dirk ( 2000 ) . The Fall of UBS : The Forces that Brought Down Switzerland 's Biggest Bank . Pyramid Media Group . ISBN 9780944188200 . Jump up ^ Financial Secrecy Index : Narrative Report on Switzerland ( 2018 ) , p. 5 Jump up ^ Neghaiwi , Brenna Hughes ( October 31 , 2017 ) . `` Exclusive : Swiss prosecutors seek widening of secrecy law to ... '' Reuters . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Financial Secrecy Index : Narrative Report on Switzerland ( 2018 ) , p. 4 ^ Jump up to : Kroft , Steve ( August 15 , 2010 ) . `` Banking : A Crack In the Swiss Vault '' . 1 ( published May 13 , 2018 ) -- via CBS . ^ Jump up to : Song , Jane ( November 1 , 2015 ) . `` The End of Secret Swiss Accounts ? : The Impact of the U.S. Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act ( FATCA ) on Switzerland 's Status as a Haven for Off Shore Accounts '' . Northwestern University . Retrieved March 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Financial Secrecy Index : Narrative Report on Switzerland ( 2018 ) , p. 4 Jump up ^ `` Do n't ask , wo n't tell '' . The Economist . February 12 , 2016 . Retrieved May 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Naravane , Vaiju ( October 10 , 2016 ) . `` End of banking secrecy in Switzerland '' . The Hindu . ISSN 0971 - 751X . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Swiss say goodbye to banking secrecy '' . SWI swissinfo.ch . January 1 , 2017 . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Swiss Bank Secrecy : The Facts '' . www.moneyland.ch . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Parliament : do n't touch banking secrecy for Swiss clients '' . SWI swissinfo.ch . Retrieved May 19 , 2018 . Jump up ^ M.V. ( July 19 , 2014 ) . `` Swiss bank secrecy : a whistleblower 's woes '' . The Economist . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . The American - led attack on the Gnomes of Zurich has produced a backlash : a right - wing party has almost collected enough signatures to force a referendum on whether to strengthen constitutional support for financial secrecy . Swiss bankers who spill the beans continue to do so at their peril . ^ Jump up to : Enrich , David ( January 6 , 2018 ) . `` A Swiss Banker Helped Americans Dodge Taxes . Was It a Crime ? '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 20 , 2018 . Several hunkered down in Switzerland , which refused to extradite its citizens to the United States for actions that were n't illegal in Switzerland . None had actually gone on trial . Jump up ^ Editorial , Reuters ( March 21 , 2018 ) . `` Swiss charge three Germans in bank secrecy clash '' . Reuters . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Swiss president sees no need to change banking secrecy '' . Indian Express . 2013 - 04 - 14 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Financial Secrecy Index : Narrative Report on Switzerland ( 2018 ) , p. 1 ^ Jump up to : Carvajal , Doreen ( July 8 , 2014 ) . `` Swiss Banks ' Tradition of Secrecy Clashes With Quests Abroad for Disclosure '' . Retrieved May 20 , 2018 . If you blow the whistle you are socially and financially dead . Jump up ^ Pacaud , Julien ( December 23 , 2017 ) . `` One man 's fight against the Swiss offshore banking system '' . The Economist . Retrieved June 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Kroft , Steve ( December 30 , 2009 ) . `` Banking : A Crack In The Swiss Vault '' . CBC News : 60 Minutes . Retrieved May 16 , 2018 . The subterranean vaults of Geneva and Zurich have served as sanctuaries for the wealth of dictators and despots , mobsters and arms dealers , corrupt officials and tax cheats of all kinds . ^ Jump up to : Baker , Stephanie ( September 30 , 2016 ) . `` Secret Alpine Gold Vaults Are the New Swiss Bank Accounts '' . Bloomberg.com . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The Sinister Face Of ' Neutrality ' Frontline PBS '' . www.pbs.org. 1996 . Retrieved May 17 , 2018 . Before the Second World War , with the rise of Nazism , many Jews in Central and East Europe sought to protect a part of their assets by depositing money in Swiss accounts , and their valuables in Swiss safe deposit boxes . To encourage such transfers , in 1934 the Swiss even strengthened special banking secrecy laws which facilitated preservation of the anonymity of depositors . Jump up ^ Bloomberg , News ( August 17 , 2013 ) . `` Got gold ? Switzerland has an underground bunker just for you '' . The Mercury News . Retrieved May 14 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fancy yourself a numbered Swiss Bank account ? Here 's how you can get one '' . The Economic Times . October 30 , 2013 . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Obringer , Lee Ann ( June 8 , 2011 ) . `` How Swiss Bank Accounts Work '' . HowStuffWorks . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Browning , Lynnley ( August 19 , 2009 ) . `` Under Agreement , UBS to Give Up 4,450 Names '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Numbered Bank Accounts - Series 10 Investopedia '' . Investopedia . November 12 , 2014 . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . A broker dealer , at the request of the customer , may open an account that is simply identified by a number or a symbol , as long as there is a statement signed by the customer attesting to the ownership of the account . Jump up ^ Koba , Mark ( August 20 , 2008 ) . `` How To Open A Swiss Bank Account '' . CNBC . Retrieved May 12 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Enrich , David ( January 6 , 2018 ) . `` A Swiss Banker Helped Americans Dodge Taxes . Was It a Crime ? '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 20 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Maurice , Aubert , ( 1984 ) . `` The Limits of Swiss Banking Secrecy under Domestic and International Law '' . Berkeley Journal of International Law . 2 ( 2 ) . doi : 10.15779 / Z38DW7X . Jump up ^ Goetz , Lisa ( June 7 , 2016 ) . `` Why is Switzerland considered a tax haven ? '' . Investopedia . Retrieved May 20 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Switzerland to adopt OECD standard on administrative assistance in fiscal matters '' . Federal Department of Finance . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` UBS exec indicted in tax evasion scheme . '' The Recorder ( 2008 ) . General Reference Center Gold . Web . 17 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Figures on Switzerland as a location for financial services '' . Federal Department of Finance . 2009 - 12 - 31 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Supervision of large banking groups '' . Swiss Federal Banking Commission . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : `` History of UBS '' . Global topics . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` History of Credit Suisse '' . Credit Suisse . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Company Profile '' ( PDF ) . Credit Suisse . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 15 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` The National Bank as a joint - stock company '' . Swiss National Bank . Archived from the original on August 8 , 2002 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Players '' . Swiss Bankers Association . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 17 . Jump up ^ http://www.swissbanking.org/en/bankengruppen.htm Jump up ^ `` unico.nl - unico Resources and Information '' . www.unico.nl . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Raiffeisen bank breaks ranks over tax dispute '' . SWI Swissinfo.ch . Jump up ^ `` US tax scandal brings down Wegelin '' . SWI Swissinfo.ch . Jump up ^ https://www.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20120127-706462.html ^ Jump up to : Noonan , Laura ( December 10 , 2017 ) . `` The decline of the Swiss private bank '' . Financial Times . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bank groups '' . Swiss Bankers Association . Archived from the original on 17 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` ZKB Company Profile 2005 '' ( PDF ) . Zürich Cantonal Bank . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : Dupraz - Dobias , Paula ( January 21 , 2014 ) . `` Hollywood sticks with Swiss banker ' caricature ' '' . SWI swissinfo.ch . Retrieved May 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Fancy yourself a numbered Swiss Bank account ? Here 's how you can get one '' . The Economic Times . October 30 , 2014 . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Haver , Gianni ; Middleton , Robert ( May 18 , 2018 ) . Swissness in a Nutshell . Schwabe AG . ISBN 9783905252644 . Jump up ^ Carvajal , Doreen ( July 8 , 2014 ) . `` Swiss Banks ' Tradition of Secrecy Clashes With Quests Abroad for Disclosure '' . The New York Times . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved May 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Stephens , Thomas . `` James Bond : half - Swiss , totally profitable '' . SWI swissinfo.ch . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Mr Lachaise 's Swiss Bank James Bond Locations '' . www.jamesbondmm.co.uk . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Emmenegger , Patrick ( March 12 , 2014 ) . `` The Politics of Financial Intransparency : The Case of Swiss Banking Secrecy '' . Swiss Political Science Review . 20 ( 1 ) : 146 -- 164 . doi : 10.1111 / spsr. 12092 . ISSN 1424 - 7755 . Jump up ^ Broom , Giles ( August 12 , 2016 ) . `` Swiss Bank Secrets '' . Bloomberg.com . Retrieved May 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Brown , Dan ( November 18 , 2003 ) . The Da Vinci Code : Featuring Robert Langdon . Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group . p. 181 . ISBN 9780385504218 . Jump up ^ Kinsman , Robert . `` Swiss Bank Account '' . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . In fact , mystery writers have utilized the Swiss Bank as the central focus of intrigue . Where else would one think to store the secrets of the holy grail but in a Swiss bank account , as was the case in the novel the `` Da Vinci Code '' . But events in recent years have chipped away at this polished veneer to reveal some rather unseemly criminal behavior . Jump up ^ Gumbel , Peter ( 2002 - 09 - 08 ) . `` Silence Is Golden '' . Time Magazine . Retrieved 2006 - 06 - 16 . Bibliography ( edit ) `` Financial Secrecy Index : Narrative Report on Switzerland '' ( PDF ) . Financial Secrecy Index : 1 -- 10 . May 2018 -- via Tax Justice Network . Guex , Sébastien ( 2000 ) . `` The Origins of the Swiss Banking Secrecy Law and Its Repercussions for Swiss Federal Policy '' . Business History Review . 74 ( 2 ) : 237 -- 266 . doi : 10.2307 / 3116693 . JSTOR 3116693 . Mueller , Kurt ( 1969 ) . `` The Swiss Banking Secret : From a Legal View '' . International and Comparative Law Quarterly . 18 ( 2 ) : 360 -- 377 . doi : 10.1093 / iclqaj / 18.2. 360 . JSTOR 757529 . External links ( edit ) The Swiss Financial Center , from swissworld.org Banks of Switzerland Central Swiss National Bank Commercial Alternative Bank Schweiz Credit Suisse Coop Bank PostFinance Migros Bank Raiffeisen UBS Cantonal Aargauische Kantonalbank ( AKB ) Appenzeller Kantonalbank ( APPKB ) Banca dello Stato del Cantone Ticino ( BancaStato ) Berner Kantonalbank ( BEKB / BCBE ) Banque cantonale de Fribourg ( FKB ) Banque cantonale de Genève ( BCGE ) Banque cantonale du Jura ( BCJU ) Banque cantonale du Valais ( BWKB ) Banque cantonale neuchâteloise ( BCN ) Banque cantonale vaudoise ( BCV ) Basellandschaftliche Kantonalbank ( BLKB ) Basler Kantonalbank ( BKB ) Glarner Kantonalbank ( GLKB ) Graubündner Kantonalbank ( GKB ) Luzerner Kantonalbank ( LUKB ) Nidwaldner Kantonabank ( NWKB ) Obwaldner Kantonalbank ( OWKB ) St. Galler Kantonalbank ( SGKB ) Shaffauser Kantonalbank ( SHKB ) Schwyzer Kantonalbank ( SZKB ) Thurgauer Kantonalbank ( TKB ) Urner Kantonalbank ( URKB ) Zuger Kantonalbank ( ZugerKB ) Zürcher Kantonalbank ( ZKB ) Private Banca Unione di Credito Banque Bonhôte Berenberg Bank Banque Hottinger et Cie HSBC Private Bank Julius Baer Group Union Bancaire Privée Hinduja Bank ( Switzerland ) Ltd Switzerland articles History Timeline Enlargement Early history Roman era Old Confederacy ( Growth ) Reformation Early Modern era Napoleonic era Restoration World wars Modern history Geography Cantons Cities Glaciers Islands Lakes Mountains Rivers Areas Jura Mountains Swiss Alps Swiss plateau Politics Constitution Foreign relations Neutrality Government Administration Federal budget Human rights LGBT Law enforcement Military Parliament National Council Council of States Political parties Elections Voting Right of foreigners to vote Economy Banking Central bank Energy Franc ( currency ) Pharmaceutical industry Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Tourism Trade unions Transport Society Crime Demographics Education Healthcare Immigration Languages German - speaking Switzerland French - speaking Switzerland Italian - speaking Switzerland Romansh Poverty Swiss people Women Culture Anthem Cinema Coat of arms Cuisine Flag Folklore William Tell Helvetia Literature Media television Music Public holidays Religion Sport Outline Index Book Portal Banking in Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Companies portal Switzerland portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Banking_in_Switzerland&oldid=856432969 '' Categories : Banking in Switzerland Privacy Swiss law Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Deutsch Español فارسی Français ગુજરાતી 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lietuvių 日本 語 Norsk Русский 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 25 August 2018 , at 04 : 41 ( UTC ) . 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Vol. 2... Hard Knock Life
Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life - wikipedia Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life Studio album by Jay - Z Released September 29 , 1998 Recorded December 1997 -- August 1998 Genre Hip hop Length 61 : 43 Label Roc - A-Fella Def Jam Producer Shawn Carter ( exec . ) Damon Dash ( also exec . ) Kareem `` Biggs '' Burke ( exec . ) Irv Gotti Kid Capri J - Runnah Jermaine Dupri Lil ' Rob Mahogany Mark 45 King Premier Erick Sermon Stevie J Swizz Beatz Timbaland Darold `` POP '' Trotter Jay - Z chronology In My Lifetime , Vol. 1 ( 1997 ) Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life ( 1998 ) Vol. 3 ... Life and Times of S. Carter ( 1999 ) Singles from Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life `` Can I Get A ... '' Released : August 22 , 1998 `` Hard Knock Life ( Ghetto Anthem ) '' Released : October 17 , 1998 `` Money , Cash , Hoes '' Released : November 9 , 1998 `` Nigga What , Nigga Who ( Originator 99 ) '' Released : April 24 , 1999 Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life is the third studio album by American rapper Jay - Z . It was released on September 29 , 1998 , by Roc - A-Fella Records and Def Jam Recordings . It went on to become his most commercially successful album , selling over 5 million copies in the United States . In the liner notes of the album , Jay - Z gives his thoughts on various tracks . The lyrics to the fast - paced `` Nigga What , Nigga Who ( Originator 99 ) '' are also included . Contents 1 Background 2 Production 3 Critical reception 4 Commercial performance 5 Track listing 6 Sample credits 7 Charts 7.1 Weekly charts 7.2 Singles 7.3 End of decade charts 8 Certifications 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Background ( edit ) Speaking in December 1998 to noted UK urban writer Pete Lewis of the award - winning Blues & Soul , Jay described the background to the album 's lyrical themes : `` Primarily I see myself as so much more than a rapper . I really believe I 'm the voice for a lot of people who do n't have that microphone or who ca n't rap . So I wanted to represent and tell the story of everybody who 's been through what I 've been through , or knows somebody that has . I also wanted to speak about our lifestyle to people who -- though they may live , say , in the suburbs and not be part of that world -- still want to know about it and understand it . '' Production ( edit ) Several tracks in this feature a rougher sound than the glossier Bad Boy production on In My Lifetime , Vol. 1 , most notably the three tracks produced by Ruff Ryders beatmaker Swizz Beatz . With the exception of Stevie J on `` Ride or Die , '' Bad Boy producers play no role in Vol. 2 , though Jay - Z enlisted Timbaland , Jermaine Dupri , and Irv Gotti for a more pop - oriented sound on three of the albums ' singles . This would also be Jay - Z 's last album to feature his mentor Big Jaz . Critical reception ( edit ) Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating AllMusic Christgau 's Consumer Guide Encyclopedia of Popular Music IGN 8.3 / 10 Los Angeles Times Q The Rolling Stone Album Guide The Source 4.5 / 5 In a contemporary review for Playboy , Robert Christgau deemed Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life a progression from its predecessor , featuring more noticeable beats that would appeal to listeners other than just hip hop aesthetes . He highlighted the title track 's `` audacious Annie sample '' and the production of Swizz Beatz , who he believed took influence from postminimalist composers such Steve Reich and Philip Glass . `` And whatever Jay - Z 's moral values '' , Christgau wrote , `` the man knows how to put words together and say them real fast . '' He later gave it a three - star honorable mention in his Consumer Guide book , indicating `` an enjoyable effort that consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well treasure '' . In The A.V. Club , Nathan Rabin said the record was `` an uneven if worthwhile '' album whose best songs `` strip gangsta rap of its superthug bravado and replace it with a more nuanced understanding of the human emotions behind the gangsta facade '' . Q called it `` the epitome of mainstream hip hop '' at the time . Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life was later ranked number 46 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 100 greatest albums from the 1990s . Commercial performance ( edit ) Vol. 2 ... became Jay - Z 's first album to debut at # 1 on the Billboard 200 , selling over 350,000 copies in its first week . It is Jay - Z 's best selling album as of 2013 and was certified 5x Platinum by the RIAA in 2000 . By 2013 , the album had sold 5,400,000 copies in the United States . The album won Grammy Award for Best Rap Album at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards . Though he won the nomination he boycotted the ceremony , citing what he sees as the Grammys ' continuing disrespect of hip hop because they were not going to broadcast the rap nominations . He told MTV , `` I am boycotting the Grammys because too many major rap artists continue to be overlooked . Rappers deserve more attention from the Grammy committee and from the whole world . If it 's got a gun everybody knows about it ; but if we go on a world tour , no one knows . '' Track listing ( edit ) No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Intro -- Hand It Down '' ( featuring Memphis Bleek ) Shawn Carter Christopher Martin Malik Cox DJ Premier 2 : 56 2 . `` Hard Knock Life ( Ghetto Anthem ) '' Carter Mark James Charles Strouse Martin Charnin Mark 45 King 3 : 58 3 . `` If I Should Die '' ( featuring Da Ranjahz ) Carter Kasseem Dean Malcolm Byer Nigel Leguerre Swizz Beatz 4 : 55 4 . `` Ride or Die '' Carter Steven Jordan Stevie J 4 : 48 5 . `` Nigga What , Nigga Who ( Originator 99 ) '' ( featuring Big Jaz ) Carter Jonathan Burks Timothy Mosley Timbaland 3 : 53 6 . `` Money , Cash , Hoes '' ( featuring DMX ) Carter Earl Simmons Dean Swizz Beatz 4 : 46 7 . `` A Week Ago '' ( featuring Too $ hort ) Carter Todd Shaw Jerald Stoute Ernie Isley Marvin Isley O'Kelly Isley Ronald Isley Rudolph Isley Christopher Jasper J - Runnah 5 : 00 8 . `` Coming of Age ( Da Sequel ) '' ( featuring Memphis Bleek ) Carter Dean Swizz Beatz 4 : 21 9 . `` Can I Get A ... '' ( featuring Amil and Ja Rule ) Carter Irving Lorenzo Jeffrey Atkins Robert Mays Irv Gotti Lil Rob 5 : 09 10 . `` Paper Chase '' ( featuring Foxy Brown ) Carter Mosley Timbaland 4 : 34 11 . `` Reservoir Dogs '' ( featuring The LOX , Beanie Sigel and Sauce Money ) Carter Erick Sermon Jason Phillips David Styles Sean Jacobs Dwight Grant Todd Gaither Isaac Hayes Sermon Darold `` POP '' Trotter Rockwilder 5 : 19 12 . `` It 's Like That '' ( featuring Kid Capri ) Carter Frank Friedman David Love Kid Capri 3 : 45 show Bonus tracks No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 13 . `` It 's Alright '' ( featuring Memphis Bleek ) Carter Damon Dash Imsomie Leeper David Byrne Brian Eno Chris Frantz Martina Weynmouth Jerry Harrison Dash Mahogany 4 : 01 14 . `` Money Ai n't a Thang '' ( featuring Jermaine Dupri ) Jermaine Dupri Carter Steve Arrington Charles Carter Buddy Hank Roger Parker Dupri 4 : 13 Notes -- co-producer -- uncredited co-producer `` If I Should Die '' features additional vocals by Wais and Half Dead . `` Nigga What , Nigga Who ( Originator 99 ) '' features additional vocals by Amil . `` It 's Like That '' features additional vocals by Liz . Sample credits ( edit ) Intro ( Hand It Down ) `` Are You Man Enough '' by The Four Tops Contains lyrics from `` Coming of Age '' by Jay - Z feat . Memphis Bleek Hard Knock Life ( Ghetto Anthem ) `` It 's The Hard Knock Life '' from Annie Money , Cash , Hoes `` Theme of Thief '' from Tohru Nakabayashi & Y . `` Dolphin '' Takada ( from the Golden Axe soundtrack ) A Week Ago `` Ballad for the Fallen Soldier '' by The Isley Brothers Reservoir Dogs `` Theme from Shaft '' by Isaac Hayes `` 24 - Carat Black ( Theme ) '' by 24 Carat Black `` Know How '' by Young MC It 's Like That `` Beggar 's Song '' by Wet Willie It 's Alright `` The Hall of Mirrors '' by Kraftwerk `` Once In a Lifetime '' by Talking Heads Money Ai n't a Thang `` Weak at the Knees '' by Steve Arrington Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1998 ) Peak position Canadian Albums Chart 20 German Albums Chart 76 U.S. Billboard 200 U.S. Billboard Top R&B / Hip Hop Albums Singles ( edit ) Year Song Billboard Hot 100 Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks Hot Rap Singles 1998 `` Can I Get A ... '' 19 6 22 `` Hard Knock Life ( Ghetto Anthem ) '' 15 10 1999 `` Money , Cash , Hoes '' 116 36 19 `` Jigga What , Jigga Who '' 84 23 19 End of decade charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1990 -- 1999 ) Position U.S. Billboard 200 62 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Canada ( Music Canada ) Platinum 100,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Silver 60,000 United States ( RIAA ) 5 × Platinum 5,000,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone See also ( edit ) List of number - one albums of 1998 ( U.S. ) List of number - one R&B albums of 1998 ( U.S. ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Lewis , Pete . Jay Z : A B&S classic interview December 1998 , Blues & Soul Jump up ^ Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life at AllMusic ^ Jump up to : Christgau , Robert ( 2000 ) . Christgau 's Consumer Guide : Albums of the ' 90s . Macmillan . pp. xvi , 149 . ISBN 0312245602 . Jump up ^ Larkin , Colin ( 2011 ) . `` Jay - Z '' . The Encyclopedia of Popular Music ( 5th ed . ) . Omnibus Press . ISBN 0857125958 . Jump up ^ `` Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life -- IGN '' . Music.ign.com . November 11 , 2003 . Archived from the original on June 16 , 2012 . Retrieved July 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Baker , Soren ( 1998 - 10 - 10 ) . `` Jay Z Offers Intense Tales of ' Life ' and the Street -- Los Angeles Times '' . Articles.latimes.com . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 16 . ^ Jump up to : `` Review '' . Q. December 2000 . p. 144 . Jump up ^ The New Rolling Stone Album Guide -- Google Boeken . Books.google.com . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Music : Vol. 2 , Hard Knock Life ( CD ) by Jay Z ( Artist ) '' . Tower.com. 1998 - 09 - 29 . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 16 . Jump up ^ Christgau , Robert ( November 1998 ) . `` Beck , Jay Z '' . Playboy . Retrieved September 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rabin , Nathan ( 2002 - 03 - 29 ) . `` Jay - Z : Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life Music MusicalWork Review '' . The A.V. Club . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` 100 Best Albums of the Nineties '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved September 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Reiss , Randy ( October 14 , 1998 ) . `` Jay Z 's New Hard Knock Life Has A Golden Week '' . Jump up ^ `` The 50 Best Selling Rap Albums of All Time18 . Jay Z Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life ( 1998 ) '' . Jump up ^ `` Canadian Albums Chart - November 14 , 1998 '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` German Charts '' . Jump up ^ `` Billboard 200 - October 17 , 1998 '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` Billboard Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums - October 17 , 1998 '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z -- Chart history '' . www.billboard.com . Retrieved June 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z -- Chart history '' . www.billboard.com . Retrieved June 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jay - Z -- Chart history '' . www.billboard.com . Retrieved June 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Geoff Mayfield ( December 25 , 1999 ) . 1999 The Year in Music Totally ' 90s : Diary of a Decade - The listing of Top Pop Albums of the ' 90s & Hot 100 Singles of the ' 90s . Billboard . Retrieved October 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian album certifications -- JAY Z -- Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life '' . Music Canada . Jump up ^ `` British album certifications -- JAY Z -- Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life '' . British Phonographic Industry . Select albums in the Format field . Select Silver in the Certification field . Enter Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American album certifications -- JAY Z -- Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life '' . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Album , then click SEARCH External links ( edit ) Samplin ' Annie at Vibe Jay Z interview at Blues & Soul Cipha Sounds interview at Complex Jay - Z Albums Singles Videos Songs Films Awards and nominations Studio albums Reasonable Doubt In My Lifetime , Vol. 1 Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life Vol. 3 ... Life and Times of S. Carter The Dynasty : Roc La Familia The Blueprint The Blueprint 2 : The Gift & The Curse The Black Album Kingdom Come American Gangster The Blueprint 3 Magna Carta Holy Grail 4 : 44 Collaborations albums The Best of Both Worlds ( with R. Kelly ) Unfinished Business ( with R. Kelly ) Collision Course ( with Linkin Park ) Watch the Throne ( with Kanye West ) Everything Is Love ( with Jay - Z as The Carters ) Live albums MTV Unplugged Live in Brooklyn Compilation albums Chapter One : Greatest Hits Blueprint 2.1 Bring It On : The Best of Jay - Z Greatest Hits Jay - Z : The Hits Collection , Volume One Concert tours Blueprint Lounge Tour Best of Both Worlds Tour American Gangster Live Heart of the City Tour Projekt Revolution 2008 Europe Jay - Z & Ciara Live Jay - Z Fall Tour The Home & Home Tour U2 360 ° Tour Watch the Throne Tour Legends of the Summer Magna Carter World Tour On the Run Tour 4 : 44 Tour On the Run II Tour Related articles Roc - A-Fella Records Rocawear Roc Nation StarRoc Takeover Roc Nation 40 / 40 Club Beyoncé Kanye West Rihanna Linkin Park The Grey Album Jaydiohead Fade to Black Live Nation Entertainment NBA 2K13 Brooklyn Nets Made in America Festival Made in America Project Panther Bidco Book Grammy Award for Best Rap Album 1996 -- 2000 Poverty 's Paradise -- Naughty by Nature ( 1996 ) The Score -- Fugees ( 1997 ) No Way Out -- Puff Daddy and the Family ( 1998 ) Vol. 2 ... Hard Knock Life -- Jay - Z ( 1999 ) The Slim Shady LP -- Eminem ( 2000 ) 2001 -- 2010 The Marshall Mathers LP -- Eminem ( 2001 ) Stankonia -- Outkast ( 2002 ) The Eminem Show -- Eminem ( 2003 ) Speakerboxxx / The Love Below -- Outkast ( 2004 ) The College Dropout -- Kanye West ( 2005 ) Late Registration -- Kanye West ( 2006 ) Release Therapy -- Ludacris ( 2007 ) Graduation -- Kanye West ( 2008 ) Tha Carter III -- Lil Wayne ( 2009 ) Relapse -- Eminem ( 2010 ) 2011 -- present Recovery -- Eminem ( 2011 ) My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy -- Kanye West ( 2012 ) Take Care -- Drake ( 2013 ) The Heist -- Macklemore & Ryan Lewis ( 2014 ) The Marshall Mathers LP 2 -- Eminem ( 2015 ) To Pimp a Butterfly -- Kendrick Lamar ( 2016 ) Coloring Book -- Chance the Rapper ( 2017 ) Damn -- Kendrick Lamar ( 2018 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vol._2..._Hard_Knock_Life&oldid=852144061 '' Categories : Jay - Z albums 1998 albums Albums produced by The 45 King Albums produced by DJ Premier Albums produced by Erick Sermon Albums produced by Rockwilder Albums produced by Swizz Beatz Albums produced by Timbaland Albums produced by Irv Gotti Albums produced by Jermaine Dupri Def Jam Recordings albums Grammy Award for Best Rap Album Roc - A-Fella Records albums Sequel albums Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2013 All articles containing potentially dated statements Use mdy dates from June 2017 Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Français Italiano ქართული Polski Português Suomi Türkçe 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 July 2018 , at 23 : 02 ( UTC ) . 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the life and times of shawn carter vol 2
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Comparison of Java and C++
Comparison of Java and C++ - wikipedia Comparison of Java and C++ hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) Some of this article 's listed sources may not be reliable . Please help this article by looking for better , more reliable sources . Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted . ( September 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints . Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints , or discuss the issue on the talk page . ( May 2016 ) This article may contain improper references to self - published sources . Please help improve it by removing references to unreliable sources , where they are used inappropriately . ( September 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article possibly contains original research . 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( February 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Programming language comparisons General comparison Assignment Basic syntax Basic instructions Comments Control flow Foreach loops While loops For loops Do - while Exception handling Enumerated types Anonymous functions Conditional expressions Functional instructions Arrays Associative arrays Scope String operations String functions Higher - order functions Type systems List comprehension Object - oriented programming Object - oriented constructors Operators Evaluation strategy List of `` Hello World '' programs Languages with dependent types Comparison of type systems Comparison of individual languages ( show ) ALGOL 58 's influence on ALGOL 60 ALGOL 60 : Comparisons with other languages Comparison of ALGOL 68 and C++ ALGOL 68 : Comparisons with other languages Compatibility of C and C++ Comparison of Pascal and Borland Delphi Comparison of Object Pascal and C Comparison of Pascal and C Comparison of Java and C++ Comparison of C# and Java Comparison of C# and Visual Basic . NET Comparison of Visual Basic and Visual Basic . NET This is a comparison of Java and C++ , two prominent object - oriented programming languages . Contents 1 Design aims 2 Language features 2.1 Syntax 2.2 Semantics 2.3 Resource management 2.4 Libraries 2.5 Runtime 2.6 Templates vs. generics 2.7 Miscellaneous 3 Performance 4 Official standard and reference of the language 4.1 Language specification 4.2 Trademarks 5 References 6 External links Design aims ( edit ) The differences between the programming languages C++ and Java can be traced to their heritage , as they have different design goals . C++ was designed for systems and applications programming ( i.e. infrastructure programming ) , extending the procedural programming language C , which was designed for efficient execution . To C , C++ added support for object - oriented programming , exception handling , lifetime - based resource management ( RAII ) , generic programming , template metaprogramming , and the C++ Standard Library which includes generic containers and algorithms ( the Standard Template Library or STL ) , and many other general purpose facilities . Java is a general - purpose , concurrent , class - based , object - oriented programming language that is designed to minimize implementation dependencies . It relies on a Java virtual machine to be secure and highly portable . It is bundled with an extensive library designed to provide a full abstraction of the underlying platform . Java is a statically typed object - oriented language that uses a syntax similar to ( but incompatible with ) C++ . It includes a documentation system called Javadoc . The different goals in the development of C++ and Java resulted in different principles and design trade - offs between the languages . The differences are as follows : C++ Java Extends C with object - oriented programming and generic programming . C code can most properly be used . Strongly influenced by C++ / C syntax . Compatible with C source code , except for a few corner cases . Provides the Java Native Interface and recently Java Native Access as a way to directly call C / C++ code . Write once , compile anywhere ( WOCA ) . Write once , run anywhere / everywhere ( WORA / WORE ) . Allows procedural programming , functional programming , object - oriented programming , generic programming , and template metaprogramming . Favors a mix of paradigms . Allows procedural programming , functional programming ( since Java 8 ) and generic programming ( since Java 5 ) , but strongly encourages the object - oriented programming paradigm . Includes support for creating scripting languages . Runs as native executable machine code for the target instruction set ( s ) . Runs on a virtual machine . Provides object types and type names . Allows reflection via run - time type information ( RTTI ) . Is reflective , allowing metaprogramming and dynamic code generation at runtime . Has multiple binary compatibility standards ( commonly Microsoft ( for MSVC compiler ) and Itanium / GNU ( for almost all other compilers ) ) . Has one binary compatibility standard , cross-platform for OS and compiler . Optional automated bounds checking ( e.g. , the at ( ) method in vector and string containers ) . All operations are required to be bound - checked by all compliant distributions of Java . HotSpot can remove bounds checking . Native unsigned arithmetic support . Native unsigned arithmetic unsupported . Java 8 changes some of this , but aspects are unclear . Standardized minimum limits for all numerical types , but the actual sizes are implementation - defined . Standardized types are available via the standard library < cstdint > . Standardized limits and sizes of all primitive types on all platforms . Pointers , references , and pass - by - value are supported for all types ( primitive or user - defined ) . All types ( primitive types and reference types ) are always passed by value . Memory management can be done manually via new / delete , automatically by scope , or by smart pointers . Supports deterministic destruction of objects . Garbage collection ABI standardized in C + + 11 , though compilers are not required to implement garbage collection . Automatic garbage collection . Supports a non-deterministic finalize ( ) method use of which is not recommended . Resource management can be done manually or by automatic lifetime - based resource management ( RAII ) . Resource management must generally be done manually , or automatically via finalizers , though this is generally discouraged . Has try - with - resources for automatic scope - based resource management ( version 7 onwards ) . It can also be done using the internal API sun. misc. Unsafe but that usage is highly discouraged and will be replaced by a public API in an upcoming Java version . Supports classes , structs ( passive data structure ( PDS ) types ) , and unions , and can allocate them on the heap or the stack . Classes are allocated on the heap . Java SE 6 optimizes with escape analysis to allocate some objects on the stack . Allows explicitly overriding types , and some implicit narrowing conversions ( for compatibility with C ) . Rigid type safety except for widening conversions . The C++ Standard Library was designed to have a limited scope and functions , but includes language support , diagnostics , general utilities , strings , locales , containers , algorithms , iterators , numerics , input / output , random number generators , regular expression parsing , threading facilities , type traits ( for static type introspection ) and Standard C Library . The Boost library offers more functions including network I / O . A rich amount of third - party libraries exist for GUI and other functions like : Adaptive Communication Environment ( ACE ) , Crypto++ , various XMPP Instant Messaging ( IM ) libraries , OpenLDAP , Qt , gtkmm . The standard library has grown with each release . By version 1.6 , the library included support for locales , logging , containers and iterators , algorithms , GUI programming ( but not using the system GUI ) , graphics , multi-threading , networking , platform security , introspection , dynamic class loading , blocking and non-blocking I / O. It provided interfaces or support classes for XML , XSLT , MIDI , database connectivity , naming services ( e.g. LDAP ) , cryptography , security services ( e.g. Kerberos ) , print services , and web services . SWT offered an abstraction for platform - specific GUIs , but was superseded by JavaFX in the latest releases ; allowing for graphics acceleration and CSS - themable UIs . It although does n't support any kind of `` native platform look '' support . Operator overloading for most operators . Preserving meaning ( semantics ) is highly recommended . Operators are not overridable . The language overrides + and + = for the String class . Single and multiple inheritance of classes , including virtual inheritance . Single inheritance of classes . Supports multiple inheritance via the Interfaces construct , which is equivalent to a C++ class composed of abstract methods . Compile - time templates . Allows for Turing complete meta - programming . Generics are used to achieve basic type - parametrization , but they do not translate from source code to byte code due to the use of type erasure by the compiler . Function pointers , function objects , lambdas ( in C + + 11 ) , and interfaces . Functions references , function objects and lambdas were added in Java 8 . Classes ( and interfaces , which are classes ) can be passed as references as well through SomeClass. class No standard inline documentation mechanism . Third - party software ( e.g. Doxygen ) exists . Extensive Javadoc documentation standard on all system classes and methods . const keyword for defining immutable variables and member functions that do not change the object . Const - ness is propagated as a means to enforce , at compile - time , correctness of the code with respect to mutability of objects ( see const - correctness ) . final provides a version of const , equivalent to type * const pointers for objects and const for primitive types . Immutability of object members achieved via read - only interfaces and object encapsulation . Supports the goto statement . Supports labels with loops and statement blocks . goto is a reserved keyword but is marked as `` unused '' in the Java specification . Source code can be written to be cross-platform ( can be compiled for Windows , BSD , Linux , macOS , Solaris , etc. , without modification ) and written to use platform - specific features . Typically compiled into native machine code , must be recompiled for each target platform . Compiled into byte code for the JVM . Byte code is dependent on the Java platform , but is typically independent of operating system specific features . Language features ( edit ) Syntax ( edit ) See also : Java syntax and C++ syntax Java syntax has a context - free grammar that can be parsed by a simple LALR parser . Parsing C++ is more complicated . For example , Foo < 1 > ( 3 ) ; is a sequence of comparisons if Foo is a variable , but creates an object if Foo is the name of a class template . C++ allows namespace - level constants , variables , and functions . In Java , such entities must belong to some given type , and therefore must be defined inside a type definition , either a class or an interface . In C++ , objects are values , while in Java they are not . C++ uses value semantics by default , while Java always uses reference semantics . To opt for reference semantics in C++ , either a pointer or a reference can be used . C++ Java class Foo ( / / Declares class Foo int x = 0 ; / / Private Member variable . It will / / be initialized to 0 , if the / / constructor would not set it . / / ( from C + + 11 ) public : Foo ( ) : x ( 0 ) / / Constructor for Foo ; initializes ( ) / / x to 0 . If the initializer were / / omitted , the variable would / / be initialized to the value that / / has been given at declaration of x . int bar ( int i ) ( / / Member function bar ( ) return 3 * i + x ; ) ) ; class Foo ( / / Defines class Foo private int x ; / / Member variable , normally declared / / as private to enforce encapsulation / / initialized to 0 by default public Foo ( ) ( / / Constructor for Foo ) / / no - arg constructor supplied by default public int bar ( int i ) ( / / Member method bar ( ) return 3 * i + x ; ) ) Foo a ; / / declares a to be a Foo object value , / / initialized using the default constructor . / / Another constructor can be used as Foo a ( args ) ; / / or ( C + + 11 ) : Foo a ( args ) ; Foo a = new Foo ( ) ; / / declares a to be a reference to a new Foo object / / initialized using the default constructor / / Another constructor can be used as Foo a = new Foo ( args ) ; Foo b = a ; / / copies the contents of a to a new Foo object b ; / / alternative syntax is `` Foo b ( a ) '' / / Foo b = a ; / / would declare b to be reference to the object pointed to by a Foo b = a. clone ( ) ; / / copies the contents of the object pointed to by a / / to a new Foo object ; / / sets the reference b to point to this new object ; / / the Foo class must implement the Cloneable interface / / for this code to compile a. x = 5 ; / / modifies the object a a. x = 5 ; / / modifies the object referenced by a std : : cout < < b. x < < std : : endl ; / / outputs 0 , because b is / / some object other than a System. out. println ( b. x ) ; / / outputs 0 , because b points to / / some object other than a Foo * c ; / / declares c to be a pointer to a / / Foo object ( initially / / undefined ; could point anywhere ) Foo c ; / / declares c to be a reference to a Foo / / object ( initially null if c is a class member ; / / it is necessary to initialize c before use / / if it is a local variable ) c = new Foo ; / / binds c to point to a new Foo object c = new Foo ( ) ; / / binds c to reference a new Foo object Foo &d = * c ; / / binds d to reference the same object to which c points Foo d = c ; / / binds d to reference the same object as c c - > x = 5 ; / / modifies the object referenced by c c. x = 5 ; / / modifies the object referenced by c a. bar ( 5 ) ; / / invokes Foo : : bar ( ) for a c - > bar ( 5 ) ; / / invokes Foo : : bar ( ) for * c a. bar ( 5 ) ; / / invokes Foo. bar ( ) for a c. bar ( 5 ) ; / / invokes Foo. bar ( ) for c std : : cout < < d. x < < std : : endl ; / / outputs 5 , because d references the / / same object to which c points System. out. println ( d. x ) ; / / outputs 5 , because d references the / / same object as c In C++ , it is possible to declare a pointer or reference to a const object in order to prevent client code from modifying it . Functions and methods can also guarantee that they will not modify the object pointed to by a pointer by using the `` const '' keyword . This enforces const - correctness . In Java , for the most part , const - correctness must rely on the semantics of the class ' interface , i.e. , it is not strongly enforced , except for public data members that are labeled final . C++ Java const Foo * a ; / / it is not possible to modify the object / / pointed to by a through a final Foo a ; / / a declaration of a `` final '' reference : / / it is possible to modify the object , / / but the reference will constantly point / / to the first object assigned to it a = new Foo ( ) ; a = new Foo ( ) ; / / Only in constructor a - > x = 5 ; / / ILLEGAL a. x = 5 ; / / LEGAL , the object 's members can still be modified / / unless explicitly declared final in the declaring class Foo * const b = new Foo ( ) ; / / a declaration of a `` const '' pointer final Foo b = new Foo ( ) ; / / a declaration of a `` final '' reference b = new Foo ( ) ; / / ILLEGAL , it is not allowed to re-bind it b = new Foo ( ) ; / / ILLEGAL , it is not allowed to re-bind it b - > x = 5 ; / / LEGAL , the object can still be modified b. x = 5 ; / / LEGAL , the object can still be modified C++ supports goto statements , which may lead to spaghetti code programming . With the exception of the goto statement ( which is very rarely seen in real code and highly discouraged ) , both Java and C++ have basically the same control flow structures , designed to enforce structured control flow , and relies on break and continue statements to provide some goto - like functions . Some commenters point out that these labelled flow control statements break the single point - of - exit property of structured programming . C++ provides low - level features which Java lacks . In C++ , pointers can be used to manipulate specific memory locations , a task necessary for writing low - level operating system components . Similarly , many C++ compilers support an inline assembler . Assembly language code can be imported to a C program and vice versa . This makes C language even faster . In Java , such code must reside in external libraries , and can only be accessed via the Java Native Interface , with a significant overhead for each call . Semantics ( edit ) C++ allows default values for arguments of a function / method . Java does not . However , method overloading can be used to obtain similar results in Java but generate redundant stub code . The minimum of code needed to compile for C++ is a function , for Java is a class . C++ allows a range of implicit conversions between native types ( including some narrowing conversions ) , and also allows defining implicit conversions involving user - defined types . In Java , only widening conversions between native types are implicit ; other conversions require explicit cast syntax . A result of this is that although loop conditions ( if , while and the exit condition in for ) in Java and C++ both expect a boolean expression , code such as if ( a = 5 ) will cause a compile error in Java because there is no implicit narrowing conversion from int to boolean . This is handy if the code was a typo ' and if ( a = = 5 ) was intended . Yet current C++ compilers usually generate a warning when such an assignment is performed within a conditional expression . Similarly , standalone comparison statements , e.g. a = = 5 ; , without a side effect generate a warning . For passing parameters to functions , C++ supports both pass - by - reference and pass - by - value . In Java , primitive parameters are always passed by value . Class types , interface types , and array types are collectively called reference types in Java and are also always passed by value . Java built - in types are of a specified size and range defined by the language specification . In C++ , a minimal range of values is defined for built - in types , but the exact representation ( number of bits ) can be mapped to whatever native types are preferred on a given platform . For instance , Java characters are 16 - bit Unicode characters , and strings are composed of a sequence of such characters . C++ offers both narrow and wide characters , but the actual size of each is platform dependent , as is the character set used . Strings can be formed from either type . This also implies that C++ compilers can automatically select the most efficient representation for the target platform ( i.e. , 64 - bit integers for a 64 - bit platform ) , while the representation is fixed in Java , meaning the values can either be stored in the less - efficient size , or must pad the remaining bits and add code to emulate the reduced - width behavior . The rounding and precision of floating point values and operations in C++ is implementation - defined ( although only very exotic or old platforms depart from the IEEE 754 standard ) . Java provides an optional strict floating - point model ( strictfp ) that guarantees more consistent results across platforms , though at the cost of possibly slower run - time performance . However , Java does not comply strictly with the IEEE 754 standard . Most C++ compilers will , by default , comply partly with IEEE 754 ( usually excluding strict rounding rules and raise exceptions on NaN results ) , but provide compliance options of varied strictness , to allow for some optimizing . If we label those options from least compliant to most compliant as fast , consistent ( Java 's strictfp ) , near - IEEE , and strict - IEEE , we can say that most C++ implementations default to near - IEEE , with options to switch to fast or strict - IEEE , while Java defaults to fast with an option to switch to consistent . In C++ , pointers can be manipulated directly as memory address values . Java references are pointers to objects . Java references do not allow direct access to memory addresses or allow memory addresses to be manipulated with pointer arithmetic . In C++ one can construct pointers to pointers , pointers to ints and doubles , and pointers to arbitrary memory locations . Java references only access objects , never primitives , other references , or arbitrary memory locations . In C++ , pointers can point to functions or member functions ( function pointers ) . The equivalent mechanism in Java uses object or interface references . Via stack - allocated objects , C++ supports scoped resource management , a technique used to automatically manage memory and other system resources that supports deterministic object destruction . While scoped resource management in C++ can not be guaranteed ( even objects with proper destructors can be allocated using new and left undeleted ) it provides an effective means of resource management . Shared resources can be managed using shared_ptr , along with weak_ptr to break cyclic references . Java supports automatic memory management using garbage collection which can free unreachable objects even in the presence of cyclic references , but other system resources ( files , streams , windows , communication ports , threads , etc . ) must be explicitly released because garbage collection is not guaranteed to occur immediately after the last object reference is abandoned . C++ features user - defined operator overloading . Operator overloading allows for user - defined types to support operators ( arithmetic , comparisons , etc . ) like primitive types via user - defined implementations for these operators . It is generally recommended to preserve the semantics of the operators . Java supports no form of operator overloading ( although its library uses the addition operator for string concatenation ) . Java features standard application programming interface ( API ) support for reflection and dynamic loading of arbitrary new code . C++ supports static and dynamic linking of binaries . Java has generics , whose main purpose is to provide type - safe containers . C++ has compile - time templates , which provide more extensive support for generic programming and metaprogramming . Java has annotations , which allow adding arbitrary custom metadata to classes and metaprogramming via an annotation processing tool . Both Java and C++ distinguish between native types ( also termed fundamental or built - in types ) and user - defined types ( also termed compound types ) . In Java , native types have value semantics only , and compound types have reference semantics only . In C++ all types have value semantics , but a reference can be created to any type , which will allow the object to be manipulated via reference semantics . C++ supports multiple inheritance of arbitrary classes . In Java a class can derive from only one class , but a class can implement multiple interfaces ( in other words , it supports multiple inheritance of types , but only single inheritance of implementation ) . Java explicitly distinguishes between interfaces and classes . In C++ , multiple inheritance and pure virtual functions make it possible to define classes that function almost like Java interfaces do , with a few small differences . Java has both language and standard library support for multi-threading . The synchronized keyword in Java provides simple and secure mutex locks to support multi-threaded applications . Java also provides robust and complex libraries for more advanced multi-threading synchronizing . Only as of C + + 11 is there a defined memory model for multi-threading in C++ , and library support for creating threads and for many synchronizing primitives . There are also many third - party libraries for this . C++ member functions can be declared as virtual functions , which means the method to be called is determined by the run - time type of the object ( a.k.a. dynamic dispatching ) . By default , methods in C++ are not virtual ( i.e. , opt - in virtual ) . In Java , methods are virtual by default , but can be made non-virtual by using the final keyword ( i.e. , opt - out virtual ) . C++ enumerations are primitive types and support implicit conversion to integer types ( but not from integer types ) . Java enumerations can be public static enum ( enumName1 , enumName2 ) and are used like classes . Another way is to make another class that extends java. lang. Enum < E > ) and may therefore define constructors , fields , and methods as any other class . As of C + + 11 , C++ also supports strongly - typed enumerations which provide more type - safety and explicit specification of the storage type . Unary operators ' + + ' and ' -- ' : in C++ `` The operand shall be a modifiable lvalue . ( skipped ) The result is the updated operand ; it is an lvalue ... '' , but in Java `` the binary numeric promotion mentioned above may include unboxing conversion and value set conversion . If necessary , value set conversion ( and / or ( ... ) boxing conversion ) is applied to the sum prior to its being stored in the variable . '' , i.e. in Java , after the initialization `` Integer i = 2 ; '' , `` + + i ; '' changes the reference i by assigning new object , while in C++ the object is still the same . Resource management ( edit ) Java offers automatic garbage collection , which may be bypassed in specific circumstances via the Real time Java specification . Memory management in C++ is usually done via constructors , destructors , and smart pointers . The C++ standard permits garbage collection , but does not require it . Garbage collection is rarely used in practice . C++ can allocate arbitrary blocks of memory . Java only allocates memory via object instantiation . Arbitrary memory blocks may be allocated in Java as an array of bytes . Java and C++ use different idioms for resource management . Java relies mainly on garbage collection , which can reclaim memory , while C++ relies mainly on the Resource Acquisition Is Initialization ( RAII ) idiom . This is reflected in several differences between the two languages : In C++ it is common to allocate objects of compound types as local stack - bound variables which are destroyed when they go out of scope . In Java compound types are always allocated on the heap and collected by the garbage collector ( except in virtual machines that use escape analysis to convert heap allocations to stack allocations ) . C++ has destructors , while Java has finalizers . Both are invoked before an object 's deallocation , but they differ significantly . A C++ object 's destructor must be invoked implicitly ( in the case of stack - bound variables ) or explicitly to deallocate an object . The destructor executes synchronously just before the point in a program at which an object is deallocated . Synchronous , coordinated uninitializing and deallocating in C++ thus satisfy the RAII idiom . In Java , object deallocation is implicitly handled by the garbage collector . A Java object 's finalizer is invoked asynchronously some time after it has been accessed for the last time and before it is deallocated . Very few objects need finalizers . A finalizer is needed by only objects that must guarantee some cleanup of the object state before deallocating , typically releasing resources external to the JVM . With RAII in C++ , one type of resource is typically wrapped inside a small class that allocates the resource upon construction and releases the resource upon destruction , and provide access to the resource in between those points . Any class that contain only such RAII objects do not need to define a destructor since the destructors of the RAII objects are called automatically as an object of this class is destroyed . In Java , safe synchronous deallocation of resources can be performed deterministically using the try / catch / finally construct . In C++ , it is possible to have a dangling pointer , a stale reference to an object that has already been deallocated . Attempting to use a dangling pointer typically results in program failure . In Java , the garbage collector will not destroy a referenced object . In C++ , it is possible to have uninitialized primitive objects . Java enforces default initialization . In C++ , it is possible to have an allocated object to which there is no valid reference . Such an unreachable object can not be destroyed ( deallocated ) , and results in a memory leak . In contrast , in Java an object will not be deallocated by the garbage collector until it becomes unreachable ( by the user program ) . ( Weak references are supported , which work with the Java garbage collector to allow for different strengths of reachability . ) Garbage collection in Java prevents many memory leaks , but leaks are still possible under some circumstances . Libraries ( edit ) C++ provides cross-platform access to many features typically available in platform - specific libraries . Direct access from Java to native operating system and hardware functions requires the use of the Java Native Interface . Runtime ( edit ) C++ Java C++ is compiled directly to machine code which is then executed directly by the central processing unit . Java is compiled to byte - code which the Java virtual machine ( JVM ) then interprets at runtime . Actual Java implementations do just - in - time compilation to native machine code . Alternatively , the GNU Compiler for Java can compile directly to machine code . Due to its unconstrained expressiveness , low level C++ language features ( e.g. unchecked array access , raw pointers , type punning ) can not be reliably checked at compile - time or without overhead at run - time . Related programming errors can lead to low - level buffer overflows and segmentation faults . The Standard Template Library provides higher - level RAII abstractions ( like vector , list and map ) to help avoid such errors . In Java , low level errors either can not occur or are detected by the Java virtual machine ( JVM ) and reported to the application in the form of an exception . The Java language requires specific behavior in the case of an out - of - bounds array access , which generally requires bounds checking of array accesses . This eliminates a possible source of instability but usually at the cost of slowing execution . In some cases , especially since Java 7 , compiler analysis can prove a bounds check unneeded and eliminate it . C++ has no required behavior for out - of - bounds access of native arrays , thus requiring no bounds checking for native arrays . C++ standard library collections like std : : vector , however , offer optional bounds checking . In summary , Java arrays are `` usually safe ; slightly constrained ; often have overhead '' while C++ native arrays `` have optional overhead ; are slightly unconstrained ; are possibly unsafe . '' Templates vs. generics ( edit ) Both C++ and Java provide facilities for generic programming , templates and generics , respectively . Although they were created to solve similar kinds of problems , and have similar syntax , they are quite different . C++ Templates Java Generics Classes , functions , aliases and variables can be templated . Classes and methods can be genericized . Parameters can be variadic , of any type , integral value , character literal , or a class template . Parameters can be any reference type , including boxed primitive types ( i.e. Integer , Boolean ... ) . Separate instantiations of the class or function will be generated for each parameter - set when compiled . For class templates , only the member functions that are used will be instantiated . One version of the class or function is compiled , works for all type parameters ( via type - erasure ) . Objects of a class template instantiated with different parameters will have different types at run time ( i.e. , distinct template instantiations are distinct classes ) . Type parameters are erased when compiled ; objects of a class with different type parameters are the same type at run time . It causes a different constructor . Because of this type erasure , it is not possible to overload methods using different instantiations of the generic class . Implementation of the class or function template must be visible within a translation unit in order to use it . This usually implies having the definitions in the header files or included in the header file . As of C + + 11 , it is possible to use extern templates to separate compiling of some instantiations . Signature of the class or function from a compiled class file is sufficient to use it . Templates can be specialized -- a separate implementation could be provided for a particular template parameter . Generics can not be specialized . Template parameters can have default arguments . Pre-C + + 11 , this was allowed only for template classes , not functions . Generic type parameters can not have default arguments . Wildcards unsupported . Instead , return types are often available as nested typedefs . ( Also , C + + 11 added keyword auto , which acts as a wildcard for any type that can be determined at compile time . ) Wildcards supported as type parameter . No direct support for bounding of type parameters , but metaprogramming provides this Supports bounding of type parameters with `` extends '' and `` super '' for upper and lower bounds , respectively ; allows enforcement of relationships between type parameters . Allows instantiation of an object with the type of the parameter type . Precludes instantiation of an object with the type of the parameter type ( except via reflection ) . Type parameter of class template can be used for static methods and variables . Type parameter of generic class can not be used for static methods and variables . Static variables unshared between classes and functions of different type parameters . Static variables shared between instances of classes of different type parameters . Class and function templates do not enforce type relations for type parameters in their declaration . Use of an incorrect type parameter results in compiling failure , often generating an error message within the template code rather than in the user 's code that invokes it . Proper use of templated classes and functions is dependent on proper documentation . Metaprogramming provides these features at the cost added effort . There was a proposition to solve this problem in C + + 11 , so - called Concepts , it is planned for the next standard . Generic classes and functions can enforce type relationships for type parameters in their declaration . Use of an incorrect type parameter results in a type error within the code that uses it . Operations on parametrized types in generic code are only allowed in ways that can be guaranteed to be safe by the declaration . This results in greater type safety at the cost of flexibility . Templates are Turing - complete ( see template metaprogramming ) . Generics are probably not Turing - complete . Miscellaneous ( edit ) Java and C++ use different means to divide code into multiple source files . Java uses a package system that dictates the file name and path for all program definitions . Its compiler imports the executable class files . C++ uses a header file source code inclusion system to share declarations between source files . Compiled Java code files are generally smaller than code files in C++ as Java bytecode is usually more compact than native machine code and Java programs are never statically linked . C++ compiling features an added textual preprocessing phase , while Java does not . Thus some users add a preprocessing phase to their build process for better support of conditional compiling . Java 's division and modulus operators are well defined to truncate to zero . C++ ( pre-C + + 11 ) does not specify whether or not these operators truncate to zero or `` truncate to - infinity '' . - 3 / 2 will always be - 1 in Java and C + + 11 , but a C + + 03 compiler may return either - 1 or - 2 , depending on the platform . C99 defines division in the same fashion as Java and C + + 11 . Both languages guarantee ( where a and b are integer types ) that ( a / b ) * b + ( a % b ) = = a for all a and b ( b ! = 0 ) . The C + + 03 version will sometimes be faster , as it is allowed to pick whichever truncation mode is native to the processor . The sizes of integer types are defined in Java ( int is 32 - bit , long is 64 - bit ) , while in C++ the size of integers and pointers is compiler and application binary interface ( ABI ) dependent within given constraints . Thus a Java program will have consistent behavior across platforms , whereas a C++ program may require adapting for some platforms , but may run faster with more natural integer sizes for the local platform . An example comparing C++ and Java exists in Wikibooks . Performance ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In addition to running a compiled Java program , computers running Java applications generally must also run the Java virtual machine ( JVM ) , while compiled C++ programs can be run without external applications . Early versions of Java were significantly outperformed by statically compiled languages such as C++ . This is because the program statements of these two closely related languages may compile to a few machine instructions with C++ , while compiling into several byte codes involving several machine instructions each when interpreted by a JVM . For example : Java / C++ statement C++ generated code ( x86 ) Java generated byte code vector ( i ) + + ; mov edx , ( ebp + 4h ) mov eax , ( ebp + 1Ch ) inc dword ptr ( edx + eax * 4 ) aload_1 iload_2 dup2 iaload iconst_1 iadd iastore Since performance optimizing is a very complex issue , it is very difficult to quantify the performance difference between C++ and Java in general terms , and most benchmarks are unreliable and biased . Given the very different natures of the languages , definitive qualitative differences are also difficult to draw . In a nutshell , there are inherent inefficiencies and hard limits on optimizing in Java , given that it heavily relies on flexible high - level abstractions , however , the use of a powerful JIT compiler ( as in modern JVM implementations ) can mitigate some issues . In any case , if the inefficiencies of Java are too great , compiled C or C++ code can be called from Java via the JNI . Some inefficiencies that are inherent to the Java language include , mainly : All objects are allocated on the heap . For functions using small objects , this can result in performance degradation and heap fragmentation , while stack allocation , in contrast , costs essentially zero . However , modern JIT compilers mitigate this problem to some extent with escape analysis or escape detection to allocate objects on the stack , since Oracle JDK 6 . Performance - critical projects like efficient database systems and messaging libraries have had to use internal unofficial APIs like sun. misc. Unsafe to gain access to manual resource management and be able to do stack allocation ; effectively manipulating pseudo-pointers . Methods are virtual by default ( although they can be made final ) , usually leading to an abuse of virtual methods , adding a level of indirection to every call . This also slightly increases memory use by adding one pointer per object to a virtual table . It also induces a start - up performance penalty , since a JIT compiler must perform added optimizing passes to devirtualize small functions . A lot of run - time casting required even using standard containers induces a performance penalty . However , most of these casts are statically eliminated by the JIT compiler . Safety guarantees come at a run - time cost . For example , the compiler is required to put appropriate range checks in the code . Guarding each array access with a range check is not efficient , so most JIT compilers will try to eliminate them statically or by moving them out of inner loops ( although most native compilers for C++ will do the same when range - checks are optionally used ) . Lack of access to low - level details prevents the developer from improving the program where the compiler is unable to do so . The mandatory use of reference - semantics for all user - defined types in Java can introduce large amounts of superfluous memory indirections ( or jumps ) ( unless elided by the JIT compiler ) which can lead to frequent cache misses ( a.k.a. cache thrashing ) . Furthermore , cache - optimization , usually via cache - aware or cache - oblivious data structures and algorithms , can often lead to orders of magnitude improvements in performance as well as avoiding time - complexity degeneracy that is characteristic of many cache - pessimizing algorithms , and is therefore one of the most important forms of optimization ; reference - semantics , as mandated in Java , makes such optimizations impossible to realize in practice ( by neither the programmer nor the JIT compiler ) . Garbage collection , as this form of automatic memory management introduces memory overhead . However , there are a number of benefits to Java 's design , some realized , some only theorized : Java garbage collection may have better cache coherence than the usual use of malloc / new for memory allocation . Nevertheless , arguments exist that both allocators equally fragment the heap and neither exhibits better cache locality . However , in C++ , allocation of single objects on the heap is rare , and large quantities of single objects are usually allocated in blocks via an STL container and / or with a small object allocator . Run - time compiling can potentially use information about the platform on which the code is being executed to improve code more effectively . However , most state - of - the - art native ( C , C++ , etc . ) compilers generate multiple code paths to employ the full computational abilities of the given system . Also , the inverse argument can be made that native compilers can better exploit architecture - specific optimizing and instruction sets than multi-platform JVM distributions . Run - time compiling allows for more aggressive virtual function inlining than is possible for a static compiler , because the JIT compiler has more information about all possible targets of virtual calls , even if they are in different dynamically loaded modules . Currently available JVM implementations have no problem in inlining most of the monomorphic , mostly monomorphic and dimorphic calls , and research is in progress to inline also megamorphic calls , thanks to the recent invoke dynamic enhancements added in Java 7 . Inlining can allow for further optimisations like loop vectorisation or loop unrolling , resulting in a huge overall performance increase . In Java , thread synchronizing is built into the language , so the JIT compiler can potentially , via escape analysis , elide locks , significantly improve the performance of naive multi-threaded code . This method was introduced in Sun JDK 6 update 10 and is named biased locking . Also , some performance problems occur in C++ : Allowing pointers to point to any address can make optimizing difficult due to possible interference between pointers that alias each other . However , the introduction of strict - aliasing rules largely solves this problem . Since the code generated from various instantiations of the same class template in C++ is not shared ( as with type - erased generics in Java ) , excessive use of templates may lead to significant increase of the executable code size ( code bloat ) . However , because function templates are aggressively inlined , they can sometimes reduce code size , but more importantly allow for more aggressive static analysis and code optimizing by the compiler , more often making them more efficient than non-templated code . In contrast , Java generics are necessarily less efficient than non-genericized code . Because in a traditional C++ compiler , dynamic linking is performed after code generating and optimizing in C++ , function calls spanning different dynamic modules can not be inlined . However modern C++ compilers like MSVC and Clang + LLVM offer link - time - code - generation options that allow modules to be compiled to intermediate formats which allows inlining at the final link stage . Because thread support is generally provided by libraries in C++ , C++ compilers can not perform thread - related optimizations . However , since multi-threading memory models were introduced in C + + 11 , modern compilers have the needed language features to implement such optimizations . Furthermore , many optimizing compilers , such as the Intel compiler , provide several language extensions and advanced threading facilities for professional multi-threading development . Official standard and reference of the language ( edit ) Language specification ( edit ) The C++ language is defined by ISO / IEC 14882 , an ISO standard , which is published by the ISO / IEC JTC1 / SC22 / WG21 committee . The latest , post-standardization draft of C + + 11 is available as well . The C++ language evolves via an open steering committee called the C++ Standards Committee . The committee is composed of the creator of C++ Bjarne Stroustrup , the convener Herb Sutter , and other prominent figures , including many representatives of industries and user - groups ( i.e. , the stake - holders ) . Being an open committee , anyone is free to join , participate , and contribute proposals for upcoming releases of the standard and technical specifications . The committee now aims to release a new standard every few years , although in the past strict review processes and discussions have meant longer delays between publication of new standards ( 1998 , 2003 , and 2011 ) . The Java language is defined by the Java Language Specification , a book which is published by Oracle . The Java language continuously evolves via a process called the Java Community Process , and the world 's programming community is represented by a group of people and organizations - the Java Community members -- which is actively engaged into the enhancement of the language , by sending public requests - the Java Specification Requests - which must pass formal and public reviews before they get integrated into the language . The lack of a firm standard for Java and the somewhat more volatile nature of its specifications have been a constant source of criticism by stake - holders wanting more stability and conservatism in the addition of new language and library features . In contrast , the C++ committee also receives constant criticism , for the opposite reason , i.e. , being too strict and conservative , and taking too long to release new versions . Trademarks ( edit ) `` C + + '' is not a trademark of any company or organization and is not owned by any individual . `` Java '' is a trademark of Oracle Corporation . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ https://blogs.oracle.com/darcy/entry/unsigned_api Jump up ^ `` The Java Tutorials : Passing Information to a Method or a Constructor '' . Oracle . Retrieved 17 February 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Java Tutorials : Object as a Superclass '' . Oracle . Retrieved 17 February 2013 ... Jump up ^ `` XMPP Software '' Libraries `` . xmpp.org . Retrieved 13 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Robert C. Martin ( January 1997 ) . `` Java vs. C++ : A Critical Comparison '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ `` Reference Types and Values '' . The Java Language Specification , Third Edition . Retrieved 9 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Horstmann , Cay ; Cornell , Gary ( 2008 ) . Core Java . I ( Eighth ed . ) . Sun Microsystems . pp. 140 -- 141 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 13 - 235476 - 9 . Some programmers ( and unfortunately even some book authors ) claim that the Java programming language uses call by reference for objects . However , that is false . Because this is such a common misunderstanding , it is worth examining a counterexample in some detail ... This discussion demonstrates that the Java programming language does not use call by reference for objects . Instead object references are passed by value . Jump up ^ Deitel , Paul ; Deitel , Harvey ( 2009 ) . Java for Programmers . Prentice Hall . p. 223 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 13 - 700129 - 3 . Unlike some other languages , Java does not allow programmers to choose pass - by - value or pass - by - reference -- all arguments are passed by value . A method call can pass two types of values to a method -- copies of primitive values ( e.g. , values of type int and double ) and copies of references to objects ( including references to arrays ) . Objects themselves can not be passed to methods . Jump up ^ `` Semantics of Floating Point Math in GCC '' . GNU Foundation . Retrieved 20 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Microsoft c++ compiler , / fp ( Specify Floating - Point Behavior ) '' . Microsoft Corporation . Retrieved 19 March 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Java Language Specification 4.3. 1 : Objects '' . Sun Microsystems . Retrieved 9 December 2010 . Jump up ^ Standard for Programming Language C++ ' 11 , 5.3. 2 Increment and decrement ( expr. pre. incr ) . Jump up ^ The Java TM Language Specification , Java SE 7 Edition , Chapters 15.14. 2 , 15.14. 3 , 15.15. 1 , 15.15. 2 , http://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/ Jump up ^ Satish Chandra Gupta , Rajeev Palanki ( 16 August 2005 ) . `` Java memory leaks -- Catch me if you can '' . IBM DeveloperWorks . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 22 . Retrieved 2015 - 04 - 02 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ How to Fix Memory Leaks in Java by Veljko Krunic ( Mar 10 , 2009 ) Jump up ^ Creating a memory leak with Java on stackoverflow.com Jump up ^ http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/type_alias Jump up ^ http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/variable_template Jump up ^ Boost type traits library Jump up ^ Clark , Nathan ; Amir Hormati ; Sami Yehia ; Scott Mahlke ( 2007 ) . `` Liquid SIMD : Abstracting SIMD hardware using lightweight dynamic mapping '' . HPCA'07 : 216 -- 227 . Jump up ^ Hundt , Robert ( 2011 - 04 - 27 ) . `` Loop Recognition in C++ / Java / Go / Scala '' ( PDF ; 318 kB ) . Stanford , California : Scala Days 2011 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 17 . Java shows a large GC component , but a good code performance . ( ... ) We find that in regards to performance , C++ wins out by a large margin . ( ... ) The Java version was probably the simplest to implement , but the hardest to analyze for performance . Specifically the effects around garbage collection were complicated and very hard to tune Jump up ^ Matthew Hertz , Emery D. Berger ( 2005 ) . `` Quantifying the Performance of Garbage Collection vs. Explicit Memory Management '' ( PDF ) . OOPSLA 2005 . Retrieved 2015 - 03 - 15 . In particular , when garbage collection has five times as much memory as required , its runtime performance matches or slightly exceeds that of explicit memory management . However , garbage collection 's performance degrades substantially when it must use smaller heaps . With three times as much memory , it runs 17 % slower on average , and with twice as much memory , it runs 70 % slower . Jump up ^ Alexandrescu , Andrei ( 2001 ) . Addison - Wesley , ed . Modern C++ Design : Generic Programming and Design Patterns Applied . Chapter 4 . pp. 77 -- 96 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 201 - 70431 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Boost Pool library '' . Boost . Retrieved 19 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Targeting IA - 32 Architecture Processors for Run - time Performance Checking Jump up ^ Fixing The Inlining `` Problem '' by Dr. Cliff Click Azul Systems : Blogs Jump up ^ Oracle Technology Network for Java Developers Jump up ^ Oracle Technology Network for Java Developers Jump up ^ Understanding Strict Aliasing - CellPerformance Jump up ^ `` Working Draft , Standard for Programming Language C + + '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ The Java Language Specification Jump up ^ The Java Community Process ( SM ) Program - Participation - JCP Members Jump up ^ Bjarne Stroustrup 's FAQ : Do you own C++ ? Jump up ^ ZDNet : Oracle buys Sun ; Now owns Java . External links ( edit ) The Wikibook C++ Programming has a page on the topic of : Programming Languages / Comparisons / Java Object Oriented Memory Management : Java vs. C++ Chapter 2 : How Java Differs from C , chapter from Java in a Nutshell by David Flanagan Java vs. C++ resource management comparison - Comprehensive paper with examples Java vs C performance ... again ... - In - depth discussion of performance differences between Java and C / C++ Hyperpoly - Java and C++ Comparison Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comparison_of_Java_and_C%2B%2B&oldid=849885460 '' Categories : Comparison of individual programming languages Java ( programming language ) C++ Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Articles lacking reliable references from September 2010 All articles lacking reliable references Articles needing more viewpoints from May 2016 Articles with self - published sources from September 2010 All articles with self - published sources Articles that may contain original research from August 2012 All articles that may contain original research Articles needing cleanup from February 2011 All pages needing cleanup Cleanup tagged articles without a reason field from February 2011 Wikipedia pages needing cleanup from February 2011 Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles needing additional references from September 2010 All articles needing additional references All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from March 2012 Use dmy dates from January 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia 한국어 日本 語 Norsk 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 July 2018 , at 02 : 10 ( UTC ) . 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c++ vs java which is best to learn
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Ik Kil
Ik Kil - wikipedia Ik Kil Jump to : navigation , search The cenote at Ik Kil Ik Kil is a cenote outside Pisté in the Tinúm Municipality , Yucatán , Mexico . It is located in the northern center of the Yucatán Peninsula and is part of the Ik Kil Archeological Park near Chichen Itza . It is open to the public for swimming and is often included in bus tours . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 2 Red Bull Diving competition 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Description ( edit ) Looking down into the cenote The cenote is open to the sky with the water level about 26 metres ( 85 ft ) below ground level . There is a carved stairway down to a swimming platform . The cenote is about 60 metres ( 200 ft ) in diameter and about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) deep . There are vines which reach from the opening all the way down to the water along with small waterfalls . There are black catfish which swim in the cenote . Cenote Ik Kil is sacred to the Mayans and the Mayans used this cenote for both relaxation and ritual services . Ik Kil is near the Mayan ruins of Chichen Itza , on the highway to Valladolid . Ik Kil was considered sacred by the Mayans who used the site as a location for human sacrifice to their rain god , Chaac . Bones and pieces of jewelry were found in the deep waters of this cenote by archaeologists and speleologists . A complex that includes a restaurant , store , changing rooms , and cottages for rent . Red Bull Diving competition ( edit ) Ik Kil was a stop on the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series in 2010 , 2011 and 2014 . See also ( edit ) List of sinkholes of Mexico References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Cenotes , Underwater Sinkholes '' . Yucatan Today . Retrieved 14 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Cenote Ik - Kil '' . Cenotes of Mexico . Retrieved November 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Leap of faith : Cliff divers launch themselves 90ft the sacred waters of a Mexican sinkhole '' . 7 June 2010 . London : Daily Mail . 7 June 2010 . Retrieved 16 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Red Bull Cliff Diving , Cenote Ik Kil '' . 12 April 2011 . Behind Magazine . Retrieved 14 May 2011 . Jump up ^ October 2014 `` Diving Into Deepest Mexico '' Check url = value ( help ) . Red Bull Cliff Diving . Retrieved 16 March 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ik Kil . National Geographic Lonely Planet Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ik_Kil&oldid=824157012 '' Categories : Natural history of Yucatán Sinkholes of Mexico Museums in Yucatán Hidden categories : Pages with URL errors Commons category with page title different than on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Català Français Italiano Magyar Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 5 February 2018 , at 17 : 26 . About Wikipedia
how far is ik kil cenote from cancun
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Literacy test
Literacy test - wikipedia Literacy test This article is about citizenship and voting eligibility tests in the United States . For the Canadian standardized test , see Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test . Editorial cartoon from the January 18 , 1879 , issue of Harper 's Weekly criticizing the use of literacy tests . It shows `` Mr. Solid South '' writing on wall , `` Eddikashun qualifukashun . The Blak man orter be eddikated afore he kin vote with us Wites , signed Mr. Solid South . '' A literacy test assesses a person 's literacy skills : their ability to read and write . Literacy tests have been administered by various governments to immigrants . In the United States , between the 1850s and 1960s , literacy tests were administered to prospective voters , and this had the effect of disenfranchising African Americans and others . Contents 1 Voting 2 Immigration 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links Voting ( edit ) From the 1890s to the 1960s , many state governments in the United States administered literacy tests to prospective voters purportedly to test their literacy in order to vote . In practice , these tests were intended to disenfranchise racial minorities . Southern state legislatures employed literacy tests as part of the voter registration process starting in the late 19th century . Literacy tests , along with poll taxes , residency and property restrictions and extra-legal activities ( violence , intimidation ) were all used to deny suffrage to African Americans . The first formal voter literacy tests were introduced in 1890 . At first , whites were generally exempted from the literacy test if they could meet alternate requirements that in practice excluded blacks , such as a grandfather clause or a finding of `` good moral character '' . In Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections ( 1959 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court held that literacy tests were not necessarily violations of Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment nor of the Fifteenth Amendment . Southern states abandoned the literacy test only when forced to do so by federal legislation in the 1960s . The Civil Rights Act of 1964 provided that literacy tests used as a qualification for voting in federal elections be administered wholly in writing and only to persons who had completed six years of formal education . In part to curtail the use of literacy tests , Congress enacted the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . The Act prohibited jurisdictions from administering literacy tests to citizens who attained a sixth - grade education in an American school in which the predominant language was Spanish , such as schools in Puerto Rico . The Supreme Court upheld this provision in Katzenbach v. Morgan ( 1966 ) . Although the Court had earlier held in Lassiter that literacy tests did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment , in Morgan the Court held that Congress could enforce Fourteenth Amendment rights -- such as the right to vote -- by prohibiting conduct it deemed to interfere with such rights , even if that conduct may not be independently unconstitutional . As originally enacted , the Voting Rights Act also suspended the use of literacy tests in all jurisdictions in which less than 50 % of voting - age residents were registered as of November 1 , 1964 , or had voted in the 1964 presidential election . In 1970 , Congress amended the Act and expanded the ban on literacy tests to the entire country . The Supreme Court then upheld the ban as constitutional in Oregon v. Mitchell ( 1970 ) , but just for federal elections . The Court was deeply divided in this case , and a majority of justices did not agree on a rationale for the holding . Immigration ( edit ) The literacy test was a device to restrict the total number of immigrants while not offending the large element of ethnic voters . The `` old '' immigration ( British , Irish , German , Scandinavian ) had fallen off and was replaced by a `` new '' immigration from Italy , Russia and other points in Southern and eastern Europe . The `` old '' immigrants were voters and strongly approved of restricting the `` new '' immigrants . All groups of American voters strongly opposed Chinese and Asian immigration . The 1896 Republican platform called for a literacy test . The American Federation of Labor took the lead in promoting literacy tests that would exclude illiterate immigrants , primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe . A majority of the labor union membership were immigrants or sons of immigrants from Germany , Scandinavia and Britain , but the literacy test would not hinder immigration from those countries . Corporate industry however , needed new workers for its mines and factories and opposed any restrictions on immigration . In 1906 , the House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon , a conservative Republican , worked aggressively to defeat a proposed literacy test for immigrants . A product of the western frontier , Cannon felt that moral probity was the only acceptable test for the quality of an immigrant . He worked with Secretary of State Elihu Root and President Theodore Roosevelt to set up the `` Dillingham Commission , '' a blue ribbon body of experts that produced a 41 - volume study of immigration . The Commission recommended a literacy test and the possibility of annual quotas . Presidents Cleveland and Taft vetoed literacy tests in 1897 and 1913 . President Wilson did the same in 1915 and 1917 , but the test was passed over Wilson 's second veto . See also ( edit ) Disfranchisement after the Civil War Freedmen Jim Crow laws References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Literacy Tests and the Right To Vote - ConnecticutHistory.org '' . connecticuthistory.org . Jump up ^ `` Civil Rights Movement -- Literacy Tests & Voter Applications '' . www.crmvet.org . Jump up ^ Voting Rights Act of 1965 § 4 ( e ) ; 52 U.S.C. § 10303 ( e ) ( formerly 42 U.S.C. § 1973b ( e ) ) Jump up ^ Lassiter v. Northampton County Board of Elections , 360 U.S. 45 ( 1959 ) Jump up ^ Buss , William G. ( January 1998 ) . `` Federalism , Separation of Powers , and the Demise of the Religious Freedom Restoration Act '' . Iowa Law Review . 83 : 405 -- 406 . Retrieved January 7 , 2014 . ( Subscription required . ) Jump up ^ Katzenbach v. Morgan , 384 U.S. 641 ( 1966 ) , pp. 652 -- 656 Jump up ^ Williamson , Richard A. ( 1984 ) . `` The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act : A Statutory Analysis of the Revised Bailout Provisions '' . Washington University Law Review . 62 ( 1 ) : 5 -- 9 . Retrieved August 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Tok ji , Daniel P. ( 2006 ) . `` Intent and Its Alternatives : Defending the New Voting Rights Act '' ( PDF ) . Alabama Law Review . 58 : 353 . Retrieved July 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Oregon v. Mitchell , 400 U.S. 112 ( 1970 ) , pp. 188 -- 121 Jump up ^ Gratton , Brian ( 2011 ) . `` Demography and Immigration Restriction in American History '' . In Goldstone , Jack A. Political Demography : How Population Changes Are Reshaping International Security and National Politics . pp. 159 -- 75 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 994596 - 2 . Jump up ^ Lane , A.T. ( 1984 ) . `` American Trade Unions , Mass Immigration and the Literacy Test : 1900 -- 1917 '' . Labor History . 25 ( 1 ) : 5 -- 25 . doi : 10.1080 / 00236568408584739 . Jump up ^ Goldin , Claudia ( 1994 ) . `` The political economy of immigration restriction in the United States , 1890 to 1921 '' . The regulated economy : A historical approach to political economy . U. of Chicago Press . pp. 223 -- 258 . ISBN 0 - 226 - 30110 - 9 . Jump up ^ Zeidel , Robert F. ( 1995 ) . `` Hayseed Immigration Policy : ' Uncle Joe ' Cannon and the Immigration Question '' . Illinois Historical Journal . 88 ( 3 ) : 173 -- 188 . JSTOR 40192956 . Jump up ^ Henry Bischoff ( 2002 ) . Immigration Issues . Greenwood . p. 156 . Further reading ( edit ) Petit , Jeanne D. ( 2010 ) . The Men and Women We Want : Gender , Race , and the Progressive Era Literacy Test Debate . University of Rochester Press . External links ( edit ) Are You `` Qualified '' to Vote ? Alabama literacy test ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans Naturalization literacy test still in use today Voting rights in the United States Constitutional provisions Article I Voter Qualifications Clause Elections Clause 1st Amendment 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause 15th Amendment 17th Amendment 19th Amendment 23rd Amendment 24th Amendment 26th Amendment Federal laws Voting Rights Act of 1965 Amendments List of covered jurisdictions Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act National Voter Registration Act of 1993 Help America Vote Act of 2002 State laws Voter access Absentee ballot Early voting Postal voting Provisional ballot Voter registration in the U.S. Initiatives and referendums Recall election Vote denial Electoral fraud Grandfather clause Literacy test Poll tax Voter caging Voter ID laws Vote dilution Gerrymandering Plurality - at - large voting One man , one vote By group Women Youth Felons Foreigners Transgender people District of Columbia residents Puerto Rico residents Guam residents History Timeline Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era Selma to Montgomery marches Timeline of women 's suffrage Woman Suffrage Parade of 1913 Silent Sentinels U.S. suffragists publications History of direct democracy Related Ballot access Campaign finance Citizenship Native Americans Disfranchisement Election Election law Elections Electoral reform Electoral College Redistricting Secret ballot Suffrage Voting Voting system Voter registration National Voting Rights Museum Literacy Teaching literacy Reading education in the US Phonics Whole language Dick and Jane National Council of Teachers of English No Child Left Behind Act Family literacy Adolescent literacy Defining literacy Functional illiteracy Critical literacy Literacy internationally International Literacy Association List of countries by literacy rate Literacy in India International Literacy Day List of Chinese administrative divisions by illiteracy rate Major contributors to literacy Frank Laubach Ruth Johnson Colvin Paulo Freire Griffith Jones Marie Clay James Paul Gee Related concepts Agricultural literacy Aliteracy Asemic writing Computer literacy Cultural literacy Data literacy Dyslexia Diaspora literacy Early literacy Ecological literacy Electracy Emergent literacy Emotional literacy Financial literacy Graph literacy Health literacy Information literacy Information and media literacy Literacy test Media consumption Media literacy Mental health literacy New literacies Numeracy Oracy Orality Oral literature Postliterate society Racial literacy Scientific literacy Statistical literacy Technological literacy Transliteracy Visual literacy Writing system Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Literacy_test&oldid=864697534 '' Categories : History of voting rights in the United States Elections in the United States History of racial segregation in the United States History of African - American civil rights Literacy Language tests Hidden categories : Pages containing links to subscription - only content Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 18 October 2018 , at 21 : 31 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia
when did congress outlaw literacy tests altogether as a prerequisite to voter registration
[ "As originally enacted, the Voting Rights Act also suspended the use of literacy tests in all jurisdictions in which less than 50% of voting-age residents were registered as of November 1, 1964, or had voted in the 1964 presidential election. In 1970, Congress amended the Act and expanded the ban on literacy tests to the entire country.[7] The Supreme Court then upheld the ban as constitutional in Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), but just for federal elections. The Court was deeply divided in this case, and a majority of justices did not agree on a rationale for the holding.[8][9]\n" ]
[ "1970" ]
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Government of Barbados
Government of Barbados - wikipedia Government of Barbados Jump to : navigation , search The Government of Barbados ( GoB ) , is headed by the monarch , Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State . Since 1 June 2012 , the Queen has been represented by the Governor - General , Sir Elliott Belgrave , G.C.M.G. , K.A. The country has a bicameral legislature and a political party system , based on universal adult suffrage and fair elections . The Senate has 21 members , appointed by the Governor - General on behalf of the monarch , 12 on the advice of the Prime Minister , two on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition , and seven in the Governor - General 's sole discretion . The House of Assembly has 30 members , all elected . Both houses debate all legislation . However , the House of Assembly may override Senate 's rejection of money bills and other bills except bills amending the Constitution . Officers of each house ( President and Deputy President of the Senate ; Speaker , Deputy Speaker , and Chairman of Committees of the Assembly ) are elected from the members of the respective houses . In keeping with the Westminster system of governance , Barbados has evolved into an independent parliamentary democracy and Constitutional monarchy , meaning that all political power rests with the Parliament under a non-political monarch as head of state , which allows stability . Executive authority is vested in the monarch , who normally acts only on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet , who are collectively responsible to Parliament . Barbadian law is rooted in English common law , and the Constitution of Barbados implemented in 1966 , is the supreme law of the land . Barbados PM Freundel Stuart announced that Barbados would become a republic before the 50th anniversary of independence in 2016 . Barbados will replace the Governor General as head of state with a ceremonial president . However Barbados will still retain association with the crown through membership within the Commonwealth of Nations . Fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual are set out in the Constitution and are protected by a strict legal code . The Cabinet is headed by the Prime Minister , who must be an elected member of Parliament , and other ministers are appointed from either chamber by the Governor - General , as advised by the Prime Minister . The Governor - General appoints as Leader of the Opposition the member of House of Assembly who commands the support of the largest number of members of that House in opposition to the ruling party 's government . The maximum duration of a Parliament is five years from the first sitting . There is a simultaneous dissolution of both Houses of Parliament by the Governor - General , acting on the advice of the Prime Minister . There is an established non-political civil service . Also , there are separate constitutional commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service , the Public Service , and the Police Service . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Executive branch 3 Law 4 Judicial branch 5 Perception 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 Gallery 10 External links History ( edit ) A simplified diagram of the Barbados government The government has been chosen by elections since 1961 elections , when Barbados achieved full self - governance . Before then , the government was a Crown colony consisting of either colonial administration solely ( such as the Executive Council ) , or a mixture of colonial rule and a partially elected assembly , such as the Legislative Council . Since independence the Barbados Labour Party ( BLP ) governed from 1976 to 1986 , and from September 1994 -- 2008 . The Democratic Labour Party ( DLP ) held office 1966 to 1976 , from 1986 to 1994 , and has formed the Government January 2008 to present . Executive Branch ( edit ) The Executive Branch of government conducts the ordinary business of government . These functions are called out by the Prime Minister or president and cabinet ministers . The prime minister chooses the ministers of government they wish to have in the cabinet but they are actually appointed by the governor general . Law ( edit ) The Constitution of Barbados is the supreme law of the nation . The Attorney General heads the independent judiciary . Historically , Barbadian law was based entirely on English common law with a few local adaptations . At the time of independence , the Parliament of the United Kingdom lost its ability to legislate for Barbados , but the existing English and British common law and statutes in force at that time , together with other measures already adopted by the Barbadian Parliament , became the basis of the new country 's legal system . Legislation may be shaped or influenced by such organisations as the United Nations , the Organization of American States , or other international bodies to which Barbados has obligatory commitments by treaty . Additionally , through international co-operation , other institutions may supply the Barbados Parliament with key sample legislation to be adapted to meet local circumstances before enacting it as local law . New acts are passed by the Barbadian Parliament and require royal assent by the Governor - General to become law . Judicial Branch ( edit ) Main article : Judiciary of Barbados The Judiciary is the legal system through which punishments are handed out to individuals who break the law . The Judiciary also settles disputes . The Functions of The judiciary : ° To Enforce Laws ° To interpret Laws ° To conduct court hearings ° To hear court appeals The local court system of Barbados is made up of : Magistrates ' Courts : Covering Criminal , Civil , Domestic , Domestic Violence , and Juvenile matters . But can also take up matters dealing with Coroner 's Inquests , Liquor Licences , and civil marriages . Further , the Magistrates ' Courts deal with Contract and Tort law where claims do not exceed $10,000.00 . The Supreme Court : is made up of High Court and Court of Appeals . High Court : Consisting of Civil , Criminal , and Family law divisions . Court of Appeal : Handles appeals from the High Court and Magistrates ' Court . It hears appeals in both the civil , and criminal law jurisdictions . It may consist of a single Justice of Appeal sitting in Chambers ; or may sit as a Full Court of three Justices of Appeals . The Caribbean Court of Justice ( CCJ ) , ( based in Port of Spain , Trinidad and Tobago ) , is the court of last resort ( final jurisdiction ) over Barbadian law . It replaced the London - based Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ( JCPC ) . The CCJ may resolve other disputed matters dealing with the Caribbean Single Market and Economy ( CSME ) . Perception ( edit ) Transparency International ranked Barbados as 17th place ( of 179 ) in the world on its corruption perceptions index in 2010 , with only one nation scoring better in the Americas . ( ( 1 ) ) See also ( edit ) Politics of Barbados Monarchy of Barbados Parliament of Barbados Prime Minister of Barbados Cabinet of Barbados List of government budgets by country List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Constitution of Barbados : EXECUTIVE POWER ( Chapter 6 ) , Section 63 . Section 63 of the Constitution says that the executive authority of Barbados shall be vested in Her Majesty the Queen '' Jump up ^ The Queen 's role in Barbados , Royal.gov.uk Archived January 16 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ The Queen and the Commonwealth , Royal.gov.uk Archived February 29 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Rayner , Gordon . ' Barbados PM says island will replace the Queen and move towards republic '. The Telegraph , March 23 , 2015 . http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/barbados/11489936/Barbados-PM-says-island-will-replace-the-Queen-and-move-towards-republic.html , retrieved March 25 , 2015 Jump up ^ The official Constitution of Barbados ( 1966 ) version . ^ Jump up to : `` Law Courts of Barbados '' . Lawcourts.gov.bb . Archived from the original on 15 August 2009 . Retrieved 4 July 2010 . Further reading ( edit ) Dupont , Jerry ( 2001 ) . The common law abroad : constitutional and legal legacy of the British empire . William S. Hein & Co. , Inc . pp. Pgs. 199 -- 206 . ISBN 0 - 8377 - 3125 - 9 . Retrieved 5 January 2010 . Gallery ( edit ) Office of the Prime Minister The Cabinet Office in the Government Headquarters complex Main entrance to the Government Headquarters complex , with a statue of Sir Grantley Adams in the foreground External links ( edit ) Government of Barbados at DMOZ Barbadian Government Website The Barbados Governmental System , Photius Coutsoukis Barbados Government statement on the proper titles for members of Government Social Security provided by the Government of Barbados Laws of Barbados , The World Law Guide Laws of Barbados , The World Intellectual Property Organization Barbados articles History Timeline British Empire Governors British West Indies Windward Islands colony Confederation riots West Indies Federation Barbados Independence Act 1966 Geography Cities , towns and villages Climate Fauna Flora Rivers Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Cabinet Ministries and agencies Governor - General Judiciary Chief Justice Attorney General Law Military Monarchy Parliament House of Assembly Senate Police Political parties Prime Minister Economy Agriculture Central Bank Barbadian dollar ( currency ) Stock exchange Rum Telecommunications Tourism Transport Water Society Demographics Education Ethnic groups Human rights LGBT Language Religion Culture Anthem Cuisine Crop Over Flag Landship Media Music Public holidays Sports Outline Index Portal Governments of The Americas North America South America Sovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies and other territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Bonaire British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands French Guiana Greenland Guadeloupe Martinique Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Barbados&oldid=806395236 '' Categories : Executive branches of government Government of Barbados Government ministries of Barbados Barbados - related lists Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with DMOZ links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 21 October 2017 , at 19 : 10 . 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Spanish Empire
Spanish Empire - wikipedia Spanish Empire Jump to : navigation , search For the use of the imperial title in medieval Spain , see Imperator totius Hispaniae . Spanish Empire Monarquía Hispánica Monarquía universal española Imperio Español 1492 -- 1975 Flag Motto `` Plus ultra '' ( Latin ) `` Further Beyond '' The areas of the world that at one time were territories of the Spanish Monarchy or Empire . Capital Madrid ( 1561 -- 1601 ) Valladolid ( 1601 -- 06 ) Madrid ( from 1606 ) Languages Spanish , Latin ( formal ) ; also Aragonese , Asturian , Basque , Catalan , Galician , Nahuatl , Zapotec , Maya and other indigenous languages Religion Catholic Church Government Composite monarchy ( Habsburgs ) Absolute monarchy ( Bourbons ) King Kings of Spain History Established 1492 Disestablished Preceded by Succeeded by Crown of Castile Crown of Aragon Emirate of Granada Kingdom of Navarre Burgundian Netherlands Episcopal principality of Utrecht Aztec Empire Inca Empire Maya Civilization Tondo ( historical polity ) Madja - as Sultanate of Sulu Louisiana ( New France ) Spain First Mexican Empire Gran Colombia United Provinces of the Río de la Plata Chile Bolivia Protectorate of Peru First Philippine Republic Equatorial Guinea Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Louisiana ( New France ) Florida Territory United States Military Government in Cuba Puerto Rico Warning : Value not specified for `` continent '' The Spanish Empire ( Spanish : Imperio español ) was one of the largest empires in history . It reached the peak of its military , political and economic power under the Spanish Habsburgs , through most of the 16th and 17th centuries , and its greatest territorial extent under the House of Bourbon in the 18th century . The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets . The Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus . It comprised territories and colonies of the Spanish monarch in the Americas , Asia , Oceania and Africa , as the Greater Antilles , most of South America , Central America , and part of North America ( including present day Florida , the Southwestern , and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States ) , as well as a number of Pacific Ocean archipelagos including the Philippines ; and it lasted until the early 19th century Spanish American wars of independence , which left only Cuba , Puerto Rico , Guam , the Marianas , and the Philippines and various territories in Africa still under Spanish rule . Following the Spanish -- American War of 1898 , Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and the Pacific to the United States . Its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976 . The dynastic union between the Crown of Castile ( which included the kingdom of Navarre after 1515 ) and the Crown of Aragon by the Catholic Monarchs initiated a political , religious and social unity to become the first modern state in Europe , known as the Catholic Monarchy . During this period , the Spanish sovereign acted as monarch in a unitary manner over all his territories through a polysynodial system of Councils , although his power as king or lord varied from one territory to another , since each territory retained its own particular administration and juridical configuration . The unity did not mean uniformity . Therefore , under this political configuration , irrespective of the denominations given to the `` dynastic union '' existing from 1580 to 1640 , the Portuguese realm kept its own administration and jurisdiction over its territory , as did the other kingdoms and realms ruled by the Spanish Habsburgs . Nevertheless , some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time , while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origins 1.1 Canary Islands 1.2 Treaty of Alcáçovas and the first colonial war 1.3 Treaty of Tordesillas 1.4 Struggles for Italy 1.5 Papal Bulls and the Indies 1.6 First settlements in the Americas and Crown control 1.7 Campaigns in North Africa 1.8 Oran 2 The Spanish Habsburgs : The Sun Never Sets ( 1516 -- 1700 ) 2.1 Spanish intervention in Europe 2.1. 1 Struggles of Charles V for Italy 2.1. 2 Religious conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire 2.1. 3 Defeat of France 2.1. 4 Conflicts in northern Europe 2.1. 5 The pacification at the time of Philip III 2.1. 6 Philip IV 2.1. 7 The Last Spanish Habsburgs 2.2 Africa and the Mediterranean 3 The New World 3.1 Explorers and conquerors 3.2 Organization and administration 3.2. 1 Audiencias , the High Courts 3.2. 2 Cabildos or town councils 3.3 Education 4 The Spanish Bourbons : reform and recovery ( 1700 -- 1808 ) 4.1 Bourbon reforms 4.2 18th - century prosperity 4.3 Overseas expansion 5 Twilight of the global empire ( 1800 -- 99 ) 5.1 Spanish American independence 5.2 Changes and reaction 6 Territories in Africa ( 1885 -- 1975 ) 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 9.2 Bibliography 9.3 Further reading 10 External links Origins ( edit ) Canary islands ( edit ) Main article : Conquest of the Canary Islands During the 15th century , Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic . Portugal obtained several Papal bulls that acknowledged Portuguese control over the discovered territories , but Castile also obtained from the Pope the safeguard of its rights to the Canary Islands with the bulls Romani Pontifex dated 6 November 1436 and Dominatur Dominus dated 30 April 1437 . The conquest of the Canary Islands , inhabited by Guanche people , began in 1402 during the reign of Henry III of Castile , by Norman nobleman Jean de Béthencourt under a feudal agreement with the crown . The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496 , when the islands of Gran Canaria ( 1478 -- 1483 ) , La Palma ( 1492 -- 1493 ) , and Tenerife ( 1494 -- 1496 ) were subjugated . Treaty of Alcáçovas and the first colonial war ( edit ) See also : Battle of Guinea , Palos de la Frontera , and Treaty of Alcáçovas The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast ( 1471 ) in the Gulf of Guinea , but the news quickly caused a huge gold rush . Chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea `` spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there '' . Worthless trinkets , Moorish textiles , and above all , shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold , slaves , ivory and Guinea pepper . The conquest of the Canary Islands ( 1402 - 1496 ) The War of the Castilian Succession ( 1475 -- 79 ) provided the Catholic Monarchs with the opportunity not only to attack the main source of the Portuguese power , but also to take possession of this lucrative commerce . The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea : every caravel had to get a government license and to pay a tax on one - fifth of their profits ( a receiver of the customs of Guinea was established in Seville in 1475 -- the ancestor of the future and famous Casa de Contratación ) . The Castilian fleets fought in the Atlantic Ocean , temporarily occupying the Cape Verde islands ( 1476 ) , conquering the city of Ceuta in Tingitana Peninsula , in 1476 ( but retaken by the Portuguese ) , and even attacked the Azores islands , being defeated at Praia . But the turning point of the war came in 1478 , when a Castilian fleet sent by King Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canaria lost men and ships to the Portuguese who expelled it , and above all , a large Castilian armada -- full of gold -- was entirely captured in the decisive battle of Guinea . The Treaty of Alcáçovas ( 4 September 1479 ) , while assuring the Castilian throne to the Catholic Monarchs , reflected the Castilian naval and colonial defeat : `` War with Castile broke out waged savagely in the Gulf ( of Guinea ) until the Castilian fleet of thirty - five sail was defeated there in 1478 . As a result of this naval victory , at the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 Castile , while retaining her rights in the Canaries , recognized the Portuguese monopoly of fishing and navigation along the whole west African coast and Portugal 's rights over the Madeira , Azores and Cape Verde islands ( plus the right to conquer the Kingdom of Fez ) . '' The treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries , establishing the principle of the Mare clausum . It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV , in the papal bull Æterni regis ( dated on 21 June 1481 ) . Iberian ' mare clausum ' in the Age of Discovery . However , this experience would prove to be profitable for the future Spanish overseas expansion , because as the Spaniards were excluded from the lands discovered or to be discovered from the Canaries southward -- and consequently from the road to India around Africa -- they sponsored the voyage of Columbus towards the west ( 1492 ) in search of Asia to trade in its spices , encountering the Americas instead . Thus , the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced world 's division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers . Treaty of Tordesillas ( edit ) Main article : Treaty of Tordesillas The return of Columbus , 1493 . Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas , King John II of Aragon died , and his son Ferdinand II of Aragon , married to the Queen of Castile , Isabella , inherited the thrones of the Crown of Aragon . The two became known as the Catholic Monarchs , with their marriage a personal union that created a relationship between the Crown of Aragon and Castile , each with their own administrations , but ruled jointly by the two monarchs . Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten - year war . The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus , a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu ( Japan ) by sailing west . Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella . In the Capitulations of Santa Fe , dated on 17 April 1492 , Christopher Columbus obtained from the Catholic Monarchs his appointment as viceroy and governor in the lands already discovered and that he might discover thenceforth ; thereby , it was the first document to establish an administrative organization in the Indies . Columbus ' discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas . Spain 's claim to these lands was solidified by the Inter caetera papal bull dated 4 May 1493 , and Dudum siquidem on 26 September 1493 , which vested the sovereignty of the territories discovered and to be discovered . Castile and Portugal divided the world in The Treaty of Tordesillas . Since the Portuguese wanted to keep the line of demarcation of Alcaçovas running east and west along a latitude south of Cape Bojador , a compromise was worked out and incorporated in the Treaty of Tordesillas , dated on 7 June 1494 , in which the globe was split into two hemispheres dividing Spanish and Portuguese claims . These actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south ( except Brazil ) , as well as the easternmost parts of Asia . The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506 . Spain 's expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences , a yearning to improve national prestige , and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World . On the other hand , the treaty of Tordesillas and the treaty of Cintra ( 18 September 1509 ) established the limits of the Kingdom of Fez for Portugal , and the Castilian expansion was allowed outside these limits , beginning with the conquest of Melilla in 1497 . Struggles for Italy ( edit ) See also : Italian Wars El gran capitan at the Battle of Cerignola The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long - time enemy : France . The Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal , England and the House of Habsburg . Following the same strategy , the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan - Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494 . As King of Aragon , Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy ; these conflicts became the center of Ferdinand 's foreign policy as king . In these battles , which established the supremacy of the Spanish Tercios in European battlefields , the forces of the kings of Spain acquired a reputation for invincibility that would last until the mid-17th century . After the death of Queen Isabella , Ferdinand , as Spain 's sole monarch , adopted a more aggressive policy than he had as Isabella 's husband , enlarging Spain 's sphere of influence in Italy and against France . Ferdinand 's first deployment of Spanish forces came in the War of the League of Cambrai against Venice , where the Spanish soldiers distinguished themselves on the field alongside their French allies at the Battle of Agnadello ( 1509 ) . Only a year later , Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France , seeing a chance at taking both Milan -- to which he held a dynastic claim -- and Navarre . This war was less of a success than the war against Venice , and in 1516 , France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre . Papal bulls and the Indies ( edit ) Upon the death of Ferdinand the Catholic , the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies . The Papal Bull Inter caetera of 1493 by Alexander VI , a Valencian known as Rodrigo Borgia before his election as pope , vested government and jurisdiction of newly found lands in the kings of Castile and León and their successors . According to the Concord of Segovia of 1475 , Ferdinand was mentioned in the bulls as king of Castile , and upon his death the title of the Indies was to be incorporated into the Crown of Castile . The territories were incorporated by the Catholic Monarchs as jointly held assets . In the Treaty of Villafáfila of 1506 , Ferdinand renounced not only the government of Castile in favour of his son - in - law Philip I of Castile but also the lordship of the Indies , withholding a half of the income of the kingdoms of the Indies . Joanna of Castile and Philip immediately added to their titles the kingdoms of Indies , Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea . But the Treaty of Villafáfila did not hold for long because of the death of Philip ; Ferdinand returned as regent of Castile and as `` lord the Indies '' . According to the domain granted by Papal bulls and the wills of queen Isabella of Castile in 1504 and king Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516 , such property became held by the Crown of Castile . This arrangement was ratified by successive monarchs , beginning with Charles I in 1519 in a decree that spelt out the juridical status of the new overseas territories . The lordship of the discovered territories conveyed by papal bulls was private to the kings of Castile and León . The political condition of the Indies were to transform from `` Lordship '' of the Catholic Monarchs to `` Kingdoms '' for the heirs of Castile . Although the Alexandrine Bulls gave full , free and omnipotent power to the Catholic Monarchs , they did not rule them as a private property but as a public property through the public bodies and authorities from Castile , and when those territories were incorporated into the Crown of Castile the royal power was subject to the laws of Castile . First settlements in the Americas and Crown control ( edit ) See also : Voyages of Christopher Columbus and Treaty of Tordesillas Discovery of the Mississippi . With the Capitulations of Santa Fe , the Crown of Castile granted expansive power to Christopher Columbus , including exploration , settlement , political power , and revenues , with sovereignty reserved to the Crown . The first voyage established sovereignty for the crown , and the crown acted on the assumption that Columbus 's grandiose assessment of what he found was true , so Spain negotiated the Treaty of Tordesillas with Portugal to protect their territory on the Spanish side of the line . The crown fairly quickly reassessed its relationship with Columbus and moved to assert more direct crown control over the territory and extinguish his privileges . With that lesson learned , the crown was far more prudent in the specifying the terms of exploration , conquest , and settlement in new areas . The pattern in the Caribbean that played out over the larger Spanish Indies was exploration of an unknown area and claim of sovereignty for the crown ; conquest of indigenous peoples or assumption of control without direct violence ; settlement by Spaniards who were awarded the labour of indigenous people via the encomienda ; and the existing settlements becoming the launch point for further exploration , conquest , and settlement , followed by the establishment institutions with officials appointed by the crown . The patterns set in the Caribbean were replicated throughout the expanding Spanish sphere , so although the importance of the Caribbean quickly faded after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire and the Spanish conquest of the Incas , many of those participating in those conquests had started their exploits in the Caribbean . The first permanent European settlements in the New World were established in the Caribbean , initially on the island of Hispaniola , later Cuba and Puerto Rico . As a Genoese with the connections to Portugal , Columbus considered settlement to be on the pattern of trading forts and factories , with salaried employees to trade with locals and to identify exploitable resources . However , Spanish settlement in the New World was based on a pattern of a large , permanent settlements with the entire complex of institutions and material life to replicate Castilian life in a different venue . Columbus 's second voyage in 1493 had a large contingent of settlers and goods to accomplish that . On Hispaniola , the city of Santo Domingo was founded in 1496 by Christopher Columbus 's brother Bartholomew Columbus and became a stone - built , permanent city . Although Columbus staunchly asserted and believed that the lands he encountered were in Asia , the paucity of material wealth and the relative lack of complexity of indigenous society meant that the Crown of Castile initially was not concerned with the extensive powers granted Columbus . However , as the Caribbean became a draw for Spanish settlement and as Columbus and his extended Genoese family failed to be recognized as officials worthy of the titles they held , there was unrest . Columbus encountered the mainland in 1498 , and the Catholic Monarchs learned of his discovery in May 1499 . Taking advantage of a revolt against Columbus in Hispaniola , they appointed Francisco de Bobadilla as governor of the Indies with civil and criminal jurisdiction over the lands discovered by Columbus . Bobadilla , however , was soon replaced by Nicolás de Ovando in September 1501 . Henceforth , the Crown would authorize to individuals voyages to discover territories in the Indies only with previous royal license , and after 1503 the monopoly of the Crown was assured by the establishment of Casa de Contratación ( House of Trade ) at Seville . The successors of Columbus , however , litigated against the Crown until 1536 for the fulfillment of the Capitulations of Santa Fe in the pleitos colombinos . Spanish territories in the New World around 1515 . In metropolitan Spain , the direction of the Indies was taken over by the Bishop Fonseca between 1493 and 1516 , and again between 1518 and 1524 , after a brief period of rule by Jean le Sauvage . After 1504 the figure of the secretary was added , so between 1504 and 1507 Gaspar de Gricio took charge , between 1508 and 1518 Lope de Conchillos followed him , and from 1519 , Francisco de los Cobos . In 1511 , the Junta of The Indies was constituted as a standing committee belonging to the Council of Castile to address issues of the Indies , and this junta constituted the origin of the Council of the Indies in 1524 . Following the settlement of Hispaniola , which was successful towards the end of the 1490s , the settlers began searching elsewhere to begin new settlements , since there was little apparent wealth and the numbers of indigenous were declining . Those from the less prosperous Hispaniola were eager to search for new success in a new settlement . From there Juan Ponce de León conquered Puerto Rico ( 1508 ) and Diego Velázquez took Cuba . In 1508 , the Board of Navigators met in Burgos concurred the need to establish settlements on the mainland , a project entrusted to Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa as governors , subordinated to the governor of Hispaniola , who was the newly appointed Diego Columbus , with the same legal authority as Ovando . The first settlement on the mainland was Santa María la Antigua del Darién in Castilla de Oro ( now Nicaragua , Costa Rica , Panama and Colombia ) , settled by Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1510 . In 1513 , Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama , and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the West coast of the New World . In an action with enduring historical import , Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown . The judgment of Seville of May 1511 recognized the viceregal title to Diego Columbus , but limited it to Hispaniola and to the islands discovered by his father , Christopher Columbus ; his power was nevertheless limited by royal officers and magistrates constituting a dual regime of government . Therefore , king Ferdinand II of Aragon as regent of his daughter the queen Joanna separated the territories of the mainland , designated as Castilla de Oro , from the viceroy of Hispaniola , establishing as General Lieutenant to Pedrarias Dávila in 1513 with functions similar to those of a viceroy , remaining Balboa subordinated as governing of Panama and Coiba on the Pacific Coast , and that after his death returned to Castilla de Oro . The territory of Castilla de Oro did not include either Veragua ( which was comprised approximately between the Chagres River and cape Gracias a Dios ) , due to this territory was subject to a lawsuit between the Crown and Diego Columbus , or the region farther north , towards the Yucatán peninsula , explored by Yáñez Pinzón and Solís in 1508 -- 1509 , due to its remoteness . The conflicts of the viceroy Columbus with the royal officers and with the Audiencia , created in Santo Domingo in 1511 , caused his return to the Peninsula in 1515 . Campaigns in North Africa ( edit ) After the conquest of Melilla in 1497 , the Spanish expansionist policy in North Africa was developed during the regency of Ferdinand the Catholic in Castile , stimulated by the Cardinal Cisneros , once the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula was finished . That way , several towns and outposts in the North African coast were conquered and occupied by Castile : Mazalquivir ( 1505 ) , Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ( 1508 ) , Oran ( 1509 ) , Algiers ( 1510 ) , Bougie and Tripoli ( 1510 ) . Tripoli was taken on 24 - 25 July , the feast of St. James , protector of Spain ; the claim was made that 10,000 Muslims were killed and many captured . In the Atlantic coast , Spain took possession of the outpost of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña ( 1476 ) with support from the Canary Islands , and it was retained until 1525 with the consent of the treaty of Cintra ( 1509 ) . Oran ( edit ) The Spaniard occupation of Oran was won with much bloodshed : a third of its Muslim population -- 4,000 inhabitants -- were massacred , and up to 8,000 were taken prisoner . The Zeiyanid sultans of Tlemcen quickly submitted to Spanish protectorate , and the two powers soon became allies . Cardinal Cisneros converted two mosques to Catholic use , and restored and expanded the town 's fortifications . Oran , like other principal Algerian ports , was forced to accept a presidio ( military outpost ) ; it became a major naval base , a garrison city armed with traffic - commanding cannons and arquebuses . For about 200 years , Oran 's inhabitants were virtually held captive in their fortress walls , ravaged by famine and plague ; soldiers , too , were irregularly fed and paid . In 1792 , Spain abandoned Oran , selling it to the Ottoman Empire . The Spanish Habsburgs : the sun never sets ( 1516 -- 1700 ) ( edit ) Further information : Habsburg Spain , Spanish Habsburgs , and Iberian Union Spanish Empire ( including claimed territories ) , and Spanish Habsburg territories ( including the Portuguese Empire ) The period of the 16th to the mid-17th century is known as `` the Golden Age of Spain '' ( in Spanish , Siglo de Oro ) . As a result of the marriage politics of the Catholic Monarchs ( in Spanish , Reyes Católicos ) , their Habsburg grandson Charles inherited the Castilian empire in America , the Possessions of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean ( including a large portion of modern Italy ) , lands in Germany , the Low Countries , Franche - Comté , and Austria ( this one , along with the rest of hereditary Habsburg domains was almost immediately transferred to Ferdinand , the Emperor 's brother ) . While not directly an inheritance , Charles was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire after the death of his grandfather Emperor Maximilian thanks to prodigious bribes paid the prince - electors . Charles became the most powerful man in Europe . It was often said during this time that it was the empire on which the sun never set . The sprawling overseas empire of the Spanish Golden Age was controlled , not from inland Valladolid , but from Seville , where the Casa de Contratación ( House of Trade ) regulated commerce with the Indies , as well as licenses for emigration . The supreme body for administering the Indies was the Council of the Indies , established in 1524 . Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain ( left ) with his son Philip Spain came across an imperial reality without finding profits at the beginning . It did stimulate some trade and industry , but the trading opportunities encountered were limited , therefore Spain started to invest in America with the creation of cities because Spain was in America due to religious reasons . Matters began to change in the 1520s with the large - scale extraction of silver from the rich deposits of Mexico 's Guanajuato region , but it was the opening of the silver mines in Mexico 's Zacatecas and Potosí in Upper Peru ( modern - day Bolivia ) in 1546 that became legendary . During the 16th century , Spain held the equivalent of US $1.5 trillion ( 1990 terms ) in gold and silver received from New Spain . These imports contributed to inflation in Spain and Europe from the last decades of the 16th century . The vast imports of silver that plagued the country with inflation that made local manufactures uncompetitive and ultimately made Spain overly dependent on foreign sources of raw materials and manufactured goods . `` I learnt a proverb here '' , said a French traveller in 1603 : `` Everything is dear in Spain except silver '' . The problems caused by inflation were discussed by scholars at the School of Salamanca and the arbitristas . Furthermore , the natural resource abundance provoked a decline in entrepreneurship as profits from resource extraction are less risky . The wealthy preferred to invest their fortunes in public debt ( juros ) . The Habsburg dynasty spent the Castilian and American riches in wars across Europe on behalf of Habsburg interests , and declared moratoriums ( bankruptcies ) on their debt payments several times . These burdens led to a number of revolts across the Spanish Habsburg 's domains , including their Spanish kingdoms , but the rebellions were put down . The Habsburgs pursued several political goals : Access to the resources of the Americas ( gold , silver , sugar ) and products of Asia ( porcelain , spices , silk ) Undermining the power of France and containing it in its eastern borders Maintaining Habsburg hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and defending the Roman Catholic Church as the true Church against the Protestant schism Defending Europe against Islam , notably the Ottoman Empire Spreading ( Catholic ) Christianity to the unconverted souls of the New World Spanish intervention in Europe ( edit ) Struggles of Charles V for Italy ( edit ) See also : Italian Wars The Pillars of Hercules with the motto `` Plus Ultra '' as symbol of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in the Town Hall of Seville ( 16th century ) With the ascent of Charles I in 1516 and his election as sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire in 1519 , Francis I of France found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories . He invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy in 1521 to inaugurate the second war of Franco - Spanish conflict . The war was a disaster for France , which suffered defeat in the Battle of Biccoca ( 1522 ) , the Battle of Pavia ( 1525 ) , in which Francis I was captured and imprisoned in Madrid , and in the Battle of Landriano ( 1529 ) before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain . The Battle of Pavia ( 1525 ) King Charles I ( Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor ) achieved victory at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 and surprised many Italians and Germans and elicited concerns that Charles would endeavor to gain ever greater power . Pope Clement VII switched sides and joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor , resulting in the War of the League of Cognac . Charles grew exhausted with the pope 's meddling in what he viewed as purely secular affairs . In 1527 , Charles ' army in northern Italy , underpaid and desiring to plunder the city of Rome , mutinied , advanced southward toward Rome , and sacked the city . The sack of Rome , while unintended by Charles , embarrassed the papacy sufficiently enough that Clement , and succeeding popes , were considerably more circumspect in their dealings with secular authorities . In 1533 , Clement 's refusal to annul the first marriage of King Henry VIII of England to Catherine of Aragon may have been partly or entirely motivated by his unwillingness to offend the emperor and perhaps have his capital sacked for a second time . The Peace of Barcelona , signed between Charles V and the Pope in 1529 , established a more cordial relationship between the two leaders . Spain was effectively named the protector of the Catholic cause , and Charles was crowned as King of Italy ( Lombardy ) in return for Spanish intervention in overthrowing the rebellious Florentine Republic . In 1528 , the great admiral Andrea Doria allied with the Emperor to oust the French and restore Genoa 's independence , opening the prospect for financial renewal : 1528 marks the first loan from Genoese banks to Charles . In 1543 , Francis I of France announced his unprecedented alliance with the Islamic sultan of the Ottoman Empire , Suleiman the Magnificent , by occupying the Spanish - controlled city of Nice in concert with Ottoman forces . Henry VIII of England , who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce , joined Charles V in his invasion of France . Although the Spanish were defeated at the Battle of Ceresole in Savoy , the French army was unable to seriously threaten Spanish controlled Milan , whilst suffering defeat in the north at the hands of Henry , thereby being forced to accept unfavourable terms . The Austrians , led by Charles 's younger brother Ferdinand , continued to fight the Ottomans in the east . Charles went to take care of an older problem : the Schmalkaldic League . Religious conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire ( edit ) Map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the abdication of Charles V ( 1556 ) , as depicted in The Cambridge Modern History Atlas ( 1912 ) ; Habsburg lands are shaded green . From 1556 the lands in a line from the Netherlands , through to the east of France , to the south of Italy and the islands were retained by the Spanish Habsburgs . The Schmalkaldic League had allied itself to the French , and efforts in Germany to undermine the League had been rebuffed . Francis 's defeat in 1544 led to the annulment of the alliance with the Protestants , and Charles took advantage of the opportunity . He first tried the path of negotiation at the Council of Trent in 1545 , but the Protestant leadership , feeling betrayed by the stance taken by the Catholics at the council , went to war , led by the Saxon elector Maurice . In response , Charles invaded Germany at the head of a mixed Dutch -- Spanish army , hoping to restore the Imperial authority . The emperor personally inflicted a decisive defeat on the Protestants at the historic Battle of Mühlberg in 1547 . In 1555 , Charles signed the Peace of Augsburg with the Protestant states and restored stability in Germany on his principle of cuius regio , eius religio , a position unpopular with Spanish and Italian clergymen . Charles 's involvement in Germany would establish a role for Spain as protector of the Catholic , Habsburg cause in the Holy Roman Empire ; the precedent would lead , seven decades later , to involvement in the war that would decisively end Spain as Europe 's leading power . Defeat of France ( edit ) The celebrations following the Peace of Cateau - Cambrésis ( 1559 ) between Spain and France Charles V 's only legitimate son , Philip II of Spain ( r . 1556 -- 98 ) parted the Austrian possessions with his uncle Ferdinand . Philip treated Castile as the foundation of his empire , but the population of Castile was never great enough to provide the soldiers needed to support the Empire . When he married Mary Tudor , England was allied to Spain . Spain was not yet at peace , as Henry II of France came to the throne in 1547 and immediately renewed conflict with Spain . Charles 's successor , Philip II , aggressively prosecuted the war against France , crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin in Picardy in 1558 and defeating Henry again at the Battle of Gravelines . The Peace of Cateau - Cambrésis , signed in 1559 , permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy . In the celebrations that followed the treaty , Henry was killed by a stray splinter from a lance . France was stricken for the next thirty years by chronic civil war and unrest ( see French Wars of Religion ) and , during this period , removed from effectively competing with Spain and the Habsburg family in European power games . Freed from effective French opposition , Spain attained the apogee of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559 -- 1643 . The opening for the Genoese banking consortium was the state bankruptcy of Philip II in 1557 , which threw the German banking houses into chaos and ended the reign of the Fuggers as Spanish financiers . The Genoese bankers provided the unwieldy Habsburg system with fluid credit and a dependably regular income . In return the less dependable shipments of American silver were rapidly transferred from Seville to Genoa , to provide capital for further ventures . Conflicts in northern Europe ( edit ) Otto van Veen : The Relief of Leiden ( 1574 ) after the Dutch had broken their dykes in the Eighty Years ' War The time for rejoicing in Madrid was short - lived . In 1566 , Calvinist - led riots in the Netherlands prompted the Duke of Alba to march into the country to restore order . In 1568 , William of Orange , better known as William the Silent , led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands . These battles are generally considered to signal the start of the Eighty Years ' War that ended with the independence of the United Provinces . The Spanish , who derived a great deal of wealth from the Netherlands and particularly from the vital port of Antwerp , were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces . According to Luc - Normand Tellier , `` It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the Americas . '' In 1572 , a band of rebel Dutch privateers known as the watergeuzen ( `` Sea Beggars '' ) seized a number of Dutch coastal towns , proclaimed their support for William and denounced the Spanish leadership . For Spain , the war became an endless quagmire , sometimes literally . In 1574 , the Spanish army under Luis de Requeséns was repulsed from the Siege of Leiden after the Dutch broke the dykes , thus causing extensive flooding . In 1576 , faced with the bills from his 80,000 - man army of occupation in the Netherlands , the cost of his fleet that had won at Lepanto , together with the growing threat of piracy in the open seas reducing his income from his American colonies , Philip was forced to accept bankruptcy . The army in the Netherlands mutinied not long after , seizing Antwerp and looting the southern Netherlands , prompting several cities in the previously peaceful southern provinces to join the rebellion . The Spanish chose to negotiate , and pacified most of the southern provinces again with the Union of Arras in 1579 . In response , the Netherlands created the Union of Utrecht , as an alliance between the northern provinces , later that month . They officially deposed Philip in 1581 when they enacted the Act of Abjuration . Spanish raid on Cornwall in 1595 during the Anglo - Spanish war Under the Arras agreement the southern states of the Spanish Netherlands , today in Belgium and the Nord - Pas - de-Calais ( and Picardy ) régions in France , expressed their loyalty to the Spanish king Philip II and recognized his Governor - General , Don Juan of Austria . In 1580 , this gave King Philip the opportunity to strengthen his position when the last member of the Portuguese royal family , Cardinal Henry of Portugal , died . Philip asserted his claim to the Portuguese throne and in June sent the Duke of Alba with an army to Lisbon to assure his succession . Though the Duke of Alba and the Spanish occupation were little more popular in Lisbon than in Rotterdam , the combined Spanish and Portuguese empires placed into Philip 's hands almost the entirety of the explored New World along with a vast trading empire in Africa and Asia . In 1582 , when Philip II moved his court back to Madrid from the Atlantic port of Lisbon , where he had temporarily settled to pacify his new Portuguese kingdom , the pattern was sealed , in spite of what every observant commentator privately noted : `` Sea power is more important to the ruler of Spain than any other prince '' , wrote one commentator , `` for it is only by sea power that a single community can be created out of so many so far apart . '' A writer on tactics in 1638 observed , `` The might most suited to the arms of Spain is that which is placed on the seas , but this matter of state is so well known that I should not discuss it , even if I thought it opportune to do so . '' Portugal and her kingdoms including Brazil and her African colonies were under the dominion of the Spanish monarch . Portugal required an extensive occupation force to keep it under control , and Spain was still reeling from the 1576 bankruptcy . In 1584 , William the Silent was assassinated by a half - deranged Catholic , and the death of the popular Dutch resistance leader was hoped to bring an end to the war but did not . In 1586 , Queen Elizabeth I of England sent support to the Protestant causes in the Netherlands and France , and Sir Francis Drake launched attacks against Spanish merchants in the Caribbean and the Pacific , along with a particularly aggressive attack on the port of Cadiz . The Spanish Armada leaving the Bay of Ferrol ( 1588 ) In 1588 , hoping to put a stop to Elizabeth 's intervention , Philip sent the Spanish Armada to invade England . Unfavourable weather , plus heavily armed and manœuvrable English ships , and the fact that the English had been warned by their spies in the Netherlands and were ready for the attack resulted in a defeat for the Armada . However , the failure of the Drake -- Norris Expedition to Portugal and the Azores in 1589 marked a turning point in the on - off 1585 -- 1604 Anglo -- Spanish War . The Spanish fleets became more effective in transporting greatly increased quantities of silver and gold from the Americas , while English attacks suffered costly failures . Spain had invested itself in the religious warfare in France after Henry II 's death . In 1589 , Henry III , the last of the Valois lineage , died at the walls of Paris . His successor , Henry IV of Navarre , the first Bourbon king of France , was a man of great ability , winning key victories against the Catholic League at Arques ( 1589 ) and Ivry ( 1590 ) . Committed to stopping Henry of Navarre from becoming King of France , the Spanish divided their army in the Netherlands and invaded France in 1590 . This proved a disaster . The pacification at the time of Philip III ( edit ) Faced with wars against France , England and the Netherlands , each led by capable leaders , the bankrupted empire found itself competing against strong adversaries . Continuing piracy against its shipping in the Atlantic and costly colonial enterprises forced Spain to renegotiate its debts in 1596 . The crown attempted to reduce its exposure to the conflicts , first signing the Treaty of Vervins with France in 1598 , recognizing Henry IV ( since 1593 a Catholic ) as king of France , and restoring many of the stipulations of the previous Peace of Cateau - Cambrésis . The Kingdom of England , suffering from a series of repulses at sea and from a guerrilla war by Catholics in Ireland , who were supported by Spain , agreed to the Treaty of London , 1604 , following the accession of the more tractable Stuart King James I . Castile provided the Spanish crown with most of its revenues and its best troops . The plague devastated Castilian lands between 1596 and 1602 , causing the deaths of some 600,000 people . A great number of Castilians went to America or died in battle . In 1609 , the great majority of the Morisco population of Spain was expelled . It is estimated that Castile lost about 25 % of its population between 1600 and 1623 . Such a dramatic drop in the population meant the basis for the Crown 's revenues was dangerously weakened in a time when it was engaged in continuous conflict in Europe . Peace with England and France gave Spain an opportunity to focus its energies on restoring its rule to the Dutch provinces . The Dutch , led by Maurice of Nassau , the son of William the Silent and perhaps the greatest strategist of his time , had succeeded in taking a number of border cities since 1590 , including the fortress of Breda . Following the peace with England , the new Spanish commander Ambrogio Spinola , a general with the ability to match Maurice , pressed hard against the Dutch and was prevented from conquering the Netherlands only by Spain 's latest bankruptcy in 1607 . In 1609 , the Twelve Years ' Truce was signed between Spain and the United Provinces . At last , Spain was at peace -- the Pax Hispanica . Spain made a fair recovery during the truce , putting its finances in order and doing much to restore its prestige and stability in the run - up to the last truly great war in which she would play a leading part . Philip II 's successor , Philip III , was a man of limited ability , uninterested in politics and preferring to delegate management of the empire to others . His chief minister was the capable Duke of Lerma . The Duke of Lerma ( and to a large extent Philip II ) had been uninterested in the affairs of their ally , Austria . In 1618 , the king replaced him with Don Baltasar de Zúñiga , a veteran ambassador to Vienna . Don Balthasar believed that the key to restraining the resurgent French and eliminating the Dutch was a closer alliance with Habsburg Austria . In 1618 , beginning with the Defenestration of Prague , Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor , Ferdinand II , embarked on a campaign against the Protestant Union and Bohemia . Don Balthasar encouraged Philip to join the Austrian Habsburgs in the war , and Spinola , the rising star of the Spanish army in the Netherlands , was sent at the head of the Army of Flanders to intervene . Thus , Spain entered into the Thirty Years ' War . Philip IV ( edit ) The Surrender of Breda ( 1625 ) to Ambrogio Spinola , by Velázquez . This victory came to symbolize the renewed period of Spanish military vigour in the Thirty Years ' War . In 1621 , Philip III was succeeded by the considerably more religious Philip IV . The following year , Don Balthasar was replaced by Gaspar de Guzmán , Count - Duke of Olivares , a reasonably honest and able man . After certain initial setbacks , the Bohemians were defeated at White Mountain in 1621 , and again at Stadtlohn in 1623 . The war with the Netherlands was renewed in 1621 with Spinola taking the fortress of Breda in 1625 . The intervention of Christian IV of Denmark in the war threatened the Spanish position , but the victory of the Imperial general Albert of Wallenstein over the Danes at Dessau Bridge and again at Lutter ( both in 1626 ) , eliminated that threat . There was hope in Madrid that the Netherlands might finally be reincorporated into the Empire , and after the defeat of Denmark the Protestants in Germany seemed crushed . France was once again involved in its own instabilities ( the famous Siege of La Rochelle began in 1627 ) , and Spain 's eminence seemed clear . The Count - Duke Olivares stridently affirmed , `` God is Spanish and fights for our nation these days '' . Olivares realized that Spain needed to reform , and to reform it needed peace , first and foremost with the United Provinces . Olivares aimed for `` peace with honour '' , however , which meant in practice a peace settlement that would have restored to Spain something of its predominant position in the Netherlands . This was unacceptable to the United Provinces , and the inevitable consequence was the constant hope that one more victory would finally lead to `` peace with honour '' , perpetuating the ruinous war that Olivares had wanted to avoid to begin with . In 1625 , Olivares proposed the Union of Arms , which aimed at raising revenues from the Indies for imperial defense , which met strong opposition . As an illustration of the precarious economic situation of Spain at the time , it was actually Dutch bankers who financed the East India merchants of Seville ( during the truce , presumably ) . At the same time , everywhere in the world Dutch entrepreneurship and colonists were undermining Spanish and Portuguese hegemony . Spain badly needed time and peace to repair its finances and to rebuild its economy . While Spinola and the Spanish army were focused on the Netherlands , the war seemed to go in Spain 's favor . But in 1627 the Castilian economy collapsed . The Habsburgs had been debasing their currency to pay for the war and prices exploded , just as they had in previous years in Austria . Until 1631 , parts of Castile operated on a barter economy owing to the currency crisis , and the government was unable to collect any meaningful taxes from the peasantry and had to depend on revenue from its colonies . The Spanish armies , like others in German territories , resorted to `` paying themselves '' on the land . Olivares had backed certain taxation reforms in Spain pending the end of the war , but was blamed for another embarrassing and fruitless war in Italy . The Dutch , who during the Twelve Years ' Truce had made increasing their navy a priority , ( which showed its maturing potency at the Battle of Gibraltar 1607 ) , managed to strike a great blow against Spanish maritime trade with the capture by captain Piet Hein of the Spanish treasure fleet on which Spain had become dependent after the economic collapse . Spanish military resources were stretched across Europe and also at sea as they sought to protect maritime trade against the greatly improved Dutch and French fleets , while still occupied with the Ottoman and associated Barbary pirate threat in the Mediterranean . In the meantime the aim of choking Dutch shipping was carried out by the Dunkirkers with considerable success . In 1625 a Spanish - Portuguese fleet , under Admiral Fadrique de Toledo , regained the strategically vital Brazilian city of Salvador da Bahia from the Dutch . Elsewhere , the isolated and undermanned Portuguese forts in Africa and the Asia proved vulnerable to Dutch and English raids and takeovers or simply being bypassed as important trading posts . The Battle of Nördlingen by Pieter Meulener , a decisive victory for the Catholic Imperial army and Spain over the Swedes In 1630 , Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden , one of history 's most noted commanders , landed in Germany and relieved the port of Stralsund , the last continental stronghold of German forces belligerent to the Emperor . Gustavus then marched south and won notable victories at Breitenfeld and Lützen , attracting more Protestant support with every step he took . The situation for the Catholics improved with the death of Gustavus at Lützen in 1632 , and they won a key victory at Nördlingen in 1634 . From a position of strength , the Emperor approached the war - weary German states with a peace offering in 1635 : many accepted , including the two most powerful , Brandenburg and Saxony . But then France entered the war , and diplomatic calculations were once again thrown into confusion . Cardinal Richelieu of France had been a strong supporter of the Dutch and Protestants since the beginning of the war , sending funds and equipment in an attempt to stem Habsburg strength in Europe . Richelieu decided that the recently signed Peace of Prague was contrary to French interests and declared war on the Holy Roman Emperor and Spain within months of the peace being signed . In the war that followed , the more experienced Spanish forces scored initial successes . Olivares ordered a lightning campaign into northern France from the Spanish Netherlands , hoping to shatter the resolve of King Louis XIII 's ministers and topple Richelieu . In the `` année de Corbie '' , 1636 , Spanish forces advanced as far south as Corbie , and such was the threat to Paris that the war came close to a conclusion on Spanish terms . After 1636 , however , Olivares halted the advance , fearful of provoking another crown bankruptcy . The hesitation in pressing home the advantage proved fateful : French forces regrouped and pushed the Spanish back towards the border . The Spanish army would never again penetrate so far . At the Battle of the Downs in 1639 a Spanish fleet carrying troops was destroyed by the Dutch navy , and the Spanish found themselves unable to supply and reinforce their forces adequately in the Netherlands . The Army of Flanders , which represented the finest of Spanish soldiery and leadership , faced a French assault led by Louis II de Bourbon , Prince de Condé in northern France at Rocroi in 1643 . The Spanish , led by Francisco de Melo , were beaten by the French . After a closely fought battle the Spanish were forced to surrender on honorable terms . As a result , while the defeat was not a rout , the high status of the Army of Flanders was ended at Rocroi . The defeat at Rocroi also led to the dismissal of the embattled Olivares , who was confined to his estates by the king 's order and died two years later , broken and mad . The last Spanish Habsburgs ( edit ) Main article : Habsburg Spain in the seventeenth century Battle of Rocroi , by Augusto Ferrer - Dalmau Traditionally , historians mark the Battle of Rocroi ( 1643 ) as the end of Spanish dominance in Europe . But the war was not finished , and after a severe setback , more Spanish victories followed . Supported by the French , the Catalans , Neapolitans , and Portuguese rose up in revolt against the Spanish in the 1640s . With the Spanish Netherlands caught between the tightening grip of French and Dutch forces after the Battle of Lens in 1648 , the Spanish made peace with the Dutch and recognized the independent United Provinces in the Peace of Westphalia that ended both the Eighty Years ' War and the Thirty Years ' War . War with France continued for eleven more years . Although France suffered from a civil war from 1648 to 1652 ( see Wars of the Fronde ) , Spain had been exhausted by the Thirty Years ' War and the ongoing revolts . With the war against the United Provinces at an end in 1648 , the Spanish drove the French out of Naples and Catalonia in 1652 , recaptured Dunkirk , and occupied several northern French forts that they held until peace was made . The war came to an end soon after the Battle of the Dunes ( 1658 ) , where the French army under Viscount Turenne retook Dunkirk . Spain agreed to the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659 that ceded to France the Spanish Netherlands territory of Artois and the northern Catalan county of Roussillon . Portugal had rebelled in 1640 under the leadership of John of Braganza , a pretender to the throne . He had received widespread support from the Portuguese people , and Spain -- which had to deal with rebellions elsewhere , along with the war against France -- was unable to respond adequately . John mounted the throne as King John IV of Portugal , and the Spanish and Portuguese co-existed in a de facto state of peace from 1644 to 1656 . When John died in 1656 , the Spanish attempted to wrest Portugal from his son Alfonso VI of Portugal but were defeated at Ameixial ( 1663 ) and Montes Claros ( 1665 ) , leading to Spain 's recognition of Portugal 's independence in 1668 . The meeting of Philip IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France on 7 July 1660 at Pheasant Island . Spain still had a huge overseas empire , but France was now the dominant power on continental Europe , and the United Provinces were dominant in the Atlantic . The Great Plague of Seville ( 1647 -- 1652 ) killed up to 25 % of Seville 's population . Sevilla , and indeed the economy of Andalucía , would never recover from such complete devastation . Altogether Spain was thought to have lost 500,000 people , out of a population of slightly fewer than 10,000,000 , or nearly 5 % of its entire population . Historians reckon the total cost in human lives due to these plagues throughout Spain , throughout the entire 17th century , to be a minimum of nearly 1.25 million . The regency of the young Spanish king Charles II was incompetent in dealing with the War of Devolution that Louis XIV of France prosecuted against the Spanish Netherlands in 1667 -- 68 , losing considerable prestige and territory , including the cities of Lille and Charleroi . In the Franco - Dutch War of 1672 -- 1678 , Spain lost still more territory when it came to the assistance of its former Dutch enemies , most notably Franche - Comté . The Battle of Almansa ( 1707 ) was one of the most decisive engagements of the War of the Spanish Succession . In the Nine Years ' War ( 1688 -- 1697 ) Louis once again invaded the Spanish Netherlands . French forces led by the Duke of Luxembourg defeated the Spanish at Fleurus ( 1690 ) and subsequently defeated Dutch forces under William III of Orange , who fought on Spain 's side . The war ended with most of the Spanish Netherlands under French occupation , including the important cities of Ghent and Luxembourg . The war revealed to Europe the vulnerability of the Spanish defenses and bureaucracy . Further , the ineffective Spanish Habsburg government took no action to improve them . Spain suffered utter decay and stagnation during the final decades of the 17th century . While the rest of Western Europe went through exciting changes in government and society -- the Glorious Revolution in England and the reign of the Sun King in France -- Spain remained adrift . The Spanish bureaucracy that had built up around the charismatic , industrious , and intelligent Charles I and Philip II demanded a strong and hardworking monarch ; the weakness and lack of interest of Philip III and Philip IV contributed to Spain 's decay . Charles II was mentally retarded and impotent . He was therefore childless , and in his final will he left his throne to a French prince , the Bourbon Philip of Anjou , rather than to a fellow Habsburg , albeit from Austria . This resulted in the War of the Spanish Succession . Africa and the Mediterranean ( edit ) By the 16th century , the Ottomans had become a threat to the states of Western Europe . Ottoman conquests in Europe made significant gains with a decisive victory at Mohács . Charles had preferred to suppress the Ottomans through a considerably more maritime strategy , hampering Ottoman landings on the Venetian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean . The coastal villages and towns of Spain , Italy and the Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by Barbary pirates from North Africa ; the Formentera was even temporarily left by its population and long stretches of the Spanish and Italian coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants . The most famous corsair was the Turkish Barbarossa ( `` Redbeard '' ) . According to Robert C. Davis , between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by North African pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries . The reign of Charles V saw a decline in the presence of Spain in the North of Africa , even if Tunis and its port , La Goleta , were taken in 1535 . One after the other , most of the Spanish possessions were lost : Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ( 1522 ) , Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña ( 1524 ) , Algiers ( 1529 ) , Tripoli ( 1551 ) , Bujia ( 1554 ) , and La Goleta and Tunis ( 1569 ) . Only in response to Barbary pirates ' raids on the eastern coast of Spain did Charles lead attacks against Tunis ( 1535 ) and Algiers ( 1541 ) . The Battle of Lepanto ( 1571 ) , marked the end of the Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea . In 1565 , the Spanish defeated an Ottoman landing on the strategic island of Malta , defended by the Knights of St. John . Suleiman the Magnificent 's death the following year and his succession by his less capable son Selim the Sot emboldened Philip , and he resolved to carry the war to the sultan himself . In 1571 , Spanish and Venetian warships , joined by volunteers across Europe , led by Charles 's illegitimate son Don John of Austria annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto , in what is perhaps the most decisive battle in modern naval history . The battle ended the threat of Ottoman naval hegemony in the Mediterranean . This mission marked the height of the respectability of Spain and its sovereign abroad as Philip bore the burden of leading the Counter-Reformation . The Ottomans recovered soon . They reconquered Tunis in 1574 , and they helped to restore an ally , Abu Marwan Abd al - Malik I Saadi , in the throne of Morocco , in 1576 . The death of the Persian shah , Tahmasp I was an opportunity for the Ottoman sultan to intervene in that country , so , in 1580 was agreed a truce in the Mediterranean with Philip II . Nonetheless , the Spanish at Lepanto eliminated the best sailors of the Ottoman fleet , and the Ottoman Empire would never recover in quality what they could in numbers . Lepanto was the decisive turning point in control of the Mediterranean away from centuries of Turkish hegemony to western European control , initiated by the Spanish Empire and its allies . In the first half of the 17th century , Spanish ships attacked the Anatolian coast , defeating larger Ottoman fleets at the Battle of Cape Celidonia and the Battle of Cape Corvo . Larache and La Mamora , in the Moroccan Atlantic coast , and the island of Alhucemas , in the Mediterranean , were taken , but during the second half of the 17th century , Larache and La Mamora were also lost . The New World ( edit ) Explorers and conquerors ( edit ) Emperor Atahualpa is shown surrounded on his palanquin at the Battle of Cajamarca . After Columbus , the Spanish colonization of the Americas was led by a series of soldier - explorers called conquistadors . The Spanish forces , in addition to significant armament and equestrian advantages , exploited the rivalries between competing indigenous peoples , tribes , and nations , some of which were willing to form alliances with the Spanish in order to defeat their more - powerful enemies , such as the Aztecs or Incas -- a tactic that would be extensively used by later European colonial powers . The Spanish conquest was also facilitated by the spread of diseases ( e.g. smallpox ) , common in Europe but never present in the New World , which reduced the indigenous populations in the Americas . This sometimes caused a labour shortage for plantations and public works and so the colonists informally and gradually , at first , initiated the Atlantic slave trade . ( see Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas ) One of the most accomplished conquistadors was Hernán Cortés , who , leading a relatively small Spanish force but with local translators and the crucial support of thousands of native allies , achieved the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the campaigns of 1519 -- 1521 . This territory later became the Viceroyalty of New Spain , present day Mexico . Of equal importance was the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro , which would become the Viceroyalty of Peru . After the conquest of Mexico , rumours of golden cities ( Quivira and Cíbola in North America and El Dorado in South America ) motivated several other expeditions . Many of those returned without having found their goal , or finding it much less valuable than was hoped . Indeed , the New World colonies only began to yield a substantial part of the Crown 's revenues with the establishment of mines such as that of Potosí ( Bolivia ) and Zacatecas ( Mexico ) both started in 1546 . By the late 16th century , silver from the Americas accounted for one - fifth of Spain 's total budget . Cristóbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in the conquests of Jalisco , 1522 . From Lienzo de Tlaxcala . Eventually the world 's stock of precious metal was doubled or even tripled by silver from the Americas . Official records indicate that at least 75 % of the silver was taken across the Atlantic to Spain and no more than 25 % across the Pacific to China . Some modern researchers argue that due to rampant smuggling about 50 % went to China . In the 16th century `` perhaps 240,000 Europeans '' entered American ports . Further Spanish settlements were progressively established in the New World : New Granada in the 1530s ( later in the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717 and present day Colombia ) , Lima in 1535 as the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru , Buenos Aires in 1536 ( later in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 ) , and Santiago in 1541 . Florida was colonized in 1565 by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés when he founded St. Augustine and then promptly defeated an attempt led by the French Captain Jean Ribault and 150 of his countrymen to establish a French foothold in Spanish Florida territory . Saint Augustine quickly became a strategic defensive base for the Spanish ships full of gold and silver being sent to Spain from its New World dominions . Spanish settlements in Chile before the Destruction of the Seven Cities ; in 1604 , all settlements south Biobío River except those in Chiloé had fallen . The Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan died while in the Philippines commanding a Castilian expedition in 1522 which was the first to circumnavigate the globe . The Basque commander Juan Sebastián Elcano would lead the expedition to success . Therefore , Spain sought to enforce their rights in the Moluccan islands , which led a conflict with the Portuguese , but the issue was resolved with the Treaty of Zaragoza ( 1525 ) , settling the location of the antimeridian of Tordesillas , which would divide the world into two equal hemispheres . Thenceforth , maritime expeditions led to the discovery of several archipelagos in the South Pacific as the Pitcairn Islands , the Marquesas , Tuvalu , Vanuatu , the Solomon Islands or New Guinea . On 27 April 1565 , the first permanent Spanish settlement in the Philippines was founded by Miguel López de Legazpi and the service of Manila Galleons was inaugurated . The Manilla Galleons shipped goods from all over Asia across the Pacific to Acapulco on the coast of Mexico . From there , the goods were transshipped across Mexico to the Spanish treasure fleets , for shipment to Spain . The Spanish trading post of Manila was established to facilitate this trade in 1572 . The control of Guam , Mariana Islands , Caroline Islands , and Palau was later , from the end of the 17th century , and remained under Spanish control until 1898 . Organization and administration ( edit ) Since the Crown of Castile had funded the voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492 , the empire in the Americas ( what was often termed `` The Indies '' ) , was a newly established dependency of that kingdom alone , so crown power was not impeded by any existing cortes ( i.e. parliament ) , administrative or ecclesiastical institution , or seigneurial group . From the beginning of the exploration and conquest of the Indies , the Crown assumed the control of the venture turning away the Columbus family . In 1503 the Casa de Contratación ( House of Trade ) was founded to control migration to the New World , which was restricted to old Christians especially families and women . In addition , the Casa de Contratación took charge of the fiscal organization , and of the organization and judicial control of the trade with the Indies . The system of government in Spain was constituted by a polisynodial system of Councils which advised the monarch and made decisions on his behalf about specific matters of government . In 1524 the Council of the Indies was established . Based in Castile , with the assignment of the governance of the Indies , it was thus responsible for drafting legislation , proposing the appointments to the King and pronouncing judicial sentences ; as maximum authority in the ultramarine territories , the Council of The Indies took over both the institutions in the Indies as the defense of the interests of the Crown and of the aborigens . The Laws of the Indies resulted in the Laws of Burgos , 1512 -- 1513 , which were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in the Americas , particularly with regards to treatment of native Indians . They forbade the maltreatment of natives , and endorsed the Indian Reductions with attempts of conversion to Catholicism . Upon their failure , they were replaced by the New Laws ( 1542 ) 1541 founding of Santiago de Chile Spain passed some laws for the protection of the indigenous peoples of its New World territories . Despite the fact that The Queen Isabel was the first monarch that laid the first stone for the protection of the indigenous peoples in her testament in which the Catholic monarch prohibited the enslavement of the indigenous peoples of the Americas . Then the first such in 1542 ; the legal thought behind them was the basis of modern International law . Taking advantage of their extreme remoteness , some colonists were disagree with the laws when they saw their power being reduced , forcing a partial revoking of these New Laws . Colegio de San Gregorio , Valladolid Colegio de San Gregorio , where the Laws of the Indies was born The Valladolid debate ( 1550 -- 1551 ) was the first moral debate in European history to discuss the rights and treatment of a colonized people by colonizers . Held in the Colegio de San Gregorio , in the Spanish city of Valladolid , it was a moral and theological debate about the colonization of the Americas , its justification for the conversion to Catholicism and more specifically about the relations between the European settlers and the natives of the New World . It consisted of a number of opposing views about the way natives were to be integrated into colonial life , their conversion to Christianity and their rights and obligations . According to the French historian Jean Dumont The Valladolid debate was a major turning point in world history `` In that moment in Spain appeared the dawn of the human rights '' . The politics of implantation of the royal authority opposite to Columbus caused the suppression of the unit of government of the Indies and the appearance of governorates under royal authority . These governorates , also called as provinces , were the basic circumscriptions of the territorial government of the Indies , and arose as the territories were conquered and colonized . To carry out the expedition ( entrada ) , which entailed exploration , conquest , and initial settlement of the territory , the king , as owner of the Indies , agreed capitulación ( an itemized contract ) with the specifics of the conditions of the expedition in a particular territory . The individual leaders of expeditions ( adelantados ) assumed the expenses of the venture and in return received as reward the grant from the government of the conquered territories ; and in addition , they received instructions about treating the aborigens . After the end of the period of conquests , it was necessary to manage extensive and different territories with a strong bureaucracy . In the face of the impossibility of the Castilian institutions to take care of the New World affairs , other new institutions were created . As the basic political entity it was the governorate , the governors exercised judicial ordinary functions of first instance , and prerogatives of government legislating by ordinances . To these political functions of the governor , it could be joined the military ones , according to military requirements , with the rank of Captain general . The office of captain general involved to be the supreme military chief of the whole territory and he was responsible for recruiting and providing troops , the fortification of the territory , the supply and the shipbuilding . Beginning in 1522 in the newly conquered Mexico , government units in the Spanish Empire , from viceroyalties down to governorships ( provinces ) , had a royal treasury controlled by a set of officiales reales ( royal officials ) . There were also sub-treasuries at important ports and mining districts . The officials of the royal treasury at each level of government typically included two to four positions : a tesorero ( treasurer ) , the senior official who guarded money on hand and made payments ; a contador ( accountant or comptroller ) , who recorded income and payments , maintained records , and interpreted royal instructions ; a factor , who guarded weapons and supplies belonging to the king , and disposed of tribute collected in the province ; and a veedor ( overseer ) , who was responsible for contacts with native inhabitants of the province , and collected the king 's share of any war booty . The veedor , or overseer , position quickly disappeared in most jurisdictions , subsumed into the position of factor . Depending on the conditions in a jurisdiction , the position of factor / veedor was often eliminated , as well . The treasury officials were appointed by the king , and were largely independent of the authority of the viceroy , audiencia president or governor . On the death , unauthorized absence , retirement or removal of a governor , the treasury officials would jointly govern the province until a new governor appointed by the king could take up his duties . Treasury officials were supposed to be paid out of the income from the province , and were normally prohibited from engaging in income - producing activities . The impossibility of the physical presence of the monarch was replaced by viceroys , the post of viceroy the direct representation of the monarch . The functions of the viceroy were : governor , captain general , president of the Audiencia , superintendent of the Royal Treasury and vicepatronage of the Church . Thus , the territories of the viceroyalties emerged to affirm the authority of the king in a specific territory . The territory which comprised the viceroyalty was divided in provinces -- also called governorates -- headed by the governor . In the 16th century the Spanish overseas territories were divided in two viceroyalties : New Spain ( 1535 ) for North America , Antilles , the Philippines and Venezuela , and Peru ( 1542 ) for South America , which was divided in the 18th century . Audiencias , the high courts ( edit ) View of the Plaza Mayor of Mexico City , by Cristóbal de Villalpando , 1695 On the other hand , the Audiencias were constituted as a key administrative institution due to receive the confidence of the Crown as depositaries of an impartial authority opposite to conquerors and settlers . Their main function was that of being a court of justice of second instance -- court of appeal -- in penal and civil matters , but also the Audiencias were courts the first instance in the city where it had its headquarters , and also in the cases involving the Royal Treasury . Besides court of justice , the Audiencias had functions of government as counterweight the authority of the viceroys , since they could communicate with both the Council of the Indies and the king without the requirement of requesting authorization from the viceroy . This direct correspondence of the Audiencia with the Council of The Indies made possible that the Council gave to the Audiencia all kinds of orientations about general aspects of government . The fact that the presidents were not habitually either magistrates or lawyers , but men clad in sword and cape , caused that they did not have any vote in court cases , and the court did not submit to their authority , but in representation that of the king . Thus , the authority of the president , when he was not a magistrate , was void in judicial matter and merely signed the verdicts . The Audiencias chaired by the viceroy were called viceregal Audiencias , and the chaired ones by a governor - captain general were the pretorial Audiencias . As the pretorial Audiencias were chaired by a governor - captain general , this situation caused to appear the post of president - governor of major districts , with direct rule over a province and superior control of other provinces included inside the territorial district of the Audiencia , so that they exercised functions similar to the viceroys . Thus , another administrative division appeared : while the territories in charge of a governor were the minor provinces , the juridisdiccional scope of the Audiencias constituted the major provinces . Former Viceregal Palace and seat of the Audiencia of Mexico , nowadays , the National Palace . The members ( oidores ) of the Audiencia met with the president in a committee called royal agreement ( real acuerdo ) , to take measurements for the government concerning the review of bylaws , appointments of commissioners ( jueces pesquisidores ) , or retention of bulls , but the advice did not correspond to the Audiencia as institution but to its members as reputable people . The decisions of the royal agreement were established in the concerted writs ( autos acordados ) , nevertheless , there were matters as dispatching the issues of government , in which the Audiencia could not interfere either with the viceroy or the president - governor . This way , the control of the Audiencias over the viceroys enabled to the Crown to control the functions of government of the viceroys . While the viceregal and pretorial Audiencias were chaired by men clad in sword and cape , the presidents of the subordinated Audiencias were magistrates , so that , in the juridisdiccional scope of the subordinated Audiencias , the functions of government , Treasury and war belonged to the viceroy . Therefore , in these sections of the viceroyalties there were no governors - captains general but Audiencias , and the presidency gave them the name , for example in Charcas and Quito . Although there were accumulated in the same person the offices of viceroy , governor , captain general and president of the Audiencia , each of them had different jurisdictional areas . The jurisdiction of the viceregal Audiencia , whose president was the viceroy , ended face up to the jurisdiction of other Audiencias inside the same viceroyalty : as the pretorial Audiencias chaired by a governor - captain general , who had administrative , political and military authority , as the subordinated Audiencias , whose president did not have this administrative , political and military authority . Therefore , as governor , the direct administration of the province where was placed the viceregal capital belonged to the viceroy ; nevertheless , with respect to the other governorates of the viceroyalty , his function was mere oversight or general inspection over the management of political affairs . The imprecision in defining the powers of the viceroy and those of the provincial governors allowed the Crown to control their officials . Puerto del Príncipe being sacked in 1668 by Henry Morgan In the viceroyalty of New Spain , the Audiencia of Mexico , chaired by the viceroy , ended its jurisdiction face up to the jurisdiction of other Audiencias of Guatemala ( 1543 -- 1563 ; 1568 - ) , of Manila ( 1583 -- 1589 ; 1595 - ) , of Guadalajara ( established in Compostela in 1548 and transferred in 1560 to Guadalajara ) and that of Santo Domingo ( 1526 - ) . The viceroy of New Spain as governor only had jurisdiction over a more reduced governorate of New Spain , and as captain general his authority did not comprise either the captaincies of Yucatán or the New Kingdom of León , but it comprised the military command over the governorate of Nueva Galicia , which was a territory under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Guadalajara , until in 1708 the captaincy general was attached to the governor of this province of Nueva Galicia . In the viceroyalty of Peru , the viceroy presided the Audiencia of Lima ( 1542 - ) , and the jurisdiction of this Audiencia ended face up to the jurisdictions of the pretorial Audiencias of Panama ( 1538 -- 1543 ; 1563 -- 1717 ) , of Santa Fe de Bogotá ( 1547 - ) , of Santiago de Chile ( in Concepción between 1565 and 1575 , and in Santiago de Chile since 1605 ) , and that of Buenos Aires ( 1661 -- 1672 ) , whose presidents were also both governors and captains general , and in addition to these Audiencias , the viceroyalty comprised the subordinated Audiencias of Charcas ( La Plata ; 1559 - ) and Quito ( 1563 - ) . Cabildos or town Councils ( edit ) The settlers came from Spain had to settle in towns , where the local government belonged to the Cabildo . The Cabildo was composed by a variable number of aldermen ( regidores ) , around a dozen , depending on the size of the town , also two municipal judges ( alcaldes menores ) , who were judges of first instance , and also other officials as police chief , inspector of supplies , court clerk , and a public herald . They were in charge of distributing land to the neighbors , establishing local taxes , dealing with the public order , inspecting jails and hospitals , preserving the roads and public works such as irrigation ditchs and bridges , supervising the public health , regulating the festive activities , monitoring market prices , or the protection of Indians . After the reign of Philip II , the municipal offices , including the aldermen , were auctioned to alleviate the need for money of the Crown , even the offices could also be sold , which became hereditary , so that the government of the cities went on to hands of urban oligarchies . In order to control the municipal life , the Crown ordered the appointment of corregidores and alcaldes mayores to exert greater political control and judicial functions in minor districts . Their functions were governing the respective municipalities , administering of justice and being appellate judges in the alcaldes menores ' judgments , but only the corregidor could preside over the cabildo . However , both charges were also put up for sale freely since the late 16th century . Education ( edit ) The expansion of the Spanish Empire brought a significant surplus in education , particularly as regards to higher education . The first medieval European universities were simply groups of scholars , the word `` university '' being derived from the Latin universitas , meaning corporation . The University of Palencia appears to have been the first high education institution in Spain and the third in the world , after Bologna and Oxford , while the University of Salamanca is the oldest existing Spanish university . Founded in 1218 , during a period of expansion that had begun in the 11th century , Salamanca is considered to be the third oldest in Western Europe . The university was founded as a `` General School of the kingdom '' by Alfonso IX in 1218 so that the Leonese people could study at home without having to leave for Castile . El Pilar is a school with a long list of old boys ( former pupils ) , including one Prime Minister . The reign of Ferdinand , King of Aragon , and Isabella I , Queen of Castile , saw a professionalisation of the apparatus of government in Spain , which led to a demand for men of letters ( letrados ) who were university graduates ( licenciados ) , of Salamanca , Valladolid , Complutense and Alcalá . These men staffed the various councils of state , including , eventually , the Consejo de Indias and Casa de Contratación , the two highest bodies in metropolitan Spain for the government of the empire in the New World . Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church , usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali . In the early medieval period , most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools , usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education . Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries . Nonetheless , a few ancient schools survived as secondary schools throughout the existence of the Spanish Empire . From the Imperial School to St. Bartholomew 's College or Our Lady of Mount Zion , the Spanish set up a solid educational system as well as one of the first prominent fee - paying schools in Europe . Stonyhurst College in Lancashire , was one of the many English boarding schools founded by Spanish Jesuits under the Empire , and was originally established in the Spanish Netherlands in 1593 . The aim of these schools was to provide english boys with a Roman Catholic education during the rule of Elizabeth I . High - ranking army men and senior administrators of the empire usually pursued a rigorous education for their sons in Spain . The aim was to continue producing future leaders to serve the Spanish Empire and its interests , often resulting in a well - developed final product of colonial governors . Most of these schools were established by catholic orders such as the Jesuits , with the intention of emphasizing catholic values at heart , since the Catholic Church was arguably the greatest promoter of the Spanish Empire . The Spanish Bourbons : reform and recovery ( 1700 -- 1808 ) ( edit ) Main article : Enlightenment in Spain The Battle of Cape Passaro , 11 August 1718 Under the Treaties of Utrecht ( 11 April 1713 ) , the European powers decided what the fate of Spain would be , in terms of the continental balance of power . The French prince Philippe of Anjou , grandchild of Louis XIV of France , became the new Bourbon king Philip V. He retained the Spanish overseas empire but ceded the Spanish Netherlands , Naples , Milan , and Sardinia to Austria ; Sicily and parts of Milan to the Duchy of Savoy , and Gibraltar and Menorca to the Kingdom of Great Britain . Moreover , Philip V granted the British the exclusive right to slave trading in Spanish America for thirty years , the so - called asiento , as well as licensed voyages to ports in Spanish colonial dominions , openings , as Fernand Braudel remarked , for both licit and illicit smuggling . Spain 's economic and demographic recovery had begun slowly in the last decades of the Habsburg reign , as was evident from the growth of its trading convoys and the much more rapid growth of illicit trade during the period . ( This growth was slower than the growth of illicit trade by northern rivals in the empire 's markets . ) Critically , this recovery was not then translated into institutional improvement because of the incompetence of the unfortunate last Habsburg . This legacy of neglect was reflected in the early years of Bourbon rule in which the military was ill - advisedly pitched into battle in the War of the Quadruple Alliance ( 1718 -- 1720 ) . Following the war , the new Bourbon monarchy took a much more cautious approach to international relations , relying on a family alliance with Bourbon France , and continuing to follow a program of institutional renewal . Bourbon reforms ( edit ) Main article : Bourbon Reforms At the beginning of his reign , King Philip V , who was French , reorganized the government to strengthen the executive power of the monarch as in France , in place of the deliberative , polysynodial system of Councils . The Spanish Bourbons ' broadest intentions were to break the entrenched power of the criollos ( locally born colonials of European descent ) in Spain 's American colonies . They also sought to gain control of the Guarani Misiones ( in modern Paraguay , then virtually independent under Jesuit priests . The Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767 . The established consulados of Mexico City and Lima were firmly controlled by criollos , so a new consulado was set up at Veracruz . Immediately , Philip 's government set up a ministry of the Navy and the Indies ( 1714 ) and created first a Honduras Company ( 1714 ) , a Caracas company , the Guipuzcoana Company ( 1728 ) , and -- the most successful one -- a Havana Company ( 1740 ) . In 1717 -- 1718 , the structures for governing the Indies , the Consejo de Indias and the Casa de Contratación , which governed investments in the cumbersome Spanish treasure fleets , were transferred from Seville to Cádiz . Cádiz became the one port for all Indies trading ( see flota system ) . Individual sailings at regular intervals were slow to displace the old habit of armed convoys , but by the 1760s there were regular packet ships plying the Atlantic from Cádiz to Havana and Puerto Rico , and at longer intervals to the Río de la Plata , where an additional viceroyalty was created in 1776 . The contraband trade that was the lifeblood of the Habsburg empire declined in proportion to registered shipping ( a shipping registry having been established in 1735 ) . Two upheavals registered unease within Spanish America and at the same time demonstrated the renewed resiliency of the reformed system : the Tupac Amaru uprising in Peru in 1780 and the rebellion of the comuneros of New Granada , both in part reactions to tighter , more efficient control . 18th - century prosperity ( edit ) San Felipe de Barajas Fortress Cartagena de Indias . In 1741 , the Spanish defeated a British attack on this fortress in present - day Colombia in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias . The 18th century was a century of prosperity for the overseas Spanish Empire as trade within grew steadily , particularly in the second half of the century , under the Bourbon reforms . Spain 's crucial victory in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias against a massive British fleet and army in the Caribbean port of Cartagena de Indias , one of a number of successful battles , helped Spain secure its dominance of America until the 19th century . That British Armada was the biggest ever gathered before the Normandy landings which even exceeded in more than 60 ships Philip 's II Great Armada . The British fleet formed by 195 ships , 32,000 soldiers and 3,000 artillery pieces was defeated by the Admiral Blas de Lezo . The Battle of Cartagena de Indias was one of the best Spanish victories against the unsuccessful British attempts to take control of The Spanish Americas . There were many successful battles that helped Spain secure its dominance of America until the 19th century . With a Bourbon monarchy came a repertory of Bourbon mercantilist ideas based on a centralized state , put into effect in America slowly at first but with increasing momentum during the century . Shipping grew rapidly from the mid-1740s until the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 -- 1763 ) , reflecting in part the success of the Bourbons in bringing illicit trade under control . With the loosening of trade controls after the Seven Years ' War , shipping trade within the empire once again began to expand , reaching an extraordinary rate of growth in the 1780s . The end of Cádiz 's monopoly of trade with America brought about a rebirth of Spanish manufactures . Most notable was the rapidly growing textile industry of Catalonia which by the mid-1780s saw the first signs of industrialization . This saw the emergence of a small , politically active commercial class in Barcelona . This isolated pocket of advanced economic development stood in stark contrast to the relative backwardness of most of the country . Most of the improvements were in and around some major coastal cities and the major islands such as Cuba , with its plantations , and a renewed growth of precious metals mining in America . On the other hand , most of rural Spain and its empire , where the great bulk of the population lived , lived in relatively backward conditions by 18th - century West European standards , reinforced old customs and isolation . Agricultural productivity remained low despite efforts to introduce new techniques to what was for the most part an uninterested , exploited peasant and labouring groups . Governments were inconsistent in their policies . Though there were substantial improvements by the late 18th century , Spain was still an economic backwater . Under the mercantile trading arrangements it had difficulty in providing the goods being demanded by the strongly growing markets of its empire , and providing adequate outlets for the return trade . From an opposing point of view according to the `` backwardness '' mentioned above the naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt travelled extensively throughout the Spanish Americas , exploring and describing it for the first time from a modern scientific point of view between 1799 and 1804 . In his work Political essay on the kingdom of New Spain containing researches relative to the geography of Mexico , ( 1811 ) he says that the Indians of New Spain lived in better conditions than any Russian or German peasant in Europe . According to Humboldt despite the fact that Indian farmers were poor , under Spanish rule they were free and slavery was non-existent , their conditions were much better than any other peasant or farmer in the advanced Northern Europe . Humboldt also published a comparative analysis of bread and meat consumption in New Spain ( México ) compared to other cities in Europe such as Paris . The city of México consumed 189 pounds of meat per person per year , in comparison to 163 pounds consumed by the inhabitants of Paris , the Mexicans also consumed almost the same amount of bread as any European city , with 363 kilograms of bread per person per year in comparison to the 377 kilograms consumed in Paris . Caracas consumed seven times more meat per person than in Paris . Von Humboldt also said that the average income in that period was four times the European income and also that the cities of New Spain were richer than many European cities . Overseas expansion ( edit ) A Spanish army captures British Pensacola in 1781 . In 1783 the Treaty of Paris returns all of Florida to Spain for the return of the Bahamas . The Bourbon institutional reforms were to bear fruit militarily when Spanish forces easily retook Naples and Sicily from the Austrians in 1734 during War of the Polish Succession , and during the War of Jenkins ' Ear ( 1739 -- 42 ) thwarted British efforts to seize the strategic cities of Cartagena de Indias and Santiago de Cuba by defeating a massive British army and navy led by Edward Vernon , which ended Britain 's ambitions in the Spanish Main . Moreover , though Spain was severely defeated during the invasion of Portugal and lost some territories to British forces towards the end of the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 -- 63 ) , Spain promptly recovered these losses and seized the British naval base in the Bahamas during the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 -- 83 ) . Spain contributed to the independence of the British Thirteen Colonies together with France . Despite France taking all the glory , the Spanish intervention in the American Revolution was decisive . The Spanish governor of Louisiana ( New Spain ) Bernardo de Gálvez carried out an anti-British policy due to the numerous British attacks to take control of the richness of the Spanish Empire from more than a century ago . Spain and France were allies because of the Bourbon Pacte de Famille carried out by both countries against Britain . Bernardo de Gálvez took measures against British smuggling in the Caribbean sea and promoted trade with France . Under royal order from Charles III of Spain Gálvez continued the aid operations to supply the American rebels . The British blockaded the colonial ports of the Thirteen Colonies , and the route from New Orleans up to the Mississippi river was an effective alternative to supply the American rebels . Spain actively supported the thirteen colonies throughout the American Revolutionary War , beginning in 1776 by jointly funding Roderigue Hortalez and Company which was a trading company that provided critical military supplies , throughout financing the final Siege of Yorktown in 1781 with a collection of gold and silver from Havana . The Spanish aid was supplied to the colonies throughout four main routes : 1 ) From French ports with the funding of Roderigue Hortalez and Company , 2 ) Throughout the port of New Orleans and up the Mississippi river , 3 ) From the warehouses in Havana 4 ) From Bilbao , throughout The Gardoqui family trading company which supplied the patriots with 215 bronze cannon -- 30,000 muskets -- 30,000 bayonets -- 51,314 musket balls -- 300,000 pounds of powder -- 12,868 grenades -- 30,000 uniforms -- and 4,000 field tents during the war . The aid from New Orleans began in 1776 , when general Charles Lee sent two officers of the Continental Army to request supplies from the New Orleans governor Luis de Unzaga . Unzaga concerned about overtly antagonizing the British before the Spanish were prepared for war , and they agreed to assist the rebels covertly . Unzaga authorized the shipment of desperately needed gunpowder in a transaction brokered by Oliver Pollock . Then Bernardo de Gálvez became governor of New Orleans in January 1777 while he continued and expanded supply operations . Benjamin Franklin reported from Paris to the Congressional committee of secret correspondence in March 1777 , the Spanish court quietly granted the rebels direct admission to the rich , previously restricted port of Havana under most favored nation status . Benjamin Franklin also noted in the same report that three thousand barrels of gunpowder were waiting in New Orleans , and that the merchants in Bilbao Had orders to ship for us such necessaries as we might want . Britain blockaded the American colonies economically so the American public debt increased dramatically . Spain throughout Gardoqui 's family sent 120.000 silver 8 real coin , known as Spanish dollar which was the coin upon which the original United States dollar was based , and it remained legal tender in the United States until the coinage act of 1857 , in fact the Spanish dollar or Carolus became the first global currency in the 18th century . The American Army that won the Battles of Saratoga was equipped and armed by Spain and that victory did that France came into the conflict . Spain had the chance to recover those lost territories in the Seven Years ' War in British hands that belonged to the Spanish Empire for ages , specially Florida . Bernardo de Galvez gathered an army from all the corners of the Spanish America , around 7000 men . Then The Governor of the Spanish Louisiana prepared the offensive against the British at The Gulf Coast campaign to control the lower Mississippi and Florida . Gálvez completed the conquest of West Florida in 1781 with the successful Siege of Pensacola . Painting of Gálvez at the Siege of Pensacola by Augusto Ferrer - Dalmau Shortly after Galvez conquered the New Providence island in the Bahamas , aborting the last British resistance plan , which kept the Spanish dominion over the Caribbean and accelerated the triumph of the American Army . Jamaica was the last British stronghold of importance in the Caribbean , Gálvez organized a landing on the island , however the Peace of Paris ( 1783 ) arrived in that moment . The greater part of what is the territory of today 's Brazil had been claimed as Spanish when exploration began with the navigation of the length of the Amazon River in 1541 -- 42 by Francisco de Orellana . Many Spanish expeditions explored large parts of this vast region , especially those close to Spanish settlements . During the 16th and 17th centuries , Spanish soldiers , missionaries and adventurers also established pioneering communities , primarily in Paraná , Santa Catarina , and São Paulo , and forts on the northeastern coast threatened by the French and Dutch . As Portuguese - Brazilian settlement expanded , following in the trail of the Bandeirantes exploits , these isolated Spanish groups were eventually integrated into Brazilian society . Only some Castilians who were displaced from the disputed areas of the Pampas of Rio Grande do Sul have left a significant influence on the formation of the gaucho , when they mixed with Indian groups , Portuguese and blacks who arrived in the region during the 18th century . The Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people , leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the Amazon basin . The Laws of Burgos ( 1512 ) and the New Laws ( 1542 ) had been intended to protect the interests of indigenous people . The Portuguese - Brazilian slavers , the Bandeirantes , had the advantage of access from the mouth of the Amazon River , which was on the Portuguese side of the line of Tordesillas . One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of about 60,000 indigenous people . Spanish territorial claims in the West Coast of North America , 18th century In time , there were in effect a self - funding force of occupation . By the 18th century , much of the Spanish territory was under de facto control of Portuguese - Brazil . This reality was recognised with the legal transfer of sovereignty in 1750 of most of the Amazon basin and surrounding areas to Portugal in the Treaty of Madrid . This settlement sowed the seeds of the Guaraní War in 1756 . The California mission planning was begun in 1769 . The Nootka Crisis ( 1789 -- 1791 ) involved a dispute between Spain and Great Britain about the British settlement in Oregon to British Columbia . In 1791 , the king of Spain gave Alessandro Malaspina an order to search for a Northwest Passage . The Spanish empire had still not returned to first - rate power status , but it had recovered and even extended its territories considerably from the dark days at the beginning of the 18th century when it was , and particularly in continental matters , at the mercy of other powers ' political deals . The relatively more peaceful century under the new monarchy had allowed it to rebuild and start the long process of modernizing its institutions and economy . The demographic decline of the 17th century had been reversed . It was a middle - ranking power with great power pretensions that could not be ignored . But time was to be against it . Spanish Empire at its greatest extent ( 1790 ) The growth of trade and wealth in the colonies caused increasing political tensions as frustration grew with the improving but still restrictive trade with Spain . Malaspina 's recommendation to turn the empire into a looser confederation to help improve governance and trade so as to quell the growing political tensions between the élites of the empire 's periphery and centre was suppressed by a monarchy afraid of losing control . All was to be swept away by the tumult that was to overtake Europe at the turn of the 19th century with the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . Twilight of the global Empire ( 1800 -- 99 ) ( edit ) The first major territory Spain was to lose in the 19th century was the vast and wild Louisiana Territory , which stretched north to Canada and was ceded by France in 1763 under the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau . The French , under Napoleon , took back possession as part of the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800 and sold it to the United States ( Louisiana Purchase , 1803 ) . Churruca 's Death , oil on canvas about the Battle of Trafalgar by Eugenio Álvarez Dumont , Prado Museum . The destruction of the main Spanish fleet , under French command , at the Battle of Trafalgar ( 1805 ) undermined Spain 's ability to defend and hold on to its empire . The British invasions of the Río de la Plata attempted to seize the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1806 . The viceroy retreated hastily to the hills when defeated by a small British force . However , the Criollos militias and colonial army eventually repulsed the British . La Reconquista de Buenos Aires The later intrusion of Napoleonic forces into Spain in 1808 ( see Peninsular War ) cut off effective connection with the empire . But it was internal tensions that ultimately ended the empire in the Americas . The Second of May 1808 : The Charge of the Mamelukes , by Francisco de Goya ( 1814 ) . Napoleon 's sale in 1803 of the Louisiana Territory to the United States caused border disputes between the United States and Spain that , with rebellions in West Florida ( 1810 ) and in the remainder of Louisiana at the mouth of the Mississippi , led to their eventual cession to the United States , along with the sale of all of Florida in the Adams -- Onís Treaty ( 1819 ) . In 1806 Baron Nikolai Rezanov attempted to negotiate a treaty between the Russian - American Company and Viceroyalty of New Spain but his unexpected death in 1807 ended any treaty hopes . In 1808 , Napoleon forced the abdication of the Spanish King ( Abdications of Bayonne ) and placed his brother , Joseph Bonaparte , on the throne , however this provoked an uprising from the Spanish people and a grinding guerrilla warfare , which Napoleon dubbed his `` ulcer '' : the Peninsular War , ( famously depicted by the painter Goya ) ensued , followed by a power vacuum lasting up to a decade and turmoil for several decades , civil wars on succession disputes , a republic , and finally a liberal democracy . Resistance coalesces around juntas , emergency ad - hoc governments . A Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom , ruling in the name of Ferdinand VII , is created on 25 September to coordinate efforts among the various juntas . Spanish American independence ( edit ) Main articles : Spanish American wars of independence and Junta ( Peninsular War ) In North America , Mexico , led by Agustin de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero , declared its independence in 1821 . The Battle of Ayacucho , 9 December 1824 . The defeat of the Spanish army at Ayacucho in Peru signaled the end of Spain 's empire in South America . Juntas emerged in Spanish America as a result of Spain facing a political crisis due to the abdication of Ferdinand VII and Napoleon Bonaparte 's invasion . Spanish Americans reacted in much the same way the Peninsular Spanish did , legitimizing their actions through traditional law , which held that sovereignty retroverted to the people in the absence of a legitimate king . The majority of Spanish Americans continued to support the idea of maintaining a monarchy under Ferdinand VII , but did not support retaining absolute monarchy . Spanish Americans wanted self - government . The juntas in the Americas did not accept the governments of the Europeans -- neither the government set up for Spain by the French nor the various Spanish Governments set up in response to the French invasion . The juntas did not accept the Spanish regency , isolated under siege in the city of Cadiz ( 1810 -- 1812 ) . They also rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812 although the Constitution gave Spanish citizenship to natives of the territories that had belonged to the Spanish monarchy in both hemispheres . The Constitution of 1812 recognised indigenous peoples of the Americas as Spanish citizens . But the acquisition of citizenship for any casta of Afro - American peoples of the Americas was through naturalization -- excluding slaves . A long period of wars followed in America from 1811 to 1829 . In South America this period of wars led to the independence of Argentina ( 1810 ) , Venezuela ( 1810 ) , Chile ( 1810 ) , Paraguay ( 1811 ) and Uruguay ( 1815 , but subsequently ruled by Brazil until 1828 ) . José de San Martín campaigned for independence in Chile ( 1818 ) and in Peru ( 1821 ) . Further north , Simón Bolívar led forces that won independence between 1811 and 1826 for the area that became Venezuela , Colombia , Ecuador , Perú and Bolivia ( then Alto Perú ) . In North America , a free - thinking secular priest , Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , declared Mexican freedom in 1810 in the Grito de Dolores . Independence actually won in 1821 by royalist army officer turned insurgent , Agustín de Iturbide , in alliance with insurgent Vicente Guerrero and under the Plan of Iguala . The conservative Catholic hierarchy in New Spain supported Mexican independence largely because the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was abhorrent to it . Central America became independent via Mexico 's independence in 1821 and joined Mexico for a brief time ( 1822 -- 23 ) , but chose their own path when Mexico became a republic . Panama declared independence in 1821 and merged with the Republic of Gran Colombia ( from 1821 to 1903 ) . Royalist guerrillas continued the war in several countries , and Spain launched attempts to retake Venezuela in 1827 and Mexico in 1829 . Spain finally abandoned all plans of military re-conquest at death of King Ferdinand VII in 1833 . Santo Domingo likewise declared independence in 1821 and began negotiating for inclusion in Bolivar 's Republic of Gran Colombia , but was quickly occupied by Haiti , which ruled it until an 1844 revolution . Then after 17 years of independence , in 1861 , Santo Domingo was again made a colony due to Haitian aggressions , yet by 1865 Santo Domingo again declared independence , making it the only territory which Spain recolonized . After 1865 , then , only Cuba and Puerto Rico -- and on the far side of the globe , the Philippines , Guam and nearby Pacific islands -- remained in Spanish hands in the New World . Changes and reaction ( edit ) See also : Spanish -- American War The Spanish Empire in 1898 . In devastated Spain , the post-Napoleonic era created a political vacuum , broke apart any traditional consensus on sovereignty , fragmented the country politically and regionally and unleashed wars and disputes between progressives , liberals and conservatives . The instability inhibited Spain 's development , which had started fitfully gathering pace in the previous century . A brief period of improvement occurred in the 1870s when the capable Alfonso XII of Spain and his thoughtful ministers succeeded in restoring some vigour to Spanish politics and prestige , but this was cut short by Alfonso 's early death . An increasing level of nationalist , anti-colonial uprisings in various colonies culminated with the Spanish -- American War of 1898 , fought primarily over Cuba . Military defeat was followed by the independence of Cuba and the cession , for US $20 million , of Puerto Rico , the Philippines , and Guam to the United States . On 2 June 1899 , the second expeditionary battalion `` Cazadores '' of Philippines the last Spanish garrison in the Philippines , located in Baler , Aurora , was pulled out , effectively ending around 300 years of Spanish hegemony in the archipelago . Its American and Asian presence ended , Spain then sold its remaining Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany in 1899 , retaining only its African territories . Territories in Africa ( 1885 -- 1975 ) ( edit ) A map of Equatorial Guinea . By the end of the 17th century , only Melilla , Alhucemas , Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ( which had been taken again in 1564 ) , Ceuta ( part of the Portuguese Empire since 1415 , has chosen to retain its links to Spain once the Iberian Union ended ; the formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain was recognized by the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668 ) , Oran and Mazalquivir remained as Spanish territory in Africa . The latter cities were lost in 1708 , reconquered in 1732 and sold by Charles IV in 1792 . In 1778 , Fernando Poo Island ( now Bioko ) , adjacent islets , and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and Ogooué Rivers were ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in exchange for territory in South America ( Treaty of El Pardo ) . In the 19th century , some Spanish explorers and missionaries would cross this zone , among them Manuel Iradier . In 1848 , Spanish troops conquered the Islas Chafarinas . The Earl of Reus at the Battle of Tétouan . In 1860 , after the Tetuan War , Morocco ceded Sidi Ifni to Spain as a part of the Treaty of Tangiers , on the basis of the old outpost of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña , thought to be Sidi Ifni . The following decades of Franco - Spanish collaboration resulted in the establishment and extension of Spanish protectorates south of the city , and Spanish influence obtained international recognition in the Berlin Conference of 1884 : Spain administered Sidi Ifni and Western Sahara jointly . Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast of Guinea from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc , too . Río Muni became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900 . Conflicting claims to the Guinea mainland were settled in 1900 by the Treaty of Paris . Spanish artillery in Africa in 1913 . Following a brief war in 1893 , Spain expanded its influence south from Melilla . In 1911 , Morocco was divided between the French and Spanish . The Rif Berbers rebelled , led by Abdelkrim , a former officer for the Spanish administration . The Battle of Annual ( 1921 ) during the Rif War was a sudden , grave , and almost fatal , military defeat suffered by the Spanish army against Moroccan insurgents . A leading Spanish politician emphatically declared : `` We are at the most acute period of Spanish decadence '' . After the disaster of Annual the Alhucemas landing took place on September 1925 at the bay of Alhucemas . The Spanish Army and Navy with a small collaboration of an allied French contingent put an end to the Rif War . It is considered the first successful amphibious landing in history supported by seaborne air power . In 1923 , Tangier was declared an international city under French , Spanish , British , and later Italian joint administration . In 1926 Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea , a status that would last until 1959 . In 1931 , following the fall of the monarchy , the African colonies became part of the Second Spanish Republic . Five years later , Francisco Franco , a general of the Army of Africa , rebelled against the republican government and started the Spanish Civil War ( 1936 -- 39 ) . During the Second World War the Vichy French presence in Tangier was overcome by that of Francoist Spain . Spain lacked the wealth and the interest to develop an extensive economic infrastructure in its African colonies during the first half of the 20th century . However , through a paternalistic system , particularly on Bioko Island , Spain developed large cocoa plantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers . Morocco and Spanish territories . In 1956 , when French Morocco became independent , Spain surrendered Spanish Morocco to the new nation , but retained control of Sidi Ifni , the Tarfaya region and Spanish Sahara . Moroccan Sultan ( later King ) Mohammed V was interested in these territories and invaded Spanish Sahara in 1957 ( The Ifni War , or , in Spain , the Forgotten War , la Guerra Olvidada ) . In 1958 , Spain ceded Tarfaya to Mohammed V and joined the previously separate districts of Saguia el - Hamra ( in the north ) and Río de Oro ( in the south ) to form the province of Spanish Sahara . In 1959 , the Spanish territory on the Gulf of Guinea was established with a status similar to the provinces of metropolitan Spain . As the Spanish Equatorial Region , it was ruled by a governor general exercising military and civilian powers . The first local elections were held in 1959 , and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Spanish parliament . Under the Basic Law of December 1963 , limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory 's two provinces . The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea . In March 1968 , under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations , Spain announced that it would grant the country independence . In 1969 , under international pressure , Spain returned Sidi Ifni to Morocco . Spanish control of Spanish Sahara endured until the 1975 Green March prompted a withdrawal , under Moroccan military pressure . The future of this former Spanish colony remains uncertain . The Canary Islands and Spanish cities in the African mainland are considered an equal part of Spain and the European Union but have a different tax system without Value Added Tax . Morocco still claims Ceuta , Melilla , and plazas de soberanía even though they are internationally recognized as administrative divisions of Spain ( despite Plazas de Soberania which is a territory of Spain ) . Isla Perejil was occupied on 11 July 2002 by Moroccan Gendarmerie and troops , who were evicted peacefully by Spanish naval forces . Legacy ( edit ) The Renaissance Cathedral of Lima is a legacy of the Spanish settlement in that city . The Spanish Empire left a huge cultural , urban and architectural legacy in the Western Hemisphere . Hundreds of towns and cities in the Americas were founded during the Spanish rule . The tangible heritage includes universities , forts , cities , cathedrals , schools , hospitals , missions , government buildings and colonial residences , many of which still stand today . A number of present - day roads , canals , ports or bridges sit where Spanish engineers built them centuries ago . The oldest universities in the Americas were founded by Spanish scholars and Catholic missionaries . The Spanish Empire also left a vast cultural and linguistic legacy . With over 470 million native speakers today , Spanish is the second most spoken native language in the world , as result of the introduction of the language of Castile -- Castilian , `` Castellano '' -- from Iberia to Spanish America , later expanded by the governments of successor independent republics . Another cultural legacy of the Spanish empire overseas is the Catholic Church , which remains the main religion in the Spanish Americas . The cultural legacy is also present in the music , architecture , cuisine and fashion of much of Spanish America . The Spanish language ( the second most widely spoken language in the world ) and the Roman Catholic faith were brought to America , parts of Africa and the Spanish East Indies , by Spanish colonization which began in the 15th century . It also played a crucial part in sustaining the Catholic Church as the leading Christian denomination in Europe when it was under extreme pressure . The long colonial period in Spanish America resulted in a mixing of the peoples . Many Hispanics in the Americas have mixed European and Indigenous ancestry , while some others have African ancestry . A painting showing a Spanish man with a Native American wife and their child . Mixed - race European Amerindians were referred to as Mestizos . In concert with the Portuguese Empire , the Spanish Empire laid the foundations of a truly global trade by opening up the great trans - oceanic trade routes and the exploration of unknown territories and oceans for the western knowledge . The Spanish Dollar became the world 's first global currency . One of the features of this trade was the exchange of a great array of domesticated plants and animals between the Old World and the New and vice versa . Some that were introduced to America included wine , wheat , barley , apples , cattle , sheep , pigs , horses , donkeys , and many others . The Old World received from America such things as maize , potatoes , chili peppers , tomatoes , tobacco , beans , squash , cacao ( chocolate ) , vanilla , avocados , pineapples , chewing gum , rubber , peanuts , cashews , Brazil nuts , pecans , blueberries , strawberries , quinoa , amaranth , chia , agave and so on . The result of these exchanges , known generally as the Columbian Exchange , was to significantly improve the agricultural potential of not only in America , but also that of Europe and Asia . There were also cultural influences , which can be seen in everything from architecture to food , music , art and law , from Southern Argentina and Chile to the United States of America together with the Philippines . The complex origins and contacts of different peoples resulted in cultural influences coming together in the varied forms so evident today in the former colonial areas . Nonetheless , there are two sides concerning the effects of colonialism . There is not only the positive and defensive stream but also another that considers Spanish colonial legacy as the origin of social and economic inequalities . There is a current stream of modern Historiography very influenced by the actual political cliches and propaganda which does not understand the historical context of the past , the mixture of concepts such as colonialism which was a historical phenomenon of the European powers in the 19th century has nothing to do with the construction of empires such as the Roman or the Spanish . Around the Spanish empire history existed a black legend as a result that Spain became a world power , the Spanish black legend was a series of lies and propaganda created by the enemies of the Spanish monarchy and the catholic church that has lasted centuries until nowadays . Over the years the black legend has gradually deteriorated thanks to the work of intellectuals from different countries such as Philip Wayne Powell or Maria Elvira Roca Barea . See also ( edit ) History of Spain Spain in the 17th century Spain in the 18th century Spanish colonization of the Americas Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire Spanish American wars of independence Spanish -- American War Historiography of Colonial Spanish America References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tracy , James D. ( 1993 ) . The Rise of Merchant Empires : Long - Distance Trade in the Early Modern World , 1350 -- 1750 . Cambridge University Press . p. 35 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 45735 - 4 . Jump up ^ Farazmand , Ali ( 1994 ) . Handbook of bureaucracy . M. Dekker . pp. 12 -- 13 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8247 - 9182 - 7 . Jump up ^ Esparza , José Javier ( 2013 ) . ¡ Santiago y cierra , España ! : el nacimiento de una nación ( 1 . ed . ) . Madrid : La Esfera de los Libros . ISBN 9788499708904 . Jump up ^ Cruz , Guillermo Feliú ( 1960 ) . El Imperio Español y los historiadores norteamericanos ( in Spanish ) . Ediciones de los Anales de la Universidad de Chile . Jump up ^ Ruiz Martín , Felipe ( 1996 ) . La proyección europea de la monarquía hispánica ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Complutense . p. 473 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 95983 - 30 - 5 . Jump up ^ Ruiz Martín , Felipe ( 1996 ) . La proyección europea de la monarquía hispánica ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Complutense . p. 465 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 95983 - 30 - 5 . Jump up ^ Bethell , Leslie ( 1984 ) . The Cambridge History of Latin America . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 24516 - 6 . Kagan , Richard L. ; Elliott , John Huxtable ; Parker , Geoffrey ( 2001 ) . España , Europa y el mundo atlántico : homenaje a John H. Elliott . Marcial Pons Historia . ISBN 978 - 84 - 95379 - 30 - 6 . Kagan , Richard L. ; Parker , Geoffrey ( 1995 ) . Spain , Europe and the Atlantic : Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 52511 - 4 . Levine , Robert M. ( 1999 ) . The History of Brazil . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 30390 - 6 . Elliott , J.H. ( 1984 ) . The Revolt of the Catalans . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 27890 - 4 . Studnicki - Gizbert , Daviken ( 2007 ) . A Nation upon the Ocean Sea : Portugal 's Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire , 1492 -- 1640 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 803911 - 2 . Zagorin , Perez ( 1982 ) . Rebels and Rulers , 1500 -- 1660 : Volume 2 , Provincial Rebellion . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 28712 - 8 . Boyajian , James C. ( 2007 ) . Portuguese Trade in Asia Under the Habsburgs , 1580 -- 1640 . JHU Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8754 - 3 . Cooper , J.P. ( 1979 ) . The New Cambridge Modern History : Volume 4 , The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Years War , 1609 -- 48 / 49 . CUP Archive . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 29713 - 4 . Jump up ^ Elliott , John H. ( 2002 ) . España en Europa : Estudios de historia comparada . Universitat de València . ISBN 978 - 84 - 370 - 5493 - 3 . , page 80 Jump up ^ Schaub , Jean - Frédéric ( 2001 ) . Le Portugal Au Temps Du Conde - Duc D'Olivares . Casa de Velázquez . ISBN 978 - 84 - 95555 - 16 - 8 . , page 59 Jump up ^ Farazmand , Ali ( 1994 ) . Handbook of Bureaucracy . CRC Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8247 - 9182 - 7 . , page 13 Jump up ^ Reinhard , Wolfgang ; European Science Foundation ( 1996 ) . Power Elites and State Building . Clarendon Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 820547 - 0 . , page 92 Studnicki - Gizbert , Daviken ( 2007 ) . A Nation upon the Ocean Sea : Portugal 's Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire , 1492 -- 1640 . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 803911 - 2 . , page 36 Anderson 2000 , p. 103 Jump up ^ Lockhart & Schwartz 1983 , p. 250 Jump up ^ Lach & Van Kley 1994 , p. 9 Jump up ^ Lach , Donald F. ; Kley , Edwin J. Van ( 1993 ) . Asia in the Making of Europe , Volume III : A Century of Advance . Book 1 : Trade , Missions , Literature . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 46753 - 5 . , page 9 Jump up ^ Kamen 2003 , p. 403 Jump up ^ Castañeda Delgado , Paulino ( 1996 ) , `` La Santa Sede ante las empresas marítimas ibéricas '' ( PDF ) , La Teocracia Pontifical en las controversias sobre el Nuevo Mundo , Universidad Autónoma de México , ISBN 968 - 36 - 5153 - 4 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 September 2011 Jump up ^ Hernando del Pulgar ( 1943 ) , Crónica de los Reyes Católicos , vol . I ( in Spanish ) , Madrid , pp. 278 -- 279 . Jump up ^ Jaime Cortesão ( 1990 ) , Os Descobrimentos Portugueses , vol . III ( in Portuguese ) , Imprensa Nacional - Casa da Moeda , p. 551 , ISBN 9722704222 Jump up ^ ... In August , the Duke besieged Ceuta ( The city was simultaneously besieged by the moors and a Castilian army led by the Duke of Medina Sidónia ) and took the whole city except the citadel , but with the arrival of Afonso V in the same fleet which led him to France , he preferred to leave the square . As a consequence , this was the end of the attempted settlement of Gibraltar by converts from Judaism ... which D. Enrique de Guzmán had allowed in 1474 , since he blamed them for the disaster . See Ladero Quesada , Miguel Ángel ( 2000 ) , `` Portugueses en la frontera de Granada '' in En la España Medieval , vol. 23 ( in Spanish ) , p. 98 , ISSN : 0214 - 3038 . Jump up ^ A dominated Ceuta by the Castilians would certainly have forced a share of the right to conquer the Kingdom of Fez ( Morocco ) between Portugal and Castile instead of the Portuguese monopoly recognized by the treaty of Alcáçovas . See Coca Castañer ( 2004 ) , `` El papel de Granada en las relaciones castellano - portuguesas ( 1369 -- 1492 ) '' , in Espacio , tiempo y forma ( in Spanish ) , Serie III , Historia Medieval , tome 17 , p. 350 : ... In that summer , D. Enrique de Guzmán crossed the Strait with five thousand men to conquer Ceuta , managing to occupy part of the urban area on the first thrust , but knowing that the Portuguese King was coming with reinforcements to the besieged ( Portuguese ) , he decided to withdraw ... Jump up ^ A Castilian fleet attacked the Praia 's Bay in Terceira Island but the landing forces were decimated by a Portuguese counter-attack because the rowers panicked and fled with the boats . See chronicler Frutuoso , Gaspar ( 1963 ) - Saudades da Terra ( in Portuguese ) , Edição do Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada , volume 6 , chapter I , p. 10 . See also Cordeiro , António ( 1717 ) - Historia Insulana ( in Portuguese ) , Book VI , Chapter VI , p. 257 Jump up ^ This attack happened during the Castilian war of Succession . See Leite , José Guilherme Reis - Inventário do Património Imóvel dos Açores Breve esboço sobre a História da Praia ( in Portuguese ) . Jump up ^ The Canary 's campaign : Alfonso de Palencia , Decada IV , Book XXXI , Chapters VIII and IX ( `` preparation of 2 fleets '' ( to Guinea and to Canary , respectively ) `` so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies '' ( the Portuguese ) ... ) . Palencia wrote that the conquest of Gran Canary was a secondary goal to facilitate the expeditions to Guinea ( the real goal ) , a means to an end . Jump up ^ Alfonso de Palencia , Decada IV , book XXXII , chapter III : on 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary -- capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians -- and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from the Canary waters . This victory allowed Prince John to use the Canary Islands as an `` exchange coin '' in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas . Jump up ^ Pulgar , Hernando del ( 1780 ) , Crónica de los señores reyes católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragon ( in Spanish ) , chapters LXXVI and LXXXVIII ( `` How the Portuguese fleet defeated the Castilian fleet which had come to the Mine of Gold '' ) . From the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes . Jump up ^ This was a decisive battle because after it , in spite of the Catholic Monarchs ' attempts , they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea , Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war . The Perfect Prince sent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters . Even the Castilian navies which left to Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ( `` quinto '' ) to the Portuguese crown when returned to Castile after the peace treaty . Isabella had to ask permission to Afonso V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbors . Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia . Jump up ^ ... For four years the Castilians traded and fought ; but the Portuguese were the stronger . They defeated a large Spanish fleet off Guinea in 1478 , besides gaining other victories . The war ended in 1479 by Ferdinand resigning his claims to Guinea ... , in Laughton , Leonard ( 1943 ) , The Mariner 's mirror , vol. 29 , Society for Nautical Research , London , p. 184 Jump up ^ ... More important , Castile recognized Portugal as the sole proprietor of the Atlantic islands ( excepting the Canaries ) and of the African coast in the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 . This Treaty clause , secured by Portuguese naval successes off Africa during an otherwise unsuccessful war , eliminated the only serious rival . In Richardson , Patrick , The expansion of Europe , 1400 -- 1660 ( 1966 ) , Longmans , p. 48 Jump up ^ Waters , David ( 1988 ) , Reflections Upon Some Navigational and Hydrographic Problems Of The XVth Century Related To The Voyage Of Bartolomeu Dias , 1487 -- 88 , p. 299 , in the Separata from the Revista da Universidade de Coimbra , vol . XXXIV . Jump up ^ ... the Treaty of Alcáçovas was an important step in defining the expansion areas of each kingdom ... The Portuguese triumph in this agreement is evident , and in addition deserved . Efforts and perseverance developed over the last four decades by Henry the Navigator during the Discoveries in Africa reached their fair reward . In Donat , Luis Rojas ( 2002 ) , España y Portugal ante los otros : derecho , religión y política en el descubrimiento medieval de América ( in Spanish ) , Ediciones Universidad del Bio-Bio , p. 88 , ISBN 9567813191 Jump up ^ ... Castile undertakes not to allow any his subject navigate waters reserved to the Portuguese . From the Canary 's Parallel onwards , the Atlantic Ocean would be a Mare clausum to the Castilians . The treaty of Alcáçovas represented a huge victory for Portugal and resulted tremendously damaging to Castile . In Espina Barrio , Angel ( 2001 ) , Antropología en Castilla y León e iberoamérica : Fronteras , vol . III ( In Spanish ) , Universidad de Salamanca , Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas de Castilla y León , p. 118 , ISBN 8493123110 Jump up ^ Davenport , Frances Gardiner ( 2004 ) , European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies , The Lawbook Exchange , Ltd. , p. 49 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 58477 - 422 - 8 Jump up ^ ... Castile accepted a Portuguese monopoly on new discoveries in the Atlantic from the Canaries southward and toward the African coast . In Bedini , Silvio ( 1992 ) , The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia , vol I , Simon & Schuster , p. 53 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 13 - 142670 - 2 Jump up ^ ... This boundary line cut off Castile from the route to India around Africa ... , in Prien , Hans - Jürgen ( 2012 ) , Christianity in Latin America : Revised and Expanded Edition , Brill , p. 8 , ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 24207 - 4 Jump up ^ ... With an eye to the Treaty of Alcáçovas which only permitted westerly expansion by Castile , the Crown accepted the proposals of the Italian adventurer ( Christopher Columbus ) because if , contrary to all expectation , he were to prove successful , a great opportunity would arise to outmanoeuvre Portugal ... , in Emmer , Piet ( 1999 ) , General History of the Caribbean , vol. II , UNESCO , p. 86 , ISBN 0 - 333 - 72455 - 0 Jump up ^ Superpowers Spain and Portugal struggled for global control and in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas the Pope divided the non-Christian world between them . In Flood , Josephine ( 2006 ) , The original Australians : Story of the Aboriginal people , p. 1 , ISBN 1 74114 872 3 Jump up ^ Burbank , Jane ; Frederick Cooper ( 2010 ) . Empires in World History : Power and the Politics of Difference . Princeton University Press . pp. 120 -- 121 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 12708 - 8 . Jump up ^ Fernández Herrero , Beatriz ( 1992 ) . La utopía de América : teoría , leyes , experimentos ( in Spanish ) . Anthropos Editorial . p. 143 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7658 - 320 - 3 . Jump up ^ McAlister , Lyle N. ( 1984 ) . Spain and Portugal in the New World , 1492 -- 1700 . U of Minnesota Press . p. 69 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8166 - 1218 - 5 . Jump up ^ Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp. 1992 . p. 189 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . Jump up ^ Fernández Herrero , Beatriz ( 1992 ) . La utopía de América : teoría , leyes , experimentos ( in Spanish ) . Anthropos Editorial . p. 141 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7658 - 320 - 3 . Jump up ^ Diffie , Bailey Wallys ; Winius , George Davison ( 1977 ) . Foundations of the Portuguese Empire , 1415 -- 1580 . University of Minnesota Press . p. 173 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8166 - 0782 - 2 . Jump up ^ Vieira Posada , Édgar ( 2008 ) , La formación de espacios regionales en la integración de América Latina , Pontificia Universidad Javeriana , p. 56 , ISBN 978 - 958 - 698 - 234 - 4 Jump up ^ Sánchez Doncel , Gregorio ( 1991 ) , Presencia de España en Orán ( 1509 -- 1792 ) , I.T. San Ildefonso , p. 122 , ISBN 978 - 84 - 600 - 7614 - 8 Jump up ^ Rialp , Ediciones , S.A. ( 1981 ) , Los Trastámara y la Unidad Española , Ediciones Rialp , p. 644 , ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2100 - 5 CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Bethell , Leslie ( 1984 ) . The Cambridge History of Latin America . 1 . Cambridge University Press . p. 289 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 23223 - 4 . Jump up ^ Sánchez Bella , Ismael ( 1993 ) . Instituto de investigaciones jurídicas UNAM , ed . `` Las bulas de 1493 en el Derecho Indiano '' ( PDF ) . Anuario Mexicano de Historia del Derecho ( in Spanish ) . 5 : 371 . ISSN 0188 - 0837 . ^ Jump up to : Sánchez Prieto , Ana Belén ( 2004 ) . La intitulación diplomática de los Reyes Católicos : un programa político y una lección de historia ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . III Jornadas Científicas sobre Documentación en época de los Reyes Católicos . p. 296 . ^ Jump up to : Hernández Sánchez - Barba , Mario ( 1990 ) . La Monarquía Española y América : Un Destino Histórico Común ( in Spanish ) . Ediciones Rialp . p. 36 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2630 - 7 . Jump up ^ Roca Tocco , Carlos Alberto ( 1993 ) . `` De las bulas alejandrinas al nuevo orden político americano '' ( PDF ) . Anuario Mexicano de Historia del Derecho ( in Spanish ) . Instituto de investigaciones jurídicas UNAM. 5 : 331 . ISSN 0188 - 0837 . Jump up ^ Salinas Araneda , Carlos ( 1983 ) . `` El proceso de incorporacion de las indias a castilla '' . Revista de Derecho de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso ( in Spanish ) . Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso. 7 : 23 -- 26 . ISSN 0718 - 6851 . Jump up ^ Memoria del Segundo Congreso Venezolano de Historia , del 18 al 23 de noviembre de 1974 ( in Spanish ) . Academia Nacional de la Historia ( Venezuela ) . 1975 . p. 404 . Jump up ^ Elliott , John Huxtable ( 2007 ) . Empires of the Atlantic World : Britain and Spain in America 1492 -- 1830 . Yale University Press . p. 120 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 12399 - 9 . Jump up ^ Anuario de estudios americanos -- Volumen 32 . 1975 . Jump up ^ Historia y sociabilidad. 2007 . ISBN 9788483716540 . Jump up ^ Anuario de estudios americanos -- Volumen 32 . 1975 . Jump up ^ James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz , Early Latin America . New York : Cambridge University Press 1983 , pp. 61 -- 85 . Jump up ^ James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz , Early Latin America . New York : Cambridge University Press 1983 , p. 62 . Jump up ^ Lockhart and Schwartz , Early Latin America p. 63 Jump up ^ Diego - Fernández Sotelo , Rafael ( 1987 ) . Las capitulaciones colombinas ( in Spanish ) . El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. p. 139 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 7230 - 30 - 6 . Jump up ^ Diego - Fernández Sotelo , Rafael ( 1987 ) . Las capitulaciones colombinas ( in Spanish ) . El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. pp. 143 -- 145 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 7230 - 30 - 6 . Jump up ^ Diego - Fernández Sotelo , Rafael ( 1987 ) . Las capitulaciones colombinas ( in Spanish ) . El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. p. 139 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 7230 - 30 - 6 . Jump up ^ Diego - Fernández Sotelo , Rafael ( 1987 ) . Las capitulaciones colombinas ( in Spanish ) . El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. pp. 147 -- 149 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 7230 - 30 - 6 . Jump up ^ Sibaja Chacón , Luis Fernando ( 2006 ) . El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica ( in Spanish ) . EUNED . p. 117 . ISBN 978 - 9968 - 31 - 488 - 6 . Jump up ^ Lynch , John ( 2007 ) . Los Austrias ( 1516 -- 1700 ) ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Critica . p. 203 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8432 - 960 - 2 . Jump up ^ Díaz del Castillo , Bernal ( 2005 ) . José Antonio Barbón Rodríguez , ed . Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España : Manuscrito `` Guatemala '' ( in Spanish ) . UNAM . p. 656 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 12 - 1196 - 7 . Jump up ^ Edwards , John ; Lynch , John ( 2005 ) . Edad Moderna : Auge del Imperio , 1474 -- 1598 ( in Spanish ) . 4 . Editorial Critica . p. 290 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8432 - 624 - 3 . Jump up ^ Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 7 . Ediciones Rialp. 1992 . p. 232 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2119 - 7 . Jump up ^ Gómez Gómez , Margarita ( 2008 ) . El sello y registro de Indias : imagen y representación ( in Spanish ) . Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar . p. 84 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 412 - 20229 - 3 . Jump up ^ Mena garcía , Carmen ( 2003 ) . `` La Casa de la Contratación de Sevilla y el abasto de las flotas de Indias '' . In Antonio Acosta Rodríguez ; Adolfo Luis González Rodríguez ; Enriqueta Vila Vilar . La Casa de la Contratación y la navegación entre España y las Indias ( in Spanish ) . Universidad de Sevilla . p. 242 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 08206 - 2 . Jump up ^ Gómez Gómez , Margarita ( 2008 ) . El sello y registro de Indias : imagen y representación ( in Spanish ) . Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar . p. 90 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 412 - 20229 - 3 . Jump up ^ Brewer Carías , Allan - Randolph ( 1997 ) . La ciudad ordenada ( in Spanish ) . Instituto Pascual Madoz , Universidad Carlos III . p. 69 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 340 - 0937 - 0 . Jump up ^ Martínez Peñas , Leandro ( 2007 ) . El confesor del rey en el Antiguo Régimen ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Complutense . p. 213 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7491 - 851 - 9 . Jump up ^ Arranz Márquez , Luis ( 1982 ) . Don Diego Colón , almirante , virrey y gobernador de las Indias ( in Spanish ) . CSIC . pp. 89 -- 90 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 05156 - 3 . Jump up ^ Arranz Márquez , Luis ( 1982 ) . Don Diego Colón , almirante , virrey y gobernador de las Indias ( in Spanish ) . CSIC . p. 97 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 05156 - 3 . Jump up ^ Rialp , Ediciones , S.A. ( 1992 ) . Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp . p. 195 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Arranz Márquez , Luis ( 1982 ) . Don Diego Colón , almirante , virrey y gobernador de las Indias ( in Spanish ) . CSIC . p. 101 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 05156 - 3 . Jump up ^ Kozlowski , Darrell J. ( 2010 ) . Colonialism . Infobase Publishing . p. 84 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4381 - 2890 - 0 . Jump up ^ Sibaja Chacón , Luis Fernando ( 2006 ) . El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica ( in Spanish ) . EUNED . p. 39 . ISBN 978 - 9968 - 31 - 488 - 6 . Jump up ^ Rialp , Ediciones , S.A. ( 1992 ) . Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp . p. 174 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Rialp , Ediciones , S.A. ( 1992 ) . Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp . p. 186 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Rialp , Ediciones , S.A. ( 1992 ) . Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp . p. 195 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Sibaja Chacón , Luis Fernando ( 2006 ) . El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica ( in Spanish ) . EUNED . p. 36 . ISBN 978 - 9968 - 31 - 488 - 6 . Jump up ^ Rialp , Ediciones , S.A. ( 1992 ) . Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp . p. 197 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Carrera Damas , Germán ( 1999 ) . Historia general de América Latina ( in Spanish ) . UNESCO . p. 457 . ISBN 978 - 92 - 3 - 303151 - 7 . Jump up ^ Mena García , María del Carmen ( 1992 ) . Pedrarias Dávila ( in Spanish ) . Universidad de Sevilla . p. 29 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7405 - 834 - 5 . Jump up ^ Sibaja Chacón , Luis Fernando ( 2006 ) . El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica ( in Spanish ) . EUNED . p. 50 . ISBN 978 - 9968 - 31 - 488 - 6 . Jump up ^ Sibaja Chacón , Luis Fernando ( 2006 ) . El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica ( in Spanish ) . EUNED . pp. 55 -- 59 . ISBN 978 - 9968 - 31 - 488 - 6 . Jump up ^ Sibaja Chacón , Luis Fernando ( 2006 ) . El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica ( in Spanish ) . EUNED . p. 32 . ISBN 978 - 9968 - 31 - 488 - 6 . Jump up ^ Rialp , Ediciones , S.A. ( 1992 ) . Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp . p. 165 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Sibaja Chacón , Luis Fernando ( 2006 ) . El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica ( in Spanish ) . EUNED . pp. 36 -- 37 . ISBN 978 - 9968 - 31 - 488 - 6 . Jump up ^ Colón de Carvajal , Anunciada ; Chocano Higueras , Guadalupe ( 1992 ) . Cristóbal Colón : incógnitas de su muerte 1506 -- 1902 ( in Spanish ) . CSIC . p. 40 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 07305 - 3 . Jump up ^ Carrera Damas , Germán ( 1999 ) . Historia general de América Latina ( in Spanish ) . UNESCO . p. 458 . ISBN 978 - 92 - 3 - 303151 - 7 . Jump up ^ Ring , Trudy ( 2014 ) . Middle East and Africa : International Dictionary of Historic Places . Routledge . p. 558 . Jump up ^ Clarence Haring , The Spanish Empire in America . New York : Oxford University Press 1947 , pp. 102 -- 118 . Jump up ^ Quoted in Fernand Braudel , The Wheels of Commerce , vol. II of Civilization and Capitalism 15th -- 18th Century 1979 : 171 . Jump up ^ Baten , Jörg ( 2016 ) . A History of the Global Economy . From 1500 to the Present . 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Elliott , The Count - Duke Olivares : The Statesman in an Age of Decline . New Haven : Yale University Press 1986 . Jump up ^ Brown & Elliott 1980 , p. 190 Jump up ^ Kenneth J. Andrien , `` Unión de Armas , '' in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture , vol. 5 , p. 293 . New York : Charles Scribner 's Sons 1996 . Jump up ^ Elliott , The Count - Duke Olivares , pp. 244 - 77 . Jump up ^ Payne , Stanley G. ( 1973 ) , `` The Seventeenth - Century Decline '' , A History of Spain and Portugal , 1 , Madison , Wisconsin : University of Wisconsin Press , retrieved 2008 - 10 - 08 Jump up ^ `` Cross and Crescent '' . Jump up ^ `` When Europeans were slaves : Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed '' , Ohio State Research Communications , Ohio State University , 8 March 2004 , archived from the original on 25 July 2011 , retrieved 8 October 2008 Jump up ^ The Tempest and Its Travels -- Peter Hulme -- Google Libros . Books.google.es . Retrieved on 2013 - 07 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : `` Conquest in the Americas '' . Archived from the original on 28 October 2009 . Retrieved 14 July 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Mann , Charles C. ( 2012 ) . 1493 : Uncovering the New World Columbus Created . Random House Digital , Inc . pp. 33 -- 34 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 307 - 27824 - 1 . Retrieved 28 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Axtell , James ( September -- October 1991 ) , `` The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America '' , Humanities , 12 ( 5 ) : 12 -- 18 , archived from the original on 17 May 2008 , retrieved 8 October 2008 Jump up ^ J.H. Parry , The Sale of Public Office in the Spanish Indies Under the Habsburgs . University of California Press , Ibero - Americana 37 , 1953 p. 4 . Jump up ^ Delamarre - Sallard , Catherine ( 2008 ) . Manuel de civilisation espagnole et latino - américaine ( in Spanish ) . Editions Bréal . p. 130 . ISBN 978 - 2 - 7495 - 0335 - 6 . Jump up ^ Sanz Ayán , Carmen ( 1993 ) . Sevilla y el comercio de Indias ( in Spanish ) . Ediciones AKAL . p. 23 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 460 - 0214 - 7 . Jump up ^ Cano , José ( 2007 ) . `` El gobierno y la imagen de la Monarquía Hispánica en los viajeros de los siglos XVI y XVII . De Austrias a Borbones '' . La monarquía de España y sus visitantes : siglos XVI al XIX Colaborador Consuelo Maqueda Abreu ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Dykinson . pp. 21 -- 22 . ISBN 9788498491074 . Jump up ^ Jiménez Núñez , Alfredo ( 2006 ) . El gran norte de México : una frontera imperial en la Nueva España ( 1540 -- 1820 ) ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Tebar . p. 41 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7360 - 221 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` 1512 -- 1513 : Laws of Burgos '' , Colonial Latin America , Peter Bakewell , 1998 , retrieved 2008 - 10 - 08 Jump up ^ Esparza , José Javier ( 2015 ) . La cruzada del océano : La gran aventura de la conquista de América . La Esfera de los Libros . ISBN 9788490602638 . Jump up ^ Scott , James Brown ( 2000 ) . The Spanish origin of international law ( 4 . print . ed . ) . Union , N.J : Lawbook Exchange . ISBN 1 - 58477 - 110 - 0 . Jump up ^ Dumont , Jean ( 1997 ) . El amanecer de los derechos del hombre : la controversia de Valladolid . Madrid : Encuentro . ISBN 8474904153 . Jump up ^ Andreo García , Juan ( 2007 ) . `` Su Majestad quiere gobernar : la Administración española en Indias durante los siglos XVI y XVII '' . In Juan Bautista Vilar ; Antonio Peñafiel Ramón ; Antonio Irigoyen López . Historia y sociabilidad : homenaje a la profesora María del Carmen Melendreras Gimeno ( in Spanish ) . EDITUM . p. 279 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8371 - 654 - 0 . Jump up ^ Góngora , Mario ( 1998 ) . Estudios sobre la historia colonial de hispanoamérica ( in Spanish ) . p. 99 . ISBN 978 - 956 - 11 - 1381 - 7 . Jump up ^ Lagos Carmona , Guillermo ( 1985 ) . Los títulos históricos ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Andrés Bello . p. 119 . OCLC 320082537 . Jump up ^ Lagos Carmona , Guillermo ( 1985 ) . Los títulos históricos ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Andrés Bello . p. 122 . OCLC 320082537 . Jump up ^ Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 7 . Ediciones Rialp. 1992 . p. 601 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2119 - 7 . Jump up ^ Góngora , Mario ( 1998 ) . Estudios sobre la historia colonial de hispanoamérica ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Universitaria . p. 97 . ISBN 978 - 956 - 11 - 1381 - 7 . Jump up ^ Muro Romero , Fernando ( 1975 ) . Las presidencias - gobernaciones en Indias ( siglo XVI ) ( in Spanish ) . CSIC . p. 177 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 04233 - 2 . Jump up ^ Malberti de López , Susana ( 2006 ) . `` Las instituciones políticas en la región de Cuyo '' . In Instituto de Historia Regional y Argentina `` Héctor Domingo Arias '' . Desde San Juan hacia la historia de la región ( in Spanish ) . effha . p. 141 . ISBN 978 - 950 - 605 - 481 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Bushnell , Amy ( 1981 ) . The King 's Coffer : Proprietors of the Spanish Florida Treasury 1565 -- 1702 . Gainesville , Florida : University Presses of Florida . pp. 1 -- 2 . ISBN 0 - 8130 - 0690 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Chipman , Donald E. ( 2005 ) . Moctezuma 's Children : Aztec Royalty under Spanish Rule , 1520 -- 1700 ( Individual e-book ( no page numbers ) ed . ) . Austin , Texas : University of Texas Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 292 - 78264 - 8 . Retrieved 22 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Parry , John Horace ( 1966 ) . The Spanish Seaborne Empire ( First paperback 1990 ed . ) . Berkeley , California : University of California Press . pp. 202 -- 203 . ISBN 0 - 520 - 07140 - 9 . Retrieved 22 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Jiménez Núñez , Alfredo ( 2006 ) . El gran norte de México : una frontera imperial en la Nueva España ( 1540 -- 1820 ) ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Tebar . p. 41 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7360 - 221 - 1 . Jump up ^ Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp. 1992 . p. 473 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . Jump up ^ Delgado de Cantú , Gloria M. ( 2002 ) . Historia de México , ( in Spanish ) . 1 . Pearson Educación . p. 266 . ISBN 978 - 970 - 26 - 0275 - 0 . Jump up ^ Silva Galdames , Osvaldo ( 2005 ) . Atlas de Historia de Chile ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Universitaria . p. 50 . ISBN 978 - 956 - 11 - 1776 - 1 . Jump up ^ Vicente Villarán , Manuel ( 1998 ) . Lecciones de derecho constitucional ( in Spanish ) . Fondo Editorial PUCP . p. 472 . ISBN 978 - 9972 - 42 - 132 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Góngora , Mario ( 1998 ) . Estudios sobre la historia colonial de hispanoamérica ( in Spanish ) . p. 100 . ISBN 978 - 956 - 11 - 1381 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Garavaglia , Juan Carlos ; Marchena Fernández , Juan ( 2005 ) . América Latina de los orígenes a la Independencia ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Critica . p. 266 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8432 - 652 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Bosco Amores , Juan ( 2006 ) . Historia de América ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Ariel . p. 276 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 344 - 5211 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Muro Orejón , Antonio , ed. ( 1977 ) . Cedulario americano del siglo XVIII : Cédulas de Luis I ( 1724 ) , Cédulas de Felipe V ( 1724 -- 46 ) ( in Spanish ) . 3 . CSIC . p. 32 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 03735 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : Celso , Ramón Lorenzo ( 1994 ) . Manual de historia constitucional Argentina ( in Spanish ) . 1 . Editorial Juris . p. 28 . ISBN 978 - 950 - 817 - 022 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Bridikhina , Eugenia ( 2007 ) . Theatrum mundi : entramados del poder en Charcas colonial ( in Spanish ) . Plural Editores . p. 38 . ISBN 978 - 99954 - 1 - 080 - 3 . Jump up ^ Lohmann Villena , Guillermo ( 1999 ) . `` La nueva estructura política '' . In Carrera Damas , Germán . Historia general de América Latina ( in Spanish ) . 2 . UNESCO . p. 464 . ISBN 978 - 92 - 3 - 303151 - 7 . Jump up ^ Martínez Ruiz , Enrique ( 2007 ) . Diccionario de historia moderna de España , ( in Spanish ) . 2 . Ediciones AKAL . p. 188 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7090 - 353 - 3 . Jump up ^ Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp. 1992 . p. 611 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . Jump up ^ Muro Romero , Fernando ( 1975 ) . Las presidencias - gobernaciones en Indias ( siglo XVI ) ( in Spanish ) . CSIC . p. 103 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 00 - 04233 - 2 . Jump up ^ Fernández Álvarez , Manuel ( 1979 ) . España y los españoles en los tiempos modernos ( in Spanish ) . Universidad de Salamanca . p. 513 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7481 - 082 - 0 . Jump up ^ Bridikhina , Eugenia ( 2007 ) . Theatrum mundi : entramados del poder en Charcas colonial ( in Spanish ) . Plural Editores . p. 41 . ISBN 978 - 99954 - 1 - 080 - 3 . Jump up ^ Pinet Plasencia , Adela ( 1998 ) . La Península de Yucatán en el Archivo General de la Nación ( in Spanish ) . UNAM . p. 34 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 36 - 5757 - 2 . Jump up ^ Góngora , Mario ( 1998 ) . Estudios sobre la historia colonial de hispanoamérica ( in Spanish ) . p. 103 . ISBN 978 - 956 - 11 - 1381 - 7 . Jump up ^ Vicente Villarán , Manuel ( 1998 ) . Lecciones de derecho constitucional ( in Spanish ) . Fondo Editorial PUCP . p. 473 . ISBN 978 - 9972 - 42 - 132 - 7 . Jump up ^ Andreo García , Juan ( 2007 ) . `` Su Majestad quiere gobernar : la Administración española en Indias durante los siglos XVI y XVII '' . In Juan Bautista Vilar ; Antonio Peñafiel Ramón ; Antonio Irigoyen López . Historia y sociabilidad : homenaje a la profesora María del Carmen Melendreras Gimeno ( in Spanish ) . EDITUM . p. 282 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8371 - 654 - 0 . Jump up ^ Diego - Fernández , Rafael ( 2007 ) . `` Estudio introductorio '' . In Juan Bautista Vilar ; Antonio Peñafiel Ramón ; Antonio Irigoyen López . Historia y sociabilidad : homenaje a la profesora María del Carmen Melendreras Gimeno ( in Spanish ) . EDITUM . p. xxix . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8371 - 654 - 0 . Jump up ^ de Blas , Patricio ( 2000 ) . Historia común de Iberoamérica ( in Spanish ) . EDAF . p. 208 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 414 - 0766 - 4 . Jump up ^ Szászdi , Adam ( 2002 ) . `` Virreyes y Audiencias de Indias en el reinado de don Felipe II : Algunos señalamientos necesarios '' . In Feliciano Barrios . Derecho y administracion pub'lica en las Indias hispánicas : Actas del XII Congreso Internacional de Historia del Derecho Indiano , Toledo ( in Spanish ) . 2 . Universidad de Castilla La Mancha . p. 1709 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8427 - 180 - 2 . Jump up ^ Rubio Mañé , Ignacio José ( 1992 ) . El Virreinato ( in Spanish ) . 1 . UNAM . p. 45 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 16 - 1354 - 9 . Jump up ^ Rubio Mañé , Ignacio José ( 1992 ) . El Virreinato ( in Spanish ) . 1 . UNAM . p. 50 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 16 - 1354 - 9 . Jump up ^ Morón , Guillermo ( 1995 ) . Medina , José Ramón , ed . Obra escogida ( in Spanish ) . Fundacion Biblioteca Ayacucho . p. 65 . ISBN 978 - 980 - 276 - 313 - 9 . Jump up ^ Pinet Plasencia , Adela ( 1998 ) . La Península de Yucatán en el Archivo General de la Nación ( in Spanish ) . UNAM . p. 33 . ISBN 978 - 968 - 36 - 5757 - 2 . Jump up ^ Garavaglia , Juan Carlos ; Marchena Fernández , Juan ( 2005 ) . América Latina de los orígenes a la Independencia ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Critica . p. 267 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 8432 - 652 - 6 . Jump up ^ Méndez Salcedo , Ildefonso ( 2002 ) . La Capitanía General de Venezuela , 1777 -- 1821 ( in Spanish ) . Universidad Católica Andrés Bello , Universidad de los Andes . p. 69 . ISBN 978 - 980 - 244 - 299 - 7 . Jump up ^ Cornejo Franco , José ( 1993 ) . Testimonios de Guadalajara ( in Spanish ) . UNAM . p. viii . ISBN 978 - 968 - 36 - 2671 - 4 . Jump up ^ de Blas , Patricio ( 2000 ) . Historia común de Iberoamérica ( in Spanish ) . EDAF . p. 210 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 414 - 0766 - 4 . Jump up ^ Bennassar , Bartolomé ( 2001 ) . La América española y la América portuguesa : siglos XVI - XVIII ( in Spanish ) . Akal . p. 98 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7600 - 203 - 2 . Jump up ^ Delgado de Cantú , Gloria M. ( 2005 ) . El mundo moderno y contemporáneo ( in Spanish ) . 1 . Pearson Educación . p. 90 . ISBN 978 - 970 - 26 - 0665 - 9 . Jump up ^ Orduña Rebollo , Enrique ( 2003 ) . Municipios y provincias : Historia de la Organización Territorial Española ( in Spanish ) . INAP . p. 238 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 259 - 1249 - 8 . Jump up ^ De Blas , Patricio ( 2000 ) . Historia Común de Iberoamérica ( in Spanish ) . EDAF . p. 202 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 414 - 0766 - 4 . Jump up ^ Bennassar , Bartolomé ( 2001 ) . La América española y la América portuguesa : siglos XVI - XVIII ( in Spanish ) . Akal . p. 99 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7600 - 203 - 2 . Jump up ^ Orduña Rebollo , Enrique ( 2003 ) . Municipios y provincias : Historia de la Organización Territorial Española ( in Spanish ) . INAP . p. 237 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 259 - 1249 - 8 . Jump up ^ Historia general de España y América ( in Spanish ) . 10 . Ediciones Rialp. 1992 . p. 615 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 321 - 2102 - 9 . Jump up ^ Pérez Guartambel , Carlos ( 2006 ) . Justicia indígena ( in Spanish ) . Universidad de Cuenca . pp. 49 -- 50 . ISBN 978 - 9978 - 14 - 119 - 9 . Jump up ^ Bosco Amores , Juan ( 2006 ) . Historia de América ( in Spanish ) . Editorial Ariel . p. 273 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 344 - 5211 - 4 . Jump up ^ Bennassar , Bartolomé ( 2001 ) . La América española y la América portuguesa : siglos XVI - XVIII ( in Spanish ) . Akal . p. 101 . ISBN 978 - 84 - 7600 - 203 - 2 . Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20150923213646/http://www.der.uva.es/historia.html Jump up ^ `` education '' , Encyclopædia Britannica , 2008 , retrieved 2008 - 09 - 30 Jump up ^ http://www.elconfidencial.com/espana/2012-02-19/el-pilar-un-colegio-de-dirigentes_232887/ Jump up ^ Robert Parsons , Catholic Encyclopaedia ( 1913 ) Jump up ^ Thomas , Hugh ; El Imperio Español de Carlos V ( 2010 ) Jump up ^ Braudel , 1984 . p 418 Jump up ^ Albareda Salvadó , Joaquim ( 2010 ) . La Guerra de Sucesión de España ( 1700 -- 1714 ) . Editorial Critica . pp. 239 -- 241 . ISBN 9788498920604 . Jump up ^ Victoria , Pablo ( 2005 ) . El día que España derrotó a Inglaterra : de cómo Blas de Lezo , tuerto , manco y cojo , venció en Cartagena de Indias a la otra `` Armada Invencible '' ( 1a . ed . ) . Barcelona : Áltera . ISBN 9788489779686 . Jump up ^ Janota , Tom ( 2015 - 02 - 09 ) . Alexander von Humboldt , un explorador científico en América . CIDCLI . p. 64 . ISBN 9786078351121 . Jump up ^ von , , Humboldt , Alexander ( 1 January 1811 ) . `` Political essay on the kingdom of New Spain '' . Bio Diversity Library.org . Jump up ^ The biggest amphibious attack until the Invasion of Normandy in 1944 ( Victoria , Pablo ( 2005 ) . El día que España derrotó a Inglaterra : de cómo Blas de Lezo , tuerto , manco y cojo , venció en Cartagena de Indias a la otra `` Armada Invencible '' . Barcelona : Áltera . ISBN 84 - 89779 - 68 - 6. ) Jump up ^ `` In one short year the unfortunate Spaniards saw their armies beaten in Portugal , Cuba and Manilla torn from their grasp , their commerce destroyed , and their fleets annihilated . '' Prowse , D.W. A History of Newfoundland : from the English , Colonial and Foreign Records , Heritage Books Inc. , 2007 , p. 311 . Jump up ^ Torres , Fernando Martínez Láinez , Carlos Canales ( 2008 ) . Banderas lejanas : la exploración , conquista y defensa por España del territorio de los actuales Estados Unidos ( 1 ̇ed . ed . ) . Madrid : Edaf . ISBN 9788441421196 . CS1 maint : Extra text ( link ) Jump up ^ Victoria , Pablo ( 2007 ) . España contraataca : relato sobre la derrota del Imperio inglés en Norteamérica ( 1a ed . ) . Barcelona : Ediciones Altera . ISBN 9788496840058 . Jump up ^ National Park Service , Diego de Gardoqui : Personal Information . Jump up ^ The Colonization of North America 1492 to 1783 - Herbert E. Bolton , Thomas Maitland Marshall . pg 507 Jump up ^ Victoria , Pablo ( 2008 ) . Al oído del rey : la historia jamás contada sobre la rebelión americana y el genocidio bolivariano ( 1 . ed . ) . Barcelona : Ediciones Áltera . ISBN 9788496840287 . Jump up ^ `` Spanish Empire -- New World Encyclopedia '' . www.newworldencyclopedia.org . Jump up ^ `` Spanish Silver Dollar , 1774 : Specifications '' . www.silentworldfoundation.org.au . Jump up ^ Cardelús , Borja ( 2007 ) . La huella de España y de la cultura hispana en los Estados Unidos ( 2 . ed . ) . Madrid : Centro de Cultura Iberoamericana ( CCI ) . ISBN 9788461150366 . Jump up ^ An early bandeira in 1628 , ( led by Antônio Raposo Tavares ) , composed of 2,000 allied Indians , 900 Mamluks ( Mestizos ) and 69 white Paulistanos , to find precious metals and stones and / or to capture Indians for slavery . This expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit missions of Spanish Guairá and the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people . In response the missions that followed were heavily fortified . Jump up ^ Peña , Lorenzo ( 2002 ) . Un puente jurídico entre Iberoamérica y Europa : la Constitución española de 1812 ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . Casa de América - CSIC . pp. 6 -- 7 . ISBN 84 - 88490 - 55 - 0 . Jump up ^ Dictionary of Battles and Sieges : A Guide to 8,500 Battles 2007 Cerezo finally surrendered with the full honours of war ( 1 July 1898 -- 2 June 1899 ) Jump up ^ La derrota más amarga del Ejército español -- ABC.es ( in Spanish ) Jump up ^ `` Desembarco en Alhucemas , el `` Día D '' de las tropas españolas en el norte de África ``. abc ( in Spanish ) . 12 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Baten , Jörg ( 2016 ) . A History of the Global Economy . From 1500 to the Present . Cambridge University Press . p. 165 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 107 - 50718 - 0 . Jump up ^ Valencia , Philip Wayne Powell ; introduction by Robert Himmerich y ( 2008 ) . Tree of hate : propaganda and prejudices affecting United States relations with the Hispanic world . Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press . ISBN 082634576X . Jump up ^ Roca Barea , Maria Elvira ( 2017 ) . Imperiofobia y leyenda negra : Roma , Rusia , Estados Unidos y el Imperio español . Madrid : Siruela . p. 470 . ISBN 9788416854783 . Bibliography ( edit ) Anderson , James Maxwell ( 2000 ) , The History of Portugal , Westport , Connecticut : Greenwood , ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 31106 - 2 . Archer , Christon ; et al. ( 2002 ) , World History of Warfare , Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8032 - 4423 - 8 . Brown , Jonathan ; Elliott , John Huxtable ( 1980 ) , A Palace for a King . The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV , New Haven : Yale University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 02507 - 1 . Kamen , Henry ( 2003 ) , Empire : How Spain Became a World Power , 1492 -- 1763 , New York : HarperCollins , ISBN 0 - 06 - 093264 - 3 . Lach , Donald F. ; Van Kley , Edwin J. ( 1994 ) , Asia in the Making of Europe , Chicago : University of Chicago Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 46734 - 4 . Lockhart , James ; Schwartz , Stuart B. ( 1983 ) , Early Latin America : A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 29929 - 9 . Further reading ( edit ) Library resources about Spanish Empire Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Black , Jeremy ( 1996 ) . The Cambridge illustrated atlas of warfare : Renaissance to revolution . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 47033 - 1 Braudel , Fernand ( 1972 ) . The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II , ISBN 0 - 06 - 090566 - 2 Fernand Braudel , The Perspective of the World ( part iii of Civilization and Capitalism ) 1979 , translated 1985 . Brown , Jonathan ( 1998 ) . Painting in Spain : 1500 -- 1700 . New Haven : Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 06472 - 1 Dominguez Ortiz , Antonio ( 1971 ) . The Golden Age of Spain , 1516 -- 1659 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 297 - 00405 - 0 Edwards , John ( 2000 ) . The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs , 1474 -- 1520 . New York : Blackwell . ISBN 0 - 631 - 16165 - 1 Harman , Alec ( 1969 ) . Late Renaissance and Baroque music . New York : Schocken Books . Kamen , Henry ( 1998 ) . Philip of Spain . New Haven and London : Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 300 - 07800 - 5 Kamen , Henry ( 2005 ) . Spain 1469 -- 1714 . A Society of Conflict ( third ed . ) London and New York : Pearson Longman . ISBN 0 - 582 - 78464 - 6 Olson , James S. et al. Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Empire , 1402 -- 1975 ( 1992 ) online Paquette , Gabriel B. Enlightenment , governance , and reform in Spain and its empire , 1759 -- 1808 . New York : Palgrave Macmillan 2008 . Parker , Geoffrey ( 1997 ) . The Thirty Years ' War ( second ed . ) . New York : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 12883 - 8 Parker , Geoffrey ( 1972 ) . The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road , 1567 -- 1659 ; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries ' Wars . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 08462 - 8 Parker , Geoffrey ( 1977 ) . The Dutch revolt . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 8014 - 1136 - X Parker , Geoffrey ( 1978 ) . Philip II . Boston : Little , Brown . ISBN 0 - 316 - 69080 - 5 Parker , Geoffrey ( 1997 ) . The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century . New York : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 16518 - 0 Ramsey , John Fraser ( 1973 ) Spain : The Rise of the First World Power . University of Alabama Press . ISBN 0 - 8173 - 5704 - 1 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8173 - 5704 - 7 Schmidt - Nowara , Christopher and John M. Nieto Phillips , eds . Interpreting Spanish Colonialism : Empires , Nations , and Legends . Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press , 2005 . Stradling , R.A. ( 1988 ) . Philip IV and the Government of Spain . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 32333 - 9 Thomas , Hugh ( 2004 ) . Rivers of Gold : The Rise of the Spanish Empire 1490 -- 1522 Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 0 - 297 - 64563 - 3 Thomas , Hugh ( 1997 ) . The Slave Trade ; The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440 -- 1870 . London : Papermac . ISBN 0 - 333 - 73147 - 6 Various ( 1983 ) . Historia de la literatura espanola . Barcelona : Editorial Ariel Wright , Esmond , ed. ( 1984 ) . History of the World , Part II : The last five hundred years ( third ed . ) . New York : Hamlyn Publishing . ISBN 0 - 517 - 43644 - 2 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spanish Empire . Library of Iberian Resources Online , Stanley G Payne A History of Spain and Portugal vol 1 Ch 13 `` The Spanish Empire '' The Mestizo - Mexicano - Indian History in the USA Documentary Film , Villa de Albuquerque The last Spanish colonies ( in Spanish ) Francisco José Calderón Vázquez ( 2008 ) , Fronteras , identidad , conflicto e interacción . Los Presidios Españoles en el Norte Africano ( in Spanish ) , ISBN 978 - 84 - 691 - 6786 - 1 , archived from the original on 14 February 2009 The Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress contains primary materials on Spanish colonialism . 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administrative structure of spanish and portuguese colonial empire
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Oedipus
Oedipus - wikipedia Oedipus Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Oedipus ( disambiguation ) . Oedipus explains the riddle of the Sphinx , by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres , c. 1805 Greek mythology Deities Primordial Titans Olympians Nymphs Sea - deities Earth - deities Heroes and heroism Heracles / Hercules ( Labors ) Achilles Hector ( Trojan War ) Odysseus ( Odyssey ) Jason Argonauts ( Golden Fleece ) Perseus ( Medusa Gorgon ) Oedipus ( Sphinx ) Orpheus ( Orphism ) Theseus ( Minotaur ) Bellerophon ( Pegasus Chimera ) Daedalus ( Labyrinth ) Atalanta Hippomenes ( Golden apple ) Cadmus ( Thebes ) Aeneas ( Aeneid ) Triptolemus ( Eleusinian Mysteries ) Pelops ( Ancient Olympic Games ) Pirithous ( Centauromachy ) Amphitryon ( Teumessian fox ) Narcissus ( Narcissism ) Meleager ( Calydonian Boar ) Otrera ( Amazons ) Related Satyrs Centaurs Dragons Demogorgon Religion in Ancient Greece Mycenaean gods Greek mythology portal Oedipus ( US : / ˈidɪpəs / or / ˈɛdɪpəs / or UK : / ˈiːdɪpəs / ; Ancient Greek : Οἰδίπους Oidípous meaning `` swollen foot '' ) was a mythical Greek king of Thebes . A tragic hero in Greek mythology , Oedipus accidentally fulfilled a prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother , thereby bringing disaster to his city and family . The story of Oedipus is the subject of Sophocles ' tragedy Oedipus Rex , which was followed by Oedipus at Colonus and then Antigone . Together , these plays make up Sophocles ' three Theban plays . Oedipus represents two enduring themes of Greek myth and drama : the flawed nature of humanity and an individual 's role in the course of destiny in a harsh universe . In the most well - known version of the myth , Oedipus was born to King Laius and Queen Jocasta . Laius wished to thwart a prophecy , so he left Oedipus to die on a mountainside . However , the baby was found by shepherds and raised by King Polybus and Queen Merope as their own . Oedipus learned from the oracle at Delphi of the prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother but , unaware of his true parentage , believed he was fated to murder Polybus and marry Merope , so left for Thebes . On his way he met an older man and quarrelled , and Oedipus killed the stranger . Continuing on to Thebes , he found that the king of the city ( Laius ) had been recently killed , and that the city was at the mercy of the Sphinx . Oedipus answered the monster 's riddle correctly , defeating it and winning the throne of the dead king -- and the hand in marriage of the king 's widow , and ( unbeknownst to him ) his mother Jocasta . Years later , to end a plague on Thebes , Oedipus searched to find who had killed Laius , and discovered that he himself was responsible . Jocasta , upon realizing that she had married both her own son , and her husband 's murderer , hanged herself . Oedipus then seized two pins from her dress and blinded himself with them . The legend of Oedipus has been retold in many versions , and was used by Sigmund Freud to name and give mythic precedent to the Oedipus complex . Contents ( hide ) 1 Basics of the myth 2 5th century BC 2.1 Pindar 's Second Olympian Ode 2.2 Aeschylus ' Oedipus trilogy 2.3 Sophocles ' Oedipus Rex 2.4 Sophocles ' Oedipus at Colonus 2.5 Sophocles ' Antigone 2.6 Euripides ' Phoenissae , Chrysippus and Oedipus 2.7 Other playwrights 3 Later additions 3.1 Later addition to Aeschylus ' Seven against Thebes 4 Oedipus in post-Classical literature 5 Oedipus or Oedipais ? 6 The Oedipus complex 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Basics of the myth ( edit ) Variations on the legend of Oedipus are mentioned in fragments by several ancient Greek poets including Homer , Hesiod , Pindar , Aeschylus and Euripides . However , the most popular version of the legend comes from the set of Theban plays by Sophocles : Oedipus Rex , Oedipus at Colonus , and Antigone . Oedipus was the son of Laius and Jocasta , king and queen of Thebes . Having been childless for some time , Laius consulted the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi . The Oracle prophesied that any son born to Laius would kill him . In an attempt to prevent this prophecy 's fulfillment , when Jocasta indeed bore a son , Laius had his ankles pierced and tethered together so that he could not crawl ; Jocasta then gave the boy to a servant to abandon ( `` expose '' ) on the nearby mountain . However , rather than leave the child to die of exposure , as Laius intended , the servant passed the baby on to a shepherd from Corinth and who then gave the child to another shepherd . The infant Oedipus eventually came to the house of Polybus , king of Corinth and his queen , Merope , who adopted him , as they were without children of their own . Little Oedipus / Oidipous was named after the swelling from the injuries to his feet and ankles ( `` swollen foot '' ) . The word `` oedema '' ( British English ) or `` edema '' ( American English ) is from this same Greek word for swelling : οἴδημα , or oedēma . After many years , Oedipus was told by a drunk that he was a `` bastard '' , meaning at that time that he was not their biological son . Oedipus confronted his parents with the news , but they denied this . Oedipus went to the same oracle in Delphi that his birth parents had consulted . The oracle informed him he was destined to murder his father and marry his mother . In an attempt to avoid such a fate , he decided to not return home to Corinth , but to travel to Thebes , as it was near Delphi . On the way , Oedipus came to Davlia , where three roads crossed each other . There he encountered a chariot driven by his birth - father , King Laius . They fought over who had the right to go first and Oedipus killed Laius when the charioteer tried to run him over . The only witness of the king 's death was a slave who fled from a caravan of slaves also traveling on the road at the time . Continuing his journey to Thebes , Oedipus encountered a Sphinx , who would stop all travelers to Thebes and ask them a riddle . If the travelers were unable to answer her correctly , they would be killed and eaten ; if they were successful , they would be free to continue on their journey . The riddle was : `` What walks on four feet in the morning , two in the afternoon and three at night ? '' . Oedipus answered : `` Man : as an infant , he crawls on all fours ; as an adult , he walks on two legs and ; in old age , he uses a ' walking ' stick '' . Oedipus was the first to answer the riddle correctly and , having heard Oedipus ' answer , the Sphinx allowed him to carry on forward . Queen Jocasta 's brother , Creon , had announced that any man who could rid the city of the Sphinx would be made king of Thebes , and given the recently widowed Queen Jocasta 's hand in marriage . This marriage of Oedipus to Jocasta fulfilled the rest of the prophecy . Oedipus and Jocasta had four children : two sons , Eteocles and Polynices ( see Seven Against Thebes ) , and two daughters , Antigone and Ismene . Many years after the marriage of Oedipus and Jocasta , a plague of infertility struck the city of Thebes , affecting crops , livestock and the people . Oedipus asserted that he would end the pestilence . He sent his uncle , Creon , to the Oracle at Delphi , seeking guidance . When Creon returned , Oedipus learned that the murderer of the former King Laius must be brought to justice , and Oedipus himself cursed the killer of his wife 's late husband , saying that he would be exiled . Creon also suggested that they try to find the blind prophet , Tiresias who was widely respected . Oedipus sent for Tiresias , who warned him not to seek Laius ' killer . In a heated exchange , Tiresias was provoked into exposing Oedipus himself as the killer , and the fact that Oedipus was living in shame because he did not know who his true parents were . Oedipus angrily blamed Creon for the false accusations , and the two argued . Jocasta entered and tried to calm Oedipus by telling him the story of her first - born son and his supposed death . Oedipus became nervous as he realized that he may have murdered Laius and so brought about the plague . Suddenly , a messenger arrived from Corinth with the news that King Polybus had died . Oedipus was relieved for the prophecy could no longer be fulfilled if Polybus , whom he considered his birth father , was now dead . Still , he knew that his mother was still alive and refused to attend the funeral at Corinth . To ease the tension , the messenger then said that Oedipus was , in fact , adopted . Jocasta , finally realizing that he was her son , begged him to stop his search for Laius ' murderer . Oedipus misunderstood her motivation , thinking that she was ashamed of him because he might have been born of low birth . Jocasta in great distress went into the palace where she hanged herself . Oedipus sought verification of the messenger 's story from the very same herdsman who was supposed to have left Oedipus to die as a baby . From the herdsman , Oedipus learned that the infant raised as the adopted son of Polybus and Merope was the son of Laius and Jocasta . Thus , Oedipus finally realized that the man he had killed so many years before , at the place where the three roads met , was his own father , King Laius , and that he had married his mother , Jocasta . Events after the revelation depend on the source . In Sophocles ' plays , Oedipus went in search of Jocasta and found she had killed herself . Using the pin from a brooch he took off Jocasta 's gown , Oedipus blinded himself and was then exiled . His daughter Antigone acted as his guide as he wandered through the country , finally dying at Colonus where they had been welcomed by King Theseus of Athens . However , in Euripides ' plays on the subject , Jocasta did not kill herself upon learning of Oedipus ' birth , and Oedipus was blinded by a servant of Laius . The blinding of Oedipus does not appear in sources earlier than Aeschylus . Some older sources of the myth , including Homer , state that Oedipus continued to rule Thebes after the revelations and after Jocasta 's death . Oedipus ' two sons , Eteocles and Polynices , arranged to share the kingdom , each taking an alternating one - year reign . However , Eteocles refused to cede his throne after his year as king . Polynices brought in an army to oust Eteocles from his position and a battle ensued . At the end of the battle the brothers killed each other after which Jocasta 's brother , Creon , took the throne . He decided that Polynices was a `` traitor , '' and should not be given burial rites . Defying this edict , Antigone attempted to bury her brother . In Sophocles ' Antigone , Creon had her buried in a rock cavern for defying him , whereupon she hanged herself . However , in Euripides ' lost version of the story , it appears that Antigone survives . 5th century BC ( edit ) Lekythos Oedipus slaying the sphinx Material Pottery , gold Created 420BC - 400BC Period / culture Attic Place Polis - tis - Chrysokhou , tomb , Cyprus Present location Room 72 , British Museum Identification 1887 , 0801.46 Most writing on Oedipus comes from the 5th century BC , though the stories deal mostly with Oedipus ' downfall . Various details appear on how Oedipus rose to power . King Laius of Thebes hears of a prophecy that his infant son will one day kill him . He pierces Oedipus ' feet and leaves him out to die , but a herdsman finds him and carries him away . Years later , Oedipus , not knowing he was adopted , leaves home in fear of the same prophecy that he will kill his father and marry his mother . Laius journeys out to seek a solution to the Sphinx 's mysterious riddle . As prophesied , Oedipus and Laius cross paths , but they do not recognize each other . A fight ensues , and Oedipus kills Laius and most of his guards . Oedipus goes on to defeat the Sphinx by solving a riddle to become king . He marries the widow queen Jocasta , unaware that she is his mother . A plague falls on the people of Thebes . Upon discovering the truth , Oedipus blinds himself , and Jocasta hangs herself . After Oedipus is no longer king , Oedipus ' brother - sons kill each other . Some differences with older stories emerge . The curse of the Oedipus ' sons is expanded backward to include Oedipus and his father , Laius . Oedipus now steps down from the throne instead of dying in battle . Additionally , rather than his children being by a second wife , Oedipus ' children are now by Jocasta . Pindar 's second olympian Ode ( edit ) In the Second Olympians Ode Pindar wrote : Laius ' tragic son , crossing his father 's path , killed him and fulfilled the oracle spoken of old at Pytho . And sharp - eyed Erinys saw and slew his warlike children at each other 's hands . Yet Thersandros survived fallen Polyneikes and won honor in youthful contests and the brunt of war , a scion of aid to the house of Adrastos ... Aeschylus ' Oedipus trilogy ( edit ) In 467 BC the Athenian playwright , Aeschylus , is known to have presented an entire trilogy based upon the Oedipus myth , winning the first prize at the City Dionysia . The First play was Laius , the second was Oedipus , and the third was Seven against Thebes . Only the third play survives , in which Oedipus ' sons Eteocles and Polynices kill each other warring over the throne . Much like his Oresteia , this trilogy would have detailed the tribulations of a House over three successive generations . The satyr play that followed the trilogy was called The Sphinx . Sophocles ' Oedipus Rex ( edit ) As Sophocles ' Oedipus Rex begins , the people of Thebes are begging the king for help , begging him to discover the cause of the plague . Oedipus stands before them and swears to find the root of their suffering and to end it . Just then , Creon returns to Thebes from a visit to the oracle . Apollo has made it known that Thebes is harboring a terrible abomination and that the plague will only be lifted when the true murderer of old King Laius is discovered and punished for his crime . Oedipus swears to do this , not realizing of course that he himself is the abomination that he has sworn to exorcise . The stark truth emerges slowly over the course of the play , as Oedipus clashes with the blind seer Tiresias , who senses the truth . Oedipus remains in strict denial , though , becoming convinced that Tiresias is somehow plotting with Creon to usurp the throne . Realization begins to slowly dawn in Scene II of the play when Jocasta mentions out of hand that Laius was slain at a place where three roads meet . This stirs something in Oedipus ' memory and he suddenly remembers the men that he fought and killed one day long ago at a place where three roads met . He realizes , horrified , that he might be the man he 's seeking . One household servant survived the attack and now lives out his old age in a frontier district of Thebes . Oedipus sends immediately for the man to either confirm or deny his guilt . At the very worst , though , he expects to find himself to be the unsuspecting murderer of a man unknown to him . The truth has not yet been made clear . The moment of epiphany comes late in the play . At the beginning of Scene III , Oedipus is still waiting for the servant to be brought into the city , when a messenger arrives from Corinth to declare that King Polybus of Corinth is dead . Oedipus , when he hears this news , feels much relieved , because he believed that Polybus was the father whom the oracle had destined him to murder , and he momentarily believes himself to have escaped fate . He tells this all to the present company , including the messenger , but the messenger knows that it is not true . He is the man who found Oedipus as a baby in the pass of Cithaeron and gave him to King Polybus to raise . He reveals , furthermore that the servant who is being brought to the city as they speak is the very same man who took Oedipus up into the mountains as a baby . Jocasta realizes now all that has happened . She begs Oedipus not to pursue the matter further . He refuses , and she withdraws into the palace as the servant is arriving . The old man arrives , and it is clear at once that he knows everything . At the behest of Oedipus , he tells it all . Overwhelmed with the knowledge of all his crimes , Oedipus rushes into the palace where he finds his mother - wife , dead by her own hand . Ripping a brooch from her dress , Oedipus blinds himself with it . Bleeding from the eyes , he begs his uncle and brother - in - law Creon , who has just arrived on the scene , to exile him forever from Thebes . Creon agrees to this request . Oedipus begs to hold his two daughters Antigone and Ismene with his hands one more time to have their eyes fill of tears and Creon out of pity sends the girls in to see Oedipus one more time . Sophocles ' Oedipus at Colonus ( edit ) Oedipus at Colonus In Sophocles ' Oedipus at Colonus , Oedipus becomes a wanderer , pursued by Creon and his men . He finally finds refuge at the holy wilderness right outside Athens , where it is said that Theseus took care of Oedipus and his daughter , Antigone . Creon eventually catches up to Oedipus . He asks Oedipus to come back from Colonus to bless his son , Eteocles . Angry that his son did not love him enough to take care of him , he curses both Eteocles and his brother , condemning them both to kill each other in battle . Oedipus dies a peaceful death ; his grave is said to be sacred to the gods . Sophocles ' Antigone ( edit ) In Sophocles ' Antigone , when Oedipus stepped down as king of Thebes , he gave the kingdom to his two sons , Eteocles and Polynices , both of whom agreed to alternate the throne every year . However , they showed no concern for their father , who cursed them for their negligence . After the first year , Eteocles refused to step down and Polynices attacked Thebes with his supporters ( as portrayed in the Seven Against Thebes by Aeschylus and the Phoenician Women by Euripides ) . The two brothers killed each other in battle . King Creon , who ascended to the throne of Thebes , decreed that Polynices was not to be buried . Antigone , Polynices ' sister , defied the order , but was caught . Creon decreed that she was to be put into a stone box in the ground , this in spite of her betrothal to his son Haemon . Antigone 's sister , Ismene , then declared she had aided Antigone and wanted the same fate , but Creon eventually declined executing her . The gods , through the blind prophet Tiresias , expressed their disapproval of Creon 's decision , which convinced him to rescind his order , and he went to bury Polynices himself . However , Antigone had already hanged herself in her tomb , rather than suffering the slow death of being buried alive . When Creon arrived at the tomb where she had been interred , his son Haemon attacked him upon seeing the body of his deceased fiancée , but failing to kill Creon he killed himself . When Creon 's wife , Eurydice , was informed of the death of Haemon , she too took her own life . Euripides ' Phoenissae , Chrysippus and Oedipus ( edit ) In the beginning of Euripides ' Phoenissae , Jocasta recalls the story of Oedipus . Generally , the play weaves together the plots of the Seven Against Thebes and Antigone . The play differs from the other tales in two major respects . First , it describes in detail why Laius and Oedipus had a feud : Laius ordered Oedipus out of the road so his chariot could pass , but proud Oedipus refused to move . Second , in the play Jocasta has not killed herself at the discovery of her incest -- otherwise she could not play the prologue , for fathomable reasons -- nor has Oedipus fled into exile , but they have stayed in Thebes only to delay their doom until the fatal duel of their sons / brothers / nephews Eteocles and Polynices : Jocasta commits suicide over the two men 's dead bodies , and Antigone follows Oedipus into exile . In Chrysippus , Euripides develops backstory on the curse : Laius ' sin was to have kidnapped Chrysippus , Pelops ' son , in order to violate him , and this caused the gods ' revenge on all his family . Laius was the tutor of Chrysippus , and raping his student was a severe violation of his position as both guest and tutor in the house of the royal family hosting him at the time . Extant vases show a fury hovering over the lecherous Laius as he abducts the rape victim . Furies avenged violations of good order in households , as can be seen most clearly in such texts as The Libation Bearers by Aeschylus . Euripides wrote also an Oedipus , of which only a few fragments survive . The first line of the prologue recalled Laius ' hubristic action of conceiving a son against Apollo 's command . At some point in the action of the play , a character engaged in a lengthy and detailed description of the Sphinx and her riddle -- preserved in five fragments from Oxyrhynchus , P. Oxy. 2459 ( published by Eric Gardner Turner in 1962 ) . The tragedy featured also many moral maxims on the theme of marriage , preserved in the Anthologion of Stobaeus . The most striking lines , however , state that in this play Oedipus was blinded by Laius ' attendants , and that this happened before his identity as Laius ' son had been discovered , therefore marking important differences with the Sophoclean treatment of the myth , which is now regarded as the ' standard ' version . Many attempts have been made to reconstruct the plot of the play , but none of them is more than hypothetical , because of the scanty remains that survive from its text and of the total absence of ancient descriptions or résumés -- though it has been suggested that a part of Hyginus ' narration of the Oedipus myth might in fact derive from Euripides ' play . Some echoes of the Euripidean Oedipus have been traced also in a scene of Seneca 's Oedipus ( see below ) , in which Oedipus himself describes to Jocasta his adventure with the Sphinx . Other playwrights ( edit ) At least three other 5th century BC authors who were younger than Sophocles wrote plays about Oedipus . These include Achaeus of Eretria , Nichomachus and the elder Xenocles . Later additions ( edit ) The Bibliotheca , a Roman - era mythological handbook , includes a riddle for the Sphinx , borrowing the poetry of Hesiod : What is that which has one voice and yet becomes four - footed and two - footed and three - footed ? Later addition to Aeschylus ' Seven against Thebes ( edit ) Due to the popularity of Sophocles 's Antigone ( c. 442 BC ) , the ending ( lines 1005 -- 78 ) of Seven against Thebes was added some fifty years after Aeschylus ' death . Whereas the play ( and the trilogy of which it is the last play ) was meant to end with somber mourning for the dead brothers , the spurious ending features a herald announcing the prohibition against burying Polyneices , and Antigone 's declaration that she will defy that edict . Oedipus in post-classical literature ( edit ) Oedipus was a figure who was also used in the Latin literature of ancient Rome . Julius Caesar wrote a play on Oedipus , but it has not survived into modern times . Ovid included Oedipus in Metamorphoses , but only as the person who defeated the Sphinx . He makes no mention of Oedipus ' troubled experiences with his father and mother . Seneca the Younger wrote his own play on the story of Oedipus in the first century AD . It differs in significant ways from the work of Sophocles . Seneca 's play on the myth was intended to be recited at private gatherings and not actually performed . It has however been successfully staged since the Renaissance . It was adapted by John Dryden in his very successful heroic drama Oedipus , licensed in 1678 . The 1718 Oedipus was also the first play written by Voltaire . A version of Oedipus by Frank McGuinness was performed at the National Theatre in late 2008 , starring Ralph Fiennes and Claire Higgins . In 1960 , Immanuel Velikovsky ( 1895 -- 1979 ) published a book called Oedipus and Akhnaton which made a comparison between the stories of the legendary Greek figure , Oedipus , and the historic Egyptian King of Thebes , Akhnaton . The book is presented as a thesis that combines with Velikovsky 's series Ages in Chaos , concluding through his revision of Egyptian history that the Greeks who wrote the tragedy of Oedipus may have penned it in likeness of the life and story of Akhnaton , because in the revision Akhnaton would have lived much closer to the time when the legend first surfaced in Greece , providing an historical basis for the story . Each of the major characters in the Greek story are identified with the people involved in Akhnaton 's family and court , and some interesting parallels are drawn . In the late 1960s Ola Rotimi published a novel and play , The Gods Are Not To Blame , which retell the Oedipus myth happening in the Yoruba kingdom . Oedipus or Oedipais ? ( edit ) It has been suggested by Robert Graves and others that in the earliest Ur - myth of the hero , he was called Oedipais : `` child of the swollen sea . '' He was so named because of the method by which his birth parents tried to abandon him -- by placing him in a chest and tossing it into the ocean . The mythic topos of forsaking a child to the sea or a river is well attested , found ( e.g. ) in the myths of Perseus , Telephus , Dionysus , Romulus and Remus and Moses . Over the centuries , however , Oedipais seems to have been corrupted into the familiar Oedipus : `` swollen foot . '' And it was this new name that might have inspired the addition of a bizarre element to the story of Oedipus ' abandonment on Mt . Cithaeron . Exposure on a mountain was in fact a common method of child abandonment in Ancient Greece . It can thus be argued that the ankle - binding was grafted onto the Oedipus myth to update its relevance . The Oedipus complex ( edit ) Main article : Oedipus complex See also : Electra complex Sigmund Freud used the name `` the Oedipus complex '' to explain the origin of certain neuroses in childhood . It is defined as a male child 's unconscious desire for the exclusive love of his mother . This desire includes jealousy towards the father and the unconscious wish for that parent 's death , as well as the unconscious desire for sexual intercourse with the mother . Oedipus himself , as portrayed in the myth , did not suffer from this neurosis -- at least , not towards Jocasta , whom he only met as an adult ( if anything , such feelings would have been directed at Merope -- but there is no hint of that ) . Freud reasoned that the ancient Greek audience , which heard the story told or saw the plays based on it , did know that Oedipus was actually killing his father and marrying his mother ; the story being continually told and played therefore reflected a preoccupation with the theme . The term oedipism is used in medicine for serious self - inflicted eye injury , an extremely rare form of severe self - harm . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oedipus . Greek mythology portal Antigone Epigoni Genetic attraction Myrrha ( the Greek myth of incestual love between father and daughter ) Oedipus at Colonus Oedipus Complex Oedipus Rex Oedipus ( Euripides ) Lille Stesichorus Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Wilson , Christopher . `` Oedipus : The message in the myth '' , The Open University Jump up ^ Euripides , Phoenissae Jump up ^ Sophocles , Oedipus Rex 1220 -- 1226 ; Euripides , Phoenissae Jump up ^ Sophocles , Oedipus Rex 1026 -- 1030 ; Euripides , Phoenissae Jump up ^ Sophocles , Oedipus Rex 132 -- 137 Jump up ^ Pindar , Second Olympian Ode ; Sophocles , Oedipus Rex 473 -- 488 ; Euripides , Phoenissae Jump up ^ Sophocles , Oedipus Rex 136 , 1578 ; Euripides , Phoenissae Jump up ^ Sophocles , Oedipus Rex 1316 Jump up ^ Pindar , Second Olympian Ode Jump up ^ The Reign of the Phallus : Sexual Politics in Ancient Athenas by Eva Keuls ( Berkeley and Los Angeles , 1993 ) p. 292 . Jump up ^ R. Kannicht , Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta ( TrGF ) vol . 5.1 , Göttingen 2004 ; see also F. Jouan -- H. Van Looy , `` Euripide . tome 8.2 -- Fragments '' , Paris 2000 Jump up ^ Reviewed by Hugh Lloyd - Jones in `` Gnomon '' 35 ( 1963 ) , pp. 446 -- 447 Jump up ^ Joachim Dingel , in `` Museum Helveticum '' 27 ( 1970 ) , 90 -- 96 Jump up ^ Burian , P. ( 2009 ) . `` Inconclusive Conclusion : the Ending ( s ) of Oedipus Tyrannus '' . In Goldhill , S. ; Hall , E. Sophocles and the Greek Tragic Tradition . Cambridge University Press . p. 100 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 88785 - 4 . Jump up ^ Bibliotheca III. 5.7 Jump up ^ See ( e.g. ) Brown 1976 , 206 -- 19 . Jump up ^ E.F. Watling 's Introduction to Seneca : Four Tragedies and Octavia Jump up ^ Rotimi O. , The Gods are Not to Blame , Three Crown Books , Nigeria 1974 Jump up ^ See ( e.g. ) Lowry 1995 , 879 ; Carloni / Nobili 2004 , 147 n. 1 . Jump up ^ This version of the Oedipus myth is in fact attested in some scholia ( at lines 13 and 26 ) to Euripides ' Phoenician Women . Jump up ^ Bruno Bettelheim ( 1983 ) . Freud and Man 's Soul . Knopf . ISBN 0 - 394 - 52481 - 0 . References ( edit ) Brown , A.L. `` The End of the Seven against Thebes '' The Classical Quarterly 26.2 ( 1976 ) 206 - 19 . Carloni , Glauco and Nobili , Daniela . La Mamma Cattiva : fenomenologia , antropologia e clinica del figlicidio ( Rimini , 2004 ) . Dallas , Ian , Oedipus and Dionysus , Freiburg Press , Granada 1991 . ISBN 1 - 874216 - 02 - 9 . Graves , Robert , The Greek Myths Lowell , Edmunds , Oedipus . ( Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World ) , London / New York : Routledge , 2006 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 32935 - 4 . Smith , William ; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology , London ( 1873 ) . `` Oe'dipus '' Regnal titles Preceded by Laius Mythical King of Thebes Succeeded by Creon Kings of Thebes Kings Calydnus Ogyges Cadmus Pentheus Polydorus Nycteus ( regent for Labdacus ) and Lycus I ( regent for Labdacus ) Labdacus Lycus I ( regent for Laius ) Laius Amphion and Zethus Laius ( second rule ) Creon Oedipus Creon ( second rule ) ( regent for Eteocles and Polynices ) Polynices and Eteocles Creon ( third rule ) ( regent for Laodamas ) Lycus II ( usurper ) Laodamas Thersander Peneleos ( regent for Tisamenus ) Tisamenus Autesion Damasichthon Ptolemy Xanthos In literature Antigone Antigone ( Euripides ) The Bacchae Herakles Iliad Oedipus Oedipus at Colonus Oedipus Rex The Phoenician Women Seven Against Thebes The Thebans Related articles Thebes Necklace of Harmonia Book : Theban Kings Category : Theban kings Portal : Ancient Greece Oedipus Titles and lineage Theban kings in Greek mythology Laius ( biological father ) Polybus of Corinth ( adoptive father ) Merope ( adoptive mother ) Jocasta / Epicaste ( biological mother / wife ) Creon ( Jocasta 's brother / Laius successor ) Antigone ( half sister / daughter ) Eteocles ( half brother / son ) Polynices ( half brother / son ) Ismene ( half sister / daughter ) Euryganeia ( 2nd wife ) Astymedusa ( later wife ) Theban plays Antiquity Aeschylus : Seven Against Thebes Sophocles : Antigone Oedipus Rex Oedipus at Colonus Euripides : Antigone Oedipus The Phoenician Women Seneca : Oedipus Other ( Oedipus ) Oedipus ( Dryden & Lee ) Oedipus ( Voltaire ) The Infernal Machine Greek The Gospel at Colonus Other ( Antigone ) Antigone ( Cocteau ) Antigone ( Anouilh ) The Burial at Thebes Operas Antigona Œdipe à Colone Oedipus rex Œdipe Greek Films Oedipus Rex ( 1957 ) Antigone ( 1961 ) Oedipus Rex ( 1967 ) Oedipus the King ( 1968 ) Funeral Parade of Roses ( 1969 ) Night Warning ( 1982 ) Voyager ( 1991 ) Oedipus Mayor ( 1996 ) Other works Oedipodea Thebaid Theban Cycle Lille Stesichorus The Gods Are Not To Blame Oedipus Tex Related Oedipus complex Electra complex Feminism and the Oedipus complex Hamlet and Oedipus Jocasta complex Phaedra complex GND : 118589393 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oedipus&oldid=807276125 '' Categories : Greek mythological heroes Theban kings Greek regicides Patricides Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from August 2017 Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text Pages using deprecated image syntax Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray ייִדיש 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 October 2017 , at 00 : 15 . 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who killed his father and married his mother
[ "Variations on the legend of Oedipus are mentioned in fragments by several ancient Greek poets including Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus and Euripides. However, the most popular version of the legend comes from the set of Theban plays by Sophocles: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone." ]
[ "Oedipus" ]
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The Dark Knight Rises
The Dark Knight Rises - Wikipedia The Dark Knight Rises The Dark Knight Rises Theatrical release poster Directed by Christopher Nolan Produced by Emma Thomas Christopher Nolan Charles Roven Screenplay by Jonathan Nolan Christopher Nolan Story by Christopher Nolan David S. Goyer Based on Characters appearing in comic books published by DC Comics Starring Christian Bale Michael Caine Gary Oldman Anne Hathaway Tom Hardy Marion Cotillard Joseph Gordon - Levitt Morgan Freeman Music by Hans Zimmer Cinematography Wally Pfister Edited by Lee Smith Production companies Legendary Pictures Syncopy Distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures Release date July 16 , 2012 ( 2012 - 07 - 16 ) ( New York City ) July 20 , 2012 ( 2012 - 07 - 20 ) ( United States and United Kingdom ) Running time 165 minutes Country United States United Kingdom Language English Budget $250 -- 300 million ( gross ) $230 million ( net ) Box office $1.085 billion The Dark Knight Rises is a 2012 American - British superhero film directed by Christopher Nolan , who co-wrote the screenplay with his brother Jonathan Nolan , and the story with David S. Goyer . Featuring the DC Comics character Batman , the film is the final installment in Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy , and the sequel to The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) . Christian Bale reprises the lead role of Bruce Wayne / Batman , with a returning cast of allies : Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth , Gary Oldman as James Gordon , and Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox . The film introduces Selina Kyle ( Anne Hathaway ) and Bane ( Tom Hardy ) . Eight years after the events of The Dark Knight , merciless revolutionary Bane forces an older Bruce Wayne to resume his role as Batman and save Gotham City from nuclear destruction . Christopher Nolan was hesitant about returning to the series for a second time , but agreed after developing a story with his brother and Goyer that he felt would conclude the series on a satisfactory note . Nolan drew inspiration from Bane 's comic book debut in the 1993 `` Knightfall '' storyline , the 1986 series The Dark Knight Returns , and the 1999 storyline `` No Man 's Land '' . Filming took place from May to November 2011 in locations including Jodhpur , London , Nottingham , Glasgow , Los Angeles , New York City , Newark , and Pittsburgh . Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras for much of the filming , including the first six minutes of the film , to optimize the quality of the picture . A vehicle variation of the Batplane and Batcopter termed the `` Bat '' , an underground prison set , and a new Batcave set were created specifically for the film . As with The Dark Knight , viral marketing campaigns began early during production . When filming concluded , Warner Bros. refocused its campaign : developing promotional websites , releasing the first six minutes of the film , screening theatrical trailers , and sending out information regarding the film 's plot . The Dark Knight Rises premiered in New York City on July 16 , 2012 . The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on July 20 , 2012 . It received positive reviews from critics , many of whom praised the action sequences , cast , musical score and the manner in which it concludes the trilogy , and named it one of the best films of 2012 . Like its predecessor , the film grossed over $1 billion worldwide at the box office , making it the second film in the Batman film series to earn $1 billion . In addition to being Nolan 's highest - grossing film , it is the 24th highest - grossing film of all time ( 7th at the time of release ) , the third highest - grossing film of 2012 , and the eighth highest - grossing superhero film . Contents 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Filming 3.3 Design 3.3. 1 Costume design 3.3. 2 Production design 3.4 Music 4 Marketing 5 Shooting in Aurora , Colorado 6 Release 6.1 Reception 6.1. 1 Commentary 6.1. 2 Accolades 6.1. 3 Box office 6.2 Home media 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) Eight years after the death of District Attorney Harvey Dent , Batman has disappeared and organized crime has been eradicated in Gotham City thanks to the Dent Act . Police Commissioner James Gordon has kept secret Dent 's murderous rampage and allowed blame for his crimes to fall on Batman . He writes a resignation speech revealing the truth , but decides that the city is not ready to hear it . Bruce Wayne has become a recluse , and Wayne Enterprises is losing profits after Wayne discontinued his fusion reactor project when he learned that it could be weaponized . Cat burglar Selina Kyle obtains Wayne 's fingerprints from his home and tries to sell the fingerprints to Wayne 's corporate rival John Daggett . She is double - crossed at the exchange , but alerts the police . Gordon and the police arrive and pursue Daggett 's henchmen into the sewers while Selina flees . The men capture Gordon and take him to Bane , a mysterious masked figure and former member of the League of Shadows , who has set up his base in the sewers . Gordon escapes and is found by rookie officer John Blake . Blake , a fellow orphan , confronts Bruce and convinces him to return as Batman . Bane attacks the Gotham Stock Exchange by using Wayne 's fingerprints in a transaction that leaves Wayne bankrupt . Wayne 's butler , Alfred Pennyworth , reveals that Rachel Dawes had intended to marry Dent before she died , and then resigns in an attempt to convince Bruce to move on with his life . Wayne finds comfort in Wayne Enterprises CEO Miranda Tate , who becomes his lover . Kyle agrees to take Batman to Bane but instead leads him into Bane 's trap . Bane reveals that he intends to fulfill Ra 's al Ghul 's mission to destroy Gotham , and then steals Batman 's technology from Wayne Enterprises . Bane fights Batman and delivers a crippling blow to his back , before taking him abroad to an underground prison . There , the inmates tell Wayne the story of Ra 's al Ghul 's child , who was born and raised in the prison before finally escaping -- the only prisoner to have done so . Bane lures Gotham 's police underground and uses explosives to trap them and destroy the bridges surrounding the city . He kills Mayor Anthony Garcia and forces a nuclear physicist to convert the reactor core into an atomic bomb before killing him as well . Bane reads Gordon 's speech to the public , and releases the prisoners of Blackgate Penitentiary , initiating chaos while holding the city hostage and isolated with the bomb . Months later , a recovered Wayne escapes from the prison and returns to Gotham . Batman frees the trapped police and they clash with Bane 's army in the streets ; during the battle , Batman overpowers Bane . Tate intervenes and stabs Batman , revealing herself to be Talia al Ghul , Ra 's al Ghul 's daughter . She activates the detonator , but Gordon blocks her signal . Talia leaves to find the bomb while Bane prepares to kill Batman , but Kyle arrives and kills Bane . Batman and Kyle pursue Talia , hoping to bring the bomb back to the reactor chamber where it can be stabilized . Talia 's truck crashes , but she remotely floods and destroys the reactor chamber before dying . With no way to stop the detonation , Batman uses the Bat to haul the bomb far over the bay , where it safely explodes . Before takeoff , Batman subtly reveals his identity to Gordon . In the aftermath , Batman is presumed dead and is honored as a hero . With Wayne presumed dead as well , Wayne Manor becomes an orphanage , and his remaining estate is left to Alfred . While visiting Florence , Alfred discovers that Wayne is alive , and in a relationship with Kyle . Blake resigns from the police force and , in accordance with Wayne 's will , inherits the Batcave . Cast ( edit ) Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman : A billionaire socialite who dedicates himself to protecting Gotham City from its criminal underworld . Nolan has stated that , due to the eight - year gap between The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises , `` he 's an older Bruce Wayne ; he 's not in a great state . '' Bale employed a martial arts discipline called the Keysi Fighting Method , now modified for Bruce 's current state and Bane 's style . Bale has stated that The Dark Knight Rises will be his final Batman film . Bale acknowledged that Batman is `` not a healthy individual , this is somebody that is doing good , but he 's right on the verge of doing bad '' . Bale clarifies that `` He does n't want to forget ( his parents ' deaths ) . He wants to maintain that anger he felt at that injustice '' . Bale felt bittersweet about leaving the franchise , saying that it was like `` saying goodbye to an old friend . '' Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth : Bruce 's trusted butler and confidant , who acts as a father figure to Bruce but is unable to accept Bruce 's desire to revive his Batman persona , even resigning from his position to impress the seriousness of his position upon him . Christopher Nolan emphasized the emotional bond between Alfred and Bruce , stressing its importance in the previous films and predicting that the relationship will be strained as it never has before . Gary Oldman as James Gordon : The Commissioner of the Gotham City Police Department , and one of the city 's few honest police officers . Oldman described the character 's work in cleaning up Gotham City as having left him world - weary and slightly bored , likening Gordon to a soldier who leaps at the chance to be on the front lines . His life has taken a turn for the worse since The Dark Knight ; his wife has left him and taken their children , and the mayor is planning to dismiss him from his job . Gordon feels guilty over his role in covering up Harvey Dent 's crimes and is prepared to resign from his position as Commissioner over it , but then senses that Gotham is about to come under threat . Anne Hathaway as Selina Kyle / Catwoman : A professional cat burglar , grifter , and femme fatale who establishes a playful , teasing relationship with Bruce that `` takes some of the somberness away from his character '' , and pursues a `` clean slate '' ( a computer program rumored to be able to erase a person 's criminal history ) when she crosses paths with both Bruce and Batman . Hathaway auditioned not knowing what role she was being considered for . Hathaway described the role as being the most physically demanding she had ever played , and confessed that while she thought of herself as being fit she had to redouble her efforts in the gym to keep up with the demands of the role . Hathaway trained extensively in martial arts for the role , and looked to Hedy Lamarr -- who was the inspiration for Catwoman 's character -- in developing her performance . Tom Hardy as Bane : A mysterious and physically imposing revolutionary who was excommunicated from the League of Shadows and portrays himself as a `` liberator of pain '' . He is desperate to continue Ra 's al Ghul 's legacy by destroying Gotham . The character was chosen by Christopher Nolan because of his desire to see Batman tested on both a physical and mental level . According to costume designer Lindy Hemming , the character wears a mask that supplies him with an analgesic gas to relieve pain he suffers from an injury sustained `` early in his story '' . Hardy intended to portray the character as `` more menacing '' than Robert Swenson 's version of the character in Joel Schumacher 's Batman & Robin and that in order to do so , his portrayal entailed creating a contradiction between his voice and body . Hardy gained 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) for the role , increasing his weight to 200 pounds ( 90 kg ) . Hardy based Bane 's voice on several influences , which include Bartley Gorman , and the character 's comic book heritage . Bane claims that his revolution 's enemies are the rich and the corrupt , who he contends are oppressing `` the people '' . Political theorist and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek sees Bane as fighting `` structural injustice '' , while likening him to a modern day Che Guevara who is counter-intuitively driven to violence out of a sense of love . Marion Cotillard as Miranda Tate / Talia al Ghul : A recently promoted member of the Wayne Enterprises executive board who encourages a still - grieving Bruce to rejoin with society and continue his father 's philanthropic works , but is later revealed to be the daughter of Ra 's al Ghul and Bane 's accomplice . Joey King portrays the younger version of Talia . Joseph Gordon - Levitt as John Blake : A young police officer whose instincts lead him to believe that there is trouble on the horizon and is promoted to detective by Gordon when the elder cop saw something of himself within the younger . Blake represents the idealism that Gordon and Bruce Wayne once held , but soon lost in their battle against crime in the city . The film reveals his legal name to be Robin John Blake , a homage to Batman 's sidekick in the comics , Robin . Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox : The CEO and later Executive President of Wayne Enterprises , who runs the company on Bruce 's behalf and serves as his armorer for the Batsuit , providing him with high - tech equipment and discreetly developing cutting - edge technology and weaponry , even as Wayne Enterprises starts losing money . Matthew Modine appears as Peter Foley , Gordon 's second - in - command that disdains Batman . Ben Mendelsohn portrays John Daggett , a rival billionaire socialite who employs Bane in his plan to take control of Wayne Enterprises , and Burn Gorman appears as Daggett 's assistant and Executive Vice President Philip Stryver . Alon Abutbul portrays Leonid Pavel , a Russian nuclear physicist who is kidnapped from Uzbekistan by Bane and forced to convert the new Wayne Enterprises reactor core into a bomb . Juno Temple plays Jen , Kyle 's friend and accomplice , and Daniel Sunjata portrays Mark Jones , a U.S. Special Ops officer who leads a task force into Gotham to assist Gordon and the GCPD in freeing the city from Bane 's rule . Chris Ellis appears as Father Reilly , a priest at the orphanage that Blake grew up in . Brett Cullen portrays Byron Gilley , a U.S. congressman who is kidnapped on Harvey Dent Day by Kyle . Cillian Murphy reprises his role as Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow from previous films , as does Liam Neeson as Ra 's al Ghul , who appears to Bruce in a hallucination . Josh Pence portrays Ra 's al Ghul in scenes set thirty years before the events of Batman Begins . Nestor Carbonell also returns as Anthony Garcia , Gotham 's mayor . Other cast members include Aidan Gillen as CIA agent Bill Wilson ( referred to solely as `` CIA '' in the film 's dialogue ; the character 's name is revealed in the film 's novelization ) ; Rob Brown and Desmond Harrington as police officers ; Josh Stewart as Bane 's right - hand man Barsad , Christopher Judge as one of Bane 's henchmen , Noel Gugliemi as Bane 's exile compeller , and Tom Conti as a prisoner . William Devane portrays the President of the United States . Aaron Eckhart expressed enthusiasm in returning for a sequel if asked , although he later stated Nolan verified that his character , Harvey Dent / Two - Face , is dead , and only archive footage of Eckhart from The Dark Knight appears in the film . Several members of the Pittsburgh Steelers have cameo appearances as members of the fictional Gotham Rogues football team in the film , including Ben Roethlisberger , Hines Ward , Troy Polamalu , Willie Colon , Maurkice Pouncey , Mike Wallace , Heath Miller , Aaron Smith , Ryan Clark , James Farrior , LaMarr Woodley , and Casey Hampton , and former Steelers head coach Bill Cowher as the head coach of the Rogues . Pittsburgh mayor Luke Ravenstahl , a kicker in college , appears as the kicker for the Rogues ' opponents , the Rapid City Monuments . In 2008 , the Rooney family sold a minority stake in the team to Thomas Tull , the CEO and president of Legendary Pictures , which produced The Dark Knight Rises . United States Senator Patrick Leahy , who had made a cameo appearance in The Dark Knight , returned in The Dark Knight Rises , as a Wayne Enterprises board member . Thomas Lennon , who had appeared as a doctor in Memento , once again plays a doctor . India Wadsworth plays the wife of Ra 's al Ghul and the mother of Talia . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) `` The key thing that makes the third film a great possibility for us is that we want to finish our story ( ... ) rather than infinitely blowing up the balloon and expanding the story ( ... ) Unlike the comics , these things do n't go on forever in film and viewing it as a story with an end is useful . Viewing it as an ending , that sets you very much on the right track about the appropriate conclusion . '' -- Christopher Nolan , confirming his involvement in The Dark Knight Rises . Warner Bros. president of production Jeff Robinov had hoped a third film would be released in 2011 or 2012 . Nolan wanted the story for the third installment to keep him emotionally invested . `` On a more superficial level , I have to ask the question , '' he reasoned , `` how many good third movies in a franchise can people name ? '' Nolan said that he never even thought a third film was possible in the foreword for his book The Art and Making of the Dark Knight Trilogy . Nolan only agreed to a third film on the basis of finding a worthwhile story , fearing that he would become bored halfway through production if he discovered the film to be unnecessary . By December 2008 , Nolan completed a rough story outline , before he committed himself to Inception . Later in December , Alan F. Horn confirmed that while discussions with Nolan about a third film were ongoing , no casting had been done , and Horn denied all such rumors . Before Nolan confirmed his involvement , Gary Oldman had said he was confident Nolan would return . Following the success of the Joker in The Dark Knight , studio executives wished for the Riddler to be included as the primary villain as he was considered a similar character and encouraged the casting of Leonardo DiCaprio . However , Nolan wanted the antagonist to be vastly different from the previous incarnations and committed to using Bane instead , citing the need for a character with a physical presence within the film . He was initially unfamiliar with the character 's back - story , but pointed out the appeal of an archetype , labelling it as `` the extreme of some type of villainy '' . When comparing the choice of Bane with the Joker , Nolan highlighted the Joker as an example of `` diabolical , chaotic anarchy and has a devilish sense of humor '' , juxtaposing him against Bane , whom he likened to `` a classic movie monster ( ... ) with a terrific brain . '' Nolan has said that his draft of the script was inspired by Charles Dickens ' 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities , which centers around the French Revolution . This homage to Dickens was briefly illustrated by having Bane inconspicuously finger knit paracord in the film , symbolizing his literary character Madame Defarge , and more overtly by Commissioner Gordon 's eulogy for Bruce Wayne at the end of the film , which is taken directly from the classic book . It was not until February 9 , 2010 , that it was announced that Nolan had `` cracked '' the story of a sequel to The Dark Knight and was committed to return to the project . Shortly afterward , it was announced David S. Goyer and Jonathan Nolan were working on a screenplay . Goyer would leave the project during pre-production to begin work on Man of Steel ; Jonathan continued writing the script based on the story by his brother Chris and Goyer . Chris Nolan said that his brother 's original draft was about 400 pages . The film 's storyline has been compared with the Batman comic book series ' story arc `` Knightfall '' ( 1993 ) , which showcased Bane ; the mini-series The Dark Knight Returns ( 1986 ) , in which Batman returns to Gotham City after a ten - year absence ; and the story arc `` No Man 's Land '' ( 1999 ) , which depicts a Gotham cut off from the rest of the world and overrun by gangs . The nickname `` the Dark Knight '' was first applied to Batman in Batman # 1 ( 1940 ) , in a story written by Bill Finger . Nolan confirmed the Joker would not return in the third film , and dismissed rumors that he considered using unused footage of Heath Ledger from The Dark Knight . The Dark Knight Rises reunited Nolan with many of his past collaborators , including cinematographer Wally Pfister , production designer Nathan Crowley , editor Lee Smith , costume designer Lindy Hemming , special effects supervisors Paul Franklin and Chris Corbould , and composer Hans Zimmer . Filming ( edit ) A Tumbler on the set of The Dark Knight Rises in Pittsburgh During location scouting in December 2010 , Nolan began searching for locations such as India , Romania , and Michigan . According to the Romania Insider , Nolan was interested in Bucharest 's historical centers , Edgar Quinet Street , the Palace of the Parliament , and the Turda salt mine . The film had an estimated budget of $250 -- 300 million , coming down to about $230 million after tax credits . Nolan elected not to film in 3 - D , but instead stated that he intended to focus on improving image quality and scale using the IMAX format . The Dark Knight Rises featured over an hour of footage shot in IMAX ( by comparison , The Dark Knight contained 28 minutes ) . Nolan had several meetings with IMAX Vice-President David Keighley to work on the logistics of projecting films in digital IMAX venues . Wally Pfister had expressed interest in shooting the film entirely in IMAX , but because of the considerable noise made by IMAX cameras , 35mm and 70mm cameras had to be used for shooting the film 's dialogue scenes , as dialogue had to be dubbed when shot with IMAX cameras . Chairman and president of the IMAX Corporation Greg Foster stated that IMAX planned to run the film in its theatres for two months , despite only being contractually committed to run the film for two weeks . Nolan also bypassed the use of a digital intermediate for the film , resulting in less manipulation of the filmed image and higher film resolution . Filming was scheduled to start in May and conclude in November 2011 . Principal photography commenced on May 6 , 2011 , in Jodhpur , India at the Mehrangarh Fort before moving to Pittsburgh , where it operated under the working title Magnus Rex to reduce the visibility of the production . Shooting locations within the city included Heinz Field , the site of an American football game , with members of the Pittsburgh Steelers playing the Gotham Rogues football team . More than 11,000 extras were used to depict the shot sequence . Filming in Pittsburgh also took place at the Mellon Institute and Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University . A letter sent out to residents and business owners detailing road closures revealed that the streets of the city would be featured `` as the start of ( the ) film '' . 9 - 1 - 1 operators were told to expect an increase in calls related to gunshots and explosions in the film 's production . The Pittsburgh leg of production wrapped after three weeks on August 21 , 2011 . The next portion of the filming began in Los Angeles in late August and finished up on October 23 after nine weeks of filming . New York and New Jersey were the next places of filming . The Trump Tower replaced the Richard J. Daley Center as the location for the headquarters of Wayne Enterprises . In November 2011 , shooting shifted to Newark , New Jersey . Newark City Hall and Military Park were among the locations used for filming . Other shooting locations include London and Glasgow , the latter of which was used for `` additional exterior filming '' . Principal photography concluded on November 14 , 2011 . The external waterfall scene at the end of the film was shot at Sgwd Henrhyd falls , on the edge of the Brecon Beacons National Park in Wales . Production photos from filming in Pittsburgh showed a second Tumbler chassis after the first was destroyed , indicating that a new Batmobile would be in the film , following the destruction of the first in The Dark Knight . Further set photos revealed a `` new vehicle '' being transported to Wabash Tunnel , prompting speculation as to its nature . In June 2011 , Autoblog confirmed the presence of the new Lamborghini Aventador on the film set . Wollaton Hall in Nottingham was used as Wayne Manor , Bruce Wayne 's residence . Several accidents occurred during the production of the film . While filming at Wollaton Hall , Nottingham , a tractor - trailer crashed into the main entrance , though no one was injured . A stuntman parachutist later crashed through the roof of a home in Cairngorm Gliding Club , Feshiebridge in Scotland , and became wedged there after a failed landing during a skydiving stunt ; he was not seriously injured . While filming scenes in Pittsburgh , Hathaway 's stunt double crashed into an IMAX camera while filming a sequence that required her to ride a Batpod down a flight of stairs during a riot . There were no injuries , but the camera was destroyed . A second accident took place in Pittsburgh when the truck carrying the then - unidentified vehicle later termed `` the Bat '' went off - course and crashed into a lighting array , damaging the model of the aircraft . Production was delayed while the model was repaired . Shortly before Christmas of 2011 , Christopher Nolan invited several prominent directors , including Edgar Wright , Michael Bay , Bryan Singer , Jon Favreau , Eli Roth , Duncan Jones and Stephen Daldry , to Universal CityWalk 's IMAX theatre for a private screening of the first six minutes of The Dark Knight Rises , which had been shot on IMAX film and edited from the original camera negative . Nolan , feeling that the use of film stock in cinema is currently being phased out due to the introduction of digital cinematography and projection , used this screening to make a case for the continued use of film , which he asserts still offers superior image quality to any digital format , and warned the filmmakers that unless they continued to assert their choice to use film in their productions , they may eventually lose it as an option . Nolan explained ; `` I wanted to give them a chance to see the potential , because I think IMAX is the best film format that was ever invented . It 's the gold standard and what any other technology has to match up to , but none have , in my opinion . The message I wanted to put out there was that no one is taking anyone 's digital cameras away . But if we want film to continue as an option , and someone is working on a big studio movie with the resources and the power to insist ( on ) film , they should say so . I felt as if I did n't say anything , and then we started to lose that option , it would be a shame . When I look at a digitally acquired and projected image , it looks inferior against an original negative anamorphic print or an IMAX one . '' Design ( edit ) Costume design ( edit ) A digitally mapped model of Tom Hardy 's face and skull was used to design and construct Bane 's mask . Costume designer Lindy Hemming explained that Bane uses a mask to inhale an analgesic gas , which , in director Christopher Nolan 's words , `` keeps his pain just below the threshold so he can function . '' In designing Bane 's costume , Hemming needed it to look `` like an amalgam of all sorts of bits and pieces he cobbled together , as he passed through some very remote places . We made parts of his vest , for example , from fragments of an old military tent . His clothes are militaristic , but are not in any way a uniform . '' Hemming also designed Bane 's mask to look `` animalistic '' . Costume effects supervisor Graham Churchyard created a three - dimensional model of actor Tom Hardy 's face and skull to design the mask , allowing the mask to perfectly conform to the contours of Hardy 's face . Hemming personally designed Bane 's coat , which she admitted took two years to complete . Taking inspiration from a Swedish army jacket and a frock coat from the French Revolution , it was designed to make Bane look equal parts dictatorial and revolutionary . The design was difficult as Hemming struggled to find a tailor in Los Angeles who could work with shearling . The Batsuit consisted of 110 separate pieces , each of which had to be replicated dozens of times over the course of the production . The base layer was made of a polyester mesh that is utilized by the military and high - tech sports manufacturers because of its breathability and moisture - wicking properties . Molded pieces of flexible urethane were then attached to the mesh , to form the overall body armor plating . Carbon fiber panels were placed inside the sections on the legs , chest and abdomen . The cowl was sculpted from a cast of Bale 's face and head to become a perfect fit for Christian Bale . The suit remained unchanged for the film since The Dark Knight . In creating Selina Kyle 's catsuit , two layers of material were used , with the outer layer being polyurethane coated spandex , embossed with a hexagonal pattern . The catsuit also consisted of elbow - length gloves , a utility belt , and thigh - high boots with spike heels . Production design ( edit ) Concept artist Tully Summers commented on Nolan 's style of cinematography when asked about the difference between his designs for this film and fantasy - based designs for Men in Black 3 : `` The difference for me was Christopher Nolan 's visual style . One of the things that makes his Batman movies so compelling is their tone of plausibility . He will often prefer a raw , grittier design over one that is very sleek and product design pretty . It 's sort of a practical military aesthetic . This stuff is made to work , not impress shoppers . The Dark Knight Rises is a war film . '' Producer Emma Thomas stated this Batman film has a different visual aesthetic from the first two Nolan - directed features , explaining that `` it 's meant to be winter in Gotham , so that right there is going to lend a whole different look to the film . '' The film introduces a vehicle that has been compared with the Batplane and the Batcopter , dubbed `` the Bat '' . In designing the Bat , Nathan Crowley approached it as if it were an actual military project , emphasising the need for it to `` fit into the same family '' as the Tumbler and the Batpod . The final version of the Bat takes its design cues from the Harrier Jump Jet , Bell Boeing V - 22 Osprey and the Boeing AH - 64 Apache . Chris Corbould described the Bat 's size and shape as presenting a major challenge for filming given Christopher Nolan 's emphasis on practical effects over computer - generated imagery . In order to make the Bat `` fly '' , it was variously supported by wires , suspended from cranes and helicopters , and mounted on a purpose - built vehicle with hydraulic controls to simulate movement . When designing the Batcave set , Crowley and fellow production designer Kevin Kavanaugh hit upon the idea of flooding the Batcave and having Batman 's equipment , the Batsuit and a supercomputer rise from the water . Another set was designed at Cardington as an `` underground prison '' , a rough - hewn labyrinth of stone cells in a vast abyss with a 120 foot ( 37 m ) vertical shaft leading to the surface . Exteriors above the prison were filmed in Jodhpur , India , chosen because the `` forbidding landscape added to the desolation '' . Music ( edit ) Main article : The Dark Knight Rises ( soundtrack ) In an interview in October 2010 , composer Hans Zimmer confirmed that he would be returning to score The Dark Knight Rises . James Newton Howard was offered to return and write the score with Zimmer as he did for Batman Begins and The Dark Knight , but he chose not to because he noted that the chemistry established between Zimmer and Nolan during the making of Inception would make him seem like a `` third wheel '' . Zimmer included several cues from the earlier scores , but explains that he wanted to go in a `` completely different direction '' for Bane 's theme . While the theme accompanying Selina Kyle is deliberately ambiguous , the musical thread spanning throughout the trilogy was composed exclusively for Bruce Wayne . The film features a prevalent Moroccan chant of the phrase deshi basara ( proper transliteration : Tījī basara'ah ) ( Arabic : تيجي بسرعة ) , which translates to `` rise up '' ( literally : `` come quickly '' ) . In November 2011 , Zimmer crowdsourced online audio recordings of the chant to be used in the film 's score . When asked about the chant for clarification , Zimmer said , `` The chant became a very complicated thing because I wanted hundreds of thousands of voices , and it 's not so easy to get hundreds of thousands of voices . So , we tweeted and we posted on the internet , for people who wanted to be part of it . It seemed like an interesting thing . We 've created this world , over these last two movies , and somehow I think the audience and the fans have been part of this world . We do keep them in mind . '' Marketing ( edit ) The official website launched in May 2011 , introducing a viral marketing campaign similar to the one used to promote The Dark Knight . The website streamed an encrypted audio file described by users as chanting . Users decrypted the audio to the Twitter hashtag , `` # TheFireRises '' . Warner Bros. removed a pixel from the webpage for every tweet using the hashtag . The website revealed the first official image of Bane . TheDarkKnightRises.com was replaced with a dossier of an `` anonymous vigilante '' , presenting information on the suspect -- as well as several accusations , and depicting a warning claiming that the `` suspect should be considered armed and dangerous '' . In July 2011 , a teaser trailer leaked online before its official release with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 . The studio released the teaser three days after the leak . The trailer received mixed responses ; Stephen Spencer Davis of Slate wrote it successfully built hype , while Kofi Outlaw of ScreenRant showed disappointment , claiming it was more of an `` announcement trailer '' than an actual teaser trailer . Outlaw criticized the quality , writing that a scene depicting Commissioner Gordon in a hospital bed was overly dramatic , had `` hammy '' dialogue , and was difficult to understand due to Gordon 's labored breathing . Outlaw wrote that the sweeping shot of Gotham City had poor CGI and was too reminiscent of the Inception trailer . The theatrical trailer leaked online , like the teaser trailer , before being released the following week attached to theatrical prints of Sherlock Holmes : A Game of Shadows . Critics noted political undertones with dialogue foreshadowing the theme of income inequality and an `` Occupy Gotham '' campaign within the world of the story . Receiving more than 12.5 million views in the first 24 hours after its release , the trailer set the record for most combined downloads from iTunes , beating the previous record held by The Avengers . However , the second trailer for The Avengers again set the record with 13.7 million downloads . Warner Bros. attached a second theatrical trailer for The Dark Knight Rises to theatrical prints of The Avengers . An `` unnamed '' Warner Brothers executive clarified that `` We see this placement as a good strategic decision . We always want our trailers to be seen with films that people want to see -- and a lot of people will be going to The Avengers ! '' The executive also commented that the trailer will `` provide the best potential exposure for TDKR . '' Warner Bros. released the trailer online on April 30 , 2012 , approximately four days before they attached it to theatrical prints of The Avengers . Continuing a method used with The Dark Knight whereby the opening sequence of the film was attached to IMAX prints of I Am Legend seven months before release , a six - minute prologue of The Dark Knight Rises was attached to 70mm IMAX prints of Mission : Impossible -- Ghost Protocol , again approximately seven months before release . Critical reaction to the prologue was positive , with one critic commenting that `` no one gets to make a film on this kind of scale anymore . Except for Christopher Nolan , '' though a round - up of reviews highlighted the way many critics found Tom Hardy 's dialogue very difficult to hear . Addressing the issue in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Nolan said `` I think when people see the film , things will come into focus . Bane is very complex and very interesting and when people see the finished film people will be very entertained by him . '' The bat - signal projected against the Fifth Avenue Place during filming in Pittsburgh . Viral marketing campaigns for the film continued as magazine companies Empire and Wired received `` CIA documents '' concerning a `` Dr. Leonid Pavel '' , with its mugshot connected to actor Alon Abutbul . According to the first document , Pavel is a missing Russian nuclear physicist , while the second document appears to be an edited transcript of a conversation discussing the handover of Dr. Pavel to the CIA by Georgian separatists , but with most of the conversation redacted . These were later shown to be plot elements of the six - minute prologue . The official Twitter account later linked to another censored document , this time , referencing `` Operation Early Bird '' . A website of the same name was discovered , revealing a countdown timer . When the countdown finished , the site presented a map showing all available theaters that would be screening the film 's prologue earlier than its release . Various websites received a package that included a cylinder map of `` strike zones '' , and a `` fire rises '' T - shirt . In April 2012 , the film 's official website was updated with a `` dossier '' on a suspect named `` John Doe '' also known as `` the Batman '' for an arrest , with a list of several accusations . The premise of the campaign starts when the mayor of Gotham City `` redoubles '' the effort to capture Batman and anyone supporting his return in preparation for the upcoming `` Harvey Dent Day '' . The site also includes an extensive list of real - world locations where `` graffiti related to movement in support of the vigilante 's return '' is located . For each tweet of a specific location marked on the list , a frame of the second theatrical trailer for the film was released on a separate website . In January 2012 , six months prior to the film 's release , tickets for midnight IMAX showings in New York , San Francisco , and Los Angeles went on sale and sold out immediately . Purchased tickets surfaced for sale online for over $100 , compared with their original price of $17.50 . Formula One team Lotus F1 carried a special livery to promote The Dark Knight Rises at the 2012 British Grand Prix . At the American International Toy Fair , Mattel unveiled figures for Batman , Bane , and Catwoman , and Batman 's flying vehicle , the Bat . The Mattel figures were also released in the `` Movie Masters '' line , featuring more highly detailed and articulated presentation , and Quiktek versions that feature interchangeable accessories . Lego released building sets and mini-figures based on the film and incorporating other DC Comic characters . Additionally , Funko released a series of plush toys , Mezco Toyz released vinyl figures , and Hornby released the Batman Tumbler car . Other partners include Jakks Pacific , who created novelty and large - scale figures and plush toys , and PPW Toys , who created a Batman themed Mr. Potato Head . Various clothing items including shoes , T - shirts , hats and wallets were also produced . A video game of the same name was released on the same day as the release of the film for the iOS and Android devices for promoting the movie . The game features an open world with primary focus on stealth and combat . The combat system of the game is inspired from Arkham Asylum and Arkham City . It takes place in Gotham City , with a somewhat similar but still significantly different plot from that of the movie . IGN gave it a mediocre score of 5.5 / 10 . The film novelization , written by author Greg Cox and published by Titan Books , was released alongside the film on July 24 , 2012 . Warner Bros. partnered with Mountain Dew to do a cross-promotion that included a special paint scheme on the number 88 Chevrolet Impala owned by Hendrick Motorsports and driven by Dale Earnhardt , Jr. in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . On June 17 , 2012 , the car won the 2012 Quicken Loans 400 at Michigan International Speedway . On July 4 , 2012 , the studio signed a deal with Formula One team Lotus F1 to have the film 's logos appear on the Lotus E20s driven by Kimi Räikkönen and Romain Grosjean at the 2012 British Grand Prix . Räikkönen and Grosjean went on to finish the race in fifth and sixth place respectively . Warner Bros. had previously followed a similar promotion at the 2008 British Grand Prix , when the now - defunct Toyota F1 carried a livery to promote The Dark Knight . Two digital comic books entitled Batman Origins and The Dark Knight : Prologue were released exclusively for Nokia Lumia devices . A special movie application has also been released , featuring trailers , wallpapers , movie schedules and Batman trivias . Limited editions of the Lumia 710 , Lumia 800 and Lumia 900 were also released featuring a laser - etched Batman logo . Shooting in Aurora , Colorado ( edit ) Main article : 2012 Aurora shooting `` I would not presume to know anything about the victims of the shooting but that they were there last night to watch a movie . I believe movies are one of the great American art forms and the shared experience of watching a story unfold on screen is an important and joyful pastime . The movie theatre is my home , and the idea that someone would violate that innocent and hopeful place in such an unbearably savage way is devastating to me . Nothing any of us can say could ever adequately express our feelings for the innocent victims of this appalling crime , but our thoughts are with them and their families . '' -- Director Christopher Nolan 's reaction to the theater shooting in Aurora , Colorado . On July 20 , 2012 , during a midnight showing of The Dark Knight Rises at the Century 16 cinema in Aurora , Colorado , a gunman wearing a gas mask opened fire inside the theater , killing 12 people and injuring 58 others . Police responding to the shooting apprehended a suspect later identified as 24 - year - old James Eagan Holmes shortly after arriving on the scene . Initial reports stated that Holmes identified himself as `` the Joker '' at the time of his arrest . Warner Bros. cancelled the Paris , Mexico , and Japan premieres of The Dark Knight Rises , and suspended the film 's marketing campaign in Finland . Several broadcast networks also suspended television ads for the film in the United States . The trailer for Gangster Squad , another Warner Bros. movie included in the screening of The Dark Knight Rises , was removed as it contains a scene which shows gangsters shooting submachine guns at moviegoers through the screen , similar to the shooting in Aurora . Director Christopher Nolan released a public statement calling the shooting `` unbearably savage '' . Other stars of the film released statements expressing their condolences , with star Christian Bale paying a personal visit to the survivors and the memorial in Aurora . Release ( edit ) On July 6 , 2012 , Warner Bros. held a special IMAX screening of The Dark Knight Rises for more than one hundred reporters and critics . However , technical issues with the computer device synchronizing the sound and picture forced the studio to postpone the screening by a day . The film later premiered on July 16 at the AMC Lincoln Square Theater in New York City , New York , followed by a European premiere on July 18 at Leicester Square in London , England . The film was released in Australia and New Zealand on July 19 , and was later released in North America and the United Kingdom on July 20 . Reception ( edit ) The Dark Knight Rises received positive reviews from critics . Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave The Dark Knight Rises an approval rating of 87 % based on 345 reviews , and a rating average of 8 / 10 . The web site 's critical consensus reads , `` The Dark Knight Rises is an ambitious , thoughtful , and potent action film that concludes Christopher Nolan 's franchise in spectacular fashion . '' Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted average score of 78 out of 100 , based on 45 critics , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an average grade of `` A '' on an A+ to F scale . The Telegraph granted the film a maximum score of five stars , stating that it is `` a superhero film without a superhero , '' comparing it with The Godfather Part II and praising Hardy 's performance as well as the film 's intricate plot and narrative . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times thought the film was `` potent , persuasive and hypnotic '' and that it was `` more than an exceptional superhero movie , it is masterful filmmaking by any standard . '' The Playlists Todd Gilchrist wrote `` A cinematic , cultural and personal triumph , The Dark Knight Rises is emotionally inspiring , aesthetically significant and critically important for America itself -- as a mirror of both sober reflection and resilient hope . '' IGN gave it a 9 out of 10 , noting similarities in tone and theme to Batman Begins over the trilogy 's second installment The Dark Knight , but also describing Bane as `` that bit less interesting to watch '' than Ledger 's Joker , despite praising his `` menacing voice '' and `` body language - driven performance '' . The Guardian scored the film four out of five stars , calling it a film of `` granite , monolithic intensity '' , yet also calling it a `` hammy , portentous affair '' . Andrew O'Hehir of Salon writes `` if The Dark Knight Rises is a fascist film , it 's a great fascist film , and arguably the biggest , darkest , most thrilling and disturbing and utterly balls - out spectacle ever created for the screen '' . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three out of four stars , stating `` the film begins slowly with a murky plot and too many new characters , but builds to a sensational climax . '' Film critic Richard Roeper gave the film an `` A '' , calling it `` a majestic , gorgeous , brutal and richly satisfying epic '' , and citing the final scenes of the picture as `` the best five minutes of any film this year . '' The London Film Review gave the film a B and said `` Nolan 's film is a reminder that superheroes are n't merely a frivolous distraction , but an embodiment of our best selves . '' The film was crowned by Forbes as the best modern comic book superhero adaptation on screen , outranking both its main summer blockbuster competitor , Marvel 's The Avengers , and the trilogy 's previous installment The Dark Knight . In 2014 , Empire ranked The Dark Knight Rises the 72nd greatest film ever made on their list of `` The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time '' as voted by the magazine 's readers . The Daily Mail 's Chris Tookey said that the film was bloated and overly long , and criticized the sombre tone and lack of humor , despite praising the film 's visually impressive set pieces . CNN 's Tom Charity said the film was a `` disappointingly clunky and bombastic conclusion to a superior series '' and called it Nolan 's worst film . Anthony Lane of The New Yorker says that the `` story is dense , overlong , and studded with references that will make sense only to those intimate with Nolan 's previous excursions into Batmanhood '' . In reaction to fan backlash to some of the negative reviews , Rotten Tomatoes chose to disable user commentary for the film leading up to its release . Some fans had threatened violence against critics while others threatened to take down the websites of movie critics who had given the film a negative review . In 2014 , Aidan Gillen 's character in the film , CIA agent Bill Wilson , became the subject of an Internet meme popular among 4chan users known as `` Baneposting '' , which references the dialogue between Wilson and Bane in the film 's opening plane scene . Commentary ( edit ) Writing in Salon , David Sirota , a progressive political commentator compared The Dark Knight Rises and the game Call of Duty to 1980s popular culture reflecting the political period of the time , accusing them of perpetuating a conservative agenda : `` Just as so many 1980s pop culture products reflected the spirit of the Reagan Revolution 's conservative backlash , we are now seeing two blockbuster , genre - shaping products not - so - subtly reflect the Tea Party 's rhetorical backlash to the powerful Occupy Wall Street zeitgeist . '' An article in Variety reported Chuck Dixon , the co-creator of the Bane character , as saying that Bane is `` far more akin to an Occupy Wall Street type if you 're looking to cast him politically . '' Catherine Shoard of the center - left British publication The Guardian claimed the film `` is a quite audaciously capitalist vision , radically conservative , radically vigilante , that advances a serious , stirring proposal that the wish - fulfilment of the wealthy is to be championed if they say they want to do good . '' In contrast , liberal commentator Jonathan Chait opined in New York that `` What passes for a right - wing movie these days is The Dark Knight Rises , which submits the rather modest premise that , irritating though the rich may be , actually killing them and taking all their stuff might be excessive . '' Writing in USA Today , Bryan Alexander called Bane `` the ultimate occupier '' and reported that Christian Bale was amazed that the script had `` foreseen '' the Occupy movement . Nolan has denied the film criticizes the Occupy movement and insists that none of his Batman films are intended to be political : `` I 've had as many conversations with people who have seen the film the other way round . We throw a lot of things against the wall to see if it sticks . We put a lot of interesting questions in the air , but that 's simply a backdrop for the story . What we 're really trying to do is show the cracks of society , show the conflicts that somebody would try to wedge open . We 're going to get wildly different interpretations of what the film is supporting and not supporting , but it 's not doing any of those things . It 's just telling a story . If you 're saying , ' Have you made a film that 's supposed to be criticizing the Occupy Wall Street movement ? ' -- well , obviously , that 's not true . '' Alternatively , politically - conservative commentator Rush Limbaugh alleged that the film was biased against 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney due to Bane 's name being a homophone for Bain Capital , the financial service company Romney used to head , despite the fact that the character has existed as a major Batman foe since 1993 . In response , Nolan said that the comments were `` bizarre '' , while Dixon and Freeman said that the comments were `` ridiculous '' . Democratic adviser Christopher Lehane has noted the similarities between the narratives of the film and the presidential campaign . On January 20 , 2017 , multiple media outlets noted that a small but key part of U.S. president Donald Trump 's inaugural address `` had an uncanny echo '' of Bane 's speech after he takes control of Gotham in The Dark Knight Rises . Trump had given the film a positive review in 2012 . Accolades ( edit ) Award Recipients and nominees Result AFI Awards 2012 Movies of the Year Emma Thomas , Christopher Nolan and Charles Roven Won British Academy of Film and Television Arts Special Visual Effects Paul Franklin , Chris Corbould , Peter Bebb , Andrew Lockley Nominated Broadcast Film Critics Association Best Visual Effects Nominated Best Action Film Nominated Best Actor in an Action Movie Christian Bale Nominated Best Actress in an Action Movie Anne Hathaway Nominated Golden Trailer Awards Best in Show `` Chant '' Won Summer 2012 Blockbuster Trailer `` Chant '' Won Best International Poster `` UK Quad '' Won Best Summer 2012 Blockbuster Poster `` Teaser One Sheet -- City '' Won Best Teaser Poster `` Teaser One Sheet City '' Nominated Grammy Awards Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media Nominated Kids Choice Awards Favorite Female Buttkicker Anne Hathaway Nominated Los Angeles Film Critics Association Best Supporting Actress Anne Hathaway ( also for Les Misérables ) Runner - up MTV Movie Awards Best Movie Nominated Best Hero Christian Bale Nominated Best Hero Anne Hathaway Nominated Best Villain Marion Cotillard Nominated Best Villain Tom Hardy Nominated Best Fight Christian Bale & Tom Hardy Nominated Best Shirtless Performance Christian Bale Nominated People 's Choice Awards Favorite Face of Heroism Anne Hathaway Nominated Favorite Movie Nominated Favorite Action Movie Nominated Favorite Movie Franchise Nominated Phoenix Film Critics Society Best Film Editing Nominated Satellite Awards Best Visual Effects Chris Corbould , Paul Franklin Nominated Best Art Direction & Production Design Nathan Crowley , Kevin Kavanaugh , James Hambidge , Naaman Marshall Nominated Saturn Awards Best Action of Adventure Film Nominated Best Director Christopher Nolan Nominated Best Actor Christian Bale Nominated Best Supporting Actor Joseph Gordon - Levitt Nominated Best Supporting Actress Anne Hathaway Won Best Music Hans Zimmer Nominated Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture Nominated St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Best Music Nominated Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie : Action Nominated Choice Movie : Actor Action Christian Bale Nominated Choice Movie : Actress Action Anne Hathaway Won Choice Movie : Scene Stealer Joseph Gordon - Levitt Nominated Choice Movie : Best Villain Tom Hardy Nominated Visual Effects Society Awards Outstanding Models in a Feature Motion Picture Scott Beverly , Alan Faucher , Ian Hunter , Steve Newburn for `` Airplane Heist '' Nominated Young Artist Award Best Performance in a Feature Film - Supporting Young Actress Joey King Nominated Box Office ( edit ) Hours before the midnight release , several box office analysts suggested as much as a $198 million domestic opening weekend . However , in the wake of the mass shooting during a midnight screening of the film , Warner Bros. decided to not report further box office figures for the movie until Monday , July 23 , 2012 . As a result , other distributors also delayed the release of their official estimates as well . The shooting is also speculated to have hurt the ticket sales as E ! Online reported that a North Carolina audience member had stated that `` this theater was kinda empty '' . Some reports released on July 21 , 2012 said that rival studios estimated that the film grossed $75 million to $77 million on its opening day . Warner Brothers shortly after released a statement to ABC News stating that they delayed the release of their estimates for the opening day total of the film `` out of respect for the victims and their families , '' and added `` Warner Bros. Pictures will not be reporting box office numbers for The Dark Knight Rises throughout the weekend . Box office numbers will be released on Monday . '' Worldwide The Dark Knight Rises earned $448 million in North America , and $636 million in other countries , summing up to a worldwide total of $1 billion ( $1084 million ) . Worldwide , it is the sixteenth - highest - grossing film of all time and the third - highest - grossing film of 2012 . It had a worldwide opening weekend of $248.9 million . The film set a worldwide IMAX opening - weekend record with $23.8 million ( overtaken by Avengers : Age of Ultron ) and also broke the record for the fastest movie to make over $50 million in IMAX theatres . IMAX CEO Richard L. Gelfond explained this by claiming , `` Audiences are clearly seeking out and embracing the film the way it was meant to be seen -- in IMAX . '' On the 2012 Labor Day weekend , it became the third film distributed by Warner Bros. and the thirteenth film in cinematic history to cross the $1 billion mark . The film also became the second movie ( after Avatar ) to reach $100 million in worldwide IMAX grosses . North America The Dark Knight Rises opened on Friday , July 20 , 2012 . It earned an estimated $30.6 million in midnight showings , which was the second - highest midnight gross behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ( $43.5 million ) . It did , however , set an IMAX midnight - gross record with $2.3 million ( overtaken by Avengers : Age of Ultron ) . The film made $75.8 million during its opening day , achieving , at the time , the third - highest single and opening day tally of all time . On July 23 , 2012 , it was announced that the film grossed $160.9 million for its debut weekend , which was the third - highest opening weekend ever , at the time , behind Marvel 's The Avengers ( $207.4 million ) and Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ( $169.2 million ) . However , it did set an opening - weekend record for a 2D film ( previously held by The Dark Knight ) and an IMAX opening - weekend record with $19.0 million ( previously held by Marvel 's The Avengers ) . The film also held the top spot at the box office for its second and third weekends . In North America , it is the thirteenth - highest - grossing film , the second - highest - grossing 2012 film , as well as the sixth highest - grossing superhero film and film based on comics . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 55 million tickets in the US . Markets outside North America Outside North America , the film opened with $88.0 million from 7,173 theaters in just 17 markets . It was in first place at the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends . Its three largest markets are the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $90.3 million ) , where it is the highest - grossing superhero film , China ( $52.8 million ) and Australia ( $44.2 million ) . Home Media ( edit ) The Dark Knight Rises was released on November 28 , 2012 in Hong Kong and New Zealand . On December 3 , it was released in the United Kingdom , and on December 4 , it was released in the United States . It is available on Blu - ray , DVD , and as a digital download . Coinciding with the release of this film , a box set of The Dark Knight trilogy was released . The Dark Knight Rises was released on 4K UHD Blu - Ray on December 19 , 2017 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Rises '' . British Board of Film Classification . July 18 , 2012 . Retrieved July 20 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Film : The Dark Knight Rises '' . LUMIERE . Retrieved March 15 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Fritz , Ben ; Kaufman , Amy ( July 17 , 2012 ) . `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' tracking is huge '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 22 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Dark Knight Rises ( 2012 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Rises '' . Turner Classic Movies . United States : Turner Broadcasting System . Retrieved May 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Film Critic Top 10 Lists - Best of 2012 '' . Metacritic . 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Retrieved July 23 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Brown , Scott ( August 5 , 2011 ) . `` Steelers giddy about appearance in ' The Dark Knight Rises ' '' . Trib Live . Retrieved August 9 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Bouchette , Ed ( August 5 , 2011 ) . `` Steelers pick up roles as Batman movie extras '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved August 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Heinz Field Transforms Into `` Gotham Stadium '' `` . KDKA - TV . August 6 , 2011 . Retrieved August 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` '' The Dark Knight Rises '' takes over the Pittsburgh Steelers ' Heinz Field `` . IFC . August 8 , 2011 . Retrieved December 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Prisuta , Mike ( September 16 , 2011 ) . `` There 's some history the Steelers would just as soon forget '' . Trib Live . Retrieved August 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` US Sen. Patrick Leahy , Batman aficionado , to appear in ' The Dark Knight Rises ' with Vt . debut '' . The Washington Post . Associated Press . July 3 , 2012 . 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Pittsburgh Steelers . Retrieved June 15 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' Filming Locations In Pittsburgh August 10th -- 20th '' . On Location Vacations . June 16 , 2011 . Retrieved June 17 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Schutte , Lauren ( August 5 , 2011 ) . `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' : Do n't Mind Our Gunfire '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 7 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Vancheri , Barbara ( August 21 , 2011 ) . `` Fans glimpse final round of ' Dark Knight ' filming '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Retrieved August 23 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wigler , Josh ( February 15 , 2012 ) . `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' Meets ... Donald Trump ? '' . MTV . Retrieved February 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Gridlock in Gotham : ' Dark Knight ' filming in Newark likely to cause massive traffic delays this week '' . The Star - Ledger . November 2 , 2011 . Retrieved November 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' to film in Newark '' . New York Post . November 3 , 2011 . 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But the Consequences of Going Digital Are Vast , and Troubling '' . LA Weekly . April 12 , 2012 . Archived from the original on August 13 , 2012 . Retrieved August 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' Plot Details Revealed ; New Bane Cover Photo '' . Screenrant . November 11 , 2011 . Retrieved February 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` New Dark Knight Rises Image / Poster Reveal Batman Wanted for Murder and the Secret to Bane 's Mask ( Updated ) '' . Collider.com . May 18 , 2012 . Retrieved May 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight 's style rises ! '' . GQ . March 6 , 2012 . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2012 . Retrieved March 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Weintraub , Steve ( May 27 , 2012 ) . `` Producer Emma Thomas Talks Drawing from Comic Books , Bane , IMAX and Much More on the Set of THE DARK KNIGHT RISES '' . Collider.com . Archived from the original on May 30 , 2012 . Retrieved May 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' : Batwing First Look ! '' . MTV . August 15 , 2011 . Retrieved February 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` New Images of the Bat in The Dark Knight Rises '' . Superhero Hype ! . June 14 , 2012 . Retrieved June 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Newman , Nick ( January 18 , 2012 ) . `` James Newton Howard Passes on ' Dark Knight Rises ' ; Cliff Martinez Scoring Winding Refn 's ' Only God Forgives ' '' . The Film Stage . Retrieved February 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Hans Zimmer Speaks On The `` Deshi Basara '' Chant In `` The Dark Knight Rises '' `` . July 25 , 2012 . Archived from the original on January 9 , 2013 . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Eisenberg , Eric ( November 4 , 2011 ) . `` Be Part of the Dark Knight Rises Score By Recording Yourself Chanting '' . CinemaBlend.com . Retrieved July 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Hans Zimmer Wants Your Voice for the ' Dark Knight Rises ' Soundtrack '' . hollywood.com . November 4 , 2011 . Retrieved November 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` UJAM -- The Dark Knight Rises -- Introduction '' . Warner Brothers . November 4 , 2011 . Retrieved November 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Radish , Christina ( December 4 , 2011 ) . `` Composer Hans Zimmer Talks About Crowd Sourcing Chants for the Score of The Dark Knight Rises '' . Collider.com . Retrieved February 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Lussier , Germain ( May 20 , 2011 ) . `` First Look : Tom Hardy As Bane From ' The Dark Knight Rises ' '' . / Film . Retrieved July 13 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Davis , Stephen Spencer ( July 13 , 2011 ) . `` Trailer for The Dark Knight Rises Leaks Online '' . Slate . Retrieved July 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Outlaw , Kofi ( July 18 , 2011 ) . `` The Official ' Dark Knight Rises ' Teaser Trailer Is Finally Here ! '' . ScreenRant . Retrieved July 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Trumbore , Dave ( November 20 , 2011 ) . `` New The Dark Knight Rises Trailer and Possibly a Hobbit Teaser Attached to Sherlock Holmes 2 '' . Collider.com . Retrieved November 23 , 2011 . 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Fast Company . Retrieved June 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The drought is over ! Junior back in Victory Lane '' . NASCAR . June 17 , 2012 . Retrieved June 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Lotus to join forces with The Dark Knight Rises for the upcoming British Grand Prix '' . Autosport.com . July 4 , 2012 . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Beer , Matt ( July 8 , 2012 ) . `` Mark Webber charges to superb British Grand Prix victory '' . Autosport.com . Retrieved July 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Toyota brings Batman to Silversone '' . ITV - F1 . July 1 , 2008 . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2008 . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nokia Releases Batman Origins Comic App For Lumia Windows Phone Devices '' . WMPoweruser . Retrieved September 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ polofaby ( August 20 , 2012 ) . `` Nokia releases The Dark Knight Rises : Prologue app for Lumia phones Windows Phone News , Forums , and Reviews '' . wpcentral . Retrieved September 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ polofaby . `` The Dark Knight Rises now available for Lumia Windows Phones Windows Phone News , Forums , and Reviews '' . wpcentral . Retrieved September 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nokia Lumia 800 The Dark Knight Rises limited edition debuts in India NDTV Gadgets '' . Gadgets.ndtv.com . July 6 , 2012 . Retrieved September 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Rises Lumia 710 announced for T - Mobile -- GSMArena.com news '' . Gsmarena.com . Retrieved September 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nokia Nokia Phones '' . Phones 4u . March 13 , 2012 . Archived from the original on July 13 , 2012 . Retrieved September 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Finn , Natalie ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Dark Knight Rises Director Christopher Nolan Breaks Silence on `` Unbearably Savage '' Colorado Shooting `` . E ! News . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Mass shooting at Batman premiere in Colorado '' . Herald Sun . Australia : News Corporation . July 20 , 2012 . Retrieved July 20 , 2012 . 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He had his hair painted red , he said he was the Joker , obviously the enemy of Batman . ' Jump up ^ `` 12 killed at cinema in Colorado '' . News.com.au . July 21 , 2012 . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . In New York City , Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly said : ' It clearly looks like a deranged individual . He has his hair painted red . He said he was the Joker , obviously the enemy of Batman . ' Jump up ^ Leffler , Rebecca ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' Paris premiere scrapped following U.S. shootings '' . MSNBC . Archived from the original on July 22 , 2012 . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Warner Bros. cancels ' Dark Knight Rises ' premieres in Mexico and Japan '' . Entertainment Weekly . July 21 , 2012 . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Blencowe , Annette ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` Batman - elokuvan nettikampanja keskeytettiin Suomessa '' ( Batman movie online campaign was suspended in Finland ) . Yle.fi ( in Finnish ) . Retrieved July 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Networks , not Warner Bros , Pulled ' The Dark Knight Rises ' TV Ads '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on January 2 , 2013 . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Blunt , Tom . `` Warner Brothers Pulls ' Gangster Squad ' Trailer , Schedules Emergency Reshoots '' . Word & Film . Retrieved July 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Malkin , Marc . `` Dark Knight Rises Shooting : Christian Bale Visits Victims in Hospital '' . E ! News . Retrieved July 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Finke , Nikke ( July 6 , 2012 ) . `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' Does n't For Media '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Sacks , Ethan ; Lestch , Corrine ( July 16 , 2012 ) . `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' premiere : Christian Bale , Anne Hathaway , Joseph Gordon - Levitt , Marion Cotillard and Gary Oldman grace ' black carpet ' of AMC Loews Lincoln Square theater '' . Daily News . New York . Retrieved July 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Batman finale premieres in London '' . BBC News . 19 July 2012 . Retrieved 9 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` IMAX Darling Harbour sets record with The Dark Knight Rises pre-sales '' . Inside Film Australia . July 11 , 2012 . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Itzkoff , Dave ( June 30 , 2010 ) . `` A Man and His Dream : Christopher Nolan and ' Inception ' '' . The New York Times . Retrieved June 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( May 3 , 2010 ) . `` Batman sets date '' . Variety . Retrieved July 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Doty , Meriah ( July 16 , 2012 ) . `` Early reviews : ' The Dark Knight Rises ' and Bane get high marks '' . Yahoo . Retrieved March 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Costanza , Justine ( July 17 , 2012 ) . `` The ' Dark Knight Rises ' Review Round - Up : ' Bloated ' Or ' Spectacular ' ? '' . International Business Times . Retrieved March 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ NME.COM . `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' receives overwhelmingly positive early reviews '' . NME.COM . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Rises ( 2012 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved January 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Rises Reviews '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved March 5 , 2018 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office Report : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Now Headed For $165 Mil - $170 Mil Weekend '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Collin , Robbie ( July 16 , 2012 ) . `` Batman : The Dark Knight Rises , first review '' . The Daily Telegraph . London : Telegraph Media Group . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Turan , Kenneth ( July 18 , 2012 ) . `` Review : ' The Dark Knight Rises ' more than shines , and on many levels '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved December 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Gilchrist , Todd ( July 16 , 2012 ) . `` Review : Visceral ' The Dark Knight Rises ' Is A Cinematic , Cultural & Personal Triumph '' . The Playlist . Retrieved December 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Vejvoda , Jim ( July 15 , 2012 ) . `` The Dark Knight Rises Review '' . IGN . 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Retrieved February 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Aidan Gillen has accidentally become part of a bizarre ' alt - right meme ' '' . The Daily Edge . January 29 , 2017 . Retrieved February 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Sirota , David ( June 4 , 2008 ) . `` Book World : ' The Uprising ' '' . Washington Post . Jump up ^ Sirota , David ( July 19 , 2012 ) . `` Batman hates the 99 Percent '' . Salon . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Johnson , Ted ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Blockbusters ca n't escape politics '' . The Variety . Jump up ^ Wells , Matt ( October 16 , 2004 ) . `` World writes to undecided voters '' . The Guardian . London . Jump up ^ Shoard , Catherine ( July 17 , 2012 ) . `` Dark Knight Rises : fancy a capitalist caped crusader as your superhero ? '' . The Guardian . London : Guardian News and Media . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Chait , Jonathan ( August 19 , 2012 ) . `` The Vast Left - Wing Conspiracy Is on Your Screen '' . New York . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . 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Jump up ^ mj santilli . `` First Wave of Teen Choice Nominations Announced '' . mjsbigblog . Jump up ^ `` Breaking News - The Second Wave of Nominees Heats Up `` Teen Choice 2013 '' Airing Sunday , August 11 , Live on FOX - TheFutonCritic.com `` . Jump up ^ 2013 Teen Choice Awards : Miley Cyrus , ' Glee , ' ' Twilight ' win big Entertainment Weekly , Retrieved August 12 , 2013 Jump up ^ `` 11th Annual VES Awards '' . visual effects society . Retrieved January 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 34th Annual Young Artist Awards '' . YoungArtistAwards.org . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2013 . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' May Top Ledger Movie With $198 Million Debut '' . Bloomberg BusinessWeek . July 19 , 2012 . Retrieved July 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ White , Michael ( July 19 , 2012 ) . `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' May Top Ledger Movie With $198 Million Debut '' . Bloomberg L.P . Retrieved July 23 , 2012 . 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Jump up ^ `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' has estimated $75 M Friday despite shootings '' . MSN Entertainment . July 21 , 2012 . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office Report : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Now Headed For $165 Mil - $170 Mil Weekend '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Marikar , Sheila ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Warner Bros. Holds ' Dark Knight Rises ' Box Office Numbers ' Out of Respect ' '' . ABC . Retrieved July 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` All Time Worldwide Box Office Grosses '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` 2012 Yearly Box Office Results '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` All Time Worldwide Opening Records at the Box Office '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Vlessing , Etan ( July 23 , 2012 ) . `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' Generates $19 Million Opening Weekend on Domestic Imax Screens '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Nancy Tartaglione ( May 3 , 2015 ) . `` ' Ultron ' Outpacing ' Avengers ' & ' IM3 ′ With $439 M ; ' F7 ′ Fuels Up -- Intl B.O. Update '' . Deadline Hollywood . ( Penske Media Corporation ) . Retrieved May 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Warner Bros . ' The Dark Knight Rises Generates Strongest - Ever Second - Weekend Results In IMAX ® Theatres '' . PR Newswire . July 30 , 2012 . Retrieved August 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( September 2 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office Milestone : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Crosses $1 Billion Worldwide '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved September 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Subers , Ray ( September 4 , 2012 ) . `` Around - the - World Roundup : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Joins Billionaire Club '' . Retrieved September 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Fritz , Ben ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' collects $30.6 million from midnight screenings '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved July 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Finke , Nikke ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` ' Dark Knight Rises ' Midnight Box Office : Batman Film Earns $30 Million From Midnight Screenings '' . Huffington Post . Retrieved July 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Lang , Brent ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Scores Second Highest Grossing Midnight Opening in History '' . The Wrap . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2012 . Retrieved December 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Anthony D'Alessandro ( May 1 , 2015 ) . `` ' Age Of Ultron 's $27.6 M Thursday Outstrips First ' Avengers ' Preview Night ; Global Haul At $314.9 M '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved May 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Top Grossing Movies in a Single Day '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved July 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' Tops Grim Weekend at Movies '' . The Wall Street Journal . July 23 , 2012 . Retrieved July 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( July 23 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office Report : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Opens to Massive $160.9 Mil , But Shooting Takes Its Toll '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Staley , Eddie ( July 24 , 2012 ) . `` From Earlier : The Dark Knight Rises Generates Opening Weekend Box Office Results Of $23.8 Million In IMAX ® Theatres Worldwide '' . benzinga . Archived from the original on August 4 , 2012 . Retrieved August 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Smith , Grady ( July 29 , 2012 ) . `` Box office report : ' Dark Knight Rises ' wins again with $64.1 million ; nobody watches ' The Watch ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ White , Michael ( August 5 , 2012 ) . `` Weekend Report : ' Dark Knight ' Beats Up ' Recall ' Redux '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved August 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` All Time Domestic Box Office Results '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` 2012 Yearly Box Office Results '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Superhero Movies at the Box Office '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved June 11 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Comic Book Adaptation Movies at the Box Office '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved December 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Rises ( 2012 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Segers , Frank ( July 29 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Commands No. 1 Slot Overseas , Grossing More Than $250 Million To Date Offshore '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on August 11 , 2012 . Retrieved August 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Subers , Ray ( August 5 , 2012 ) . `` Around - the - World Roundup : ' Dark Knight ' Leads , ' Ted ' Impresses in New Markets '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved August 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Segers , Frank ( August 12 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Dark Knight Rises ' Repeats as No. 1 Overseas in Lethargic Session '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Subers , Ray ( August 28 , 2012 ) . `` Around - the - World Roundup : ' Expendables 2 ' Flexes Muscles Overseas '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved August 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Rises ( 2012 ) - International Box Office Results - Box Office Mojo '' . Jump up ^ `` ' The Dark Knight Rises ' out on Blu - ray , DVD on Dec. 4 -- EXCLUSIVE '' . Entertainment Weekly . September 27 , 2012 . Retrieved September 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Dark Knight Trilogy Blu - ray + UV Copy Region Free '' . Amazon . Retrieved December 3 , 2012 . 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Prague
Prague - wikipedia Prague Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the capital of the Czech Republic . For other uses , see Prague ( disambiguation ) . `` Praha '' redirects here . For other uses , see Praha ( disambiguation ) . Prague Praha Capital city Hlavní město Praha Montage of Prague , clockwise from top : Old Town Hall , Charles Bridge , Old Town Square , the Malá Strana , the Dancing House , St. Vitus Cathedral Flag Coat of arms Motto ( s ) : `` Praga Caput Rei publicae '' ( Latin ) `` Prague , Head of the Republic '' other historical mottos ( show ) `` Praga mater urbium '' ( Latin ) `` Praha matka měst '' ( Czech ) `` Prague , Mother of Cities '' `` Praga Caput Regni '' ( Latin ) `` Prague , Head of the Kingdom '' Coordinates : 50 ° 05 ′ N 14 ° 25 ′ E  /  50.083 ° N 14.417 ° E  / 50.083 ; 14.417 Coordinates : 50 ° 05 ′ N 14 ° 25 ′ E  /  50.083 ° N 14.417 ° E  / 50.083 ; 14.417 Country Czech Republic Founded 6th century Government Mayor Adriana Krnáčová ( ANO ) Area Urban 496 km ( 192 sq mi ) Highest elevation 399 m ( 1,309 ft ) Lowest elevation 177 m ( 581 ft ) Population ( 2017 ) Capital city 1,280,508 Metro 2,156,097 Demonym ( s ) Praguer Time zone CET ( UTC + 1 ) Summer ( DST ) CEST ( UTC + 2 ) Postal code 100 00 -- 199 00 Vehicle registration GDP ( nominal ) 2015 -- Total € 41 billion ( $78 billion , PPP ) -- Per capita € 32,300 ( $62,400 , PPP ) Website praha.eu Prague ( / prɑːɡ / ; Czech : Praha ( ˈpraɦa ) ( listen ) , German : Prag ) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic , the 14th largest city in the European Union and also the historical capital of Bohemia . Situated in the north - west of the country on the Vltava river , the city is home to about 1.4 million people , while its larger urban zone is estimated to have a population of 2.2 million . The city has a temperate climate , with warm summers and chilly winters . Prague has been a political , cultural and economic centre of central Europe complete with a rich history . Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque eras , Prague was the capital of the kingdom of Bohemia and the main residence of several Holy Roman Emperors , most notably of Charles IV ( r . 1346 -- 1378 ) . It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro - Hungarian Empire . The city played major roles in the Bohemian and Protestant Reformation , the Thirty Years ' War and in 20th - century history as the capital of Czechoslovakia , during both World Wars and the post-war Communist era . Prague is home to a number of famous cultural attractions , many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th - century Europe . Main attractions include the Prague Castle , the Charles Bridge , Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock , the Jewish Quarter , Petřín hill and Vyšehrad . Since 1992 , the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites . The city has more than ten major museums , along with numerous theatres , galleries , cinemas and other historical exhibits . An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city . Also , it is home to a wide range of public and private schools , including Charles University in Prague , the oldest university in Central Europe . Prague is classified as a `` Beta + '' global city according to GaWC studies and ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016 . Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination and as of 2014 , the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually . Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London , Paris , Istanbul and Rome . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Early history 1.2 The era of Charles IV 1.3 Habsburg era 1.4 20th century 1.4. 1 First Czechoslovak Republic 1.4. 2 Second World War 1.4. 3 Cold War 1.5 After Velvet Revolution 2 Name 3 Geography 4 Population 5 Climate 6 Culture 7 Cuisine 8 Economy 9 Tourism 9.1 Hradčany and Lesser Town ( Malá Strana ) 9.2 Old Town ( Staré Město ) and Josefov 9.3 New Town ( Nové Město ) 9.4 Vinohrady and Žižkov 9.5 Other places 10 Education 10.1 Public universities 10.2 Public arts academies 10.3 Private schools 10.4 International institutions 11 Science , research and hi - tech centres 12 Transport 12.1 Public transportation 12.1. 1 Prague Metro 12.2 Roads 12.3 Rail 12.4 Air 13 Sport 14 International relations 14.1 Twin towns 14.2 Namesakes 15 See also 16 References 17 Further reading 17.1 Culture and society 18 External links History ( edit ) Main articles : History of Prague and Timeline of Prague The mythological princess Libuše prophesies the glory of Prague . During the thousand years of its existence , the city grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south , becoming the capital of a modern European country , the Czech Republic , a member state of the European Union . Early history ( edit ) The Prague astronomical clock was first installed in 1410 , making it the third - oldest astronomical clock in the world and the oldest one still working . The region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age . Around the fifth and fourth century BC , the Celts appeared in the area , later establishing settlements including an oppidum in Závist , a present - day suburb of Prague , and giving name to the region of Bohemia , `` home of the Boii '' . In the last century BC , the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes ( Marcomanni , Quadi , Lombards and possibly the Suebi ) , leading some to place the seat of the Marcomanni king Maroboduus on the southern Prague 's site Závist . Around the area where present - day Prague stands , the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis . In the late 5th century AD , during the great Migration Period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire , the Germanic tribes living in Bohemia moved westwards and , in the 6th century , the Slavic tribes settled Central Europe and the area of present - day Prague . In the following century , the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area , most notably in Levý Hradec , Butovice and in the Šárka valley . The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century , with a fortified settlement already existing on the site in the year 800 . The first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest . The other prominent Prague fort , the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad , was founded in the 10th century , some 70 years later than Prague Castle . Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral , which was founded in 1344 , but completed in the 20th century . A view of one of the bridge towers of the Charles Bridge The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband , Přemysl , founder of the Přemyslid dynasty . Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied : `` I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars . '' She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site . A 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz , citing Cyriacus Spangenberg , claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c. 1306 BC by an ancient king , Boyya . The region became the seat of the dukes , and later kings of Bohemia . Under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973 . Until Prague was elevated to archbishopric in 1344 , it was under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Mainz . Prague was an important seat for trading where merchants from all of Europe settled , including many Jews , as recalled in 965 by the Hispano - Jewish merchant and traveller Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub . The Old New Synagogue of 1270 still stands . Prague contained an important slave market . At the site of the ford in the Vltava river , King Vladislaus I had the first bridge built in 1170 , the Judith Bridge ( Juditin most ) , named in honour of his wife Judith of Thuringia . This bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1342 . Some of the original foundation stones of that bridge remain . In 1257 , under King Ottokar II , Malá Strana ( `` Lesser Quarter '' ) was founded in Prague on the site of an older village in what would become the Hradčany ( Prague Castle ) area . This was the district of the German people , who had the right to administer the law autonomously , pursuant to Magdeburg rights . The new district was on the bank opposite of the Staré Město ( `` Old Town '' ) , which had borough status and was bordered by a line of walls and fortifications . The era of Charles IV ( edit ) The Bohemian Crown Jewels are the fourth oldest in Europe Prague flourished during the 14th - century reign ( 1346 -- 1378 ) of Charles IV , Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty . As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor , he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time the third - largest city in Europe ( after Rome and Constantinople ) . He ordered the building of the New Town ( Nové Město ) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself . The Charles Bridge , replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign , was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area . On 9 July 1357 at 5 : 31 am , Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge . The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction . In 1347 , he founded Charles University , which remains the oldest university in Central Europe . St. Vitus Cathedral at Prague Castle He began construction of the Gothic Saint Vitus Cathedral , within the largest of the Prague Castle courtyards , on the site of the Romanesque rotunda there . Prague was elevated to an archbishopric in 1344 , the year the cathedral was begun . The city had a mint and was a centre of trade for German and Italian bankers and merchants . The social order , however , became more turbulent due to the rising power of the craftsmen 's guilds ( themselves often torn by internal fights ) , and the increasing number of poor people . The Hunger Wall , a substantial fortification wall south of Malá Strana and the Castle area , was built during a famine in the 1360s . The work is reputed to have been ordered by Charles IV as a means of providing employment and food to the workers and their families . Charles IV died in 1378 . During the reign of his son , King Wenceslaus IV ( 1378 -- 1419 ) , a period of intense turmoil ensued . During Easter 1389 , members of the Prague clergy announced that Jews had desecrated the host ( Eucharistic wafer ) and the clergy encouraged mobs to pillage , ransack and burn the Jewish quarter . Nearly the entire Jewish population of Prague ( 3,000 people ) perished . Depiction of the `` Prague Banner '' ( municipal flag dated to the 16th century ) The coat of arms of Prague ( 1649 ) . Jan Hus , a theologian and rector at the Charles University , preached in Prague . In 1402 , he began giving sermons in the Bethlehem Chapel . Inspired by John Wycliffe , these sermons focused on what were seen as radical reforms of a corrupt Church . Having become too dangerous for the political and religious establishment , Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance , put on trial for heresy , and burned at the stake in Constanz in 1415 . Four years later Prague experienced its first defenestration , when the people rebelled under the command of the Prague priest Jan Želivský . Hus ' death , coupled with Czech proto - nationalism and proto - Protestantism , had spurred the Hussite Wars . Peasant rebels , led by the general Jan Žižka , along with Hussite troops from Prague , defeated Emperor Sigismund , in the Battle of Vítkov Hill in 1420 . During the Hussite Wars when the City of Prague was attacked by `` Crusader '' and mercenary forces , the city militia fought bravely under the Prague Banner . This swallow - tailed banner is approximately 4 by 6 feet ( 1.2 by 1.8 metres ) , with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs - de-lis , and a silver old Town Coat - of - Arms in the centre . The words `` PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE '' ( The Lord is our Relief ) appeared above the coat - of - arms , with a Hussite chalice centred on the top . Near the swallow - tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding . One of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague ( 1648 ) , when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank , they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm ; although this flag still exists , it is in very poor condition . They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus . The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419 . Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars , it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia . In the following two centuries , Prague strengthened its role as a merchant city . Many noteworthy Gothic buildings were erected and Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle was added . Habsburg era ( edit ) Prague panorama in 1650 In 1526 , the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg . The fervent Catholicism of its members was to bring them into conflict in Bohemia , and then in Prague , where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity . These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II , elected King of Bohemia in 1576 , who chose Prague as his home . He lived in the Prague Castle , where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists , musicians , and artists . Rudolf was an art lover too , and Prague became the capital of European culture . This was a prosperous period for the city : famous people living there in that age include the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler , the painter Arcimboldo , the alchemists Edward Kelley and John Dee , the poet Elizabeth Jane Weston , and others . In 1618 , the famous second defenestration of Prague provoked the Thirty Years ' War , a particularly harsh period for Prague and Bohemia . Ferdinand II of Habsburg was deposed , and his place as King of Bohemia taken by Frederick V , Elector Palatine ; however his army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain ( 1620 ) not far from the city . Following this in 1621 was an execution of 27 Czech leaders ( involved in the uprising ) in Old Town Square and the exiling of many others . The city suffered subsequently during the war under Saxon ( 1631 ) and Battle of Prague ( 1648 ) . Prague began a steady decline which reduced the population from the 60,000 it had had in the years before the war to 20,000 . In the second half of the 17th century Prague 's population began to grow again . Jews have been in Prague since the end of the 10th century and , by 1708 , they accounted for about a quarter of Prague 's population . Monument to František Palacký , a significant member of the Czech National Revival In 1689 , a great fire devastated Prague , but this spurred a renovation and a rebuilding of the city . In 1713 -- 14 , a major outbreak of plague hit Prague one last time , killing 12,000 to 13,000 people . In 1744 Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Bohemia and obtained possession of Prague after a severe and prolonged bombardment , in the course of which a large part of the town was destroyed . In the Battle of Prague in 1757 Prussian bombardment destroyed more than one quarter of the city and heavily damaged St. Vitus Cathedral . However next month after the Battle of Kolín , Frederick the Great lost and had to retreat from Bohemia . The economic rise continued through the 18th century , and the city in 1771 had 80,000 inhabitants . Many of these were rich merchants and nobles who enriched the city with a host of palaces , churches and gardens full of art and music , creating a Baroque style renowned throughout the world . In 1784 , under Joseph II , the four municipalities of Malá Strana , Nové Město , Staré Město , and Hradčany were merged into a single entity . The Jewish district , called Josefov , was included only in 1850 . The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague , as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region . A first suburb , Karlín , was created in 1817 , and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000 . The revolutions in Europe in 1848 also touched Prague , but they were fiercely suppressed . In the following years the Czech National Revival began its rise , until it gained the majority in the town council in 1861 . Prague had a German - speaking majority in 1848 , but by 1880 the number of German speakers had decreased to 14 % ( 42,000 ) , and by 1910 to 6.7 % ( 37,000 ) , due to a massive increase of the city 's overall population caused by the influx of Czechs from the rest of Bohemia and Moravia and also due to return of social status importance of the Czech language . 20th century ( edit ) First Czechoslovak Republic ( edit ) Main article : First Czechoslovak Republic Prague liberated by Red Army in May 1945 World War I ended with the defeat of the Austro - Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia . Prague was chosen as its capital and Prague Castle as the seat of president Tomáš Masaryk . At this time Prague was a true European capital with highly developed industry . By 1930 , the population had risen to 850,000 . Second World War ( edit ) Further information : German occupation of Czechoslovakia Hitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939 , and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate . For most of its history , Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech , German and ( mostly native German - speaking ) Jewish populations . From 1939 , when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany , and during the Second World War , most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans . In 1942 , Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany -- Reinhard Heydrich -- during Operation Anthropoid , accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš . Hitler ordered bloody reprisals . At the end of the war , Prague suffered several bombing raids by the US Army Air Forces . 701 people were killed , more than 1,000 people were injured and some of buildings , factories and historical landmarks ( Emmaus Monastery , Faust House , Vinohrady Synagogue ) were destroyed . Many historic structures in Prague , however , escaped the destruction of the war and the damage was small compared to the total destruction of many other cities in that time . According to American pilots , it was the result of a navigational mistake . On 5 May 1945 , two days before Germany capitulated , an uprising against Germany occurred . Four days later , the 3rd Shock Army of the Red Army liberated the city . The majority ( about 50,000 people ) of the German population of Prague either fled or were expelled by the Beneš decrees in the aftermath of the war . Cold War ( edit ) Main article : History of Czechoslovakia ( 1948 -- 89 ) Velvet Revolution in November 1989 Prague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union ( see Iron Curtain ) . The biggest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962 . The 4th Czechoslovakian Writers ' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime . On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov . This spurred the new secretary of the Communist Party , Alexander Dubček , to proclaim a new deal in his city 's and country 's life , starting the short - lived season of the `` socialism with a human face '' . It was the `` Prague Spring '' , which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way . The other Warsaw Pact member countries , except Romania and Albania , reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks , suppressing any attempt at reform . Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self - immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the `` normalization '' of the country . After Velvet Revolution ( edit ) Prague high - rise buildings In 1989 , after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration , the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague , and the Czechoslovak capital benefited greatly from the new mood . In 1993 , after the split of Czechoslovakia , Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic . From 1995 high - rise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities . In the late 1990s , Prague again became an important cultural centre of Europe and was notably influenced by globalisation . In 2000 , IMF and World Bank summits took place in Prague . In 2002 , Prague suffered from widespread floods that damaged buildings and its underground transport system . Prague launched a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics , but failed to make the candidate city shortlist . In June 2009 , as the result of financial pressures from the global recession , Prague 's officials also chose to cancel the city 's planned bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics . Name ( edit ) See also : Names in different languages Bridges over the River Vltava , as seen from Letná The Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word , práh , which means `` ford '' or `` rapid '' , referring to the city 's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river . The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw . Another view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word práh ( in the mean of a threshold ) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše , prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty . She is said to have ordered the city `` to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house '' . The Czech práh might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river , the edge of which could have acted as a means of fording the river -- thus providing a `` threshold '' to the castle . Another derivation of the name Praha is suggested from na prazě , the original term for the shale hillside rock upon which the original castle was built . At that time , the castle was surrounded by forests , covering the nine hills of the future city -- the Old Town on the opposite side of the river , as well as the Lesser Town beneath the existing castle , appeared only later . The English spelling of the city 's name is borrowed from French . Prague is also called the `` City of a Hundred Spires '' , based on a count by 19th century mathematician Bernard Bolzano , today 's count is estimated by Prague Information Service at 500 . Nicknames for Prague have also included : the Golden City , the Mother of Cities and the Heart of Europe . Geography ( edit ) Prague is situated on the Vltava river , at 50 ° 05 `` N and 14 ° 27 '' E. in the centre of the Bohemian Basin . Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt , Germany ; Paris , France ; and Vancouver , Canada . Population ( edit ) According to the 2011 census , about 14 % of the city inhabitants were foreigners , the highest proportion in the country . Development of the Prague population since 1378 : Year 1378 1500 1610 1798 1880 1930 1961 1980 1995 2005 2015 Population 40,000 30,000 60,000 79,000 350,000 950,000 1,130,000 1,190,000 1,210,000 1,180,000 1,267,449 Foreign residents in the city ( 2016 ) Nationality Population Ukraine 47,332 Slovakia 28,973 Russia 22,156 Vietnam 12,179 USA 5,517 Other countries / territories Bulgaria 4,308 China 4,265 Germany 3,715 United Kingdom 3,628 Kazakhstan 3,520 Poland 3,118 Romania 3,087 France 2,544 Italy 2,512 Belarus 2,308 Climate ( edit ) Prague seen from satellite The city of Prague lies between oceanic climate and humid continental climate ( Köppen Cfb / Dfb ) . The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point , and with very little sunshine . Snow cover can be common between mid-November and late March although snow accumulations of more than 20 cm ( 8 in ) are infrequent . There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter . Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high temperature of 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . Nights can be quite cool even in summer , though . Precipitation in Prague ( and most of the Bohemian lowland ) is rather low ( just over 500 mm ( 20 in ) per year ) since it is located in the rain shadow of the Sudetes and other mountain ranges . The driest season is usually winter while late spring and summer can bring quite heavy rain , especially in form of thundershowers . Temperature inversions are relatively common between mid-October and mid-March bringing foggy , cold days and sometimes moderate air pollution . Prague is also a windy city with common sustained western winds and an average wind speed of 16 km / h ( 9.9 mph ) that often help break temperature inversions and clear the air in cold months . ( hide ) Climate data for Prague ( 1981 -- 2010 ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° C ( ° F ) 17.4 ( 63.3 ) 19.2 ( 66.6 ) 22.5 ( 72.5 ) 28.8 ( 83.8 ) 32.5 ( 90.5 ) 37.2 ( 99 ) 37.8 ( 100 ) 37.4 ( 99.3 ) 33.1 ( 91.6 ) 27.0 ( 80.6 ) 19.5 ( 67.1 ) 17.4 ( 63.3 ) 37.8 ( 100 ) Average high ° C ( ° F ) 1.3 ( 34.3 ) 3.0 ( 37.4 ) 8.1 ( 46.6 ) 14.3 ( 57.7 ) 19.2 ( 66.6 ) 21.8 ( 71.2 ) 24.4 ( 75.9 ) 23.8 ( 74.8 ) 18.9 ( 66 ) 13.1 ( 55.6 ) 6.0 ( 42.8 ) 2.0 ( 35.6 ) 13.0 ( 55.4 ) Daily mean ° C ( ° F ) − 1.4 ( 29.5 ) − 0.4 ( 31.3 ) 3.6 ( 38.5 ) 8.4 ( 47.1 ) 13.4 ( 56.1 ) 16.1 ( 61 ) 18.2 ( 64.8 ) 17.8 ( 64 ) 13.5 ( 56.3 ) 8.5 ( 47.3 ) 3.1 ( 37.6 ) − 0.3 ( 31.5 ) 8.4 ( 47.1 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) − 4 ( 25 ) − 3.6 ( 25.5 ) 0.0 ( 32 ) 2.9 ( 37.2 ) 8.2 ( 46.8 ) 10.8 ( 51.4 ) 12.7 ( 54.9 ) 12.6 ( 54.7 ) 8.8 ( 47.8 ) 4.7 ( 40.5 ) 0.6 ( 33.1 ) − 2.7 ( 27.1 ) 4.3 ( 39.7 ) Record low ° C ( ° F ) − 27.5 ( − 17.5 ) − 27.1 ( − 16.8 ) − 27.6 ( − 17.7 ) − 8 ( 18 ) − 2.3 ( 27.9 ) 1.9 ( 35.4 ) 6.7 ( 44.1 ) 6.4 ( 43.5 ) 0.7 ( 33.3 ) − 7.5 ( 18.5 ) − 16.9 ( 1.6 ) − 24.8 ( − 12.6 ) − 27.6 ( − 17.7 ) Average precipitation mm ( inches ) 23.5 ( 0.925 ) 22.6 ( 0.89 ) 28.1 ( 1.106 ) 38.2 ( 1.504 ) 77.2 ( 3.039 ) 72.7 ( 2.862 ) 66.2 ( 2.606 ) 69.6 ( 2.74 ) 40.0 ( 1.575 ) 30.5 ( 1.201 ) 31.9 ( 1.256 ) 25.3 ( 0.996 ) 525.8 ( 20.701 ) Average snowfall cm ( inches ) 17.9 ( 7.05 ) 15.9 ( 6.26 ) 10.3 ( 4.06 ) 2.9 ( 1.14 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.1 ( 0.04 ) 8.4 ( 3.31 ) 15.9 ( 6.26 ) 71.4 ( 28.11 ) Average precipitation days 6.8 5.6 6.2 7.3 9.8 10.3 9.1 8.8 7.0 5.5 7.0 6.8 90.2 Average relative humidity ( % ) 86 83 77 69 70 71 70 71 76 81 87 88 77 Mean monthly sunshine hours 50.0 72.4 124.7 167.6 214.0 218.3 226.2 212.3 161.0 120.8 53.9 46.7 1,667.9 Source # 1 : Pogoda.ru.net Source # 2 : NOAA Culture ( edit ) Historic Centre of Prague UNESCO World Heritage Site Includes Historic Centre of Prague and Průhonice Park Criteria Cultural : ii , iv , vi Reference 616 Inscription 1992 ( 16th Session ) Area 1,106.36 ha Buffer zone 9,887.09 ha See also : museums , theatres and operas , and galleries and libraries Veletržní palác houses the largest collection of National Gallery art National Theatre in Prague Rudolfinum , a concert and exhibition hall Prague Congress Centre has hosted the IMF - WBG meeting and NATO summit The city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe , hosting many cultural events . Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre ( Národní Divadlo ) and the Estates Theatre ( Stavovské or Tylovo or Nosticovo divadlo ) , where the premières of Mozart 's Don Giovanni and La clemenza di Tito were held . Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra . The Prague State Opera ( Státní opera ) performs at the Smetana Theatre . The city has many world - class museums , including the National Museum ( Národní muzeum ) , the Museum of the Capital City of Prague , the Jewish Museum in Prague , the Alfons Mucha Museum , the African - Prague Museum , the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague , the Náprstek Museum ( Náprstkovo Muzeum ) , the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio , the National Library and the National Gallery , which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic . There are hundreds of concert halls , galleries , cinemas and music clubs in the city . It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival , the Prague Autumn International Music Festival , the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival . Film festivals include the Febiofest , the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival . The city also hosts the Prague Writers ' Festival , the Prague Folklore Days , Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival , the Prague Fringe Festival , the World Roma Festival , as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows . Many films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios . Hollywood films set in Prague include Mission Impossible , xXx , Blade II , Alien vs. Predator , Doom , Chronicles of Narnia , Hellboy , Red Tails , Children of Dune and Van Helsing . Other Czech films shot in Prague include Empties , EuroTrip , Amadeus and The Fifth Horseman is Fear . Also , the romantic music video `` Never Tear Us Apart '' by INXS , `` Diamonds from Sierra Leone '' by Kanye West was shot in the city , and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock , among other famous landmarks . Rihanna 's `` Do n't Stop the Music '' video was filmed at Prague 's Radost FX Club . The city was also the setting for the film Dungeons and Dragons in 2000 . The music video `` Silver and Cold '' by AFI , an American rock band , was also filmed in Prague . Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including Yuvraaj , Drona and Rockstar . Forbes Traveler magazine and TripAdvisor listed Prague Zoo among the world 's best zoos . With the growth of low - cost airlines in Europe , Prague has become a popular weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its many museums and cultural sites as well as try its famous Czech beers and hearty cuisine . The city has many buildings by renowned architects , including Adolf Loos ( Villa Müller ) , Frank O. Gehry ( Dancing House ) and Jean Nouvel ( Golden Angel ) . Recent major events held in Prague : International Monetary Fund and World Bank Summit 2000 NATO Summit 2002 International Olympic Committee Session 2004 IAU General Assembly 2006 ( Definition of planet ) EU & USA Summit 2009 Czech Presidency of the Council of the European Union 2009 USA & Russia Summit 2010 ( signing of the New START treaty ) Cuisine ( edit ) In 2008 the Allegro restaurant received the first Michelin star in the whole of the post-Communist part of Central Europe . It retained its star until 2011 . As of 2016 there are three Michelin - starred restaurants in Prague : Alcron , La Degustation Bohême Bourgeoise and Field . In Malá Strana , Staré Město , Žižkov and Nusle there are hundreds of restaurants , bars and pubs , especially with Czech beer . Prague also hosts the Czech Beer Festival ( Český pivní festival ) , which is the largest beer festival in the Czech Republic , held for 17 days every year in May . At the festival , more than 70 brands of Czech beer can be tasted . Prague is home to many breweries including : Pivovary Staropramen ( Praha 5 ) První novoměstský restaurační pivovar ( Praha 1 ) Pivovar U Fleků ( Praha 1 ) Klášterní pivovar Strahov ( Praha 1 ) Pivovar Pražský most u Valšů ( Praha 1 ) Pivovarský Hotel U Medvídků ( Praha 1 ) Pivovarský dům ( Praha 2 ) Jihoměstský pivovar ( Praha 4 ) Sousedský pivovar U Bansethů ( Praha 4 ) Vyukový a výzkumný pivovar -- Suchdolský Jeník ( Praha 6 ) Pivovar U Bulovky ( Praha 8 ) Economy ( edit ) Žižkov Television Tower with crawling `` babies '' Prague 's economy accounts for 25 % of the Czech GDP making it the highest performing regional economy of the country . According to the Eurostat , as of 2007 , its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is € 42,800 . Prague ranked the 5th best - performing European NUTS two - level region at 172 percent of the EU - 27 average . The city is the site of the European headquarters of many international companies . Prague employs almost a fifth of the entire Czech workforce , and its wages are significantly above average ( ~ + 25 % ) . In December 2015 , average salaries available in Prague reached 35,853 CZK , an annual increase of 3.4 % , which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 3.9 % both in nominal and real terms . ( Inflation in Prague was 0.5 % in December , compared with 0.1 % nationally . ) Since 1990 , the city 's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service - oriented . Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals , printing , food processing , manufacture of transport equipment , computer technology and electrical engineering . In the service sector , financial and commercial services , trade , restaurants , hospitality and public administration are the most significant . Services account for around 80 percent of employment . There are 800,000 employees in Prague , including 120,000 commuters . The number of ( legally registered ) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country 's economic downturn . As of March 2010 , 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up about 18 percent of the workforce , up from 131,132 in 2008 . Approximately one - fifth of all investment in the Czech Republic takes place in the city . Almost one - half of the national income from tourism is spent in Prague . The city offers approximately 73,000 beds in accommodation facilities , most of which were built after 1990 , including almost 51,000 beds in hotels and boarding houses . Charles Bridge ( Karlův most ) , Vltava River , Prague , 2015 From the late 1990s to late 2000s , the city was a popular filming location for international productions such as Hollywood and Bollywood motion pictures . A combination of architecture , low costs and the existing motion picture infrastructure have proven attractive to international film production companies . The modern economy of Prague is largely service and export - based and , in a 2010 survey , the city was named the best city in Central and Eastern Europe ( CEE ) for business . In 2005 , Prague was deemed among the three best cities in Central and Eastern Europe according to The Economist 's livability rankings . The city was named as a top - tier nexus city for innovation across multiple sectors of the global innovation economy , placing 29th globally out of 289 cities , ahead of Brussels and Helsinki for innovation in 2010 in 2thinknow annual analysts Innovation Cities Index . Na příkopě in New Town is the most expensive street in the whole of Central Europe . In the Eurostat research , Prague ranked fifth among Europe 's 271 regions in terms of gross domestic product per inhabitant , achieving 172 percent of the EU average . It ranked just above Paris and well above the country as a whole , which achieved 80 percent of the EU average . Companies with highest turnover in the region in 2014 : Name Turnover , mld . Kč ČEZ 200.8 Agrofert 166.8 RWE Supply & Trading CZ 146.1 Prague is also the site of some of the most important offices and institutions of the Czech Republic . President of the Czech Republic The Government and both houses of Parliament Ministries and other national offices ( Industrial Property Office , Czech Statistical Office , National Security Authority etc . ) Czech National Bank Czech Television and other major broadcasters Radio Free Europe -- Radio Liberty Galileo global navigation project Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Tourism ( edit ) Wenceslas Square Top 10 tourism source countries in 2016 Country Number Germany 877,352 United States 453,105 United Kingdom 410,527 Italy 302,278 Russia 280,641 Slovakia 280,479 South Korea 236,449 France 228,833 China 226,105 Poland 225,890 The Gothic Powder Tower Milunić 's and Gehry 's Dancing House Library of the Strahov Monastery Franz Kafka monument , next to the Spanish synagogue Since the fall of the Iron Curtain , Prague has become one of the world 's most popular tourist destinations . Prague suffered considerably less damage during World War II than some other major cities in the region , allowing most of its historic architecture to stay true to form . It contains one of the world 's most pristine and varied collections of architecture , from Romanesque , to Gothic , Renaissance , Baroque , Rococo , Neo-Renaissance , Neo-Gothic , Art Nouveau , Cubist , Neo-Classical and ultra-modern . Prague is classified as an `` Beta + '' global city according to GaWC studies , comparable to Vienna , Seoul and Washington , D.C. Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016 . Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination , and the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually , as of 2014 . Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London , Paris , Istanbul and Rome . Prague 's low cost of living makes it a popular destination for expats relocating to Europe . Hradčany and Lesser Town ( Malá Strana ) ( edit ) Prague Castle with the St. Vitus Cathedral which stores the Czech Crown Jewels The picturesque Charles Bridge ( Karlův most ) The Baroque Saint Nicholas Church Church of Our Lady Victorious and Infant Jesus of Prague Písek Gate , one of the last preserved city gate of Baroque fortification Petřín Hill with Petřín Lookout Tower , Mirror Maze and Petřín funicular Lennon Wall The Franz Kafka Museum Kampa Island , an island with a view of the Charles Bridge The Baroque Wallenstein Palace with its garden Old Town ( Staré Město ) and Josefov ( edit ) The Astronomical Clock ( Orloj ) on Old Town City Hall The Gothic Church of Our Lady before Týn ( Kostel Matky Boží před Týnem ) from the 14th century with 80 m high towers The vaulted Gothic Old New Synagogue ( Staronová Synagoga ) of 1270 Old Jewish Cemetery Powder Tower ( Prašná brána ) , a Gothic tower of the old city gates Spanish Synagogue with its beautiful interior Old Town Square ( Staroměstské náměstí ) with gothic and baroque architectural styles The art nouveau Municipal House , a major civic landmark and concert hall known for its Art Nouveau architectural style and political history in the Czech Republic . Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague , with an extensive collections including glass , furniture , textile , toys , Art Nouveau , Cubism and Art Deco Clam - Gallas Palace , a baroque palace from 1713 New Town ( Nové Město ) ( edit ) Busy and historic Wenceslas Square The neo-renaissance National Museum with large scientific and historical collections The National Theatre , a neo-Renaissance building with golden roof , alongside the banks of the Vltava river The deconstructivist Dancing House ( Fred and Ginger Building ) Charles Square , the largest medieval square in Europe ( now turned into a park ) The Emmaus monastery and WW Memorial `` Prague to Its Victorious Sons '' at Palacky Square ( Palackého náměstí ) The museum of the Heydrich assassination in the crypt of the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius Stiassny 's Jubilee Synagogue is the largest in Prague The Mucha Museum , showcasing the Art Nouveau works of Alphonse Mucha Church of St. Apollinaire , Prague Church of Saint Michael the Archangel in Prague Vinohrady and Žižkov ( edit ) National Monument in Vitkov with a large bronze equestrian statue of Jan Žižka in Vítkov Park , Žižkov -- Prague 3 The neo-Gothic Church of St. Ludmila at Náměstí Míru ( Peace Square ) in Vinohrady Žižkov Television Tower with sculptures of crawling babies New Jewish Cemetery in Olšany , location of Franz Kafka 's grave -- Prague 3 The Roman Catholic Sacred Heart Church at George of Poděbrady Square ( Jiřího z Poděbrad ) The Vinohrady grand Neo-Renaissance , Art Nouveau , Pseudo Baroque , and Neo-Gothic buildings in the area between Náměstí Míru ( Peace Square ) , Jiřího z Poděbrad square and Havlíčkovy sady park Other places ( edit ) Vyšehrad Castle with Basilica of St Peter and St Paul , Vyšehrad cemetery and Prague oldest Rotunda of St. Martin The Prague Metronome at Letná Park , a giant , functional metronome that looms over the city Prague Zoo in Troja , selected as one of the world 's best zoos by Forbes magazine Industrial Palace ( Průmyslový palác ) , Křižík 's Light fountain , funfair Lunapark and Sea World Aquarium in Výstaviště compound in Holešovice Letohrádek Hvězda ( Star Villa ) in Liboc , a renaissance villa in the shape of a six - pointed star surrounded by a game reserve National Gallery in Prague with large collection of Czech and international paintings and sculptures by artists such as Mucha , Kupka , Picasso , Monet or Van Gogh Anděl , a busy part of the city with modern architecture and a shopping mall The large Nusle Bridge , spans the Nusle Valley , linking New Town to Pankrác , with the Metro running underneath the road Strahov Monastery , an old Czech premonstratensian abbey founded in 1149 and monastic library The Charles Bridge is a historic bridge from the 14th century Prague Castle is the biggest ancient castle in the world Old Town Square featuring Church of Our Lady before Týn and Old Town City Hall with Prague Orloj St. Nicholas Church in Malá Strana is the best example of the Baroque style in Prague Vyšehrad fortress contains Basilica of St Peter and St Paul , the Vyšehrad Cemetery and the oldest Rotunda of St. Martin View of Pařížská st. from Letná Park The Municipal House , it was built in Art Nouveau style Náměstí Míru ( Peace Square ) with Vinohrady Theatre and Church of St. Ludmila National Theatre offers opera , drama , ballet and other performances Výstaviště compound contains Průmyslový palác , Křižík 's Light Fountain and host funfair Lunapark Old New Synagogue is Europe 's oldest active synagogue . Legend has Golem lying in the loft National Monument on Vítkov Hill , the statue of Jan Žižka is the third largest bronze equestrian statue in the world Prague Zoo , selected as the fourth best zoo in the world by TripAdvisor Historic Centre of Prague was declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1992 . Education ( edit ) See also : Category : Education in Prague . Twelve universities , and a number of colleges and schools are located in the city , including : Public universities ( edit ) Charles University in Prague , founded in 1348 , was the first university in Central Europe University of Economics , Prague Charles University founded in 1348 , the oldest university in Central Europe Czech Technical University ( ČVUT ) founded in 1707 Institute of Chemical Technology ( VŠCHT ) founded in 1920 University of Economics ( VŠE ) founded in 1953 Czech University of Life Sciences Prague ( ČZU ) founded in 1906 / 1952 Public arts academies ( edit ) Academy of Fine Arts ( AVU ) founded in 1800 Academy of Arts , Architecture and Design ( VŠUP ) founded in 1885 Academy of Performing Arts ( AMU ) founded in 1945 Private schools ( edit ) University of New York in Prague ( UNYP ) founded in 1998 International School of Prague ( ISP ) founded in 1948 Anglo - American University ( AAU ) founded in 1990 University of Northern Virginia in Prague ( UNVA ) founded in 1998 Architectural Institute in Prague ( ARCHIP ) founded in 2010 The University of Finance and Administration ( VSFS ) founded in 1999 Metropolitan University Prague ( MUP ) founded in 2001 Prague College founded in 2004 International institutions ( edit ) New York University Instituto Camões Goethe - Institut Instituto Cervantes British Council Alliance Française Istituto Italiano di Cultura Science , research and hi - tech centres ( edit ) See also : Category : Science and technology in the Czech Republic . Headquarters of the Galileo system in Prague 's Holešovice The region city of Prague is an important centre of research . It is the seat of 39 out of 54 institutes of the Czech Academy of Sciences , including the largest ones , the Institute of Physics , the Institute of Microbiology and the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry . It is also a seat of 10 public research institutes , four business incubators and large hospitals performing research and development activities such as the Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine in Prague or the Motol University Hospital . Universities seated in Prague ( see section Colleges and Universities ) also represent important centres of science and research activities . As of 2008 , there were 13,000 researchers ( out of 30,000 in the Czech Republic , counted in full - time equivalent ) , representing 3 % share of Prague 's economically active population . Gross expenditure on research and development accounted for € 901.3 million ( 41.5 % of country 's total ) . Some well - known multinational companies have established research and development facilities in Prague , among them Siemens , Honeywell and Sun Microsystems . Prague was selected to host administration of the EU satellite navigation system Galileo . It started to provide its first services in December 2016 and full completion is expected by 2020 . Transport ( edit ) Public transportation ( edit ) Škoda 15 T , tram of the Prague tram system The public transport infrastructure ( PID , Pražská integrovaná doprava ) consists of a heavily used integrated transport system of Prague Metro ( lines A , B , and C -- its length is 65 km ( 40 mi ) with 61 stations in total ) , Prague tram system , Prague buses , commuter S - trains , funiculars , and six ferries . Prague has one of the highest rates of public transport usage in the world , with 1.2 billion passenger journeys per year . Prague has about 130 bus lines ( numbers 100 -- 299 ) and 22 tram lines ( numbers 1 -- 26 ) . There are also three funiculars , one on Petřín Hill , one on Mrázovka Hill and a third at the Zoo in Troja . SOR NB 18 of the Prague bus service The Prague tram system now operates various types of trams : still popular classic Tatra T3 , newer Tatra KT8D5 , T6A5 , Škoda 14 T ( designed by Porsche ) , newest modern Škoda 15 T and nostalgic tram lines 23 and 41 . Although Melbourne , Australia has the longest total tram system length in the world , Prague 's tram network is one of the largest in the world by other measures . The Prague tram rolling stock consists of over 900 individual cars , of those around 400 are the modernized T3 class , which are typically operated coupled together in pairs . The system carries more than 356 million passengers annually , the highest tram patronage in the world after Budapest . On a per capita basis , Prague has the second highest tram patronage after Zürich . All services have a common ticketing system , and are run by the Prague Public Transport Company ( Dopravní podnik hl . m . Prahy , a.s. ) and several other companies . Recently , the Regional Organiser of Prague Integrated Transport ( ROPID ) has franchised operation of ferries on the Vltava river , which are also a part of the public transport system with common fares . Taxi services make pick - ups on the streets or operate from regulated taxi stands . Prague Metro ( edit ) Main article : Prague Metro Metro M1 in Prague The Metro has three major lines extending throughout the city : A ( green ) , B ( yellow ) and C ( red ) . A fourth Metro line is planned , which would connect the city centre to southern parts of the city . The Prague Metro system served 589.2 million passengers in 2012 , making it the fifth busiest metro system in Europe and the most - patronised in the world on a per capita basis . The first section of the Prague metro was put into operation in 1974 . It was the stretch between stations Kačerov and Florenc on the current line C. The first part of Line A was opened in 1978 ( Dejvická -- Náměstí Míru ) , the first part of line B in 1985 ( Anděl -- Florenc ) . In April 2015 , construction finished to extend the green line A further into the northwest corner of Prague closer to the airport . A new interchange station for the bus in the direction of the airport is now the station Nádraží Veleslavín . The final station of the green line is Nemocnice Motol ( Motol Hospital ) , giving people direct public transportation access to the largest medical facility in the Czech Republic and one of the largest in Europe . A railway connection to the airport is planned . Prague Metro station Národní třída In operation there are currently two kinds of units : `` 81 - 71M '' which is modernized variant of the Soviet 81 - 71 ( completely modernized between 1995 and 2003 ) and new `` Metro M1 '' trains ( since 2000 ) , manufactured by consortium consisting of Siemens , ČKD Praha and ADtranz . The minimum interval between two trains is 90 seconds . The original Soviet vehicles `` Ečs '' were excluded in 1997 , but one vehicle is placed in public transport museum in depot Střešovice . The Náměstí Míru metro station is the deepest station and is equipped with the longest escalator in European Union . The Prague metro is generally considered very safe . Roads ( edit ) Barrandov bridge , part of the City ( inner ) Ring Road The main flow of traffic leads through the centre of the city and through inner and outer ring roads ( partially in operation ) . Inner Ring Road ( The City Ring `` MO '' ) : Once completed it will surround the wider central part of the city . The longest city tunnel in Europe with a length of 5.5 kilometres ( 3.4 miles ) and five interchanges has been completed to relieve congestion in the north - western part of Prague . Called Blanka tunnel complex and part of the City Ring Road , it was estimated to eventually cost -- after several increases -- 43 billion CZK . Construction started in 2007 and , after repeated delays , the tunnel was officially opened in September 2015 . This tunnel complex completes a major part of the inner ring road . It is expected that the whole city ring will not be completed before 2020 . Outer Ring Road ( The Prague Ring `` D0 '' ) : This ring road will connect all major motorways and speedways that meet each other in Prague region and provide faster transit without a necessity to drive through the city . So far 39 km ( 24 mi ) , out of a total planned 83 km ( 52 mi ) , is in operation . The year of full completion is unknown due to incompetent , constantly changing , leadership of Czech Road and Motorway Directorate , lack of administrative preparations , and insufficient funding of road constructions . Most recently , the southern part of this road ( with a length of more than 20 km ( 12 mi ) ) was opened on 22 September 2010 . Rail ( edit ) Prague main railway station The city forms the hub of the Czech railway system , with services to all parts of the country and abroad . The railway system links Prague with major European cities ( which can be reached without transfers ) , including Berlin , Munich , Hamburg and Dresden ( Germany ) ; Vienna ( Austria ) ; Warsaw and Cracow ( Poland ) ; Bratislava and Košice ( Slovakia ) ; Budapest ( Hungary ) ; Zürich ( Switzerland ) ; Split ( Croatia ) ; Belgrade ( Serbia ) and Moscow ( Russia ) . Travel times range between 4.5 hours to Berlin and 27 hours to Moscow . Prague 's main international railway station is Hlavní nádraží , rail services are also available from other main stations : Masarykovo nádraží , Holešovice and Smíchov , in addition to suburban stations . Commuter rail services operate under the name Esko Praha , which is part of PID ( Prague Integrated Transport ) ) . Václav Havel Airport Prague Air ( edit ) Prague is served by Václav Havel Airport , the largest airport in the Czech Republic and one of the largest airports in central and eastern Europe . The airport is the hub of the flag carrier , Czech Airlines , as well as of the low - cost airlines SmartWings and Wizz Air operating throughout Europe . Other airports in Prague include the city 's original airport in the north - eastern district of Kbely , which is serviced by the Czech Air Force , also internationally . The runway ( 9 -- 27 ) at Kbely is 2 km ( 1 mi ) long . The airport also houses the Prague Aviation Museum . The nearby Letňany airport is mainly used for private aviation and aeroclub aviation . Another airport in the proximity is Aero Vodochody aircraft factory to the north , used for testing purposes , as well as for aeroclub aviation . There are a few aeroclubs around Prague , such as the Točná airfield . Sport ( edit ) See also : Football in Prague The O2 Arena was built to host the 2004 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships Prague is the site of many sports events , national stadiums and teams . Sparta Prague ( Czech First League ) -- football club Slavia Prague ( Czech First League ) -- football club Dukla Prague ( Czech First League ) -- football club Bohemians 1905 ( Czech First League ) -- football club Viktoria Žižkov ( Czech 2 . Liga ) -- football club HC Sparta Praha ( Czech Extraliga ) -- ice hockey club HC Slavia Praha ( 1st Czech Republic Hockey League ) -- ice hockey club O2 Arena -- the second largest ice hockey arena in Europe . It hosted 2004 and 2015 Ice Hockey World Championship , NHL 2008 and 2010 Opening Game and Euroleague Final Four Strahov Stadium -- the largest stadium in the world Prague International Marathon Prague Open -- Tennis Tournament held by the I. Czech Lawn Tennis Club Sparta Prague Open -- Tennis Tournament held in Prague 7 Josef Odložil Memorial -- Athletics meeting Mystic SK8 Cup -- World Cup of Skateboarding venue takes place at the Štvanice skatepark Gutovka -- sport area with a large concrete skatepark , the highest outside climbing wall in Central Europe , four beach volleyball courts and children 's playground World Ultimate Club Championships 2010 International relations ( edit ) Petřín Lookout Tower , an observation tower built at Petřín hill . The city of Prague maintains its own EU delegation in Brussels called Prague House . Prague was the location of U.S. President Barack Obama 's speech on 5 April 2009 , which led to the New START treaty with Russia , signed in Prague on 8 April 2010 . The annual conference Forum 2000 , which was founded by former Czech President Václav Havel , Japanese philanthropist Yōhei Sasakawa , and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Elie Wiesel in 1996 , is held in Prague . Its main objective is `` to identify the key issues facing civilization and to explore ways to prevent the escalation of conflicts that have religion , culture or ethnicity as their primary components '' , and also intends to promote democracy in non-democratic countries and to support civil society . Conferences have attracted a number of prominent thinkers , Nobel laureates , former and acting politicians , business leaders and other individuals like : Frederik Willem de Klerk , Bill Clinton , Nicholas Winton , Oscar Arias Sánchez , Dalai Lama , Hans Küng , Shimon Peres and Madeleine Albright . Twin towns ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) See also : List of twin towns and sister cities in the Czech Republic Berlin , Germany Bratislava , Slovakia Brussels , Belgium Budapest , Hungary Chicago , United States Frankfurt am Main , Germany Guangzhou , China Hamburg , Germany Jerusalem , Israel Kyoto , Japan Luxembourg , Luxembourg Miami - Dade , United States Moscow , Russia Nuremberg , Germany Phoenix , United States Riga , Latvia Saint Petersburg , Russia Seoul , South Korea Shanghai , China Taipei , Taiwan Namesakes ( edit ) A number of other settlements are derived or similar to the name of Prague . In many of these cases , Czech emigration has left a number of namesake cities scattered over the globe , with a notable concentration in the New World . Praha , Slovakia Praha , Texas , United States Prague , Oklahoma , United States Prague , Nebraska , United States New Prague , Minnesota , United States Praga , a historical borough of Warsaw , the capital of Poland Additionally , Kłodzko is traditionally referred to as `` Little Prague '' ( German : Klein - Prag ) . Although now in Poland , the city was the capital of the Bohemian kraj of the County of Kladsko . See also ( edit ) Prague portal Czech Republic portal List of people from Prague Outline of the Czech Republic References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Václav Vojtíšek , Znak Hlavního Města Prahy / Les Armoires de la Ville de Prague ( 1928 ) , cited after nakedtourguideprague.com ( 2015 ) . Jump up ^ Milan Ducháček , Václav Chaloupecký : Hledání československých dějin ( 2014 ) , cited after abicko.avcr.cz . Jump up ^ `` Demographia World Urban Areas '' ( PDF ) . Demographia.com . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Van Ermengem , Kristiaan . `` Prague Facts & Figures , Population '' . aviewoncities.com . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Population of Municipalities - 1 January 2017 '' . Regional Office of the Czech Statistical Office in the Capital City of Prague. 28 April 2017 . Retrieved 1 October 2017 . Jump up ^ http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7962764/1-30032017-AP-EN.pdf/4e9c09e5-c743-41a5-afc8-eb4aa89913f6 Jump up ^ http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=47&pr.y=20&sy=2015&ey=2015&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=935&s=PPPEX&grp=0&a= Jump up ^ `` Czech Republic Facts '' . World InfoZone . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ Eurostat . `` Urban Audit 2004 '' . Archived from the original on 6 April 2011 . Retrieved 20 July 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Czech Republic '' . Worldatlas.com . Retrieved 4 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Short History of Bohemia , Moravia and then Czechoslovakia and Czech Republic '' . hedgie.eu. 2015 . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Charles University Official Website '' . Jump up ^ `` The World According to GaWC 2016 '' . GaWC . ^ Jump up to : `` Best Destinations in the World -- Travelers ' Choice Awards -- TripAdvisor '' . tripadvisor.com. 2016 . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Bremner , Caroline ( 2016 ) . `` Top 100 City Destinations Ranking '' . Euromonitor International . Retrieved 2 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Demetz , Peter ( 1997 ) . `` Chapter One : Libussa , or Versions of Origin '' . Prague in Black and Gold : Scenes from the Life of a European City . New York : Hill and Wang . ISBN 0 - 8090 - 7843 - 0 . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Kenety , Brian . `` Unearthing Bohemia 's Celtic heritage ahead of Samhain , the ' New Year ' '' . Czech Radio . Jump up ^ Kenety , Brian . `` Atlantis české archeologie '' ( in Czech ) . Czech Radio . ^ Jump up to : Dovid Solomon Ganz , Tzemach Dovid ( 3rd edition ) , part 2 , Warsaw 1878 , p. 71 , 85 ( available online ) Jump up ^ `` Praha byla Casurgis '' ( Prague was Casurgis ) ( in Czech ) . cs-magazin.com . February 2011 . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Slované na Hradě žili už sto let před Bořivojem -- '' . Novinky.cz . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Archaeological Research -- Prague Castle '' . Hrad.cz. 8 July 2005 . Archived from the original on 1 April 2009 . Retrieved 30 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TOP MONUMENTS -- VYŠEHRAD '' . praguewelcome.cz . Archived from the original on 12 March 2013 . Retrieved 14 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Cambridge Economic History of Europe : Trade and industry in the Middle Ages '' . Michael Moïssey Postan , Edward Miller , Cynthia Postan ( 1987 ) . Cambridge University Press . p. 417 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 08709 - 0 . Jump up ^ Stone , Andrew . A Hedonist 's Guide to New York . Jump up ^ `` The Prague Pogrom of 1389 '' . Everything2. April 1389 . Retrieved 16 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` The former Jewish Quarter in Prague '' . prague.cz. April 1389 . Retrieved 16 June 2009 . Jump up ^ This swallow - tailed banner is approximately 4 by 6 feet ( 1.2 by 1.8 metres ) , with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs - de-lis , and a silver old Town Coat - of - Arms in the centre . The words PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE ( The Lord God is our Help ) appeared above the coat - of - arms , with a Hussite `` host with chalice '' centred on the top . Near the swallow - tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding . One of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague ( 1648 ) , when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank , they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm ; although this flag still exists , it is in very poor condition . They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus . The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419 . Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars , it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia . Jump up ^ `` Architecture of the Gothic '' . Old.hrad.cz. 13 October 2005 . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Old Royal Palace with Vladislav Hall -- Prague Castle '' . Hrad.cz. 16 December 2011 . Archived from the original on 1 April 2009 . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Religious conflicts '' . Prague.st . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Kingdom of Bohemia during the Thirty Years ' War '' . Family-lines.cz . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Prague '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ M. Signoli , D. Chevé , A. Pascal ( 2007 ). `` Plague epidemics in Czech countries '' . p. 51 . ^ Jump up to : Chisholm , Hugh , ed. ( 1911 ) . `` Prague '' . Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . pp. 248 -- 250 . Jump up ^ `` Looking Back at the Bombing of Prague '' . The Prague Post . 14 February 1945 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 01 - 14 . Retrieved 4 December 2011 . Jump up ^ Pehe , Jiří . `` Post-Communist Refections of the Prague Spring '' . Jiří Pehe . Jump up ^ `` Prague Assembly Confirms 2016 Olympic Bid '' . Gamesbids.com . Archived from the original on 7 August 2011 . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Official -- Prague Out of 2020 Bid '' . GamesBids. 16 June 2009 . Archived from the original on 10 September 2010 . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` What 's in a name ? Prague History lesson '' . praguesummer.com . Retrieved 14 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Lucy S. Dawidowicz -- The Golden Tradition : Jewish Life and Thought in Eastern Europe 1996 p. 351 `` Then you surely knew also Reb Shmuel on the other side of the Vistula , in Praga ! Praga , the threshold of Warsaw -- the aroma of the country , with its broad fields , so many times desolated by wars and fires and rebuilt , ... '' Jump up ^ `` drexler blog '' . Drexler , novinky.cz. 11 July 2008 . Archived from the original on 4 October 2008 . Retrieved 14 June 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Kolik věží má `` stověžatá '' Praha ? Nadšenci jich napočítali přes pět set `` . idnes.cz ( in Czech ) . Mladá fronta DNES. 5 August 2010 . Archived from the original on 14 May 2013 . Retrieved 8 January 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Visit Prague , the City of a Hundred spires '' . prague.fm . Retrieved 19 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Basic Prague and Czech Republic Info '' . prague.cz . Retrieved 27 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Latitude and Longitude of World Cities : Frankfurt '' . Retrieved 27 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Latitude and Longitude of World Cities '' . Retrieved 27 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Latitude and Longitude of Vancouver , Canada '' . Retrieved 27 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Census shows population rise in Prague '' . Prague Daily Monitor . Czech News Agency ( ČTK ) . 24 January 2012 . Archived from the original on 16 April 2014 . Retrieved 16 April 2014 . Jump up ^ Historický lexikon obcí České republiky 1869 -- 2005 Jump up ^ `` Pohyb obyvatelstva v Českých zemích '' ( in Czech ) . Czso.cz. 23 November 2010 . Archived from the original on 22 January 2011 . Retrieved 14 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Počet obyvatel v obcích České republiky k 1.1. 2013 '' ( in Czech ) . 1 January 2013 . Archived from the original ( XLS ) on 4 October 2013 . Retrieved 14 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cizinci 3 . zemí se zaevidovaným povoleným pobytem na území České republiky a cizinci zemí EU + Islandu , Norska , Švýcarska a Lichtenštejnska se zaevidovaným pobytem na území České republiky k 30 . 11 . 2016 '' . Ministry of the Interior . 30 November 2016 . Retrieved 27 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Climate of Prague 1981 -- 2010 ( Temperatures , Humidity ) '' ( in Russian ) . Weather and Climate ( Погода и климат ) . Retrieved 9 May 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Praha Climate Normals 1961 -- 1990 ( Precipitation , Precipitation days , Snow , Sunhours ) '' . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . Retrieved 28 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Lubor Mrazek . `` O SLAVNOSTECH , Letní shakespearovské slavnosti 2013 , Agentura SCHOK , Praha '' . Shakespeare.cz . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Prague Studios Credits : Movies shot at Prague Studios '' . Prague Studios . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Forbes Magazine : Prague Zoo the 7th Best in the World '' . Abcprague.com . Archived from the original on 16 March 2008 . Retrieved 14 September 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Prague Strategic Plan , 2008 Update '' ( PDF ) . Official site . City Development Authority Prague. 2010 . Retrieved 22 April 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Regional GDP per inhabitant in 2007 '' ( PDF ) . Official site . Eurostat. 18 February 2010 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 May 2010 . Retrieved 22 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Prague has highest average monthly salary at CZK 35,853 '' . Jump up ^ Hold , Gabriella ( 21 April 2010 ) . `` Foreign Resident Numbers Stable '' . The Prague Post . Archived from the original on 14 January 2012 . Retrieved 25 April 2010 . Jump up ^ Contiguglia , Cat ( 13 October 2010 ) . `` Prague Is Best CEE City for Business -- Survey '' . The Prague Post . Archived from the original on 25 November 2010 . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` EIU Media Directory '' . Eiuresources.com . Archived from the original on 10 July 2011 . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` 2thinknow Innovation Cities Top 100 Index '' . 2thinknow Innovation Cities Program . Retrieved 22 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Nejdražší ulice ve střední Evropě ? Bezkonkurenčně vedou Příkopy '' . Mladá fronta DNES . Archived from the original on 26 April 2012 . Retrieved 27 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Pop , Valentina ( 18 February 2010 ) . `` EUobserver / Prague Outranks Paris and Stockholm Among EU 's Richest Regions '' . EUobserver . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ESTAT - 2002 - 05354 - 00 - 00 - EN - TRA - 00 ( FR ) '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 May 2010 . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . Jump up ^ Filipová , Hana ( 11 October 2015 ) . `` Které firmy vládnou krajům ? Týdeník Ekonom zmapoval podnikání v regionech '' ( Which firms dominate the regions ? ' The Weekly Ekonom ' mapped out entrepreneurship in the regions ) ( in Czech ) . Economics news . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.praguecitytourism.cz/file/edee/statistiky-a-analyzy-en/top-10/od-2012-po-revizi/rok-2016-top-10-aj-revidovana-data.docx Jump up ^ `` Pros and Cons of Moving to Czech Republic '' . ExpatArrivals . Jump up ^ `` Kampa Island '' . YourCzechRepublic.cz . Archived from the original on 10 March 2014 . Retrieved 6 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Vinohrady sights '' . myCzechRepublic . Jump up ^ J. Pechlát ( 2010 ). `` Prague as a knowledge city - region '' In : Teorie vědy , XXXI / 3 - 4 2009 , The Institute of Philosophy of the AS CR , p. 247 - 267 . Jump up ^ `` Endurance '' . Mgr . Jaroslav Mach . Retrieved 1 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Prague Metro , Czech Republic '' . railwaytechnology.com . Retrieved 30 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Annual Report 2012 '' ( PDF ) . Public Transport Company of the Capital City of Prague. 2012 . p. 66 . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Hold , Gabriella ( 30 June 2010 ) . `` Metro Extension on the Right Track '' . The Prague Post . Czech Republic . Archived from the original on 14 January 2012 . Retrieved 30 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Historická souprava Ečs '' . Metroweb.cz . Retrieved 14 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dostavba zbývající části Pražského okruhu má začít do roku 2020 '' . e15.cz . Retrieved 7 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Opening of Prague 's Outer Ring ( Czech only ) '' . Archived from the original on 26 September 2011 . Retrieved 18 Dec 2014 . Jump up ^ `` České dráhy '' . Retrieved 28 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Czech Transport '' . Retrieved 30 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Czech Airlines : Company Info '' . Czech Airlines . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Gutovka '' . Praha.eu . Retrieved 3 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Prague , Czech Republic to host the WFDF World Ultimate Club Championships 2010 '' . WFDF . Retrieved 10 September 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Prague House : Mission and representational activities '' . prague-house.eu . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Ratification of the START treaty is a step towards Obama 's goal of a nuclear weapons - free world . ( Official White House Photo ) by Pete Souza Dec. 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Texas State Historical Association ( TSHA ) '' . Tshaonline.org. 10 November 2013 . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The History of Prague '' . cityofpragueok.org. 23 April 2008 . Archived from the original on 7 March 2012 . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` CASDE Prague -- Saunders County '' . Casde.unl.edu . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Visitor Information '' . Web.archive.org . Archived from the original on 15 May 2008 . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Klodzko : Dolnośląskie -- Poland '' . International Jewish Cemetery Project . 24 October 2011 . Retrieved 7 April 2016 . Further reading ( edit ) Jekova , Alena. 77 Prague Legends . Prague : Prah , 2006 . ISBN 80 - 7252 - 139 - X Prague ( Eyewitness Travel Guide by DK Publishing ) ( 2009 ) excerpt and text search 2006 edition Prague ( City Guide ) by Neil Wilson ( 2009 ) excerpt and text search Praha -- Prague and environs ( by Čedok ) ( 1926 ) city guide from 1920s Rick Steves ' Prague and The Czech Republic by Rick Steves and Honza Vihan ( 2009 ) excerpt and text search Wilson , Neil . Lonely Planet Prague ( 2007 ) excerpt and text search Wilson , Paul . Prague : A Traveler 's Literary Companion ( 1995 ) Culture and society ( edit ) Becker , Edwin et al. , ed . Prague 1900 : Poetry and Ecstasy. ( 2000 ) . 224 pp . Boehm , Barbara Drake ; et al. ( 2005 ) . Prague : the Crown of Bohemia , 1347 - 1437 . New York : The Metropolitan Museum of Art . ISBN 1588391612 . CS1 maint : Explicit use of et al. ( link ) Burton , Richard D.E. Prague : A Cultural and Literary History . ( 2003 ) . 268 pp. excerpt and text search Cohen , Gary B . The Politics of Ethnic Survival : Germans in Prague , 1861 -- 1914 . ( 1981 ) . 344 pp . Fucíková , Eliska , ed . Rudolf II and Prague : The Court and the City . ( 1997 ) . 792 pp . Holz , Keith . Modern German Art for Thirties Paris , Prague , and London : Resistance and Acquiescence in a Democratic Public Sphere. ( 2004 ) . 359 pp . Iggers , Wilma Abeles . Women of Prague : Ethnic Diversity and Social Change from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. ( 1995 ) . 381 pp. online edition Porizka , Lubomir ; Hojda , Zdenek ; and Pesek , Jirí . The Palaces of Prague. ( 1995 ) . 216 pp . Sayer , Derek . Prague , Capital of the Twentieth Century : A Surrealist History ( Princeton University Press ; 2013 ) 595 pages ; a study of the city as a crossroads for modernity . Sayer , Derek . `` The Language of Nationality and the Nationality of Language : Prague 1780 -- 1920 . '' Past & Present 1996 ( 153 ) : 164 -- 210 . in Jstor Spector , Scott . Prague Territories : National Conflict and Cultural Innovation in Kafka 's Fin de Siècle. ( 2000 ) . 331 pp. online edition Svácha , Rostislav . The Architecture of New Prague , 1895 -- 1945 . ( 1995 ) . 573 pp . Wittlich , Peter . Prague : Fin de Siècle. ( 1992 ) . 280 pp . External links ( edit ) Look up prague in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Official website of Prague Official Tourist Website for Prague Media related to Praha at Wikimedia Commons Prague travel guide from Wikivoyage Media related to Atlas of Europe at Wikimedia Commons Articles related to Prague Prague in the European Union Capital cities of the member states of the European Union Netherlands : Amsterdam Greece : Athens Germany : Berlin Slovakia : Bratislava Romania : Bucharest Hungary : Budapest Belgium : Brussels Denmark : Copenhagen Ireland : Dublin Finland : Helsinki Portugal : Lisbon Slovenia : Ljubljana United Kingdom : London Luxembourg : Luxembourg Spain : Madrid Cyprus : Nicosia France : Paris Czech Republic : Prague Latvia : Riga Italy : Rome Bulgaria : Sofia Sweden : Stockholm Estonia : Tallinn Malta : Valletta Austria : Vienna Lithuania : Vilnius Poland : Warsaw Croatia : Zagreb Capitals of European states and territories Capitals of dependent territories and states whose sovereignty is disputed shown in italics . Western Amsterdam , Netherlands Andorra la Vella , Andorra Bern , Switzerland Brussels , Belgium Douglas , Isle of Man ( UK ) Dublin , Ireland London , United Kingdom Luxembourg , Luxembourg Paris , France Saint Helier , Jersey ( UK ) Saint Peter Port , Guernsey ( UK ) Northern Copenhagen , Denmark Helsinki , Finland Longyearbyen , Svalbard ( Norway ) Mariehamn , Åland Islands ( Finland ) Nuuk , Greenland ( Denmark ) Olonkinbyen , Jan Mayen ( Norway ) Oslo , Norway Reykjavík , Iceland Stockholm , Sweden Tórshavn , Faroe Islands ( Denmark ) Central Berlin , Germany Bratislava , Slovakia Budapest , Hungary Ljubljana , Slovenia Prague , Czech Republic Vaduz , Liechtenstein Vienna , Austria Warsaw , Poland Southern Ankara , Turkey Athens , Greece Belgrade , Serbia Bucharest , Romania Gibraltar , Gibraltar ( UK ) Lisbon , Portugal Madrid , Spain Monaco , Monaco Nicosia , Cyprus North Nicosia , Northern Cyprus Podgorica , Montenegro Pristina , Kosovo Rome , Italy San Marino , San Marino Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina Skopje , Macedonia Sofia , Bulgaria Tirana , Albania Valletta , Malta Vatican City , Vatican City Zagreb , Croatia Eastern Astana , Kazakhstan Baku , Azerbaijan Chișinău , Moldova Kiev , Ukraine Minsk , Belarus Moscow , Russia Riga , Latvia Stepanakert , Artsakh Sukhumi , Abkhazia Tallinn , Estonia Tbilisi , Georgia Tiraspol , Transnistria Tskhinvali , South Ossetia Vilnius , Lithuania Yerevan , Armenia Also the capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands Also the seat of the European Union , see Institutional seats of the European Union and Brussels and the European Union Transcontinental country Entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe Partially recognised country European Capitals of Culture 1985 Athens 1986 Florence Amsterdam West Berlin Paris Glasgow 1991 Dublin 1992 Madrid Antwerp Lisbon 1995 Luxembourg City Copenhagen Thessaloniki 1998 Stockholm 1999 Weimar 2000 Reykjavík Bergen Helsinki Brussels Prague Kraków Santiago de Compostela Avignon Bologna 2001 Rotterdam Porto 2002 Bruges Salamanca 2003 Graz Plovdiv Genoa Lille 2005 Cork 2006 Patras 2007 Luxembourg City and Greater Region Sibiu 2008 Liverpool Stavanger 2009 Linz Vilnius Ruhr Istanbul Pécs 2011 Turku Tallinn 2012 Maribor Guimarães 2013 Košice Marseille 2014 Umeå Riga 2015 Mons Plzeň 2016 San Sebastián Wrocław 2017 Aarhus Paphos 2018 Valletta Leeuwarden 2019 Plovdiv Matera 2020 Rijeka Galway 2021 Timișoara Elefsina Novi Sad 2022 Kaunas Esch - sur - Alzette European Capitals of Sport 2001 Madrid 2002 Stockholm 2003 Glasgow 2004 Alicante 2005 Rotterdam 2006 Copenhagen 2007 Stuttgart 2008 Warsaw 2009 Milan 2010 Dublin 2011 Valencia 2012 Istanbul 2013 Antwerp 2014 Cardiff 2015 Turin 2016 Prague 2017 Marseille 2018 Sofia 2019 Budapest 2020 Málaga 2021 Lisboa Districts and cadastral areas of Prague Former names shown in italics Big municipal districts Prague 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 ( Radotín ) 17 ( Řepy ) 18 ( Letňany ) 19 ( Kbely ) 20 ( Horní Počernice ) 21 ( Újezd nad Lesy ) 22 ( Uhříněves ) Small municipal districts Běchovice Benice Březiněves Čakovice Ďáblice Dolní Chabry Dolní Měcholupy Dolní Počernice Dubeč Klánovice Koloděje Kolovraty Královice Křeslice Kunratice Libuš Lipence Lochkov Lysolaje Nebušice Nedvězí Petrovice Přední Kopanina Řeporyje Satalice Slivenec Suchdol Šeberov Štěrboholy Troja Újezd ( u Průhonic ) Velká Chuchle Vinoř Zbraslav Zličín Cadastral areas Běchovice Benice Bohnice Braník Břevnov Březiněves Bubeneč Čakovice Černý Most Chodov Cholupice Čimice Ďáblice Dejvice Dolní Chabry Dolní Měcholupy Dolní Počernice Dubeč Háje Hájek Hloubětín Hlubočepy Hodkovičky Holešovice Holyně Horní Měcholupy Horní Počernice Hostavice Hostivař Hradčany Hrdlořezy Jinonice Josefov ( Jewish Quarter ) Kamýk Karlín Klánovice Kobylisy Koloděje Kolovraty Komořany Košíře Královice Krč Křeslice Kunratice Kyje Lahovice Letňany Lhotka Libeň Liboc Libuš Lipany Lipence Lochkov Lysolaje Malá Chuchle Malá Strana ( `` Lesser Town '' ) Malešice Michle Miškovice Modřany Motol Nebušice Nedvězí Nové Město ( `` New Town '' ) Nusle Petrovice Písnice Pitkovice Podolí Přední Kopanina Prosek Radlice Radotín Řeporyje Řepy Ruzyně Satalice Sedlec Slivenec Smíchov Sobín Staré Město ( `` Old Town '' ) Štěrboholy Stodůlky Strašnice Střešovice Střížkov Suchdol Točná Třebonice Třeboradice Troja Uhříněves Újezd nad Lesy Újezd ( u Průhonic ) Veleslavín Velká Chuchle Vinohrady Vinoř Vokovice Vršovice Vyšehrad Vysočany Záběhlice Zadní Kopanina Zbraslav Žižkov Zličín Regions of the Czech Republic Central Bohemia Hradec Králové Karlovy Vary Liberec Moravia - 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Philadelphia Eagles
Philadelphia Eagles - Wikipedia Philadelphia Eagles Jump to : navigation , search Philadelphia Eagles Current season Established July 8 , 1933 ; 84 years ago ( July 8 , 1933 ) First season : 1933 Play in Lincoln Financial Field Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Headquartered in the NovaCare Complex Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Logo Wordmark League / conference affiliations National Football League ( 1933 -- present ) Eastern Division ( 1933 -- 1949 ) American Conference ( 1950 -- 1952 ) Eastern Conference ( 1953 -- 1969 ) Capitol Division ( 1967 -- 1969 ) National Football Conference ( 1970 -- present ) NFC East ( 1970 -- present ) Current uniform Team colors Midnight green , Silver , Black , White Fight song Fly , Eagles Fly Mascot Swoop Personnel Owner ( s ) Jeffrey Lurie Christina Weiss Lurie Chairman Jeffrey Lurie CEO Jeffrey Lurie President Don Smolenski General manager Howie Roseman Head coach Doug Pederson Team history Philadelphia Eagles ( 1933 -- 1942 ; 1944 -- present ) Phil - Pitt `` Steagles '' ( 1943 ) Team nicknames The Birds Championships League championships ( 4 ) NFL championships ( pre-1970 AFL -- NFL merger ) ( 3 ) 1948 , 1949 , 1960 Super Bowl championships ( 1 ) 2017 ( LII ) Conference championships ( 4 ) NFL Eastern : 1960 NFC : 1980 , 2004 , 2017 Division championships ( 13 ) NFL East : 1947 , 1948 , 1949 NFC East : 1980 , 1988 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2010 , 2013 , 2017 Playoff appearances ( 25 ) NFL : 1947 , 1948 , 1949 , 1960 , 1978 , 1979 , 1980 , 1981 , 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 1992 , 1995 , 1996 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2013 , 2017 Home fields Baker Bowl ( 1933 -- 1935 ) Philadelphia Municipal Stadium ( 1936 -- 1939 , 1941 ) Connie Mack Stadium ( 1940 , 1942 -- 1957 ) Franklin Field ( 1958 -- 1970 ) Veterans Stadium ( 1971 -- 2002 ) Lincoln Financial Field ( 2003 -- present ) The Philadelphia Eagles are a professional American football franchise based in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The Eagles compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference ( NFC ) East division . They are Super Bowl champions , having won Super Bowl LII , their fourth NFL title , after winning in 1948 , 1949 , and 1960 . The franchise was established in 1933 as a replacement for the bankrupt Frankford Yellow Jackets , when a group led by Bert Bell secured the rights to an NFL franchise in Philadelphia . Bell , Chuck Bednarik , Bob Brown , Brian Dawkins , Reggie White , Steve Van Buren , Tommy McDonald , Greasy Neale , Pete Pihos , Sonny Jurgensen , and Norm Van Brocklin have been inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame . The team has an intense rivalry with the New York Giants . This rivalry is the oldest in the NFC East and is among the oldest in the NFL . It was ranked by NFL Network as the number one rivalry of all - time and Sports Illustrated ranks it amongst the Top 10 NFL rivalries of all - time at number four , and according to ESPN , it is one of the fiercest and most well - known rivalries in the American football community . They also have a bitter rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys , which has become more high - profile since the 1960s , as well as a historic rivalry with the Washington Redskins . Their rivalry with the Pittsburgh Steelers is another bitter rivalry , roughly dating back to 1933 , that mostly arises from the two teams ' statuses as being from opposite ends of the same state . The team consistently ranks in the top three in attendance and has sold out every game since the 1999 season . In a Sports Illustrated poll of 321 NFL players , Eagles fans were selected the most intimidating fans in the NFL . Contents ( hide ) 1 Franchise history 1.1 1931 -- 1960 1.2 1961 -- 1975 1.3 1976 -- 1984 1.4 1985 -- 1993 1.5 Lurie era ( 1994 -- present ) 1.5. 1 Andy Reid era ( 1999 -- 2012 ) 1.5. 1.1 2004 Season and Super Bowl XXXIX 1.5. 1.2 2005 - 2012 1.5. 2 Chip Kelly era ( 2013 -- 2015 ) 1.5. 3 Doug Pederson era ( 2016 -- present ) 1.5. 3.1 2017 : First Super Bowl championship 2 Season records 3 Rivalries 3.1 New York Giants 3.2 Dallas Cowboys 3.3 Washington Redskins 3.4 Pittsburgh Steelers 4 Logo and uniforms 5 Training camp 6 Fight song 7 Fans 7.1 Devotion 7.2 Bad behavior 8 Eagles cheerleaders 9 Current roster 10 List of Philadelphia Eagles players ( past and present ) 11 Awards and honors 11.1 Retired numbers 11.2 Pro Football Hall of Famers 11.3 Eagles Hall of Fame 11.4 75th anniversary team 11.5 John Wanamaker Athletic Award ( Philadelphia Sports Congress ) 11.6 Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame 11.7 Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame 12 Franchise records 12.1 Passing 12.2 Rushing 12.3 Receiving 12.4 Other 12.5 Returning 12.6 Defense 12.7 Exceptional performances 13 Coaches of note 13.1 Current staff 14 Radio and television 14.1 Eagles radio affiliates 15 Media and cultural reference 16 See also 17 Notes and references 18 Sources 19 External links Franchise history Main article : History of the Philadelphia Eagles 1931 -- 1960 `` Concrete Charlie '' Midway through the 1931 season , the Frankford Yellow Jackets went bankrupt and ceased operations . After more than a year of searching for a suitable replacement , the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by Bert Bell and Lud Wray and awarded them the franchise rights of the failed Yellow Jackets organization . The Bell - Wray group had to pay an entry fee of $3,500 ( equal to $40,230 today ) and assumed a total debt of $11,000 that was owed to three other NFL franchises . Drawing inspiration from the Blue Eagle insignia of the National Recovery Administration -- the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal -- Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles . Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same , citing the aforementioned period of dormancy . Furthermore , almost no Yellow Jackets players were on the Eagles ' first roster . The Eagles , along with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the now - defunct Cincinnati Reds , joined the NFL as expansion teams . In 1937 , the Eagles moved to Shibe Park ( renamed Connie Mack Stadium in 1954 ) and played their home games at the stadium through 1957 , except for the 1941 season , which was played at Municipal Stadium , where they had played from 1936 to 1939 . To accommodate football at Shibe Park during the winter , management set up stands in right field , parallel to 20th Street . Some 20 feet high , these `` east stands '' had 22 rows of seats . The goalposts stood along the first base line and in left field . The uncovered east stands enlarged capacity of Shibe Park to over 39,000 , but the Eagles rarely drew more than 25 to 30,000 . The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade , enduring repeated losing seasons . In December 1940 , Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney sold his franchise to Alexis Thompson for $160,000 and then used half of the proceeds to buy a half interest in the Eagles from Bell , his longtime friend . Soon after , Bell and Rooney traded the Eagles franchise to Thompson and moved it to Pittsburgh ( as the `` Steelers '' ) , while Thompson moved the Steelers franchise to Philadelphia ( as the `` Eagles '' ) . In 1943 , when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster , the team merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers forming the `` Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the `` Steagles . '' ( The merger , never intended as a permanent arrangement , was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season . ) By the late 1940s , head coach Earle `` Greasy '' Neale and running back Steve Van Buren led the team to three consecutive NFL Championship Games , winning two of them in 1948 and 1949 . Those two championships mark the Eagles as the only NFL team ever to win back - to - back championships by shutouts , defeating the Chicago Cardinals , 7 -- 0 , in 1948 -- in a blizzard -- and the Los Angeles Rams , 14 -- 0 , in 1949 . After the 1957 season , the Eagles moved from Connie Mack Stadium to Franklin Field at the University of Pennsylvania . Franklin Field would seat over 60,000 for the Eagles , whereas Connie Mack had a capacity of 39,000 . The stadium switched from grass to AstroTurf in 1969 . It was the first NFL stadium to use artificial turf . In 1960 , the Eagles won their third NFL championship , under the leadership of future Pro Football Hall of Famers Norm Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik ; the head coach was Buck Shaw . The 1960 Eagles , by a score of 17 -- 13 , became the only team to defeat Vince Lombardi and his Green Bay Packers in the playoffs . Dick Vermeil , Eagles head coach from 1976 to 1982 1961 -- 1975 The Eagles had a decent 1961 season and then fell on hard times in 1962 . Jerry Wolman , after consulting his longtime friend Brandon Sturrock , bought the franchise in 1963 from the `` Happy Hundred '' , a group of investors who owned the team from 1949 -- 1963 , for $5,505,000 ( equal to $44,004,098 today ) . In 1969 , Leonard Tose bought the Eagles from Wolman for $16,155,000 ( equal to $107,807,505 today ) , then a record for a professional sports franchise . Tose 's first official act was to fire Coach Joe Kuharich after a disappointing 24 -- 41 -- 1 record during his five - year reign . He followed this by naming former Eagles receiving great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager and Jerry Williams as coach . The Eagles defeated the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game and earned their first Super Bowl appearance . With the merger of the NFL and AFL in 1970 , the Eagles were placed in the NFC East Division with their archrivals the New York Giants , the Washington Redskins , and the Dallas Cowboys . Their heated rivalry with the Giants is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries , dating all the way back to 1933 and is often named as one of the best rivalries in the NFL . 1976 -- 1984 In 1976 , Dick Vermeil was hired from UCLA to coach the Eagles , who had only one winning season from 1962 -- 1975 . Starting in 1978 , head coach Dick Vermeil and quarterback Ron Jaworski led the team to four consecutive playoff appearances . Vermeil 's 1980 team won their first NFC East title . They were matched up against their hated rival the Dallas Cowboys in the NFC Championship game , which they won 20 -- 7 . However , the Eagles lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV in 1981 . The following year , the Eagles were eliminated in the wildcard round at home against the New York Giants . In the aftermath of the disappointing and strike - shortened season of 1982 , head coach Dick Vermeil resigned , claiming that he was `` burned out '' . Vermeil was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell . In January 1983 , Tose announced that his daughter , Susan Fletcher , the Eagles ' vice president and legal counsel , would eventually succeed him as primary owner of the Eagles . Then in 1984 , rumors were circulating that Leonard Tose was thinking about moving the team to Phoenix , Arizona due to financial reasons . 1985 -- 1993 This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In 1985 , Tose was forced to sell the Eagles to Norman Braman and Ed Leibowitz , highly successful automobile dealers from Florida , for a reported $65 million ( equal to $147,899,134 today ) to pay off his more than $25 million ( equal to $56,884,282 today ) in gambling debts at Atlantic City casinos . Philadelphia football struggled through the Marion Campbell years of the mid-1980s and was marked by a malaise in fan participation . However , in the 1985 Supplemental draft , the Eagles acquired the rights to Memphis Showboats ' elite pass rusher Reggie White . In 1986 , the arrival of head coach Buddy Ryan and his fiery attitude rejuvenated team performance and ignited the fan base , but the Eagles failed to win a playoff game during Ryan 's tenure . Possibly the worst of these losses was the so - called Fog Bowl in 1988 against the Chicago Bears , which happened to be Ryan 's former team that he helped lead to a Super Bowl XX victory as defensive coordinator . Ryan was fired on January 7 , 1991 , after an upset home playoff loss to the Redskins . Offensive coordinator Rich Kotite was promoted to head coach three days later . After All Pro defensive tackle Jerome Brown was killed in an automobile accident , the team and fanbase became dedicated to `` bring it home for Jerome '' in the 1992 season . Kotite did lead the Eagles to a playoff victory against the New Orleans Saints during the 1992 season , but they lost all - time sacks leader Reggie White to free agency in the offseason . Kotie 's contract was not renewed after a disappointing 1994 season in which the Eagles went 7 -- 9 , losing their last seven games after starting the season 7 -- 2 . From 1988 to 1996 , the Eagles qualified for the playoffs during six out of those nine seasons , but they won the NFC East only once , in 1988 . Among the team 's offensive stars during that period were quarterback Randall Cunningham , tight end Keith Jackson , and running back Herschel Walker . But the `` Gang Green '' defense is possibly what defined the team , led by Reggie White , Jerome Brown , Clyde Simmons , Seth Joyner , Wes Hopkins , Mike Golic , Byron Evans , Eric Allen , Andre Waters and Mark McMillian . Lurie era ( 1994 -- present ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Andy Reid speaks with Jeff Garcia in a game against the Redskins . Jeffrey Lurie bought the Eagles on May 6 , 1994 from then - owner Norman Braman for an estimated $185 million . The club is now estimated to be the 17th most valuable sports team , worth $1.314 billion , as valuated in 2014 by Forbes . In Lurie 's first season as owner , the team only had 7 wins , but that was followed by a 10 win season in 1995 . Besides the 10 wins and a playoff berth , 1996 was an eventful year . The uniforms changed from the classic shade of Kelly Green to a darker midnight green , quarterback Randall Cunningham left after 11 seasons , and future fan favorite 13 - year starter Brian Dawkins was drafted in the 2nd round . After slipping to 6 -- 9 -- 1 , and then to 3 -- 13 , head coach Ray Rhodes was fired after four seasons . Andy Reid era ( 1999 -- 2012 ) Jeffrey Lurie has been owner since 1994 . In 1999 , the Eagles hired head coach Andy Reid and drafted quarterback Donovan McNabb . From 1999 until 2004 , the team continually improved , going from 5 -- 11 in 1999 , returning to the playoffs in with an 11 -- 5 record in 2000 , surpassing the Buccaneers in the Wild Card round before losing in the divisional . Moreover , the Eagles played in four straight NFC Championship Games between 2001 and 2004 . In 2001 , the Eagles stayed at 11 -- 5 , beating the Buccaneers and Bears to advance to the NFC championship , where they lost to the St. Louis Rams . In 2002 , the Eagles drafted running back Brian Westbrook , got the 1st round bye with the 2nd seed in the NFC with a 12 -- 4 record , but the Tampa Bay Buccaneers got their revenge in the Championship and eliminated the Eagles . In 2003 , they won the NFC first seed , but Westbrook went down in Week 17 , culminating in a loss to the Carolina Panthers in their 3rd straight NFC Championship . 2004 season and Super Bowl XXXIX In 2004 , the Philadelphia Eagles had their best season since 1960 , going 13 -- 1 before resting their starters and losing their next 2 , clinching the 1st seed for the second year in a row . McNabb set career highs , completing 64 % of his passes for 3,875 yards , though he did n't play all 16 games . McNabb became the first quarterback ever to throw more than 30 touchdowns and fewer than 10 interceptions in a season . His success could be attributed to the fact that he had a reliable receiver , Terrell Owens , who got 1,200 yards and 14 touchdowns in 14 games . After beating the Vikings and Falcons the Eagles advanced to Super Bowl XXXIX , where they dueled the New England Patriots . Although McNabb threw 3 touchdown passes and 357 yards in the game , and the score was tied 14 -- 14 going into the fourth quarter , the Patriots outscored the Eagles and scored ten straight points . McNabb completed a 30 - yard touchdown pass , and the Eagles defense held the Patriots to a 3 and out , but a crucial interception with 46 seconds left on the clock secured their fate . 2005 - 2012 Brian Dawkins was one of the premier safeties in the NFL , and earned him the role of Eagles ' defensive captain , and a mainstay on the Eagles . The team took a step back in 2005 with a 6 -- 10 record . McNabb had played with a sports hernia and a broken thumb , starting 4 -- 2 but losing three in a row , before McNabb finally succumbs to injury and is out for the rest of the season . For obnoxious behavior and a feud with McNabb , Owens was suspended after 7 games , eventually being cut . In 2006 , the team lost McNabb 10 games in and went into turmoil , but Westbrook stepped up , and the Eagles earned their fifth NFC East title under Coach Reid , with a 10 -- 6 record and a win in the wild card round , but they had an 8 -- 8 2007 season . In 2008 , the team won their 500th game , and they also drafted DeSean Jackson , a receiving threat when paired with McNabb . On January 11 , 2009 , the team defeated the defending Super Bowl champion and 1st seed New York Giants 23 -- 11 en route to their 5th NFC Championship Game in 8 years and 5th in the 10 years the Eagles have been coached by Andy Reid . In the 2008 NFC Championship Game , the Eagles made a rally , going from 24 -- 6 at halftime to 25 -- 24 with three minutes left in the 4th , but they lost to the Arizona Cardinals by a score of 32 -- 25 after quarterback Kurt Warner scored a last minute touchdown . As of the conclusion of the 2016 season , during the Lurie era , the Eagles are 1 -- 4 in conference championship games and 0 -- 1 in Super Bowls . On August 13 , 2009 , the Eagles signed quarterback Michael Vick . On December 6 , 2009 , Andy Reid became only the 5th coach in NFL history to win 100 or more games with a single team in a single decade . The other four are Tom Landry , Don Shula , Tony Dungy , and Bill Belichick , all Super Bowl winners . McNabb finally had a complete receiving corps , between first round draft pick Jeremy Maclin , DeSean Jackson 's 1,000 yard season , and Brent Celek ranking among the top 5 tight ends in the league . Without Brian Dawkins , defensive end Trent Cole stepped up and became the dominant force on defense with 12 sacks , earning him his second trip to the Pro Bowl and All - Pro honors . In 2009 , the Eagles started 5 -- 4 , but moved up to 11 -- 4 , and could clinch the NFC 2nd seed if they won their next game . After a shutout at the hands of the Dallas Cowboys in week 17 , the Eagles missed the 1st round bye. but with a record of 11 -- 5 , but they were the NFC 6th seed and they narrowly made the playoffs . In the 2009 NFC Wild Card Game , the Eagles played against the Cowboys for the second consecutive week and lost 34 -- 14 . Despite many errors from many players , and a great season before the breakdown in Dallas , McNabb took the brunt of the blow and was heavily criticized . Coach Andy Reid said up until April 1 , 2010 , that McNabb would remain the starter . On March 5 , 2010 , Brian Westbrook was cut from the Eagles after eight seasons with the team . On April 4 , 2010 , the team traded long - time starting quarterback Donovan McNabb to the Washington Redskins in exchange for a second round draft pick . Kevin Kolb was immediately named the starter , but after suffering a concussion in week 1 against the Packers , Vick took over as the starter . Vick led the Eagles to its sixth NFC East division title in ten seasons . With a record of 10 -- 6 the Eagles clinched the 3rd seed and had to play a Wild Card Playoff Game . During the 2010 NFC Wild Card Game , the Eagles faced off against the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers and lost 21 -- 16 . The 2011 season for the Eagles was a major disappointment , as they only managed to finish 8 -- 8 and did not qualify for the playoffs , although they did win the last 4 games of the season . Because of several free agent acquisitions , Vince Young , a back up quarterback , stated that the Eagles were a Dream Team . The Philadelphia fan base and faithful never did concur with the comment as some national outlets may comment . Many Eagles fans believe that Vince Young saying that the Eagles were a ' Dream Team ' is the reason that the Eagles had such a horrible season . Eagles fans had high expectations going into the 2012 season . The Eagles started off winning three out of their four first games , but that changed when they lost the next eight games , and were eliminated from the playoff hunt . They only won one out of their last four games . After a loss to the New York Giants on December 30 , 2012 , longtime head coach Andy Reid was fired after fourteen seasons with the team . Chip Kelly era ( 2013 -- 2015 ) On January 16 , 2013 , the Eagles brought in University of Oregon head coach Chip Kelly to succeed Reid as head coach after a 4 -- 12 season . The Philadelphia Eagles named Michael Vick starting quarterback going into the 2013 season with much promise running Chip Kelly 's fast - paced spread offense . The 2013 season proved to be more successful for the Eagles . A hamstring injury took Michael Vick out after a 1 -- 3 start , but his backup , Nick Foles , led the team to a 10 -- 6 regular season record , and its seventh NFC East title in 13 seasons . Before throwing his first interception in Week 14 , Foles threw 19 touchdowns , which was just one shy of the all - time NFL record of consecutive touchdowns without an interception to start a season , set earlier in the season by Peyton Manning . Foles also tied Manning for most touchdown passes in a single - game with seven against the Oakland Raiders which also made him the youngest player in NFL history to throw that many touchdowns in a game . Foles finished the regular season with 27 touchdown passes and only 2 interceptions , giving him the then - best TD - INT ratio in NFL history . ( That record was later broken by Tom Brady , in the 2016 season . ) He also finished with a 119.0 passer rating , third highest in league history behind only Aaron Rodgers in 2011 and Peyton Manning in 2004 . He was also only the second quarterback in NFL history to have a game in which he topped 400 passing yards and a perfect passer rating . LeSean McCoy finished his Pro Bowl season as the league 's top rusher with 1,607 rushing yards ( also a franchise record ) and 2,146 total yards from scrimmage , also best in the NFL . As a whole , the Eagles offense scored 51 touchdowns , most in franchise history passing the previous season high set back in 1948 . The Eagles opened the 2014 season winning their first three games and making NFL history as the only team ever to trail by ten or more points in their first three games and come back to win . Nick Foles struggled with turnovers , but ultimately did well and led the Eagles to a 6 -- 2 record , before breaking his collarbone , resulting in his job getting taken over by Mark Sanchez , who outplayed Foles despite facing more playoff teams . The Eagles held the divisional title from week one to week 15 against the Cowboys . After going 9 -- 3 with their crucial win over the Cowboys , the Eagles lost their next 3 , and a week after losing the NFC East title , they lost an upset against the 3 -- 11 Redskins and were eliminated from playoff contention with the Cowboys ' win over the Colts . Following the 2014 season , Chip Kelly was given total control and made some controversial moves . He traded LeSean McCoy , who had become the team 's all - time leading rusher after the 2014 season , for linebacker Kiko Alonso , a player Kelly coached at Oregon who had missed the entire 2014 season . He also cut ten - year veteran and starter , Trent Cole , who was still a consistent threat on defense and was second only to legend Reggie White on the Eagles all - time sack list . He also made a trade where the highly successful Nick Foles was traded for Sam Bradford , who had missed the entire 2014 season with an ACL tear . Kelly tried to re-sign Jeremy Maclin , who had stepped up as the team 's leading wide receiver , but he signed with the Kansas City Chiefs instead . However , the Eagles also acquired league leading rusher DeMarco Murray , which not only helped the Eagles , but hurt their rivals , the Dallas Cowboys . They also obtained Super Bowl champion Byron Maxwell , who left the Seattle Seahawks in free agency to sign a six - year , $63 million contract . The first two games of the season were disastrous , as they started 0 -- 2 . Bradford had a 2 -- 4 TD - INT ratio , Maxwell was constantly beaten by Falcons receiver Julio Jones , and Murray was held to 11 yards on 21 carries . After Murray was injured , Ryan Mathews rushed for over 100 yards in a Week 3 win against the New York Jets . Kelly made Murray the unquestioned starter and although Murray 's play improved over the season , he never regained his dominant form and was held to a career low 3.6 yards per carry average . On December 29 , 2015 , with one game left in the season , head coach Chip Kelly was released by the Eagles . Offensive Coordinator Pat Shurmur was named Interim Coach for the final game against the rival New York Giants , which Shurmur won 35 -- 30 . Former player and current running backs coach Duce Staley was the first coach to be interviewed for the opening head coaching job on January 2 , 2016 . Doug Pederson era ( 2016 -- present ) Carson Wentz made his debut in the 2016 season The Eagles hired Chiefs offensive coordinator Doug Pederson as their next head coach . The team made the official announcement on January 18 , 2016 . Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie said in a statement : `` Doug is a strategic thinker , a compelling leader and communicator , and someone who truly knows how to get the best out of his players . All of these factors were what initially attracted us to Doug and we believe that he is the right man to help us achieve our ultimate goal . '' Pederson had been with the Chiefs for the preceding three years after spending the four seasons previous to those with the Eagles . He served as a quality control assistant for the Eagles in 2009 and 2010 before being promoted to quarterbacks coach for the 2011 and 2012 seasons . He was praised for his work with Chiefs quarterback Alex Smith over the preceding few seasons , particularly 2015 , as the Chiefs moved into the top 10 in scoring offense . At the end of the 2015 season , the Eagles had the 13th pick in the 2016 NFL Draft . They traded Byron Maxwell , Kiko Alonso , and their pick to the Miami Dolphins for the # 8 pick . Later , they traded the # 8 pick , their third - round pick , their fourth - round pick , a 2017 first - round pick , and a 2018 second - round pick to the Cleveland Browns for the # 2 pick and a 2017 fourth - round pick . They used the # 2 pick to draft North Dakota State quarterback Carson Wentz . On September 3 , 2016 , the Eagles traded starting quarterback Sam Bradford to the Minnesota Vikings , who had lost Teddy Bridgewater for the season , for a 2017 first - round pick and a 2018 fourth - round pick . Following the trade , the Eagles named Wentz the starting quarterback for Week 1 of the 2016 season . First - time head coach Pederson led the Eagles to a 3 -- 0 start to the season . His rookie quarterback started with 5 touchdowns , no interceptions and over 255 yards per game . The Week 4 bye took a toll on the Eagles , and they lost four out of the next five games , including a loss to every rival team in their division . They also lost right tackle Lane Johnson to a 10 - game suspension following the Week 5 loss againist the Lions which damaged Carson Wentz 's hot start . In those four games , their average margin of loss was just under 5 points . Pederson and the Eagles won just 3 of their last 7 games . Those included gruesome road losses against the Seattle Seahawks , the Cincinnati Bengals , and the Baltimore Ravens . Although Wentz started off the season well , the 6 -- 5 quarterback finished with a TD -- INT ratio of 16 : 14 . The rookie head coach and rookie quarterback tandem led the Eagles to a disappointing year , finishing with a 7 -- 9 record and coming in last in the division . 2017 : first Super Bowl Championship During the following offseason , the team made several acquisitions on the offensive side of the ball . The Eagles either traded or released notable players from the Chip Kelly era like Ryan Mathews , Matt Tobin , Allen Barbre , Jordan Matthews and Marcus Smith II . They signed more notable players to improve its wide receiver corps that have struggled the last two seasons like Alshon Jeffery , and Torrey Smith as well as 2016 Super Bowl champion , Legarrette Blount . They also added veterans on defense such as Patrick Robinson , Chris Long , Corey Graham , Tim Jernigan and Ronald Darby . The team addressed its defense mostly in the draft , using its top three picks on defensive players . The Eagles drafted Derek Barnett with the 14th overall pick . The Eagles had completely revamped their offense and strengthened their defense heading into the 2017 season . They opened the season on the road versus the Washington Redskins and won the game 30 -- 17 . The team lost to the Kansas City Chiefs the following week , 27 -- 20 , in Pederson 's return to face Andy Reid . The Eagles then won six consecutive games , including signature wins at the Carolina Panthers , 28 -- 23 , and versus the Washington Redskins , 34 -- 24 , in a Monday Night contest . On the morning of October 31 , 2017 , just before the NFL trade deadline , the Eagles made a blockbuster move sending a fourth - round pick to the Miami Dolphins for star running back Jay Ajayi . The move immediately paid dividends for the Eagles heading into their next game versus the Denver Broncos as Ajayi rushed for 77 yards on just eight attempts including a 46 - yard TD near the end of the second quarter . Ajayi and Wentz led the Eagles to a 51 -- 23 rout of the top defense in the NFL . Foles in the Huddle before leaving the field before Super Bowl LII . The Eagles headed into their bye week with the best record in the NFL ( 8 -- 1 ) , and with Wentz leading the NFL MVP discussion with an NFL - leading 23 touchdowns to 5 interceptions . During their bye , the Eagles signed former Giants offensive tackle Will Beatty and former Saints linebacker Dannell Ellerbe to not only add depth but also players with Super Bowl experiences . Coming off of the bye week , the Philadelphia Eagles entered a Sunday night showdown with the defending NFC East champion Dallas Cowboys . The Eagles came out sluggish and trailed 9 -- 7 at the half . The team exploded in the second half though , rattling off 30 unanswered points to soundly defeat their rival by a final score of 37 -- 9 . The Eagles were rolling on a nine - game winning streak after a huge blowout win over the Chicago Bears . The Eagles traveled to Seattle in Week 13 in a huge Sunday Night showdown against Russell Wilson and the Seattle Seahawks . The Eagles struggled throughout the whole game , blowing many scoring opportunities and allowing Wilson to throw 3 touchdowns . The Eagles lost 24 -- 10 , ending their win streak . However , the Eagles bounced back in Week 14 win over the Los Angeles Rams in a tough 43 -- 35 win . However , Carson Wentz left the game in the third quarter with a knee injury . It was later found out that Wentz tore his ACL , ending his MVP caliber season . Backup Nick Foles would once again take over as starting quarterback . In Foles 's first start against the New York Giants , he would lead them back from a 20 -- 7 deficit and score 4 touchdowns and win the game 34 -- 29 . Foles struggled in the last two games of the season against the Oakland Raiders and the Dallas Cowboys , and threw a touchdown and 2 interceptions in that span . Despite this , the Eagles finished 13 -- 3 and secured the top seed in the NFC . The Eagles opened as the underdogs , the first time in history that a No. 1 seed has opened up the postseason as an underdog . Despite this , Foles would lead the Eagles past the Atlanta Falcons in the Divisional Round 15 -- 10 . In the next game Foles and the Eagles annihilated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship nicknamed the Minneapolis Massacre , mocking the Minneapolis Miracle from their previous playoff victory . Foles had his best game since week 15 and threw for 352 passing yards and 3 touchdowns including an impressive flea flicker touchdown pass . This win marked the franchise 's third Super Bowl appearance and a berth in Super Bowl LII for a 2005 rematch against Tom Brady and the New England Patriots . With Foles at the helm , the Eagles started off the game strong , leading the Patriots 22 -- 12 at halftime . In the second half the Patriots gained momentum and for the first time took the lead in the 4th quarter 33 -- 32 . The Eagles rallied back and scored an 11 - yard Touchdown to tight end Zach Ertz . Later the Eagles converted on a 46 - yard field goal by Jake Elliott to lead 41 -- 33 . On the final play of the game with 9 seconds left , Brady threw a hail - mary pass directed toward tight end Rob Gronkowski which was bobbled by Patrick Robinson before being dropped in the end - zone as time expired , securing the win for the Eagles 41 -- 33 , and ending the 58 - year long championship drought . This would be Philadelphia 's first Super Bowl win and their fourth league championship ( their first championship since 1960 ) . Foles won Super Bowl MVP going 28 -- 43 with 373 passing yards , 3 touchdowns , and an interception . Nick Foles became the first backup quarterback to start and win a Super Bowl since his opponent Tom Brady won as the backup for Drew Bledsoe in 2001 . Season records Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles seasons Regular season record ( all - time ) : 568 -- 594 -- 26 Playoff record ( all - time ) : 22 -- 21 ( last appearance after beating New England Patriots in Super Bowl LII ) Most points in a season : 474 points ( 2014 ) NFL championships won : 4 ( 3 before the 1967 NFL - AFL merger created the Super Bowl ) Super Bowls won : 1 out of 3 appearances Passing leader ( all - time ) : Donovan McNabb -- 32,873 yards Rushing leader ( all - time ) : LeSean McCoy -- 6,792 yards Receiving leader ( all - time ) : Harold Carmichael -- 8,978 yards Winningest coach ( all - time ) : Andy Reid -- 130 wins Top player by approximate value ( all - time ) : Donovan McNabb -- 126 AV Rivalries New York Giants Main article : Eagles -- Giants rivalry One of the NFL 's oldest , this rivalry began on October 15 , 1933 when the Giants defeated the newly founded Eagles 56 -- 0 . The Giants lead the all - time series 84 -- 82 -- 2 . Three of the best known comebacks against the Giants are labeled as `` Miracle In The Meadowlands -- Herm Edwards '' , `` Miracle In The Meadowlands II -- Brian Westbrook '' and `` Miracle In The New Meadowlands -- DeSean Jackson '' . Dallas Cowboys Main article : Cowboys -- Eagles rivalry The Cowboys have been one of the Eagles ' biggest rivals . The Eagles won the first game in this rivalry 27 -- 25 on September 30 , 1960 . Dallas leads the all - time series 63 -- 51 -- 0 . They have been close in recent years , with Dallas winning 12 games from 2006 to the present while the Eagles have also won 12 . There is much hostility between the two teams ' fan bases , with incidents such as the 1989 Bounty Bowl . Washington Redskins Main article : Eagles -- Redskins rivalry Not as big as the rivalries between the Giants and Cowboys , that with division rivals Washington Redskins is still fierce . It started in 1934 when the Washington Redskins were first known as the Boston Redskin ; the Redskins defeated the Eagles 6 -- 0 , and lead the all - time series 85 -- 76 -- 6 . The rivalry has been very even since 2010 overall . However , the Eagles swept the Redskins during the 2017 season for the first time since the 2013 season . Pittsburgh Steelers Main article : Eagles -- Steelers rivalry The Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers are both located in Pennsylvania and began play in 1933 . From that season , through 1966 , this was a major rivalry for both teams as both were part of the same division . In 1967 , they were placed in separate divisions but remained in the same conference for three years . Finally , in 1970 , the Steelers ( along with the Cleveland Browns and Baltimore Colts ) moved to the American Football Conference while the Eagles stayed with the rest of the old - line NFL teams in the National Football Conference . As a result , the Eagles and Steelers no longer played each other every year . Currently they are scheduled to meet once every four years in the regular season , the most recent meeting being in 2016 at Philadelphia , with the Eagles winning 34 - 3 . The Steelers have lost nine straight games on the road against the Eagles dating back to 1966 , which was also the start of the Super Bowl era . The Eagles lead the all - time series 47 -- 28 -- 3 . Logo and uniforms See also : Uniform ( American football ) and footnote about Eagles ' uniform numbers . For several decades , the Eagles ' colors were kelly green , silver , and white . In 1954 , the Eagles , along with the Baltimore Colts , became the second team ever in the NFL to put a logo on their helmets , with silver wings on a kelly green helmet . In 1969 , the team wore two helmet versions : Kelly green with white wings in road games , and white with kelly green wings at home . From 1970 to ' 73 , they wore the white helmets with Kelly green wings exclusively before switching back to Kelly green helmets with silver wings . By 1974 , Joseph A. Scirrotto Jr. designed the silver wings took on a white outline , and this style on a kelly green helmet became standard for over two decades . From 1948 -- 95 , the team logo was an eagle in flight carrying a football in its claws , although from ' 69 -- 72 , the eagle took on a more stylized look . As the design was similar to the Apollo 11 emblem , and its moon - landing craft was dubbed Eagle , players wore the flight 's mission patch on their jerseys during 1969 . In 1973 , the team 's name was added below the eagle , which returned to its pre - ' 69 look . However , both the logo and uniforms were radically altered in 1996 . The primary kelly green color was changed to a darker shade , officially described as `` midnight green . '' Silver was practically abandoned , as uniform pants moved to either white or midnight green . The traditional helmet wings were changed to a primarily white color , with silver and black accents . The team 's logo combination ( the eagle and club name lettering ) also changed in 1996 , with the eagle itself limited to a white ( bald eagle ) head , drawn in a less realistic , more cartoon - based style , and the lettering changing from calligraphic to block letters . Since the 1996 alterations , the team has made only minor alterations , mostly relating to jersey / pant combinations worn during specific games . For example , in 1997 , against the San Francisco 49ers , the team wore midnight green jerseys and pants for the first of only two occasions in team history . The second occasion was in 2002 , during the final regular season game at Veterans Stadium , a win over the division - rival Washington Redskins . A year later , in the first two games of the 2003 season ( both home losses to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New England Patriots ) , the Eagles wore white jerseys with white pants . Since 2003 , the white jerseys along with white pants have been worn during preseason games . The 2003 season also saw the first ( though only subtle ) change to the 1996 - style uniform . On both white and green jerseys , black shadows and silver trim were added to both the green and white numbering . The stripe on the pants changed from black - green - black to black - silver - green on the white pants , and from a solid black stripe to one stripe of black , another of silver , with one small white stripe in between for the midnight blue pants . The 2003 season also saw the team debut black alternate jerseys , with a green ( instead of black ) shadow on white numbers , and silver trim . These black jerseys have been worn for two selected home games each season ( usually the first home game after bye week and the season finale ) . In the 2003 and 2004 regular season home finales , the team wore the green road pants with the black alternate jerseys , but lost each game . Since then , the Eagles have only worn the black jerseys with the white pants . However , due to the special 75th anniversary uniforms serving as the `` alternates '' for one game in 2007 , the Eagles could not wear the alternate black jersey that season per league rules ( alternate uniforms are permitted twice per season but only one can be used ) . The black jerseys with white pants , however , re-appeared for the 2008 Thanksgiving night game against the Arizona Cardinals . The black jerseys were most recently used in a December 21 , 2016 game against the New York Giants , in which they won 24 - 19 . From 2006 -- 2013 , the Eagles have only worn the alternate black jerseys once a season and for the last November home game , but did not use them in 2007 , 2010 , and 2011 . For the 2007 and 2010 seasons , the Eagles used throwback uniforms in place of the black alternates for their anniversary to commemorate past teams . The team also started wearing black shoes exclusively in 2004 . Since 2014 , the Eagles have worn the black jersey twice per season . In 2016 , they wore the black jersey three times . To celebrate the team 's 75th anniversary , the 2007 uniforms featured a 75th - season logo patch on the left shoulder . In addition , the team wore `` throwback '' jerseys in a 2007 game against the Detroit Lions . The yellow and blue jerseys , the same colors found on Philadelphia 's city flag , are based on those worn by the Philadelphia Eagles in the team 's inaugural season , and were the same colors used by the former Frankford Yellow Jackets franchise prior to their suspension of operations in 1931 . The Eagles beat Detroit , 56 -- 21 . The Philadelphia Eagles wear their white jerseys at home for preseason games and daytime games in the first half of the regular season from September to mid-October when the temperature is warmer . In night contests in the first half of the regular season , the Eagles do not need to wear white at home since the temperature is cooler . However , there have been exceptions , such as the home opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2003 and the Washington Redskins in 2007 that were played at night . In late October or beginning in November , the Eagles start to wear their colors at home ( although they have done it earlier before ) , be it the midnight green jerseys or a third jersey . On one occasion the Eagles wore white at home after October in a meeting against the Dallas Cowboys on November 4 , 2007 to make the Cowboys wear their road blue jerseys . Since moving to Lincoln Financial Field in 2003 , the Eagles have worn white at home for at least their home opener , with the exceptions for the 2010 home opener ( see next paragraph ) , the 2011 home opener against the New York Giants , the 2016 home opener against the Cleveland Browns , and the 2017 home opener against the Giants . In the 2010 season against the Green Bay Packers , on September 12 , 2010 , the Eagles wore uniforms similar to the ones that were worn by the 1960 championship team in honor the 50th anniversary of that team . In weeks 4 and 6 of the 2010 season , the Eagles wore their white jerseys in a match - up against the Washington Redskins and Atlanta Falcons respectively before reverting to their midnight green jerseys for the rest of their home games . For the 2011 season , the Eagles did not wear white for any of their home games . For the 2012 season Nike took over from Reebok as the NFL 's official apparel licensee but the Eagles decided that they would not be adopting Nike 's `` Elite 51 '' uniform technology . Aside from the Nike logo replacing the Reebok logo , the only other change is the league - wide revision of the NFL shield on the uniform ( replacing the NFL Equipment logo ) , other than that the uniforms essentially remain unchanged . The Eagles also revived their black alternate jersey . For the 2013 season , the Eagles started to wear white pants , as an alternate to their green pants , with their white jerseys , in the regular season . For the 2014 season the Eagles have officially adopted the `` Elite 51 '' style uniform from Nike . Recently the team has discussed bringing back the `` Kelly Green '' uniforms similar to the uniforms worn in the 1960 NFL Championship season and which were last worn in the 2010 season opener vs. Green Bay . Traditionally kelly green , silver and white had been the official team color until 1996 season when it switched to the current `` Midnight Green '' uniforms . But due to the NFL rules and restrictions having a team go through a waiting period before any major uniform changes and alterations can be made , it would most likely be quite some time before any uniform changes are officially made . In Week 6 of 2014 against the New York Giants , the team introduced black pants to complement their black jerseys , giving them a blackout uniform set , the Eagles won the game 27 -- 0 . The victory was their first shutout in 18 years . The blackout uniform was most recently worn in a Week 16 victory , 19 - 10 , against the Raiders in 2017 . The Eagles are 6 -- 3 in their blackout uniforms : winning three times against the Giants and once against each of the Minnesota Vikings , Denver Broncos , and Oakland Raiders , and losing against the Seattle Seahawks , Arizona Cardinals , and Green Bay Packers . Training camp The Eagles previously held their preseason training camp from the end of July through mid-August each year at Lehigh University in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley . With the addition of new head coach Chip Kelly , the Eagles recently moved their training camp to the NovaCare Complex in Philadelphia . Training camps were previously held at Chestnut Hill Academy in 1935 , Saint Joseph 's University in 1939 and 1943 , Saranac Lake from 1946 -- 1948 , Hershey from 1951 -- 1967 , Albright College from 1968 -- 1972 , Widener University from 1973 -- 1979 , and West Chester University from 1980 -- 1995 . Fight song Further information : Fly , Eagles Fly This fight song is heard during Eagles ' home games after touchdowns and before the team is introduced prior to kickoff . Fans Full house at `` The Linc '' for a playoff game in January 2011 An Eagles fan in attendance at U.S. Bank Stadium celebrates following the team 's victory at Super Bowl LII . Eagles fans celebrating along Benjamin Franklin Parkway at the Eagles victory parade Devotion Although the method may vary , studies that attempt to rank the 32 fan bases in the NFL consistently place Eagles fans among the best in the league , noting their `` unmatched fervor . '' Eagles fans have numerous dedicated web communities , ranking the Eagles just behind the Phillies as the dominant Philadelphia sports presence on the web . The American City Business Journals , which conducts a regular study to determine the most loyal fans in the NFL , evaluates fans based primarily on attendance - related factors , and ranked Eagles fans third in both 1999 and 2006 . The 2006 study called the fans `` incredibly loyal '' , noting that they filled 99.8 % of the seats in the stadium over the previous decade . Forbes placed the Eagles fans first in its 2008 survey , which was based on the correlation between team performance and fan attendance . ESPN.com placed Eagles fans fourth in the league in its 2008 survey , citing the connection between the team 's performance and the mood of the city . The last home game which was blacked out on television in the Philadelphia market as a result of not being sold out was against the Arizona Cardinals on Sunday , September 12 , 1999 , which was Andy Reid 's first home game as new head coach of the Eagles . The studies note that -- win or lose -- Eagles fans can be counted on to pack their stadium . As of August 2008 , the team had sold out 71 consecutive games , and 70,000 were on the team 's waiting list for season tickets . Despite finishing with a 6 -- 10 record in the 2005 season , the Eagles ranked second in the NFL in merchandise sales , and single - game tickets for the next season were sold out minutes after phone and Internet lines opened . Eagles fans have also been known to chant the famous , `` E-A-G-L-E-S -- Eagles ! ! '' at Flyers , Phillies , and 76ers games when the team is getting blown out late in a game and a loss is inevitable , signifying their displeasure with the given team 's performance , and that they are instead putting their hope into the Eagles . Bad behavior Along with their fierce devotion , Eagles fans have a reputation for bad behavior and sports - related violence , especially when the team plays its rivals . In If Football 's a Religion , Why Do n't We Have a Prayer ? , Jereé Longman described the fans of the 700 Level of Veterans Stadium as having a reputation for `` hostile taunting , fighting , public urination and general strangeness . '' So many incidents occurred at a 1997 game against the 49ers that at the following home game , Judge Seamus McCaffery began presiding over a temporary courtroom at the stadium ; 20 suspects came before him that day . Fan behavior improved after the team 's move to Lincoln Financial Field , and `` Eagles Court '' ended in December 2003 . Eagles Cheerleaders Eagles Cheerleaders doing a routine in 2008 . Main article : Philadelphia Eagles Cheerleaders The team also has its own cheerleading squad , which performs a variety of dance moves for the fans and the Eagles on the sideline . The squad also releases a swimsuit calendar each year , and is the first squad in the league to release the calendar on the Android and iOS mobile systems . Current roster Philadelphia Eagles roster view talk Quarterbacks 9 Nick Foles 7 Nate Sudfeld 11 Carson Wentz Running backs 36 Jay Ajayi 30 Corey Clement 34 Donnel Pumphrey 28 Wendell Smallwood Wide receivers 13 Nelson Agholor 19 Rashard Davis 18 Shelton Gibson 10 Mack Hollins 17 Alshon Jeffery 16 Bryce Treggs -- Mike Wallace 89 Greg Ward Jr . -- Dom Williams -- Marquess Wilson Tight ends 85 Billy Brown 86 Zach Ertz -- Joshua Perkins -- Adam Zaruba Offensive linemen 79 Brandon Brooks G 78 Darrell Greene G -- Taylor Hart T 65 Lane Johnson T 62 Jason Kelce C 71 Jason Peters T 73 Isaac Seumalo G -- Jon Toth C 72 Halapoulivaati Vaitai T 67 Chance Warmack G 61 Stefen Wisniewski G Defensive linemen 96 Derek Barnett DE -- Michael Bennett DE 91 Fletcher Cox DT -- Winston Craig DT 55 Brandon Graham DE 93 Timmy Jernigan DT 56 Chris Long DE 51 Steven Means DE -- Haloti Ngata DT 98 Elijah Qualls DT -- Aziz Shittu DT 97 Destiny Vaeao DT Linebackers 53 Nigel Bradham OLB 47 Nathan Gerry OLB 54 Kamu Grugier - Hill OLB 58 Jordan Hicks MLB 95 Mychal Kendricks OLB -- Corey Nelson OLB 59 Joe Walker MLB Defensive backs -- De'Vante Bausby CB -- Elie Bouka CB 41 Ronald Darby CB 32 Rasul Douglas CB -- Randall Goforth CB 27 Malcolm Jenkins SS 22 Sidney Jones CB 35 D.J. Killings CB 23 Rodney McLeod FS 42 Chris Maragos FS 31 Jalen Mills CB 49 Tre Sullivan S -- Daryl Worley CB Special teams 4 Jake Elliott K -- Cameron Johnston P 45 Rick Lovato LS Reserve lists Currently vacant Rookies in italics Roster updated March 24 , 2018 Depth chart Transactions 67 Active , Inactive → AFC rosters → NFC rosters AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA List of Philadelphia Eagles players ( past and present ) Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles players Awards and honors Retired numbers Philadelphia Eagles retired numbers No . Player Position Years played 5 Donovan McNabb QB 1999 -- 2009 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 -- 2008 40 Tom Brookshier CB 1953 -- 1961 44 Pete Retzlaff RB , WR , TE 1956 -- 1966 60 Chuck Bednarik LB , C 1949 -- 1962 70 Al Wistert OT 1943 -- 1951 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 99 Jerome Brown DT 1987 -- 1991 Notes : Posthumous honors . Despite not being retired , no one has worn Randall Cunningham 's No. 12 since he left the Eagles . Pro Football Hall of Famers Eagles legend Steve Van Buren Main article : List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Eagles in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Players No . Name Positions Seasons Inducted No . Name Positions Seasons Inducted 60 Chuck Bednarik C -- LB 1949 -- 1962 1967 33 Ollie Matson RB 1964 -- 1966 1972 76 Bob Brown OT 1964 -- 1968 25 Tommy McDonald WR 1957 -- 1963 1998 80 Cris Carter WR 1987 -- 1989 2013 85 James Arthur `` Art '' Monk WR 1995 2008 95 Richard Dent DE 1997 2011 35 Pete Pihos TE -- DE 1947 -- 1955 1970 89 Mike Ditka TE 1967 -- 1968 1988 54 Jim Ringo 1964 -- 1967 1981 86 Bud Grant WR -- DE 1951 -- 1952 1994 11 Norm Van Brocklin QB 1958 -- 1960 1971 56 Bill Hewitt End - FB 1937 -- 1939 , 1943 1971 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 1965 87 Claude Humphrey DE 1979 -- 1981 2014 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 2006 9 Sonny Jurgensen QB 1957 -- 1963 53 Alex Wojciechowicz C -- DT 1946 -- 1950 1968 80 James Lofton WR 1993 2003 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 - 2008 2018 Coaches and Executives Name Positions Seasons Inducted Bert Bell Owner / Founder 1933 -- 1940 1963 Wayne Millner Assistant Coach 1951 1968 Earle `` Greasy '' Neale Head Coach 1941 -- 1950 1969 Mike McCormack Head Coach 1973 -- 1975 1984 Eagles Hall of Fame See also : Category : American football museums and halls of fame . In 1987 , the Eagles Honor Roll was established . Every Eagles player who had by then been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame was among the inaugural induction class . By 2012 , the Honor Roll had been retitled as the Eagles Hall of Fame . Players are considered for induction three years after their retirement from the NFL , and there have been 41 inductees into the Eagles Hall of Fame as of 2015 . Eagles Hall of Fame Year No . Name Position ( s ) Tenure 60 Chuck Bednarik C -- LB 1949 -- 1962 -- Bert Bell Founder - Owner 1933 -- 1940 17 Harold Carmichael WR 1971 -- 1983 56 Bill Hewitt TE -- DE 1936 -- 1939 , 1943 9 Sonny Jurgensen QB 1957 -- 1963 33 Ollie Matson RB 1964 -- 1966 31 Wilbert Montgomery RB 1977 -- 1984 -- Earle `` Greasy '' Neale Head Coach 1941 -- 1950 35 Pete Pihos TE -- DE 1947 -- 1955 54 Jim Ringo 1964 -- 1967 11 Norm Van Brocklin QB 1958 -- 1960 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 53 Alex Wojciechowicz C -- DT 1946 -- 1950 1988 66 Bill Bergey LB 1974 -- 1980 25 Tommy McDonald WR 1957 -- 1963 1989 40 Tom Brookshier CB 1954 -- 1961 44 Pete Retzlaff TE 1956 -- 1966 1990 22 Timmy Brown RB 1960 -- 1967 1991 76 Jerry Sisemore OT 1973 -- 1987 75 Stan Walters OT 1975 -- 1983 1992 7 Ron Jaworski QB 1977 -- 1986 1993 28 Bill Bradley S -- P 1969 -- 1976 1994 -- Dick Vermeil Head Coach 1976 -- 1982 1995 -- Jim Gallagher Team Executive 1949 -- 1995 82 Mike Quick WR 1982 -- 1990 99 Jerome Brown DT 1987 -- 1991 1999 -- Otho Davis Head Trainer 1973 -- 1995 1948 NFL Championship team 1949 NFL Championship team 76 Bob Brown OT 1964 -- 1968 2005 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 2009 70 Al Wistert OT 1943 -- 1951 12 Randall Cunningham QB -- P 1985 -- 1995 2011 21 Eric Allen CB 1988 -- 1994 -- Jim Johnson Defensive Coordinator 1999 -- 2008 2012 -- Leo Carlin Ticket Manager 1960 -- 2015 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 -- 2008 23 Troy Vincent CB 1996 -- 2003 2013 5 Donovan McNabb QB 1999 -- 2009 2015 36 Brian Westbrook RB 2002 -- 2009 55 Maxie Baughan LB 1960 -- 1965 2016 54 Jeremiah Trotter LB 1998 -- 2001 , 2004 -- 2006 , 2009 - Merrill Reese Radio Play by Play 1977 -- Present 2017 David Akers 1999 - 2010 75th anniversary team Philadelphia Eagles 75th Anniversary Team ( 2007 ) Offense McNabb ( QB ) Van Buren ( RB ) Byars ( FB ) Carmichael ( WR ) McDonald ( WR ) Pihos ( TE ) Thomas ( LT ) Key ( LG ) Bednarik ( C ) Andrews ( RG ) Runyan ( RT ) Defense Simmons ( DE ) White ( DE ) J. Brown ( DT ) Johnson ( DT ) Bednarik ( MLB ) Joyner ( OLB ) Wojciechowicz ( OLB ) Allen ( CB ) Vincent ( CB ) Waters ( SS ) Dawkins ( FS ) Special teams T. Brown ( KR ) Westbrook ( PR ) Akers ( PK ) Landeta ( P ) Papale ( ST ) Coach Andy Reid John Wanamaker Athletic Award ( Philadelphia Sports Congress ) See footnote Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Main article : Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame See : Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame # Football Franchise records Source : pro-football-reference.com Eagles Franchise Page Passing Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Completions 2801 Donovan McNabb 379 Carson Wentz 2016 37 Mark Sanchez 2014 - 12 - 20 @ WAS Sam Bradford 2015 - 12 - 26 WAS 341 Donovan McNabb 73 Donovan McNabb 2008 30 Donovan McNabb 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 379 Carson Wentz 2016 36 Carson Wentz 2016 - 12 - 04 @ CIN Pass Attempts 4746 Donovan McNabb 607 Carson Wentz 2016 62 Randall Cunningham 1989 - 10 - 02 @ CHI Nick Foles 2014 - 10 - 26 @ ARI 577 Donovan McNabb 121 Donovan McNabb 2008 54 Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI 607 Carson Wentz 2016 60 Carson Wentz 2016 - 12 - 04 @ CIN Passing Yards 32873 Donovan McNabb 3916 Donovan McNabb 2008 464 Donovan McNabb 2004 - 12 - 05 GNB 3752 Donovan McNabb 892 Donovan McNabb 2008 407 Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI 3782 Carson Wentz 2016 381 Nick Foles 2012 - 12 - 09 @ TAM Passing TDs 216 Donovan McNabb 33 Carson Wentz 2017 7 Nick Foles 2013 - 11 - 03 @ OAK 24 Donovan McNabb 7 Donovan McNabb Ron Jaworski 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET Donovan McNabb 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI / > Nick Foles 2018 - 01 - 21 MIN 2018 - 02 - 04 NNWE 16 Carson Wentz 2016 Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Donovan McNabb 2000 - 01 - 02 STL Intercepted 151 Ron Jaworski 26 Sonny Jurgensen 1962 6 Bobby Thomason 1956 - 10 - 21 CRD Pete Liske 1971 - 09 - 26 DAL 17 Donovan McNabb 7 Ron Jaworski 1980 Ron Jaworski 1981 - 01 - 25 NOAK Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI Donovan McNabb 2004 - 01 - 18 CAR 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 17 Davey O'Brien 1939 Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 15 RAM Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 18 @ GNB Brad Goebel 1991 - 10 - 13 NOR Passer Rating 94.2 + Nick Foles 119.2 # Nick Foles 2013 158.3 * Donovan McNabb 2007 - 09 - 23 DET Nick Foles 2013 - 11 - 03 @ OAK 83.6 # Jeff Garcia 132.4 * Rodney Peete 1995 143.3 * Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET 79.3 # Carson Wentz 2016 131.7 * Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Sacked 422 Randall Cunningham 72 Randall Cunningham 1986 12 Donovan McNabb 2007 - 09 - 30 @ NYG 48 Donovan McNabb 12 Donovan McNabb 2003 8 Donovan McNabb 2004 - 01 - 11 GNB 38 John Reaves 1972 7 Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 29 NYG Yds / Pass Att 8.71 + Sonny Jurgensen 9.12 # Nick Foles 2013 16.29 * Sonny Jurgensen 1962 - 11 - 25 DAL 6.5 # Donovan McNabb Randall Cunningham 10.2 * Norm Van Brocklin 1960 10.8 * Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET 6.73 # John Reaves 1972 12.47 * Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 22 @ WAS Pass Yds / Game 266.1 + Sam Bradford 278.6 # Donovan McNabb 2005 - 234.5 # Donovan McNabb 407 * Randall Cunningham 1988 - 242.7 # Nick Foles 2012 - + = min . 500 attempts , # = min . 100 attempts , ∗ = minimum 15 attempts , Rushing Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Rush Attempts 1465 Wilbert Montgomery 353 Ricky Watters 35 Heath Sherman 1990 - 11 - 12 WAS 141 Wilbert Montgomery 68 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 26 Wilbert Montgomery 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 182 Po James 1972 28 Charlie Garner 1994 - 10 - 09 WAS Rush Yards 6792 LeSean McCoy 1607 LeSean McCoy 2013 217 LeSean McCoy 2013 - 12 - 08 DET 591 Brian Westbrook 312 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 194 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 637 LeSean McCoy 2009 178 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR Rush Yds / Att 6.62 Randall Cunningham 7.98 Randall Cunningham 1990 11.63 Timmy Brown 1965 - 11 - 07 @ CLE 5.86 Donovan McNabb 7.79 Brian Westbrook 2006 7.46 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 4.9 Bryce Brown 2012 9.37 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR Rushing TDs 69 Steve Van Buren 17 LeSean McCoy 2011 Wilbert Montgomery 1979 - 10 - 07 WAS 1982 - 12 - 19 HOU LeSean McCoy 2010 - 09 - 19 @ DET 6 Wilbert Montgomery Wilbert Montgomery 1980 Brian Westbrook 2006 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN 1981 - 12 - 27 NYG Ken Keller 1956 LeSean McCoy 2009 Bryce Brown 2012 Wilbert Montgomery 1977 - 12 - 18 NYJ James Joseph 1991 - 11 - 04 NYG Charlie Garner 1994 - 10 - 02 @ SFO Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR 2012 - 12 - 02 @ DAL Rush Yds / Game 79 Ricky Watters 100.4 LeSean McCoy 2013 - 74 Wilbert Montgomery 128.5 Brian Westbrook 2006 - 70.1 Mike Hogan 1976 - ∗ = minimum 15 attempts , # = min . 100 attempts , + = min . 500 attempts Receiving Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Receptions 589 Harold Carmichael 90 Brian Westbrook 2007 13 Jeremy Maclin 2011 - 09 - 18 @ ATL Zach Ertz 2017 - 01 - 01 DAL 38 Chad Lewis 19 Brent Celek 2008 10 Brent Celek 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 81 Keith Jackson 1988 11 Junior Tautalatasi 1986 - 11 - 09 NYG Receiving Yds 8,978 Harold Carmichael 1409 Mike Quick 237 Tommy McDonald 1961 - 12 - 10 NYG 465 Harold Carmichael 211 Kevin Curtis 2008 146 Jeremy Maclin 2010 - 01 - 09 @ DAL 912 DeSean Jackson 2008 177 Hank Baskett 2006 - 12 - 31 ATL Yds / Rec 19.16 + Tommy McDonald 21.44 # Ben Hawkins 1967 52.5 * DeSean Jackson 2010 - 12 - 12 @ DAL 16.03 # Harold Carmichael 23.5 * Donte ' Stallworth 2006 30.5 * Kevin Curtis 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 21.09 # Hank Baskett 2006 28.5 * Fred Barnett 1990 - 10 - 15 MIN Receiving TDs 79 Harold Carmichael 14 Terrell Owens Ben Hawkins 1969 - 09 - 28 PIT 6 Harold Carmichael Harold Carmichael 1979 Brent Celek 2008 Harold Carmichael 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI Fred Barnett 1993 - 01 - 03 @ NOR Chad Lewis 2005 - 01 - 23 ATL Brent Celek 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 9 Calvin Williams 1990 ( 9 times ) Rec Yds / Game 70.3 + DeSean Jackson 90.4 # Ben Hawkins 1967 - 66.4 # Harold Carmichael 146 * Jeremy Maclin 2009 - 64.3 # Don Looney 1940 - ∗ = minimum 4 receptions , # = min . 20 receptions , + = min . 200 receptions Other Statistic Regular season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Total TDs 79 Harold Carmichael 20 LeSean McCoy 2011 Ben Hawkins 1969 - 09 - 28 PIT Wilbert Montgomery 1978 - 09 - 10 @ WAS 1979 - 10 - 07 WAS Brian Westbrook 2008 - 11 - 27 ARI 6 Brian Westbrook Wilbert Montgomery Harold Carmichael Harold Carmichael 1979 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 Duce Staley 2001 Brian Westbrook 2006 Brent Celek 2008 ( 8 times ) 9 Calvin Williams 1990 Corey Clement 2017 - 11 - 05 DEN Yds from Scrimmage 9,785 Brian Westbrook 2146 LeSean McCoy 2013 249 Timmy Brown 1962 - 12 - 16 @ STL 925 Brian Westbrook 443 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 208 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 878 Charle Young 1973 189 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR All Purpose Yds 12,049 Timmy Brown 2428 Timmy Brown 1963 341 Timmy Brown 1962 - 12 - 16 @ STL 953 Brian Westbrook 443 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 208 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 940 Steve Van Buren 1944 231 Kevin Bowman 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Returning Statistic Regular season Playoffs Career Season Game Career Season Game Kick Returns 169 Timmy Brown 54 Allen Rossum 1999 8 Derrick Witherspoon 1996 - 11 - 24 @ ARI Allen Rossum 1999 - 11 - 21 IND Quintin Demps 2008 - 11 - 09 NYG 22 Brian Mitchell 11 Brian Mitchell 2001 6 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 01 - 27 @ STL Kick Ret Yds 4,483 Timmy Brown 1347 Allen Rossum 1999 253 Derrick Witherspoon 1996 - 11 - 24 @ ARI 522 Brian Mitchell 239 Brian Mitchell 2001 128 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 01 - 27 @ STL Yds / KR 27.74 Josh Huff 33.25 Steve Van Buren 1944 61 Jake Elliott 2017 - 09 - 24 25.29 J.R. Reed 26.8 Brian Mitchell 2002 31.25 Brian Mitchell 2003 - 01 - 19 TAM Kick Ret TDs 5 Timmy Brown Timmy Brown 1966 Derrick Witherspoon Timmy Brown 1966 - 11 - 06 DAL 0 Punt Returns 148 Wally Henry 54 Wally Henry 1981 9 Larry Marshall 1977 - 09 - 18 TAM 16 Brian Mitchell 8 Wally Henry 1979 John Sciarra 1980 6 John Sciarra 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL Punt Ret Yds 1369 Brian Mitchell 567 Brian Mitchell 2002 140 Alvin Haymond 1968 - 10 - 06 @ WAS 174 DeSean Jackson 122 DeSean Jackson 2008 109 DeSean Jackson 2009 - 01 - 04 @ MIN Yds / PR 14.71 Ernie Steele 20.44 Ernie Steele 1942 33 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 11 - 25 @ SFO 15.82 DeSean Jackson 17.43 DeSean Jackson 2008 21.8 DeSean Jackson 2009 - 01 - 04 @ MIN Punt Ret TDs DeSean Jackson Darren Sproles Brian Westbrook 2003 DeSean Jackson 2009 Darren Sproles 2014 , 2015 ( 8 times ) 0 Total Return Yds 4,997 Timmy Brown 1729 Brian Mitchell 2002 234 Vai Sikahema 1992 - 11 - 22 @ NYG 657 Brian Mitchell 296 Brian Mitchell 2001 159 Brian Mitchell 2003 - 01 - 19 TAM Defense Statistic Regular season Playoffs Career Season Game Career Season Game Interceptions 34 Bill Bradley Brian Dawkins Eric Allen 11 Bill Bradley 1971 Don Burroughs 1961 - 12 - 03 @ PIT Nate Ramsey 1965 - 11 - 28 @ STL Jim Nettles 1965 - 12 - 12 @ PIT Joe Scarpati 1966 - 10 - 23 @ NYG 5 Herm Edwards Roynell Young 1980 Damon Moore 2001 Herm Edwards 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Roynell Young 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Eric Allen 1993 - 01 - 03 @ NOR Damon Moore 2002 - 01 - 12 TAM Int Ret Yds 536 Bill Bradley 248 Bill Bradley 1971 114 Frank LeMaster 1975 - 12 - 21 @ WAS 77 Damon Moore 77 Damon Moore 2001 59 Damon Moore 2002 - 01 - 12 TAM Int Ret TDs 5 Eric Allen Eric Allen 1993 Eric Allen 1993 - 12 - 26 NOR ( 6 times ) Sacks ( since 1982 ) 124 Reggie White 21 Reggie White 4.5 Clyde Simmons 1991 - 09 - 15 @ DAL Hugh Douglas 1998 - 10 - 18 @ SDG Derrick Burgess Hugh Douglas Carl Hairston Reggie White Carl Hairston 1980 Derrick Burgess Carl Hairston 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Hugh Douglas 2000 - 12 - 31 TAM Derrick Burgess 2005 - 01 - 23 ATL Darwin Walker 2007 - 01 - 13 @ NOR Exceptional performances Statistic Career Season Playoff Games Rookie Games 300 + yard passing games 30 Donovan McNabb 6 Donovan McNabb Donovan McNabb Carson Wentz 2016 100 + yard rushing games 26 Wilbert Montgomery 8 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 Brian Westbrook 2006 Brian Westbrook Don Johnson 1953 Mike Hogan 1976 Charlie Garner 1994 Bryce Brown 2012 100 + yard receiving games 23 Pete Retzlaff 8 Terrell Owens Fred Barnett Keith Jackson Charle Young 1973 Games with 1 + TD scored 69 Harold Carmichael 13 LeSean McCoy 2011 5 Harold Carmichael Duce Staley Brian Westbrook 9 Calvin Williams 1990 Games with 2 + TD scored 18 Brian Westbrook 6 LeSean McCoy 2011 Wilbert Montgomery Bryce Brown 2012 Jordan Matthews 2014 Games with 3 + TD scored 7 Brian Westbrook Pete Retzlaff 1965 Wilbert Montgomery 1982 Terrell Owens Brian Westbrook 2007 , 2008 - - Coaches of note Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles head coaches Current staff Philadelphia Eagles staff Front Office Chairman / CEO -- Jeffrey Lurie President -- Don Smolenski Executive Vice President of Football Operations -- Howie Roseman Senior Football Advisor -- Tom Donahoe Vice President of Player Personnel -- Joe Douglas Assistant Director of Player Personnel -- Andy Weidl Vice President of Football Operations and Strategy -- Alec Halaby Senior Director of College Scouting -- Anthony Patch Director of College Scouting -- Ian Cunningham Assistant Director of College Scouting -- Mike Bradway Director of Pro Scouting -- Dwayne Joseph Assistant Director of Pro Scouting -- Brandon Brown Director of Football Administration -- Jake Rosenberg Football Operations Executive -- Brian Dawkins Player Personnel Executive -- T.J. McCreight Player Personnel Executive College / Pro -- Trey Brown Assistant Director of Football Analytics -- Taylor Rajack Head Coaches Head Coach -- Doug Pederson Assistant Head Coach / Running Backs -- Duce Staley Offensive Coaches Offensive Coordinator -- Mike Groh Quarterbacks -- Press Taylor Wide Receivers -- Gunter Brewer Assistant Wide Receivers - Carson Walch Tight Ends -- Justin Peelle Offensive Line / Run Game Coordinator -- Jeff Stoutland Assistant Offensive Line / Tight Ends / Run Game -- Eugene Chung Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Quarterbacks -- Spencer Phillips Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Running Backs - Trent Miles Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Offensive Line -- T.J. Paganetti Defensive Coaches Defensive Coordinator -- Jim Schwartz Defensive Line -- Chris Wilson Linebackers -- Ken Flajole Secondary -- Cory Undlin Safeties -- Tim Hauck Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Defensive Line -- Phillip Daniels Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Linebackers - Ryan Paganetti Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Secondary -- Dino Vasso Special Teams Coaches Special Teams Coordinator -- Dave Fipp Assistant Special Teams -- Matthew Harper Strength and Conditioning Head Strength Coach -- Josh Hingst Assistant Strength Coach -- Keith Gray Perfomance Nutrition Coordinator / Assistant Strength Coach - Michael Minnis Strength Assistant -- Ben Wagner Director of High Performance -- Shaun Huls → Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA Radio and television Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles broadcasters Eagles Radio affiliates Map of radio affiliates . City Call Sign Frenquency Atlantic City , New Jersey WPGG 1450 AM Easton , Pennsylvania WCTO 96.1 FM Levittown , Pennsylvania WBCB 1490 AM Milford , Delaware WAFL 97.7 FM Millville , New Jersey WENJ 97.3 FM Philadelphia WTEL 610 AM WIP - FM 94.1 FM Pottsville , Pennsylvania WPPA 1360 AM Reading , Pennsylvania WEEU 830 AM Scranton , Pennsylvania WEJL 630 AM Sunbury , Pennsylvania WEGH 107.3 FM Williamsport , Pennsylvania WBZD - FM 93.3 FM Wilmington , Delaware WDEL 1150 AM York , Pennsylvania WSOX 96.1 FM From 2008 through 2010 , Eagles games were broadcast on both rock - formatted WYSP and sports - talk Sports Radio 610 WIP , as both stations are owned and operated by CBS Radio . In 2011 , CBS dropped the music on WYSP , renaming it WIP - FM and making it a full simulcast of WIP . Later , 610 AM became a CBS Sports Radio national broadcast , and 94 WIP was broadcast on WIP FM . The Eagles extended their broadcasting contract with WIP - FM through 2024 . Merrill Reese , who joined the Eagles in 1976 , is the play - by - play announcer , and former Eagles wide receiver Mike Quick , who replaced the offense lineman Stan Walters beginning in 1998 , is the color analyst . The post game show , which has consisted of many Philadelphia sports personalities , as of the 2014 season is hosted by Kevin Riley , a former Eagles linebacker and special - teamer , and Rob Ellis . Riley was the former post-game host for the show on 94 WYSP before the WIP change over ; Rob Ellis hosts a weekly show nightly from 6 -- 10 on 94.1 WIP - FM . No announcement was made prior to the start of preseason regarding who would be the host ( s ) for 2015 . In 2015 , the preseason games are being televised on WCAU , the local NBC owned and operated station . Television announcers for these preseason games were not announced prior to the start of preseason . During the regular season , games are governed by the NFL 's master broadcasting contract with FOX , CBS , NBC , and ESPN . Most games can be seen on FOX - owned WTXF - TV . When hosting an AFC team , those games can be seen on CBS - owned KYW - TV . Media and cultural reference In the book MASH : A Novel About Three Army Doctors , the character Captain Oliver Wendell `` Spearchucker '' Jones fictionally played for the Philadelphia Eagles , though in the movie this was changed to San Francisco . The 1976 draw was the subject of the movie Invincible . The movie stars Mark Wahlberg as Vince Papale , a 30 - year - old bartender and part - time school teacher , and also a diehard Eagles fan who became an Eagles player . The film differs slightly from true events as the selection process was invitation only , and Papale had at least some previous playing experience . The film Silver Linings Playbook highlights the 2008 Philadelphia Eagles season . The film was critically acclaimed and nominated for several awards including 8 Academy Awards . In the 1978 Academy Award - winning movie The Deer Hunter , the Eagles are referenced when Nick talks to Stan in the bar , saying : `` Hey , I got a hundred bucks says the Eagles never cross the fifty in the next half and Oakland wins by 20 ! '' Stan responds ; `` And I got an extra twenty says the Eagles ' quarterback wears a dress ! '' The award - winning comedy series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia starring Danny DeVito makes several references to the Philadelphia Eagles , most notably Season 3 , Episode 2 -- `` The Gang Gets Invincible , '' the title being a reference to the Wahlberg film . See also Philadelphia portal Sports portal South Philadelphia Sports Complex Sports in Philadelphia The Michael Vick Project Forbes ' list of the most valuable sports teams Notes and references Jump up ^ `` Philadelphia Eagles Team Facts '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved October 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Team Information '' ( PDF ) . 2016 Philadelphia Eagles Training Camp Media Guide . Philadelphia Eagles . September 9 , 2016 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Philadelphia Eagles Team Capsule '' ( PDF ) . 2017 Official National Football League Record and Fact Book . National Football League . August 22 , 2017 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 10 NFL Rivalries Of All Time : No. 4 Giants - Eagles '' . Sports Illustrated . December 15 , 2005 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Chadiha , Jeffri ( October 31 , 2007 ) . `` Ranking the NFL 's best rivalries : Where does Colts - Pats fit ? '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved April 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Bryan , Dave ( September 20 , 2016 ) . `` After 8 Straight Losses , Steelers Looking For Philadelphia Freedom Sunday Against Eagles '' . SteelersDepot.com . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fox , Ashley ( January 4 , 2014 ) . `` Fans always have Eagles ' back '' . ESPN . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Clark , Kevin ( July 2 , 2012 ) . `` Game Changer : NFL Scrambles to Fill Seats '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Smith , Howard ( December 7 , 2011 ) . `` NFL Players Poll : Most Intimidating Fans '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lyons , 2010 pg. 81 ^ Jump up to : Lyons , 2010 pg. 82 Jump up ^ Kuklick , Bruce ( 1993 ) . To Every Thing a Season : Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia , 1909 -- 1976 . Princeton University Press . p. 86 . ISBN 0 - 691 - 02104 - X . Retrieved May 27 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : See : History of the Pittsburgh Steelers # 1940 -- 41 : A new name and a `` new '' team . ^ Jump up to : Didinger , Ray ; Robert S. Lyons ( 2005 ) . The Eagles Encyclopedia . Temple University Press . ISBN 1 - 59213 - 449 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Year - by - Year History '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 29 , 2006 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Brookover , Bob ( September 17 , 2006 ) . `` The Birds ' Biggest Rival -- In a division of fierce foes , the Giants have battled the Eagles as tough as anyone '' . Philadelphia Inquirer . p . D1 . Jump up ^ Brookover , Bob ( November 6 , 2008 ) . `` Eagles -- Giants among top rivalries '' . Philadelphia Inquirer . p . D6 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles search ends with Vermeil '' . St Petersburg Times . February 9 , 1976 . Retrieved November 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The World 's Most Valuable Sports Teams No. 11 Philadelphia Eagles '' . Forbes.com . July 12 , 2011 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Heath , John . `` Denver 's Brian Dawkins : An Ageless Wolverine '' . BroncoTalk . Retrieved 24 April 2012 . Jump up ^ Dan Gelston ( Oct 26 , 2008 ) . `` Westbrook Helps Eagles Soar Above Falcons , Win 500th Game '' . NBC 10 Philadelphia . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Vick , Eagles agree to 2 - year deal '' . ESPN.com . August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles sign Reid through 2013 '' . ESPN.com . December 9 , 2009 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Maese , Rick ( April 5 , 2010 ) . `` Washington Redskins acquire quarterback Donovan McNabb from Philadelphia Eagles '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved April 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles fire Reid '' . USA Today . Philadelphia . December 30 , 2012 . Retrieved December 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles hire Chip Kelly as coach '' . ESPN.com . January 16 , 2013 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sports . Rocky Mount Telegram . Retrieved on August 6 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Eagles Acquire LB Alonso For RB McCoy '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Patra , Kevin ( March 10 , 2015 ) . `` Indianapolis Colts to sign Trent Cole '' . NFL.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Sessler , Marc . `` Rams trading Sam Bradford to Eagles for Nick Foles '' . NFL.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Official : RB Murray Signs With Eagles '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . March 12 , 2015 . Retrieved March 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` CB Byron Maxwell joins Eagles via FA '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Release Head Coach Chip Kelly '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . December 29 , 2015 . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Duce Staley interviews for Philadelphia Eagles ' vacant coaching job . Espn.go.com ( January 2 , 2016 ) . Retrieved on 2016 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Wesseling , Chris ( January 18 , 2016 ) . `` Philadelphia Eagles hire Doug Pederson as coach '' . National Football League . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Name Doug Pederson Head Coach '' . Philadelphia Eagles . January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Reimer , Alex ( September 5 , 2016 ) . `` Carson Wentz will start for Eagles '' . sbnation.com . Jump up ^ Pennington , Tom ( November 11 , 2016 ) . `` The Eagles Should Be Better Than 4 - 4 '' . fivethirtyeight.com . Retrieved April 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Philadelphia Eagles Media Guide Archived February 1 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Legacy.philadelphiaeagles.com . Retrieved on August 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Berman , Zach ( November 18 , 2016 ) . `` What 's in a number ? Eagles tell their stories : Some are chosen , some are random '' . Philadelphia Media Network ( Digital ) , LLC . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 30 . See also : National Football League uniform numbers . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Unveil 75th Anniversary Plans '' . Philadelphia Eagles. April 25 , 2007 . Archived from the original on July 24 , 2010 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Announce Plans to Honor 1960 Title Team '' . Csnphilly.com . May 3 , 2010 . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2012 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Training Camp , '' . Philadelphiaeagles.com . Archived from the original on August 18 , 2010 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Eagles move training camp from Lehigh . Foxnews.com ( March 15 , 2013 ) . Retrieved on 2016 - 08 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , Reuben ( July 10 , 2012 ) . `` Eagles to keep training camp at Lehigh in 2013 '' . CSN Philly . Archived from the original on January 21 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` In Depth : America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Phillies Pass Eagles In Google Ranking . myfoxphilly.com ( July 2 , 2011 ) Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` NFL Fan Loyalty : Methodology '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on May 26 , 2008 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ George , John ( February 5 , 1999 ) . `` Proven : Eagles ' fans are fanatics '' . Philadelphia Business Journal . Philadelphia ; Pennsylvania . p. 3 . Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` Full fan loyalty rankings '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2009 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` NFL Fan Support Rankings '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2009 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans : Methodology '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Mosley , Matt ( August 29 , 2008 ) . `` NFL 's best fans ? We got ta hand it to Steelers barely '' . ESPN . Retrieved August 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Berman , Zack ( June 14 , 2006 ) . `` Single Game Tickets Sold Out ! '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . Archived from the original on December 9 , 2008 . Retrieved June 22 , 2006 . ^ Jump up to : Anderson , Dave ( October 29 , 2002 ) . `` To Eagles , Shockey Is Public Enemy No. 1 '' . The New York Times . Retrieved December 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Longman , Jeré ( 2006 ) . If Football 's a Religion , Why Do n't We Have a Prayer ? . New York : HarperCollins Publishers . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 084373 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Court at Eagles ' games is out of session Sunday '' . Sports Illustrated . Associated Press . December 6 , 2003 . Retrieved December 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cheerleaders '' . Philadelphia Eagles . Retrieved September 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cheerleaders -- Swimsuit Calendar '' . Philadelphia Eagles . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Cheerleaders Swimsuit -- Android - apps op Google Play '' . Play.google.com . November 28 , 2011 . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Didinger , Ray ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Ray 's QB Notes 4 : Randall 's No. 12 retired ? '' . CSN Philly . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2013 . Retrieved August 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Weinberg , David ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` Leo Carlin , Troy Vincent headed to Eagles Hall of Fame '' . pressofatlanticcity.com . Retrieved July 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Hall of Fame Inductees '' ( PDF ) . philadelphiaeagles.com . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 25 , 2014 . Retrieved August 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ And The Winners Were ... See all the John Wanamaker Athletic Award - recipients since 1961 Archived July 24 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . webpage . Philadelphia Sports Congress website ( Philadelphia Convention & Visitors Bureau ) . Retrieved July 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Sportsradio WIP - Entercom Communications CEO David Field '' . Facebook.com . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ Invincible on IMDb Jump up ^ Cimino , Michael . `` The Deer Hunter Final Screenplay '' ( PDF ) . drexel.edu . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 19 . Jump up ^ Savage , Fred ( 13 September 2007 ) . `` The Gang Gets Invincible '' . IMDB . IMDB . Retrieved 27 September 2016 . Sources Lyons , Robert S. ( 2010 ) . On Any Given Sunday : A Life of Bert Bell . Philadelphia : Temple University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59213 - 731 - 2 . OCLC 607553558 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philadelphia Eagles . Official website Philadelphia Eagles Founded in 1933 Based and headquartered in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Franchise Franchise History Seasons Coaches Quarterbacks Players Stadiums Baker Bowl Philadelphia Municipal Stadium Connie Mack Stadium Franklin Field Veterans Stadium Lincoln Financial Field Culture Fly , Eagles Fly Swoop Curse of Billy Penn The Lombardi Curse Invincible Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Matt Guokas Sr . 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Kyle Massey
Kyle Massey - wikipedia Kyle Massey Jump to : navigation , search This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification . Please help by adding reliable sources . Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately , especially if potentially libelous or harmful . ( August 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Kyle Massey Massey at the November 30 , 2010 Epic Mickey launch party at the Times Square Disney Store . Kyle Orlando Massey ( 1991 - 08 - 28 ) August 28 , 1991 ( age 26 ) Atlanta , Georgia , U.S. Occupation Actor , rapper , singer , songwriter , musician Years active 1999 -- present Television That 's So Raven , Cory in the House , Life Is Ruff , American Dragon : Jake Long , Fish Hooks , Dancing with the Stars Relatives Christopher Massey ( brother ) Musical career Genres Hip hop rock Instruments Vocals guitar drums Years active 2006 -- present Labels Walt Disney Hollywood Associated acts Christopher Massey Kyle Orlando Massey ( born August 28 , 1991 ) is an American actor , rapper , and singer from Atlanta , Georgia . He is perhaps best known for starring in the Disney Channel sitcoms That 's So Raven and its spin - off Cory in the House , in which he played Cory Baxter . Massey starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie Life Is Ruff . Massey has released several rap songs for Walt Disney Records and Hollywood Records . He provided the voice of Milo in the Disney animated series Fish Hooks and was the runner - up on the 11th season of ABC 's Dancing with the Stars . He is the younger brother of actor Christopher Massey . Contents ( hide ) 1 Career 1.1 Acting 1.2 Music 1.3 Dancing with the Stars 2 Personal life 3 Discography 4 Filmography 5 References 6 External links Career ( edit ) Acting ( edit ) Kyle Massey played Cory Baxter on the Disney Channel shows That 's So Raven , which ran for 4 seasons , and its spin - off Cory in the House , which was cancelled after its second season . Massey also starred in the 2005 Disney Channel Original Movie , Life Is Ruff . He also voices the character of the fish Milo on the Disney Channel 's Fish Hooks . Massey also played a role in the PBS children 's educational series , The Electric Company . Music ( edit ) Massey appeared on the Disney Channel Holiday soundtrack and the Shaggy Dog soundtrack where he performed `` Who Let The Dog Out '' and `` Jingle Bells ( a Hip - Hop Carol ) '' . He sang the theme song for Cory in the House . Massey also raps a song called `` It 's a Dog '' on the Life is Ruff soundtrack . He also sang the theme song for Yin Yang Yo ! . Massey and his brother Christopher Massey have performed rap as the duo , The Massey Boyz . He also sang the music video for Disney 's Underdog . On June 12 , 2016 , Kyle was featured under the pseudonym Massey on the song ' Verse ' by Lebanese - American rapper Skate , making it the first time in nearly 10 years since Massey has done anything musically . Massey also owns a SoundCloud where he uploads new original music , with his most recent song being Finess . Dancing with the Stars ( edit ) Massey was a contestant on the 11th season of Dancing with the Stars , which premiered on September 20 , 2010 . He and his professional partner Lacey Schwimmer finished as the runners - up in the competition . Massey 's final dance was a freestyle to the song `` Tootsie Roll '' by the 69 Boys . He was praised by all the judges , being dubbed the `` Fresh Prince of DWTS '' . In 2012 , Massey and Schwimmer appeared in the Dancing with the Stars live show in Las Vegas , Nevada . Week # Dance / Song Judges ' score Result Inaba Goodman Tonioli Cha Cha Cha / `` My First Kiss '' 8 7 8 Last to be called Safe Quickstep / `` ( If You 're Wondering If I Want You To ) I Want You To '' 8 7 7 Safe Waltz / `` Falling In Love At a Coffee Shop '' 8 7 8 Safe Rumba / `` Nothin ' on You '' 6 / 8 6 / 7 6 / 7 Safe 5 Foxtrot / `` Charlie 's Angels Theme '' 8 5 7 Safe 6 Tango / `` If I Had You '' Rock n ' Roll Marathon / `` La Grange '' 8 Awarded 7 7 8 Points Safe 7 Cha Cha Cha Team Dance / `` Workin ' Day and Night '' Paso Doble / `` Free Your Mind '' 8 9 8 8 8 8 Last to be called Safe 8 Viennese Waltz / `` Breathe ( 2 AM ) '' Jive / `` Good Golly Miss Molly '' 9 10 9 9 9 10 Safe 9 Semi-finals Samba / `` She 's Got Me Dancing '' Argentine Tango / `` Jai Ho '' 10 10 9 9 10 10 Safe 10 Finals Foxtrot / `` Feeling Good '' Freestyle / `` Tootsee Roll '' Tango / `` If I Had You '' Cha Cha Cha / `` Raise Your Glass '' 9 10 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 10 9 10 Runner - up Personal Life ( edit ) Massey is the younger brother of actor Christopher Massey , who played Michael Barret in the television series Zoey 101 . Discography ( edit ) `` It 's a Dog '' - The Shaggy Dog ( 2006 ) `` Yin Yang Yo ! Theme Song '' - Yin Yang Yo ! ( 2006 ) `` Cory in the House Theme Song '' - Cory in the House ( 2007 ) `` Underdog Raps '' - Underdog : Original Soundtrack ( 2007 ) `` Jingle Bells ( A Hip Hop Carol ) '' - Disney Channel Holiday ( 2007 ) `` Finess ( featuring Skate ) '' - Single ( 2016 ) Filmography ( edit ) Film Year Title Role Notes 2005 Life Is Ruff Calvin Wheeler Disney Channel Original Movie 2011 Beethoven 's Christmas Adventure Henry Direct to DVD 2014 Senior Project Andy Television Year Title Role Notes 1999 Selma , Lord , Selma Featured as Kyle Orlando Massey Esparza / Katz TV - Movie Passing Glory Principal / Dancer as Kyle Orlando Massey Magic Johnson TV - Movie 2002 -- 2008 Express Yourself Himself Interstitial series 2003 -- 2007 That 's So Raven Cory Baxter Main Role ; Disney Channel Original Series 2003 The Practice Derrick Hayes Episode : Capitol Crimes The Parkers Babysat Child 2006 -- 2007 American Dragon : Jake Long Huntsboy # 88 , Bertha voice 2007 -- 2008 Cory in the House Cory Baxter Lead Role ; Disney Channel Original Series ; Spin - off of That 's So Raven 2009 The Electric Company P.J. Watson Recurring role 2010 -- 2014 Fish Hooks Milo Voice role ; Animated Disney Channel Original Series Dancing with the Stars Himself 11th Season contestant 2014 Gotham Mackey Recurring role 2015 Being Mary Jane Cameron Recurring role ; Season 2 2016 - present Mighty Magiswords Mr. Spoony Recurring role References ( edit ) External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kyle Massey . Kyle Massey on IMDb VIAF : 228061292 LCCN : n2011030920 ISNI : 0000 0003 7467 9741 BNF : cb150377739 ( data ) MusicBrainz : c2a25afc - 37d8 - 4bf6 - 9d03 - 91bee9693bce Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kyle_Massey&oldid=810358779 '' Categories : 1991 births Living people Male actors from Atlanta American male child actors American child musicians American male musicians American musicians American male television actors American male voice actors Participants in American reality television series Rappers from Atlanta 20th - century American male actors 21st - century American male actors African - American male actors African - American male rappers Hidden categories : BLP articles lacking sources from August 2014 All BLP articles lacking sources Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Suomi Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 14 November 2017 , at 19 : 56 . 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who played cory in that's so raven
[ "Kyle Orlando Massey (born August 28, 1991) is an American actor, rapper, and singer from Atlanta, Georgia. He is perhaps best known for starring in the Disney Channel sitcoms That's So Raven and its spin-off Cory in the House, in which he played Cory Baxter. Massey starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie Life Is Ruff. Massey has released several rap songs for Walt Disney Records and Hollywood Records. He provided the voice of Milo in the Disney animated series Fish Hooks and was the runner-up on the 11th season of ABC's Dancing with the Stars. He is the younger brother of actor Christopher Massey." ]
[ "Kyle Orlando Massey" ]
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The Blacklist (season 5)
The Blacklist ( season 5 ) - wikipedia The Blacklist ( season 5 ) Jump to : navigation , search The Blacklist ( season 5 ) Country of origin United States No. of episodes 22 Release Original network NBC Original release September 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 27 ) -- present Season chronology ← Previous Season 4 List of The Blacklist episodes The fifth season of the American crime thriller television series The Blacklist premiered on NBC on September 27 , 2017 , with a timeslot change from Thursday at 10 : 00 PM to Wednesday at 8 : 00 PM . The season was produced by Davis Entertainment , Universal Television and Sony Pictures Television , and the executive producers are Jon Bokenkamp , John Davis , John Eisendrath , John Fox , and Joe Carnahan . The season is scheduled to consist of 22 episodes . The season aired the series 100th episode . Contents ( hide ) 1 Cast 1.1 Main cast 2 Episodes 3 Ratings 4 References 5 External links Cast ( edit ) See also : List of The Blacklist characters Main cast ( edit ) James Spader as Raymond `` Red '' Reddington Megan Boone as Elizabeth Keen Diego Klattenhoff as Donald Ressler Ryan Eggold as Tom Keen Harry Lennix as Harold Cooper Amir Arison as Aram Mojtabai Mozhan Marnò as Samar Navabi Hisham Tawfiq as Dembe Zuma Episodes ( edit ) See also : List of The Blacklist episodes No . overall No. in season Title Blacklist guide Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 90 `` Smokey Putnum '' No. 30 Bill Roe Jon Bokenkamp & John Eisendrath September 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 27 ) 6.39 Following Mr. Kaplan 's death , Reddington 's criminal empire is in ruins and enlists newly discovered daughter Liz Keen to help him build it back up by finding the next blacklister named Smokey Putnum . Meanwhile , Ressler puts himself in an awkward position following Hitchin 's death . Aram and Samar 's romance escalates . Also , Tom Keen returns with a mysterious briefcase with a skeleton in it . 91 `` Greyson Blaise '' No. 37 Don Thorin Lukas Reiter & Jon Bokenkamp October 4 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 04 ) 5.87 Reddington enlists Liz and the task force to track down a blacklister named Greyson Blaise , a self - made billionaire who moonlights as a high - end thief to help Reddingtion with his crumbled empire . Meanwhile , Tom hits roadblocks when trying to identify the remains in the suitcase without Liz or Reddington finding out . 92 `` Miss Rebecca Thrall '' No. 76 Adam Weisinger Jonathan Shapiro & Taylor Martin October 11 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 11 ) 5.79 Reddington enlists help from Tom to establish a plan to help rebuild his criminal empire . Meanwhile , the task force investigates a series of suspicious police shootings and tracks down a blacklister named Rebecca Thrall who encourages police officers to do such crimes . 93 `` The Endling '' No. 44 Michael Watkins Noah Schechter October 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 18 ) 5.46 Liz and the task force investigates a blacklister who is trying to destroy the world to get to her ailing son to seek treatment . Meanwhile , Reddington seeks an opportunity to regain revenue for his criminal empire . Also , Tom hits a major roadblock when identifying the remains . Nick , after helping Red and Liz with a medical procedure for The Endling and determining that he never wants to be contacted again by either Red or Liz , is killed and the suitcase with the remains , is taken . 94 5 `` Ilyas Surkov '' No. 54 Kurt Kuenne Brandon Margolis & Brandon Sonnier October 25 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 25 ) 5.23 Liz and the task force collide with the CIA when tracking down a blacklister who is an international terrorist , but Cooper finds out that the ones that have identified themselves as CIA are imposters . Meanwhile , Reddington sets out on a new business venture while working on Nick 's murder . Also , Tom sets out on a new quest to discover information on the remains in the suitcase . Aram requests Cooper for his operational training . Reddington traces a connection with the suitcase to Tom . 95 6 `` The Travel Agency '' No. 90 Terrence O'Hara Carla Kettner November 1 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 01 ) 5.25 Cooper enlists help from Reddington on a personal mission . Meanwhile , Ressler is acting Director and leads the task force into a blacklister who are former murder for hire gang . Also , Tom continues his quest in into the remains in the suitcase , but runs into Red who knows he has it . After closing an emotional case , Liz decides that she wants to marry Tom and they rush to the courthouse . 96 7 `` The Kilgannon Corporation '' No. 48 Jean de Segonzac Lukas Reiter November 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 08 ) 5.04 After dozens of immigrants die off the Carolina coast , Reddington and the task force put Dembe undercover to stop a human smuggling operation . When Red confronts the elder Kilgannon about the deaths and the conditions , he then confronts his son about and the clash is fatal . This later complicates Dembe , putting him in a life or death situation as the task forces loses track of him . Tom is tracking whom he believes killed Nick as they were involved in trying to figure out the contents of the suitcase and discovers that there are others at play . Tom 's life is put at risk when others discover the suitcase and that it 's important to Reddington . 97 8 `` Ian Garvey '' No. 13 Bill Roe John Eisendrath & Jon Bokenkamp November 15 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 15 ) 5.89 Tom finds trouble while searching for answers in both Nick 's death and the infamous suitcase mystery , as the task force searches for him . Tom 's desperate escape reunites him with Red and they escape momentarily . Liz gets pulled into the middle of the tug of war over the contents of the suitcase which leaves her and Tom hospitalized , having fought for their lives . After being in a coma for 10 months , Liz wakes up while Reddington is reading to her , and , when asked , he informs her that Tom died from his injuries . 98 9 `` Ruin '' N / A Michael Caracciolo Sean Hennen January 3 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 03 ) 6.02 Liz escapes to a cabin in Alaska living under an alias to mourn Tom 's death . She leaves Agnes in the care of an exonerated Scottie Hargrave . During an ice storm she finds a critically injured man in the woods and soon after four other men arrive claiming they were all in a plane crash . Instantly sensing trouble , Liz is forced into a cat and mouse game to survive and save the injured man who turns out to be a federally protected witness . After killing the four men , Liz returns to her home leaving no trace of herself in Alaska . Returning to Red she tells him she only wants revenge for Tom 's death . 99 10 `` The Informant '' No. 118 Paul Holahan Noah Schechter January 10 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 10 ) 6.16 Liz comes out of hiding to continue her quest to find Tom 's killers . Meanwhile , Reddington directs the task force to find a blacklister with classified and sensitive information . Prescot is killed . Liz learns more about Nik and Tom . 100 11 `` Abraham Stern '' No. 100 Andrew McCarthy Story by : Dave Metzger & Jon Bokenkamp & John Eisendrath Teleplay by : Jon Bokenkamp & John Eisendrath January 17 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 17 ) 6.49 As Reddington begins his quest for a legendary treasure , he is robbed of an antique penny . Reddington steers the task force into tracking down a blacklister known for manipulating and stealing priceless treasures . Meanwhile , Liz looks into old cases when tracking down Tom 's killers . 101 12 `` The Cook '' No. 56 Solvan `` Slick '' Naim Peter Noah January 31 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 31 ) 6.11 Liz continues to search for clues into finding Tom 's killers with Reddington 's help . Meanwhile , the task force is forced to work with a former arsonist to catch another arsonist . 102 13 `` The Invisible Hand '' No. 63 Andrew McCarthy Jonathan Shapiro & Lukas Reiter February 7 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 07 ) 6.35 Reddington pushes the task force into finding a group of blacklisters named : `` The Invisible Hand , '' a group of people who kill victims and leave them abandoned in the Woods . Meanwhile , Reddington lends a hand to an old associate and Liz discovers a secret into Tom 's investigation . 103 14 `` Mr. Raleigh Sinclair III '' No. 51 Christine Gee Kelli Johnson February 28 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 28 ) 5.68 104 15 `` Pattie Sue Edwards '' TBA TBA TBA March 7 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 07 ) TBD 105 16 `` The Capricorn Killer '' TBA TBA TBA March 14 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 14 ) TBD Ratings ( edit ) No . Title Air date Ratings / Share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( millions ) DVR 18 -- 49 DVR Viewers ( millions ) Total 18 -- 49 Total viewers ( millions ) `` Smokey Putnum ( No. 30 ) '' September 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 27 ) 1.1 / 4 6.39 0.8 3.322 1.9 9.710 `` Greyson Blaise ( No. 37 ) '' October 4 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 04 ) 1.0 / 4 5.87 0.7 3.221 1.7 9.093 `` Miss Rebecca Thrall ( No. 76 ) '' October 11 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 11 ) 1.0 / 4 5.79 0.7 3.047 1.7 8.839 `` The Endling ( No. 44 ) '' October 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 18 ) 0.9 / 3 5.46 0.8 3.102 1.7 8.565 5 `` Ilyas Surkov ( No. 54 ) '' October 25 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 25 ) 0.8 / 3 5.23 0.7 3.061 1.5 8.292 6 `` The Travel Agency ( No. 90 ) '' November 1 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 01 ) 0.9 / 3 5.25 0.7 2.855 1.5 8.015 7 `` The Kilgannon Corporation ( No. 48 ) '' November 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 08 ) 0.9 / 3 5.04 N / A 3.130 N / A 8.171 8 `` Ian Garvey ( No. 13 ) '' November 15 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 15 ) 0.9 / 4 5.89 0.7 2.903 1.6 8.796 9 `` Ruin '' January 3 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 03 ) 1.0 / 4 6.02 N / A 2.951 N / A 8.975 10 `` The Informant ( No. 118 ) '' January 10 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 10 ) 1.0 / 4 6.16 0.8 3.216 1.8 9.372 11 `` Abraham Stern ( No. 100 ) '' January 17 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 17 ) 1.1 / 4 6.49 0.7 3.029 1.8 9.517 12 `` The Cook ( No. 56 ) '' January 31 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 31 ) 1.0 / 4 6.11 0.9 3.248 1.9 9.350 13 `` The Invisible Hand ( No. 63 ) '' February 7 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 07 ) 1.0 / 4 6.35 0.7 3.032 1.7 9.384 14 `` Mr. Raleigh Sinclair III '' February 28 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 28 ) 15 `` Pattie Sue Edwards '' March 7 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 07 ) 16 `` The Capricorn Killer '' March 14 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 14 ) References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Shows A-Z - Blacklist , the on NBC '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved September 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( July 31 , 2017 ) . `` NBC Tweaks Fall Rollout : Good Place Gets Early Talent - Boosted Premiere , The Blacklist Return Moved Up '' . TVLine . Retrieved August 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( September 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' Survivor ' premiere adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 5 , 2017 ) . `` ' SEAL Team , ' ' Law & Order : SVU ' and everything else unchanged : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 5 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 12 , 2017 ) . `` ' Empire , ' ' Survivor , ' ' Goldbergs , ' ' Blacklist ' adjust up , ' Dynasty ' adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 12 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 19 , 2017 ) . `` ' Survivor , ' ' Goldbergs , ' ' SEAL Team ' adjust up , ' Criminal Minds ' adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 19 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 26 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Blacklist ' and ' Designated Survivor ' adjust down , final World Series numbers : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 26 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 2 , 2017 ) . `` World Series ends big , ' Survivor , ' ' Goldbergs , ' ' Blacklist , ' ' Speechless ' adjust up : Wednesday final ratings '' . Retrieved November 2 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Empire , ' ' SVU , ' CMAs and others unchanged : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 16 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Goldbergs ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 16 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 5 , 2018 ) . `` ' Chicago PD ' adjusts up , ' The X-Files ' adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 5 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 11 , 2018 ) . `` ' Speechless ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 11 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 19 , 2018 ) . `` ' Riverdale , ' ' X-Files ' and everything else unchanged : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 19 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 1 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Amazing Race ' adjusts up , ' The Blacklist ' adjusts down : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 1 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 8 , 2018 ) . `` ' Riverdale ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 1 , 2018 ) . `` ' Speechless ' adjusts up : Wednesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ( # 515 ) `` Pattie Sue Edwards '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved February 13 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ( # 516 ) `` The Capricorn Killer '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved February 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and ' The Good Doctor ' score big in premiere week broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Orville , ' ' Once Upon a Time , ' 5 more shows double in week 2 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers.com . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Good Doctor ' is the most - watched show on TV in week 3 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 25 , 2017 . 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External links ( edit ) Official website The Blacklist on IMDb ( hide ) The Blacklist Episodes Season 1 `` Pilot '' `` The Freelancer '' `` Wujing '' `` The Stewmaker '' `` The Courier '' `` Gina Zanetakos '' `` Frederick Barnes '' `` General Ludd '' `` Anslo Garrick '' `` Anslo Garrick Conclusion '' `` The Good Samaritan '' `` The Alchemist '' `` The Cyprus Agency '' `` Madeline Pratt '' `` The Judge '' `` Mako Tanida '' `` Ivan '' `` Milton Bobbit '' `` The Pavlovich Brothers '' `` The Kingmaker '' `` Berlin '' `` Berlin Conclusion '' Season 2 `` Lord Baltimore '' `` Monarch Douglas Bank '' `` Dr. James Covington '' `` Dr. Linus Creel '' `` The Front '' `` The Mombasa Cartel '' `` The Scimitar '' `` The Decembrist '' `` Luther Braxton '' `` Luther Braxton Conclusion '' `` Ruslan Denisov '' `` The Kenyon Family '' `` The Deer Hunter '' `` T. Earl King VI '' `` The Major '' `` Tom Keen '' `` The Longevity Initiative '' `` Vanessa Cruz '' `` Leonard Caul '' `` Quon Zhang '' `` Karakurt '' `` Tom Connolly '' Season 3 `` The Troll Farmer '' Season 4 Season 5 Related Characters The Blacklist : Redemption Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Blacklist_(season_5)&oldid=828319501 '' Categories : 2017 American television seasons 2018 American television seasons The Blacklist ( TV series ) seasons Hidden categories : Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 1 March 2018 , at 21 : 31 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
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Soft-tissue sarcoma
Soft - tissue sarcoma - wikipedia Soft - tissue sarcoma Jump to : navigation , search Soft - tissue sarcoma Undifferentiated soft tissue sarcoma in left lung of young child Classification and external resources ICD - 9 - CM 171 DiseasesDB 31472 MeSH D018204 ( edit on Wikidata ) A soft - tissue sarcoma is a form of sarcoma that develops in connective tissue , though the term is sometimes applied to elements of the soft tissue that are not currently considered connective tissue . Contents ( hide ) 1 Signs and symptoms 2 Risk factors 3 Diagnosis 4 Treatment 5 Epidemiology 6 Tables 7 Notable patients 8 References 9 External links Signs and symptoms ( edit ) In their early stages , soft - tissue sarcomas usually do not cause symptoms . Because soft tissue is relatively elastic , tumors can grow rather large , pushing aside normal tissue , before they are felt or cause any problems . The first noticeable symptom is usually a painless lump or swelling . As the tumor grows , it may cause other symptoms , such as pain or soreness , as it presses against nearby nerves and muscles . If in the abdomen it can cause abdominal pains commonly mistaken for menstrual cramps , indigestion , or cause constipation . Risk factors ( edit ) Most soft - tissue sarcomas are not associated with any known risk factors or identifiable cause . There are some exceptions : Studies suggest that workers who are exposed to chlorophenols in wood preservatives and phenoxy herbicides may have an increased risk of developing soft - tissue sarcomas . An unusual percentage of patients with a rare blood vessel tumor , angiosarcoma of the liver , have been exposed to vinyl chloride in their work . This substance is used in the manufacture of certain plastics , notably PVC . In the early 1900s , when scientists were just discovering the potential uses of radiation to treat disease , little was known about safe dosage levels and precise methods of delivery . At that time , radiation was used to treat a variety of noncancerous medical problems , including enlargement of the tonsils , adenoids , and thymus gland . Later , researchers found that high doses of radiation caused soft - tissue sarcomas in some patients . Because of this risk , radiation treatment for cancer is now planned to ensure that the maximum dosage of radiation is delivered to diseased tissue while surrounding healthy tissue is protected as much as possible . Kaposi 's sarcoma , a rare cancer of the cells that line blood vessels in the skin and mucus membranes , is caused by Human herpesvirus 8 . Kaposi 's sarcoma often occurs in patients with AIDS ( acquired immune deficiency syndrome ) . Kaposi 's sarcoma , however , has different characteristics than typical soft - tissue sarcomas and is treated differently . In a very small fraction of cases , sarcoma may be related to a rare inherited genetic alteration of the p53 gene and is known as Li - Fraumeni syndrome . Certain other inherited diseases are associated with an increased risk of developing soft - tissue sarcomas . For example , people with neurofibromatosis type I ( also called von Recklinghausen 's disease , associated with alterations in the NF1 gene ) are at an increased risk of developing soft - tissue sarcomas known as malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors . Patients with inherited retinoblastoma have alterations in the RB1 gene , a tumor suppressor gene , and are likely to develop soft - tissue sarcomas as they mature into adulthood . Diagnosis ( edit ) The only reliable way to determine whether a soft - tissue tumour is benign or malignant is through a biopsy . There are two methods for acquisition of tumour tissue for cytopathological analysis ; Needle Aspiration , via biopsy needle surgically , via an incision made into the tumour . A pathologist examines the tissue under a microscope . If cancer is present , the pathologist can usually determine the type of cancer and its grade . Here , ' grade ' refers to a scale used to represent concisely the predicted growth rate of the tumour and its tendency to spread , and this is determined by the degree to which the cancer cells appear abnormal when examined under a microscope . Low - grade sarcomas , although cancerous , are defined as those that are less likely to metastasise . High - grade sarcomas are defined as those more likely to spread to other parts of the body . Soft tissue sarcomas commonly originate in the upper body , in the shoulder or upper chest . Some symptoms are uneven posture , pain in the trapezius muscle and cervical inflexibility ( difficulty in turning the head ) . The most common site to which soft tissue sarcoma spreads is the lungs . Treatment ( edit ) In general , treatment for soft - tissue sarcomas depends on the stage of the cancer . The stage of the sarcoma is based on the size and grade of the tumor , and whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes or other parts of the body ( metastasized ) . Treatment options for soft - tissue sarcomas include surgery , radiation therapy , and chemotherapy . Surgery is the most common treatment for soft - tissue sarcomas . If possible , the doctor will remove the cancer and a safe margin of the healthy tissue around it . It is important to obtain a margin free of tumor to decrease the likelihood of local recurrence and give the best chance for eradication of the tumor . Depending on the size and location of the sarcoma , it may , rarely , be necessary to remove all or part of an arm or leg . Radiation therapy may be used either before surgery to shrink tumors or after surgery to kill any cancer cells that may have been left behind . In some cases , it can be used to treat tumours that can not be surgically removed . In multiple studies , radiation therapy has been found to improve the rate of local control , but has not had any influence on overall survival . Chemotherapy may be used with radiation therapy either before or after surgery to try to shrink the tumor or kill any remaining cancer cells . The use of chemotherapy to prevent the spread of soft - tissue sarcomas has not been proven to be effective . If the cancer has spread to other areas of the body , chemotherapy may be used to shrink tumors and reduce the pain and discomfort they cause , but is unlikely to eradicate the disease . A combination of Taxotere and Gemzar could be an effective chemotherapy regimen in patients with advanced soft - tissue sarcoma . Epidemiology ( edit ) Soft - tissue sarcomas are relatively uncommon cancers . They account for less than 1 % of all new cancer cases each year . This may be because cells in soft tissue , in contrast to tissues that more commonly give rise to malignancies , are not continuously dividing cells . In 2006 , about 9,500 new cases were diagnosed in the United States . Soft - tissue sarcomas are more commonly found in older patients ( > 50 years old ) although in children and adolescents under age 20 , certain histologies are common ( rhabdomyosarcoma , synovial sarcoma ) . Around 3,300 people were diagnosed with soft tissue sarcoma in the UK 2011 . Tables ( edit ) Table 1 : Major Types of Soft - Tissue Sarcomas in Adults Tissue of Origin Type of Cancer Usual Location in the Body Fibrous tissue Fibrosarcoma Arms , legs , trunk Malignant fibrous hystiocytoma Legs Dermatofibrosarcoma Trunk Fat Liposarcoma Arms , legs , trunk Muscle Striated muscle Smooth muscle Rhabdomyosarcoma Leiomyosarcoma Arms , legs Uterus , digestive tract Blood vessels Hemangiosarcoma Arms , legs , trunk Kaposi 's sarcoma Legs , trunk Lymph vessels Lymphangiosarcoma Arms Synovial tissue ( linings of joint cavities , tendon sheaths ) Synovial sarcoma Legs Peripheral nerves Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumour / Neurofibrosarcoma Arms , legs , trunk Cartilage and bone - forming tissue Extraskeletal chondrosarcoma Legs Extraskeletal osteosarcoma Legs , trunk ( not involving the bone ) Table 2 : Major Types of Soft - Tissue Sarcomas in Children Tissue of Origin Type of Cancer Usual Location in the Body Most common ages Muscle Striated muscle Rhabdomyosarcoma Embryonal Head and neck , genitourinary tract Infant -- 4 Alveolar soft part sarcoma Arms , legs , head , and neck Infant -- 19 Smooth muscle Leiomyosarcoma Trunk 15 -- 19 Fibrous tissue Fibrosarcoma Arms and legs 15 -- 19 Malignant fibrous histiocytoma Legs 15 -- 19 Dermatofibrosarcoma Trunk 15 -- 19 Fat Liposarcoma Arms and Legs 15 -- 19 Blood vessels Infantile hemangio - pericytoma Arms , legs , trunk , head , and neck Infant -- 4 Synovial tissue ( linings of joint cavities , tendon sheaths ) Synovial sarcoma Legs , arms , and trunk 15 -- 19 Peripheral nerves Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors ( also called neurofibrosarcomas , malignant schwannomas , and neurogenic sarcomas ) Arms , legs , and trunk 15 -- 19 Muscular nerves Alveolar soft part sarcoma Arms and legs Infant -- 19 Cartilage and bone - forming tissue Extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma Legs 10 -- 14 Extraskeletal mesenchymal Legs 10 -- 14 An earlier version of this article was taken from the US National Cancer Center 's Cancer Information Service . Notable patients ( edit ) Actor Robert Urich died from synovial sarcoma . Actress Michelle Thomas died from desmoplastic small - round - cell tumor , a rare abdominal soft - tissue sarcoma . It Is Written evangelist Henry Feyerabend died from sarcoma in his leg . Video game concept artist Adam Adamowicz died from complications of a rare muscle sarcoma on Feb. 9 , 2012 . He was 43 . Professional wrestler , Jake Roberts revealed he is afflicted with muscle cancer . Professional wrestler , Zack Ryder revealed he suffered from Synovial Sarcoma as a teenager . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` soft tissue sarcoma '' at Dorland 's Medical Dictionary Jump up ^ `` Soft Tissue Sarcoma Risk Factors CTCA '' . CancerCenter.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 07 . Jump up ^ Dino Samartzis , University of Hong Kong , South China Morning Post , 1 June 2013 Jump up ^ http://professional.cancerconsultants.com/oncology_sarcoma_cancer_news.aspx?id=36670 Jump up ^ Ries LAG , Harkins D , Krapcho M , et al. SEER Cancer Statistics Review , 1975 -- 2003 . Bethesda , MD : National Cancer Institute , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Soft tissue sarcoma statistics '' . Cancer Research UK . Retrieved 28 October 2014 . Jump up ^ http://www.wwe.com/inside/the-scars-of-the-superstars/page-13 External links ( edit ) Factsheet from the National Cancer Institute Information from Memorial Sloan Kettering The Sarcoma Learning Center www.soft-tissue.com -- a database of review questions on soft tissue sarcomas Clinically reviewed soft - tissue sarcoma information for patients , from Cancer Research UK . OrthoTumours a case - based educational resource ( hide ) Connective / soft tissue tumors and sarcomas ( ICD - O 8800 -- 9059 ) ( C45 -- C49 / D17 -- D21 , 171 / 214 -- 215 ) Not otherwise specified Soft - tissue sarcoma Desmoplastic small - round - cell tumor Connective tissue neoplasm Fibromatous Fibroma / fibrosarcoma : Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans Desmoplastic fibroma Fibroma / fibromatosis : Aggressive infantile fibromatosis Aponeurotic fibroma Collagenous fibroma Diffuse infantile fibromatosis Familial myxovascular fibromas Fibroma of tendon sheath Fibromatosis colli Infantile digital fibromatosis Juvenile hyaline fibromatosis Plantar fibromatosis Pleomorphic fibroma Oral submucous fibrosis Histiocytoma / histiocytic sarcoma : Benign fibrous histiocytoma Malignant fibrous histiocytoma Atypical fibroxanthoma Solitary fibrous tumor Myxomatous Myxoma / myxosarcoma Cutaneous myxoma Superficial acral fibromyxoma Angiomyxoma Ossifying fibromyxoid tumour Fibroepithelial Brenner tumour Fibroadenoma Phyllodes tumor Synovial - like Synovial sarcoma Clear - cell sarcoma Lipomatous Lipoma / liposarcoma Myelolipoma Myxoid liposarcoma PEComa Angiomyolipoma Chondroid lipoma Intradermal spindle cell lipoma Pleomorphic lipoma Lipoblastomatosis Spindle cell lipoma Hibernoma Myomatous general : Myoma / myosarcoma smooth muscle : Leiomyoma / leiomyosarcoma skeletal muscle : Rhabdomyoma / rhabdomyosarcoma : Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma Sarcoma botryoides Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma Leiomyoma Angioleiomyoma Angiolipoleiomyoma Genital leiomyoma Leiomyosarcoma Multiple cutaneous and uterine leiomyomatosis syndrome Multiple cutaneous leiomyoma Neural fibrolipoma Solitary cutaneous leiomyoma STUMP Complex mixed and stromal Adenomyoma Pleomorphic adenoma Mixed Müllerian tumor Mesoblastic nephroma Wilms ' tumor Malignant rhabdoid tumour Clear - cell sarcoma of the kidney Hepatoblastoma Pancreatoblastoma Carcinosarcoma Mesothelial Mesothelioma Adenomatoid tumor Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soft-tissue_sarcoma&oldid=794643784 '' Categories : Connective / soft tissue tumors and sarcomas Sarcoma Soft tissue tumor Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Español فارسی Français Íslenska Italiano Norsk Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 9 August 2017 , at 06 : 30 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
a malignant tumor that occurs in epithelial tisue is a
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Epistle of Jude
Epistle of Jude - wikipedia Epistle of Jude Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with Gospel of Judas . Books of the New Testament Gospels Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Acts of the Apostles Epistles Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James 1 Peter 2 Peter 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Apocalypse Revelation New Testament manuscripts The Epistle of Jude , often shortened to Jude , is the next - to - last book of the New Testament and is traditionally attributed to Jude , the servant of Jesus and the brother of James the Just . Contents ( hide ) 1 Composition 2 Content 2.1 Outline 2.2 Canonical status 2.3 Authorship 2.4 Style 3 Jude and 2 Peter 4 References to other books 5 See also 6 Notes 7 External links Composition ( edit ) The letter of Jude was one of the disputed books of the Canon . The links between the Epistle and 2 Peter , its use of the Apocryphal Books , and its brevity raised concern . It is one of the shortest books in the Bible , being only 25 verses long . Content ( edit ) Jude urges his readers to defend the deposit of Christ 's doctrine that had been closed by the time he wrote his epistle , and to remember the words of the apostles spoken somewhat before . Jude then asks the reader to recall how even after the Lord saved his own people out of the land of Egypt , he did not hesitate to destroy those who fell into unbelief , much as he punished the angels who fell from their original exalted status and Sodom and Gomorrah . He describes in vivid terms the apostates of his day . He exhorts believers to remember the words spoken by the Apostles , using language similar to the second epistle of Peter to answer concerns that the Lord seemed to tarry , How that they told you there should be mockers in the last time , who should walk after their own ungodly lusts ... , and to keep themselves in God 's love , before delivering a doxology . Jude quotes directly from the Book of Enoch , part of the scripture of the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches but rejected by other churches . He cites Enoch 's prophecy that the Lord would come with many thousands of his saints to render judgement on the whole world . He also paraphrases ( verse 9 ) an incident in a text that has been lost about Satan and Michael the Archangel quarreling over the body of Moses . Outline ( edit ) I. Salutation ( 1 - 3 ) II . Occasion for the Letter ( 3 - 4 ) A . The change of Subject ( 3 ) B . The Reason for the Change : The Presence of Godless Apostates ( 4 ) III . Warning against the False Teachers ( 5 - 16 ) A. Historical Examples of the Judgement of Apostates ( 5 - 7 ) 1 . Unbelieving Israel ( 5 ) 2 . Angels who fell ( 6 ) 3 . Sodom and Gomorrah ( 7 ) B. Description of the Apostates of Jude 's Day ( 8 - 16 ) 1 . Their slanderous speech deplored ( 8 - 10 ) 2 . Their character graphically portrayed ( 11 - 13 ) 3 . Their destruction prophesied ( 14 - 16 ) IV . Exhortation to Believers ( 17 - 23 ) V. Concluding Doxology ( 24 - 25 ) Canonical status ( edit ) The Epistle of Jude is held as canonical in the Christian Church ; conservative scholars date it between 70 and 90 . Some scholars consider the letter a pseudonymous work written between the end of the 1st century and the first quarter of the 2nd century because of its references to the apostles and to tradition and because of its competent Greek style . `` More remarkable is the evidence that by the end of the second century Jude was widely accepted as canonical . '' Clement of Alexandria , Tertullian , and the Muratorian canon considered the letter canonical . The first historical record of doubts as to authorship are found in the writings of Origen of Alexandria , who spoke of the doubts held by some , albeit not him . Eusebius classified it with the `` disputed writings , the antilegomena . '' The letter was eventually accepted as part of the Canon by Church Fathers such as Athanasius and the Synods of Laodicea ( c. 363 ) and Carthage ( 397 ) . Authorship ( edit ) The epistle title is written as follows : `` Jude , a servant of Jesus Christ and brother of James '' ( NRSV ) . `` James '' is generally taken to mean James the Just , a prominent leader in the early church . Not a lot is known of Jude , which would explain the apparent need to identify him by reference to his better - known brother . As the brother of James the Just , it has traditionally meant Jude was also the brother of Jesus , since James is described as being the brother of Jesus . For instance Clement of Alexandria ( c. 150 -- 215 AD ) wrote in his work `` Comments on the Epistle of Jude '' that Jude , the Epistle of Jude 's author , was a son of Joseph and a brother of Jesus ( without specifying whether he was a son of Joseph by a previous marriage or of Joseph and Mary ) . There is also a dispute as to whether `` brother '' means someone who has the same father and mother , or a half - brother or cousin or more distant familial relationship . This dispute over the true meaning of `` brother '' grew as the doctrine of the Virgin Birth evolved . Outside the book of Jude , a `` Jude '' is mentioned five times in the New Testament : three times as Jude the Apostle ( Luke 6 : 16 , Acts 1 : 13 , John 14 : 22 ) , and twice as Jude the brother of Jesus ( Matthew 13 : 55 , Mark 6 : 3 ) ( aside from references to Judas Iscariot and Judah ( son of Jacob ) ) . Debate continues as to whether the author of the epistle is either , both , or neither . Some scholars have argued that since the author of the letter has not identified himself as an apostle and actually refers to the apostles as a third party , he can not be identified with Jude the Apostle . Others have drawn the opposite conclusion , i.e. , that , as an apostle , he would not have made a claim of apostleship on his own behalf . Style ( edit ) The Epistle of Jude is a brief book of only a single chapter with 25 verses . It was composed as an encyclical letter -- that is , one not directed to the members of one church in particular , but intended rather to be circulated and read in all churches . The wording and syntax of this epistle in its original Greek demonstrates that the author was capable and fluent . The epistle is addressed to Christians in general , and it warns them about the doctrine of certain errant teachers to whom they were exposed . The epistle 's style is combative , impassioned , and rushed . Many examples of evildoers and warnings about their fates are given in rapid succession . The epistle concludes with a doxology , which is considered by Peter H. Davids to be one of the highest in quality contained in the Bible . Jude and 2 Peter ( edit ) Part of Jude is very similar to 2 Peter ( mainly 2 Peter chapter 2 ) , so much so that most scholars agree that there is a dependence between the two , i.e. , that either one letter used the other directly , or they both drew on a common source . Because this epistle is much shorter than 2 Peter , and due to various stylistic details , some writers consider Jude the source for the similar passages of 2 Peter . However , other writers , arguing that Jude 18 quotes 2 Peter 3 : 3 as past tense , consider Jude to have come after 2 Peter . Some scholars who consider Jude to predate 2 Peter note that the latter appears to quote the former but excises the reference to the non-canonical book of Enoch . References to other books ( edit ) The Epistle of Jude references at least two other books , with one being non-canonical in all churches and the other non-canonical in most churches . Verse 9 refers to a dispute between Michael the Archangel and the devil about the body of Moses . Some interpreters understand this reference to be an allusion to the events described in Zechariah 3 : 1 - 2 . The classical theologian Origen attributes this reference to the non-canonical Assumption of Moses . According to James Charlesworth , there is no evidence the surviving book of this name ever contained any such content . Others believe it to be in the lost ending of the book . Verses 14 -- 15 contain a direct quotation of a prophecy from 1 Enoch 1 : 9 . The title `` Enoch , the seventh from Adam '' is also sourced from 1 En. 60 : 1 . Most commentators assume that this indicates that Jude accepts the antediluvian patriarch Enoch as the author of the Book of Enoch which contains the same quotation . However , an alternative explanation is that Jude quotes the Book of Enoch aware that verses 14 -- 15 are in fact an expansion of the words of Moses from Deuteronomy 33 : 2 . This is supported by Jude 's unusual Greek statement that `` Enoch the Seventh from Adam prophesied to the false teachers '' , not concerning them . The Book of Enoch is not considered canonical by most churches , although it is by the Ethiopian Orthodox church . According to Western scholars , the older sections of the Book of Enoch ( mainly in the Book of the Watchers ) date from about 300 BC and the latest part ( Book of Parables ) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BC . 1 Enoch 1 : 9 , mentioned above , is part of the pseudepigrapha and is among the Dead Sea Scrolls ( 4Q Enoch ( 4Q204 ( 4QENAR ) ) COL I 16 -- 18 ) . It is generally accepted by scholars that the author of the Epistle of Jude was familiar with the Book of Enoch and was influenced by it in thought and diction . See also ( edit ) Textual variants in the Epistle of Jude Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Eusebius , Church History 2 23 Jump up ^ Jude 5 - 7 Jump up ^ Jude 8 - 16 Jump up ^ Jude 18 Jump up ^ Jude 21 Jump up ^ Jude 24 - 25 Jump up ^ NIV Bible ( Large Print ed . ) . ( 2007 ) . London : Hodder & Stoughton Ltd Jump up ^ Jude : 17 -- 18 Jump up ^ Jude :3 ^ Jump up to : `` scripture '' . Jump up ^ Norman Perrin , ( 1974 ) The New Testament : An Introduction , p. 260 Jump up ^ Bauckham , RJ ( 1986 ) , Word Biblical Commentary , Vol. 50 , Word ( UK ) Ltd. p. 16 Jump up ^ Bauckham , RJ ( 1986 ) , Word Biblical Commentary , Vol. 50 , Word ( UK ) Ltd. p. 17 Jump up ^ Lindberg , Carter ( 2006 ) . A Brief History of Christianity . Blackwell Publishing . p. 15 . ISBN 1 - 4051 - 1078 - 3 Jump up ^ Council of Laodicea at bible-researcher.com . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 05 . Jump up ^ B.F. Westcott , A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament ( 5th ed . Edinburgh , 1881 ) , pp. 440 , 541 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Jude wrote the Catholic Epistle , the brother of the sons of Joseph , and very religious , while knowing the near relationship of the Lord , yet did not say that he himself was His brother . But what said he ? `` Jude , a servant of Jesus Christ , '' -- of Him as Lord ; but `` the brother of James . '' For this is true ; he was His brother , ( the son ) of Joseph . '' of Alexandria , Clement . Comments on the Epistle of Jude . newadvent.org . Retrieved 24 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Jocelyn Rhys , Shaken Creeds : The Virgin Birth Doctrine : A Study of Its Origin , Kessinger Publishing ( reprint ) , 2003 ( 1922 ) ISBN 0 - 7661 - 7988 - 5 , pp 3 -- 53 Jump up ^ Chester , A and Martin , RP ( 1994 ) , ' The Theology of the Letters of James , Peter and Jude ' , CUP , p. 65 Jump up ^ Bauckham , R.J. ( 1986 ) , Word Biblical Commentary , Vol. 50 , Word ( UK ) Ltd. p. 14 Jump up ^ Bauckham , R.J. ( 1986 ) , Word Biblical Commentary , Vol. 50 , Word ( UK ) Ltd. p. 14f Jump up ^ Jude 1 : 1 Jump up ^ Davids , Peter H. ( 2006 ) . The Pillar New Testament Commentary : The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude . Grand Rapids , Michigan : Wm . B. Eardmans Publishing Co. p. 106 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Introduction to 2 Peter in Expositor 's Bible Commentary , Ed . F.E. Gaebelein , Zondervan 1976 -- 1992 Jump up ^ e.g. Terrance Callan , Use of the Letter of Jude by the Second Letter of Peter , in Biblica 85 ( 2004 ) , pp. 42 -- 64 . Jump up ^ e.g. John MacArthur 1 , 2 , 3 , John Jude 2007 p101 `` ... closely parallels that of 2 Peter ( 2 : 1 -- 3 : 4 ) , and it is believed that Peter 's writing predated Jude for several reasons : ( 1 ) Second Peter anticipates the coming of false teachers ( 2 Pet. 2 : 1 -- 2 ; 3 : 3 ) , whereas Jude deals with their arrival ( vv. 4 , 11 -- 12 , 17 -- 18 ) ; and ( 2 ) Jude quotes directly from 2 Peter 3 : 3 and acknowledges that it is from an apostle ( vv. 17 -- 18 ) . '' Jump up ^ Dale Martin 2009 ( lecture ) . `` 24 . Apocalyptic and Accommodation '' . Yale University . Accessed July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Peter H. Davids ; Douglas J. Moo ; Robert Yarbrough ( 5 April 2016 ) . 1 and 2 Peter , Jude , 1 , 2 , and 3 John . Zondervan . p. 240 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 310 - 53025 - 1 . Jump up ^ R.C. Lucas ; Christopher Green ( 2 May 2014 ) . The Message of 2 Peter & Jude . InterVarsity Press . pp. 168 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8308 - 9784 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` ANF04 . Fathers of the Third Century : Tertullian , Part Fourth ; Minucius Felix ; Commodian ; Origen , Parts First and Second '' . ^ Jump up to : James Charlesworth Old Testament Pseudepigrapha , p. 76 , Google books link Jump up ^ The Assumption of Moses : a critical edition with commentary By Johannes Tromp . P270 Jump up ^ Charles R. Enoch OUP , p. 119 Jump up ^ Nickelsburg G. 1 Enoch Fortress Jump up ^ Cox S. Slandering celestial beings Jump up ^ AUTOI dative Jump up ^ Fahlbusch E. , Bromiley G.W. The Encyclopedia of Christianity : P - Sh page 411 , ISBN 0 - 8028 - 2416 - 1 ( 2004 ) Jump up ^ Clontz , T.E. and J. , The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls , Philo , Josephus , Nag Hammadi Library , Pseudepigrapha , Apocrypha , Plato , Egyptian Book of the Dead , Talmud , Old Testament , Patristic Writings , Dhammapada , Tacitus , Epic of Gilgamesh , Cornerstone Publications , 2008 , p. 711 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 9778737 - 1 - 5 Jump up ^ `` Apocalyptic Literature '' ( column 220 ) , Encyclopedia Biblica External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Epistle of Jude Wikisource has original text related to this article : Jude Online translations of the Epistle of Jude : Jude in New American Bible Online Bible at GospelHall.org Jude at Bible Gateway ( various versions ) Early Christian writings : Epistle of Jude : comparable translations and interpretations Audiobook Version : Jude public domain audiobook at LibriVox Additional information : Catholic Encyclopedia Comprehensive study the Epistle of Jude An Exegesis of Jude by Michael Quandt A reaction to the apparent regarding of Enoch and the Assumption of Moses as canonical by Jude Epistle of Jude General Epistle Preceded by Third John New Testament Books of the Bible Succeeded by Revelation ( hide ) Books of the Bible Principal divisions Hebrew Bible / Old Testament Protocanon Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1 -- 2 Samuel 1 -- 2 Kings 1 -- 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi Deuterocanon and Apocrypha Catholic Orthodox Tobit Judith Additions to Esther 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom Sirach Baruch / Letter of Jeremiah Additions to Daniel Susanna Song of the Three Children Bel and the Dragon ) Orthodox only 1 Esdras 2 Esdras Prayer of Manasseh Psalm 151 3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees Odes Tewahedo Orthodox Enoch Jubilees 1 , 2 , and 3 Meqabyan Paralipomena of Baruch Broader canon Syriac Letter of Baruch 2 Baruch Psalms 152 -- 155 New Testament Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Philemon Hebrews James 1 Peter 2 Peter 1 John 2 John 3 John Jude Revelation Subdivisions Chapters and verses Pentateuch Wisdom Major / Minor prophets Gospels Synoptic Epistles Pauline Johannine Pastoral Catholic Apocalyptic literature Development Old Testament canon New Testament canon Antilegomena Jewish canon Christian canon Manuscripts Dead Sea Scrolls Samaritan Pentateuch Septuagint Targum Diatessaron Muratorian fragment Peshitta Vetus Latina Masoretic Text New Testament manuscript categories New Testament papyri New Testament uncials See also Biblical canon Luther 's canon Authorship English Bible translations Other books referenced in the Bible Pseudepigrapha list ) New Testament apocrypha Studies Synod of Hippo Textual criticism Portal WikiProject Book Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epistle_of_Jude&oldid=802580192 '' Categories : New Testament books Canonical epistles Luther 's Antilegomena Epistle of Jude Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Articles with LibriVox links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Wikisource Afrikaans ܐܪܡܝܐ Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Boarisch Brezhoneg Català Čeština ChiShona Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Kinyarwanda Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Gagana Samoa Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vepsän kel ' Winaray Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 September 2017 , at 02 : 26 . 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who wrote the book of jude in the holy bible
[ "The epistle title is written as follows: \"Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and brother of James\" (NRSV). \"James\" is generally taken to mean James the Just, a prominent leader in the early church. Not a lot is known of Jude, which would explain the apparent need to identify him by reference to his better-known brother.[10]" ]
[ "Jude" ]
-3006844748021560326
A Head Full of Dreams
A Head Full of Dreams - wikipedia A Head Full of Dreams Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the album . For the title track , see A Head Full of Dreams ( song ) . For the tour , see A Head Full of Dreams Tour . A Head Full of Dreams Studio album by Coldplay Released 4 December 2015 ( 2015 - 12 - 04 ) Recorded December 2014 -- August 2015 Studio Henson Recording Studio , Hollywood The Village , Los Angeles Woodshed Recording Studio , Malibu AIR Studios , London The Bakery , London The Beehive , London Genre Pop pop rock alternative rock Length 45 : 45 Label Parlophone Atlantic Producer Rik Simpson Stargate Coldplay chronology Ghost Stories Live 2014 ( 2014 ) A Head Full of Dreams ( 2015 ) Live from Spotify London ( 2016 ) Coldplay studio album chronology Ghost Stories ( 2014 ) A Head Full of Dreams ( 2015 ) Singles from A Head Full of Dreams `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' Released : 6 November 2015 `` Hymn for the Weekend '' Released : 25 January 2016 `` Up & Up '' Released : 22 April 2016 `` A Head Full of Dreams '' Released : 19 August 2016 `` Everglow '' Released : 11 November 2016 A Head Full of Dreams is the seventh studio album by the British rock band Coldplay . It was released on 4 December 2015 , by Parlophone in the United Kingdom , and by Atlantic Records in the United States . Coldplay recorded the album from late 2014 to mid 2015 , right after the completion of their previous album Ghost Stories , with a markedly different style and sound from its predecessors . For various songs , Coldplay collaborated with Beyoncé , Noel Gallagher , Tove Lo , Khatia Buniatishvili and Merry Clayton . The album was produced by Rik Simpson and Stargate . The album also features a sample of President Barack Obama singing `` Amazing Grace '' at Clementa C. Pinckney 's funeral on the song `` Kaleidoscope '' . The album received mixed reviews from critics . Commercially , it topped the UK Albums Chart , and peaked at number two in the United States , Australia , Canada , and Italy where it was held off the top spot by Adele 's 25 . At the 2016 Brit Awards the album was nominated for British Album of the Year . It was the eighth - best - selling album of 2015 with 1.9 million copies sold worldwide , according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . It was the ninth - best - selling album of 2016 , with 1.4 million copies sold worldwide , according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . As of November 2017 , the album has sold over six million copies worldwide . It was supported by five singles : `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' , `` Hymn for the Weekend '' , `` Up & Up '' , the title track , and `` Everglow '' . A 5.1 Surround Blu - ray Audio version of the album was released via the band 's website on 23 September 2016 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Production 3 Promotion 3.1 Tour 3.2 Poster and artwork 3.3 Live performances 4 Singles 4.1 Promotional singles 5 Critical reception 6 Commercial performance 7 Track listing 8 Personnel 9 Charts 9.1 Weekly charts 9.2 Monthly charts 9.3 Year - end charts 10 Certifications 11 Release history 12 References 13 External links Background ( edit ) Coldplay began working on A Head Full of Dreams in late 2014 after promoting their sixth album Ghost Stories . The album has a markedly different style and sound from its predecessors . In an interview with Radio 2 DJ Jo Whiley in December 2014 , guitarist Jonny Buckland and bass guitarist Guy Berryman gave a hint as to the difference between A Head Full of Dreams and its predecessor -- Buckland called it the `` night to the day '' , comparing the style of Ghost Stories to the expected uplifting theme of A Head Full of Dreams . Lead singer Chris Martin hinted at the style of the album by saying that the band was trying to make something colourful and uplifting . He also stated that it would be something to `` shuffle your feet '' to . On 26 September 2015 , the band performed at the Global Citizen Festival 2015 in New York City , playing a six - song set , including a new song called `` Amazing Day '' . The band 's producer Rik Simpson confirmed that the song would be on the new album . On 21 November 2016 frontman Chris Martin announced new material to be released for 2017 via Twitter , it would be named Kaleidoscope EP . Production ( edit ) The album was produced by Rik Simpson ( the band 's longterm collaborator ) and Norwegian duo Stargate ( Tor Hermansen and Mikkel Eriksen ) . Mixing duties were carried out predominately by Rik Simpson . Stargate executive produced the album . Promotion ( edit ) Tour ( edit ) Main article : A Head Full of Dreams Tour Promotional outdoor for A Head Full of Dreams Tour , in Buenos Aires , Argentina . Compared to the sparse tour dates of the Ghost Stories era , Coldplay announced a larger global tour soon after the album release , which will be more reminiscent of the Mylo Xyloto Tour than the Ghost Stories Tour , to promote both A Head Full of Dreams and Ghost Stories . It was confirmed that the band will perform in locations such as India and South America -- more specifically Argentina , Peru , Brazil , Chile , Colombia and Mexico in the first half of 2016 . They have since confirmed that pre-production on the tour has started and that the official tour is planned to start next year . On 20 November 2015 , they announced the A Head Full of Dreams Tour , with shows in South America starting at 31 March 2016 , Buenos Aires and a European leg is also announced for summer 2016 , including four sold - out nights at Wembley Stadium in June . In February , the band featured a picture on various social media sites of a hot air balloon ( a symbol used to promote the tour ) by Glastonbury farms ' main pyramid stage field , along with the date Sunday 26 June . Glastonbury organisers have since confirmed a record - breaking fourth headline appearance , having previously performed on the stage in 2000 , 2002 , 2005 and 2011 . The band 's appearance was then confirmed to be Coldplay 's festival show of this year 's tour . On 30 September 2016 , after the huge success of 2016 's A Head Full of Dreams Tour , Coldplay announced a new leg of the tour with dates in Germany , France , Austria , Poland , Belgium , Sweden , Italy , Ireland and Wales . On 7 October 2016 , the band announced eighteen more shows in North America beginning in Aug 2017 and finishing in October . On 15 November 2016 , they announced shows in Asia for April 2017 , visiting Singapore , Philippines , Thailand , Taiwan , South Korea , and Japan . Poster and artwork ( edit ) Around 30 October 2015 anonymous posters were pinned up on the London Underground showing a geometric pattern , known as the Flower of Life , along with a note `` December 4 '' . Coldplay fans claimed that the symbol resembled the design on a T - shirt worn by Coldplay frontman Chris Martin at the Global Citizen Festival in New York . On 2 November , Coldplay posted the same piece of artwork as an animated GIF on their Twitter account , seemingly confirming that it would be the album cover and 4 December was the album 's release date . One day later , they published another animated image of which the former was a detailed view . The artwork was created by Argentine artist Pilar Zeta in collaboration with the band . Oli Sykes , lead singer of British post-hardcore band Bring Me the Horizon , suggested that the flower of life symbol Coldplay used was similar to that of the design of Bring Me the Horizon 's 2013 album Sempiternal . Sykes took to Twitter accusing Coldplay of `` jackin our steez '' . He did however clarify in a NME interview that the `` flower of life '' is a universal symbol and has meanings across the world , none of which he owns the rights to . He also specifies that it had meaning to him and that he is simply acknowledging the symbol being spread and is happy for its doing so . Live performances ( edit ) At the Global Citizen Festival in New York Coldplay performed six songs , ending with the live debut of a new song , Amazing Day . They also played Amazing Day at TFI Friday , where they played four songs including the live debut of `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' . During their concert at the Belasco Theater in Los Angeles they performed four songs from the new album , including the live debut of the songs A Head Full of Dreams and Up & Up . On 24 November Coldplay started releasing 10 - 15 second snippets of each song from the new album via Instagram at hourly intervals . On February 7 , 2016 , the band headlined the Super Bowl 50 halftime show . Singles ( edit ) The first single to promote the album , `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' , was released on 6 November 2015 . The music video for the latter came out 29 November 2015 . `` Hymn for the Weekend '' was released as the second single for the album on 25 January 2016 . The band was criticised by a section of the social media for the stereotypical portrayal of Indian society in its single . The third official single `` Up & Up '' , was released on 22 April 2016 . The fourth official single , `` A Head Full of Dreams '' , was released on 19 August 2016 , with an accompanying music video . A newly recorded , stripped - down version of `` Everglow '' -- inspired by Martin 's unrehearsed solo performance of the song due to a technical mishap at Glastonbury Festival -- was released on digital outlets as the fifth single on 11 November 2016 . Promotional singles ( edit ) `` Everglow '' was released as a promotional single on 26 November 2015 , with a music video released on 2 December 2015 . `` Birds '' was released as a promotional single on 3 January 2016 ; the music video also came out on the same day . Critical reception ( edit ) Professional ratings Aggregate scores Source Rating Metacritic 60 / 100 Review scores Source Rating AllMusic Chicago Tribune The Daily Telegraph The Guardian The Independent NME 4 / 5 Pitchfork 4.8 / 10 Q Rolling Stone Spin 6 / 10 A Head Full of Dreams received mixed reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating from mainstream critics ' reviews , the album has a score of 60 , based on 27 reviews . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone wrote that A Head Full of Dreams `` might be Coldplay 's brightest album ever '' and concluded : `` He 's ( Chris Martin ) hinted that this could be Coldplay 's last album ; if so , they 're going out on a sustained note of grace . '' Barry Nicolson of NME called it `` the most satisfying collection of songs they 've written in years '' . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian felt that A Head Full of Dreams `` is frustratingly blighted by the sense that Coldplay have n't fully committed to the album 's big idea '' and remarked : `` It 's a moot point whether that 's a sign of innate conservatism or of a band that know exactly what they are doing , who understand that you wo n't keep packing out those Midwestern sports stadiums if you frighten the horses . '' Citing the band 's unwillingness to stray from their tried and true formula , Ian Gormely of Exclaim ! wrote that `` A Head Full of Dreams might have been a poptimist masterpiece . Instead , it 's just another Coldplay album , with all the baggage -- both positive and negative -- that entails . '' Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album 3 - 1 / 2 out of 5 stars and acknowledged that `` ( the ) message ( that there 's a big , bright , beautiful world just waiting to be discovered if you just open your heart and live a little ) is unabashedly corny '' , but ultimately concluded that `` under the stewardship of Chris Martin , Coldplay cheerfully embrace the cheese , ratcheting up both the sparkle and the sentiment so the album feels genuine in its embrace of eternal middle - aged clichés . '' In a 1 / 5 star review in Truck & Driver 's regular music reviews Shaun Connors queried `` why such boring wishy - washy material has been successful , '' commenting the reasoning for this defeats all rational explanation . He continued : `` With this latest collection of tedium there are contributions from Beyoncé ( a so - so vocalist ) and Noel Gallagher ( a not even so - so guitarist ) , '' to conclude with : `` On the basis of this album , they 've either run out of ideas or bored themselves senseless ( or both ) ... '' Under the Radar 's Scott Dransfield panned the album as `` insufferably bland at best and downright offensive at worst '' and awarded it 2 / 10 stars . NME ranked it the 35th - best album of 2015 . Commercial performance ( edit ) A Head Full of Dreams debuted at number three on the Irish Albums Chart on 11 December 2015 , the band 's lowest charting album in Ireland and their first to miss the top spot since Parachutes in 2000 . The same day , the album debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart on sales of 235,975 , behind Adele 's 25 , which denied Coldplay a seventh consecutive number - one album . It was , however , their highest first - week album sales since 2008 's Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends , which sold 302,074 copies in its first week . Had A Head Full of Dreams debuted atop the UK Albums Chart , it would have made Coldplay only the second band in the UK chart history ( after Oasis ) to do so with their first seven albums . The album did , however , manage to top both the UK Album Downloads Chart and the Official Vinyl Albums Chart . The album also reached number two in Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , and Italy , held off number one by Adele 's 25 in all territories . In the Netherlands , however , the album eventually managed to reach the number one position in its 30th week on the charts , the week following Coldplay 's two concerts in Amsterdam . Following their tour stint in Ireland , the album reached a new peak at number two in its 84th charting week . In the United States , A Head Full of Dreams debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , with 210,000 equivalent album units , behind Adele 's 25 . It was the second - best - selling album of the week , selling 195,000 copies in its first week , which is a drop from the 383,000 copies sold in the first week by Ghost Stories . In its second week , the album fell to number seven on the Billboard 200 , selling 61,000 copies . On the chart dated 27 February 2016 , the album returned to the top 10 of the US Billboard 200 , peaking at number four , selling 90,000 units ( 71,000 in pure album sales ) . On 4 March 2016 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for combined album sales , streaming - equivalent and track - equivalent of half - million units . Later , it has been certified Platinum by the RIAA as Ghost Stories was , despite its low first week sales . Additionally , it outsold Ghost Stories in the UK , with sales reaching one million mark . The only country where A Head Full of Dreams managed to debut at number one was Norway , replacing 25 . This enabled Coldplay to achieve there what Adele prevented them from doing in other territories ; all of their studio albums reaching the top spot . On 12 February 2016 , following the positive reception and exposure from Coldplay 's headlining set at the Super Bowl 50 halftime show , the album rose to number one in the UK after selling 30,146 copies that week . This secured them a seventh number one album in the UK , thus putting them second in the list of acts with the most UK number one albums in the 21st century ; only Robbie Williams has more , with 10 . The album sold over six million sales worldwide as of November 2017 . This is Coldplay 's most successful album in term of single 's chart performance , with `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' and `` Hymn for the Weekend '' charting respectively at number 95 and number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 Year - End chart for 2016 , making A Head Full of Dreams their first album to have more than one single charting on a Billboard Hot 100 Year - End chart . Track listing ( edit ) All tracks written by Guy Berryman , Jonny Buckland , Will Champion and Chris Martin . A Head Full of Dreams No . Title Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` A Head Full of Dreams '' Rik Simpson Stargate 3 : 43 2 . `` Birds '' Simpson Stargate 3 : 49 3 . `` Hymn for the Weekend '' Simpson Stargate Avicii Digital Divide 4 : 18 4 . `` Everglow '' Simpson Stargate 4 : 42 5 . `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' Simpson Stargate 4 : 23 6 . `` Fun '' ( featuring Tove Lo ) Simpson Stargate 4 : 27 7 . `` Kaleidoscope '' Simpson Stargate 1 : 51 8 . `` Army of One '' ( hidden track `` X Marks the Spot '' at 3 : 23 ) Simpson Stargate Daniel Green 6 : 16 9 . `` Amazing Day '' Simpson Stargate 4 : 31 10 . `` Colour Spectrum '' ( stylised as `` `` ) Green 1 : 00 11 . `` Up & Up '' ( stylised as `` Up&Up '' ) Simpson Stargate 6 : 45 Total length : 45 : 45 A Head Full of Dreams -- Japanese edition ( bonus track ) No . Title Producer ( s ) Length 12 . `` Miracles '' ( bonus track ) Stargate Green Simpson 3 : 55 Total length : 49 : 40 Notes signifies an additional producer . `` Kaleidoscope '' and `` Colour Spectrum '' contain elements of the poem `` The Guesthouse '' written by Jallaludin `` Molana '' Rumi and read by Coleman Barks . `` Kaleidoscope '' also contains elements of `` Amazing Grace '' ( written by John Newton and performed by Barack Obama ) . Personnel ( edit ) Credits are adapted from A Head Full of Dreams liner notes . Coldplay Chris Martin -- lead vocals , piano , acoustic guitar , keyboards Jonny Buckland -- electric guitar , keyboards Guy Berryman -- bass guitar , keyboards Will Champion -- drums , drum pad , percussion , backing vocals Additional musicians Davide Rossi -- strings ( tracks 2 and 9 ) Tim Bergling -- additional programming ( track 3 ) Regiment Horns -- brass ( track 3 ) Beyoncé -- vocals ( tracks 3 and 11 ) Gwyneth Paltrow -- vocals ( track 4 ) Merry Clayton -- vocals ( tracks 5 and 11 ) Tove Lo -- vocals ( track 6 ) Khatia Buniatishvili -- piano ( track 7 ) Coleman Barks -- narration ( track 7 ) Barack Obama -- vocals ( track 7 ) Annabelle Wallis -- vocals ( track 11 ) Noel Gallagher -- guitar ( track 11 ) Moses Martin -- tambourine ( track 11 ) Rik Simpson -- vocals , additional instruments Mikkel S Eriksen -- additional instruments Tor Erik Hermansen -- additional instruments Design and managerial Pilar Zeta , Coldplay -- design , art direction Phil Harvey -- photography Ultramajic -- photography Dave Holmes -- management Mandi Bursteen -- co-management Arlene Moon -- co-management Choir Nico Berryman Jonah Buckland Violet Buckland Blue Ivy Carter Ava Champion Juno Champion Marianna Champion Rex Champion Aubrey Costall Harvey Costall James Duncan Brian Eno Elise Eriksen Hege Fossum Eriksen Selma Eriksen Jacob Green Sophia Green Daniel Grollo Finn Grollo Kat Grollo Mathilda Grollo Max Harvey Rofi Harvey Idil Hermansen Isak Hermansen Apple Martin Moses Martin Production Stargate -- production Rik Simpson -- production , mixing ( track 1 -- 4 , 6 , 7 , 9 -- 11 ) Phil Tan -- mixing ( track 5 and 8 ) Daniel Green -- production , mixing ( track 8 and 10 ) , additional engineering Digital Divide -- additional production ( track 3 ) Emily Lazar -- mastering Merlin Watts -- mastering Bill Rahko -- engineering Miles Walker -- engineering Daniela Rivera -- engineering Tom Bailey -- additional engineering Robin Baynton -- additional engineering Jaime Sickora -- additional engineering Aleks von Korff -- additional engineering Laurence Anslow -- additional studio assistance Fiona Cruickshank -- additional studio assistance Nicolas Essig -- additional studio assistance Olga Fitzroy -- additional studio assistance Jeff Gartenbaum -- additional studio assistance Christian Green -- additional studio assistance Pablo Hernandez -- additional studio assistance Phil Joly -- additional studio assistance Miguel Lara -- additional studio assistance Matt McGinn -- additional studio assistance Chris Owens -- additional studio assistance Roxy Pope -- additional studio assistance John Prestage -- additional studio assistance Kyle Stevens -- additional studio assistance Derrick Stockwell -- additional studio assistance Matt Tuggle -- additional studio assistance Ryan Walsh -- additional studio assistance Joachim Berose -- additional studio assistance Will Wetzel -- additional studio assistance Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2015 -- 17 ) Peak position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders ) Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia ) Brazilian Albums ( ABPD ) Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) Croatian International Albums ( HDU ) Czech Albums ( ČNS IFPI ) Danish Albums ( Hitlisten ) Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) Finnish Albums ( Suomen virallinen lista ) French Albums ( SNEP ) German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) Greek Albums ( IFPI ) 11 Hungarian Albums ( MAHASZ ) Irish Albums ( IRMA ) Italian Albums ( FIMI ) Japanese Albums ( Oricon ) 7 Mexican Albums ( AMPROFON ) New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) Norwegian Albums ( VG - lista ) Polish Albums ( ZPAV ) Portuguese Albums ( AFP ) Scottish Albums ( OCC ) South African Albums ( RISA ) 12 South Korean Albums ( Gaon ) 13 South Korean Albums International ( Gaon ) Spanish Albums ( PROMUSICAE ) Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) Taiwanese Albums ( Five Music ) UK Albums ( OCC ) US Billboard 200 US Top Alternative Albums ( Billboard ) US Digital Albums ( Billboard ) US Top Rock Albums ( Billboard ) US Top Album Sales ( Billboard ) Monthly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2015 ) Peak position Argentine Monthly Albums ( CAPIF ) Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2015 ) Position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) 22 Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) 50 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders ) 25 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia ) 27 Danish Albums ( Hitlisten ) 45 Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) 9 French Albums ( SNEP ) 18 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) 14 Hungarian Albums ( MAHASZ ) 12 Irish Albums ( IRMA ) 16 Italian Albums ( FIMI ) 13 Mexican Albums ( AMPROFON ) 37 New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) 19 Polish Albums ( ZPAV ) 29 South Korean Albums International ( Gaon ) 24 Spanish Albums ( PROMUSICAE ) 23 Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) 61 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 12 UK Albums ( OCC ) 9 Worldwide 8 Chart ( 2016 ) Position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) 11 Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) 40 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders ) 16 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia ) 12 Canadian Albums ( Billboard ) 7 Danish Albums ( Hitlisten ) 8 Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) 6 French Albums ( SNEP ) 21 German Albums ( Offizielle Top 100 ) 32 Hungarian Albums ( MAHASZ ) 24 Italian Albums ( FIMI ) 8 Mexican Albums ( AMPROFON ) 20 New Zealand Albums ( RMNZ ) 14 Polish Albums ( ZPAV ) 59 South Korean Albums International ( Gaon ) 20 Spanish Albums ( PROMUSICAE ) 9 Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) 10 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) UK Albums ( OCC ) US Alternative Albums ( Billboard ) US Billboard 200 13 US Billboard Rock Albums Worldwide 9 Chart ( 2017 ) Position Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Flanders ) 20 Belgian Albums ( Ultratop Wallonia ) 28 Danish Albums ( Hitlisten ) 77 Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) 41 Italian Albums ( FIMI ) 28 Norwegian Albums ( VG - lista ) 39 Polish Albums ( ZPAV ) 10 South Korean Albums International ( Gaon ) 13 Spanish Albums ( PROMUSICAE ) 44 Swedish Albums ( Sverigetopplistan ) 53 UK Albums ( OCC ) 48 US Rock Albums ( Billboard ) 70 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Argentina ( CAPIF ) Gold 20,000 Australia ( ARIA ) Platinum 70,000 Austria ( IFPI Austria ) Gold 7,500 Brazil ( Pro-Música Brasil ) Diamond 160,000 Belgium ( BEA ) Platinum 30,000 Canada ( Music Canada ) 2 × Platinum 160,000 Denmark ( IFPI Denmark ) 2 × Platinum 40,000 France ( SNEP ) 3 × Platinum 300,000 Germany ( BVMI ) Platinum 200,000 Hungary ( MAHASZ ) 2 × Platinum 12,000 Ireland ( IRMA ) 3 × Platinum 45,000 Italy ( FIMI ) 4 × Platinum 200,000 Mexico ( AMPROFON ) Platinum + Gold 90,000 Netherlands ( NVPI ) Platinum 50,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Platinum 15,000 Poland ( ZPAV ) 3 × Platinum 60,000 Portugal ( AFP ) 2 × Platinum 30,000 South Korea 8,975 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) Platinum 40,000 Sweden ( GLF ) Gold 20,000 Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland ) Platinum 30,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) 3 × Platinum 1,133,823 United States ( RIAA ) Platinum 1,000,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Catalog no . Worldwide 4 December 2015 CD digital download Parlophone 0825646982646 LP 0825646982158 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Breihan , Tom ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Premature Evaluation : Coldplay A Head Full Of Dreams '' . Stereogum . Retrieved 10 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Murphy , John ( 8 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay -- A Head Full Of Dreams '' . musicOMH . Retrieved 10 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Paine , Andre ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay - A Head Full of Dreams , album review : ' uplifting , preppy pop with a pristine finish ' '' . London Evening Standard . Retrieved 10 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Manning , Craig ( 6 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay - A Head Full of Dreams ( staff review ) '' . AbsolutePunk . Retrieved 10 December 2015 . Jump up ^ UG Team ( 28 December 2015 ) . `` A Head Full Of Dreams Review '' . Ultimate Guitar Archive . Retrieved 1 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Weintraub , Allison ( 8 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay 's new album goes back to their signature sound '' . The Oklahoma Daily . Retrieved 1 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay 's new album parachutes into the unfamiliar '' . The Orion . December 16 , 2015 . Retrieved February 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Up&Up ( Radio Edit ) '' . ^ Jump up to : Minsker , Evan ; Monroe , Jazz ( 6 November 2015 ) . `` Coldplay Enlist Beyoncé , Noel Gallagher , More for New Album , Share `` Adventure of a Lifetime '' `` . Pitchfork Media . Retrieved 6 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Brandle , Lars ( 6 November 2015 ) . `` Coldplay Announces New Album Featuring Beyonce & Tove Lo ; Premieres New Song : Listen '' . Billboard . Retrieved 6 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Album Features President Obama Singing `` Amazing Grace '' `` . Pitchfork. 23 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Barack Obama to feature on new Coldplay album '' . The Sun . News UK . 23 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Caulfield , Keith ( 13 December 2015 ) . `` Adele 's ' 25 ' Rules for Third Week at No. 1 , Coldplay Debuts at No. 2 on Billboard 200 '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 13 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Albums : Adele Blocks Coldplay From A Number One Debut '' . Noise 11 . 19 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Global Music Report '' ( PDF ) . International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . 12 April 2016 . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Global Music Report '' ( PDF ) . International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . 25 April 2017 . Retrieved 25 April 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Coldplay 's `` A Head Full Of Dreams Tour '' Becomes Third Highest Grossing World Tour Of All Time `` . Live Nation . Retrieved 14 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Take a `` trip into a surround - sound dreamscape '' with the new 5.1 Blu - ray release of A Head Full Of Dreams `` . Retrieved 30 September 2016 . Jump up ^ Kreps , Daniel ( 27 September 2015 ) . `` Coldplay Debut New Song , Perform With Ariana Grande at Global Citizen '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 2 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay confirm new music '' . Sky News Australia . 3 November 2015 . Retrieved 3 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Coldplay Preparing To Kick Off New Tour '' . Coldplaying.com. 3 November 2015 . Retrieved 3 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Del Real , A. ; Vergara , C. ( 2 October 2015 ) . `` Eminem y Coldplay alistan sus visitas a Chile para la primera parte de 2016 '' . La Tercera ( in Spanish ) . Retrieved 3 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay teases Filipino fans with Asian tour '' . CNN Philippines . 14 November 2016 . Retrieved 14 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Is this Coldplay 's A Head Full of Dreams cover ? '' . Newsbeat . BBC . Retrieved 7 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Stutz , Colin ( 30 October 2015 ) . `` Is Coldplay Revealing Its Album Release Date With These Mysterious London Posters ? '' . Billboard . Retrieved 7 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , Damian ( 2 November 2015 ) . `` Coldplay appear to confirm mysterious advert is the artwork for their new album '' . NME . Retrieved 2 November 2015 . Jump up ^ ( ( ) ) Jump up ^ `` Is a New Coldplay Album Coming December 4th ? '' . Radio.com. 30 October 2015 . Retrieved 7 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Preview Every Song on New A Head Full of Dreams '' . Pitchfork. 24 November 2015 . Retrieved 25 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` # AOAL # AHFOD '' . Coldplay . YouTube . 5 November 2015 . Retrieved 5 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` '' Hymn for the Weekend '' single confirmed `` . Twitter . Atlas Coldplay ( @ ColdplayAtlas ) . Retrieved 23 January 2016 . Jump up ^ Mallimadugula , Niharika . `` Another Hymn for Tomorrow '' . The Hindu . Retrieved 8 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Davidson , Amy ( 14 April 2016 ) . `` Coldplay have decided on their next single from A Head Full of Dreams '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 19 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` New single version of Everglow out today - Coldplay '' . Jump up ^ `` Listen to new song Everglow '' . Coldplay.com . Retrieved 20 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Debuts ' Everglow , ' Featuring Gwyneth Paltrow '' . Variety . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay - Birds ( Official music video ) '' . YouTube , Coldplay Official . Retrieved 1 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay ( official facebook page ) '' . Coldplay Facebook . Retrieved 1 January 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Reviews for A Head Full of Dreams by Coldplay '' . Metacritic . Retrieved 9 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Erlewine , Stephen Thomas . `` A Head Full of Dreams -- Coldplay '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Kot , Greg ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay is bigger , catchier on ' A Head Full of Dreams ' '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Brown , Helen ( 3 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay , A Head Full of Dreams , album review : ' Coldplay get their groove back with Beyoncé ' '' . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Petridis , Alexis ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay : A Head Full of Dreams review -- a failure to commit to pop '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Gill , Andy ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay , A Head Full of Dreams : ' Too much emotional laundry but it 's a step in the right direction ' , album review '' . The Independent . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Nicholson , Barry ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay -- A Head Full Of Dreams '' . NME . Archived from the original on 10 December 2015 . Retrieved 8 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Berman , Stuart ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay : A Head Full of Dreams '' . Pitchfork . Retrieved 5 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Lynskey , Dorian ( January 2016 ) . `` Seventh Heaven '' . Q ( 354 ) : 110 . ^ Jump up to : Dolan , Jon ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` A Head Full of Dreams '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Unterberger , Andrew ( 4 December 2015 ) . `` Review : Coldplay Are All Too Eager to Exit Gracefully With ' A Head Full of Dreams ' '' . Spin . Retrieved 7 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Gormely , Ian ( 3 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Exclaim ! . Retrieved 17 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Erlewine , Stephen Thomas ( 4 December 2005 ) . `` A Head Full of Dreams - Coldplay '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Connors , Shaun ( March 2016 ) . `` Review : Left Cold '' . Truck & Driver . Sutton , England : Road Transport Media : 30 . Jump up ^ Dransfield , Scott ( 11 December 2015 ) . `` Coldplay : A Head Full of Dreams '' . Under The Radar . Retrieved 2 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` NME 's Albums of the Year 2015 '' . NME . Time Inc . UK . 10 December 2015 . Retrieved 10 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Adele denies Coldplay No 1 in Irish chart race '' . RTÉ Ten . RTÉ.ie. 11 December 2015 . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , Alan ( 11 December 2015 ) . `` Official Charts Analysis : Adele beats Coldplay '' . Music Week . Intent Media . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Copsey , Rob ( 11 December 2015 ) . `` Adele beats Coldplay to Number 1 on the Official Albums Chart '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 11 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Official Vinyl Albums Chart Top 40 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 21 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Australiancharts.com -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` > > IRMA < < Welcome to our site > > '' . www.irma.ie . ^ Jump up to : Caulfield , Keith ( 13 December 2015 ) . `` Adele 's ' 25 ' Rules for Third Week at No. 1 , Coldplay Debuts at No. 2 on Billboard 200 '' . Billboard . Retrieved 13 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Caulfield , Keith ( 20 December 2015 ) . `` Adele 's ' 25 ' Biggest - Selling Album Released Since 2011 , Spends Fourth Week at No. 1 on Billboard 200 '' . Retrieved 20 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Caulfield , Keith ( 14 February 2016 ) . `` Future Scores Third No. 1 Album on Billboard 200 Chart '' . Billboard . Retrieved 14 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The RIAA Will Now Factor Streaming Into Gold and Platinum Album Certifications '' . Complex. 1 February 2016 . Missing or empty url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` VG - lista - Coldplay / A head full of dreams '' . 4 December 2015 . Retrieved 13 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Myers , Justin ( 12 February 2016 ) . `` Coldplay 's A Head Full of Dreams finally scores them a seventh Number 1 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` A Head Full of Dreams ( Japan Bonus Track ) COLDPLAY CD Album '' . CDJapan . Retrieved 8 November 2015 . Jump up ^ A Head Full of Dreams ( booklet ) . Coldplay . Parlophone. 2015 . 1053933969 . Jump up ^ Rossi , Davide ( 7 November 2015 ) . `` Kept this quite but everyone knows by now ! Proud to be on two songs of the new @ coldplay album '' . Twitter . Retrieved 7 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in German ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 17 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in Dutch ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in French ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ranking ABPD ( 11 / 04 / 2016 a 17 / 04 / 2016 ) '' . Portal Sucesso . Retrieved 29 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Chart History ( Canadian Albums ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 15 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Top Stranih ( Top Foreign ) '' ( in Croatian ) . Top Foreign Albums . Hrvatska diskografska udruga . Retrieved October 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Czech Albums -- Top 100 '' . ČNS IFPI . Note : On the chart page , select ( ( ( date ) ) ) on the field besides the word `` Zobrazit '' , and then click over the word to retrieve the correct chart data . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Hitlisten.NU '' . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in Dutch ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 1 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay : A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in Finnish ) . Musiikkituottajat -- IFPI Finland . Retrieved 13 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Le Top de la semaine : Top Albums '' . SNEP . Jump up ^ `` Officialcharts.de -- Top 100 Longplay '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved 11 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Official IFPI Charts -- Top - 75 Albums Sales Chart -- Week : 51 / 2015 '' . IFPI Greece . Archived from the original on 3 January 2016 . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 40 album DVD és válogatáslemez - lista -- 2015 . 49 . hét '' ( in Hungarian ) . MAHASZ . Retrieved 11 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` GFK Chart - Track Albums : Week 28 , 2017 '' . Chart - Track . IRMA . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Italiancharts.com -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ December 2015 / `` Oricon Top 50 Albums : 14 December 2015 '' ( in Japanese ) . Oricon . Retrieved 11 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Top Album - Semanal ( del 04 de Noviembre al 10 de Diciembre ) '' . Amprofon . Archived from the original on 6 July 2016 . Retrieved 18 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 11 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Norwegiancharts.com -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Oficjalna lista sprzedaży : : OLiS - Official Retail Sales Chart '' . OLiS . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 22 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Portuguesecharts.com -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 22 December 2015 . Jump up ^ February 2016 / 40 / `` Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` SA Top 20 - 5 Maart 2016 '' ( in Afrikaans ) . RISA . Archived from the original on 9 March 2016 . Retrieved 9 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2015 년 50 주차 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2015 년 50 주차 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Spanishcharts.com -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 21 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 22 June 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Western Weekly Top 20 : 2015 / 12 / 04 - 2015 / 12 / 10 '' ( in Chinese ) . G - Music . December 10 , 2015 . Archived from the original on 8 February 2016 . Retrieved December 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Official Albums Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Chart History ( Billboard 200 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 15 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Chart History ( Top Alternative Albums ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 22 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Chart History ( Digital Albums ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 26 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Chart History ( Top Rock Albums ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 22 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay Chart History ( Top Album Sales ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 26 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` CAPIF Rankings Mensual '' ( in Spanish ) . CAPIF . Archived from the original ( Select `` December 2015 '' ) on 25 May 2013 . Retrieved 23 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts - End of Year Charts - Top 100 Albums 2015 '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Archived from the original on 12 January 2016 . Retrieved 6 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ö3 Charts '' . Oe3.orf.at . Archived from the original on 4 January 2016 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` ultratop.be -- Jaaroverzichten 2015 '' ( in Dutch ) . ultratop.be . Hung Medien . Retrieved 22 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ultratop.be - ULTRATOP BELGIAN CHARTS '' . Jump up ^ `` ALBUM TOP - 100 2015 '' . Hitlisten ( in Danish ) . Archived from the original on 2 January 2016 . Retrieved 1 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Hung , Steffen . `` Dutch Charts - dutchcharts.nl '' . dutchcharts.nl . Jump up ^ `` Le Top de l'année : Top Albums Fusionnés - SNEP '' . 1 November 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Album - Jahrescharts ( 2015 ) '' . Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Összesített album - és válogatáslemez - lista - eladási darabszám alapján - 2015 '' . Mahasz . Retrieved 6 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` IRMA '' . Jump up ^ `` Classifiche `` Top of the Music '' 2015 FIMI - GfK : La musica italiana in vetta negli album e nei singoli digitali '' ( Click on `` Scarica allegato '' to download the zipped file containing the year - end chart PDF documents ) ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved 10 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Los Más Vendidos 2015 - Mejor posición '' ( in Spanish ) . AMPROFON . Archived from the original on 21 January 2016 . Retrieved 24 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Official NZ Music Charts - End of Year Charts 2015 '' . Jump up ^ `` Lista OLiS -- podsumowanie 2015 roku '' ( in Polish ) . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 15 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2015 년 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 1 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` TOP 100 ALBUMES 2015 '' . promusicae.es. 27 December 2015 . Retrieved 8 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Årslista Album -- År 2015 '' ( in Swedish ) . Sverigetopplistan . Retrieved April 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Schweizer Jahreshitparade 2015 '' . Jump up ^ Copsey , Rob ( 5 January 2016 ) . `` The Official Top 40 Biggest Artist Albums of 2015 revealed '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 6 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` IFPI Global Music Report 2016 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved January 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Top 100 Albums 2016 '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ö3 Austria Top 40 - Album - Charts 2016 '' . oe3.orf.at . Archived from the original on 4 January 2016 . Retrieved 29 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten 2016 Albums '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 29 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Rapports Annuels 2016 Albums '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 29 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Top Canadian Albums - Year - End 2016 '' . Jump up ^ `` ALBUM TOP - 100 2016 '' . Hitlisten ( in Danish ) . Retrieved 31 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten - Album 2016 '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 26 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Classement des 200 meilleures ventes d'albums de 2016 '' . Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique ( in French ) . snepmusique.fr . Retrieved 14 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Album - Jahrescharts '' . GfK Entertainment ( in German ) . offiziellecharts.de . Retrieved 3 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Összesített album - és válogatáslemez - lista -- eladási darabszám alapján -- 2016 '' . Mahasz . Retrieved October 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Classifiche `` Top of the Music '' 2016 FIMI - GfK : La musica italiana in vetta negli album e nei singoli digitali '' ( Click on `` Scarica allegato '' to download the zipped file containing the year - end chart PDF documents ) ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved 12 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Los más vendidos 2016 '' ( in Spanish ) . Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2017 . Retrieved January 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top Selling Albums of 2016 '' . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved 25 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` W 2016 roku najlepiej sprzedającym się albumem było `` Życie po śmierci '' O.S.T.R. '' ( in Polish ) . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 년 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` TOP 100 ALBUMES 2015 '' ( PDF ) . promusicae.es. 27 March 2017 . Retrieved 31 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Årslista Album -- År 2016 '' ( in Swedish ) . Sverigetopplistan . Retrieved April 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Schweizer Jahreshitparade Alben 2016 -- hitparade.ch '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 2 January 2017 . Jump up ^ White , Jack ( 30 December 2016 ) . `` The Official Top 40 Biggest Albums of 2016 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 31 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Alternative Albums : 2016 Year - End Charts '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top Billboard 200 Albums - Year - End 2016 '' . Billboard . Retrieved 9 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 Year End Charts - Top Billboard Rock Albums '' . Billboard . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IFPI Global Music Report 2017 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved February 2 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten Albums 2017 '' . Ultratop . Retrieved 21 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Rapports Annuels Albums 2017 '' . Ultratop . Retrieved 21 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Album Top - 100 2017 '' . Hitlisten . Retrieved 7 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten -- Album 2017 '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 23 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Classifiche annuali dei dischi più venduti e dei singoli più scaricati nel 2017 '' ( Click on `` Scarica allegato '' and open the `` Classifica annuale 2017 Album combined '' file ) ( in Italian ) . FIMI . Retrieved 9 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Årslisten 2017 '' ( in Norwegian ) . IFPI Norge . Retrieved 26 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Najlepiej sprzedającym się albumem ubiegłego roku była płyta rapera Quebonafide `` Egzotyka '' '' ( in Polish ) . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 23 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 년 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 1 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` TOP 100 ALBUMES 2017 '' . promusicae.es. 20 February 2018 . Retrieved 31 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Årslista Album -- År 2017 '' ( in Swedish ) . Sverigetopplistan . Retrieved 16 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` End of Year Album Chart Top 100 -- 2017 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 10 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 Year End Charts - Top Billboard Rock Albums '' . Billboard . Retrieved 12 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` CONGRATS ! ! # AHeadFullOfDreams de @ coldplay es # DiscoDeOro en la Argentina . ¡ Aplausos y RT para los británicos ! : ) '' ( in Spanish ) . Warner Music Argentina . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts -- Accreditations -- 2016 Albums '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Jump up ^ `` Austrian album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in German ) . IFPI Austria . Enter Coldplay in the field Interpret . Enter A Head Full of Dreams in the field Titel . Select album in the field Format . Click Suchen Jump up ^ `` Coldplay conquista disco de diamante no Brasil '' ( in Portuguese ) . Warner Music Brasil . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop − Goud en Platina -- 2016 '' . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Jump up ^ `` Canadian album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Music Canada . Retrieved August 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Coldplay `` A Head Full of Dreams '' '' ( in Danish ) . International Federation of the Phonographic Industry of Denmark . Retrieved 31 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` French album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in French ) . Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique . Jump up ^ `` Gold - / Platin - Datenbank ( Coldplay ; ' A Head Full of Dreams ' ) '' ( in German ) . Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Jump up ^ `` Adatbázis -- Arany - és platinalemezek -- 2016 '' ( in Hungarian ) . MAHASZ . Retrieved 24 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Irish album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Irish Recorded Music Association . Retrieved 10 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Italian album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved 19 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Certificaciones '' ( in Spanish ) . Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . Type Coldplay in the box under the ARTISTA column heading . Jump up ^ `` RTL Late Night Coldplay '' ( in Dutch ) . TV blik . Retrieved 11 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` New Zealand album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved 14 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Polish album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( in Polish ) . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 28 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Quais os álbuns e singles mais vendidos em Portugal ? '' ( in Portuguese ) . ESC Portugal . Retrieved 29 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2015 년 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 1 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 년 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 1 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 년 Album Chart '' ( in Korean ) . Gaon Music Chart . Retrieved 1 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Spanish album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . Productores de Música de España . Retrieved 12 January 2016 . Select album under `` Chart '' , enter 2015 in the field `` Year '' . Select ' ' in the field `` Semana '' . Click on `` Search Charts '' Jump up ^ `` Guld - och Platinacertifikat '' ( in Swedish ) . IFPI Sweden . Retrieved 24 June 2016 . Type Coldplay in the top right search bar . Click on `` Sok '' and select A Head Full of Dreams and see certification . Jump up ^ `` The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community : Awards ( Coldplay ; ' A Head Full of Dreams ' ) '' . IFPI Switzerland . Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` British album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . Enter A Head Full of Dreams in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ Hanley , James ( 16 November 2017 ) . `` Coldplay 's A Head Full Of Dreams Tour becomes third highest grossing tour in history '' . Music Week . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` American album certifications -- Coldplay -- A Head Full of Dreams '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved 15 December 2016 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Album , then click SEARCH External links ( edit ) Official website ( hide ) Coldplay Guy Berryman Jonny Buckland Will Champion Chris Martin Discography Awards and nominations Songs Studio albums Parachutes A Rush of Blood to the Head X&Y Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends Mylo Xyloto Ghost Stories A Head Full of Dreams Live albums Live 2003 LeftRightLeftRightLeft Live 2012 Ghost Stories Live 2014 Compilation albums The Singles 1999 -- 2006 Extended plays Safety Brothers & Sisters The Blue Room Acoustic Mince Spies Remixes EP Prospekt 's March iTunes Festival : London 2011 Live in Madrid Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall A Sky Full of Stars Live from Spotify London Kaleidoscope EP Tours Parachutes Tour A Rush of Blood to the Head Tour Twisted Logic Tour Viva la Vida Tour Mylo Xyloto Tour Ghost Stories Tour A Head Full of Dreams Tour Additional personnel Phil Harvey Rik Simpson Davide Rossi Ken Nelson Brian Eno Markus Dravs Tappin Gofton Jon Hopkins Related articles Labels Atlantic Capitol EMI Fierce Panda Parlophone Commercial Mylo Xyloto Comics Tidal Xyloband Television Festival of Flame Hope for Haiti Now Super Bowl 50 halftime show Global Citizen Festival One Love Manchester Charity Make Trade Fair ( Product ) Red Apparatjik We Are Here Square Peg in a Round Hole Come to Life Book Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A_Head_Full_of_Dreams&oldid=842753755 '' Categories : 2015 albums Albums produced by Rik Simpson Albums produced by Stargate Atlantic Records albums Coldplay albums Parlophone albums Juno Award for International Album of the Year albums Hidden categories : CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) Pages containing links to subscription - only content Pages using web citations with no URL CS1 Afrikaans - language sources ( af ) CS1 Korean - language sources ( ko ) CS1 Chinese - language sources ( zh ) CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) CS1 Danish - language sources ( da ) CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 Polish - language sources ( pl ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Norwegian - language sources ( no ) CS1 Swedish - language sources ( sv ) CS1 Portuguese - language sources ( pt ) CS1 Hungarian - language sources ( hu ) Use dmy dates from May 2016 Articles with hAudio microformats Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Certification Table Entry usages for Argentina Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Austria Certification Table Entry usages for Brazil Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for Denmark Certification Table Entry usages for France Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for Hungary Certification Table Entry usages for Ireland Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for Mexico Certification Table Entry usages for Netherlands Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for Poland Certification Table Entry usages for Portugal Certification Table Entry usages for unsupported region Certification Table Entry usages for Spain Certification Table Entry usages for Sweden Certification Table Entry usages for Switzerland Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Монгол Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 18 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 May 2018 , at 13 : 05 . 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coldplay a head full of dreams song list
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Bo (Lost Girl)
Bo ( Lost Girl ) - Wikipedia Bo ( Lost Girl ) Jump to : navigation , search This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( November 2015 ) Bo Dennis Lost Girl character First appearance September 12 , 2010 Last appearance October 25 , 2015 Created by Michelle Lovretta Portrayed by Anna Silk Information Aliases Ysabeau Species Succubus Gender Female Occupation Private Investigator Affiliation Unaligned Family Aife ( mother ) Hades ( father ) Dagny ( half - sister ) Isabeau ( grandmother , maternal ) Fitzpatrick ' Trick ' McCorrigan ( grandfather , maternal ) Zee ( aunt ) ( aka Zeus ) Heratio ( uncle ) ( aka Hera ) Iris ( cousin ) Bo Dennis ( birth name `` Ysabeau '' ) is the protagonist of Lost Girl , the Canadian supernatural drama television series that premiered on Showcase on September 12 , 2010 , and ran for five seasons . Bo , a superhuman bisexual succubus , was portrayed by Anna Silk . In the first episode of the series , It 's a Fae , Fae , Fae , Fae World , Bo saved a young human woman named Kenzi from a rapist , and despite their differences the two quickly became friends . Confronted by the local Fae leaders with having to pick a clan , either `` Light '' or `` Dark '' , Bo declared herself neutral , choosing to side with humans after Kenzi risked her life to find out where Bo had been forcefully taken and then helped Bo break free from a trance by calling out to her . Throughout the first season , Bo learns more about the Fae world and her supernatural nature , while searching for information about her origins . Along the way , Bo also develops romantic relationships with both Dyson , a Light Fae wolf - shapeshifter and police detective in the human police force ; and Lauren , a human doctor and scientist in servitude to the Light Fae . In 2012 , `` Bo '' was No. 35 in the AfterEllen list of Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters ; and in 2013 , No. 10 in its Top 65 Kick - Ass Female Fantasy Characters . In 2014 , `` Bo Dennis '' was named No. 92 in the British Film Institute list of the top 100 Best Sci - Fi Characters of All Time . Contents ( hide ) 1 Biography 1.1 Childhood and early years 1.2 Powers 2 Relationships 2.1 Kenzi 2.2 Dyson 2.3 Dr. Lauren Lewis 2.4 Fitzpatrick `` Trick '' McCorrigan 2.5 Hale Santiago 3 References 4 External links Biography ( edit ) Childhood and early years ( edit ) Bo is a succubus who grew up in an adopted human family , unaware of her non-human nature and of the Fae world she descended from . In `` Raging Fae '' , she told Kenzi that she began to feel `` different '' when she entered puberty and did n't know she was not normal until she accidentally killed her high school boyfriend by draining his life energy during her first sexual activity . When she told her parents what had happened , they broke the news to Bo that she had been adopted . Not knowing what she was and what she had done , Bo hated herself and ran away from home , exchanging her previous life for one without family or friends , moving from place to place and assuming a false identity whenever she killed again . Powers ( edit ) As a succubus , she can seduce and manipulate both humans and Fae with the touch of her skin ; and has the power to absorb the life force ( the `` chi '' , or Qi ) of humans and Fae by drawing it out through their mouths . She feeds and heals from oral chi intake , and chi absorbed from the sexual energy created with males or females . At first she could not feed without killing her sexual partners ; but with Lauren 's help Bo learned to control her sexual drive and chi - drawing powers so that she could have sex with both Fae and humans without injuring or killing them . Although Fae are stronger than humans and can better endure her feeding on them , they are not immune from being drained . Without self - control Bo can render them comatose or dead . In `` ( Dis ) Members Only '' , Dyson 's chi is drained by Bo 's succubus birth mother , Aife , and Bo brings him back to life by transferring some of her own life energy into him . Relationships ( edit ) Kenzi ( edit ) A young human woman who becomes Bo 's best friend and sidekick after Bo saved her from a rapist who had surreptitiously drugged her with a `` roofie '' in her drink . A pickpocket and scam artist with a long rap sheet , she can speak Russian fluently , possesses excellent street - smarts , and has family connections in organized crime . Kenzi ran away from home and lived on the streets and underground for a long time before meeting Bo . During the `` trial '' by the local Fae leaders to choose alignment with either the Light or Dark , Bo chose to side with humanity after Kenzi risked her life to discover where Bo had been taken by force and what they were doing to her , and called out to Bo to help her break out of a spell she had been put under during the trial . Kenzi suggested to Bo that she should take advantage of her bewitching powers and neutrality to become a private investigator , with her as partner . She was declared Bo 's `` property '' and pet to allow her to participate within Fae society . Kenzi does not care about fae politics . Dyson ( edit ) A Wolf - Shapeshifter and homicide detective in the human police force . He is over 1,500 years old , very strong , possesses a sharp sense of smell , and is acutely knowledgeable about Fae politics . A member of the Light Fae , his true allegiance is to Trick rather than The Ash . He fell in love with Bo while under orders from Trick to keep an eye on her , and is best friends with Hale , his Light Fae detective partner . In the Season One finale , he involuntarily sacrificed his love for Bo when he offered his wolf to the Norn in return for her giving Bo the strength to defeat her maniacal mother , Aife ; but the Norn , who demanded his wolf the first time he supplicated her intervention , realized that his wolf was no longer what he valued most and instead took Dyson 's love for Bo and ability to love anyone else again ; leaving him with the memory of their relationship but unable to feel his passion for her . He has since made efforts to remain friends with Bo , which was initially awkward when Bo could n't understand why he had become distant . After being reunited with his old love , Ciara , they began a relationship which was hampered by Dyson 's reluctance to reveal his encounter with the Norn and what he had lost in the exchange ; however , he eventually admitted to her that he had offered his wolf but it had cost him his being able to love anyone . His ability to love was restored by the Norn after Kenzi threatened to mutilate and cut down her Ancient Tree with a chainsaw . It is revealed in Season 5 that he has a son named Mark . He is scornful of humans Dr. Lauren lewis ( edit ) A Human owned by the Ash as his property , she serves as a doctor and scientist for the Light Fae . She was seduced by Bo during their first meeting and hence fell in love with her . She has extensive knowledge of the different types of Fae and their abilities . In the first season , she helped Bo learn how to control her powers so that she could have sex with both Fae and humans without hurting or killing them . It is later revealed that she had a human girlfriend , Nadia , who had fallen into a coma five years earlier after contracting a mysterious virus while in the Congo with her . In exchange for her servitude , The Ash offered Lauren access to the Light Fae 's laboratory and resources to find a cure for Nadia 's condition . Lauren learned from Lachlan in `` Masks '' that she was tricked by the previous Ash : he ordered a Dark Fae Shaman to curse Nadia into a coma to insure that Lauren would do everything in her power to find an antidote to the fever that was killing Fae , and then pulled her into the Light clan 's fold . After Bo ( unbeknownst to Lauren ) removed the curse , Lauren and Nadia reunited ; but their relationship was soon shattered when it was revealed that Nadia had been infected by the Garuda and he could control her mind and body . Bo was forced to kill Nadia when she threatened Lauren 's life leaving Lauren devastated . Grieving , Lauren seeks comfort in Bo and the two grow closer emotionally . In the Season 2 finale , Lauren relinquishes her chance for freedom from the Light Fae to stay with Bo , despite encouragement from Dyson to leave while she can . In `` Caged Fae '' , Bo asks Lauren to be together in a committed relationship . However , in `` Delinquents '' , Tamsin visits Lauren to furtively carry out one of her mercenary tasks , and intentionally provokes Lauren by telling her that she and Bo kissed without Bo feeding from her ( not knowing that the kiss was caused by Trick and Stella touching the Dawning invitation machine at the moment they shared a first kiss in `` Fae - ge Against The Machine '' , which made the machine spark , and propelled Tamsin towards Bo to kiss her ) . Overwhelmed by the all the stress and loss she had experienced , and feeling inadequate in satisfying Bo 's succubus nature , Lauren tells Bo that she needs to take a `` break '' from the relationship . As time passes , however , Bo becomes concerned that it might not be a temporary separation . In `` Adventures In Fae - bysitting '' , a part of Lauren 's past is disclosed and we learn that her real name is Karen Beattie and that she is a fugitive wanted by the International Criminal Offences and Criminal Intelligence Bureau . In addition to English she is also fluent in Spanish , French and Swahili . In `` Those Who Wander '' Lauren feigns being through with Bo in the presence of Dr. Isaac Taft and rejects her to protect Bo , and herself , from him . After this encounter , Bo and Lauren go their separate ways . Lauren then sabotages Taft 's plan to extract Dyson 's DNA and transfer the cells into him so as to become a Wolf - Shapeshifter , and turns Taft into a human / Cabbit hybrid instead , making him an easy kill for Dyson . She goes missing thereafter . ( The conversation that she and Dyson had during a phone call in `` Sleeping Beauty School '' showed that Dyson was aware of Lauren 's motives for subjecting him to the deceptive procedure . ) In `` Turn to Stone '' , Lauren reveals to Crystal that she has a brother , they had been inseparable , and decided together `` to change the world '' , but their cause had turned into blowing up pipelines . Lauren knew how to build pipe bombs and made them for her brother to position ; however , one location was supposed to have been deserted but was n't , and eleven people were killed in the explosion . This led Lauren ( Karen Beattie ) to go on the run , change her identity , and keep running ever since . Lauren confesses that not a day goes by that she does n't hate herself for what happened . ( By the details in the ICOCIB wanted poster , the incident occurred in 1998 , when Lauren was 17 or 18 years old . ) In `` Let the Dark Times Roll '' , Bo and Lauren are reunited at a Dark Fae party after the passage of a month , during which Lauren 's memory of Bo was removed by The Wanderer . They jump into each other 's arms and kiss passionately . Lauren told Bo that she had fled for her life after the Una Mens began to kill humans . The Dark Fae ( i.e. The Morrigan ) came looking for her , offering refuge , protection , and freedom to come and go as she pleased in exchange for working for the clan . When Bo tells Lauren that she can offer her protection by claiming her , Lauren turns her down . After being owned by The Ash for over five years , Lauren does n't want to be owned by anyone , even Bo . Bo walks away , stunned and bewildered by Lauren 's response . In `` Dark Horse '' , Bo and Lauren reconciled after Bo saved Lauren from Massimo . Lauren saw that Bo was wearing the necklace gift from Lauren she had found in `` Turn to Stone '' . When a defiant Lauren tells Bo that she 's not afraid of the Fae , Bo admiringly told her , `` You really are Dark '' ; to which Lauren replied , `` No , Bo . I 'm yours . '' Bo starts to leave , but turns around and walks back to Lauren and kisses her . At the start of Season 5 , Bo and Lauren have remained good friends , putting behind their previous tensions . In Big in Japan , when Bo felt that she was alone , following Kenzi 's departure , Lauren was among those who reassured Bo that she would never be alone , because she stole her heart . In Here Comes the Night , Bo and Lauren made love again since their breakup in Season 3 . They were seen by Tamsin , who had initiated a sexual relationship with Bo and thought the two were now `` girlfriends '' . When Bo realized their ' friends with benefits ' had been misunderstood she told Tamsin that she did love her , but not in a romantic way . In `` End of Faes '' , Tamsin told Bo that it did n't matter where her body was , because her heart will always be with Lauren ; that she and Lauren will always be a couple , even when they were not . Afterwards , Bo stopped Lauren to talk about what happened between them the day before and told her , `` There 's always going to be a reason for us not to be together . And I do n't want to put this off any longer . '' Bewildered , Lauren simply says , `` Oh , Boy . '' Bo asks , `` ' Oh , Boy ' , No . Or ' Oh , Boy ' , Yes ? '' Tamsin later tells Lauren that she and Bo should get back together . Tamsin told Lauren `` I entered the game and I lost . That 's life . The best woman won . I 'm over it . You should be , too . '' Later , Bo , Lauren and Dyson are searching for Mark , Dyson 's son . Bo had to leave to find one of the Ancient Fae , Iris , while Lauren and Dyson search for Mark , but before they went different ways , Lauren tells Bo , `` Oh , Boy , Yes '' ; letting her know that she , too , wanted to resume their relationship . In `` Rise '' , as the series comes to an end , Lauren tells Bo that she wants to spend the rest of her life with her , acknowledging mistakes that she would never make again . Both admit their relationship is messy and complicated , but after Lauren assures Bo that she is willing to weather the inevitable complications of their lives , Bo , gladdened , accepts her proposal . They embrace and kiss , this time forever . Fitzpatrick `` Trick '' mccorrigan ( edit ) The bartender and owner of the only Fae pub in town , The Dal Riata , which is neutral ground where Light and Dark Fae can freely socialize and find sanctuary . Trick is very powerful : he is a Blood Sage and can alter fate by writing it with his blood . Once known as the Blood King , he forced the truce and wrote the decrees that ended the war between Light and Dark Fae ; and though few are now aware of his former position in the Fae hierarchy , he is on equal terms with the Fae Elders . Compared to other Fae , who have contempt for humans , he is tolerant and often fond of humans , even trading away his most prized possession to help save Kenzi 's life after she was infected with a lethal Fae virus . He respects Lauren and when necessary seeks her opinion and expertise with matters involving Fae . Trick is extremely reluctant to use his blood powers as it can have unforeseen consequences ; for example , his writing a culmination where Aife 's maternal instincts emerge and stop her from hurting and killing Bo not only left him weakened and wounded from the loss of blood , but also signaled his whereabouts to an ancient enemy of the Fae , the Garuda . Near the end of the second season , it was revealed that Trick is Bo 's maternal grandfather . Hale santiago ( edit ) A Siren and Dyson 's colleague as another Light Fae undercover agent in the human police force . He can pacify , control , and kill humans and Fae alike with his whistling ; in addition , he can cure pain and heal wounds with it . He is the son of the leader of one of the three most powerful Light Fae clans , the Clan Zamora , but despite his family 's high social status he disdains their social contacts and makes his own way in life ( although Bo and Kenzi used his contacts when they needed to infiltrate a high - class Fae event ) . Hale is good friends with Kenzi , with an undercurrent of mutual attraction gradually developing between them . He helped save Kenzi 's life by using his siren 's whistle to cauterize her wound in the Season Two finale . In the third season , he became the acting Ash after Lachlan 's death . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Vann , Helena . `` Interview with Michelle Lovretta '' . The Watercooler. 2011 . Archived from the original on 2013 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ Syfy PR , @ SyfyPR ( March 18 , 2013 ) . `` That 's our Bo Dennis : serving + protecting fae / humans alike . '' . Twitter . Jump up ^ `` There 's Bo Place Like Home '' . Lost Girl . Season 3 . Episode 7 . 01 : 13 minutes in . I , Bo Dennis Jump up ^ Lost Girl : Prologue. 2011 . p. 7 . `` Ysabeau '' , or Bo for short , was born of Fae and is a rarity in their world . Jump up ^ drsquid ( September 30 , 2010 ) . `` Nine Questions with Lost Girl Creator and Writer Michelle Lovretta '' . RGB Filter . Bo is a succubus , a grown woman , and bisexual ... Jump up ^ `` Syfy Lost Girl Producer Jay Firestone Discusses New Season and Show Origins ( VIDEO ) '' . YouTube . GamerLiveTV . July 23 , 2012 . The basic premise when we started , my basic pitch was : she 's good , she 's bad , she 's bi . Jump up ^ Landau , Emily ( February 2013 ) . `` The Erotic Education of Anna Silk : the Lost Girl star on playing a bisexual succubus '' . Toronto Life Magazine . Archived from the original on 2014 - 10 - 06 . Jump up ^ Huddleston , Kathie ( January 10 , 2012 ) . `` Meet Anna Silk , sexy succubus of Lost Girl , Syfy 's newest series '' . Blastr . Jump up ^ `` The Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters '' . AfterEllen . February 27 , 2012 . Retrieved June 24 , 2012 . 35 . Bo Dennis ( Anna Silk ) , Lost Girl Jump up ^ `` The Top 65 Kick - Ass Female Fantasy Characters '' . AfterEllen . August 12 , 2013 . Retrieved August 12 , 2013 . 10 . Bo Dennis , Lost Girl Jump up ^ BFI ( December 19 , 2014 ) . `` The Best Sci - Fi Characters of All Time : the verdict '' . British Film Institute . Retrieved 5 June 2015 . External links ( edit ) Official website Lost Girl at Prodigy Pictures Inc . Lost Girl at Syfy ( U.S. ) Lost Girl at Canada Media Fund Lost Girl official Twitter Lost Girl official page on Facebook Lost Girl at Lost Girl Writers Twitter Lost Girl on IMDb Lost Girl at Lost Girl Official Merchandise ( Gold Label ) Lost Girl at BO SERIES INC . ( Giant Ape Media ) Lost Girl at Lost Girl : The Official Site ( FUNimation ) Lost Girl at Funimation : Take Lost Girl Home ( hide ) Lost Girl Episodes Season 1 Characters Bo Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bo_(Lost_Girl)&oldid=791780382 '' Categories : Lost Girl Fantasy television characters Fictional bisexual females Fictional characters introduced in 2010 Fictional female detectives Fictional LGBT characters in television Fictional women soldiers and warriors Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles in need of updating from November 2015 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 22 July 2017 , at 12 : 58 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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Confederate States Army
Confederate States Army - Wikipedia Confederate States Army Jump to : navigation , search Army of the Confederate States Active February 28 , 1861 -- May 26 , 1865 ( 4 years , 2 months and 4 weeks ) Country Confederate States Type Army Size 500,000 -- 1,500,000 Part of C.S. War Department Colors Cadet gray March `` Dixie '' Engagements American Indian Wars Cortina Troubles American Civil War Sumter First Manassas Wilson 's Creek Henry and Donelson Shenandoah South Mills Richmond Harpers Ferry Munfordville Shepherdstown Chambersburg Raid Mississippi River Peninsula Shiloh Jackson 's Valley Campaign Second Manassas Sharpsburg Hartsville Fredericksburg Murfreesborough Chancellorsville Gettysburg Vicksburg Corydon Chickamauga Chattanooga Wilderness Atlanta Spotsylvania New Hope Church Pickett 's Mill Cold Harbor Sabine Pass Plymouth Fort Pillow Petersburg St. Albans Kennesaw Mountain Jonesborough Franklin Nashville Appomattox Court House Commanders Commander - in - Chief Jefferson Davis , ( President of the Confederate States ) General - in - Chief Robert E. Lee ( General - in - Chief - January 1865 ) Insignia Flag The Confederate States Army ( C.S.A. ) was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America ( Confederacy ) during the American Civil War ( 1861 - 1865 ) . On February 28 , 1861 , the Provisional Confederate Congress established a provisional volunteer army and gave control over military operations and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the newly chosen Confederate president , Jefferson Davis ( 1808 - 1889 ) , a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy on the Hudson River at West Point , New York , and colonel of a volunteer regiment during the Mexican -- American War ( 1846 - 1848 ) , later a United States Senator from Mississippi and U.S. Secretary of War in the administration of 14th President Franklin Pierce ( 1853 - 1857 ) . By March 1861 , the Provisional Confederate Congress expanded the provisional forces and established a more permanent Confederate States Army . An accurate count of the total number of individuals who served in the Confederate Army is not possible due to incomplete and destroyed Confederate records ; all but extremely improbable estimates of the total number of Confederate soldiers range between 600,000 and 1,500,000 men . The better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men . This does not include an unknown number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army , such as construction of fortifications and defenses or driving wagons . Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war , they do not represent the size of the army at any given date . These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces ( Confederate States Navy ) . Although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers , both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription , primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer . In the absence of exact records , estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts . Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable . The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers are about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle , 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps . One estimate of Confederate wounded , which is considered incomplete , is 194,026 . These numbers do not include men who died from other causes such as accidents , which would add several thousand to the death toll . The main Confederate armies , the Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee and the remnants of the Army of Tennessee and various other units under General Joseph E. Johnston , surrendered to the U.S. on April 9 , 1865 ( officially April 12 ) , and April 18 , 1865 ( officially April 26 ) . Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16 , 1865 and June 28 , 1865 . By the end of the war , more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted . The Confederacy 's government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April and exerted no control of the remaining armies . Contents ( hide ) 1 Prelude 2 Establishment 2.1 Control and conscription 3 Morale and motivations 3.1 Religion 3.2 Slavery and white supremacism 3.3 Desertion 4 Organization 4.1 Command 4.2 Personnel organization 4.3 Ranks and insignia 4.4 Armies and prominent leaders 5 Supply and logistics 6 Native Americans and the Confederate army 6.1 Cherokee 6.2 Choctaw 7 African Americans and the Confederate Army 7.1 Using slaves as soldiers 7.1. 1 Opposition from Confederates 7.2 Treatment of black civilians 7.3 Treatment of black prisoners of war 7.3. 1 Prisoner exchanges with the Union 8 Statistics and size 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Further reading 11.1 Historiography 11.2 Primary sources 12 External links Prelude ( edit ) By the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4 , 1861 , the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States . The Confederacy seized federal property , including nearly all U.S. Army forts , within its borders . Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U.S. control when he took office , especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston , South Carolina . By the time Lincoln was sworn in as president , the Provisional Confederate Congress had authorized the organization of a large Provisional Army of the Confederate States ( PACS ) . Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis , C.S. troops under the command of General P.G.T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13 , 1861 , forcing its capitulation on April 14 . The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacy 's attack and demanded war . It rallied behind Lincoln 's call on April 15 , for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists , to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact . Four more slave states then joined the Confederacy . Both the United States and the Confederate States began in earnest to raise large , mostly volunteer , armies with the objectives of putting down the rebellion and preserving the Union , on the one hand , or of establishing independence from the United States , on the other . Establishment ( edit ) Private Edwin Francis Jemison , whose image became one of the most famous portraits of the young soldiers of the war . The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army . It was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army . The provisional , volunteer army was established by an act of the Provisional Confederate Congress passed on February 28 , 1861 , one week before the act which established the permanent regular army organization , passed on March 6 . Although the two forces were to exist concurrently , very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army . The Provisional Army of the Confederate States ( PACS ) began organizing on April 27 . Virtually all regular , volunteer , and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a higher rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army . If the war had ended successfully for them , the Confederates intended that the PACS would be disbanded , leaving only the ACSA . The Army of the Confederate States of America ( ACSA ) was the regular army and was authorized to include 15,015 men , including 744 officers , but this level was never achieved . The men serving in the highest rank as Confederate States generals , such as Samuel Cooper and Robert E. Lee , were enrolled in the ACSA to ensure that they outranked all militia officers . ACSA ultimately existed only on paper . The organization of the ACSA did not proceed beyond the appointment and confirmation of some officers . Three state regiments were later denominated `` Confederate '' regiments but this appears to have had no practical effect on the organization of a regular Confederate Army and no real effect on the regiments themselves . Members of all the Confederate States military forces ( the army , the navy , and the marine corps ) are often referred to as `` Confederates '' , and members of the Confederate army were referred to as `` Confederate soldiers '' . Supplementing the Confederate army were the various state militias of the Confederacy : Confederate States State Militias were organized and commanded by the state governments , similar to those authorized by the United States ' Militia Act of 1792 . Control and Conscription ( edit ) A cartoon from the war , showing the Confederates forcibly drafting a Unionist man into the Confederate army . The Unionist man objects , with the Confederates threatening to lynch him if he does not comply . Control and operation of the Confederate army was administered by the Confederate States War Department , which was established by the Confederate Provisional Congress in an act on February 21 , 1861 . The Confederate Congress gave control over military operations , and authority for mustering state forces and volunteers to the President of the Confederate States of America on February 28 , 1861 , and March 6 , 1861 . On March 8 the Confederate Congress passed a law that authorized Davis to issue proclamations to call up no more than 100,000 men . The War Department asked for 8,000 volunteers on March 9 , 20,000 on April 8 , and 49,000 on and after April 16 . Davis proposed an army of 100,000 men in his message to Congress on April 29 . On August 8 , 1861 , the Confederacy called for 400,000 volunteers to serve for one or three years . In April 1862 , the Confederacy passed the first conscription law in either C.S. or U.S. history , the Conscription Act , which made all able bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35 liable for a three - year term of service in the PACS . It also extended the terms of enlistment for all one - year soldiers to three years . Men employed in certain occupations considered to be most valuable for the home front ( such as railroad and river workers , civil officials , telegraph operators , miners , druggists and teachers ) were exempt from the draft . The act was amended twice in 1862 . On September 27 , the maximum age of conscription was extended to 45 . On October 11 , the Confederate Congress passed the so - called `` Twenty Negro Law '' , which exempted anyone who owned 20 or more slaves , a move that caused deep resentment among conscripts who did not own slaves . The Confederate Congress made several more amendments over the course of the war to address losses suffered in battle as well as the North 's greater supply of manpower . In December 1863 , they abolished the practice of allowing a rich drafted man to hire a substitute to take his place in the ranks . Substitution had also been practiced in the Northern states , leading to similar resentment from the lower classes . In February 1864 , the age limits were extended to between 17 and 50 . Challenges to the subsequent acts came before five state supreme courts ; all five upheld them . Morale and motivations ( edit ) An 1861 Confederate recruiting poster from Virginia , urging men to join the Confederate cause and fight off the U.S. Army , which it refers to as a `` brutal and desperate foe '' . In his 2010 book Major Problems in the Civil War , historian Michael Perman says that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight , suffer and die over four years : Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology , holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty , Union , or state rights , or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery . Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight , such as the defense of one 's home and family , or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men . Most historians agree that , no matter what he thought about when he went into the war , the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes affected his reasons for continuing to fight . -- Michael Perman , Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction ( 2010 ) , p. 178 . Educated soldiers drew upon their knowledge of American history to justify their costs . McPherson says : Confederate and Union soldiers interpreted the heritage of 1776 in opposite ways . Confederates professed to fight for liberty and independence from a too radical government ; Unionists said they fought to preserve the nation conceived in liberty from dismemberment and destruction ... The rhetoric of liberty that had permeated the letters of Confederate volunteers in 1861 , grew even stronger as the war progressed . '' The most popular press coming out of Richmond before and during the Civil War sought to inspire a sense of patriotism , Confederate identity , and moral high ground in the southern population though newspaper media . Religion ( edit ) The southern churches met the shortage of Army chaplains by sending missionaries . The Southern Baptists started in 1862 and had a total of 78 missionaries . Presbyterians were even more active with 112 missionaries and early 1865 . Other missionaries were funded and supported by the Episcopalians , Methodists , and Lutherans . One result was wave after wave of revivals in the Army . Religion played a major part in the lives of Confederate soldiers . Some men with a weak religious affiliation became committed Christians , and saw their military service in terms of God 's wishes . Religion strengthened the soldiers ' loyalty to comrades and the Confederacy . Military historian Samuel J. Watson argues that Christian faith was a major factor in combat motivation . The soldiers ' faith was consoling for the loss of comrades ; it was a shield against fear ; it helped cut down on drinking and fighting ; it enlarged the soldiers community of close friends and helped make up for long - term separation from home . Slavery and white supremacism ( edit ) In his 1997 book For Cause and Comrades , which examines the motivations of the American Civil War 's soldiers , historian James M. McPherson contrasts the views of Confederate soldiers regarding slavery to that of the colonial American revolutionaries of the 18th century . He stated that while the American colonists of the 1770s saw an incongruity with slave ownership and proclaiming to be fighting for liberty , Confederacy 's soldiers did not , as the Confederate ideology of white supremacy negated any contradiction between the two : Unlike many slaveholders in the age of Thomas Jefferson , Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their own liberty while holding other people in slavery . Indeed , white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers fought . -- James M. McPherson , For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War ( 1997 ) , p. 106 , emphasis added . McPherson states that Confederate soldiers did not discuss the issue of slavery as often as Union soldiers did , because most Confederate soldiers readily accepted as an obvious fact that they were fighting to perpetuate slavery and thus did not feel the need to debate over it : ( O ) nly 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries . As one might expect , a much higher percentage of soldiers from slaveholding families than from nonslaveholding families expressed such a purpose : 33 percent , compared with 12 percent . Ironically , the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater , as the next chapter will show . There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox . Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial . Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial . They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern ' rights ' and institutions for which they fought , and did not feel compelled to discuss it . -- James M. McPherson , For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War ( 1997 ) , pp. 109 -- 110 , emphasis added . Continuing , McPherson also stated that of the hundreds of Confederate soldiers ' letters he had examined , none of them contained any anti-slavery sentiment whatsoever : Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries , none at all dissented from that view . -- James M. McPherson , For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War ( 1997 ) , p. 110 , emphasis in original . But McPherson admits flaws in his sampling of letters . Soldiers from slaveholding families were overrepresented by 100 % : Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample . Indeed , while about one - third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families , slightly more than two - thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did so . -- James M. McPherson , For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War ( 1997 ) , p. ix . In some cases , Confederate men were motivated to join the army in response to the Union 's actions in regards to opposition to slavery . After U.S. President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation , some Confederate soldiers welcomed the move , as they believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy and thus , lead to greater enlistment of white men into the Confederate army . One Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy , stating that `` we are fighting for our property '' , contrasting this with the motivations of Union soldiers , who he claimed were fighting for the `` flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo '' . One Louisianan artillery soldier stated , `` I never want to see the day when a negro is put on an equality with a white person . There is too many free niggers ... now to suit me , let alone having four millions . '' A North Carolinian soldier stated , `` ( A ) white man is better than a nigger . '' In 1894 , Virginian and former Confederate soldier John S. Mosby , reflecting back on his role in the war , stated in a letter to a friend that `` I 've always understood that we went to war on account of the thing we quarreled with the North about . I 've never heard of any other cause than slavery . '' Desertion ( edit ) Further information : Desertion § American Civil War At many points during the war , and especially near the end , Confederate armies were very poorly fed . Back home their families were in worsening condition and faced starvation and marauders . Many soldiers went home temporarily ( `` absent without official leave '' ) and quietly returned when their family problems had been resolved . By September 1864 , however , President Davis publicly admitted that two thirds of the soldiers were absent , `` most of them without leave . '' The problem escalated rapidly after that , and fewer and fewer men returned . Soldiers who were fighting in defense of their homes realized that they had to desert to fulfill that duty . Historian Mark Weitz argues that the official count of 103,400 deserters is too low . He concludes that most of the desertions came because the soldier felt he owed a higher duty to his own family than to the Confederacy . Confederate policies generally were severe . For example , on August 19 , 1862 General Stonewall Jackson approved the court - martial sentence of execution for three soldiers for desertion . He rejected pleas for clemency from the soldier 's regimental commander . Jackson 's goal was to maintain discipline in a volunteer army whose homes were under threat of enemy occupation . Historians have emphasized how soldiers from poor families deserted because they were urgently needed at home . Local pressures mounted as Union forces occupied more and more of the Confederacy , putting more and more families at risk . One Confederate officer at the time noted , `` The deserters belong almost entirely to the poorest class of non slave - holders whose labor is indispensable to the daily support of their families '' and that `` When the father , husband or son is forced into the service , the suffering at home with them is inevitable . It is not in the nature of these men to remain quiet in the ranks under such circumstances . '' Some soldiers also deserted from ideological motivations . A growing threat to the solidarity of the Confederacy was dissatisfaction in the Appalachian mountain districts caused by lingering unionism and a distrust of the slave power . Many of their soldiers deserted , returned home , and formed a military force that fought off regular army units trying to punish them . North Carolina lost 23 % of its soldiers ( 24,122 ) to desertion . The state provided more soldiers per capita than any other Confederate state , and had more deserters as well . Young Mark Twain deserted long before he became a famous writer and lecturer , but he often commented upon the episode in comic fashion . Beneath his desertion from a Missouri State Guard unit was his deep unease about losing his personal honor , his fear of facing death as a soldier , and his rejection of a Southern identity as a professional author . Organization ( edit ) CSA M1857 Napoleon Artillery Piece Because of the destruction of any central repository of records in Richmond in 1865 and the comparatively poor record - keeping of the time , there can be no definitive number that represents the strength of the Confederate States Army . Estimates range from 500,000 to 2,000,000 men who were involved at any time during the war . Reports from the War Department began at the end of 1861 ( 326,768 men ) , 1862 ( 449,439 ) , 1863 ( 464,646 ) , 1864 ( 400,787 ) , and `` last reports '' ( 358,692 ) . Estimates of enlistments throughout the war were 1,227,890 to 1,406,180 . The following calls for men were issued : March 6 , 1861 : 100,000 volunteers and militia January 23 , 1862 : 400,000 volunteers and militia April 16 , 1862 , the First Conscription Act : conscripted white men ages 18 to 35 for the duration of hostilities September 27 , 1862 , the Second Conscription Act : expanded the age range to 18 to 45 , with implementation beginning on July 15 , 1863 February 17 , 1864 , the Third Conscription Act : ages 17 to 50 March 13 , 1865 , authorized up to 300,000 African American troops but was never fully implemented . The CSA was initially a ( strategically ) defensive army , and many soldiers were resentful when Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia in an invasion of the North in the Antietam Campaign . Command ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see General officers in the Confederate States Army . General Robert Edward Lee , the Confederacy 's most famous general . The army did not have a formal overall military commander , or general - in - chief , until late in the war . The Confederate President , Jefferson Davis , himself a former U.S. Army officer and U.S. Secretary of War , served as commander - in - chief and provided the strategic direction for Confederate land and naval forces . The following men had varying degrees of control : Robert E. Lee was `` charged with the conduct of military operations in the armies of the Confederacy '' from March 13 to May 31 , 1862 . He was referred to as Davis ' military adviser but exercised broad control over the strategic and logistical aspects of the Army , a role similar in nature to the current Chief of Staff of the United States Army . On June 1 , he assumed command of the Army of Northern Virginia , which was considered the most important of all the Confederate field armies . Braxton Bragg was similarly `` charged with the conduct of military operations in the armies of the Confederacy '' from February 24 , 1864 ( after he was relieved of field command following the Battle of Chattanooga ) to January 31 , 1865 . This role was a military advisory position under Davis . Lee was formally designated general - in - chief by an act of Congress ( January 23 , 1865 ) and served in this capacity from January 31 to April 9 , 1865 . The lack of centralized control was a strategic weakness for the Confederacy , and there are few instances of multiple armies acting in concert across multiple theaters to achieve a common objective . ( An exception to this was in late 1862 when Lee 's invasion of Maryland was coincident with two other actions : Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky and Earl Van Dorn 's advance against Corinth , Mississippi . All three initiatives were unsuccessful , however . ) Likewise , an extreme example of `` States Rights '' control of C.S. soldiers was Georgia Governor Joseph E. Brown , who not only reportedly tried to keep Georgia troops from leaving the State of Georgia in 1861 but also tried to keep them from C.S. government control when U.S. forces entered Georgia in 1864 . Many of the Confederacy 's senior military leaders ( including Robert E. Lee , Albert Sidney Johnston , James Longstreet ) and even President Jefferson Davis were former U.S. Army and , in smaller numbers , U.S. Navy officers who had been opposed to , disapproved of , or were at least unenthusiastic about secession but resigned their U.S. commissions upon hearing that their states had left the Union . They felt that they had no choice but to help defend their homes . President Abraham Lincoln was exasperated to hear of such men who professed to love their country but were willing to fight against it . Personnel organization ( edit ) As in the U.S. Army , the Confederate army 's soldiers were organized by military specialty . The combat arms included infantry , cavalry and artillery . Although fewer soldiers might comprise a squad or platoon , the smallest infantry maneuver unit in the Army was a company of 100 soldiers . Ten companies were organized into an infantry regiment , which theoretically had 1,000 men . In reality , as disease , desertions and casualties took their toll , and the common practice of sending replacements to form new regiments took hold , most regiments were greatly reduced in strength . By the mid-war , most regiments averaged 300 -- 400 men , with Confederate units slightly smaller on average than their Union counterparts . For example , at the pivotal Battle of Chancellorsville , the average Federal infantry regiment 's strength was 433 men , versus 409 for Confederate infantry regiments . Regiments , which were the basic units of army organization through which soldiers were supplied and deployed , were raised by individual states . They were generally referred by number and state , for example 1st Texas , 12th Virginia . To the extent the word `` battalion '' was used to describe a military unit , it referred to a multi-company task force of a regiment or a near - regimental size unit . Throughout the war , the Confederacy raised the equivalent of 1,010 regiments in all branches , including militias , versus 2,050 regiments for the Union Army . Four regiments usually formed a brigade , although as the number of men in many regiments became greatly reduced , especially later in the war , more than four were often assigned to a brigade . Occasionally , regiments would be transferred between brigades . Two to four brigades usually formed a division . Two to four divisions usually formed a corps . Two to four corps usually formed an army . Occasionally , a single corps might operate independently as if it were a small army . The Confederate States Army consisted of several field armies , named after their primary area of operation . The largest Confederate field army was the Army of Northern Virginia , whose surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in 1865 marked the end of major combat operations in the US Civil War . Companies were commanded by captains and had two or more lieutenants . Regiments were commanded by colonels . Lieutenant colonels were second in command . At least one major was next in command . Brigades were commanded by brigadier generals although casualties or other attrition sometimes meant that brigades would be commanded by senior colonels or even a lower grade officer . Barring the same type of circumstances which might leave a lower grade officer in temporary command , divisions were commanded by major generals and corps were commanded by lieutenant generals . A few corps commanders were never confirmed as lieutenant generals and exercised corps command for varying periods of time as major generals . Armies of more than one corps were commanded by ( full ) generals . Corporal of the Artillery division of the Confederate States of America Army . Confederate mortar crew at Warrington , Florida in 1861 , across from Fort Pickens . Confederate artillery at Charleston Harbor , 1863 . Ranks and insignia ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see Ranks and insignia of the Confederate States . Officer rank structure of the Confederate Army General Colonel Lieutenant colonel Major Captain First lieutenant Second lieutenant An 1895 illustration showing the uniforms of the Confederate army contrasted with those of the U.S. Army . General ( CSA ) Colonel ( Infantry shown ) Lieutenant - colonel ( Headquarters shown ) Major ( Medical Corps shown ) Captain ( Marine Corps shown ) 1st Lieutenant ( Artillery shown ) 2nd Lieutenant ( Cavalry shown ) There were four grades of general officer ( general , lieutenant general , major general , and brigadier general ) , but all wore the same insignia regardless of grade . This was a decision made early in the conflict . The Confederate Congress initially made the rank of brigadier general the highest rank . As the war progressed , the other general - officer ranks were quickly added , but no insignia for them was created . ( Robert E. Lee was a notable exception to this . He chose to wear the rank insignia of a colonel . ) Only seven men achieved the rank of ( full ) general ; the highest ranking ( earliest date of rank ) was Samuel Cooper , Adjutant General and Inspector General of the Confederate States Army . Officers ' uniforms bore a braid design on the sleeves and kepi , the number of adjacent strips ( and therefore the width of the lines of the design ) denoting rank . The color of the piping and kepi denoted the military branch . The braid was sometimes left off by officers since it made them conspicuous targets . The kepi was rarely used , the common slouch hat being preferred for its practicality in the Southern climate . Enlisted rank structure Sergeant Major Quartermaster Sergeant Ordnance Sergeant First Sergeant Sergeant Corporal Musician Private no insignia no insignia Branch colors were used for color of chevrons -- blue for infantry , yellow for cavalry , and red for artillery . This could differ with some units , however , depending on available resources or the unit commander 's desire . Cavalry regiments from Texas , for example , often used red insignia and at least one Texas infantry regiment used black . The CSA differed from many contemporaneous armies in that all officers under the rank of brigadier general were elected by the soldiers under their command . The Confederate Congress authorized the awarding of medals for courage and good conduct on October 13 , 1862 , but war time difficulties prevented the procurement of the needed medals . To avoid postponing recognition for their valor , those nominated for the awards had their names placed on a Roll of Honor , which would be read at the first dress parade after its receipt and be published in at least one newspaper in each state . Armies and prominent leaders ( edit ) The C.S. Army was composed of independent armies and military departments that were constituted , renamed , and disbanded as needs arose , particularly in reaction to offensives launched by the Union . These major units were generally named after states or geographic regions ( in comparison to the Union 's custom of naming armies after rivers ) . Armies were usually commanded by full generals ( there were seven in the C.S. Army ) or lieutenant generals . Some of the more important armies and their commanders were : A painting of Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia fighting the U.S. Army at Spotsylvania in 1864 . Army of Arkansas -- Sterling Price , Edmund Kirby Smith Army of Central Kentucky -- Simon B. Buckner , Albert Sidney Johnston Army of East Tennessee -- Edmund Kirby Smith ( later renamed Army of Kentucky ) Army of Eastern Kentucky -- Humphrey Marshall Army of the Kanawha -- Henry A. Wise , John B. Floyd , Robert E. Lee Army of Kentucky -- Edmund Kirby Smith ( eventually commander of all forces West of the Mississippi ) Army of Louisiana -- Braxton Bragg . Paul O. Hébert Army of Mississippi March 1862 -- November 1862 : P.G.T. Beauregard , Albert Sidney Johnston , Braxton Bragg , William J. Hardee , Leonidas Polk , ( also known as the Army of the Mississippi ; redesignated Army of Tennessee on November 20 , 1862 ) December 1862 -- July 1863 : John C. Pemberton , Earl Van Dorn , ( 1863 ) William W. Loring ( also known as Army of Vicksburg ) July 1863 -- June 1864 : William J. Hardee , Leonidas Polk , William W. Loring ( also known as the Army of the Mississippi ; redesignated III Corps , Army of Tennessee in May 1864 , but continued to use its old name ) Army of Middle Tennessee -- John C. Breckinridge Army of Missouri -- Sterling Price Army of Mobile -- Jones M. Withers , Braxton Bragg , John B. Villepigue , Samuel Jones , William L. Powell , John H. Forney Army of New Mexico -- Henry H. Sibley Army of Northern Virginia -- Joseph E. Johnston , Gustavus W. Smith , Robert E. Lee First Corps , Army of Northern Virginia Second Corps , Army of Northern Virginia Third Corps , Army of Northern Virginia Fourth Corps , Army of Northern Virginia , often styled `` Anderson 's Corps '' Cavalry Corps , Army of Northern Virginia Army of the Northwest -- Robert S. Garnett , Henry R. Jackson , William W. Loring , Edward Johnson Army of the Peninsula -- John B. Magruder , Daniel H. Hill Army of Pensacola -- Adley H. Gladden , Braxton Bragg , Samuel Jones Army of the Potomac -- P.G.T. Beauregard , Joseph E. Johnston Army of the Shenandoah -- Joseph E. Johnston Army of Tennessee -- Braxton Bragg , Samuel Gibbs French , William J. Hardee , Daniel H. Hill , John Bell Hood , Joseph E. Johnston , Richard Taylor First Corps , Army of Tennessee Second Corps , Army of Tennessee Third Corps , Army of Tennessee Forrest 's Cavalry Corps -- Nathan Bedford Forrest Army of the Trans - Mississippi -- Thomas C. Hindman , Theophilus Holmes , Edmund Kirby Smith ( also known as the Army of the Southwest ) Army of the Valley ( also known as Second Corps , Army of Northern Virginia ) -- Jubal Early Army of the West -- Earl van Dorn , John P. McCown , Dabney H. Maury , Sterling Price Army of West Tennessee -- Earl Van Dorn Army of Western Louisiana -- Richard Taylor , John G. Walker Some other prominent Confederate generals who led significant units operating sometimes independently in the CSA included Thomas J. `` Stonewall '' Jackson , James Longstreet , J.E.B. Stuart , Gideon Pillow , and A.P. Hill . Supply and logistics ( edit ) A group of Confederate soldiers - possibly an artillery unit captured at Island No. 10 and taken at POW Camp Douglas ( Chicago ) ; photograph possibly by D.F. Brandon . Main article : Confederate States of America § Transportation systems The supply situation for most Confederate armies was dismal , even when they were victorious on the battlefield . The central government was short of money so each state government had to supply its own regiments . The lack of central authority and the ineffective railroads , combined with the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding , were key factors in the Confederate army 's demise . The Confederacy early on lost control of most of its major river and ocean ports to capture or blockade . The road system was poor , and it relied more and more on a heavily overburdened railroad system . Union forces destroyed track , engines , cars , bridges and telegraph lines as often as possible , knowing that new equipment was unavailable to the Confederacy . Occasional raids into the North were designed to bring back money and supplies . In 1864 , the Confederates burned down Chambersburg , a Pennsylvania city they had raided twice in the years before , due to its failure to pay an extortion demand . As a result of severe supply problems , as well as the lack of textile factories in the Confederacy and the successful Union naval blockade of Southern ports , the typical Confederate soldier was rarely able to wear the standard regulation uniform , particularly as the war progressed . While on the march or in parade formation , Confederate armies often displayed a wide array of dress , ranging from faded , patched - together regulation uniforms ; rough , homespun uniforms colored with homemade dyes such as butternut ( a yellow - brown color ) , and even soldiers in a hodgepodge of civilian clothing . After a successful battle , it was not unusual for victorious Confederate troops to procure Union Army uniform parts from captured supplies and dead Union soldiers ; this would occasionally cause confusion in later battles and skirmishes . Individual states were expected to supply their soldiers , which led to a lack of uniformity . Some states ( such as North Carolina ) were able to better supply their soldiers , while other states ( such as Texas ) were unable for various reasons to adequately supply their troops as the war continued . Furthermore , each state often had its own uniform regulations and insignia , which meant that the `` standard '' Confederate uniform often featured a variety of differences based on the state the soldier came from . For example , uniforms for North Carolina regiments often featured a colored strip of cloth on their shoulders to designate what part of the service the soldier was in . Confederate soldiers also frequently suffered from inadequate supplies of shoes , tents , and other gear , and would be forced to innovate and make do with whatever they could scrounge from the local countryside . While Confederate officers were generally better - supplied and were normally able to wear a regulation officer 's uniform , they often chose to share other hardships -- such as the lack of adequate food -- with their troops . Confederate troops marching west on East Patrick Street , Frederick , Maryland , September 12 , 1862 . Confederate soldiers were also faced with inadequate food rations , especially as the war progressed . There was plenty of meat in the Confederacy . The unsolvable problem was shipping it to the armies , especially when Lee 's army in Virginia was at the end of a long , tenuous supply line . Union victory at Vicksburg in 1863 shut off supplies from Texas and the west . By 1863 Confederate generals such as Robert E. Lee often spent as much time and effort searching for food for their men as they did in planning strategy and tactics . Individual commanders often had to `` beg , borrow or steal '' food and ammunition from whatever sources were available , including captured U.S. depots and encampments , and private citizens regardless of their loyalties . Lee 's campaign against Gettysburg and southern Pennsylvania ( a rich agricultural region ) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies , especially food . General Sherman 's total warfare reduced the ability of the South to produce food and ship it to the armies or its cities . Coupled with the Union blockade of all ports the devastation of plantations , farms and railroads meant the Confederacy increasingly lost the capacity to feed its soldiers and civilians . Native Americans and the Confederate Army ( edit ) Main article : Native Americans in the American Civil War Native Americans served in both the Union and Confederate military during the American Civil War . They fought knowing they might jeopardize their freedom , unique cultures , and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War . During the Civil War 28,693 Native Americans served in the Union and Confederate armies , participating in battles such as Pea Ridge , Second Manassas , Antietam , Spotsylvania , Cold Harbor , and in Federal assaults on Petersburg . Many Native American tribes , such as the Creek and the Choctaw , were slaveholders themselves , and thus , found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy . At the beginning of the war , Albert Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans . In this capacity he negotiated several treaties , one such treaty was the Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws conducted in July 1861 . The treaty covered sixty - four terms covering many subjects like Choctaw and Chickasaw nation sovereignty , Confederate States of America citizenship possibilities , and an entitled delegate in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America . The Cherokee , Choctaw , Seminole , Catawba , and Creek tribes were the only tribes to fight on the Confederate side . The Confederacy wanted to recruit Indians east of the Mississippi River in 1862 , so they opened up a recruiting camp in Mobile , Alabama `` at the foot of Stone Street '' . The Mobile Advertiser and Register would advertise for a chance at military service . A Chance for Active Service . The Secretary of War has authorized me to enlist all the Indians east of the Mississippi River into the service of the Confederate States , as Scouts . In addition to the Indians , I will receive all white male citizens , who are good marksmen . To each member , Fifty Dollars Bounty , clothes , arms , camp equipage &c : furnished . The weapons shall be Enfield Rifles . For further information address me at Mobile , Ala . ( Signed ) S.G. Spann , Comm'ing Choctaw Forces . -- Jacqueline Anderson Matte , They Say the Wind Is Red Cherokee ( edit ) Main article : Cherokee in the American Civil War Cherokee confederates reunion in New Orleans , 1903 . Stand Watie , along with a few Cherokee , sided with the Confederate army , in which he was made colonel and commanded a battalion of Cherokee . Reluctantly , on October 7 , 1861 , Chief Ross signed a treaty transferring all obligations due to the Cherokee from the U.S. government to the Confederate States . In the treaty , the Cherokee were guaranteed protection , rations of food , livestock , tools and other goods , as well as a delegate to the Confederate Congress at Richmond . In exchange , the Cherokee would furnish ten companies of mounted men , and allow the construction of military posts and roads within the Cherokee Nation . However , no Indian regiment was to be called on to fight outside Indian Territory . As a result of the Treaty , the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles , led by Col. John Drew , was formed . Following the Battle of Pea Ridge , Arkansas , March 7 -- 8 , 1862 , Drew 's Mounted Rifles defected to the Union forces in Kansas , where they joined the Indian Home Guard . In the summer of 1862 , Federal troops captured Chief Ross , who was paroled and spent the remainder of the war in Washington and Philadelphia proclaiming Cherokee loyalty to the Union army . William Holland Thomas , the only white chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians , recruited hundreds of Cherokees for the Confederate army , particularly for Thomas ' Legion . The Legion , raised in September 1862 , fought until the end of the War . Choctaw ( edit ) Jackson McCurtain , Lieutenant Colonel of the First Choctaw Battalion in Oklahoma , CSA . Choctaw Confederate battalions were formed in Indian Territory and later in Mississippi in support of the southern cause . The Choctaws , who were expecting support from the Confederates , got little . Webb Garrison , a Civil War historian , describes their response : when Confederate Brigadier General Albert Pike authorized the raising of regiments during the fall of 1860 , Creeks , Choctaws , and Cherokees responded with considerable enthusiasm . Their zeal for the Confederate cause , however , began to evaporate when they found that neither arms nor pay had been arranged for them . A disgusted officer later acknowledged that `` with the exception of a partial supply for the Choctaw regiment , no tents , clothing , or camp and garrison equipage was furnished to any of them . '' African Americans and the Confederate Army ( edit ) An 1862 illustration showing Confederates escorting kidnapped African American civilians south into slavery . A similar instance occurred in Pennsylvania , when the Army of Northern Virginia invaded it in 1863 to fight the U.S. at Gettysburg . An 1862 illustration of a Confederate officer forcing slaves at gunpoint to fire a cannon at U.S. soldiers in battle . A similar instance occurred at the first Battle of Bull Run , where slaves were forced by the Confederates to load and fire a cannon at U.S. forces . An 1864 cartoon lampooning the Confederacy 's deliberating on the use of black soldiers , showing them defecting en masse towards U.S. lines if such proposals were adopted . `` Marlboro '' , an African - American bodyservant to a white Confederate soldier . Main article : Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War § Confederacy With so many white males conscripted into the army and roughly 40 % of its population unfree , the work required to maintain a functioning society in the Confederacy ended up largely on the backs of slaves . Even Georgian governor Joseph E. Brown noted that `` the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support . '' African American slave labor was used in a wide variety of logistical support roles for the Confederacy , from infrastructure and mining , to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses . Using slaves as soldiers ( edit ) The Confederacy did not allow African Americans to join the army , including both free blacks and slaves . The idea of arming the Confederacy 's slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war , but such proposals were not seriously considered by Jefferson Davis or others in the Confederate administration until late in the war , when severe manpower shortages were faced . Gary Gallagher says , `` When Lee publicly advocated arming slaves in early 1865 , he did so as a desperate expedient that might prolong Southern military resistance . '' . After acrimonious debate the Confederate Congress agreed in March , 1865 . The war was nearly over by then and very few slaves ended up being enlisted before the Confederate armies all surrendered . Opposition from Confederates ( edit ) As early as November 1864 , some Confederates knew that the chance of securing victory against the U.S. was slim . Despite lacking foreign assistance and recognition and facing slim chances of victory against superior U.S. assets , Confederate newspapers such as the Georgian Atlanta Southern Confederacy continued to maintain their position and oppose the idea of armed black men in the Confederate army , even late in the war as January 1865 . They stated that it was incongruous with the Confederacy 's goals and views regarding African Americans and slavery . The Georgian newspaper opined that using black men as soldiers would be an embarrassment to Confederates and their children , saying that although African Americans should be used for slave labor , they should not be used as armed soldiers , opining that : Such an act on our part , would be a stigma on the imperishable pages of history , of which all future generations of Southrons would be ashamed . These are some of the additional considerations which have suggested themselves to us . Let us put the negro to work , but not to fight . Atlanta Southern Confederacy ( January 20 , 1865 ) Macon , Georgia . Prominent Confederates such as R.M.T. Hunter and Georgian Democrat Howell Cobb opposed arming slaves , saying that it was `` suicidal '' and would run contrary to the Confederacy 's ideology . Opposing such a move , Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers , and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the army . The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers . Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of the Confederacy 's existence , and thus , using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal . According to historian Paul D. Escott : ( F ) or a great many of the most powerful southerners the idea of arming and freeing the slaves was repugnant because the protection of slavery had been and still remained the central core of Confederate purpose ... Slavery was the basis of the planter class 's wealth , power , and position in society . The South 's leading men had built their world upon slavery and the idea of voluntarily destroying that world , even in the ultimate crisis , was almost unthinkable to them . Such feelings moved Senator R.M.T. Hunter to deliver a long speech against the bill to arm the slaves . Though most Confederates were opposed to the idea of using black soldiers , a small number suggested the idea . An acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from Patrick Cleburne urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation ; Jefferson Davis refused to consider the proposal and issued instructions forbidding the matter from being discussed . It would not be until Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction . On March 13 , 1865 , the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14 by a single vote in the Confederate senate , and Jefferson Davis signed the order into law . The order was issued March 23 , but as it was late in the war , only a few African American companies were raised in the Richmond area before the town was captured by the U.S. Army and placed back under U.S. control . According to historian James M. McPherson in 1994 , `` no black soldiers fought in the Confederate army , unless they were passing as white . '' He noted that some Confederates brought along `` their body servants , who in many cases had grown up with them '' and that `` on occasion some of those body servants were known to have picked up a rifle ... But there was no official recruitment of black soldiers in the Confederate army until the very end of the war '' , when it was brought about only by a `` desperate shortage of manpower . '' Treatment of black civilians ( edit ) In some cases , the Confederates forced their African American slaves to fire upon U.S. soldiers at gunpoint , such as at the first Battle of Bull Run . According to John Parker , one such slave who was forced by the Confederates to fight U.S. soldiers , `` Our masters tried all they could to make us fight ... They promised to give us our freedom and money besides , but none of us believed them ; we only fought because we had to . '' Parker stated that had he been given an opportunity , he would have turned against his Confederate captors , and `` could do it with pleasure '' . According to abolitionist Henry Highland Garnet in 1862 , he had met a slave who `` had unwillingly fought on the side of Rebellion '' , but said slave had since defected to `` the side of Union and universal liberty . '' During the Siege of Yorktown ( 1862 ) , The Union 's elite sniper unit , the 1st United States Sharpshooters , was devastatingly effective at shooting Confederate artillerymen defending the city . In response , some Confederate artillery crews started forcing slaves to load the cannons . `` They forced their negroes to load their cannon , '' reported a Union officer . `` They shot them if they would not load the cannon , and we shot them if they did . '' In other cases , under explicit orders from their commanders , Confederate armies would often forcibly kidnap free African American civilians during their incursions into U.S. territory , sending them south into Confederate territory and thus enslaving them , as was the case with the Army of Northern Virginia when it invaded Pennsylvania in 1863 . Treatment of black prisoners of War ( edit ) The usage of black men as U.S. soldiers by the Union , combined with Abraham Lincoln 's issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation , profoundly angered the Confederacy , with the Confederates calling it uncivilized . As a response , in May 1863 the Confederacy passed a law demanding `` full and ample retaliation '' against the Union , stating that any black person captured in `` arms against the Confederate States '' or giving aid and comfort to their enemies would be turned over to state authorities , where they could be tried as slave insurrectionists ; a capital offense punishable with a sentence of death . However , Confederate authorities feared retaliation , and as such no black prisoner was ever put on trial and executed . James McPherson states that `` Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender . In most cases , though , Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications . '' African American USCT soldiers were often singled out by the Confederates and suffered extra violence when captured by them . They were often the victims of battlefield massacres and atrocities at the hands of the Confederates , most notably at Fort Pillow in Tennessee and at the Battle of the Crater in Virginia . Prisoner exchanges with the Union ( edit ) The Confederate law declaring black U.S. soldiers as being insurrectionist slaves , combined with the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers , became a stumbling block for prisoner exchanges between the Union and the Confederacy , as the U.S. government in the Lieber Code officially objected to the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of prisoners of war on basis of color . The Republican Party 's platform of the 1864 presidential election reflected this view , as it too condemned the Confederacy 's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers . According to the authors of Liberty , Equality , Power , `` Expressing outrage at this treatment , in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike . The Confederacy refused . '' Statistics and size ( edit ) Julian Scott 's 1873 painting , Surrender of a Confederate Soldier . Incomplete and destroyed records make an accurate count of the number of men who served in the Confederate army impossible . Historians provide estimates of the actual number of individual Confederate soldiers between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men . The exact number is unknown . Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served in each army at any time during the war , they do not represent the size of the armies at any given date . Confederate casualty figures are as incomplete and unreliable as the figures on the number of Confederate soldiers . The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers appear to be about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle , 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps . In contrast , about 25,000 Union soldiers died as a result of accidents , drowning , murder , killed after capture , suicide , execution for various crimes , execution by the Confederates ( 64 ) , sunstroke , other and not stated . Confederate casualties for all these reasons are unavailable . Since some Confederate soldiers would have died for these reasons , more total deaths and total casualties for the Confederacy must have occurred . One estimate of Confederate wounded , which is considered incomplete , is 194,026 ; another is 226,000 . At the end of the war 174,223 men of the Confederate forces surrendered to the U.S. Army . Compared to the U.S. Army at the time , the Confederate army was not very ethnically diverse . Ninety - one percent of Confederate soldiers were native - born white men and only 9 % were foreign - born white men , Irishmen being the largest group with others including Germans , French , Mexicans , and British . A small number of Asian men were forcibly inducted into the Confederate army against their will when they arrived in Louisiana from overseas . See also ( edit ) American Civil War portal Confederate States Navy Blockade runners of the American Civil War Union Army General - in - Chief of the Confederate States Army Confederate Government Civil War units Confederate Regular Army officers , list of Confederate States Marine Corps Military of the Confederate States of America Uniforms of the American Civil War Uniforms of the Confederate military Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant Postage stamps and postal history of the Confederate States Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ C.S. War Dept. , p. 402 . Jump up ^ On February 8 , 1861 , delegates from the first seven Deep South slave states which had already declared their secession from the Union of the United States of America met at Montgomery , the state capital of Alabama , adopted the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States . Jump up ^ On March 1 , 1861 , Davis assumed control of the military situation at Charleston , South Carolina on behalf of the Confederate States government , where South Carolina state militia threatened to seize Fort Sumter , an island fortification in Charleston harbor from the small U.S. Army garrison . Jump up ^ Records of the number of individuals who served in the Union Army / United States Army are more extensive and reliable , but still are not entirely accurate . Estimates of the number of individual Union soldiers range between 1,550,000 and 2,400,000 , with a number between 2,000,000 and 2,200,000 most likely . Union Army records show slightly more than 2,677,000 enlistments but this number apparently includes many re-enlistments . These numbers do not include men who served in Union Navy / United States Navy naval forces . These figures represent the total number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war , not the size of the army at any given date . Jump up ^ Albert Burton Moore , Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy ( 1924 ) . Jump up ^ In comparison , the best estimates of the number of deaths of Union soldiers are 110,100 killed or mortally wounded in battle , 224,580 deaths from disease and 30,192 deaths in Confederate prison camps , although some historians also dispute these figures . The best conjecture for Union Army wounded is 275,175 . Jump up ^ Confederate forces at Mobile , Alabama , and Columbus , Georgia , also had already surrendered on April 14 , 1865 , and April 16 , 1865 , respectively . Union and Confederate units fought a battle at Columbus , Georgia , before surrender on April 16 , 1865 , and a small final battle at Palmito Ranch , Texas , on May 12 , 1865 . In areas more distant from the main theaters of operations , Confederate forces in Alabama and Mississippi under Lieutenant General Richard Taylor , in Arkansas under Brigadier General M. Jeff Thompson , in Louisiana and Texas under General E. Kirby Smith and in Indian Territory under Brigadier General Stand Watie surrendered on May 4 , 1865 , May 12 , 1865 , May 26 , 1865 ( officially June 2 , 1865 ) , and June 28 , 1865 , respectively . Jump up ^ Eric Foner ( 1988 ) . Reconstruction : America 's Unfinished Revolution , 1863 - 1877 . p. 15 . ^ Jump up to : Eicher , pp. 70 , 66 . Jump up ^ United States . War Dept ( 1900 ) . Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . p. 134 . Jump up ^ John George Nicolay ; John Hay ( 1890 ) . Abraham Lincoln : A History . The Century Co. p. 264 . ^ Jump up to : McPherson , James M. ; Lamb , Brian ( May 22 , 1994 ) . `` James McPherson : What They Fought For , 1861 - 1865 '' . Booknotes . National Cable Satellite Corporation . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2016 . Retrieved March 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Foner , Eric ( 1988 ) . Reconstruction : America 's Unfinished Revolution , 1863 -- 1877 . United States of America : Harper & Row . p. 15 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 093716 - 5 . Retrieved March 2 , 2016 . ( T ) he Confederacy enacted the first conscription laws in American history ... Jump up ^ Civil War Conscription Laws : November 15 , 2012 by Margaret Wood . Jump up ^ Faust , Patricia L. ed Historical Times Encyclopedia of the Civil War : New York , 1986 Jump up ^ Loewen , James W. ( 2007 ) . Lies My Teacher Told Me : Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong . New York : The New Press . pp. 224 -- 226 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56584 - 100 - 0 . OCLC 29877812 . Retrieved January 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` '' Civil War Conscription Laws `` : November 15 , 2012 by Margaret Wood . '' Jump up ^ Mississippi Law Journal ( 2000 ) . `` ' Necessity Knows No Law ' : Vested Rights and Styles of Reasoning in the Confederate Conscription Cases '' ( PDF ) . Mississippi Law Journal . Mississippi ... Jump up ^ Perman , Michael ; Taylor , Amy Murrell ( 2010 ) . Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction . Cengage . p. 178 . Retrieved March 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ James McPherson , For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War ( 1998 ) pp 104 - 5 . Jump up ^ Ayers , edited by Edward L. ; Gallagher , , Gary W. ; Torget , Andrew J. ( 2006 ) . Crucible of the Civil War Virginia from secession to commemoration . Charlottesville : University of Virginia Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8139 - 3049 - 7 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ W. Harrison Daniel , `` Southern Protestantism and Army Missions in the Confederacy . '' Mississippi Quarterly 17.4 ( 1964 ) : 179 + . Jump up ^ Dollar , Kent T. ( 2005 ) . Soldiers of the Cross : Soldier - Christians and the Impact of the War on their Faith . Mercer University Press . Jump up ^ Woodworth , Steven E. ( 2001 ) . While God is Marching On . Jump up ^ Wilson , Charles Reagan ( 1980 ) . Baptized in Blood . Jump up ^ Miller , Randall ; Stout , Harry ; Wilson , Reagan ( 1998 ) . `` Religion and the American Civil War '' . Missing or empty url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Samuel J. Watson , `` Religion and combat motivation in the Confederate armies . '' Journal of Military History 58 # 1 ( 1994 ) : 29 + . Jump up ^ Sheehan - Dean , Aaron ( 2009 ) . Why Confederates Fought : Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia . ^ Jump up to : McPherson , James M. ( 1997 ) . For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War . New York : Oxford University Press . p. 106 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 509 - 023 - 3 . OCLC 34912692 . Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their own liberty while holding other people in slavery . Indeed , white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers fought . ^ Jump up to : McPherson , James M. ( 1997 ) . For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War . New York City , New York : Oxford University Press , Inc . pp. 109 -- 110 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 509 - 023 - 3 . Retrieved April 1 , 2016 . It would be wrong , however , to assume that Confederate soldiers were constantly preoccupied with this matter . In fact , only 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries . As one might expect , a much higher percentage of soldiers from slaveholding families than from nonslaveholding families expressed such a purpose : 33 percent , compared with 12 percent . Ironically , the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater , as the next chapter will show . There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox . Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial . Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial . They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern ' rights ' and institutions for which they fought , and did not feel compelled to discuss it . Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries , none at all dissented from that view . Jump up ^ James M. McPherson , For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War ( 1997 ) , p. ix . `` In both the Union and Confederate samples , foreign - born soldiers are substantially underrepresented . In the Union sample only 9 percent of the men were born abroad compared with 24 percent of all Union soldiers . Unskilled and even skilled laborers are underrepresented in both samples . Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample . Indeed , while about one - third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families , slightly more than two - thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did so ... Officers are overrepresented in both samples . While some 10 percent of Civil War soldiers served as officers for at least half of their time in the army , 47 percent of the Confederate sample and 35 percent of the Union sample did so . Both samples are also skewed toward those who volunteered in 1861 -- 62 and therefore contain disproportionately few draftees ... '' ^ Jump up to : McPherson , James M. ( 1997 ) . For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War . New York City , New York . p. 107 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 509 - 023 - 3 . OCLC 34912692 . Retrieved April 1 , 2016 . The Proclamation is worth three hundred thousand soldiers to our Government at least ... It shows exactly what this war was brought about for and the intention of its damnable authors . ^ Jump up to : McPherson , James M. ( 1997 ) . For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War . New York City , New York : Oxford University Press , Inc. p. 117 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 509 - 023 - 3 . OCLC 34912692 . Retrieved April 1 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : McPherson , James M. ( 1997 ) . For Cause and Comrades : Why Men Fought in the Civil War . New York City , New York : Oxford University Press , Inc. p. 109 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 509 - 023 - 3 . Retrieved April 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Coski , John M. ( 2005 ) . The Confederate Battle Flag : America 's Most Embattled Emblem . United States of America : First Harvard University Press . p. 26 . ISBN 0 - 674 - 01722 - 6 . Retrieved July 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lozada , Carlos ( June 19 , 2015 ) . `` How people convince themselves that the Confederate flag represents freedom , not slavery : Historian John M. Coski examines the fights over the symbol 's meaning in ' The Confederate Battle Flag : America 's Most Embattled Emblem . ' '' . The Washington Post . Washington , D.C. : Graham Holdings Company . Retrieved July 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ David Williams ( 2011 ) . Rich Man 's War : Class , Caste , and Confederate Defeat in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley . University of Georgia Press . p. 4 . Jump up ^ Mark A. Weitz , A higher duty : desertion among Georgia troops during the Civil War ( U of Nebraska Press , 2005 ) . Jump up ^ K.M.L. `` Stonewall 's Rush to Judgment , '' Civil War Times ( 2010 ) 49 # 2 pp 51 + . Jump up ^ Ella Lonn , Desertion during the Civil War ( 1928 ) . Jump up ^ Peter S. Bearman , `` Desertion as localism : Army unit solidarity and group norms in the US Civil War . '' Social Forces 70 # 2 ( 1991 ) : 321 - 342 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Foner , Eric ( March 1989 ) . `` The South 's Inner Civil War : The more fiercely the Confederacy fought for its independence , the more bitterly divided it became . To fully understand the vast changes the war unleashed on the country , you must first understand the plight of the Southerners who did n't want secession '' . American Heritage . Vol. 40 no . 2 . p. 3 . Archived from the original on December 18 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Doyle , Patrick J. ( 2013 ) . `` Understanding the Desertion of South Carolinian Soldiers during the Final Years of the Confederacy '' . Historical Journal . 56 ( 03 ) : 657 -- 679 . doi : 10.1017 / s0018246x13000046 . Jump up ^ Rand Dotson , `` ' The grave and scandalous evil infected to your people ' : The erosion of Confederate loyalty in Floyd County , Virginia . '' Virginia Magazine of History and Biography ( 2000 ) : 393 - 434 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Otten , James T. ( 1974 ) . `` Disloyalty in the Upper Districts of South Carolina During the Civil War '' . South Carolina Historical Magazine . 75 ( 2 ) : 95 -- 110 . JSTOR 27567243 . Jump up ^ Scott King - Owen , `` Conditional Confederates : Absenteeism among Western North Carolina Soldiers , 1861 -- 1865 . '' Civil War History 2011 ; 57 ( 4 ) : 349 - 379 . online Jump up ^ Giuffre , Katherine A. ( 1997 ) . `` First in Flight : Desertion as Politics in the North Carolina Confederate Army '' . Social Science History . 21 ( 02 ) : 245 -- 263 . doi : 10.2307 / 1171275 . Jump up ^ Schmitz , Neil ( 2007 ) . `` Mark Twain , Traitor '' . Arizona Quarterly . 63 ( 4 ) : 25 -- 37 . doi : 10.1353 / arq. 2007.0025 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 71 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 26 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 29 . Jump up ^ Official Records , Series IV , Vol . III , pp. 1161 -- 62 . Jump up ^ Historical times illustrated encyclopedia of the Civil War . Faust , Patricia L. , Delaney , Norman C. , Frank and Virginia Williams Collection of Lincolniana ( Mississippi State University . Libraries ) ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Harper & Row. 1986 . ISBN 0061812617 . OCLC 13796662 . Jump up ^ 1921 - , Boatner , Mark Mayo , ( 1959 ) . The Civil War dictionary . Northrop , Allen C. , , Miller , Lowell I. , . New York : D. McKay Co . ISBN 0679500138 . OCLC 445154 . Jump up ^ Eicher , p. 807 . There were seven full generals in the CSA ; John Bell Hood held `` temporary full general '' rank , which was withdrawn by the Confederate Congress . Jump up ^ `` The Civil War News & Views Open Discussion Forum '' . Archived from the original on January 13 , 2009 . Jump up ^ George Edgar Turner , Victory rode the rails : the strategic place of the railroads in the Civil War ( 1972 ) Jump up ^ Everard H. Smith , `` Chambersburg : Anatomy of a Confederate Reprisal . '' American Historical Review 96 # 2 ( 1991 ) : 432 - 455 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Steven G. Collins , `` System in the South : John W. Mallet , Josiah Gorgas , and uniform production at the confederate ordnance department . '' Technology and culture ( 1999 ) 40 # 3 pp : 517 -- 544 in Project MUSE . Jump up ^ Vandiver , Frank E. ( 1944 ) . `` Texas and the Confederate Army 's Meat Problem '' . Southwestern Historical Quarterly . 47 ( 3 ) : 225 -- 233 . JSTOR 30236034 . Jump up ^ Larry J. Daniel , Soldiering in the Army of Tennessee : A Portrait of Life in a Confederate Army ( 2003 ) ch 4 on inadequate rations ^ Jump up to : W. David Baird ; et al. ( January 5 , 2009 ) . `` '' We are all Americans `` , Native Americans in the Civil War '' . Native Americans.com . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Rodman , Leslie . The Five Civilized Tribes and the American Civil War ( PDF ) . p. 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on July 23 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Native Americans in the Civil War '' . Ethic Composition of Civil War Forces ( C.S & U.S.A. ) . January 5 , 2009 . Retrieved January 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Rodman , Leslie . The Five Civilized Tribes and the American Civil War ( PDF ) . p. 5 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on July 23 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Matte , Jacqueline ( 2002 ) . `` Refugees - Six Towns Choctaw , 1830 -- 1890 '' . They Say the Wind is Red . New South Books . p. 65 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58838 - 079 - 1 . Jump up ^ Garrison , Webb ( 1995 ) . `` Padday Some Day '' . More Civil War Curiosities . Rutledge Hill Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55853 - 366 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Loewen , James W. ( 2007 ) . Lies My Teacher Told Me : Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong . New York : The New Press . p. 193 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56584 - 100 - 0 . Retrieved March 8 , 2016 . White Southerners founded the Confederacy on the ideology of white supremacy . Confederate soldiers on their way to Antietam and Gettysburg , their two main forays into Union states , put this ideology into practice : they seized scores of free black people in Maryland and Pennsylvania and sold them south into slavery . Confederates maltreated black Union troops when they captured them . Jump up ^ Symonds , Craig L. ( 2001 ) . American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg . New York : HarperCollins . pp. 49 -- 54 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 019474 - X . Jump up ^ Loewen , James W. ( 1999 ) . Lies Across America : What American Historic Sites Get Wrong . New York City , New York : Touchstone , Simon & Schuster , Inc. p. 350 . ISBN 0 - 684 - 87067 - 3 . Retrieved March 5 , 2016 . Lee 's troops seized scores of free black people in Maryland and Pennsylvania and sent them south into slavery . This was in keeping with Confederate national policy , which virtually re-enslaved free people of color into work gangs on earthworks throughout the south . Jump up ^ Simpson , Brooks D. ( July 5 , 2015 ) . `` The Soldiers ' Flag ? '' . Crossroads . WordPress . ( T ) he Army of Northern Virginia was under orders to capture and send south supposed escaped slaves during that army 's invasion of Pennsylvania in 1863 . ^ Jump up to : Masur , Kate ( July 27 , 2011 ) . `` Slavery and Freedom at Bull Run '' . The New York Times . New York : The New York Times Company . Retrieved March 5 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Hall , Andy ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` Memory : Frederick Douglass ' Black Confederate '' . Dead Confederates : A Civil War Blog . WordPress . Archived from the original on March 9 , 2016 . Retrieved March 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Levine , p. 62 . Jump up ^ Journal of the Senate at an Extra Session of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia , Convened under the Proclamation of the Governor , March 25 , 1863 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Levine , pp. 62 -- 63 . Jump up ^ Jaime Amanda Martinez , Confederate Slave Impressment in the Upper South ( U. North Carolina Press , 2013 ) Jump up ^ Levine , pp. 17 -- 18 . Jump up ^ Gary W. Gallagher ( 2002 ) . Lee and His Army in Confederate History . p. 169 . Jump up ^ Davis , William C. ( 2002 ) . Look Away ! : A History of the Confederate States of America . New York : The Free Press . p. 402 . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 2771 - 9 . Retrieved March 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Durden , Robert F. ( 1875 ) . The Gray and the Black : The Confederate Debate on Emancipation . Louisiana State University . pp. 156 -- 58 . Jump up ^ Howell Cobb letter to James A. Seddon January 1865 , Cobb , Howell ( January 8 , 1865 ) . `` Letter to James A. Seddon '' . Archived from the original on March 8 , 2016 . Retrieved March 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hall , Andy ( January 8 , 2015 ) . `` Real Confederates Did n't Know About Black Confederates '' . Dead Confederates : A Civil War Blog . WordPress . Archived from the original on March 8 , 2016 . Retrieved March 8 , 2016 . ( E ) arnest and vituperative opposition to the enlistment of slaves in Confederate service was widespread , even as the concussion of Federal artillery rattled the panes in the windows of the capitol in Richmond . Jump up ^ Chisholm , Hugh ( 1911 ) . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11 ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 08 . Retrieved March 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Levin , Kevin M. ( January 7 , 2015 ) . `` The Most Pernicious Idea : 150 Years Later '' . Civil War Memory . Archived from the original on January 9 , 2015 . Retrieved January 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Paul D. Escott , After Secession : Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Confederate Nationalism ( 1992 ) , p. 254 . Jump up ^ Official Records , Series I , Vol . LII , Part 2 , pp. 586 -- 92 . Jump up ^ McPherson , James M. ( 1991 ) . `` Chapter 17 : The Decision to Raise a Negro Army , 1864 -- 1865 '' . The Negro 's Civil War : How American Blacks Felt and Acted During the War for the Union . New York : Ballantine Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 307 - 48860 - 2 . Retrieved March 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Durden , Robert F. ( 2000 ) . The Gray and the Black : The Confederate Debate on Emancipation . Louisiana : LSU Press . Jump up ^ `` General Orders No. 14 '' . Civil War on the Western Border : The Missouri - Kansas Conflict , 1855 -- 1865 . Kansas City : The Kansas City Public Library . Archived from the original on November 5 , 2014 . Retrieved November 5 , 2014 . ( I ) t does not extend freedom to the slaves who serve , giving them little personal motivation to support the Southern cause . Ultimately , very few blacks serve in the Confederate armed forces , as compared to hundreds of thousands who serve for the Union . Jump up ^ Arnold , James R. ; Wiener , Roberta ; Weitz , Seth A. ( 2011 ) . `` Congress , Confederate '' . American Civil War : The Essential Reference Guide . Santa Barbara , California : ABC - CLIO , LLC . p. 56 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59884 - 905 - 9 . Retrieved March 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Confederate Law authorizing the enlistment of black soldiers , March 13 , 1865 , as promulgated in a military order '' . Retrieved August 28 , 2015 . Jump up ^ E. Merton Coulter ( 1950 ) . The Confederate States of America , 1861 -- 1865 . LSU Press . pp. 267 -- 68 . Jump up ^ http://www.historynet.com/killers-in-green-coats.htm Jump up ^ David G. Smith , `` Race and Retaliation : The Capture of African Americans During the Gettysburg Campaign . '' in Peter Wallenstein and Bertram Wyatt - Brown , ed. , Virginia 's Civil War ( 2004 ) pp : 122 - 37 . online Jump up ^ Ted Alexander , `` ' A Regular Slave Hunt ' : The Army of Northern Virginia and Black Civilians in the Gettysburg Campaign , '' North & South 4 ( September 2001 ) : 82 -- 89 Jump up ^ Grant , Ulysses ( August 23 , 1863 ) . `` Letter to Abraham Lincoln '' . Cairo , Illinois . Archived from the original on May 3 , 2014 . Retrieved May 3 , 2014 . I have given the subject of arming the Negro my hearty support . This , with the emancipation of the Negro , is the heaviest blow yet given the Confederacy . The South rave a greatdeel about it and profess to be very angry . Jump up ^ Hall , Andy ( April 15 , 2014 ) . `` Understanding Fort Pillow : ' Full and Ample Retaliation ' '' . Dead Confederates : A Civil War Blog . WordPress . Archived from the original on March 7 , 2016 . Retrieved March 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Williams , George W. , History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880 : Negros as Slaves , as Soldiers , and as Citizens , vol. II , New York : G.P. Putnam Son 's , 1883 , pp. 351 -- 352 . Jump up ^ Congress of the Confederate States of America ( May 1 , 1863 ) . `` No. 5 '' . Joint Resolution on the Subject of Retaliation . Virginia . Retrieved March 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Carolyn L. Karcher , First Woman in the Republic ... , p. 725 ( n. 153 ) Jump up ^ Murrin , John ; McPherson , James M. ; Johnson , Paul ; Fahs , Alice ; Gerstle , Gary ( 2009 ) . Liberty , Liberty , Equality , Power . Cengage Learning . p. 433 . Jump up ^ Cornish , Dudley Taylor ( 1965 ) . The Sable Arm : Negro Troops in the Union Army , 1861 -- 1865 . New York : W.W. Norton . pp. 173 -- 180 . Jump up ^ Robertson , James I. , Jr. ; Pegram , William . `` The Boy Artillerist '' : Letters of Colonel William Pegram , C.S.A . Jump up ^ The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 98 , no . 2 ( The Trumpet Unblown : The Old Dominion in the Civil War ) , ( 1990 ) , pp. 242 -- 43 . ^ Jump up to : Murrin , John ; McPherson , James M. ; Johnson , Paul ; Fahs , Alice ; Gerstle , Gary ( 2009 ) . Liberty , Equality , Power : Enhanced Concise Fourth Edition . Belmont , California : Cengage Learning . p. 433 . Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender . In most cases , though , Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications ... Expressing outrage at this treatment , in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike . The Confederacy refused . Jump up ^ Townsend , E.D. ( April 24 , 1863 ) . `` SECTION III. -- Deserters -- Prisoners of war -- Hostages -- Booty on the battle - field '' . INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FIELD . Washington . Archived from the original on April 7 , 2001 . Retrieved April 7 , 2001 . 58 . The law of nations knows of no distinction of color , and if an enemy of the United States should enslave and sell any captured persons of their Army , it would be a case for the severest retaliation , if not redressed upon complaint . Jump up ^ Republican Party of the United States ( June 7 , 1864 ) . `` Republican Party Platform of 1864 '' . Archived from the original on April 21 , 2015 . ( T ) he Government owes to all men employed in its armies , without regard to distinction of color , the full protection of the laws of war -- and that any violation of these laws , or of the usages of civilized nations in time of war , by the Rebels now in arms , should be made the subject of prompt and full redress . Jump up ^ Long , E.B. The Civil War Day by Day : An Almanac , 1861 -- 1865 . Garden City , NY : Doubleday , 1971 . OCLC 68283123 . p. 705 Jump up ^ `` Fact Sheet : America 's Wars '' . United States Department of Veterans Affairs . November 2008 . Archived from the original on July 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Long , 1971 , p. 711 Jump up ^ Davis , Burke ( 1960 ) . Civil War : Strange and Fascinating Facts . Random House . Jump up ^ Inglish , Patty ( July 8 , 2015 ) . `` Chinese Soldiers Who Fought in the American Civil War for the Union and the Confederacy '' . HubPages . Interestingly , some Chinese were ' Shanghaied ' into the Confederate Army in New Orleans when they disembarked ships coming into port . They thought they were being invited to games and fun ; and , they were not alone -- other ethnic groups were mustered into the Confederate forces this way ... This seems to have been usual for the 14th Louisiana Infantry , tricking Chinese and Filipino men into service . Because many of the Filipino men had Hispanic surnames , many are lost to history as having been Asian servicemen . In fact , many of them had lived in Mexico . Missing or empty url = ( help ) Further reading ( edit ) Adams , George Worthington ( 1940 ) . `` Confederate Medicine '' . Journal of Southern History . 6 # 2 . JSTOR 2191203 . Allardice , Bruce ( 1997 ) . West Points of the Confederacy : Southern Military Schools and the Confederate Army . Civil War History . 43 # 4 . Bledsoe , Andrew S. Citizen - Officers : The Union and Confederate Volunteer Junior Officer Corps in the American Civil War ( LSU Press , 2015 ) . PhD dissertation version , 2012 ; bibliography on pp 400 -- 439 . Crawford , Martin ( 1991 ) . `` Confederate Volunteering and Enlistment in Ashe County , North Carolina , 1861 -- 1862 '' . Civil War History . 37 ( 1 ) : 29 -- 50 . doi : 10.1353 / cwh. 1991.0031 . Crute Jr , Joseph H. ( 1987 ) . Units of the Confederate States Army ( 2nd ed . ) . Gaithersburg : Olde Soldier Books . ISBN 0 - 942211 - 53 - 7 . Daniel , Larry J. ( 2003 ) . Soldiering in the Army of Tennessee : A Portrait of Life in a Confederate Army . Eicher , David J. ( 2001 ) . Civil War High Commands . Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 3641 - 1 . Freemon , Frank R. ( 1987 ) . `` Administration of the Medical Department of the Confederate States Army , 1861 to 1865 '' . Southern Medical Journal . 80 # 5 . Faust , Drew ( 1987 ) . Christian Soldiers : The Meaning of Revivalism in the Confederate Army . Haughton , Andrew ( 2000 ) . Training , Tactics and Leadership in the Confederate Army of Tennessee : Seeds of Failure . Jones , Adam Matthew . `` ' The land of my birth and the home of my heart ' : Enlistment Motivations for Confederate Soldiers in Montgomery County , Virginia , 1861 -- 1862 . ' '' ( MA thesis Virginia Tech , 2014 ) . online bibliography , pp 123 -- 30 . Levine , Bruce ( 2005 ) . Confederate Emancipation : Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War . Logue , Larry M. ( 1993 ) . `` Who Joined the Confederate Army ? Soldiers , Civilians , and Communities in Mississippi '' . Journal of Social History . 26 # 3 . JSTOR 3788629 . Sheehan - Dean , Aaron . `` Justice Has Something to Do with It : Class Relations and the Confederate Army . '' Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 113 ( 2005 ) : 340 - 377 . Sheehan - Dean , Aaron . Why Confederates Fought : Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia ( 2007 ) . online Warner , Ezra J. Generals in Gray : Lives of the Confederate Commanders ( LSU Press , 1959 ) . Weinert , Richard P. , Jr. ( 1991 ) . The Confederate Regular Army . White Mane Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 942597 - 27 - 1 . Weitz , Mark A. ( 2005 ) . More Damning than Slaughter : Desertion in the Confederate Army . U of Nebraska Press . Wiley , Bell Irvin . The Life of Johnny Reb : The Common Soldier of the Confederacy ( 1943 ) . Watson , Samuel J ( 1994 ) . `` Religion and combat motivation in the Confederate armies '' . Journal of Military History . 58 ( 1 ) : 29 -- 55 . doi : 10.2307 / 2944178 . Wright , Marcus J. ( 1983 ) . General Officers of the Confederate Army . J.M. Carroll & Co . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8488 - 0009 - 3 . Historiography ( edit ) Sheehan - Dean , Aaron . `` The Blue and Gray in Black and White : Assessing the Scholarship on Civil War Soldiers , '' in ' Aaron Sheehan - Dean , ed. , ' The View from the Ground : Experiences of Civil War Soldiers ( University Press of Kentucky , 2007 ) pp 9 -- 30 . Primary sources ( edit ) Confederate States . War Dept . Regulations for the Army of the Confederate States . Richmond : J.W. Randolph . 1863 . Robson , John S. ( 2007 ) . How A One - Legged Rebel Lives : Reminiscences of the Civil War ; The Story of the Campaigns of Stonewall Jackson . Kessinger Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84685 - 665 - 5 . U.S. War Department ( 1880 -- 1901 ) , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies , U.S. Government Printing Office External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Confederate States Army . Wikiquote has quotations related to : Confederate States of America Confederate soldiers The American Civil War 's rank insignia A Manual of Military Surgery ( 1863 ) . The manual used by doctors in the CSA . U.S. Civil War Era Uniforms and Accouterments Duke University Libraries Digital Collections -- William Emerson Strong Photograph Album 200 cartes - de-visite depicting officers in the Confederate army and navy , officials in the Confederate government , famous Confederate wives , and other notable figures of the Confederacy . Also included are 64 photographs attributed to Mathew Brady . Confederate and State Regulations at confederateuniforms.org 1st Confederate Battalion , Forney 's Regiment ( Living History Organization ) Black soldiers in the U.S. Civil War Confederate Enlistment Oaths and Discharges of the Army of the State of Georgia Armies of the Confederacy Central Kentucky Kanawha Kentucky Mississippi Missouri New Mexico Northern Virginia Northwest Peninsula Potomac Shenandoah Tennessee Trans - Mississippi Valley West West Tennessee Western Louisiana American Civil War Origins Origins Issues Timeline leading to the War Antebellum era Bleeding Kansas Border states Compromise of 1850 Dred Scott v. 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Anderson Beauregard Bragg Buchanan Cooper Early Ewell Forrest Gorgas Hill Hood Jackson A.S. Johnston J.E. Johnston Lee Longstreet Morgan Mosby Price Semmes E.K. Smith Stuart Taylor Wheeler Civilian Benjamin Bocock Breckinridge Davis Hunter Mallory Memminger Seddon Stephens Union Military Anderson Buell Burnside Butler Du Pont Farragut Foote Frémont Grant Halleck Hooker Hunt McClellan McDowell Meade Meigs Ord Pope D.D. Porter Rosecrans Scott Sheridan Sherman Thomas Civilian Adams Chase Ericsson Hamlin Lincoln Pinkerton Seward Stanton Stevens Wade Welles Aftermath U.S. Constitution Reconstruction amendments 13th Amendment 14th Amendment 15th Amendment Reconstruction Alabama Claims Brooks -- Baxter War Carpetbaggers Colfax Riot of 1873 Eufaula Riot of 1874 Freedmen 's Bureau Freedman 's Savings Bank Impeachment of Andrew Johnson Kirk - Holden War Knights of the White Camelia Ku Klux Klan Memphis Riot of 1866 Meridian Riot of 1871 New Orleans Riot of 1866 Pulaski ( Tennessee ) Riot of 1867 Reconstruction acts Habeas Corpus Act 1867 Enforcement Act of 1870 Enforcement Act of February 1871 Enforcement Act of April 1871 Reconstruction treaties Indian Council at Fort Smith Red Shirts Redeemers Confederate refugees Confederados Scalawags South Carolina riots of 1876 Southern Claims Commission Homestead acts Southern Homestead Act of 1866 Timber Culture Act of 1873 White League post-Reconstruction Commemoration Centennial Civil War Discovery Trail Civil War Roundtables Civil War Trails Program Civil War Trust Confederate History Month Confederate monuments and memorials Historical reenactment Robert E. 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Roman calendar
Roman calendar - wikipedia Roman calendar Jump to : navigation , search `` Roman month '' redirects here . For the unit of military contribution in the Holy Roman Empire , see Roman Month . For the Catholic liturgical calendar , see General Roman Calendar . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A reproduction of the fragmentary Fasti Antiates Maiores ( c. 60 BC ) , with the seventh and eighth months still named Quintilis ( `` QVI '' ) and Sextilis ( `` SEX '' ) and an intercalary month ( `` INTER '' ) in the far righthand column Another reproduction of the Fasti Antiates Maiores The Roman calendar is the calendar used by the Roman kingdom and republic . It is often inclusive of the Julian calendar established by the reforms of the dictator Julius Caesar and emperor Augustus in the late 1st century BC and sometimes inclusive of any system dated by inclusive counting towards months ' kalends , nones , and ides in the Roman manner . It is usually exclusive of the Alexandrian calendar of Roman Egypt , which continued the unique months of that land 's former calendar ; the Byzantine calendar of the later Roman Empire , which usually dated the Roman months in the simple count of the ancient Greek calendars ; and the Gregorian calendar , which refined the Julian system to bring it into still closer alignment with the solar year and is the basis of the current international standard . Roman dates were counted inclusively forward to the next of three principal days : the first of the month ( the kalends ) , a day less than the middle of the month ( the ides ) , and eight days -- nine , counting inclusively -- before this ( the nones ) . The original calendar consisted of 10 months beginning in spring with March ; winter was left as an unassigned span of days . These months ran for 38 nundinal cycles , each forming a kind of eight ( i.e. , `` nine '' ) day week ended by religious rituals and a public market . The winter period was then used to create January and February . The legendary early kings Romulus and Numa were traditionally credited with establishing this early fixed calendar , which bears traces of its origin as an observational lunar one . In particular , the kalends , nones , and ides seem to have derived from the first sighting of the crescent moon , the first - quarter moon , and the full moon respectively . The system ran well short of the solar year , and it needed constant intercalation to keep religious festivals and other activities in their proper seasons . For superstitious reasons , such intercalation occurred within the month of February even after it was no longer considered the last month . After the establishment of the Roman Republic , years began to be dated by consulships and control over intercalation was granted to the pontifices , who eventually abused their power by lengthening years controlled by their political allies and shortening the years in their rivals ' terms of office . Having won his war with Pompey , Caesar used his position as Rome 's chief pontiff to enact a calendar reform in 46 BC , coincidentally making the year of his third consulship last for 446 days . In order to avoid interfering with Rome 's religious ceremonies , the reform added all its days towards the ends of months and did not adjust any nones or ides , even in months which came to have 31 days . The Julian calendar was supposed to have a single leap day on 24 February ( a doubled VI Kal . Mart . ) every fourth year but following Caesar 's assassination the priests figured this using inclusive counting and mistakenly added the bissextile day every three years . In order to bring the calendar back to its proper place , Augustus was obliged to suspend intercalation for a few decades . The revised calendar remaining slightly longer than the solar year , the date of Easter shifted far enough away from the vernal equinox that Pope Gregory XIII ordered its adjustment in the 16th century . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Prehistoric lunar calendar 1.2 Legendary 10 - month calendar 1.3 Republican calendar 1.4 Flavian reform 1.5 Julian reform 1.6 Later reforms 2 Days 3 Weeks 4 Months 5 Intercalation 6 Years 7 Conversion to Julian or Gregorian dates 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10.1 Citations 10.2 Bibliography 11 External links History ( edit ) The remains of the Fasti Praenestini Prehistoric lunar calendar ( edit ) The original Roman calendar is believed to have been an observational lunar calendar whose months began from the first signs of a new crescent moon . Because a lunar cycle is about ​ 29 ⁄ days long , such months would have varied between 29 and 30 days . Twelve such months would have fallen 10 or 11 days short of the solar year ; without adjustment , such a year would have quickly rotated out of alignment with the seasons in the manner of the present - day Islamic calendar . Given the seasonal aspects of the later calendar and its associated religious festivals , this was presumably avoided through some form of intercalation or through the suspension of the calendar during winter . Rome 's 8 - day week , the nundinal cycle , was shared with the Etruscans , who used it as the schedule of royal audiences . It was presumably a feature of the early calendar and was credited in Roman legend variously to Romulus and Servius Tullius . Legendary 10 - month calendar ( edit ) The Romans themselves described their first organized year as one with ten fixed months , each of 30 or 31 days . Such a decimal division fit general Roman practice . The four 31 - day months were called `` full '' ( pleni ) and the others `` hollow '' ( cavi ) . Its 304 days made up exactly 38 nundinal cycles . The system is usually said to have left the remaining 50 - odd days of the year as an unorganized `` winter '' , although Licinius Macer 's lost history apparently stated the earliest Roman calendar employed intercalation instead and Macrobius claims the 10 - month calendar was allowed to shift until the summer and winter months were completely misplaced , at which time additional days belonging to no month were simply inserted into the calendar until it seemed things were restored to their proper place . Later Roman writers credited this calendar to Romulus , their legendary first king and culture hero , although this was common with other practices and traditions whose origin had been lost to them . Some scholars doubt the existence of this calendar at all , as it is only attested in late Republican and Imperial sources and apparently supported only by the misplaced names of the months from September to December . Rüpke also finds the coincidence of the length of the supposed `` Romulan '' year with the length of the first ten months of the Julian calendar to be suspicious . `` Calendar of Romulus '' English Latin Meaning Length in days March Mensis Martius Month of Mars 31 April Mensis Aprilis Uncertain 30 May Mensis Maius Uncertain 31 June Mensis Iunius Month of Juno 30 Quintilis Mensis Quintilis Mensis Quinctilis Fifth Month 31 Sextilis Mensis Sextilis Sixth Month 30 September Mensis September Seventh Month 30 October Mensis October Eighth Month 31 November Mensis November Ninth Month 30 December Mensis December Tenth Month 30 -- ( 51 ) Other traditions existed alongside this one , however . Plutarch 's Parallel Lives recounts that Romulus 's calendar had been solar but adhered to the general principle that the year should last for 360 days . Months were employed secondarily and haphazardly , with some counted as 20 days and others as 35 or more . Republican calendar ( edit ) The attested calendar of the Roman Republic was quite different . It followed Greek calendars in assuming a lunar cycle of ​ 29 ⁄ days and a solar year of ​ 12 ⁄ synodic months ( ​ 368 ⁄ days ) , which align every fourth year after the addition of two intercalary months . The additional two months of the year were January and February ; the intercalary month was sometimes known as Mercedonius . The Romans did not follow the usual Greek practice in alternating 29 - and 30 - day months and a 29 - or 30 - day intercalary month every other year . Instead , their 3rd , 5th , 7th , and 10th months had 31 days each ; all the other months had 29 days except February , which had 28 days for three years and then 29 every fourth year . The total of these months over a 4 - year span differed from the Greeks by 5 days , meaning the Roman intercalary month always had 27 days . Similarly , within each month , the weeks did not vary in the Greek fashion between 7 and 8 days ; instead , the full months had two additional days in their first week and the other three weeks of every month ran for 8 days ( `` nine '' by Roman reckoning ) . Still more unusually , the intercalary month was not placed at the end of the year but within the month of February after the Terminalia on the 23rd ( a.d. VII Kal . Mart . ) ; the remaining days of February followed its completion . This seems to have arisen from Roman superstitions concerning the numbering and order of the months . The arrangement of the Roman calendar similarly seems to have arisen from Pythagorean superstitions concerning the luckiness of odd numbers . These Pythagorean - based changes to the Roman calendar were generally credited by the Romans to Numa Pompilius , Romulus 's successor and the second of Rome 's seven kings , as were the two new months of the calendar . Most sources thought he had established intercalation with the rest of his calendar . Although Livy 's Numa instituted a lunar calendar , the author claimed the king had instituted a 19 - year system of intercalation equivalent to the Metonic Cycle centuries before its development by Babylonian and Greek astronomers . Plutarch 's account claims he ended the former chaos of the calendar by employing 12 months totaling 354 days -- the length of the lunar and Greek years -- and biennial intercalary months of 22 days . Plutarch believed Numa was responsible for placing January and February first in the calendar ; Ovid states January began as the first month and February the last , with its present order owing to the Decemvirs . W. Warde Fowler believed the Roman priests continued to treat January and February as the last months of the calendar throughout the Republican period . Pre-Julian Roman calendar English Latin Meaning Length in days January Mensis Ianuarius Month of Janus 29 February Mensis Februarius Month of the Februa 28 Mercedonius Intercalary Month Mercedonius Mensis Intercalaris Month of Wages 23 March Mensis Martius Month of Mars 31 April Mensis Aprilis Uncertain 29 May Mensis Maius Uncertain 31 June Mensis Iunius Month of Juno 29 Quintilis Mensis Quintilis Mensis Quinctilis Fifth Month 31 Sextilis Mensis Sextilis Sixth Month 29 September Mensis September Seventh Month 29 October Mensis October Eighth Month 31 November Mensis November Ninth Month 29 December Mensis December Tenth Month 29 The consuls ' terms of office were not always a modern calendar year , but ordinary consuls were elected or appointed annually . The traditional list of Roman consuls used by the Romans to date their years began in 509 BC . Flavian reform ( edit ) Gnaeus Flavius , a secretary to the pontifex maximus , introduced a series of reforms in 304 BC . Their exact nature is uncertain , although he is thought to have begun the custom of publishing the calendar in advance of the month , depriving the priests of some of their power but allowing for a more consistent calendar for official business . Julian reform ( edit ) Main article : Julian calendar Julius Caesar , following his victory in his civil war and in his role as pontifex maximus , ordered a reformation of the calendar in 46 BC . This was undertaken by a group of scholars apparently including the Alexandrian Sosigenes and the Roman M. Flavius . Its main lines involved the insertion of ten additional days throughout the calendar and regular intercalation of a single leap day every fourth year in order to bring the Roman calendar into close agreement with the solar year . The year 46 BC was the last of the old system and included 3 intercalary months , the first inserted in February and two more -- Intercalaris Prior and Posterior -- before the kalends of December . Later reforms ( edit ) Main article : Byzantine calendar After Caesar 's assassination , Mark Antony had his birth month Quintilis renamed July ( Iulius ) in his honor . After Antony 's defeat at Actium , Augustus assumed control of Rome and , finding the priests had ( owing to their inclusive counting ) been intercalating every third year instead of every fourth , suspended the addition of leap days to the calendar for a number of decades until its proper position had been restored . In 8 BC , the plebiscite Lex Pacuvia de Mense Augusto caused Sextilis to be renamed August ( Augustus ) in his honor . In large part , this calendar continued unchanged under the Roman Empire . ( Egyptians used the related Alexandrian calendar , which Augustus had adapted from their wandering ancient calendar to maintain its alignment with Rome 's . ) A few emperors altered the names of the months after themselves or their family , but such changes were abandoned by their successors . Diocletian began the 15 - year indiction cycles beginning from the AD 297 census ; these became the required format for official dating under Justinian . Constantine formally established the 7 - day week by making Sunday an official holiday in 321 . Consular dating became obsolete following the abandonment of appointing nonimperial consuls in AD 541 . The Roman method of numbering the days of the month never became widespread in the Hellenized eastern provinces and was eventually abandoned by the Byzantine Empire in its calendar . Days ( edit ) Main article : Kalends Roman dates were counted inclusively forward to the next one of three principal days within each month : Kalends ( Kalendae or Kal . ) , the 1st day of each month Nones ( Nonae or Non . ) , the 7th day of full months and 5th day of hollow ones , 8 days -- `` nine '' by Roman reckoning -- before the Ides in every month Ides ( Idus , variously Eid. or Id . ) , the 15th day of full months and the 13th day of hollow ones , a day less than the middle of each month These are thought to reflect a prehistoric lunar calendar , with the kalends proclaimed after the sighting of the first sliver of the new crescent moon a day or two after the new moon , the nones occurring on the day of the first - quarter moon , and the ides on the day of the full moon . The kalends of each month were sacred to Juno and the ides to Jupiter . The day before each was known as its eve ( pridie ) ; the day after each ( postridie ) was considered particularly unlucky . The days of the month were expressed in early Latin using the ablative of time , denoting points in time , in the contracted form `` the 6th December Kalends '' ( VI Kalendas Decembres ) . In classical Latin , this use continued for the three principal days of the month but other days were idiomatically expressed in the accusative case , which usually expressed a duration of time , and took the form `` 6th day before the December Kalends '' ( ante diem VI Kalendas Decembres ) . This anomaly may have followed the treatment of days in Greek , reflected the increasing use of such date phrases as an absolute phrase able to function as the object of another preposition , or simply originated in a mistaken agreement of dies with the preposition ante once it moved to the beginning of the expression . In late Latin , this idiom was sometimes abandoned in favor of again using the ablative of time . The kalends were the day for payment of debts and the account books ( kalendaria ) kept for them gave English its word calendar . The public Roman calendars were the fasti , which designated the religious and legal character of each month 's days . The Romans marked each day of such calendars with the letters : F ( fastus , `` permissible '' ) on days when it was legal to initiate action in the courts of civil law ( dies fasti , `` allowed days '' ) C ( comitialis ) on fasti days during which the Roman people could hold assemblies ( dies comitalis ) N ( nefastus ) on days when political and judicial activities were prohibited ( dies nefasti ) NP ( uncertain ) on public holidays ( feriae ) QRCF ( uncertain ) on days when the `` king '' ( rex sacrorum ) could convene an assembly EN ( endotercissus , an archaic form of intercissus , `` halved '' ) on days when most political and religious activities were prohibited in the morning and evening due to sacrifices being prepared or offered but were acceptable for a period in the middle of the day Each day was also marked by a letter from A to H to indicate its place within the nundinal cycle of market days . Weeks ( edit ) A fragment of the Fasti Praenestini for the month of April ( Aprilis ) , showing its nundinal letters on the left side Main articles : Nundinae , Planetary hours , and Week The nundinae were the market days which formed a kind of weekend in Rome , Italy , and some other parts of Roman territory . By Roman inclusive counting , they were reckoned as `` ninth days '' although they actually occurred every eighth day . Because the republican and Julian years were not evenly divisible into eight - day periods , Roman calendars included a column giving every day of the year a nundinal letter from A to H marking its place in the cycle of market days . Each year , the letter used for the markets would shift 2 -- 5 letters along the cycle . As a day when the city swelled with rural plebeians , they were overseen by the aediles and took on an important role in Roman legislation , which was supposed to be announced for three nundinal weeks ( between 17 and 24 days ) in advance of its coming to a vote . The patricians and their clients sometimes exploited this fact as a kind of filibuster , since the tribunes of the plebs were required to wait another three - week period if their proposals could not receive a vote before dusk on the day they were introduced . Superstitions arose concerning the bad luck that followed a nundinae on the nones of a month or , later , on the first day of January . Intercalation was supposedly used to avoid such coincidences , even after the Julian reform of the calendar . The 7 - day week began to be observed in Italy in the early imperial period , as practitioners and converts to eastern religions introduced Hellenistic and Babylonian astrology , the Jewish Saturday sabbath , and the Christian Lord 's Day . The system was originally used for private worship and astrology but had replaced the nundinal week by the time Constantine made Sunday ( dies Solis ) an official day of rest in AD 321 . The hebdomadal week was also reckoned as a cycle of letters from A to G ; these were adapted for Christian use as the dominical letters . Months ( edit ) The names of Roman months originally functioned as adjectives ( e.g. , the January kalends occur in the January month ) before being treated as substantive nouns in their own right ( e.g. , the kalends of January occur in January ) . Some of their etymologies are well - established : January and March honor the gods Janus and Mars ; July and August honor the dictator Julius Caesar and his successor , the emperor Augustus ; and the months Quintilis , Sextilis , September , October , November , and December are archaic adjectives formed from the ordinal numbers from 5 to 10 , their position in the calendar when it began around the spring equinox in March . Others are uncertain . February may derive from the Februa festival or its eponymous februa ( `` purifications , expiatory offerings '' ) , whose name may be either Sabine or preserve an archaic word for sulphuric. April may relate to the Etruscan goddess Apru or the verb aperire ( `` to open '' ) . May and June may honor Maia and Juno or derive from archaic terms for `` senior '' and `` junior '' . A few emperors attempted to add themselves to the calendar after Augustus , but without enduring success . In classical Latin , the days of each month were usually reckoned as : Day Original 31 - Day Months New Julian 31 - Day Months New Julian 30 - Day Months Original 29 - Day Months February Kal . On the Kalends Kalendis Kal . Kal . Kal . Feb . a.d. VI Non . The 4th Day before the Nones ante diem quartum Nonas a.d. IV Non . a.d. IV Non . a.d. IV Non . Feb . a.d. V Non . The 3rd Day before the Nones ante diem tertium Nonas a.d. III Non . a.d. III Non . a.d. III Non . Feb . a.d. IV Non . On the Day before the Nones Pridie Nonas Prid . Non . Prid . Non . Prid . Non . Feb . 5 a.d. III Non . On the Nones Nonis Non . Non . Non . Feb . 6 Prid . Non . The 8th Day before the Ides ante diem octavum Idus a.d. VIII Eid . a.d. VIII Eid . a.d. VIII Eid . Feb . 7 Non . The 7th Day before the Ides ante diem septimum Idus a.d. VII Eid . a.d. VII Eid . a.d. VII Eid . Feb . 8 a.d. VIII Eid . The 6th Day before the Ides ante diem sextum Idus a.d. VI Eid . a.d. VI Eid . a.d. VI Eid . Feb . 9 a.d. VII Eid . The 5th Day before the Ides ante diem quintum Idus a.d. V Eid . a.d. V Eid . a.d. V Eid . Feb . 10 a.d. VI Eid . The 4th Day before the Ides ante diem quartum Idus a.d. IV Eid . a.d. IV Eid . a.d. IV Eid . Feb . 11 a.d. V Eid . The 3rd Day before the Ides ante diem tertium Idus a.d. III Eid . a.d. III Eid . a.d. III Eid . Feb . 12 a.d. IV Eid . On the Day before the Ides Pridie Idus Prid . Eid . Prid . Eid . Prid . Eid . Feb . 13 a.d. III Eid . On the Ides Idibus Eid . Eid . Eid . Feb . 14 Prid . Eid . The 19th Day before the Kalends ante diem undevicesimum Kalendas a.d. XVIII Kal . a.d. XVII Kal . a.d. XVI Kal . Mart . 15 Eid . The 18th Day before the Kalends ante diem duodevicesimum Kalendas a.d. XVII Kal . a.d. XVI Kal . a.d. XV Kal . Mart . 16 a.d. XVII Kal . The 17th Day before the Kalends ante diem septimum decimum Kalendas a.d. XVI Kal . a.d. XV Kal . a.d. XIV Kal . Mart . 17 a.d. XVI Kal . The 16th Day before the Kalends ante diem sextum decimum Kalendas a.d. XV Kal . a.d. XIV Kal . a.d. XIII Kal . Mart . 18 a.d. XV Kal . The 15th Day before the Kalends ante diem quintum decimum Kalendas a.d. XIV Kal . a.d. XIII Kal . a.d. XII Kal . Mart . 19 a.d. XIV Kal . The 14th Day before the Kalends ante diem quartum decimum Kalendas a.d. XIII Kal . a.d. XII Kal . a.d. XI Kal . Mart . 20 a.d. XIII Kal . The 13th Day before the Kalends ante diem tertium decimum Kalendas a.d. XII Kal . a.d. XI Kal . a.d. X Kal . Mart . 21 a.d. XII Kal . The 12th Day before the Kalends ante diem duodecimum Kalendas a.d. XI Kal . a.d. X Kal . a.d. IX Kal . Mart . 22 a.d. XI Kal . The 11th Day before the Kalends ante diem undecimum Kalendas a.d. X Kal . a.d. IX Kal . a.d. VIII Kal . Mart . 23 a.d. X Kal . The 10th Day before the Kalends ante diem decimum Kalendas a.d. IX Kal . a.d. VIII Kal . a.d. VII Kal . Mart . 24 a.d. IX Kal . The 9th Day before the Kalends ante diem nonum Kalendas a.d. VIII Kal . a.d. VII Kal . a.d. VI Kal . Mart . 25 a.d. VIII Kal . The 8th Day before the Kalends ante diem octavum Kalendas a.d. VII Kal . a.d. VI Kal . a.d. V Kal . Mart . 26 a.d. VII Kal . The 7th Day before the Kalends ante diem septimum Kalendas a.d. VI Kal . a.d. V Kal . a.d. IV Kal . Mart . 27 a.d. VI Kal . The 6th Day before the Kalends ante diem sextum Kalendas a.d. V Kal . a.d. IV Kal . a.d. III Kal . Mart . 28 a.d. V Kal . The 5th Day before the Kalends ante diem quintum Kalendas a.d. IV Kal . a.d. III Kal . Prid . Kal . Mart . 29 a.d. IV Kal . The 4th Day before the Kalends ante diem quartum Kalendas a.d. III Kal . Prid . Kal . 30 a.d. III Kal . The 3rd Day before the Kalends ante diem tertium Kalendas Prid . Kal . 31 Prid . Kal . On the Day Before the Kalends Pridie Kalendas Dates after the ides count forward to the kalends of the next month and are expressed as such . For example , March 19 was expressed as `` the 14th day before the April Kalends '' ( a.d. XIV Kal . Apr . ) , without a mention of March itself . The day after a kalends , nones , or ides was also often expressed as the `` day after '' ( postridie ) owing to their special status as particularly unlucky `` black days '' . The anomalous status of the new 31 - day months under the Julian calendar was an effect of Caesar 's desire to avoid affecting the festivals tied to the nones and ides of various months . Because the dates at the ends of the month all counted forward to the next kalends , however , they were all shifted by one or two days by the change . This created confusion with regard to certain anniversaries . For instance , Augustus 's birthday on the 23rd day of September was a.d. VIII Kal. Oct. in the old calendar but a.d. IX Kal. Oct. under the new system . The ambiguity caused honorary festivals to be held on either or both dates . Intercalation ( edit ) Main article : Mercedonius The Republican calendar only had 355 days , which meant that it would quickly unsynchronize from the solar year , causing , for example , agricultural festivals to occur out of season . The Roman solution to this problem was to periodically lengthen the calendar by adding extra days within February . February was broken into two parts , each with an odd number of days . The first part ended with the Terminalia on the 23rd ( a.d. VII Kal . Mart . ) , which was considered the end of the religious year ; the five remaining days beginning with the Regifugium on the 24th ( a.d. VI Kal . Mart . ) formed the second part ; and the intercalary month Mercedonius was inserted between them . In such years , the days between the ides and the Regifugium were counted down to either the Intercalary Kalends or to the Terminalia . The intercalary month counted down to nones and ides on its 5th and 13th day in the manner of the other short months . The remaining days of the month counted down towards the March Kalends , so that the end of Mercedonius and the second part of February were indistinguishable to the Romans , one ending on a.d. VII Kal . Mart. and the other picking up at a.d. VI Kal . Mart. and bearing the normal festivals of such dates . Apparently because of the confusion of these changes or uncertainty as to whether an intercalary month would be ordered , dates after the February ides are attested as sometimes counting down towards the Quirinalia ( Feb. 17 ) , the Feralia ( Feb. 21 ) , or Terminalia ( Feb. 23 ) rather than the intercalary or March kalends . The third - century writer Censorinus says : When it was thought necessary to add ( every two years ) an intercalary month of 22 or 23 days , so that the civil year should correspond to the natural ( solar ) year , this intercalation was in preference made in February , between Terminalia ( 23rd ) and Regifugium ( 24th ) . The fifth - century writer Macrobius says that the Romans intercalated 22 and 23 days in alternate years ( Saturnalia , 1.13. 12 ) , the intercalation was placed after 23 February and the remaining five days of February followed ( Saturnalia , 1.13. 15 ) . To avoid the nones falling on a nundine , where necessary an intercalary day was inserted `` in the middle of the Terminalia , where they placed the intercalary month '' . This is historically correct . In 167 BC Intercalaris began on the day after 23 February and in 170 BC it began on the second day after 23 February . Varro , writing in the first century BC , says `` the twelfth month was February , and when intercalations take place the five last days of this month are removed . '' Since all the days after the Ides of Intercalaris were counted down to the beginning of March Intercalaris had either 27 days ( making 377 for the year ) or 28 ( making 378 for the year ) . There is another theory which says that in intercalary years February had 23 or 24 days and Intercalaris had 27 . No date is offered for the Regifugium in 378 - day years . Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby , in one 8 - year period within a 24 - year cycle , there were only three intercalary years , each of 377 days . This refinement brings the calendar back in line with the seasons , and averages the length of the year to 365.25 days over 24 years . The Pontifex Maximus determined when an intercalary month was to be inserted . On average , this happened in alternate years . The system of aligning the year through intercalary months broke down at least twice : the first time was during and after the Second Punic War . It led to the reform of the 191 BC Acilian Law on Intercalation , the details of which are unclear , but it appears to have successfully regulated intercalation for over a century . The second breakdown was in the middle of the first century BC and may have been related to the increasingly chaotic and adversarial nature of Roman politics at the time . The position of Pontifex Maximus was not a full - time job ; it was held by a member of the Roman elite , who would almost invariably be involved in the machinations of Roman politics . Because the term of office of elected Roman magistrates was defined in terms of a Roman calendar year , a Pontifex Maximus would have reason to lengthen a year in which he or his allies were in power or shorten a year in which his political opponents held office . Although there are many stories to interpret the intercalation , a period of 22 or 23 days is always 3⁄4 synodic month . Obviously , the month beginning shifts forward ( from the new moon , to the third quarter , to the full moon , to the first quarter , back the new moon ) after intercalation . Years ( edit ) A fragment of an imperial consular list Main article : list of Roman consuls As mentioned above , Rome 's legendary 10 - month calendar notionally lasted for 304 days but was usually thought to make up the rest of the solar year during an unorganized winter period . The unattested but almost certain lunar year and the pre-Julian civil year were 354 or 355 days long , with the difference from the solar year more or less corrected by an irregular intercalary month . The Julian year was 365 days long , with a leap day doubled in length every fourth year , almost equivalent to the present Gregorian system . The calendar era before and under the Roman kings is uncertain but dating by regnal years was common in antiquity . Under the Roman Republic , from 509 BC , years were most commonly described in terms of their reigning ordinary consuls . ( Temporary and honorary consuls were sometimes elected or appointed but were not used in dating . ) Consular lists were displayed on the public calendars . After the institution of the Roman Empire , regnal dates based on the emperors ' terms in office became more common . Some historians of the later republic and early imperial eras dated from the legendary founding of the city of Rome ( ab urbe condita or AVC ) . Varro 's date for this was 753 BC but other writers used different dates , varying by several decades . Such dating was , however , never widespread . After the consuls waned in importance , most Roman dating was regnal or followed Diocletian 's 15 - year Indiction tax cycle . These cycles were not distinguished , however , so that `` year 2 of the indiction '' may refer to any of 298 , 313 , 328 , &c . The Orthodox subjects of the Byzantine Empire used various Christian eras , including those based on Diocletian 's persecutions , Christ 's incarnation , and the supposed age of the world . The Romans did not have records of their early calendars but , like modern historians , assumed the year originally began in March on the basis of the names of the months following June . The consul M. Fulvius Nobilior ( r . 189 BC ) wrote a commentary on the calendar at the Temple of Hercules Musarum that claimed January had been named for Janus because the god faced both ways , suggesting it had been instituted as a first month . It was , however , usually said to have been instituted along with February , whose nature and festivals suggest it had originally been considered the last month of the year . The consuls ' term of office -- and thus the order of the years under the republic -- seems to have changed several times . Their inaugurations were finally moved to 1 January ( Kal . Ian . ) in 153 BC to allow Q. Fulvius Nobilior to attack Segeda in Spain during the Celtiberian Wars , before which they had occurred on 15 March ( Eid . Mart . ) . There is reason to believe the inauguration date had been 1 May during the 3rd century BC until 222 BC and Livy mentions earlier inaugurations on 15 May ( Eid . Mai . ) , 1 July ( Kal . Qui . ) , 1 August ( Kal . Sex . ) , 1 October ( Kal. Oct . ) , and 15 December ( Eid . Dec . ) . Under the Julian calendar , the year began on 1 January but years of the Indiction cycle began on 1 September . In addition Egypt 's separate calendar , some provinces maintained their records using a local era . Africa dated its records sequentially from 39 BC ; Spain from AD 38 . This dating system continued as the Spanish era used in medieval Spain . Conversion to Julian or Gregorian dates ( edit ) The continuity of names from the Roman to the Gregorian calendar can lead to the mistaken belief that Roman dates correspond to Julian or Gregorian ones . In fact , the essentially complete list of Roman consuls allows general certainty of years back to the establishment of the republic but the uncertainty as to the end of lunar dating and the irregularity of Roman intercalation means that dates which can be independently verified are invariably weeks to months outside of their `` proper '' place . Two astronomical events dated by Livy show the calendar 4 months out of alignment with the Julian date in 190 BC and 2 months out of alignment in 168 BC . Thus , `` the year of the consulship of Publius Cornelius Sciopio Africanus and Publius Licinius Crassus '' ( usually given as `` 205 BC '' ) actually began on 15 March 205 BC and ended on 14 March 204 BC according to the Roman calendar but may have begun as early as November or December 206 BC owing to its misalignment . Even following the establishment of the Julian calendar , the leap years were not applied correctly by the Roman priests , meaning dates are a few days out of their `` proper '' place until a few decades into Augustus 's reign . Given the paucity of records regarding the state of the calendar and its intercalation , historians have reconstructed the correspondence of Roman dates to their Julian and Gregorian equivalents from disparate sources . There are detailed accounts of the decades leading up to the Julian reform , particularly the speeches and letters of Cicero , which permit an established chronology back to about 58 BC . The nundinal cycle and a few known synchronisms -- e.g. , a Roman date in terms of the Attic calendar and Olympiad -- are used to generate contested chronologies back to the start of the First Punic War in 264 BC . Beyond that , dates are roughly known based on clues such as the dates of harvests and seasonal religious festivals . See also ( edit ) Julian , Alexandrian , Byzantine , & Gregorian calendars List of Roman consuls and ab urbe condita dating General Roman Calendar of the Catholic Church Roman festivals Undecimber Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Censorinus , Macrobius , and Solinus , cited in Key . Jump up ^ That is , the 1st , 3rd , 5th , and 8th months prior to the introduction and repositioning of January and February . Jump up ^ Plutarch reports this tradition while claiming that the months had more probably predated or originated with Romulus . Jump up ^ This equivalence was first described by Stanyan in his history of ancient Greece . Jump up ^ There are some documents which state the month had been renamed as early as 26 or 23 BC , but the date of the Lex Pacuvia is certain . Jump up ^ The NP days are sometimes thought to mark days when political and judicial activities were prohibited only until noon , standing for nefastus priore . Jump up ^ The QRCF days are sometimes supposed , on the basis of the Fasti Viae Lanza which gives it as Q. Rex C.F. , to stand for `` Permissible when the King Has Entered the Comitium '' ( Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas ) . Jump up ^ The original 31 - day months of the Roman calendar were March , May , Quintilis or July , and October . Jump up ^ The 31 - day months established by the Julian reform were January , Sextilis or August , and December . The other 31 - day months of the Julian calendar continued to use the old system , with their Nones on the 7th and Ides on the 15th . Jump up ^ The 30 - day months established by the Julian reform were April , June , September , and November . Jump up ^ The 29 - day months of the calendar prior to the Julian reform were January , April , June , Sextilis , September , November , and December . After the Julian reform , February could have 29 days during a leap year but it was not reckoned according to this list until late in the imperial period . Instead , the sixth day before the March Kalends was initially treated as lasting for 48 hours . Jump up ^ After the Julian reform , this day was reckoned to last 48 hours during a leap year . References ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mommsen & al. ( 1864 ) , pp. 216 . ^ Jump up to : Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 12 , § 3 . ^ Jump up to : Kaster ( 2011 ) , p. 137 . Jump up ^ Mommsen & al. ( 1864 ) , pp. 217 . Jump up ^ Key ( 1875 ) . ^ Jump up to : Mommsen & al. ( 1864 ) , p. 218 . Jump up ^ Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 13 , § 20 . Jump up ^ Kaster ( 2011 ) , p. 165 . Jump up ^ Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 12 , § 39 . Jump up ^ Kaster ( 2011 ) , p. 155 . Jump up ^ Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 12 , § § 5 & 38 . Jump up ^ Kaster ( 2011 ) , pp. 137 & 155 . ^ Jump up to : Rüpke ( 2011 ) , p. 23 . ^ Jump up to : Blackburn & al. ( 1999 ) , p. 669 . ^ Jump up to : Plutarch , Ch. 18 . ^ Jump up to : Perrin ( 1914 ) , pp. 368 ff . ^ Jump up to : Mommsen & al. ( 1864 ) , p. 219 . Jump up ^ Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 12 , § 34 . Jump up ^ Kaster ( 2011 ) , p. 153 . Jump up ^ Roberts ( 1905 ) , Book I , Ch. 19 , § 6 . Jump up ^ Stanyan ( 1707 ) , p. 330 . Jump up ^ Ovid , Book II . Jump up ^ Kline ( 2004 ) , Book II , Introduction . Jump up ^ Fowler ( 1899 ) , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Macrobius . ^ Jump up to : Kaster ( 2011 ) . ^ Jump up to : Mathieson ( 2003 ) , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Michaels ( 1949 ) , p. 340 . Jump up ^ Lanfranchi ( 2013 ) . Jump up ^ Pliny , Book XVIII , Ch. 57 . Jump up ^ Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 14 , § 2 . Jump up ^ Rotondi ( 1912 ) , p. 441 . Jump up ^ Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 12 . ^ Jump up to : Beck ( 1838 ) , p. 175 . ^ Jump up to : Beck ( 1838 ) , p. 176 . Jump up ^ Ovid , Book I , ll. 55 -- 56 . Jump up ^ Kline ( 2004 ) , Book I , Introduction . ^ Jump up to : Beck ( 1838 ) , p. 177 . Jump up ^ Smyth ( 1920 ) , § § 1582 -- 1587 . Jump up ^ Scullard ( 1981 ) , pp. 44 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Rüpke ( 2011 ) , pp. 26 -- 27 . Jump up ^ Brind'Amour ( 1983 ) , pp. 256 -- 275 . Jump up ^ `` January , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` March , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` July , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` August , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` † quintile , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` sextile , adj. and n . '' , OED . ^ Jump up to : `` September , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` October , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` November , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` December , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` February , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` May , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ `` June , n . '' , OED . Jump up ^ A 94 inscription . Jump up ^ Censorinus , The Natal Day , 20.28 , tr . William Maude , New York 1900 , available at ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ Macrobius , Book I , Ch. 13 , § 16 , 19 . Jump up ^ Livy 45.44. 3 . Jump up ^ Livy 43.11. 13 . Jump up ^ Varro , On the Latin language , 6.13 , tr . Roland Kent , London 1938 , available at ( 2 ) . Jump up ^ Michels ( 1967 ) . Jump up ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum I , CIL VI . ^ Jump up to : Mathieson ( 2003 ) , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Varro . Jump up ^ Livy , Book XLVII . Jump up ^ Livy . Bibliography ( edit ) Beck , Charles ( 1838 ) , `` Of the Roman Calendar '' , Latin Syntax , Chiefly from the German of C.G. Zumpt , Boston : Charles C. Little & James Brown . Blackburn , Bonnie ; et al. ( 1999 ) , The Oxford Companion to the Year , Oxford : Oxford University Press . Brind'Amour , P. ( 1983 ) , Le Calendrier Romain : Recherches Chronologiques , Ottawa . ( in French ) Fowler , W. Warde ( 1899 ) , The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic , New York : Macmillan & Co . Key , Thomas Hewitt ( 1875 ) , `` Calendarium '' , A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities , London : John Murray , pp. 223 -- 233 . Lanfranchi , Thibaud ( 3 October 2013 ) , `` À Propos de la Carrière de Cn . Flavius '' , Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome : Antiquité , Vol. 125 ( No. 1 ) , doi : 10.4000 / mefra. 1322 . ( in French ) Livy ( 1905 ) , Roberts , Canon ; et al. , eds. , The History of Rome , Vol . I , Everyman 's Library , London : J.M. Dent & Sons . Macrobius , Saturnalia . ( in Latin ) Macrobius ( 2011 ) , Kaster , Robert A. , ed. , Saturnalia , Vol . I , Loeb Classical Library , No. 510 , Cambridge : Harvard University Press , ISBN 9780674996496 . ( in English ) & ( in Latin ) Mathieson , Ralph W. ( 2003 ) , People , Personal Expression , and Social Relations in Late Antiquity , Vol. II , Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press . Michels , Agnes Kirsopp Lake ( 1949 ) , `` The ' Calendar of Numa ' and the Pre-Julian Calendar '' , Transactions & Proceedings of the APA , Vol. 80 , Philadelphia : American Philological Association , pp. 320 -- 346 . Michels , Agnes Kirsopp Lake ( 1967 ) , The Calendar of the Roman Republic , Princeton . Mommsen , Theodor ( 1864 ) , Dickson , William Purdie , ed. , The History of Rome , Vol . I : The Period Anterior to the Abolition of the Monarchy , London : Richard Bentley . ( 1 ) Ovid , Fastorum Libri VI . ( in Latin ) Ovid ( 2004 ) , Kline , Anthony S. , ed. , On the Roman Calendar , Poetry in Translation . Oxford English Dictionary , Oxford : Oxford University Press . Pliny , Historia Naturalis . ( in Latin ) Plutarch , Βίοι Παράλληλοι ( Bíoi Parállēloi , Parallel Lives ) . ( in Ancient Greek ) Plutarch ( 1914 ) , `` The Life of Numa '' , in Perrin , Bernadotte , The Parallel Lives , Vol . I , Loeb Classical Library , Cambridge : Harvard University Press . Rotondi , Giovanni ( 1912 ) , Leges Publicae Populi Romani , Milan : Società Editrice Libraria . ( in Latin ) Rüpke , Jörg ( 2011 ) , Richardson , D.M.B. , ed. , The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine : Time , History , and the Fasti , Wiley , ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 65508 - 5 . Scullard , Howard Hayes ( 1981 ) , Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic , Ithaca : Cornell University Press . Smyth , Herbert Weir ( 1920 ) , A Greek Grammar for Colleges , New York : American Book Co ... Stanyan , Temple ( 1707 ) , Grecian History , London : J. & R. Tonson . 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Life chances
Life chances - wikipedia Life chances Life chances ( Lebenschancen in German ) is a social science theory of the opportunities each individual has to improve their quality of life . The concept was introduced by German sociologist Max Weber . It is a probabilistic concept , describing how likely it is , given certain factors , that an individual 's life will turn out a certain way . According to this theory , life chances are positively correlated with one 's socioeconomic status . Opportunities in this sense refer to the extent to which one has access to resources , both tangible ones such as food , clothing and shelter , and intangible ones such as education and health care . Life chances comprise the individual 's ability to procure goods , have a career and obtain inner satisfaction ; in other words , the ability to satisfy one 's needs . Contents 1 Theory 2 Ascriptive qualities 3 Overcoming bad life chances 4 Class identification and lifestyle effects 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading Theory ( edit ) Weberian life chances can be seen as an expansion on some of Karl Marx 's ideas . Both Weber and Marx agreed that economic factors were important in determining one 's future , but Weber 's concepts of life chances are more complex ; inspired by , but different from Marx 's views on social stratification and social class . Where for Marx the class status was the most important factor , and he correlated life chances with material wealth , Weber introduced such additional factors as social mobility and social equality . Other factors include those related to one 's socioeconomic status , such as gender , race , and ethnicity . While some of those factors , like age , race or gender , are random , Weber stressed the link between life chances and the non-random elements of the three - component theory of stratification -- how social class , social status and political affiliation affect each individual 's life . In other words , individuals in certain groups have in common a specific causal component of their life chances : they are in similar situation , which tends to imply a similar outcome to their actions . Weber notes the importance of economic factors : how the power of those with property , compared to those without property , gives the former great advantages over the latter . Weber also noted that life chances are to certain extent subjective : one 's assessment of one 's life chances will affect one 's actions ; therefore , if one believes that one is or can become a respected and valued member of society , that outcome and associated positive results are more likely to become a reality for such a person than they are for one without this conviction . Persons without such a belief , especially those who consciously espouse or have unconsciously internalized a belief to the contrary , are vulnerable to learned helplessness and its long - term effects . In terms of agency and structure , life chances represent the structure , the factors that one has no control over ; whereas one 's life conduct - values and beliefs , attitude to risk taking , social skills , or more generally , free willed choices about one 's behavior - represent the factors one has control over . According to Weber theories , together with life conduct , life chances are responsible for one 's lifestyle . In social engineering , life chances may have to be balanced against other goals , such as eliminating poverty , ensuring personal freedom or ensuring equality at birth . Ascriptive qualities ( edit ) The life chances approach suggests that status is not entirely achieved , but is , to some extent , ascribed . Overall , in societies emphasizing ascription , opportunity is relatively low and status ( in the sense of prestige in the community ) is often inherited . This means that people are , effectively , given their status as a result of the group into which they are born , rather than earning it entirely on merit . Ascriptive qualities such as race / ethnicity , gender , and class of origin can all affect one 's life chances . In all societies parents pass on whatever advantages and disadvantages they have to their children . A persons ' class of origin determines one 's neighborhood they live in , which in turn will affect educational attainment , the people they socialize with , and ultimately their class identification . A very important factor affecting life chances is housing . Poorer housing will affect health , available facilities , the likelihood of being a victim of crime , and many other aspects of life . Leisure facilities are often located in middle class areas or near non manual work places . Gym membership is expensive and subsidies are rarely available for lower grade staff . Therefore , in general , the middle and upper classes have far greater life chances available than the less advantaged groups . If born into a wealthy family a person will have access to far more desirable resources that can assist them in further enhancing their life chances to a far greater extent than someone who is born into a working class poor family . One of these resources includes a family 's social ties and the ability for a person with well connected parents to benefit greatly in the status attainment process . Status attainment refers to how each individual enters an occupation . This encompasses how both ascribed and achieved factors combine , because each individual enters an occupation based on the way their parents ' status produces advantages and disadvantages , their own efforts and abilities , and a degree of luck . An additional dimension is the effect of family dynamics on life chances , such as the presence of biological parents , the quality of family relationships , and sibling configuration . For example , it has been demonstrated that children of divorced parents exhibit lower levels of psychological well - being , more problems in their own relationship , a greater risk of experiencing divorce , and also tend to be less educated . Overcoming bad life chances ( edit ) Max Weber discussed the effects of social stratification on life chances . He argued that life chances are opportunities and possibilities that make up one 's lifestyle . Life chances are affected by a number of factors . Some of which include : income , social class , and occupational prestige . These factors all affect the availability of resources to an individual . For example , when one has low income , they have low life chances . Their education may not be as great and they may not have a high enough income to attain an advanced level of education . According to Wout Ultee , education is a major aspect of overcoming life chances . Without an education , it is harder to obtain a job that provides a substantial income to provide for a family of four . `` Higher education is the way to stay ahead . '' The higher the education , the higher income and occupational prestige one will have , which results in more resources for an individual and his family . Early intervention is also necessary in improving life chances . Save the Children is a non-governmental group that works in the best interest of children . They promote children 's rights and the aid children in underdeveloped countries that need relief . The UK has started an early intervention program that aids in improving life chances early on a child 's life . They believe that `` No child should endure poverty and no child 's life chances should be shaped by the accident of birth . '' This program was made to ensure that inequalities in children 's learning are tackled before problems can occur and separate them from peers . In order to do so , this program gives parents in lower classes the expertise they need to effectively help their children 's learning in a home environment so that they are well prepared when they enter school . An example would be improving the parents ' reading level so that they are able to teach their children how to read and write before kindergarten . This allows children in lower classes to be near the same level as children who are in higher classes with higher educated parents . Early intervention will allow for children to start out their education on the right foot , with skills they 'll need to succeed and achieve a high level of education , thus improving life chances . Class identification and lifestyle effects ( edit ) Weber noted that life chances are partially determined by subjective factors , such as by how one perceives their life chances . How one perceives their life chances is in large part determined by what one perceives their social class to be since life chances and social class go hand in hand and both reinforce each other . According to Weber this is because life chances are largely determined by economic factors such as social class . The phenomenon of how you perceive things actually affecting the tangible outcomes of life chances is explained by Robert K. Merton 's theory of `` self fulfilling prophecy '' which he talks about in his book Social Theory and Social Structure . Essentially what it means is that individuals can tell themselves something like , `` I 'm lower class , my family has always been lower class , there 's no chance I 'm ever going to be well off '' and although this statement had the potential to not end up being true , it became true simply because the individual believed it would be so and through his attitude and lack of self - esteem , made it his reality . If you identify as low social class and believe you are most likely never going to be anything else , this will affect your life conduct in a myriad of ways. which in turn will affect your life chances . For one , the company you keep can lead to you networking with people that will not help you get out of a low socioeconomic environment . It can also affect your life conduct by making you think you are n't qualified enough for anything but working class jobs . It can also affect your life conduct by making you think that pursuing higher education is not for someone of your social standing , further ensuring that you never get above working class work . The relationship between social class , life conduct , and life chances is a strong one that time and time again decides what a person 's fate in life will be like . See also ( edit ) Primary goods Social mobility The Bell Curve References ( edit ) Jump up ^ ( Hughes 2003 ) ^ Jump up to : Blackwell , 2005 Jump up ^ Kendall , 2009 Jump up ^ Carl Cuneo , Max Weber Archived 2006 - 09 - 09 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Rowenna Harrison , Is an unstratified society possible ? Jump up ^ Life Chances and Social Mobility Archived 2006 - 09 - 16 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : Kevin Fitzpatrick , Mark La Gory , Unhealthy places : the ecology of risk in the urban landscape , Psychology Press , 2000 , ISBN 0 - 415 - 92372 - 7 , Google Print , p. 90 - 91 Jump up ^ William C. Cockerham Health and social change in Russia and Eastern Europe , Routledge , 1999 , ISBN 0 - 415 - 92081 - 7 , ( 1 ) ^ Jump up to : Multiple Sources of Power -- Class , Status , and Party Cite error : Invalid < ref > tag ; name `` msop '' defined multiple times with different content ( see the help page ) . ^ Jump up to : Yeates , Nicola . `` Sociology Factsheet -- Life Chances . '' www.curriculum-press.co.uk . Bank House , n.d. Web . 14 Nov. 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Beeghley , Leonard . `` Sociology and Stratification . '' The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States . 5th ed . N.p. : Pearson Education , 2008 . N. pag . Print . Jump up ^ Gugushvili , Alexi . Ascriptive Inequality and Life Chances in Georgia . www.css.ge . N.p. , n.d. Web . 14 Nov. 2013 . ( 2 ) . Jump up ^ White , Kevin . `` life chances . '' The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology . Ed . Bryan S. Turner . Cambridge , United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press , 2006 . 338 . Gale Virtual Reference Library . Web . 14 Nov. 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Ultee , Wout . `` Life Chances and Resources . '' Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology . Ritzer , George ( ed ) . Blackwell Publishing , 2007 . Blackwell Reference Online . 15 November 2013 ( 3 ) Jump up ^ `` Early Intervention Review . '' Save the Children . Save the Children , Nov. 2010 . Web . 17 Nov. 2013 . Further reading ( edit ) Diana Kendall , Sociology in Times : The Essentials , Cengage Learning , 2009 , ISBN 0 - 495 - 59862 - 3 , Google Print , p. 214 John Hughes , Wes Sharrock , Peter J Martin , Understanding Classical Sociology : Marx , Weber , Durkheim , Sage Publications Inc , 2003 , ISBN 0 - 7619 - 5467 - 8 , Google Print , p. 107 William Cockerham ( ed . ) , The Blackwell Companion To Medical Sociology , Blackwell Publishing , 2005 Google Print , p. 12 Life Chances and Social Mobility ( broken link ) Multiple Sources of Power -- Class , Status , and Party WEBER AND CLASS ( broken link ) Social Stratification Is an unstratified society possible ? ( broken link ) Max Weber , Economy and Society , University of California Press , 1978 , ISBN 0 - 520 - 03500 - 3 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Life_chances&oldid=825524470 '' Categories : Max Weber Education economics Sociological terminology Social theories Hidden categories : Pages with reference errors Webarchive template wayback links Pages with duplicate reference names Talk Contents About Wikipedia Српски / srpski Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2018 , at 22 : 01 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
life chances are not affected by one's economic position
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Bull Terrier
Bull Terrier - wikipedia Bull Terrier Jump to : navigation , search Bull Terrier Other names English Bull Terrier Bully The White Cavalier Wedge Head The Gentleman 's Companion Gladiator Origin England ( hide ) Traits Weight Male 55 -- 65 lb ( 25 -- 29 kg ) Female 45 -- 55 lb ( 20 -- 25 kg ) Height Male 18 -- 22 in ( 46 -- 56 cm ) Female 18 -- 22 in ( 46 -- 56 cm ) Coat Short , dense Color White , brindle , fawn , red , red smut , black , and tricolor ( black , red , and white mixture ) . Life span 10 -- 14 years ( hide ) Classification / standards FCI Group 3 , Section 3 Bull Terriers # 11 standard AKC Terrier standard ANKC Group 2 ( Terriers ) standard CKC Group 4 -- Terriers standard KC ( UK ) Terriers standard NZKC Terrier standard UKC Terriers standard Domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) The Bull Terrier is a breed of dog in the terrier family . There is also a miniature version of this breed which is officially known as the Miniature Bull Terrier . Contents ( hide ) 1 Appearance 2 Temperament 3 Health 4 History 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Appearance ( edit ) A white Bull Terrier showing head profile , triangular eyes , robust and very muscular body The Bull Terrier 's most recognizable feature is its head , described as ' egg - shaped ' when viewed from the front ; the top of the skull is almost flat . The profile curves gently downwards from the top of the skull to the tip of the nose , which is black and bent downwards at the tip , with well developed nostrils . The under - jaw is deep and strong . The unique triangular eyes are small , dark , and deep - set . Bull Terriers are the only dogs that have triangular eyes . The body is full and round , with strong , muscular shoulders . The tail is carried horizontally . They are either white , red , fawn , black , brindle , or a combination of these . Temperament ( edit ) Bull Terriers can be both independent and stubborn and for this reason are not considered suitable for an inexperienced dog owner . A Bull Terrier has an even temperament and is amenable to discipline . Although obstinate , they are particularly good with people . Early socialisation will ensure that the dog will get along with other dogs and animals . Their personality is described as courageous , full of spirit , with a fun - loving attitude , a children - loving dog and a perfect family member . A 2008 study in Germany showed that Bull Terriers have no significant temperament difference from Golden retrievers in overall temperament researches . Health ( edit ) All puppies should be checked for deafness , which occurs in 20.4 % of pure white Bull Terriers and 1.3 % of colored Bull Terriers and is difficult to notice , especially in a relatively young puppy . Many Bull Terriers have a tendency to develop skin allergies . Insect bites , such as those from fleas , and sometimes mosquitoes and mites , can produce a generalised allergic response of hives , rash , and itching . This problem can be stopped by keeping the dog free of contact from these insects , but this is definitely a consideration in climates or circumstances where exposure to these insects is inevitable . A UK breed survey puts their median lifespan at 10 years and their mean at 9 years ( 1 s.f. , RSE = 13.87 % 2 d.p. ) , with a good number of dogs living to 10 -- 15 years . History ( edit ) James Hinks Bullterrier A Bull Terrier circa 1915 At the start of the 19th century the `` Bull and Terrier '' breeds were developed to satisfy the needs for vermin control and animal - based blood sports . The Bull and Terriers were based on the Old English Bulldog ( now extinct ) and Old English Terriers with possible other terriers . This new breed combined the speed and dexterity of lightly built terriers with the dour tenacity of the Bulldog , which was a poor performer in most combat situations , having been bred almost exclusively for fighting bulls and bears tied to a post . Many breeders began to breed bulldogs with terriers , arguing that such a mixture enhances the quality of fighting . Despite the fact that a cross between a bulldog and a terrier was of high value , very little or nothing was done to preserve the breed in its original form . Due to the lack of breed standards -- breeding was for performance , not appearance -- the `` Bull and Terrier '' eventually divided into the ancestors of `` Bull Terriers '' and `` Staffordshire Bull Terriers '' , both smaller and easier to handle than the progenitor . In the mid-19th century James Hinks started breeding Bull and Terriers with `` English White Terriers '' ( now extinct ) , looking for a cleaner appearance with better legs and nicer head . In 1862 , Hinks entered a dam called `` Puss '' sired by his white Bulldog called `` Madman '' into the Bull Terrier Class at the dog show held at the Cremorne Gardens in Chelsea . Originally known as the `` Hinks Breed '' and `` The White Cavalier '' , these dogs did not yet have the now - familiar `` egg face '' , but kept the stop in the skull profile . The dog was immediately popular and breeding continued , using Dalmatian , Spanish Pointer , and Whippet to increase elegance and agility ; and Borzoi and Rough Collie to reduce the stop . Hinks wanted his dogs white , and bred specifically for this . The first modern Bull Terrier is now recognised as `` Lord Gladiator '' , from 1917 , being the first dog with no stop at all . Due to medical problems associated with all - white breeding , Ted Lyon among others began introducing colour , using Staffordshire Bull Terriers in the early 20th century . Coloured Bull Terriers were recognised as a separate variety ( at least by the AKC ) in 1936 . Brindle is the preferred colour , but other colours are welcome . Along with conformation , specific behaviour traits were sought . The epithet `` White cavalier '' , harking back to an age of chivalry , was bestowed on a breed which while never seeking to start a fight was well able to finish one , while socialising well with its `` pack '' , including children and pups . Hinks himself had always aimed at a `` gentleman 's companion '' dog rather than a pit - fighter -- though Bullies were often entered in the pits , with some success . Bull Terrier With a miniature Bull Terrier Brindle and white Bull Terrier White Bull Terrier Red and white Bull Terrier Modern - colored Bull Terrier In popular culture ( edit ) Willie , wearing his regulation Army dog tag , with General Patton and the U.S. Third Army on the drive to Paris ( August 1944 ) General George S. Patton owned a Bull Terrier named Willie , and a portrayal of him is featured in the 1970 movie Patton . In Charles Dickens ' Oliver Twist ( 1838 ) , Bill Sikes ' dog `` Bullseye '' is a Bull Terrier . In the TV show Baa Baa Black Sheep Major Gregory Boyington , played Robert Conrad , owns a Bull Terrier named `` Meatball '' which also serves as the squadron mascot for VMF - 214 . The New Yorker cartoonist George Booth drew what he `` thought looked like a mean dog '' , and after a fan asked if it represented `` an English Bull Terrier '' , he researched the breed 's appearance and made his further versions of it a mainstay of his cartoons . The short film Frankenweenie ( 1984 ) and its full - length remake Frankenweenie ( 2012 ) , both directed by Tim Burton , feature a Bull Terrier named `` Sparky '' . From 1987 to 1989 , Budweiser 's beer commercials featured a female Bull Terrier named `` Spuds MacKenzie '' . The book The Incredible Journey by author Sheila Burnford features a Bull Terrier named `` Bodger '' , as well as in the 1963 film . The 1993 Nickelodeon cartoon Rocko 's Modern Life features a bull terrier named `` Spunky '' , who is Rocko 's pet dog . The 1995 film Toy Story features a mean Bull Terrier named `` Scud '' . In Babe : Pig in the City , one of the two savage dogs who chases Babe is a Bull Terrier , but he later becomes friends with him after he saves him from drowning in the canal . Target 's mascot , named `` Bullseye '' , is a Bull Terrier . Chico was Joker 's pet dog in the film Next Friday . Rocky Top 's Sundance Kid won Best in Show at the Westminster Dog Show in 2006 . The first colored Bull Terrier to do so . Ken Greenhill 's 1977 novel Hell Hound recounts the story of a sociopathic Bull Terrier named Baxter , whose desire for a dominant master drives him to murder . The novel was adapted to the cult French horror film Baxter in 1989 . The album cover for Working Class Dog by singer Rick Springfield is of his own pet Bull Terrier named Ronnie . Famed hockey coach and commentator Don Cherry was given a Bull Terrier by Boston Bruins players in the 1970s , and has continually owned dogs with the same name ever since . Blue and her successors have become synonymous with Cherry , and have made frequent appearances on his merchandise and programming . Cherry once owned a team in the Ontario Hockey League , the Mississauga IceDogs , now known as the Niagara IceDogs . Their mascot , Bones , is a Bull Terrier inspired by Blue . Chris Van Allsburg , writer of books such as Jumanji and The Polar Express , includes a Bull Terrier named `` Fritz '' in each book he writes . The mascot for Hiram College is a Bull Terrier . `` Grimm '' from the syndicated comic strip Mother Goose and Grimm is a yellow , cartoon Bull Terrier . A formerly abandoned deaf Bull Terrier named `` Patsy Ann '' , from 1929 - 1942 , would greet new ships coming into the harbor in Juneau , Alaska . She was dubbed the `` Official Greeter of Juneau , Alaska '' in 1934 . A statue in Juneau was erected in her honor in 1992 . Nancy Drew has a pet Bull Terrier named Togo in the Nancy Drew mystery stories by Carolyn Keene . See also ( edit ) Boston Terrier Bulldog French Bulldog References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Bull Terrier Dog Breed Information , Pictures , Characteristics & Facts - Dogtime '' . Jump up ^ CKC Breed Standards , ckc.ca , archived at the Wayback Machine , 20 February 2008 . Jump up ^ Breeder Retriever . `` Bull Terrier Temperament '' . ^ Jump up to : `` BREED STANDARD - The Bull Terrier Club '' . Jump up ^ https://adbadog.com/puppy-socialization/ Jump up ^ Ott , Stefanie A. ; Schalke , Esther ; von Gaertner , Amelie M. ; Hackbarth , Hansjoachim ( May - June 2008 ) . `` Is there a difference ? Comparison of golden retrievers and dogs affected by breed - specific legislation regarding aggressive behavior '' . Journal of Veterinary Behavior . Volume 3 , Issue 3 , Elsevier Inc . pp. 134 -- 140 Jump up ^ Breed - Specific Deafness Prevalence In Dogs ( percent ) . LSU.edu Jump up ^ Richards , Michael . Skin Disorders and Problems of Dogs , vetinfo4dogs.com Jump up ^ `` Individual Breed Results for Purebred Dog Health Survey '' . ^ Jump up to : `` Canterbury Bull Terrier Club '' . 21 November 2008 . Archived from the original on 21 November 2008 . Jump up ^ The Bull Terrier Ring , ringsurf.com Jump up ^ The Bulldog & Terrier crosses Archived February 12 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine. , moloss.com Jump up ^ The Canine Information Library : Bull and Terrier Breeds , bulldoginformation.com ^ Jump up to : The Canine Information Library : Bull and Terrier Breeds : Bull Terrier , bulldoginformation.com ^ Jump up to : ( Bull Terrier ) The History of the breed Archived February 12 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine. , molossermania.com ^ Jump up to : American Kennel Club : Bull Terrier History , akc.org Jump up ^ ANKC : Extended Breed Standard of The Bull Terrier & Bull Terrier ( Miniature ) Archived July 22 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine. , ankc.org.au Jump up ^ South African Bull Terrier Club : Are We Breeding Wimps Or Gladiators ? Archived September 6 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine. , sabullterriers.com Jump up ^ T.W. Hogarth published The Coloured and Colour Breeding , Galashiels : A Walker & Son in 1932 , which included chapters -- ' Colour Breeding in Bull Terriers ' by Major T Grahame and Captain J.N. Ritchie and ' Colour Inheritance in Bull - terriers ' by Dr F Fraser Darling Jump up ^ Amanda Macias , `` This photo shows Gen. Patton 's dog Willie after the general 's death '' , Business Insider , Dec. 21 , 2015 , 6 : 29 PM , Jump up ^ CAROL STRICKLAND , `` Flights of Lunacy on the Drawing Board '' , New York Times , February 7 , 1993 External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to : Bull Terrier ( category ) Bull Terrier at DMOZ Dogs originating in Britain Hounds Beagle Bloodhound Dumfriesshire Hound English Foxhound Greyhound Harrier Otterhound Scottish Deerhound Welsh Hound Whippet Gun dogs Clumber Spaniel Curly Coated Retriever Cocker Spaniel English Setter English Springer Spaniel Field Spaniel Flat - Coated Retriever Golden Retriever Gordon Setter Labrador Retriever Pointer Sussex Spaniel Welsh Springer Spaniel Terriers Working breeds Airedale Terrier Bedlington Terrier Black and Tan Terrier Border Terrier Cairn Terrier Dandie Dinmont Terrier Fox Terrier ( Smooth & Wire ) Jack Russell Terrier Lakeland Terrier Manchester Terrier Norfolk Terrier Norwich Terrier Parson Russell Terrier Patterdale Terrier Plummer Terrier Russell Terrier Scottish Terrier Sealyham Terrier Skye Terrier Sporting Lucas Terrier Welsh Terrier West Highland White Terrier Toy breeds English Toy Terrier Toy Manchester Terrier Yorkshire Terrier Bull types Bull Terrier Bull Terrier ( Miniature ) Staffordshire Bull Terrier Herding dogs Bearded Collie Border Collie Cardigan Welsh Corgi English Shepherd Lancashire Heeler Old English Sheepdog Pembroke Welsh Corgi Rough Collie Shetland Sheepdog Smooth Collie Welsh Sheepdog Other Bulldog Bullmastiff Cavalier King Charles Spaniel English Mastiff French Bulldog King Charles Spaniel Northern Inuit Dog Types Fell Terrier Longdog Lurcher Extinct Blue Paul Terrier English Water Spaniel English White Terrier Norfolk Spaniel North Country Beagle Old English Bulldog Old Welsh Grey Sheepdog Paisley Terrier Southern Hound Talbot Toy Bulldog Toy Trawler Spaniel Turnspit Dog Tweed Water Spaniel Welsh hillman Terriers Working breeds Long legged Airedale Terrier Bedlington Terrier Border Terrier Brazilian Terrier Enkarterriko Billanuko Fox Terrier ( Smooth ) Gos Rater Valencià Irish Terrier Jagdterrier Kaikadi Kerry Blue Terrier Lakeland Terrier Majorca Ratter Manchester Terrier Old English Terrier Parson Russell Terrier Patterdale Terrier Plummer Terrier Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz Ratonero Murciano de Huerta Soft - coated Wheaten Terrier Welsh Terrier Wire Fox Terrier Short legged Australian Terrier Cairn Terrier Cesky Terrier Dandie Dinmont Terrier Dutch Smoushond Glen of Imaal Terrier Jack Russell Terrier Japanese Terrier Miniature Fox Terrier Norfolk Terrier Norwich Terrier Rat Terrier Scottish Terrier Sealyham Terrier Skye Terrier Sporting Lucas Terrier Teddy Roosevelt Terrier Tenterfield Terrier West Highland White Terrier Bull type breeds American Pit Bull Terrier American Staffordshire Terrier Boston Terrier Bull Terrier Bull Terrier ( Miniature ) Staffordshire Bull Terrier Toy breeds Australian Silky Terrier English Toy Terrier Russkiy Toy Toy Fox Terrier Toy Manchester Terrier Yorkshire Terrier Miscellaneous American Hairless Terrier Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bull_Terrier&oldid=801158931 '' Categories : Terriers Dog breeds originating in England Dog fighting breeds Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with ' species ' microformats Articles with DMOZ links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikimedia Commons Afrikaans Azərbaycanca Беларуская Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano עברית ქართული Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk پنجابی Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 September 2017 , at 00 : 56 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
how did the bull terrier get its head
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Kuala Lumpur International Airport
Kuala Lumpur International airport - wikipedia Kuala Lumpur International airport Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Kuala Lumpur International Airport ( disambiguation ) . Kuala Lumpur International Airport Lapangan Terbang Antarabangsa Kuala Lumpur IATA : KUL ICAO : WMKK WMO : 48650 Summary Airport type Public Owner Government of Malaysia Operator Malaysia Airports Serves Greater Kuala Lumpur , Seremban , Malacca Location Sepang , Selangor , Malaysia Hub for AirAsia AirAsia X AsiaCargo Express Malaysia Airlines Malindo Air MASkargo UPS Airlines Time zone MST ( UTC + 08 : 00 ) Elevation AMSL 70 ft / 21 m Coordinates 02 ° 44 ′ 36 '' N 101 ° 41 ′ 53 '' E  /  2.74333 ° N 101.69806 ° E  / 2.74333 ; 101.69806 Coordinates : 02 ° 44 ′ 36 '' N 101 ° 41 ′ 53 '' E  /  2.74333 ° N 101.69806 ° E  / 2.74333 ; 101.69806 Website www.klia.com.my Map WMKK Location in Peninsular Malaysia WMKK WMKK ( Southeast Asia ) Show map of Peninsular Malaysia Show map of Southeast Asia Show all Runways Direction Length Surface m ft 14L / 32R 4,124 13,530 Asphalt concrete 14R / 32L 4,056 13,307 Asphalt concrete 15 / 33 4,056 13,307 Asphalt concrete Statistics ( 2017 ) Passenger 58,554,627 ( 11.2 % ) Airfreight ( tonnes ) 710,186 ( 10.5 % ) Aircraft movements 387,234 ( 8.6 % ) Sources : MAHB and AIP Kuala Lumpur International Airport ( KLIA ) ( Malay : Lapangan Terbang Antarabangsa Kuala Lumpur ) ( IATA : KUL , ICAO : WMKK ) is Malaysia 's main international airport and one of the major airports in South East Asia . It is located in Sepang district of Selangor , approximately 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) south of Kuala Lumpur city centre and serves the Greater Klang Valley conurbation . KLIA is the largest and busiest airport in Malaysia . In 2017 , it handled 58,554,627 passengers and 710,186 tonnes of cargo . It is the world 's 23rd - busiest airport by total passenger traffic . The airport is operated by Malaysia Airports ( MAHB ) Sepang Sdn Bhd and is the major hub of Malaysia Airlines , MASkargo , AirAsia , AirAsia X , Malindo Air , UPS Airlines and AsiaCargo Express . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Background 1.2 Current site 1.3 Grand opening 1.4 Inauguration 1.5 Recent events 2 Runways 3 Operations and infrastructure 4 Terminals 4.1 Main Terminal Building 4.1. 1 Satellite terminal A 4.2 klia2 ( Terminal 2 ) 4.2. 1 Gateway@klia2 4.3 KL City Air Terminal 4.4 Former low cost carrier terminal ( LCCT ) 5 Airlines and destinations 5.1 Passenger 5.2 Cargo 6 Statistics 7 Ground transportation 7.1 Inter-terminal transportation 7.2 External connections 7.2. 1 Rail 7.3 Taxis and limousine 7.4 Bus 8 Expansion and developments 8.1 Plans 8.2 A380 upgrades 9 References 10 External links History ( edit ) Background ( edit ) KLIA main entrance from the side KLIA Main terminal architecture The ground breaking ceremony for Kuala Lumpur International Airport ( KLIA ) took place on 1 June 1993 when the government under Mahathir Mohamad decided that the existing Kuala Lumpur airport , then known as Subang International Airport ( now Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport ) could not handle future demand . The construction of the airport was done mainly by a few state owned construction companies as well as Ekovest Berhad -- helmed by Tan Sri Datuk Lim Kang Hoo . It was created as part of the Multimedia Super Corridor , a grand development plan for Malaysia . The chief architect who designed the new airport terminal was the Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa . Upon KLIA 's completion , Subang Airport 's Terminal 1 building was demolished . Malaysia Airports agreed to redevelop the remaining Terminal 3 to create a specialist airport for turboprop and charter planes surrounded by a residential area and a business park . The IATA airport code KUL was transferred from Subang Airport , which currently handles only turboprop aircraft , general aviation and military aircraft . Subang Airport 's IATA code has since been changed to SZB . Current site ( edit ) The airport 's site spans 100 square kilometres ( 39 sq mi ) , of former agricultural land and is one of the world 's largest airport sites . An ambitious three - phase development plan anticipates KLIA to have three runways and two terminals each with two satellite terminals . Phase One involved the construction of the main terminal and one satellite terminal , giving a capacity of 25 million passengers , and two full service runways . The Phase One airport had sixty contact piers , twenty remote parking bays with eighty aircraft parking positions , four maintenance hangars and fire stations . Phase Two , designed to increase capacity to 35 million passengers per year is largely complete . Phase Three is anticipated to increase capacity to 100 million passengers per year . Grand opening ( edit ) Kuala Lumpur International Airport was officially inaugurated by the 10th Yang di - Pertuan Agong , Tuanku Ja'afar of Negeri Sembilan , on 27 June 1998 at 20 : 30 MST , a week ahead of Hong Kong International Airport and in time for the 1998 Commonwealth Games . The first domestic arrival was Malaysia Airlines flight MH1263 from Kuantan ( Kuantan Airport ) at 07 : 10 MST . The first international arrival was Malaysia Airlines flight MH188 from Malé International Airport at 07 : 30 MST . The first domestic departure was Malaysia Airlines flight MH1432 to Langkawi ( Langkawi International Airport ) at 07 : 20 MST ; the first international departure was Malaysia Airlines flight MH84 to Beijing ( Beijing Capital International Airport ) at 09 : 00 MST . Inauguration ( edit ) Inside the main terminal building . The Jungle boardwalk , a recreational walk path located at the centre core of the KLIA satellite terminal . The inauguration of the airport was marked with problems . Aerobridge and bay allocation systems broke down , queues built up throughout the airport and baggage handling broke down . Bags were lost and there were waits of over five hours . Most of these issues were remedied eventually , though baggage handling system was plagued with problems until it was put up for a complete replacement tender in 2007 . The airport suffered greatly reduced traffic with the general reduction in economic activity brought about by the East Asian financial crisis , SARS , bird flu epidemic ( Avian flu ) , the global financial crisis , and the swine flu pandemic. 1998 saw a reduction of passenger numbers as some airlines , including All Nippon Airways ( recommencing on 1 September 2015 ) , British Airways ( resumed on 28 May 2015 ) , Lufthansa ( later reinstated ) , and Northwest Airlines , terminated their loss making services to KLIA . KLIA 's first full year of operations in 1999 , in its Phase One manifestation ( capacity of 25 million passengers per year ) , saw only 13.2 million passengers . Passenger numbers eventually increased to 21.1 million in 2004 and 47 million in 2013 -- though short of the originally estimated 25 million passengers per year by 2003 . Recent events ( edit ) On 13 February 2017 , Kim Jong - nam , the half - brother of North Korean leader Kim Jong - un , was assassinated with the nerve agent VX while walking through Terminal 2 at Kuala Lumpur International Airport . Two women , who were alleged to have grabbed him to deploy the nerve agent , were arrested . Kim was traveling under a pseudonym . Runways ( edit ) Kuala Lumpur International Airport has three parallel runways ( 14L / 32R , 14R / 32L , 15 / 33 ( Runway 15 / 33 used to be part of SZB Airport ) ) , a first in the region . The aircraft movements on these runways are monitored by two Air Traffic Control ( ATC ) Towers ; Tower East , and Tower West given the span of the airport . ATC Tower West standing at 133.8 m , is currently the tallest ATC tower in the world . The current three runway system is capable of handling 78 landings per hour and is expected to increase to 108 landings per hour once upgrading of the Kuala Lumpur Flight Information Region is completed in 2019 . These runways operate on different departure / arrival modes according to the air traffic requirements . Operations and infrastructure ( edit ) Main article : Operations and Infrastructure of Kuala Lumpur International Airport Infrastructure Passenger terminal buildings Totals Current Floor area 737,249 m ( 7,935,680 sq ft ) Handling capacity 70 million passengers per annum Parking bays 114 ( aerobridge ) 48 ( remote ) Main Terminal Building 1 & Contact Pier Opened 27 June 1998 Floor area 336,000 m ( 3,620,000 sq ft ) Handling capacity 5 million passengers per annum Parking bays 20 ( aerobridge ) 23 ( remote ) Satellite Terminal A Opened 27 June 1998 Floor area 143,404 m ( 1,543,590 sq ft ) Handling capacity 20 million passengers per annum Parking bays 26 ( aerobridge ) 15 ( remote ) klia2 Opened 2 May 2014 Floor area 257,845 m ( 2,775,420 sq ft ) Handling capacity 45 million passengers per annum Parking bays 68 ( aerobridge ) 10 ( remote ) Bunga Raya Complex Opened 27 June 1998 Floor area Handling capacity Parking bays KLIA features a number of modern design features that assist in the efficient operation of the airport . It is one of the first Asia Pacific airports to become 100 % Bar Coded Boarding Pass capable . Malaysia Airlines ; AirAsia ; MASkargo , a cargo airline ; and Malaysia Airports , the Malaysian Airports operator and manager ; are headquartered on the property of KLIA . Malaysia Airlines also operates its Flight Management Building at KLIA . Terminals ( edit ) The airport is part of the KLIA Aeropolis , and is made up of two main terminals ; the original Main Terminal Building and the new terminal 2 , or also known as KLIA2 . The airport 's Main Terminal Building is designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa , with an emphasis of natural lighting within the airport complex . Spanning 38.4 m along a grid pattern allowing for future expansions , the abstract symbolic architecture by the late Kisho Kurokawa encompasses the Islamic geometry and cutting edge technology with the tropical rainforest in mind . Main terminal building ( edit ) Malaysia Airlines at Contact Pier The KLIA Main Terminal Building ( MTB ) is located in between the two runways . The floor area of the terminal covers 390,000 m ( 4,200,000 sq ft ) and the building consists of 39 square roof units , which enables future expansion of the building . There are a total of 216 check - in counters , located in 6 different islands , identified by the letters A -- M ( excluding I ) . Multi check - in services are available , designed for the use of all passengers arriving , departing or in transit . Self check in facilities are available in this airport since 2007 , and KLM was the first airline to use the Common - use self - service kiosks . Towards baggage claim area for international arrival at Main Terminal . The contact pier is an extension of the main terminal building with gates marked with prefix A and B for domestic departures , G and H for international flights . The gate allocation is based on operational requirements , although it has been observed that Malaysia Airlines has been operating most of its operations out from the contact pier . Satellite terminal a ( edit ) Interior of the Satellite Terminal The 176,000 square metres ( 1,890,000 sq ft ) satellite building accommodates international flights departing and arriving at KLIA . Passengers have to travel to the satellite building via the Aerotrain . There is a wide array of duty - free shops and prestige brand boutiques in the satellite building . This includes international brands such as Burberry , Harrods , Montblanc , Salvatore Ferragamo . Among all international labels available within the terminal , some boutiques such as Harrods are only available in the airport . A number of restaurants and international airlines ' lounges are available as well as an Airside Transit Hotel . Within the terminal , wireless internet ( Wi - Fi ) is provided free of charge . The terminal also has prayer rooms , showers and massage service . Various lounge areas are provided , some including children 's play areas and movie lounge , broadcasting movie and sport channels . The terminal also features a natural rainforest in the middle of the terminal , exhibiting the Malaysian rainforests . Palm trees in the satellite building Satellite building near the Aerotrain Under Malaysia Airports Berhad retail optimisation plan , the retail space in satellite terminal A will be further optimised to increase its revenue derived from commercial space rental and a percentage of sale receipts to 50 % by year 2010 which currently stands at 35 % . Some notable improvements that will be seen after the refurbishments will be the Jungle Boardwalk which will be the first of its kind in the world and larger mezzanine floor to accommodate F&B outlets and viewing galleries . The gates in Satellite Terminal A have the prefix C. The Satellite A terminal has 27 boarding gates altogether . Klia2 ( terminal 2 ) ( edit ) The terminal logo The bird - eye view of KLIA Main Terminal Building ( bottom ) and KLIA2 ( Top ) The KLIA2 departure hall on 1 September 2016 Built at approximately RM4 billion , it is the largest purpose built terminal optimised for low cost carriers in response to the exponential growth of low cost travel in the region . It was built to replace the previous Low Cost Carrier Terminal ( LCCT ) . klia2 started its operations on 2 May 2014 and all flight operations at LCCT were moved to klia2 by 9 May 2014 . As part of its development , a third runway ( Runway 15 / 33 ) and a new air traffic control tower ( Tower West ) were built to support its operation . klia2 has an initial capacity of 45 million passengers per year . The terminal has a built - up area of 257,845 sqm with 68 departure gates , 10 remote stands , 80 aerobridges , includes a retail space of 35,000 sqm to accommodate a total of 220 retail outlets . The main terminal building of klia2 is connected with its satellite piers with a skybridge , making it the first airport in Asia with such facility . klia2 is certified with Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design ( LEED ) . Check - in counters are divided into 8 rows located in 4 islands , each row identified by the letters S -- Z . Boarding gates are located in 5 piers , indicated by the letters J and K for domestic flights , and L , P and Q for international flights . Piers J , K and L are connected directly to the main terminal building , while Piers P and Q are accessible via the skybridge . Piers K and L are physically the same pier and share the same gates , but with waiting lounges on different levels ( Level 1A for K and Level 2 for L ) . For international flights , the access door from Pier K is sealed off , while for domestic flights , the access door from Pier L is sealed off instead . At present , inter-terminal connection is provided on the landside at Gateway@klia2 complex and there are provisions for future airside inter-terminal connection . Gateway@klia2 ( edit ) Gateway@klia2 is an integrated shopping complex that is connected to the main klia2 terminal building . It has a 350,000 square feet of net lettable space spanning over four levels . The transport hub at Gateway@klia2 links klia2 to the KLIA Ekspres and KLIA Transit service , with allotted pick - up and drop - off areas for coaches , taxis , rented vehicles and private transportation . Gateway@klia2 hosts an 8 - storey car park that directly adjoins klia2 . There are 6,000 covered parking lots at Blocks A and B and another 5,500 lots at car park D. Shuttle buses are available to take the public from the car park D to the terminal . The first capsule transit hotel in Asia named as the Capsule by Container Hotel is also located at Gateway@klia2 . Gateway@klia2 is managed by WCT Holdings Berhad . KL city Air terminal ( edit ) KL City Air Terminal , sometimes known as Kuala Lumpur City Air Terminal or KL CAT located at KL Sentral is a virtual extension of KL International Airport where city check - in services are provided . KL City Air Terminal is recognised by International Air Transport Association which carries IATA designation XKL . Currently there are only 3 airlines providing city check - in services , they are Cathay Pacific , Malaysia Airlines and Malindo Air . However , the situation is due to be changed as 10 SITA 's AirportConnect CUTE ( Common Use Terminal Equipment ) were installed on 10 check - in desks in KL CAT that enables all airlines to offer city check - in service for their passengers . Former low cost carrier terminal ( LCCT ) ( edit ) The now defunct 36,000 square metres ( 390,000 sq ft ) low cost carrier terminal ( LCCT ) was opened at Kuala Lumpur International Airport on 23 March 2006 to cater for the growing number of users of low cost airlines , especially the passengers of Malaysia 's `` no - frills '' airline , AirAsia . The terminal was designed and built in accordance to the low cost carrier business model , with limited terminal amenities . As requested by the low cost airline , the terminal does not provide aerobridges , nor are there transfer facilities , rail connections , and other facilities provided in a full - fledged terminal . LCCT is located within the Air Support Zone , and has since ceased operations on 9 May 2014 and all low - cost carrier flights are now operating out of klia2 . Airlines and destinations ( edit ) Passenger ( edit ) Airlines Destinations Air Astana Almaty Air China Beijing -- Capital Air Mauritius Mauritius AirAsia Alor Setar , Banda Aceh , Bandar Seri Begawan , Bandung , Bangalore , Bangkok -- Don Mueang , Bhubaneswar , Bintulu , Changsha , Chennai , Chiang Mai , Colombo , Da Nang , Davao , Denpasar / Bali , Dhaka , Guangzhou , Guilin , Hanoi , Hat Yai , Ho Chi Minh City , Hong Kong , Hua Hin , Hyderabad , Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Johor Bahru , Kochi , Kolkata , Kota Bharu , Kota Kinabalu , Krabi , Kuala Terengganu , Kuching , Kunming , Labuan , Langkawi , Lombok , Luang Prabang , Macau , Makassar , Malé , Manila , Medan , Miri , Nanning , Nha Trang , Padang , Palembang , Pattaya -- U-Tapao , Pekanbaru , Penang , Phnom Penh , Phuket , Pontianak , Sandakan , Semarang , Shantou , Shenzhen , Sibu , Siem Reap , Sihanoukville , Singapore , Surabaya , Tawau , Tiruchirapalli , Vientiane , Visakhapatnam , Yangon , Yogyakarta AirAsia X Auckland , Amritsar ( begins 16 August 2018 ) , Beijing -- Capital , Busan , Chengdu , Chongqing , Delhi , Denpasar / Bali , Gold Coast , Hangzhou , Honolulu , Jaipur , Jeju , Kathmandu , Kaohsiung , Malé , Melbourne , Osaka -- Kansai , Perth , Sapporo -- Chitose , Seoul -- Incheon , Shanghai -- Pudong , Sydney , Taipei -- Taoyuan , Tokyo -- Haneda , Wuhan , Xi'an , Zhengzhou Seasonal : Jeddah , Medina All Nippon Airways Tokyo -- Haneda , Tokyo -- Narita Bangkok Airways Koh Samui Batik Air Chennai , Denpasar / Bali , Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Medan Biman Bangladesh Airlines Dhaka British Airways London -- Heathrow Cathay Dragon Hong Kong Cebu Pacific Manila China Airlines Taipei -- Taoyuan China Eastern Airlines Nanjing , Quanzhou China Eastern Airlines operated by Shanghai Airlines Shanghai -- Pudong China Southern Airlines Changsha , Guangzhou Condor Seasonal : Frankfurt ( begins 1 November 2018 ) Emirates Dubai -- International Ethiopian Airlines Addis Ababa , Singapore Etihad Airways Abu Dhabi EVA Air Taipei -- Taoyuan Flynas Seasonal : Jeddah Garuda Indonesia Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta Himalaya Airlines Kathmandu Indonesia AirAsia Bandung , Denpasar / Bali , Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Medan , Yogyakarta Indonesia AirAsia X Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Surabaya Iraqi Airways Baghdad Japan Airlines Tokyo -- Narita Jetstar Asia Airways Singapore KLM Amsterdam , Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta Korean Air Seoul -- Incheon Lion Air Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Surabaya Lucky Air Kunming , Lijiang Mahan Air Tehran -- Imam Khomeini Malaysia Airlines Adelaide , Alor Setar , Auckland , Bangalore , Bangkok -- Suvarnabhumi , Bandar Seri Begawan , Beijing -- Capital , Bintulu , Brisbane ( resumes 6 June 2018 ) , Chennai , Chongqing , Colombo , Delhi , Denpasar / Bali , Dhaka , Fuzhou , Guangzhou , Haikou , Hanoi , Ho Chi Minh City , Hangzhou , Hong Kong , Hyderabad , Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Jeddah , Johor Bahru , Kathmandu , Kota Bharu , Kota Kinabalu , Kuala Terengganu , Kuantan , Kuching , Labuan , Langkawi , London -- Heathrow , Manila , Medan , Melbourne , Miri , Mumbai , Nanjing , Osaka -- Kansai , Penang , Perth , Phnom Penh , Phuket , Sandakan , Seoul -- Incheon , Shanghai -- Pudong , Sibu , Siem Reap , Singapore , Surabaya , Sydney , Taipei -- Taoyuan , Tawau , Tokyo -- Narita , Wuhan , Xiamen , Yangon , Yogyakarta ( resumes 3 June 2018 ) , Seasonal : Medina Malindo Air Amritsar , Bangkok -- Don Mueang , Bandung , Bangalore , Brisbane , Colombo , Delhi , Denpasar / Bali , Dhaka , Guangzhou , Guiyang , Haikou , Hanoi , Ho Chi Minh City , Hong Kong , Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Kathmandu , Kochi , Kota Bharu , Kota Kinabalu , Kuching , Lahore , Langkawi , Medan , Melbourne ( begins 7 June 2018 ) , Mumbai , Penang , Perth , Phnom Penh , Phuket , Sanya , Singapore , Taipei -- Taoyuan , Thiruvananthapuram , Tiruchirapalli , Wuhan , Yangon Seasonal : Christmas Island , Labuan ( begins 8 June 2018 ) Nepal Airlines Kathmandu Oman Air Muscat Pakistan International Airlines Islamabad , Karachi , Lahore , Peshawar Philippine Airlines Manila Philippines AirAsia Cebu , Manila Qatar Airways Doha Regent Airways Dhaka Royal Brunei Airlines Bandar Seri Begawan Royal Jordanian Amman -- Queen Alia , Bangkok -- Suvarnabhumi Saudia Jeddah , Riyadh , Medina Scoot Singapore Shenzhen Airlines Shenzhen SilkAir Singapore Singapore Airlines Singapore SriLankan Airlines Colombo Thai AirAsia Bangkok -- Don Mueang , Hat Yai Thai Airways Bangkok -- Suvarnabhumi Thai Smile Bangkok -- Suvarnabhumi Turkish Airlines Istanbul -- Atatürk US - Bangla Airlines Dhaka Uzbekistan Airways Singapore , Tashkent VietJet Air Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam Airlines Hanoi , Ho Chi Minh City XiamenAir Dalian , Fuzhou , Xiamen Notes ^ 1 : Air Mauritius ' flights to and from Mauritius makes a stop over in Singapore . However , Air Mauritius does not have traffic rights to transport passengers solely between Kuala Lumpur and Singapore . Cargo ( edit ) Airlines Destinations Cargolux Baku , Chennai , Luxembourg , Singapore , Zhengzhou China Airlines Cargo Chennai , Luxembourg , Penang , Taipei -- Taoyuan FedEx Express Cebu , Guangzhou , Penang , Singapore , Tokyo -- Narita Gading Sari Kota Kinabalu , Kuching , Miri Korean Air Cargo Penang , Seoul -- Incheon MASkargo Amsterdam , Baku , Bangalore , Chennai , Chongqing , Dhaka , Dubai , Frankfurt , Guangzhou , Hanoi , Hong Kong , Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Kota Kinabalu , Kuching , Labuan , Macau , Manila , Mumbai , Penang , Shanghai -- Pudong , Sydney , Taipei -- Taoyuan , Tokyo -- Narita , Zhengzhou Hong Kong Airlines Hong Kong Republic Express Airlines Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta Silk Way Airlines Amsterdam , Baku , Frankfurt , Singapore Uni-Top Airlines Shenzhen UPS Airlines Dallas / Fort Worth , Mumbai , Osaka -- Kansai , Penang , Seoul -- Incheon , Shenzhen Statistics ( edit ) Busiest international routes ( 2017 ) Rank Airport Passengers % change 2016 / 17 Singapore , Singapore 4,084,555 6.4 Jakarta -- Soekarno -- Hatta , Indonesia 2,530,573 18.5 Hong Kong , China 1,585,486 2.9 Bangkok -- Don Mueang , Thailand 1,504,436 12.3 5 Denpasar , Indonesia 1,452,097 32.2 6 Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam 1,229,434 13.8 7 Taipei -- Taoyuan , Taiwan 1,139,501 24.3 8 Bangkok -- Suvarnabhumi , Thailand 1,105,556 19.5 9 Dubai , United Arab Emirates 848,211 5.0 10 Seoul -- Incheon , South Korea 839,924 7.5 11 Dhaka , Bangladesh 835,730 12.9 12 Medan , Indonesia 832,672 22.6 13 Melbourne , Australia 812,041 0.2 14 Phuket , Thailand 791,472 14.7 15 Manila , Philippines 773,612 21.9 16 Guangzhou , China 745,712 13.5 17 Sydney , Australia 737,152 13.5 18 London -- Heathrow , United Kingdom 692,169 11.1 19 Shanghai -- Pudong , China 687,923 27.9 20 Beijing -- Capital , China 678,093 32.9 21 Surabaya , Indonesia 670,045 8.0 22 Perth , Australia 664,532 8.7 23 Colombo , Sri Lanka 634,847 18.8 24 Tiruchirappalli , India 631,897 25.9 25 Jeddah , Saudi Arabia 578,335 1.9 26 Doha , Qatar 557,377 14.0 27 Tokyo -- Narita , Japan 525,547 1.0 28 Delhi , India 482,642 11.3 29 Chennai , India 473,617 4.1 30 Kathmandu , Nepal 473,582 16.0 31 Osaka -- Kansai , Japan 468,952 22.6 32 Hanoi , Vietnam 453,093 31.2 33 Phnom Penh , Cambodia 423,828 21.2 34 Shenzhen , China 413,704 44.9 35 Bandar Seri Begawan , Brunei 398,602 11.2 36 Bandung , Indonesia 386,693 17.2 37 Tokyo -- Haneda , Japan 361,752 49.0 38 Yangon , Myanmar 341,774 1.7 39 Kochi , India 338,091 17.4 40 Mumbai , India 332,864 15.6 41 Medina , Saudi Arabia 327,322 84.6 42 Krabi , Thailand 308,820 6.1 43 Yogyakarta , Indonesia 298,584 33.2 44 Abu Dhabi , United Arab Emirates 284,290 1.8 45 Auckland , New Zealand 268,534 13.4 46 Lombok , Indonesia 259,634 18.8 47 Amsterdam , Netherlands 243,763 4.4 48 Chiang Mai , Thailand 241,943 6.6 49 Bangalore , India 233,031 5.4 50 Gold Coast , Australia 231,998 19.7 Busiest domestic routes ( 2016 ) Rank Airport Passengers % change 2015 / 16 Kota Kinabalu , Sabah 2,579,025 7.2 Kuching , Sarawak 2,303,876 6.9 Penang , Penang 2,094,514 11.1 Langkawi , Kedah 1,874,601 10.9 5 Kota Bharu , Kelantan 1,270,146 7.9 6 Miri , Sarawak 824,402 8.2 7 Johor Bahru , Johor 788,869 22.0 8 Sibu , Sarawak 690,290 6.0 9 Tawau , Sabah 607,240 8.9 10 Kuala Terengganu , Terengganu 603,261 7.6 Operational statistics of Kuala Lumpur International Airport Year Passengers handled Passenger % change Airfreight movements ( tonnes ) Airfreight % change Aircraft movements Aircraft % change 1998 6,524,405 156,641 64,123 1999 13,172,635 101.9 417,068 166.3 116,589 81.8 2000 14,732,876 11.8 510,594 22.4 109,925 5.7 14,538,831 1.3 440,864 13.6 113,590 3.3 2002 16,398,230 12.8 527,124 19.6 127,952 12.6 2003 17,454,564 6.4 586,195 11.2 139,947 9.4 21,058,572 20.6 651,747 11.2 165,115 18.0 2005 23,213,926 10.2 653,654 0.3 182,537 10.5 2006 24,129,748 4.0 672,888 3.0 183,869 0.7 2007 26,453,379 9.6 644,100 4.3 193,710 5.3 2008 27,529,355 4.1 649,077 0.8 211,228 9.0 2009 29,682,093 7.8 584,559 10.0 226,751 7.3 34,087,636 14.8 674,902 15.4 245,650 8.3 2011 37,704,510 10.6 669,849 0.7 269,509 9.7 2012 39,887,866 5.8 673,107 0.5 283,352 5.1 2013 47,498,157 19.1 680,982 1.2 326,678 15.3 2014 48,930,409 3.0 753,899 10.7 340,821 4.3 2015 48,938,424 0.0 726,230 3.7 354,519 4.0 2016 52,643,511 7.6 642,558 11.5 356,614 0.6 2017 58,554,627 11.2 710,186 10.5 387,234 8.6 Total passenger movements by countries ( 2017 ) Rank Country Passengers movement % change 2016 / 17 Indonesia 7,338,018 19.8 China 4,338,846 29.6 Thailand 4,269,836 13.1 Singapore 4,084,555 6.4 5 India 3,017,251 14.3 6 Australia 2,566,818 7.6 7 Vietnam 1,824,891 22.5 8 Hong Kong 1,585,486 2.9 9 Japan 1,488,667 16.8 10 Taiwan 1,226,199 27.4 Largest airlines by passengers ( 2017 ) Rank Airlines Passengers carried % market share AirAsia 21,120,803 36.1 Malaysia Airlines 13,629,779 23.3 AirAsia X 5,455,965 9.3 Malindo Air 4,747,101 8.1 5 Indonesia AirAsia 1,129,200 1.9 6 Emirates 848,328 1.4 7 Indonesia AirAsia X 702,918 1.2 8 Thai AirAsia 607,380 1.0 9 Qatar Airways 557,415 0.9 10 Cathay Dragon 552,109 0.9 Busiest international freight routes ( 2017 ) Rank Airport Freight ( tonnes ) % change 2016 / 17 Hong Kong , China 56,781 4.3 Shanghai -- Pudong , China 36,367 32.4 Seoul -- Incheon , South Korea 31,550 15.3 Taipei -- Taoyuan , Taiwan 31,151 45.2 5 Singapore , Singapore 30,513 6.9 6 Tokyo -- Narita , Japan 26,187 6.6 7 Doha , Qatar 25,685 5.3 8 Melbourne , Australia 22,951 19.9 9 Sydney , Australia 21,801 13.2 10 Shenzhen , China 20,025 35.2 Ground transportation ( edit ) Inter-terminal transportation ( edit ) Aerotrain station in Satellite Building The Aerotrain is an automated people mover ( APM ) that connects the airside of KLIA Main Terminal Building ( MTB ) and the Satellite Building . Each 250 - person capacity train can transport 3,000 passengers per hour in each direction at up to 56 km / h ( 35 mph ) . These three - car driverless trains run on elevated rail and under the taxiways . The journey takes under two minutes . The Aerotrain operates between three and five - minute intervals between terminal . Automatic train controls manage the operation of the entire Aerotrain system , controlling the speeds , headways , stops and door openings in stations , and integrating functions that enhance the reliability and performance of the system . KLIA Transit and KLIA Ekspres provides landside connections between klia2 and KLIA Main Terminal Building ( MTB ) , and vice versa . This inter-terminal journey takes 3 - minutes to connect both terminals before proceeding onwards to KL Sentral . External connections ( edit ) Rail ( edit ) Main articles : Express Rail Link , KLIA Ekspres , KLIA Transit , Kuala Lumpur International Airport ERL station , and klia2 ERL station Kuala Lumpur International Airport is linked to the KL Sentral transportation hub in the city centre by the 57 km long Express Rail Link ( ERL ) . There are two ERL stations at the airport : KLIA station at the Main Terminal Building and klia2 station at Gateway@klia2 . The airport is served by two rail services on the ERL : KLIA Ekspres : The dedicated airport rail link which runs non-stop between KL Sentral and KLIA . The journey takes 28 minutes to / from KLIA , and 33 minutes to / from klia2 with a two - minute stop at KLIA . The KLIA Ekspres terminal at KL Sentral is known as the KL City Air Terminal ( KL CAT ) , which has an IATA designation XKL . KL CAT offers in - town flight check - in service up to two hours before flight departure time for passengers travelling on Cathay Pacific , Emirates , Etihad Airways , Malaysia Airlines , Malindo Air and Royal Brunei Airlines . KLIA Transit : A commuter rail service which stops at three additional stops ( Bandar Tasik Selatan , Putrajaya / Cyberjaya and Salak Tinggi ) between KL Sentral and KLIA . The journey takes 35 minutes to / from KLIA and 39 minutes to / from klia2 . Check - in facilities are only through automated kiosks at KLIA Transit stations . Taxis and limousine ( edit ) Airport taxis or airport limousines are provided by Airport Limo . The taxis and limousines are readily available at the Taxi and Limousine counters . They run from airport itself to destinations in Klang Valley and Greater Klang Valley . The fares are to be paid at the counter and are charged according to the destinations ' zone . A surcharge is applied for services between 12 am to 5 am Bus ( edit ) Both public and private buses connect KLIA and klia2 to several points in Kuala Lumpur and beyond . Expansion and developments ( edit ) Plans ( edit ) KLIA Aeropolis Masterplan With the slight modification of the masterplan , the future Terminal 2 's satellite terminal will be combined into one satellite terminal . The expansion of Terminal 2 's satellite terminal will be exactly the same as Terminal 1 's ( the current Main Terminal ) satellite terminal , where initially the satellite terminal will have four arms , and another four arms when the terminal reached its capacity . There is sufficient land and capacity to develop facilities to handle up to 97.5 million passengers a year , four runways by the year 2020 and two mega-terminals , each linked with satellite terminals . ( show ) Summary of Kuala Lumpur International Airport Masterplan Phase Year Description Phase 1 1998 Initial Capacity of 25 million Passenger Per Annum 2006 Capable of Handling 35 million Passengers per annum with the construction of Low Cost Carrier Terminal Phase 2 2008 Expansion of Low Cost Carrier Terminal to accommodate 40 Million Passengers per annum . Phase 3 2011 New Low Cost Carrier Terminal will be constructed to accommodate additional 30 million ( 55 million ) passengers Per Annum , Current Low Cost Carrier Terminal converted to cargo usage . Not fixed Satellite Terminal B will be constructed to handle maximum of 75 million passengers . ( One terminal accompanied by 2 satellite terminal and one low cost carrier terminal ) Phase 4 Not fixed Terminal 2 and Satellite Terminal C will be constructed so that the airport is capable to handle 97.5 million passengers . A380 upgrades ( edit ) The operator of Kuala Lumpur International Airport , Malaysia Airports Holding Berhad , had spent about RM135 million ( approx ) to upgrade facilities at the KL International Airport ( KLIA ) in Sepang to accommodate the Airbus A380 . Upgrading works started on 3 April 2006 , and was completed by 28 May 2007 . Works include the provision of shoulders on both sides of the two existing runways of 15 meters as well as the taxiways , building additional aerobridges at the three departure halls , namely C17 , C27 and C37 , and enhancing the mezzanine lounges for upper deck passengers of the aircraft at the departure halls . Emirates operates flights to Kuala Lumpur with the Airbus A380 commenced on 1 January 2012 . Malaysia Airlines also started its A380 services from Kuala Lumpur to London on 1 July 2012 . Panoramic view of Main Terminal Building and Contact Pier References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` MAHB Annual Report 2017 '' ( PDF ) . malaysiaairports. 9 April 2018 . Retrieved 10 April 2018 . Jump up ^ WMKK -- KL INTERNATIONAL / SEPANG at Department of Civil Aviation Malaysia Jump up ^ `` KISHO KUROKAWA '' . Jump up ^ `` History of KLIA '' . 1998 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Phases of KLIA '' . 1998 . Archived from the original on 26 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` First Flights of Kuala Lumpur International Airport '' . Department of Civil Aviation KLIA Branch. 1998 . Archived from the original on 9 October 2007 . Jump up ^ `` KLIA 's opening marked with problems '' . Lim Kit Siang Media Release . July 1998 . Jump up ^ `` Passengers at Kuala Lumpur Airport up despite fewer airlines '' . Asian Economic News . 6 August 2001 . Archived from the original on 16 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Airport Traffic Report '' ( PDF ) . 1998 . Jump up ^ `` North Korean leader 's brother Kim Jong - nam ' killed ' in Malaysia ' '' . BBC News . 14 February 2017 . Retrieved 14 February 2017 . Jump up ^ For KLIA2 , arrivals for can only use 32L while departures can only use 14R Jump up ^ `` ADS - B at Kuala Lumpur To Boost Landings , FIR Restructuring '' . Aviation International News . Retrieved 15 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` eAIP MALAYSIA '' . aip.dca.gov.my . Retrieved 15 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Check - In News , Analysis and Event . `` Kuala Lumpur 's StB vision '' . Retrieved 31 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Malaysia Airlines Recovery Plan Quarterly Update ( 1 Sept - 30 Nov 15 ) . '' Malaysia Airlines . Retrieved on 5 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Chan Tien Hin . `` AirAsia Has Record Drop on Loss , Analyst Downgrade . '' Bloomberg L.P.. 1 December 2008 . Retrieved 27 September 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Location Map Archived 1 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine ... '' MASkargo . Retrieved 22 February 2010 . `` Malaysia Airlines Cargo Sdn . Bhd . 1M , Zone C , Advanced Cargo Centre KLIA Free Commercial Zone , Southern Support Zone Kuala Lumpur International Airport 64000 Sepang Selangor , Malaysia '' Jump up ^ `` Contact Information . '' Malaysia Airports . Retrieved 23 May 2011 . `` Malaysia Airports Holdings Berhad Malaysia Airports Corporate Office , Persiaran Korporat KLIA , 64000 KLIA , Sepang , Selangor . '' Jump up ^ `` Contact . '' Malaysia Airlines . Retrieved 31 October 2012 . `` MAS Golden Boutiques Sdn . Bhd . 1st Floor , MAS Flight Management Building 64000 Sepang , Kuala Lumpur International Airport Selangor , Malaysia '' Jump up ^ `` KLIA Introduces Integrated Self Check in Kiosks for Benefits of Passengers '' . Air Transport News . Archived from the original on 11 February 2012 . Jump up ^ `` KLIA partners with SITA to be the first fully integrated Airport in Asia '' . Retrieved 21 September 2005 . Jump up ^ `` KLIA increase WiFi range '' . CAPA . Retrieved 19 February 2008 . Jump up ^ `` At KLIA : Old Malaya Kopitiam 's signature Nyonya Laksa '' . www.tenthousandstrangers.com . Retrieved 15 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 9 firms shortlisted for KLIA retail expansion project '' . NST . Retrieved 16 February 2008 . Jump up ^ `` klia2 receives ICAO nod , first landing '' . Archived from the original on 25 April 2014 . Retrieved 25 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` klia2 overview '' . Archived from the original on 2 May 2014 . Retrieved 1 May 2014 . Jump up ^ `` About klia2 '' . Retrieved 24 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` klia2 opens to public '' . Retrieved 27 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` About gateway@klia2 '' . Retrieved 1 May 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Public invited to tour and experience klia2 before May 2 opening '' . Retrieved 27 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` klia2 Coming Soon '' . Archived from the original on 26 April 2014 . Retrieved 25 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Flight Check - In at KL Sentral '' . KLIA Ekspres . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ All Airlines can now offer city check - in in KL Sentral Archived 3 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Ayisy , Yusof ( 21 July 2017 ) . `` AirAsia introduces KL to Davao route from Dec 21 ; fares start from RM99 '' . New Straits Times . Retrieved 21 July 2017 . Jump up ^ https://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/277458/airasia-x-adds-kaohsiung-service-from-late-april-2018/ Jump up ^ `` AirAsia to increase services to Maldives with additional frequencies and exceptional promo from only RM199 - one - way AirAsia '' . www.airasia.com . Retrieved 8 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` China Eastern schedules additional SE Asia routes in W17 '' . routesonline . Retrieved 10 October 2017 . Jump up ^ https://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/278810/condor-revises-kuala-lumpur-operation-in-w18/ Jump up ^ `` Lucky Air adds Lijiang -- Kuala Lumpur route from Dec 2017 '' . Routesonline . Retrieved 13 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Malaysia Airlines resumes Brisbane service from June 2018 '' . Routesonline . Retrieved 14 January 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Malaysia Airlines S18 service changes as of 08DEC17 '' . Routesonline . Retrieved 13 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Malindo Air files Melbourne June 2018 launch Jump up ^ https://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/278401/malindo-air-schedules-kuala-lumpur-labuan-charter-from-june-2018/ Jump up ^ Flightradar24 . `` LX - VCL - Boeing 747 - 8R7 ( F ) - Cargolux '' . Flightradar24 . Retrieved 19 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` MasKargo adds new China service in Nov 2016 '' . routesonline . Retrieved 18 November 2016 . Jump up ^ http://menziesaviation.com/news/menzies-macau-welcomes-maskargo-as-a-new-cargo-customer/ Jump up ^ `` Network '' . maskargo.com . Jump up ^ `` MAB Kargo partners Azerbaijan carrier to expand cargo network '' . Jump up ^ Flightradar24 . `` VQ - BWY - Boeing 747 - 83Q ( F ) - Silk Way West Airlines - Flightradar24 '' . Jump up ^ Flightradar24 . `` N447UP - Boeing 757 - 24APF - UPS Airlines - Flightradar24 '' . Jump up ^ `` Transport Statistics Malaysia 2016 : Table 4.12 Traffic Movements Between Malaysian Airports ( Including Singapore ) , 2016 '' ( PDF ) . Ministry of Transport Malaysia . Retrieved 24 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kuala Lumpur International '' . Kiat.net . Archived from the original on 3 May 2012 . Retrieved 19 April 2012 . Jump up ^ . kliaekspres.com https://www.kliaekspres.com/klia2/ . Retrieved 8 January 2015 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` MAHB upgrade KLIA to take in A380 '' . NST . Retrieved 16 August 2006 . Jump up ^ `` First Malaysia Airlines ' A380 Revealed in Full Special Livery -- Very encouraging demand for seats on Malaysia Airlines A380 flights '' . Malaysia Airlines . Retrieved 17 November 2012 . External links ( edit ) Malaysia portal Aviation portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kuala Lumpur International Airport . Kuala Lumpur International Airport travel guide from Wikivoyage Official website klia2 official website KLIA Info Website Gateway@klia2 website KLIA Main Terminal and klia2 real time flight schedule Kuala Lumpur International Airport ( KLIA ) Terminals Terminal 1 Satellite terminal A KL City Air Terminal klia2 Transport Aerotrain Express Rail Link KLIA Ekspres KLIA Transit Bus Authorities and operators Malaysia Airports Ministry of Home Affairs Department of Civil Aviation Tourist Police Transport in Malaysia Tourism in Malaysia Airports in Malaysia West Malaysia Alor Setar Ipoh Johor Bahru Kerteh Kota Bharu Kuala Terengganu Kuala Lumpur -- International Kuala Lumpur -- Subang Kuantan Langkawi Melaka Penang East Malaysia Ba'kelalan Bario Bintulu Kota Kinabalu Kuching Kudat Labuan Lahad Datu Lawas Limbang Long Akah Long Banga Long Lellang Long Seridan Marudi Miri Mukah Mulu Sandakan Sibu Tanjung Manis Tawau This lists airports in Malaysia with scheduled passenger services . Airports with scheduled international services are bolded . MSC Malaysia Headquarters Cyberjaya Area coverage Klang Valley Landmarks Petronas Towers Kuala Lumpur Tower Kuala Lumpur Sentral Technology Park Malaysia Putrajaya Cyberjaya Kuala Lumpur International Airport SUNTECH Tower i - City Infrastructures Express Rail Link Maju Expressway ( MEX ) KL - KLIA Dedicated Expressway Total Airport Management Systems Applications e-Government MyKad Companies Asia Media Astro Holdings Sdn Bhd Astro MYTV Broadcasting State of Selangor Capital : Shah Alam Topics Index History Menteris Besar Constitution Elections Geography Monarchy Monarchs Judiciary Law Legislative Executive Council Music Symbols Flag and coat of arms Tourist attractions Society Culture Crime Cuisine Demographics Economy Education Politics Transport Administrative divisions Districts Gombak District Hulu Langat District Hulu Selangor District Klang District Kuala Langat District Kuala Selangor District Petaling District Sabak Bernam District Sepang District Cities Petaling Jaya Shah Alam Towns Ampang Assam Jawa Bagan Lalang Balakong Bandar Baru Bangi Bandar Baru Selayang Bandar Sunway Bangi Banting Batang Kali Batu Arang Batu Caves Beranang Bestari Jaya ( Batang Berjuntai ) Broga Bukit Lanjan Bukit Raja Bukit Rotan Bukit Tagar Cheras Cyberjaya Damansara Dengkil Ijok Jenjarom Jeram Jugra Kajang Kalumpang Kapar Kelana Jaya Kerling Klang Kuala Kubu Bharu Kuala Selangor Kuala Sungai Buloh Kuang Kundang Lagong Meru Morib Padang Jawa Pandamaran Paya Jaras Port Klang Puchong Rasa Rawang Sabak Salak Tinggi Sekinchan Selayang Semenyih Sepang Serendah Seri Kembangan Sijangkang Subang Subang Jaya Sungai Ayer Tawar Sungai Besar Sungai Buaya Sungai Buloh Sungai Burong Sungai Choh Sungai Panjang Sungai Pelek Sungai Pelong Sungai Tengi Tanjung Harapan Tanjung Karang Tanjung Sepat Teluk Datok Teluk Gong Teluk Panglima Garang Ulu Klang Ulu Yam Townships Alam Budiman Alam Impian Anggun Rawang Ara Damansara Bandar Baru Klang Bandar Botanic Bandar Bukit Tinggi Bandar Country Homes Bandar Damai Perdana Cheras Bandar Kinrara Bandar Mahkota Cheras Bandar Puteri Puchong Bandar Putra Permai Bandar Saujana Putra Bandar Saujana Utama Bandar Seri Putra Bandar Sri Damansara Bandar Sultan Suleiman Bandar Sungai Buaya Bandar Sungai Long Bandar Tasik Puteri Bandar Tun Hussein Onn Bandar Utama Batu Tiga Bernam Jaya Bukit Antarabangsa Bukit Beruntung Bukit Jelutong Bukit Rahman Putra Bukit Rimau Bukit Subang Country Heights Damansara Jaya Damansara Perdana Damansara Utama Denai Alam Eco Majestic Elmina Emerald Rawang Glenmarie Cove i - City Jade Hills KLIA Charter Field Town ( KLIA Town Centre ) Kota Damansara Kota Kemuning Kota Puteri Lembah Beringin Lembah Jaya Mutiara Damansara Palm Grove Pandan Indah Pandan Jaya Puchong Gateway Puchong Jaya Puncak Alam Puncak Jalil Puncak Perdana Pusat Bandar Puchong Putra Heights Saujana Impian Setia Alam Southern Park Southville City Taman Berkeley Taman Cuepacs Taman Eng Ann Taman Goodwood Taman Greenwood Taman Hillview Taman Keramat Taman Klang Utama Taman Melawati Taman Putra Perdana Taman Rashna Taman Sri Andalas Taman Sri Muda Taman Teluk Pulai Taman Tun Teja TTDI Jaya UEP Subang Jaya ( USJ ) Valencia Villages Bagan Nakhoda Omar Dusun Tua FELDA Gedangsa FELDA Soeharto Kampung Bukit Lanchong Kampung Desa Serdang Kampung Kuantan Kampung Lombong Kampung Sungai Haji Dorani Kampung Sungai Kayu Ara Kampung Sungai Pusu Kuala Kubu Bharu ( Ampang Pechah ) Kundang Pulau Meranti Tanjung Dua Belas Islands Carey Island Pulau Indah Pulau Ketam Klang Island Pulau Jemor Pulau Angsa Special Zones MSC Malaysia Klang Valley Commons Wikisource GND : 4588568 - 0 VIAF : 159770623 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuala_Lumpur_International_Airport&oldid=843329689 '' Categories : Kuala Lumpur International Airport People from Selangor Sepang District Airports in Selangor Airports established in 1998 1998 establishments in Malaysia MSC Malaysia Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs EngvarB from May 2014 Use dmy dates from April 2018 Articles containing Latin - language text Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2013 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikinews Wikivoyage Acèh Afrikaans বাংলা Bahasa Banjar Беларуская Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Basa Jawa Lietuvių മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 36 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 May 2018 , at 12 : 26 . 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what is the name of kuala lumpur international airport
[ "Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) (Malay: Lapangan Terbang Antarabangsa Kuala Lumpur) (IATA: KUL, ICAO: WMKK) is Malaysia's main international airport and one of the major airports in South East Asia. It is located in Sepang district of Selangor, approximately 45 kilometres (28 mi) south of Kuala Lumpur city centre and serves the Greater Klang Valley conurbation." ]
[ "Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA)" ]
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List of countries by unemployment rate
List of countries by Unemployment rate - wikipedia List of countries by Unemployment rate Jump to : navigation , search Unemployment rate per country in 2013 This is a list of countries by unemployment rate . Methods of calculation and presentation of unemployment rate vary from country to country . Some countries count insured unemployed only , some count those in receipt of welfare benefit only , some count the disabled and other permanently unemployable people , some countries count those who choose ( and are financially able ) not to work , supported by their spouses and caring for a family , some count students at college and so on . There may also be differences in the minimum requirements and some consider people employed even if only marginally associated with employment market ( for example , working only one hour per week ) . There can be differences in the age limit . For example , Eurostat uses 15 to 74 years old when calculating unemployment rate , and the Bureau of Labor Statistics uses anyone 16 years of age or older ( in both cases , people who are under education , retired , on maternity / paternity leave , prevented from working due to health , or do not work but have been inactive in seeking employment in the last four weeks are excluded from the workforce , and therefore not counted as unemployed ) . Unemployment rates are often seasonally adjusted to avoid variations that depend on time of year . Employment rate as a percentage of total population in working age is sometimes used instead of unemployment rate . For purposes of comparison , harmonized values are published by International Labour Organization ( ILO ) and by OECD . The ILO harmonized unemployment rate refers to those who are currently not working but are willing and able to work for pay , currently available to work , and have actively searched for work . The OECD harmonized unemployment rate gives the number of unemployed persons as a percentage of the labour force . Name of Countries Unemployment rate ( % ) Source / date of information Afghanistan 35.0 2008 Albania 14.2 2016 ( Q3 ) Algeria 11.2 2015 ( September ) American Samoa ( United States ) 46.9 2011 ( April ) Andorra 2.9 2013 Anguilla ( United Kingdom ) 7.8 2013 ( July ) Antigua and Barbuda 11.0 2014 Argentina 8.7 2017 ( Q2 ) Armenia 18.5 2015 Aruba ( Netherlands ) 15.7 2012 Australia 5.8 2017 ( February ) Austria 8.6 2016 ( October ) Azerbaijan 6.4 2016 Bahrain 4.1 2014 Bangladesh 4.9 2016 Barbados 9.9 2016 Belarus 5.6 2017 Belgium 7.6 2016 ( December ) Belize 12.9 2014 Bermuda 9.0 2014 Bhutan 2.6 2014 Bolivia 7.4 2015 Bosnia and Herzegovina 20.5 2017 Botswana 20.0 2013 Brazil 11.8 2018 ( January ) British Virgin Islands ( United Kingdom ) 3.1 2007 Brunei 6.9 2014 Bulgaria 7.7 2016 ( August ) Burma 4.8 2016 Cambodia 0.5 2015 Cameroon 4.4 ( underemployment -- 75.8 ) 30.0 ( CIA estimate ) 2005 Canada 5.9 2018 ( February ) Cape Verde 15.8 2014 Cayman Islands ( United Kingdom ) 4.2 fall 2016 Central African Republic 8.0 Chad 22.6 2006 Chile 5.9 2015 ( March ) China , People 's Republic of 4.1 2015 Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands ( Australia ) 6.7 2011 Colombia 9.4 2017 Comoros 6.5 2014 Cook Islands 13.1 2005 Costa Rica 8.5 2017 ( Q1 ) Croatia 10.8 2017 ( July ) Cuba 2.6 2017 Cyprus 9.8 2018 ( January ) Czech Republic 2.3 2017 ( December ) Denmark 4.2 2018 ( January ) by Statistics Denmark ) Djibouti 60.0 2014 Dominica 23.0 2000 Dominican Republic 14.4 2010 ( April ) East Timor 20.0 2006 Ecuador 5.5 2016 Egypt 8.1 2013 ( Q2 ) El Salvador 5.5 2016 Equatorial Guinea 22.3 2009 Estonia 6.3 2016 ( February ) Europe 9.6 2016 Faroe Islands ( Denmark ) 2.2 2017 ( August ) Fiji 8.6 2007 Finland 7.9 2016 ( December ) France 9.6 2016 ( December ) French Polynesia ( France ) 11.7 2007 Gabon 28.0 2015 Gaza Strip ( Palestinian territories ) 41.5 2015 ( Q2 ) Georgia 11.8 2016 Germany 3.7 2017 ( August ) Ghana 11.9 2015 Gibraltar ( United Kingdom ) 1.8 2011 Greece 20.7 2017 ( October ) Greenland ( Denmark ) 7.8 2009 Grenada 24.5 2009 ( June ) Guam ( United States ) 7.4 2014 ( March ) Guatemala 2.9 2014 Guernsey ( United Kingdom ) 1.5 2010 ( Q2 ) Guyana 9.0 2009 ( July ) Honduras 3.9 2016 Hong Kong ( People 's Republic of China ) 3.3 2014 ( October -- December ) Hungary 3.8 2017 ( September - November ) Iceland 1.9 2017 ( October ) India 3.4 2017 ( January ) Indonesia 5.33 2017 ( February ) Iran 10.7 2016 Iraq 16.0 2012 Ireland 6.0 2017 ( October ) Isle of Man 1.8 2010 ( August ) Israel 3.7 2018 ( January ) Italy 11.6 2016 ( October ) Jamaica 13.8 2016 Japan 2.4 March 2018 Jersey ( United Kingdom ) 2.7 2009 ( July ) Jordan 11.1 2014 Kazakhstan 6.1 2010 ( May ) Kenya 42.0 2009 Kiribati 38.2 2006 Kosovo 27.5 2016 ( Q3 ) Kuwait 3.0 2016 Kyrgyzstan 8.0 2013 Laos 1.4 2013 Latvia 9.8 2015 ( Q4 ) Lebanon 10.0 2009 ( July ) Lesotho 28.1 2014 Libya 13.0 2005 ( May ) Liechtenstein 2.3 2012 Lithuania 9.2 2016 ( March ) Luxembourg 6.5 2016 ( March ) Macau ( People 's Republic of China ) 1.9 2013 Macedonia 22.9 2017 ( Q1 ) Malaysia 3.5 2017 ( March ) Mali 30.0 2015 Malta 5.2 2015 ( December ) Marshall Islands 36.0 2006 Mauritania 31.0 2013 Mauritius 7.8 2016 Mayotte ( France ) 25.4 2005 Mexico 3.7 2016 ( December ) Federated States of Micronesia 22.0 2000 Moldova 4.2 2015 ( Q4 ) Monaco 2.0 2012 Mongolia 7.7 2014 Montenegro 18.3 2016 ( March ) Montserrat ( United Kingdom ) 6.0 1998 Morocco 10.7 2017 ( Q1 ) Mozambique 17.0 2007 Namibia 28.1 2014 Nauru 23.0 2011 Nepal 3.3 2008 Netherlands 4.1 2018 ( March ) Netherlands Antilles ( Netherlands ) 10.0 2008 New Caledonia ( France ) 17.1 New Zealand 5.1 2016 ( June quarter ) Nicaragua 6.0 2014 Nigeria 13.9 2016 ( Q3 ) North Korea 25.6 2013 Northern Mariana Islands ( United States ) 11.2 Norway 4.0 2017 ( November ) Niue 10.7 2006 Pakistan 6.7 2016 Palau 4.2 2005 Panama 4.5 2015 Papua New Guinea 1.9 2008 Paraguay 6.2 2016 Peru 6.1 2015 ( August ) Philippines 5.6 2017 ( July ) Poland 4.8 2017 ( June ) Portugal 7.8 2017 ( December ) Puerto Rico ( United States ) 13.7 2014 ( December ) Qatar 0.4 2015 Romania 4.18 2017 ( August ) Russia 6.0 2016 ( March ) Rwanda 13.2 2017 ( May ) Saint Helena ( United Kingdom ) 14.0 1998 Saint Kitts and Nevis 5.1 2006 Saint Lucia 15.7 2006 Saint Pierre and Miquelon ( France ) 9.9 2008 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 18.0 2009 ( June ) San Marino 8.7 2014 Saudi Arabia 12.8 2017 ( Q2 ) Senegal 48.0 ( 30.0 among adults aged 24 and under ) 2007 Serbia 11.8 2017 ( Q2 ) Sierra Leone 8.6 2015 Singapore 2.2 2017 ( Q2 ) Slovakia 5.9 2017 ( December ) Slovenia 7.1 2017 ( July ) South Africa 26.5 2016 ( Q4 ) South Korea 4.9 2016 ( February ) Spain 16.4 2017 ( Q3 ) Sri Lanka 2017 ( Q1 ) Sudan 13.6 2014 Suriname 8.9 2014 Swaziland 40.6 2007 Sweden 6.1 2016 ( September ) Switzerland 5.2 2017 ( March ) Syria 40.0 2014 Taiwan 3.9 2016 ( April ) Tajikistan 2.4 2015 ( March ) Thailand 0.9 2014 ( May ) The Bahamas 15.0 2014 Tonga 6.5 2011 Trinidad and Tobago 4.5 2017 January Tunisia 15.2 2014 Turkey 10.3 2017 ( November ) Turkmenistan 8.6 2016 Turks and Caicos Islands 5.4 2007 Ukraine 9.9 2015 ( Q4 ) United Arab Emirates 4.3 United Kingdom 4.3 2017 ( August ) United States 4.1 ( 8.6 ) 2018 ( Jan ) Uruguay 9.0 2017 ( March ) Uzbekistan 8.0 2008 ( December ) Vanuatu 4.6 2009 Venezuela 26.4 2017 Vietnam 3.4 2014 U.S. Virgin Islands ( United States ) 12.3 2014 ( December ) Wallis and Futuna ( France ) 12.2 2008 West Bank ( Palestinian territories ) 15.4 2015 ( Q2 ) Yemen 35.0 2009 ( June ) Zambia 15.0 2008 Zimbabwe 11.3 - 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Trabajos e Ingresos . INDEC '' ( PDF ) . INDEC. 14 September 2017 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2017 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Unemployment Armenia '' . Armenian Statistical Service of Republic of Armenia . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 06 . Jump up ^ Country : Aruba . `` Publications and Key Figures -- Ba. 1.01 People Employed , Unemployed and Not in the Labor Force , by sexe '' . Central Bureau of Statistics -- Aruba . Archived from the original on 2012 - 11 - 13 . Retrieved 2013 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Labour Force , Australia , Jan 2017 '' . ABS . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Current labour market -- April 2016 '' . Public Employment Service Austria . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 06 . Jump up ^ CIA World Factbook : Belarus . Citation : `` 1 % ... official registered unemployed ; large number of underemployed workers '' Official unemployment rate is lower than 1 % , but it includes only registered as unemployed . ( Unemployment Rate in Belarus is Less than 1 % , Belstat ) . 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The Handmaid's Tale
The Handmaid 's Tale - wikipedia The Handmaid 's Tale For the television series , see The Handmaid 's Tale ( TV series ) . For other uses , see The Handmaid 's Tale ( disambiguation ) . Not to be confused with The Handmaiden . The Handmaid 's Tale Cover of the first edition Author Margaret Atwood Cover artist Tad Aronowicz , design ; Gail Geltner , collage ( first edition , hardback ) Country Canada Language English Genre Dystopian novel speculative fiction Publisher McClelland and Stewart Publication date 1985 ( hardcover ) Pages 311 ISBN 0 - 7710 - 0813 - 9 The Handmaid 's Tale is a dystopian novel by Canadian author Margaret Atwood , originally published in 1985 . It is set in a near - future New England , in a totalitarian religious state , resembling Christian theonomy , that has overthrown the United States government . The novel focuses on the journey of the handmaid Offred . Her name derives from the possessive form `` of Fred '' ; handmaids are forbidden to use their birth names and must echo the male , or master , whom they serve . The Handmaid 's Tale explores themes of women in subjugation in a patriarchal society and the various means by which these women attempt to gain individualism and independence . The novel 's title echoes the component parts of Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales , which is a series of connected stories ( `` The Merchant 's Tale '' , `` The Parson 's Tale '' , etc . ) . The Handmaid 's Tale is structured into two parts , night and other various events . This novel can be interpreted as a double narrative , Offred 's tale and the handmaids ' tales . The night sections are solely about Offred , and the other sections ( shopping , waiting room , household , etc . ) are the stories that describe the possible life of every handmaid , though from the perspective of Offred . In many of these sections , Offred jumps between past and present as she retells the events leading up to the fall of women 's rights and the current details of the life which she now lives . The Handmaid 's Tale won the 1985 Governor General 's Award and the first Arthur C. Clarke Award in 1987 ; it was also nominated for the 1986 Nebula Award , the 1986 Booker Prize , and the 1987 Prometheus Award . The book has been adapted into a 1990 film , a 2000 opera , a television series , and other media . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot summary 2 Characters 2.1 Offred 2.2 The Commander 2.3 Serena Joy 2.4 Ofglen 2.5 Nick 2.6 Moira 2.7 Luke 2.8 Professor Pieixoto 3 Setting 3.1 Politics 3.2 Religion 3.3 Caste and class 3.4 Gender and occupation 3.5 Legitimate women 3.6 Illegitimate women 3.7 Men 3.8 Babies 3.9 The Ceremony 3.10 Language 4 Genre classification 4.1 Historical context 5 Critical reception 5.1 Feminist reading 5.2 Race 5.3 Awards 6 Academic reception 6.1 Other use in academia 7 In other media 7.1 Film 7.2 Television 7.3 Radio 7.4 Audio 7.5 Stage 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Works cited 12 Further reading 13 External links Plot summary ( edit ) The Handmaid 's Tale is set in the Republic of Gilead , a theonomic military dictatorship formed within the borders of what was formerly the United States of America . Beginning with a staged attack that kills the President and most of Congress , a fundamentalist Christian Reconstructionist movement calling itself the `` Sons of Jacob '' launches a revolution and suspends the United States Constitution under the pretext of restoring order . They quickly remove women 's rights , largely attributed to financial records being stored electronically and labelled by sex . The new regime , the Republic of Gilead , moves quickly to consolidate its power , including overtaking all pre-existing religious groups , including Christianity , and reorganize society along a new militarized , hierarchical model of Old Testament - inspired social and religious fanaticism among its newly created social classes . In this society , human rights are severely limited and women 's rights are strictly curtailed . For example , women are forbidden to read , and anyone caught in homosexual acts would be hanged for `` gender treachery '' . The story is told in the first person by a woman called Offred . The character is one of a class of women with healthy reproductive systems , in an era of declining birth rates owing to increasing infertility . These women are forcibly assigned to produce children for the ruling class and are known as `` handmaids '' , based on the biblical story of Rachel and her handmaid Bilhah . Offred describes her life during her third assignment as a handmaid , in this case to Fred Waterford ( referred to as `` The Commander '' ) . Interspersed with her narratives of her present - day experiences are flashback discussions of her life from before and during the beginning of the revolution , when she finds she has lost all autonomy to her husband , their failed attempt to escape to Canada , and finally her indoctrination into life as a handmaid by government - trained women called `` Aunts '' . Offred describes the structure of Gilead 's society , including the different classes of women and their lives within the new theonomy . The women are physically segregated by colour of clothing -- blue , red , green , striped and white -- to signify social class and assigned position , ranked highest to lowest . The Commanders ' wives are dressed in blue , handmaids in red , Marthas ( cooks and maids ) in green . Striped clothing is for all other women ( called `` Econowives '' ) who essentially do everything in the domestic sphere . Young , unmarried girls are dressed in white . The Commander is a high - ranking official in Gilead . Although his contact with Offred is supposed to be limited to `` the ceremony '' , a ritual of sexual intercourse intended to result in conception and at which his wife is present , he begins an illegal relationship with Offred . Secret meetings occur in his study , which the Commander 's Wife is not permitted to enter . The room is filled with books and is considered a private place for the man of the house . During these meetings , he tries to earn her trust by talking and playing board games such as Scrabble with her . He also lets and watches her read , another offense , as women are not permitted to read and write . The Commander offers her contraband products , such as old ( 1970s ) fashion magazines and cosmetics . Finally , he gives her lingerie and takes her to a government - run brothel called Jezebel 's . This brothel is meant to add variety to men 's sex lives which , as claimed by the Commander , is necessary . At Jezebel 's , Offred encounters her friend , Moira , who had escaped from the handmaid training center , and learns how she came to be there . Moira explains that defiant women who could not adjust to the new society might be offered work at Jezebel 's rather than be forced to work in the Colonies , cleaning up radioactive waste . The women in the brothels are allowed alcohol and drugs , a freedom Offred notes . Though they are allowed to choose their patrons , they are discouraged from refusing a man 's advances . The Commander 's wife , Serena Joy , is a minor antagonist . Offred remembers her as a Christian media personality who supported women 's domesticity and subordinate role well before Gilead was established . Serena is clearly bored and unhappy -- that she was taken at her word , Offred assumes -- and hates sharing her husband with a handmaid . Ironically , though , Serena also has secret interactions with Offred , arranging for her to sleep with Nick , the Commander 's driver , in an effort to get Offred pregnant . In return , Serena Joy gives her news of her daughter and a recent photo . Offred has not seen her child since she and her family were captured trying to escape Gilead . After Offred 's initial meeting with Nick , they begin to meet more frequently . Offred discovers she enjoys sex with him , despite her indoctrination and her memories of her husband . She shares potentially dangerous information about her past with him . Through her shopping partner , a woman called Ofglen , Offred learns of the Mayday resistance , an underground network working to overthrow the Republic of Gilead . Shortly after Ofglen 's disappearance ( later revealed as a suicide ) , the Commander 's wife finds evidence of the relationship between Offred and the Commander . Offred contemplates suicide . As the novel concludes , Offred tells Nick that she thinks she is pregnant . Shortly afterwards , she is taken away by the secret police , the Eyes of God , known informally as `` the Eyes '' . Before she is put in the large black van , Nick tells her that the men are part of the Mayday resistance and to trust him . Offred does not know if he is a member of Mayday or an Eye posing as one , and is unsure if leaving will result in her escape or her capture . She enters the van with her future uncertain . The novel concludes with a metafictional epilogue that explains that the events of the novel occurred shortly after the beginning of what is called `` the Gilead Period '' . The epilogue is `` a partial transcript of the proceedings of the Twelfth Symposium on Gileadean Studies '' written in 2195 and hosted by Professor Maryann Crescent Moon . According to the symposium 's `` keynote speaker '' Professor James Darcy Pieixoto , he and his colleague Professor Knotly Wade discovered Offred 's story recorded onto cassette tapes . They transcribed the tapes , calling them collectively `` the handmaid 's tale '' . Through the tone and actions of the professionals in this final section of the book , the world of academia is highlighted and critiqued , and Pieixoto discusses his team 's search for the characters named in the Tale , and the impossibility of proving the tapes ' authenticity . However , the existence of tapes does imply that Offred escaped and survived for at least a time and thus that the Eyes that collected her were , in fact , part of Mayday . The epilogue also suggests that , following the collapse of the theonomic Republic of Gilead , a more equal society , though not the United States that had previously existed , re-emerged , with a restoration of full rights for women and freedom of religion . Characters ( edit ) Offred ( edit ) Offred is the protagonist and narrator . She was labeled a `` wanton woman '' when Gilead was established because she had married a man who was divorced . All divorces were nullified by the new government , meaning her husband was now considered still married to his first wife , making Offred an adulteress . In trying to escape Gilead , she was separated from her husband and daughter . She is part of the first generation of Gilead 's women , those who remember pre-Gilead times . Proved fertile , she is considered an important commodity and has been placed as a handmaid in the home of the Commander Fred Waterford and his wife Serena Joy , to bear a child for them ( Serena Joy is believed to be infertile ) . Offred is a slave name that describes her function : she is `` of Fred '' ( i.e. , she belongs to Fred , her commander , and is considered a concubine ) . In the novel , Offred says that she is not a concubine , but a tool ; a `` two legged womb '' . The Handmaids ' names say nothing about who the women really are ; their only identity is as the Commander 's property . `` Offred '' is also a pun on the word `` offered '' , as in `` offered as a sacrifice '' , as well as a play on the words `` off - red '' , referencing the color that handmaids wear and the character 's frustrations with her assigned position . The women in training to be handmaids whisper names across their beds at night . The names are `` Alma . Janine . Dolores . Moira . June , '' and all are later accounted for except June . In addition , one of the Aunts tells the handmaids - in - training to stop `` mooning and June - ing '' . From this and other references , some readers have inferred that her birth name could be `` June '' . Miner suggests that `` June '' is a pseudonym . As `` Mayday '' is the name of the Gilead resistance , June could be an invention by the protagonist . The Nunavit conference covered in the epilogue takes place in June . When the Hulu TV series chose to state outright that Offred 's real name is June , Atwood wrote that it was not her original intention to imply that Offred 's real name is June `` but it fits , so readers are welcome to it if they wish '' . The Commander ( edit ) The Commander says that he is a sort of scientist and was previously involved in something similar to market research , pre-Gilead . Later , it is hypothesized , but not confirmed , that he might have been one of the architects of the Republic and its laws . Presumably , his first name is `` Fred '' , though that , too , may be a pseudonym . He engages in forbidden intellectual pursuits with Offred , such as playing Scrabble , and introduces her to a secret club that serves as a brothel for high - ranking officers . Offred learns that the Commander carried on a similar relationship with his previous handmaid and that she killed herself when his wife found out . In the epilogue the academics speculate that one of two figures , both instrumental in the establishment of Gilead , may have been Fred , based on his first name . It is strongly suggested that the Commander was a man named Frederick R. Waterford who was killed in a purge shortly after Offred was taken away , charged with harboring an enemy agent . Serena Joy ( edit ) Serena Joy is a former televangelist and the Commander 's wife in the fundamentalist theonomy . The state took away her power and public recognition , and tries to hide her past as a television figure . Offred identifies her master 's wife by recalling seeing her on TV when she was a little girl early on Saturday mornings while waiting for the cartoons to air . Believed to be sterile ( although the suggestion is made that the Commander is sterile , Gileadean laws attribute sterility only to women ) , she is forced to accept that he has use of a handmaid . She resents having to take part in the monthly fertility ritual . She strikes a deal with Offred to arrange for her to have sex with Nick in order to become pregnant . According to Professor Pieixoto in the epilogue , `` Serena Joy '' or `` Pam '' are pseudonyms ; the character 's real name is implied to be Thelma . Ofglen ( edit ) Ofglen is a neighbour of Offred 's and a fellow Handmaid . She is partnered with Offred to do the daily shopping . Handmaids are never alone and are expected to police each other 's behaviour . Ofglen is a member of the Mayday resistance . In contrast to Offred , she is daring . She knocks out a Mayday spy who is to be tortured and killed in order to save him the pain of a violent death . Offred is told that when Ofglen vanishes , it is because she has committed suicide before the government can take her into custody due to her membership in the resistance , possibly to avoid giving away any information . A new handmaid , also called Ofglen , takes Ofglen 's place , and is assigned as Offred 's shopping partner . She threatens Offred against any thought of resistance . She breaks protocol by telling her what happened to the first Ofglen . Nick ( edit ) Nick is the Commander 's chauffeur , who lives above the garage . By Serena Joy 's arrangement , he and Offred start a sexual relationship to increase her chance of getting pregnant . If she were unable to bear the Commander a child , she would be declared sterile and shipped to the ecological wastelands of the Colonies . Offred begins to develop feelings for him . Nick is an ambiguous character , and Offred does not know if he is a party loyalist or part of the resistance , though he identifies himself as the former . The epilogue suggests that he really was part of the resistance , and aided Offred in escaping the Commander 's house . Moira ( edit ) Moira has been a close friend of Offred 's since college . A lesbian , she has resisted the homophobia of Gilead society . Moira is taken to be a Handmaid soon after Offred . She escapes by stealing an Aunt 's pass and clothes , but Offred later finds her working as a prostitute in a party - run brothel . She was caught and chose the brothel rather than be sent to the Colonies . Luke ( edit ) Luke was Offred 's husband prior to the formation of Gilead . He had divorced his first wife to marry her . Under Gilead , all divorces were retroactively nullified , resulting in Offred being considered an adulteress and their daughter a bastard . Offred was forced to become a Handmaid and her daughter was given to a loyalist family . Since their attempt to escape to Canada , Offred has heard nothing of Luke . Later in the television series , it is revealed that Luke is still alive . Professor Pieixoto ( edit ) Pieixoto is the `` co-discoverer ( with Professor Knotly Wade ) of Offred 's tapes '' . In his presentation at an academic conference , he talks about `` the ' Problems of Authentication in Reference to The Handmaid 's Tale ' '' . Pieixoto is therefore the person who is retelling Offred 's story , and so makes the narration even more unreliable than it was originally . Setting ( edit ) The novel is set in an indeterminate future , speculated to be around the year 2005 , with a fundamentalist theonomy ruling the territory of what had been the United States but is now the Republic of Gilead . Individuals are segregated by categories and dressed according to their social functions . Complex dress codes play a key role in imposing social control within the new society and serve to distinguish people by sex , occupation , and caste . The action takes place in what once was the Harvard Square neighbourhood of Cambridge , Massachusetts ; Atwood studied at Radcliffe College , located in this area . Politics ( edit ) In Gilead , the bodies of fertile women are politicized and controlled . The North American population is falling as more men and women become infertile ( though in Gilead , legally , it is only women who can be the cause of infertility ) . Gilead 's treatment of women is based upon a narrow , fundamentalist interpretation of the Bible , meaning that women are the property of and subordinate to their husband , father , or head of household . They are not allowed to do anything that would grant them any power independent of this system . They are not allowed to vote , hold a job , read , possess money , or own anything , among many other restrictions . A particular quote from The Handmaid 's Tale sums this up : `` The Republic of Gilead , said Aunt Lydia , knows no bounds . Gilead is within you '' ( HT 5.2 ) . This describes that there is no way around the societal bounds of women in this new state of government . Handmaids , being not allowed to wed , are given two - year assignments with a commander , and lose their own name : they are called `` Of ( their Commander 's first name ) '' , such as the novel 's protagonist , known only as Offred . When a handmaid is reassigned , her name changes with her . Their original identities before the revolution are suppressed , although while being reeducated as handmaids , they surreptitiously share their names with each other . In this book , the government appears to be strong though `` no one in Gilead seems to be a true believer in its revolution '' ( Beauchamp ) . The Commanders , portrayed via Commander Fred , do not agree with their own doctrines . The commander takes Offred at one point to a brothel in order to have sex with her in an informal setting apart from the Ceremony . The wives , portrayed via Serena Joy , former television evangelist , disobey the rules set forth by their commander husbands . Serena smokes black market cigarettes and expresses the forbidden idea that men may be infertile , and schemes to get Offred impregnated by her chauffeur . Religion ( edit ) Bruce Miller , the executive producer of The Handmaid 's Tale television serial , declared with regard to Atwood 's book , as well as his series , that Gilead is `` a society that 's based kind of in a perverse misreading of Old Testament laws and codes '' . The author explains that Gilead tries to embody the `` utopian idealism '' present in 20th - century régimes , such as Cambodia and Romania , as well as earlier New England Puritanism . Both Atwood and Miller stated that the people running Gilead are `` not genuinely Christian '' . The group running Gilead , according to Atwood , is `` not really interested in religion ; they 're interested in power . '' In fact , in her prayers to God , Offred , reflecting on Gilead , prays `` I do n't believe for an instant that what 's going on out there is what You meant ... . I suppose I should say I forgive whoever did this , and whatever they 're doing now . I 'll try , but it is n't easy . '' Margaret Atwood , writing on this , says that `` Offred herself has a private version of the Lord 's Prayer and refuses to believe that this regime has been mandated by a just and merciful God . '' Christian churches that do not support the actions of the Sons of Jacob are systematically demolished , and the people living in Gilead are never seen attending church . Christian denominations , including Quakers , Baptists and Roman Catholics , are specifically named as enemies of the Sons of Jacob . Nuns who refuse conversion are considered `` Unwomen '' and banished to the Colonies , owing to their reluctance to marry and refusal ( or inability ) to bear children . Priests unwilling to convert are executed and hanged from the Wall . Atwood pits Quaker Christians against the régime by having them help the oppressed , something she feels they would do in reality : `` The Quakers have gone underground , and are running an escape route to Canada , as -- I suspect -- they would . '' Jews are named an exception and classified Sons of Jacob . Offred observes that Jews refusing to convert are allowed to emigrate to Israel , and most choose to leave . However , in the Epilogue , Professor Pieixoto reveals that many of the emigrating Jews ended up being dumped into the sea while on the ships ostensibly tasked with transporting them to Israel , due to privatization of the `` repatriation program '' and capitalists ' effort to maximize profits . Offred mentions that many Jews who chose to stay were caught secretly practicing Judaism and executed . Caste and class ( edit ) African Americans , the main non-white ethnic group in this society , are called the Children of Ham . A state TV broadcast mentions they have been relocated en masse to `` National Homelands '' in the Midwest , which are suggestive of the Apartheid - era homelands set up by South Africa . Gender and occupation ( edit ) The sexes are strictly divided . Gilead 's society values reproduction by white women most highly . Women are categorised `` hierarchically according to class status and reproductive capacity '' as well as `` metonymically colour - coded according to their function and their labour '' ( Kauffman 232 ) . The Commander expresses the prevailing opinion that women are considered intellectually and emotionally inferior to men . Women are segregated by clothing , as are men . With rare exception , men wear military or paramilitary uniforms . All classes of men and women are defined by the colors they wear ( as in Aldous Huxley 's dystopian Brave New World ) , drawing on colour symbolism and psychology . All lower - status individuals are regulated by this dress code . All `` non-persons '' are banished to the `` Colonies '' . Sterile , unmarried women are considered to be non-persons . Both men and women sent there wear grey dresses . Legitimate women ( edit ) The bonnets that Handmaids wear are modeled on the Old Dutch Cleanser . Wives The top social level permitted to women , achieved by marriage to higher - ranking officers . Wives always wear blue dresses and cloaks , suggesting traditional depictions of the Virgin Mary in historic Christian art . When a Commander dies , his Wife becomes a Widow and must dress in black . Daughters The natural or adopted children of the ruling class . They wear white until marriage , which is now arranged . The narrator 's daughter may have been adopted by an infertile Wife and Commander and she is shown in a photograph wearing a long white dress . Handmaids Fertile women whose social function is to bear children for infertile Wives . Handmaids dress in floor - length red dresses , white caps , and heavy boots . In summer , they change into summer dresses and slatted shoes . When in public , in winter , they wear floor - length red cloaks , red gloves , and heavy white bonnets , which they call `` wings '' because the sides stick out , blocking their peripheral vision and shielding their faces from view . Handmaids are women of proven fertility who have broken the law . The law includes both gender crimes , such as lesbianism ; and religious crimes , such as adultery ( redefined to include sexual relationships with divorced partners since divorce is no longer legal ) . The Republic of Gilead justifies the use of the handmaids for procreation by referring to two biblical stories : Jacob bedded the handmaids , Bilhah and Zilpah , of his two wives in order to have children with them because the wives were infertile ( Gen. 30 : 1 -- 3 ) ; and Abraham also had sex with his wife 's handmaid , Hagar ( Gen. 16 : 1 -- 6 ) . Handmaids are assigned to Commanders and live in their houses . When unassigned , they live at training centers . Handmaids who successfully bear children continue to live at their commander 's house until their children are weaned , at which point they are sent to a new assignment . Those who do produce children , however , will never be declared `` Unwomen '' or sent to the Colonies , even if they never have another baby . Aunts Trainers of the Handmaids . They dress in brown . Aunts promote the role of Handmaid as an honorable way for a sinful woman to redeem herself . They also police the Handmaids , beating some and ordering the maiming of others . The aunts have an unusual amount of autonomy , compared to other women of Gilead . They are the only class of women permitted to read . ( `` The Aunts are allowed to read and write . '' Vintage Books , p. 139 . However , on p. 100 of the Vintage Books edition : `` They played it ( the Beatitudes ) from a disc ; the voice was a man 's . '' In the Anchor Books edition : `` They played it ( the Beatitudes ) from a tape , so not even an Aunt would be guilty of the sin of reading . The voice was a man 's . ( p. 89 . ) '' ) Marthas They are older infertile women who have domestic skills and are compliant , making them suitable as servants . They dress in green smocks . The title of `` Martha '' is based on a story in Luke 10 : 38 -- 42 , where Jesus visits Mary , sister of Lazarus and Martha ; Mary listens to Jesus while Martha works at `` all the preparations that had to be made '' . Econowives Women married to men of lower - rank , not members of the elite . They are expected to perform all the female functions : domestic duties , companionship , and child - bearing . Their dress is multicoloured red , blue , and green to reflect these multiple roles , and is made of notably cheaper material . The division of labour among the women generates some resentment . Marthas , Wives and Econowives perceive Handmaids as promiscuous and are taught to scorn them . Offred mourns that the women of the various groups have lost their ability to empathize with each other . They are divided in their oppression . Illegitimate women ( edit ) Unwomen Sterile women , the unmarried , some widows , feminists , lesbians , nuns , and politically dissident women : all women who are incapable of social integration within the Republic 's strict gender divisions . Gilead exiles Unwomen to `` the Colonies '' , areas both of agricultural production and deadly pollution . Joining them are handmaids who fail to bear a child after three two - year assignments . Jezebels Women forced to become prostitutes and entertainers . They are available only to the Commanders and to their guests . Offred portrays Jezebels as attractive and educated ; they may be unsuitable as handmaids due to temperament . They have been sterilized , a surgery that is forbidden to other women . They operate in unofficial but state - sanctioned brothels , unknown to most women . Jezebels , whose title also comes from the Bible ( note Queen Jezebel in the Books of Kings ) , dress in the remnants of sexualized costumes from `` the time before '' , such as cheerleaders ' costumes , school uniforms , and Playboy Bunny costumes . Jezebels can wear make - up , drink alcohol and socialize with men , but are tightly controlled by the Aunts . When they pass their sexual prime and / or their looks fade , they are discarded without any precision as to whether they are killed or sent to the Colonies in the novel . Men ( edit ) Men are classified into four main categories : Commanders of the Faithful See also : Amir al - Mu'minin The ruling class . Because of their status , they are entitled to establish a patriarchal household with a Wife , a Handmaid if necessary , Marthas ( female servants ) and Guardians . They have a duty to procreate , but many may be infertile , as a possible result of exposure to a biological agent in pre-Gilead times . They wear black to signify superiority . Eyes The secret police attempting to discover those violating the rules of Gilead . Angels Soldiers who fight in the wars in order to expand and protect the country 's borders . Angels may be permitted to marry . Guardians ( of the Faith ) Soldiers `` used for routine policing and other menial functions '' . They are unsuitable for other work in the republic being `` stupid or older or disabled or very young , apart from the ones that are Eyes incognito '' ( chapter 4 ) . Young Guardians may be promoted to Angels when they come of age . They wear green uniforms . Men who engage in homosexuality or related acts are declared `` gender traitors '' ; they are either hanged or sent to the Colonies to die a slow death . Babies ( edit ) In this society , birth defects have become increasingly common . There are two main categories of human children : Unbabies , also known as `` shredders '' Babies born physically deformed or with some other birth defect . They do not last but Offred does not know what happens to them . Pregnant Handmaids fear giving birth to a damaged child , or unbaby . Gilead forbids abortion and all tests to determine prenatal health of a fetus . Keepers Babies that are born alive with no defects . The ceremony ( edit ) `` The Ceremony '' is a non-marital sexual act sanctioned for reproduction . The ritual requires the Handmaid to lie on her back between the legs of the Wife during the sex act as if they were one person . The Wife has to invite the Handmaid to share her power this way ; many Wives consider this both humiliating and offensive . Offred describes the ceremony : My red skirt is hitched up to my waist , though no higher . Below it the Commander is fucking . What he is fucking is the lower part of my body . I do not say making love , because this is not what he 's doing . Copulating too would be inaccurate , because it would imply two people and only one is involved . Nor does rape cover it : nothing is going on here that I have n't signed up for . Language ( edit ) In the novel 's fictional fundamentalist society , sterile is an `` outlawed '' word . In this society , there is no such thing as a sterile man anymore . In this culture , women are either fruitful or barren , the latter of which are declared to be `` unwomen '' and are sent to the colonies with the rest of the `` unwomen '' to do life - threatening work until their death , which is , on average , three years . Atwood emphasises how changes in context affect behaviours and attitudes by repeating the phrase `` Context is all '' throughout the novel , establishing this precept as a motif . Playing the game of Scrabble with her Commander illustrates the key significance of changes in `` context '' ; once `` the game of old men and women '' , the game became forbidden for women to play and therefore `` desirable '' . Through living in a morally rigid society , Offred has come to perceive the world differently from earlier . Offred expresses amazement at how `` It has taken so little time to change our minds about things '' . Wearing revealing clothes and makeup had been part of her former life , but when she sees Japanese tourists dressed that way , she now feels the women are inappropriately dressed . Offred can read but not translate the phrase `` nolite te bastardes carborundorum '' carved into the closet wall of her small bedroom ; this mock - Latin aphorism signifies `` Do n't let the bastards grind you down '' . The significance of this phrase is intensified by the challenges the book has faced , creating a `` Mise en abyme '' as both the protagonist and the reader decipher subversive texts . Genre classification ( edit ) See also : Social science fiction In interviews and essays Atwood has discussed generic classification of The Handmaid 's Tale as `` science fiction '' or `` speculative fiction '' , observing : I like to make a distinction between science fiction proper and speculative fiction . For me , the science fiction label belongs on books with things in them that we ca n't yet do , such as going through a wormhole in space to another universe ; and speculative fiction means a work that employs the means already to hand , such as DNA identification and credit cards , and that takes place on Planet Earth . But the terms are fluid . Hugo - winning science fiction critic David Langford observed in a column : `` The Handmaid 's Tale won the very first Arthur C. Clarke Award in 1987 . She 's been trying to live this down ever since . '' He says : Atwood prefers to say that she writes speculative fiction -- a term coined by SF author Robert A. Heinlein . As she told the Guardian , `` Science fiction has monsters and spaceships ; speculative fiction could really happen . '' She used a subtly different phrasing for New Scientist , `` Oryx and Crake is not science fiction . It is fact within fiction . Science fiction is when you have rockets and chemicals . '' So it was very cruel of New Scientist to describe this interview in the contents list as : `` Margaret Atwood explains why science is crucial to her science fiction . '' ... Play it again , Ms Atwood -- this time for the Book - of - the - Month Club : `` Oryx and Crake is a speculative fiction , not a science fiction proper . It contains no intergalactic space travel , no teleportation , no Martians . '' On BBC1 Breakfast News the distinguished author explained that science fiction , as opposed to what she writes , is characterized by `` talking squids in outer space '' . In distinguishing between these genre labels science fiction and speculative fiction , Atwood acknowledges that others may use the terms interchangeably . But she notes her interest in this type of work to explore themes in ways that `` realistic fiction '' can not do . Historical Context ( edit ) Fitting with her claims that The Handmaid 's Tale is a work of speculative fiction , not science fiction , Atwood 's novel offers a satirical view of various social , political , and religious trends of the 1980s United States . Further , Atwood questions what would happen if these trends , and especially `` casually held attitudes about women '' were taken to their logical end . Atwood continues to argue that all of the scenarios offered in The Handmaid 's Tale have actually occurred in real life -- in an interview she gave regarding Oryx and Crake , Atwood maintains that `` As with The Handmaid 's Tale , I did n't put in anything that we have n't already done , we 're not already doing , we 're seriously trying to do , coupled with trends that are already in progress ... So all of those things are real , and therefore the amount of pure invention is close to nil . '' Atwood was also known to carry around newspaper clippings to her various interviews to support her fiction 's basis in reality . Atwood has explained that The Handmaid 's Tale is a response to those who claim the oppressive , totalitarian , and religious governments that have taken hold in other countries throughout the years `` ca n't happen here '' -- but in this work , she has tried to show how such a takeover might play out . Atwood 's inspiration for the Republic of Gilead came from her time studying early American Puritans while at Harvard , which she attended on a Woodrow Wilson Fellowship . Atwood argues that the modern view of the Puritans -- that they came to America to flee religious persecution in England and set up a religiously tolerant society -- is misleading , and that instead , these Puritan leaders wanted to establish a monolithic theocracy where religious dissent would not be tolerated . Atwood also had a personal connection to the Puritans , and she dedicates the novel to her own ancestor Mary Webster , who was accused of witchcraft in Puritan New England but survived her hanging . Due to the totalitarian nature of Gileadan society , Atwood , in creating the setting , drew from the `` utopian idealism '' present in 20th century régimes , such as Cambodia and Romania , as well as earlier New England Puritanism . Atwood has argued that a coup , such as the one depicted in The Handmaid 's Tale , would misuse religion in order to achieve its own ends : ... if you wanted to seize power in the US , abolish liberal democracy and set up a dictatorship , how would you go about it ? What would be your cover story ? It would not resemble any form of communism or socialism : those would be too unpopular ... Nations never build apparently radical forms of government on foundations that are n't there already . Thus China replaced a state bureaucracy with a similar state bureaucracy under a different name , the USSR replaced the dreaded imperial secret police with an even more dreaded secret police , and so forth . The deep foundation of the US -- so went my thinking -- was not the comparatively recent 18th - century Enlightenment structures of the republic , with their talk of equality and their separation of church and state , but the heavy - handed theocracy of 17th - century Puritan New England , with its marked bias against women , which would need only the opportunity of a period of social chaos to reassert itself . Like any theocracy , this one would select a few passages from the Bible to justify its actions , and it would lean heavily towards the Old Testament , not towards the New . Atwood , with respect to those leading Gilead , further stated : I do n't consider these people to be Christians because they do not have at the core of their behavior and ideologies what I , in my feeble Canadian way , would consider to be the core of Christianity ... and that would be not only love your neighbors but love your enemies . That would also be ' I was sick and you visited me not ' and such and such ... And that would include also concern for the environment , because you ca n't love your neighbor or even your enemy , unless you love your neighbor 's oxygen , food , and water . You ca n't love your neighbor or your enemy if you 're presuming policies that are going to cause those people to die. ... Of course faith can be a force for good and often has been . So faith is a force for good particularly when people are feeling beleaguered and in need of hope . So you can have bad iterations and you can also have the iteration in which people have got too much power and then start abusing it . But that is human behavior , so you ca n't lay it down to religion . You can find the same in any power situation , such as politics or ideologies that purport to be atheist . Need I mention the former Soviet Union ? So it is not a question of religion making people behave badly . It is a question of human beings getting power and then wanting more of it . In the same vein , Atwood also declared that `` In the real world today , some religious groups are leading movements for the protection of vulnerable groups , including women . '' Atwood also draws connections between the ways in which Gilead 's leaders maintain their power and other examples of actual totalitarian governments . In her interviews , Atwood offers up Afghanistan as examples of religious theocracies forcing women out of the public sphere and into their homes , as in Gilead . The `` state - sanctioned murder of dissidents '' was inspired by the Philippines , and the last General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party Nicolae Ceaușescu 's obsession with increasing the birth rate led to the strict policing of pregnant women and the outlawing of birth control and abortion . However , Atwood clearly explains that many of these deplorable acts were not just present in other cultures and countries , `` but within Western society , and within the ' Christian ' tradition itself '' . The Republic of Gilead struggles with infertility , making Offred 's services as a Handmaid vital to producing children and thus reproducing the society . Handmaids themselves are `` untouchable '' , but their ability to signify status is equated to that of slaves or servants throughout history . Atwood connects their concerns with infertility to real - life problems our world faces , such as radiation , chemical pollution , and venereal disease ( HIV / AIDS is specifically mentioned in the `` Historical Notes '' section at the end of the novel , which was a relatively new disease at the time of Atwood 's writing whose long - term impact was likely still unknown ) . Atwood 's strong stance on environmental issues and their negative consequences for our society has presented itself in other works such as her MaddAddam trilogy , and refers back to her growing up with biologists and her own scientific curiosity . Critical reception ( edit ) The Handmaid 's Tale was well received by critics , helping to cement Atwood 's status as a prominent writer of the 20th century . Not only was the book deemed well - written and compelling , but Atwood 's work was notable for sparking intense debates both in and out of academia . Atwood maintains that the Republic of Gilead is only an extrapolation of trends already seen in the United States at the time of her writing , a view supported by other scholars studying The Handmaid 's Tale . Indeed , many have placed The Handmaid 's Tale in the same category of dystopian fiction as Nineteen Eighty - Four and Brave New World , with the added feature of confronting patriarchy , a categorization that Atwood has accepted and reiterated in many articles and interviews . Even today , many reviewers hold that Atwood 's novel remains as foreboding and powerful as ever , largely because of its basis in historical fact . Yet when her book was first published in 1985 , not all reviewers were convinced of the `` cautionary tale '' Atwood presented . For example , Mary McCarthy 's New York Times review argued that The Handmaid 's Tale lacked the `` surprised recognition '' necessary for readers to see `` our present selves in a distorting mirror , of what we may be turning into if current trends are allowed to continue '' . In the aftermath of the television series ' debut in 2017 , there was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series ( and by extension , this book ) and American society following Donald Trump 's and Mike Pence 's election as President of the United States and Vice President of the United States , respectively . Feminist reading ( edit ) Much of the discussion about The Handmaid 's Tale has centered on its categorization as feminist literature . Atwood does not see the Republic of Gilead as a purely feminist dystopia , as not all men have greater rights than women . Instead , this society presents a typical dictatorship : `` shaped like a pyramid , with the powerful of both sexes at the apex , the men generally outranking the women at the same level ; then descending levels of power and status with men and women in each , all the way down to the bottom , where the unmarried men must serve in the ranks before being awarded an Econowife '' . Additionally , Atwood has argued that while some of the observations that informed the content of The Handmaid 's Tale may be feminist , her novel is not meant to say `` one thing to one person '' or serve as a political message -- instead , The Handmaid 's Tale is `` a study of power , and how it operates and how it deforms or shapes the people who are living within that kind of regime '' . Some scholars have offered such a feminist interpretation , however , connecting Atwood 's use of religious fundamentalism in the pages of The Handmaid 's Tale to a condemnation of their presence in current American society . Yet others have argued that The Handmaid 's Tale critiques typical notions of feminism , as Atwood 's novel appears to subvert the traditional `` women helping women '' ideals of the movement and turn toward the possibility of `` the matriarchal network ... and a new form of misogyny : women 's hatred of women '' . Race ( edit ) Other critics have characterized The Handmaid 's Tale as `` white feminism '' , noting that Atwood does away with black people in a few lines by relocating the `` Children of Ham '' while borrowing heavily from the African - American experience and applying it to white women . Other critics have noted the parallels with apartheid and that it misrepresents how black people resist in times of crisis . The writer Mikki Kendall said about the book , It requires me to believe that not only are my people gone , but often that they vanished quietly without any real resistance . As if . Like ... Black people did not survive slavery , Jim Crow & the War on Drugs to be taken out by a handful of white boys with guns . Awards ( edit ) 1985 -- Governor General 's Award for English language fiction ( winner ) 1986 -- Booker Prize ( nominated ) 1986 -- Nebula Award ( nominated ) 1987 -- Arthur C. Clarke Award ( winner ) 1987 -- Prometheus Award ( nominated ) Commonwealth Literature Prize ( winner ) Welsh Arts Council International Writer 's Prize ( winner ) Academic reception ( edit ) Atwood 's novels , and especially her works of speculative fiction The Handmaid 's Tale and Oryx and Crake , are frequently offered as examples for the final , open - ended question on the North American Advanced Placement English Literature and Composition exam each year . As such , her books are often assigned in high - school classrooms to students taking this Advanced Placement course , despite the mature themes the work presents . Atwood herself has expressed surprise that her books are being assigned to high - school audiences , largely due to her own censored education in the 1950s , but she has assured readers that this increased attention from high - school students has not altered the material she has chosen to write about since . Many people have expressed discontent at The Handmaid 's Tale 's presence in the classroom , as it has been frequently challenged or banned over the last 30 years . Some of these challenges have come from parents concerned about the explicit sexuality and other adult themes represented in the book . Others have argued that The Handmaid 's Tale depicts a negative view of religion , a view supported by several academics who propose that Atwood 's work satirizes contemporary religious fundamentalists in the United States , offering a feminist critique of the trends this movement to the Right represents . The American Library Association ( ALA ) lists The Handmaid 's Tale as number 37 on the `` 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 -- 2000 '' . Atwood participated in discussing The Handmaid 's Tale as the subject of an ALA discussion series titled `` One Book , One Conference '' . Some complaints have included : 1990 : Challenged at Rancho Cotate High School , Rohnert Park , California , as too explicit for students . 1992 : Challenged in schools in Waterloo , Iowa , reportedly because of profanity , lurid passages about sex , and statements defamatory to minorities , God , women , and the disabled . 1993 : Removed because of profanity and sex from the Chicopee , Massachusetts , high - school English class reading list . 1998 : Challenged for use in Richland , Washington , high - school English classes , along with six other titles determined to be `` poor quality literature and ( that ) stress suicide , illicit sex , violence , and hopelessness '' . 1999 : Challenged because of graphic sex , but retained on the advanced placement English list , at George D. Chamberlain High School in Tampa , Florida . 2000 : Downgraded from `` required '' to `` optional '' on the summer reading list for eleventh graders in the Upper Moreland School District near Philadelphia due to `` age - inappropriate '' subject matter . 2001 : Challenged , but retained , in the Dripping Springs , Texas , senior Advanced Placement English course as an optional reading assignment . Some parents were offended by the book 's descriptions of sexual encounters . 2006 : Initially banned by Superintendent Ed Lyman from an advanced placement English curriculum in the Judson independent school district in Texas , after a parent complained . Lyman had overruled the recommendation of a committee of teachers , students , and parents ; the committee appealed the decision to the school board , which overturned his ban . 2012 : Challenged as required reading for a Page High School International Baccalaureate class and as optional reading for Advanced Placement reading courses at Grimsley High School in Greensboro , North Carolina because the book is `` sexually explicit , violently graphic and morally corrupt '' . Some parents thought the book is `` detrimental to Christian values '' . According to Education Reporter Kristin Rushowy of the Toronto Star ( 16 January 2009 ) , in 2008 a parent in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , wrote a letter to his son 's high school principal , asking that the book no longer be assigned as required reading , stating that the novel is `` rife with brutality towards and mistreatment of women ( and men at times ) , sexual scenes , and bleak depression '' . Rushowy quotes the response of Russell Morton Brown , a retired University of Toronto English professor , who acknowledged that `` The Handmaid 's Tale was n't likely written for 17 - year - olds , but neither are a lot of things we teach in high school , like Shakespeare ... And they are all the better for reading it . They are on the edge of adulthood already , and there 's no point in coddling them , '' he said , adding , `` they are n't coddled in terms of mass media today anyway '' ... He said the book has been accused of being anti-Christian and , more recently , anti-Islamic because the women are veiled and polygamy is allowed ... But that `` misses the point '' , said Brown . `` It 's really anti-fundamentalism . '' In her earlier account ( 14 January 2009 ) , Rushowy reported that a Toronto District School Board committee was `` reviewing the novel '' . While noting that `` The Handmaid 's Tale is listed as one of the 100 ' most frequently challenged books ' from 1990 to 1999 on the American Library Association 's website '' , Rushowy reports that `` The Canadian Library Association says there is ' no known instance of a challenge to this novel in Canada ' but says the book was called anti-Christian and pornographic by parents after being placed on a reading list for secondary students in Texas in the 1990s . '' In November 2012 two parents in Guilford County , North Carolina protested against inclusion of the book on a required reading list at a local high school . The parents presented the school board with a petition signed by 2,300 people , prompting a review of the book by the school 's media advisory committee . According to local news reports , one of the parents said `` she felt Christian students are bullied in society , in that they 're made to feel uncomfortable about their beliefs by non-believers . She said including books like The Handmaid 's Tale contributes to that discomfort , because of its negative view on religion and its anti-biblical attitudes toward sex . '' Other use in academia ( edit ) In institutions of higher education , professors have found The Handmaid 's Tale to be useful , largely because of its historical and religious basis and Atwood 's captivating delivery . The novel 's teaching points include : introducing politics and the social sciences to students in a more concrete way ; demonstrating the importance of reading to our freedom , both intellectual and political ; and acknowledging the `` most insidious and violent manifestations of power in Western history '' in a compelling manner . The chapter entitled `` Historical Notes '' at the end of the novel also represents a warning to academics who run the risk of misreading and misunderstanding historical texts , pointing to the satirized Professor Pieixoto as an example of a male scholar who has taken over and overpowered Offred 's narrative with his own interpretation . In other media ( edit ) Film ( edit ) Main article : The Handmaid 's Tale ( film ) The 1990 film The Handmaid 's Tale was based on a screenplay by Harold Pinter and directed by Volker Schlöndorff . It stars Natasha Richardson as Offred , Faye Dunaway as Serena Joy , and Robert Duvall as The Commander ( Fred ) . Television ( edit ) Main article : The Handmaid 's Tale ( TV series ) Hulu has produced a television series of the novel starring Elisabeth Moss as Offred . The first three episodes were released on April 26 , 2017 , with subsequent episodes following on a weekly basis . Margaret Atwood served as consulting producer . The show won eight Emmys in 2017 , including best outstanding drama series , outstanding lead actress in a drama series ( Elisabeth Moss ) , outstanding writing for a drama series ( Bruce Miller ) , outstanding supporting actress in a drama series ( Ann Dowd ) , and outstanding directing for a drama series ( Reed Morano ) . The show was renewed for a second season , which premiered on April 25 , 2018 , and in May 2018 , Hulu announced renewal for a third season. . Radio ( edit ) A dramatic adaptation of the novel for radio was produced for BBC Radio 4 by John Dryden in 2000 . A Canadian dramatic adaptation for radio was written by playwright Michael O'Brien and produced on CBC Radio in 2002 . Audio ( edit ) An audiobook of the unabridged text , read by Claire Danes ( ISBN 9781491519110 ) , won the 2013 Audie Award for fiction . In 2014 , Canadian band Lakes of Canada released their album Transgressions , which is intended to be a concept album inspired by The Handmaid 's Tale . Stage ( edit ) A stage adaptation written and directed by Bruce Shapiro played at Tufts University in 1989 . An operatic adaptation , The Handmaid 's Tale , by Poul Ruders , premiered in Copenhagen on 6 March 2000 , and was performed by the English National Opera , in London , in 2003 . It was the opening production of the 2004 -- 2005 season of the Canadian Opera Company . A stage adaptation of the novel , by Brendon Burns , for the Haymarket Theatre , Basingstoke , England , toured the UK in 2002 . A ballet adaptation choreographed by Lila York and produced by the Royal Winnipeg Ballet premiered on 16 October 2013 . Amanda Green appeared as Offred and Alexander Gamayunov as The Commander . A one - woman stage show , adapted from the novel , by Joseph Stollenwerk premiered in the U.S. in January 2015 . See also ( edit ) Canada portal 1980s portal Novels portal Canadian literature Feminist science fiction Pregnancy in science fiction Persepolis ( comics ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Handmaid 's Tale is the inaugural winner of this award for the best science fiction novel published in the United Kingdom during the previous year . Jump up ^ The Prometheus Award is an award for libertarian science fiction novels given out annually by the Libertarian Futurist Society , which also publishes a quarterly journal , Prometheus . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Cosstick , Ruth ( January 1986 ) . `` Book review : The Handmaids Tale '' . Vol. 14 no . 1 . CM Archive . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 26 . Tad Aronowicz 's jaggedly surrealistic cover design is most appropriate . Jump up ^ `` The Handmaid 's Tale Study Guide : About Speculative Fiction '' . Gradesaver. 22 May 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Atwood , Margaret ( 17 June 2005 ) . `` Aliens have taken the place of angels '' . The Guardian . UK . If you 're writing about the future and you are n't doing forecast journalism , you 'll probably be writing something people will call either science fiction or speculative fiction . I like to make a distinction between science fiction proper and speculative fiction . For me , the science fiction label belongs on books with things in them that we ca n't yet do , such as going through a wormhole in space to another universe ; and speculative fiction means a work that employs the means already to hand , such as DNA identification and credit cards , and that takes place on Planet Earth . But the terms are fluid . Some use speculative fiction as an umbrella covering science fiction and all its hyphenated forms -- science fiction fantasy , and so forth -- and others choose the reverse ... I have written two works of science fiction or , if you prefer , speculative fiction : The Handmaid 's Tale and Oryx and Crake . Here are some of the things these kinds of narratives can do that socially realistic novels can not do . ^ Jump up to : Langford 2003 . ^ Jump up to : Douthat , Ross ( 24 May 2017 ) . `` ' The Handmaid 's Tale and Ours ' '' . The New York Times . Now , in the era of the Trump administration , liberal TV watchers find a perverse sort of comfort in the horrific alternate reality of the Republic of Gilead , where a cabal of theonomist Christians have established a totalitarian state that forbids women to read , sets a secret police to watch their every move and deploys them as slave - concubines to childless elites . access - date = requires url = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Atwood , Margaret ( 10 March 2017 ) . `` Margaret Atwood on What ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' Means in the Age of Trump '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 11 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Segovia , José de ( 22 June 2017 ) . Daniel Wickham , ed . `` There is no balm in Atwood 's Gilead '' . Evangelical Focus . A clear example of Atwood _́ s focus on the Reconstructionism of theonomy is his way of representing the death penalty . Missing or empty url = ( help ) ; access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Grace , DM ( 1998 ) . `` Handmaid 's Tale Historical Notes and Documentary Subversion '' . Science Fiction Studies . Science Fiction Studies . 25 ( 3 ) : 481 -- 94 . JSTOR 4240726 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Handmaid 's Tale Study Guide : Character List '' . Gradesaver. 22 May 2009 . Jump up ^ Atwood 1986 , p. 220 . Jump up ^ `` Offred 's Real Name In ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' Is The Only Piece Of Power She Still Holds '' by Dana Getz , Bustle , April 26 , 2017 , `` In Margaret Atwood 's original novel , Offred 's real name is never revealed . Many eagle - eyed readers deduced that it was June based on contextual clues : Of the names the Handmaids trade in hushed tones as they lie awake at night , `` June '' is the only one that 's never heard again once Offred is narrating . '' https://www.bustle.com/p/offreds-real-name-in-the-handmaids-tale-is-the-only-piece-of-power-she-still-holds-53607 Jump up ^ Madonne 1991 Jump up ^ Oates , Joyce Carol ( 2 November 2006 ) . `` Margaret Atwood 's Tale '' . The New York Review of Books . Retrieved 29 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Atwood 1998 , An Interview : ' Q : We can figure out that the main character lives in Cambridge , Massachusetts ' Jump up ^ Mccarthy , Mary ( 1986 - 02 - 09 ) . `` No Headline - The New York Times '' . Nytimes.com . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : O'Hare , Kate ( 16 April 2017 ) . `` ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' on Hulu : What Should Catholics Think ? '' . Faith & Family Media Blog . Retrieved 18 June 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Atwood , Margaret ( 20 January 2012 ) . `` Haunted by the Handmaid 's Tale '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 3 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Lucie - Smith , Alexander ( 29 May 2017 ) . `` Should Catholics watch The Handmaid 's Tale ? '' . The Catholic Herald . Retrieved 18 June 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , Layton E. ( 25 April 2017 ) . `` Margaret Atwood on Christianity , ' The Handmaid 's Tale , ' and What Faithful Activism Looks Like Today '' . Sojourners . Retrieved 18 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Blondiau , Eloise ( 28 April 2017 ) . `` Reflecting on the frightening lessons of ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' '' . America . Retrieved 21 June 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Atwood , Margaret ( 10 March 2017 ) . `` Margaret Atwood on What ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' Means in the Age of Trump '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 21 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Atwood 1998 , p. 94 . Jump up ^ Atwood 1998 , p. 161 . Jump up ^ Atwood 1998 , pp. 144 , 192 . Jump up ^ Atwood 1998 , pp. 178 -- 79 . ^ Jump up to : Atwood 1998 , pp. 36 . Jump up ^ Atwood 1998 , pp. 235 . ^ Jump up to : `` An Interview with Margaret Atwood on her novel , The Handmaid 's Tale '' ( PDF ) . Nashville Public Library . Retrieved 27 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Gruss , Susanne ( 2004 ) . `` '' People confuse interpersonal relations with legal structures . '' An Interview with Margaret Atwood `` . Gender Forum . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Neuman , Shirley ( 2006 ) . `` ' Just a Backlash ' : Margaret Atwood , Feminism , and The Handmaid 's Tale '' . University of Toronto Quarterly . Retrieved 25 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Rothstein , Mervyn ( 17 February 1986 ) . `` No Balm in Gilead for Margaret Atwood '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 25 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Evans , Mark ( 1994 ) . Nicholson , Colin , ed . Versions of History : The Handmaid 's Tale and its Dedicatees . Margaret Atwood : Writing and Subjectivity . London : Palgrave Macmillan UK . pp. 177 -- 188 . Jump up ^ `` Emma Watson interviews Margaret Atwood about ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . 14 July 2017 . Retrieved 26 July 2017 . Recently , someone said , `` Religion does n't radicalize people , people radicalize religion . '' So you can use any religion as an excuse for being repressive , and you can use any religion as an excuse for resisting repression ; it works both ways , as it does in the book . So that was one set of inspirations . Jump up ^ Curwood , Steve ( 13 June 2014 ) . `` Margaret Atwood on Fiction , The Future , and Environmental Crisis '' . Living on Earth . Retrieved 27 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Greene , Gayle ( July 1986 ) . `` Choice of Evils '' . The Women 's Review of Books . JSTOR 4019952 . Jump up ^ Armbruster , Jane ( Fall 1990 ) . `` Memory and Politics -- A Reflection on `` The Handmaid 's Tale '' `` . Social Justice . JSTOR 29766564 . ^ Jump up to : Atwood , Margaret ( May 2004 ) . `` The Handmaid 's Tale and Oryx and Crake `` In Context '' `` . PMLA . Jump up ^ Robertson , Adi ( 20 December 2014 ) . `` Does The Handmaid 's Tale hold up ? '' . The Verge . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Newman , Charlotte ( 25 September 2010 ) . `` The Handmaid 's Tale by Margaret Atwood '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 22 March 2016 . Jump up ^ McCarthy , Mary ( 9 February 1986 ) . `` Book Review '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 29 March 2016 . Jump up ^ For articles that attempt to draw parallels between The Handmaid 's Tale and Trump 's election as President of the United States , see : Nally , Claire ( May 31 , 2017 ) . `` How The Handmaid 's Tale is being transformed from fantasy into fact '' . The Independent . Retrieved June 18 , 2017 . Brooks , Katherine ( May 24 , 2017 ) . `` How ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' Villains Were Inspired By Trump '' . Huffington Post . Retrieved June 18 , 2017 . Robertson , Adi ( November 9 , 2016 ) . `` In Trump 's America , The Handmaid 's Tale matters more than ever '' . The Verge . Retrieved July 29 , 2017 . Douthat , Ross ( May 24 , 2017 ) . `` The Handmaid 's Tale , ' and Ours '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ For articles that disagree with attempts to draw parallels between The Handmaid 's Tale and Trump 's election as President of the United States , see : Crispin , Jessa ( May 2 , 2017 ) . `` The Handmaid 's Tale is just like Trump 's America ? Not so fast '' . The Guardian . Retrieved June 18 , 2017 . Smith , Kyle ( April 28 , 2017 ) . `` Sorry : ' Handmaid 's Tale ' tells us nothing about Trump 's America '' . New York Post . Retrieved June 18 , 2017 . Cohen , Ariel ( May 2 , 2017 ) . `` Stop comparing ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' to Trump 's America '' . The Washington Examiner . Retrieved July 29 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Hines , Molly ( 2006 ) . `` Margaret Atwood 's `` The Handmaid 's Tale '' : Fundamentalist religiosity and the oppression of women `` . Angelo State University . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Mercer , Naomi ( 2013 ) . `` '' Subversive Feminist Thrusts `` : Feminist Dystopian Writing and Religious Fundamentalism in Margaret Atwood 's `` The Handmaid 's Tale '' , Louise Marley 's `` The Terrorists of Irustan '' , Marge Piercy 's `` He , She and It '' , and Sheri S. Tepper 's `` Raising the Stones '' `` . University of Wisconsin -- Madison . Retrieved 29 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Callaway , Alanna ( 2008 ) . `` Women disunited : Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale as a critique of feminism '' . San Jose State University . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Handmaid 's Tale : A White Feminist Dystopia '' . theestablishment.co . Jump up ^ Kendall , Mikki ( June 2017 ) . `` The Handmaid 's Tale 's Greatest Failing Is How It Handles Race '' . Vulture . Jump up ^ `` Mikki Kendall @ Karnythia '' . Twitter . Jump up ^ `` AP English Literature and Composition Exam '' . College Board . Retrieved 26 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Perry , Douglas ( 30 December 2014 ) . `` Margaret Atwood and the ' Four Unwise Republicans ' : 12 surprises from the legendary writer 's Reddit AMA '' . The Oregonian . Retrieved 29 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 -- 2000 '' . American Library Association . Jump up ^ `` Annual Report 2002 -- 2003 : One Book , One Conference '' . American Library Association . June 2003 . Archived from the original on 1 December 2009 . Retrieved 21 May 2009 . Concerns inaugural program featuring Margaret Atwood held in Toronto , 19 -- 25 June 2003 . Jump up ^ Doyle , Robert P. ( 2017 ) . Banned Books : Defending Our Freedom to Read . American Library Association . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8389 - 8962 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Rushowy 2009 Jump up ^ Rushowy 2009b Jump up ^ Carr , Mitch ( 2 November 2012 ) . `` Guilford County moms want reading list criteria changed '' . Winston - Salem Journal . Retrieved 18 April 2017 . Jump up ^ Burack , Cynthia ( Winter 1988 -- 89 ) . `` Bringing Women 's Studies to Political Science : The Handmaid in the Classroom '' . NWSA Journal . 1 ( 2 ) : 274 -- 283 . JSTOR 4315901 . Jump up ^ Laz , Cheryl ( January 1996 ) . `` Science Fiction and Introductory Sociology : The ' Handmaid ' in the Classroom '' . Teaching Sociology. 24 ( 1 ) : 54 -- 63 . JSTOR 1318898 . Jump up ^ Bergmann , Harriet ( December 1989 ) . `` '' Teaching Them to Read `` : A Fishing Expedition in the Handmaid 's Tale '' . College English . JSTOR 378090 . Jump up ^ Larson , Janet ( Spring 1989 ) . `` Margaret Atwood and the Future of Prophecy '' . Religion and Literature . Jump up ^ Stein , Karen ( 1996 ) . `` Margaret Atwood 's Modest Proposal : The Handmaid 's Tale '' . University of Rhode Island . Retrieved 27 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Hardawar , Devindra ( 29 April 2016 ) . `` Hulu is adapting Margaret Atwood 's ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' '' . Engadget . Retrieved 30 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Otterson , Joe . `` ' Hulu Carried to Emmys Glory by Eight Wins for ' Handmaid 's Tale ' '' . Variety = 17 September 2017 . Retrieved 1 April 2018 . Jump up ^ Holloway , Daniel ( May 2 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Handmaid 's Tale ' Renewed for Season 3 at Hulu '' . Variety . Retrieved May 2 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Gummere , Joe . `` 2013 Audie Awards ® Finalists by category '' . joeaudio.com . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Artists : Lakes of Canada '' . CBC Music . Retrieved 18 April 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Tufts University : Department of Drama and Dance : Performances & Events '' . dramadance.tufts.edu . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 08 . Jump up ^ Clements , Andrew ( 5 April 2003 ) . `` Classical music & opera '' . The Guardian . UK . Jump up ^ Littler , William ( 15 December 2004 ) , Opera Canada . Jump up ^ `` The Handmaid 's tale '' . UKTW . Jump up ^ `` The Handmaid 's Tale debuts as ballet in Winnipeg '' . CA : CBC News . 15 October 2013 . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ Lyman , David ( 24 January 2015 ) . `` ' Handmaid 's Tale ' offers extreme view of future '' . Cincinnati.com . Works cited ( edit ) ( 17 June 2005 ) , `` Aliens Have Taken the Place of Angels '' , The Guardian ( 14 Jan 2009 ) , `` Complaint Spurs School Board to Review Novel by Atwood '' , The Toronto Star . Alexander , Lynn ( 22 May 2009 ) , `` The Handmaid 's Tale Working Bibliography '' , Department of English , University of Tennessee at Martin . Hyperlinked to online resources for Alexander , Dr Lynn ( Spring 1999 ) , Women Writers : Magic , Mysticism , and Mayhem ( course ) . Includes entry for book chap . by Kauffman . An Interview with Margaret Atwood on her novel , The Handmaid 's Tale ( n.d. ) . In Nashville Public Library . Armrbuster , J. ( 1990 ) . `` Memory and Politics -- A Reflection on `` The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Social Justice 17 ( 3 ) , 146 -- 52 . Atwood , Margaret ( 1985 ) , The Handmaid 's Tale , Toronto : McClelland & Stewart , ISBN 0 - 7710 - 0813 - 9 ( 1986 ) , The Handmaid 's Tale , New York : Anchor Books. ( 1998 ) , The Handmaid 's Tale , New York : Anchor Books ( div. of Random House ) , ISBN 978 - 0 - 385 - 49081 - 8 . Parenthetical page references are to the 1998 ed . Digitized 2 June 2008 by Google Books ( 311 pp . ) ( 2005 ) , La Servante écarlate ( The Handmaid 's Tale ) ( in French ) , Rué , Sylviane transl , Paris : J'ai Lu , ISBN 978 - 2 - 290 - 34710 - 2 . Atwood , M. ( 2004 ) . The Handmaid 's Tale and Oryx and Crake `` In Context '' . PMLA , 119 ( 3 ) , 513 -- 517 . Atwood , M. ( 20 January 2012 ) . `` Haunted by the Handmaid 's Tale '' . The Guardian . Bergmann , H.F. ( 1989 ) . `` Teaching Them to Read : A Fishing Expedition in the Handmaid 's Tale '' . College English , 51 ( 8 ) , 847 -- 854 . Burack , C. ( 1988 -- 89 ) . `` Bringing Women 's Studies to Political Science : The Handmaid in the Classroom '' . NWSA Journal 1 ( 2 ) , 274 -- 83 . Callaway , A.A. ( 2008 ) . `` Women disunited : Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale as a critique of feminism '' . San Jose State University . Curwood , Steve . ( 13 June 2014 ) . `` Margaret Atwood on Fiction , The Future , and Environmental Crisis '' . Living on Earth . n.p. Evans , M. ( 1994 ) . `` Versions of History : The Handmaid 's Tale and its Dedicatees '' . In C. Nicholson ( Ed . ) , Margaret Atwood : Writing and Subjectivity ( pp. 177 -- 188 ) . London , United Kingdom : Palgrave Macmillan UK . Greene , Gayle. ( 1986 ) . `` Choice of Evils '' . The Women 's Review of Books 3 ( 10 ) , 14 -- 15 . Gruss , S. ( 2004 ) . `` People confuse personal relations with legal structures '' . An Interview with Margaret Atwood . In Gender Forum . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Hines , M.E. ( 2006 ) . Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale : Fundamentalist Religiosity and the Oppression of Women . N.p. : Angelo State University . Kauffman , Linda ( 1989 ) , `` 6 . Special Delivery : Twenty - First Century Epistolarity in The Handmaid 's Tale '' , in Goldsmith , Elizabeth , Writing the Female Voice : Essays on Epistolary Literature , Boston : Northeastern University Press , pp. 221 -- 44 . Cited in Alexander . Langford , David ( Aug 2003 ) , `` Bits and Pieces '' , SFX ( UK : Ansible ) ( 107 ) . Larson , J.L. ( 1989 ) . `` Margaret Atwood and the Future of Prophecy '' . Religion & Literature 21 ( 1 ) , 27 -- 61 . Laz , C. ( January 1996 ) . `` Science Fiction and Introductory Sociology : The ' Handmaid ' in the Classroom '' . Teaching Sociology , 24 ( 1 ) , 54 -- 63 . Lewis , Lapham H. ( September 2004 ) . `` Tentacles of rage : The Republican propaganda mill , a brief history '' . Harper 's Magazine . Mercer , N. ( 2013 ) . `` Subversive Feminist Thrusts '' : Feminist Dystopian Writing and Religious Fundamentalism in Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale , Louise Marley 's The Terrorists of Irustan , Marge Piercy 's He , She and I. Madison , WI : University of Wisconsin . Miner , Madonne ( 1991 ) , `` ' Trust Me ' : Reading the Romance Plot in Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Twentieth Century Literature 37 : 148 -- 68 , doi : 10.2307 / 441844 . Morris , M. ( 1990 ) . `` Margaret Atwood , The Art of Fiction No. 121 '' . The Paris Review . Neuman , S.C. ( 2006 ) . `` ' Just a Backlash ' : Margaret Atwood , Feminism , and The Handmaid 's Tale '' . University of Toronto Quarterly , 75 ( 3 ) , 857 -- 868 . Oates , J.C. ( 2 November 2006 ) . `` Margaret Atwood 's Tale '' . The New York Review of Books . Perry , D. ( 30 December 2014 ) . `` Margaret Atwood and the ' Four Unwise Republicans ' : 12 surprises from the legendary writer 's Reddit AMA '' . The Oregonian . Rothstein , Mervyn. ( 17 February 1986 ) . `` No Balm in Gilead for Margaret Atwood '' . The New York Times . Rushowy , Kristin ( 16 January 2009 ) . `` Atwood Novel Too Brutal , Sexist For School : Parent '' . The Toronto Star . Archived from the original on 21 April 2016 . Stein , K.F. ( 1996 ) . `` Margaret Atwood 's Modest Proposal : The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Canadian Literature , 148 , 57 -- 72 . The 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 -- 2000 , American Library Association , 2009 . Andriano , Joseph . `` The Handmaid 's Tale as Scrabble Game . '' Critical Insights : The Handmaid 's Tale , edited by J. Brooks Bouson , Salem , 2009 . Salem Online . Elliott , John . `` A Watershed Moment for Atwood : '' The Ottawa Citizen , Dec 05 , 2004 , pp. A3 . ProQuest , http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.hacc.edu/docview/240809423?accountid=11302 . Further reading ( edit ) Adami , Valentina ( 2011 ) . Bioethics Through Literature : Margaret Atwood 's Cautionary Tales . Trier : WVT . Atwood , Margaret ( 2001 ) . Bloom , Harold , ed . The Handmaid 's Tale . Philadelphia : Chelsea House . Cooper , Pamela ( 1997 ) . `` ' A Body Story with a Vengeance ' : Anatomy and Struggle in The Bell Jar and The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Women 's Studies . 26 ( 1 ) : 89 -- 123 . doi : 10.1080 / 00497878.1997. 9979152 . Dopp , Jamie ( 1994 ) . `` Subject - Position as Victim - Position in The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Studies in Canadian Literature. 19 ( 1 ) : 43 -- 57 . Gardner , Laurel J ( 1994 ) . `` Pornography as a Matter of Power in The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Notes on Contemporary Literature. 24 ( 5 ) : 5 -- 7 . Garretts - Petts , WF ( 1988 ) . `` Reading , Writing and the Postmodern Condition : Interpreting Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Open Letter . Seventh . I . Geddes , Dan ( January 2001 ) . `` Negative Utopia as Polemic : The Handmaid 's Tale '' . The Satirist . Hammer , Stephanie Barbé ( 1990 ) . `` The World as It Will Be ? Female Satire and the Technology of Power in The Handmaid 's Tale '' . Modern Language Studies . XX ( 2 ) : 39 -- 49 . doi : 10.2307 / 3194826 . Malak , Amin ( 1987 ) . `` Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale and the Dystopian Tradition '' . Canadian Literature. 112 : 9 -- 16 . McCarthy , Mary ( 9 February 1986 ) . `` No Headline : The Handmaid 's Tale ( Boston : Houghton Mifflin ) '' . The New York Times ( review ) . Retrieved 11 April 2016 . Mohr , Dunja M. ( 2005 ) , Worlds Apart : Dualism and Transgression in Contemporary Female Dystopias , Jefferson , NC : McFarland 2005 Long chapter on The Handmaid 's Tale as utopia and dystopia . Myrsiades , Linda ( 1999 ) . `` Law , Medicine , and the Sex Slave in Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale '' . In Myrsiades , Kostas ; Myrsiades , Linda . Un-Disciplining Literature : Literature , Law , and Culture . New York : Peter Lang . pp. 219 -- 45 . Stanners , Barbara ; Stanners , Michael ; Atwood , Margaret ( 2004 ) . Margaret Atwood 's The Handmaid 's Tale . Top Notes Literature Guides . Seven Hills , NSW , Australia : Five Senses Education . External links ( edit ) Atwood , Margaret ( April 2003 ) . The Handmaid 's Tale ( Audio file format ) . World Book Club . BBC World Service ... The Handmaid 's Tale ballet at the Royal Winnipeg Ballet The Handmaid 's Tale Epub ( 27 , February 2018 ) Awards Preceded by - Arthur C. Clarke Award Succeeded by The Sea and Summer hide Works by Margaret Atwood Novels The Edible Woman ( 1969 ) Surfacing ( 1972 ) Lady Oracle ( 1976 ) Life Before Man ( 1979 ) Bodily Harm ( 1981 ) The Handmaid 's Tale ( 1985 ) Cat 's Eye ( 1988 ) The Robber Bride ( 1993 ) Alias Grace ( 1996 ) The Blind Assassin ( 2000 ) Oryx and Crake ( 2003 ) The Penelopiad ( 2005 ) The Year of the Flood ( 2009 ) MaddAddam ( 2013 ) The Heart Goes Last ( 2015 ) Hag - Seed ( 2016 ) Short fiction collections Dancing Girls ( 1977 ) Murder in the Dark ( 1983 ) Bluebeard 's Egg ( 1983 ) Wilderness Tips ( 1991 ) Good Bones ( 1992 ) Good Bones and Simple Murders ( 1994 ) The Labrador Fiasco ( 1996 ) The Tent ( 2006 ) Moral Disorder ( 2006 ) Stone Mattress ( 2014 ) Short stories `` Rape Fantasies '' ( 1977 ) `` The Resplendent Quetzal '' ( 1977 ) `` Happy Endings '' ( 1983 ) `` Unearthing Suite '' ( 1983 ) `` Freeforall '' ( 1986 ) Poetry collections Double Persephone ( 1961 ) The Circle Game ( 1964 ) Expeditions ( 1965 ) Speeches for Doctor Frankenstein ( 1966 ) The Animals in That Country ( 1968 ) The Journals of Susanna Moodie ( 1970 ) Procedures for Underground ( 1970 ) Power Politics ( 1971 ) Two - Headed Poems ( 1978 ) True Stories ( 1981 ) Interlunar ( 1984 ) Morning in the Burned House ( 1995 ) The Door ( 2007 ) Non-fiction Survival : A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature ( 1972 ) Negotiating with the Dead : A Writer on Writing ( 2002 ) Writing with Intent : Essays , Reviews , Personal Prose -- 1983 -- 2005 ( 2005 ) Payback : Debt and the Shadow Side of Wealth ( 2008 ) hide Winners of the Governor General 's Award for English - language fiction 1930s Bertram Brooker , Think of the Earth ( 1936 ) Laura Salverson , The Dark Weaver ( 1937 ) Gwethalyn Graham , Swiss Sonata ( 1938 ) Franklin D. McDowell , The Champlain Road ( 1939 ) 1940s Ringuet , Thirty Acres ( 1940 ) Alan Sullivan , Three Came to Ville Marie ( 1941 ) G. Herbert Sallans , Little Man ( 1942 ) Thomas Head Raddall , The Pied Piper of Dipper Creek ( 1943 ) Gwethalyn Graham , Earth and High Heaven ( 1944 ) Hugh MacLennan , Two Solitudes ( 1945 ) Winifred Bambrick , Continental Revue ( 1946 ) Gabrielle Roy , The Tin Flute ( 1947 ) Hugh MacLennan , The Precipice ( 1948 ) Philip Child , Mr. Ames Against Time ( 1949 ) 1950s Germaine Guèvremont , The Outlander ( 1950 ) Morley Callaghan , The Loved and the Lost ( 1951 ) David Walker , The Pillar ( 1952 ) David Walker , Digby ( 1953 ) Igor Gouzenko , The Fall of a Titan ( 1954 ) Lionel Shapiro , The Sixth of June ( 1955 ) Adele Wiseman , The Sacrifice ( 1956 ) Gabrielle Roy , Street of Riches ( 1957 ) Colin McDougall , Execution ( 1958 ) Hugh MacLennan , The Watch That Ends the Night ( 1959 ) 1960s Brian Moore , The Luck of Ginger Coffey ( 1960 ) Malcolm Lowry , Hear Us O Lord from Heaven Thy Dwelling Place ( 1961 ) Kildare Dobbs , Running to Paradise ( 1962 ) Hugh Garner , Hugh Garner 's Best Stories ( 1963 ) Douglas LePan , The Deserter ( 1964 ) ( no award ) ( 1965 ) Margaret Laurence , A Jest of God ( 1966 ) ( no award ) ( 1967 ) Alice Munro , Dance of the Happy Shades ( 1968 ) Robert Kroetsch , The Studhorse Man ( 1969 ) 1970s Dave Godfrey , The New Ancestors ( 1970 ) Mordecai Richler , St. Urbain 's Horseman ( 1971 ) Robertson Davies , The Manticore ( 1972 ) Rudy Wiebe , The Temptations of Big Bear ( 1973 ) Margaret Laurence , The Diviners ( 1974 ) Brian Moore , The Great Victorian Collection ( 1975 ) Marian Engel , Bear ( 1976 ) Timothy Findley , The Wars ( 1977 ) Alice Munro , Who Do You Think You Are ? ( 1978 ) Jack Hodgins , The Resurrection of Joseph Bourne ( 1979 ) 1980s George Bowering , Burning Water ( 1980 ) Mavis Gallant , Home Truths : Selected Canadian Stories ( 1981 ) Guy Vanderhaeghe , Man Descending ( 1982 ) Leon Rooke , Shakespeare 's Dog ( 1983 ) Josef Skvorecky , The Engineer of Human Souls ( 1984 ) Margaret Atwood , The Handmaid 's Tale ( 1985 ) Alice Munro , The Progress of Love ( 1986 ) M.T. Kelly , A Dream Like Mine ( 1987 ) David Adams Richards , Nights Below Station Street ( 1988 ) Paul Quarrington , Whale Music ( 1989 ) 1990s Nino Ricci , Lives of the Saints ( 1990 ) Rohinton Mistry , Such a Long Journey ( 1991 ) Michael Ondaatje , The English Patient ( 1992 ) Carol Shields , The Stone Diaries ( 1993 ) Rudy Wiebe , A Discovery of Strangers ( 1994 ) Greg Hollingshead , The Roaring Girl ( 1995 ) Guy Vanderhaeghe , The Englishman 's Boy ( 1996 ) Jane Urquhart , The Underpainter ( 1997 ) Diane Schoemperlen , Forms of Devotion ( 1998 ) Matt Cohen , Elizabeth and After ( 1999 ) 2000s Michael Ondaatje , Anil 's Ghost ( 2000 ) Richard B. Wright , Clara Callan ( 2001 ) Gloria Sawai , A Song for Nettie Johnson ( 2002 ) Douglas Glover , Elle ( 2003 ) Miriam Toews , A Complicated Kindness ( 2004 ) David Gilmour , A Perfect Night to Go to China ( 2005 ) Peter Behrens , The Law of Dreams ( 2006 ) Michael Ondaatje , Divisadero ( 2007 ) Nino Ricci , The Origin of Species ( 2008 ) Kate Pullinger , The Mistress of Nothing ( 2009 ) 2010s Dianne Warren , Cool Water ( 2010 ) Patrick deWitt , The Sisters Brothers ( 2011 ) Linda Spalding , The Purchase ( 2012 ) Eleanor Catton , The Luminaries ( 2013 ) Thomas King , The Back of the Turtle ( 2014 ) Guy Vanderhaeghe , Daddy Lenin and Other Stories ( 2015 ) Madeleine Thien , Do Not Say We Have Nothing ( 2016 ) Joel Thomas Hynes , We 'll All Be Burnt in Our Beds Some Night ( 2017 ) BNF : cb12398637r ( data ) GND : 4460070 - 7 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Handmaid%27s_Tale&oldid=846515541 '' Categories : 1985 science fiction novels 1985 Canadian novels Novels set in Boston Canadian novels adapted into films Canadian speculative fiction novels Debut speculative fiction novels Dystopian novels Feminist science fiction novels Fictional states of the United States Governor General 's Award - winning novels McClelland & Stewart books Metafictional novels Novels about totalitarianism Novels adapted into television programs Novels by Margaret Atwood Novels set in the future Philosophical novels Post-apocalyptic novels Feminist fiction Religion in science fiction Sterilization in fiction Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Pages using web citations with no URL Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from October 2013 Use dmy dates from March 2017 Pages to import images to Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Azərbaycanca Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano עברית Кыргызча Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 19 June 2018 , at 07 : 16 ( UTC ) . 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where do the names come from in handmaid's tale
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Cannabis drug testing
Cannabis drug testing - wikipedia Cannabis drug testing Jump to : navigation , search Part of a series on Cannabis Arts Culture ( show ) 420 Names Religion Judaism Latter - day Saints Sikhism Stoner film Stoner rock Terms Chemistry ( show ) Cannabinoid receptors Cannabinoid receptor type 1 Cannabinoid receptor type 2 Cannabinoids 2 - AG 2 - AGE , Noladin ether AEA CBC CBL CBD CBDV CBG CBN CBV NADA THC THCV Virodhamine Synthetic cannabinoids AM - 2201 CP - 55940 Dimethylheptylpyran HU - 210 HU - 331 JWH - 018 JWH - 073 JWH - 133 Levonantradol SR144528 WIN 55,212 - 2 Consumption ( show ) Edibles Smoking Tea Economics ( show ) Coffeeshop Cultivation Cooperative Shop Social Club Grow house Grow shop Head shop Marijuana vending machine Effects ( show ) Dependence Drug testing Effects of legalized cannabis Gateway drug theory Long term effects Medicine Memory Pregnancy Psychosis Time perception Forms ( show ) Bhang Blunt Charas Flower essential oil Hash oil Hashish Hemp Hemp oil Joint Kief Roach Synthetic cannabis Thai stick Tincture Law ( show ) Cannabis political parties Cannabis rights Decriminalizing Cannabis in the US Drug policy of California Drug policy of Colorado Drug policy of Portugal Drug policy of the Netherlands Legal and medical status of cannabis Legal history of cannabis in the US Legality of cannabis Legality of cannabis by country Legality of cannabis in the US Legal history of cannabis in Canada Timeline of cannabis US Legalization Timeline Regional ( show ) Adult lifetime cannabis use by country Annual cannabis use by country Afghanistan Alabama American Samoa Arkansas Australia British Columbia California Chile Egypt Georgia ( USA ) Guam Idaho India Indiana Iowa Jamaica Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Massachusetts Montana Morocco Nebraska New Zealand Nigeria North Dakota North Mariana Islands Oregon Palau Papua New Guinea Paraguay Portugal South Dakota Svalbard Switzerland Tennessee U.K. U.S. Uruguay Utah Vermont Virginia Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming American Indian reservations Marijuana tourism in the U.S. Variants ( show ) Autoflowering cannabis Cannabis genus Cannabis indica Cannabis ruderalis Cannabis sativa Cannabis strains Acapulco Gold Blue Dream Charlotte 's web Kush Malawi Gold Sour Diesel Related ( show ) Drug culture Illegal drug trade Psychedelia Cannabis portal Medicine portal Agriculture portal Cannabis drug testing describes various drug test methodologies for the use of cannabis in medicine , sport , and law . Cannabis use is highly detectable and can be detected by urinalysis , hair analysis , as well as saliva tests for days or weeks . Unlike alcohol , for which impairment can be reasonably measured using a breathalyser ( and confirmed with a blood alcohol content measurement ) , valid detection for cannabis is time - consuming , and tests can not determine an approximate degree of impairment . The lack of suitable tests and agreed - upon intoxication levels is an issue in the legality of cannabis debate , especially regarding intoxicated driving . The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure , elapsed time since use , and extent or duration of use . The Duquenois - Levine test is commonly used as a screening test in the field , but it can not definitively confirm the presence of cannabis , as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives . Contents ( hide ) 1 Biological timeline 2 Testing methods 2.1 Urine testing 2.2 Duquenois -- Levine reagent 2.3 Azo dyes ( Fast Blue B / BB ) 2.4 Beam 's CBD Test 2.5 Hair testing 2.6 Saliva testing 2.7 Blood testing 2.8 Neurological testing 3 Usage in law 4 References Biological timeline ( edit ) Main article : Effects of cannabis Most cannabinoids are lipophilic ( fat soluble ) compounds that easily store in fat , thus yielding a long elimination half - life relative to other recreational drugs . The THC molecule , and related compounds , are usually detectable in urine drug tests from 3 days up to 10 days according to Redwood Laboratories ; heavy users can produce positive tests for 1 -- 3 months after ceasing cannabis use . The length of time varies greatly according to metabolism , quantity , and frequency of use . Testing methods ( edit ) Urine testing ( edit ) Marijuana use can be detected up to 2 -- 5 days after exposure for infrequent users ; for heavy users : 1 -- 15 days ; for chronic users and / or users with high body fat : 1 -- 30 days Burning marijuana that has been contaminated with lead , ( medically reported in the field as high as 50 % by weight ) will result in a core temperature in the joint of around 1200 ° C in comparison to a standard cigarette with a core temperature of around 700 ° C or pipe ( common for marijuana ) with a core temperature of around 500 ° C , resulting in far greater THC absorption and can extend the detection time reliably to around 6 weeks . A responsible adult user of 5 - 10 grams per week of contaminated cannabis will reach levels of over 500 ng / ml a couple days to weeks after use in place of 150 - 200 ng / ml for uncontaminated cannabis and a single time user consuming just a couple of puffs of contaminated smoke will reach levels significantly over 50 ng / ml , though this has also been scientifically shown to be true of second hand marijuana smoke without lead exposure as well . This has been recorded in three occasions on a larger scale , in Massachusetts and Germany , and may occur in other areas as well . Under the typical 50 ng / mL cutoff for THC in the United States , an occasional or on - off user would be very unlikely to test positive beyond 3 -- 4 days since the last use , and a chronic user would be unlikely to test positive much beyond 7 days . Using a more sensitive cutoff of 20 ng / mL ( less common but still used by some labs ) , the most likely maximum times are 7 days and 21 days , respectively . In extraordinary circumstances of extended marijuana use , detection times of more than 30 days are possible in some individuals at the 20 ng / mL cutoff . However , one must remember that every individual is different , and detection times can vary due to metabolism or other factors . It also depends on whether actual THC or THC metabolites are being tested for , the latter having a much longer detection time than the former . THC ( found in marijuana ) may only be detectable in saliva / oral fluid for 2 -- 24 hours in most cases . The main metabolite excreted in the urine is 11 - nor - delta9 - tetrahydrocannabinol - 9 - carboxylic acid ( delta9 - THC - COOH ) . Most THC drug tests yields a positive result when the concentration of marijuana in urine exceeds 50 ng / mL . Urine Testing is an immunoassay based test on the principle of competitive binding . Drugs which may be present in the urine specimen compete against their respective drug conjugate for binding sites on their specific antibody . During testing , a urine specimen migrates upward by capillary action . A drug , if present in the urine specimen below its cut - off concentration , will not saturate the binding sites of its specific antibody . The antibody will then react with the drug - protein conjugate and a visible colored line will show up in the test line region of the specific drug strip . Cannabis use is included in the `` 10 - panel urine screen '' , as well as the `` SAMHSA - 5 '' , the five drugs tested for in standard NIDA approved drug tests . False positives have been known to be triggered by consuming hemp - seed bars and other products , although the more detailed , more expensive gas chromatography - mass spectrometer ( GCMS ) test can tell the difference . In 2011 , researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC and other drugs in urine . Similar claims have been made in web forums on that topic . However , a 2013 study conducted by researchers at the University of Utah School of Medicine refute the possibility of self - administered zinc producing false - negative urine drug tests . Common known pharmaceutical drugs which cause false positives in instant THC dip tests include : Efavirenz , Ibuprofen , Ketoprofen , Naproxen , Piroxicam , Promethazine , Proton pump inhibitors , Sulindac , Tolmetin Duquenois -- Levine reagent ( edit ) Main article : Duquenois -- Levine reagent The Duquenois -- Levine test is a simple chemical color reaction test initially developed in the 1930s by Pierre Duquénois . To administer the test , a police officer simply has to break a seal on a tiny micropipette of chemicals , and insert a particle of the suspected substance ; if the chemicals turn purple , this indicates the possibility of marijuana . But the color variations can be subtle , and readings can vary by examiner . It was adopted in the 1950s by the United Nations as the preferred test for cannabis . Step 1 -- addition of Duquenois reagent to dried petroleum ether extract Step 2 -- addition of hydrochloric acid Step 3 -- addition of chloroform Azo dyes ( Fast Blue B / BB ) ( edit ) The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ( UNODC ) found the azo dyes Fast Blue B ( 3 , 3 ' - dimethoxybiphenyl - 4 , 4 ' - bisdiazonium chloride ) and Fast Blue BB ( 4 - benzoylamino - 2 , 5 - diethoxybenzenediazonium chloride ) superior to Duquenois -- Levine , and are currently the most recommended reagents used for cannabinoid testing . The dyes , as water - soluble salts , are typically applied during thin layer chromatography . They are extremely sensitive to a variety of cannabinoids , and very specific in reaction . Fast Blue BB is slightly slower than Fast Blue B , but the resulting colors are more vivid and intense . Due to concerns about Fast Blue B being carcinogenic Fast Blue BB is often used instead , although it too is a suspected carcinogen . Other Azo dyes which are suitable for cannabinoid detection , albeit inferior to Fast Blue B / BB , include Corinth V , Blue LGC , Garnet GC ( GR ) , Red AV , Garnet GBO , Bordeaux GP , and Red P . Beam 's CBD test ( edit ) In 1911 , Dr. W. Beam discovered that the tissue of hemp , which is typically low in THC but high in CBD , gives a purple color when treated with bases . The test is relatively simple and inexpensive , and typically involves placing the test sample in a solution of 5 % potassium hydroxide and 95 % ethanol . After approximately ten minutes , samples with CBD exhibit a violet / purple / pink color . The test is specific to CBD and does not react to THC . Hair testing ( edit ) Cannabis use is detectable with hair tests and is generally included in the standard hair test . Hair tests generally take the most recent 1.5 inches of growth and use those for testing . That provides a detection period of approximately 90 days . If an individual 's hair is shorter than 1.5 inches , this detection period will be shorter . The detection window for body hair cannabis testing will be longer , because body hair grows slower than head hair and distorts the detection timeframe . Hair drug testing measures the marijuana parent metabolite embedded inside the hairshaft and eliminates external contamination as a source of a positive result . The detection window of hair drug testing for cannabis can be as low as 1 pg / mg . Saliva testing ( edit ) Cannabis is detectable by saliva testing . Just like blood testing , saliva testing detects the presence of parent drugs and not their inactive metabolites . This results in a shorter window of detection for cannabis by saliva testing . Delta 9 THC is the parent compound . If a saliva sample is tested in a lab , the detection level can be as low as 0.5 ng / mL ( up to 72 hours after intake ) and if an onsite instant saliva drug test is used , the cut off level is generally 50 ng / mL ( up to 12 hours after intake ) . Per National Institute on Drug Abuse saliva drug testing provides a reasonable alternative to other drug testing methods . Blood testing ( edit ) Cannabis is detectable in the blood for approximately 12 -- 24 hours , with heavy / frequent use detectable in the blood for up to 7 days . Because they are invasive and difficult to administer , blood tests are used less frequently . They are typically used in investigations of accidents , injuries and DUIs . Urine contains predominantly THC - COOH , while hair , oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC . Blood may contain both substances , with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage . Neurological testing ( edit ) Though very unlikely to be used , and more unlikely in court , Electroencephalography or EEG shows somewhat more persistent alpha waves of slightly lower frequency than usual . Cannabinoids produce a `` marked depression of motor activity '' via activation of neuronal cannabinoid receptors belonging to the CB1 subtype . Usage in law ( edit ) While there are blood , urine and hair tests that can track marijuana 's active ingredient in the body , marijuana lingers around for too long a period in order for one of these tests to determine the actual intake time . Also , the variation between different metabolisms makes an objective cannabis intoxication test very difficult . Cannabis testing is common in intoxicated driving investigations , and also as in probation guidelines . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Choices , N.H.S. ( 2016 - 12 - 12 ) . `` How long does cannabis stay in the body after smoking ? - Health questions - NHS Choices '' . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Marijuana Drug Info Resources Redwood Toxicology Laboratory '' . www.redwoodtoxicology.com . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : Erowid Cannabis ( Marijuana ) Vault : Drug Testing . Erowid.org ( 2010 - 02 - 28 ) . Retrieved on August 7 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Marijuana Detection Time Shorter Than Previously Assumed . norml.org ( 2006 - 02 - 23 ) . Retrieved on March 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ http://commonhealth.wbur.org/2015/06/lead-medical-marijuana-regulations Jump up ^ nejm.org Jump up ^ http://www.ndci.org/sites/default/files/ndci/THC_Detection_Window_0.pdf THE MARIJUANA DETECTION WINDOW : DETERMINING THE LENGTH OF TIME CANNABINOIDS WILL REMAIN DETECTABLE IN URINE FOLLOWING SMOKING A CRITICAL REVIEW OF RELEVANT RESEARCH AND CANNABINOID DETECTION GUIDANCE FOR DRUG COURTS By Paul L. Cary , M.S. , National Drug Court Institute Jump up ^ ndci.org Jump up ^ Venkatratnam , Abhishek ; Nathan H. Lents ( July 2011 ) . `` Zinc Reduces the Detection of Cocaine , Methamphetamine , and THC by ELISA Urine Testing '' . Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 35 ( 6 ) : 333 -- 340 . doi : 10.1093 / anatox / 35.6. 333 . PMID 21740689 . Jump up ^ Lin , Chia - Ni ; Strathmann , Frederick ( July 10 , 2013 ) . `` Elevated Urine Zinc Concentration Reduces the Detection of Methamphetamine , Cocaine , THC and Opiates in Urine by EMIT '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 37 : 665 -- 669 . doi : 10.1093 / jat / bkt056 . Jump up ^ `` Protonix Drug Interaction Sheet '' ( PDF ) . Food and Drug Administration . Pfizer . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/vetec/v001655 Jump up ^ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/f3378 Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=abw93p3C8NEC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60 Jump up ^ https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1969-01-01_4_page006.html ^ Jump up to : https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1974-01-01_4_page004.html Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=q5yFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA676&lpg=PA676 Jump up ^ http://www.madchat.fr/esprit/texture/spices/Marijuana/Marijuana_Chemistry-Michael_Starks_2nd_edition.pdf Jump up ^ `` Hair drug testing question and answers '' ( PDF ) . Quest Diagnostics . Jump up ^ `` The ABCs of Marijuana and Drug Testing '' . NORML.org . Jump up ^ `` Journal of Analytical Toxicology , Vol 25 , November / December 2002 '' . Forensic Fluids Laboratory . Jump up ^ `` Instant saliva drug testing cut - off levels '' . testcountry . Jump up ^ `` Before the House Committee on Commerce , Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations '' . NIDA . Retrieved 1998 . Check date values in : access - date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Coulter , C ; Taruc , M ; Tuyay , J ; Moore , C. `` Quantitation of tetrahydrocannabinol in hair using immunoassay and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection '' . Drug Test . Anal. 1 ( 234 -- 239 ) : 2009 . Jump up ^ Schwope , DM ; Milman , G ; Huestis , MA ( 2010 ) . `` Validation of an enzyme immunoassay for detection and semiquantification of cannabinoids in oral fluid '' . Clin. Chem. 56 : 1007 -- 1014 . doi : 10.1373 / clinchem. 2009.141754 . PMC 3159868 . PMID 20360126 . Jump up ^ Huestis MA , Scheidweiler KB , Saito T , Fortner N , Abraham T , Gustafson RA , Smith ML ( 2008 ) . `` Excretion of Δ9 - Tetrahydrocannabinol in Sweat '' . Forensic Sci. Int. 174 ( 2 -- 3 ) : 173 -- 177 . doi : 10.1016 / j. forsciint. 2007.04. 002 . PMC 2277330 . PMID 17481836 . Jump up ^ H.K. Kalant ; W.H.E. Roschlau ( 1998 ) . Principles of Medical Pharmacology ( 6th ed . ) . pp. 373 -- 375 . Jump up ^ Andersson , M. ; Usiello , A ; Borgkvist , A ; Pozzi , L ; Dominguez , C ; Fienberg , AA ; Svenningsson , P ; Fredholm , BB ; et al. ( 2005 ) . `` Cannabinoid Action Depends on Phosphorylation of Dopamine - and cAMP - Regulated Phosphoprotein of 32 kDa at the Protein Kinase A Site in Striatal Projection Neurons '' . Journal of Neuroscience. 25 ( 37 ) : 8432 -- 8 . doi : 10.1523 / JNEUROSCI. 1289 - 05.2005 . PMID 16162925 . 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Nylon
Nylon - wikipedia Nylon For other uses , see Nylon ( disambiguation ) . Nylon 6 , 6 Density 1.15 g / cm Electrical conductivity ( σ ) 10 S / m Thermal conductivity 0.25 W / ( m K ) Melting point 463 -- 624 K 190 -- 350 ° C 374 -- 663 ° F Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers , based on aliphatic or semi-aromatic polyamides . Nylon is a thermoplastic silky material that can be melt - processed into fibers , films or shapes . Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic polymer . DuPont began its research project in 1930 . The first example of nylon ( nylon 6 , 6 ) was produced using diamines on February 28 , 1935 , by Wallace Hume Carothers at DuPont 's research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station . In response to Carothers ' work , Paul Schlack at IG Farben developed nylon 6 , a different molecule based on caprolactam , on January 29 , 1938 . Nylon was first used commercially in a nylon - bristled toothbrush in 1938 , followed more famously in women 's stockings or `` nylons '' which were shown at the 1939 New York World 's Fair and first sold commercially in 1940 . During World War II , almost all nylon production was diverted to the military for use in parachutes and parachute cord . Wartime uses of nylon and other plastics greatly increased the market for the new materials . Nylon is made of repeating units linked by peptide bonds . Commercially , nylon polymer is made by reacting monomers which are either lactams , acid / amines or stoichiometric mixtures of diamines ( - NH ) and diacids ( - COOH ) . Mixtures of these can be polymerized together to make copolymers . Nylon polymers can be mixed with a wide variety of additives to achieve many different property variations . Nylon polymers have found significant commercial applications in fabric and fibers ( apparel , flooring and rubber reinforcement ) , in shapes ( molded parts for cars , electrical equipment , etc . ) , and in films ( mostly for food packaging ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 DuPont and the invention of Nylon 1.2 Origin of the name 1.3 Early marketing strategies 1.4 Production of nylon fabric 1.5 Introduction of nylon blends 1.6 Longer - term popularity 2 Chemistry 2.1 Nomenclature 2.2 Types of nylon 2.2. 1 Nylon 66 2.2. 2 Nylon 6 2.2. 3 Nylon 46 2.2. 4 Nylon 510 2.2. 5 Nylon 1 , 6 2.3 Monomers 2.3. 1 Amino acids and lactams 2.3. 2 Diacids 2.3. 3 Diamines 2.4 Polymers 2.4. 1 Homopolymers 2.4. 2 Copolymers 2.4. 3 Blends 2.5 Flammability 3 Bulk properties 3.1 Characteristics 4 Uses 4.1 Fibers 4.2 Shapes 4.3 Food packaging 4.4 Filaments 4.5 Other forms 4.5. 1 Extruded Profiles 4.5. 2 Powder Coating 4.5. 3 Instrument strings 5 Hydrolysis and degradation 6 Environmental impact , incineration and recycling 7 Current market and forecast 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links History ( edit ) Wallace Carothers DuPont and the invention of nylon ( edit ) DuPont , founded by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont , first produced gunpowder and later cellulose - based paints . Following WWI , DuPont produced synthetic ammonia and other chemicals . DuPont began experimenting with the development of cellulose based fibres , eventually producing the synthetic fibre rayon . DuPont 's experience with rayon was an important precursor to its development and marketing of nylon . DuPont 's invention of nylon spanned a nine - year period , ranging from the start of the project in 1930 to its exhibition at the World Fair in New York in 1939 . The project grew from a new structure at DuPont , suggested by Charles Stine in 1927 , in which the chemical department would be composed of several small research teams that would focus on `` pioneering research '' in chemistry and would `` lead to practical applications '' . Harvard instructor Wallace Hume Carothers was hired to direct the polymer research group . Initially he was allowed to focus on pure research , building on and testing the theories of German chemist Hermann Staudinger . He was very successful as research he undertook greatly improved the knowledge of polymers and contributed to science . In the spring of 1930 , Carothers and his team had already synthesized two new polymers . One was neoprene , a synthetic rubber greatly used during the war . The other was a white elastic but strong paste that would later become nylon . After these discoveries Carother 's team was made to shift its research from a more pure research approach investigating general polymerization to a more practically - focused goal of finding `` one chemical combination that would lend itself to industrial applications '' . It was n't until the beginning of 1935 that a polymer called `` polymer 6 - 6 '' was finally produced . The first example of nylon ( nylon 6 , 6 ) was produced by Wallace Carothers on February 28 , 1935 , at DuPont 's research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station . It had all the desired properties of elasticity and strength . However , it also required a complex manufacturing process that would become the basis of industrial production in the future . DuPont obtained a patent for the polymer in September 1938 , and quickly achieved a monopoly of the fibre . The production of nylon required interdepartmental collaboration between three departments at DuPont : the Department of Chemical Research , the Ammonia Department , and the Department of Rayon . Some of the key ingredients of nylon had to be produced using high pressure chemistry , the main area of expertise of the Ammonia Department . Nylon was considered a `` godsend to the Ammonia Department '' , which had been in financial difficulties . The reactants of nylon soon constituted half of the Ammonia department 's sales and helped them come out of the period of the Great Depression by creating jobs and revenue at DuPont . DuPont 's nylon project demonstrated the importance of chemical engineering in industry , helped create jobs , and furthered the advancement of chemical engineering techniques . In fact , it developed a chemical plant that provided 1800 jobs and used the latest technologies of the time , which are still used as a model for chemical plants today . `` The success of the nylon project thus had to do with its ability to achieve the rapid mobilization of a large number of DuPont 's chemists and engineers '' . The first nylon plant was located at Seaford , Delaware , beginning commercial production on December 15 , 1939 . On October 26 , 1995 , the Seaford plant was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society . Origin of the name ( edit ) DuPont went through an extensive process to generate names for its new product . In 1940 , John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters `` nyl '' were arbitrary and the `` on '' was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and Rayon . A later publication by DuPont ( Context , vol. 7 , no . 2 , 1978 ) explained that the name was originally intended to be `` No - Run '' ( `` run '' meaning `` unravel '' ) , but was modified to avoid making such an unjustified claim . Since the products were not really run - proof , the vowels were swapped to produce `` nuron '' , which was changed to `` nilon '' `` to make it sound less like a nerve tonic '' . For clarity in pronunciation , the `` i '' was changed to `` y . '' Early marketing strategies ( edit ) An important part of nylon 's popularity stems from DuPont 's marketing strategy . The fibre was promoted to increase demand before the product was available to the general market . Nylon 's commercial announcement occurred on October 27 , 1938 , at the final session of the Herald Tribune 's yearly `` Forum on Current Problems '' , on the site of the approaching New York City world 's fair . The `` first man - made organic textile fiber '' which was derived from `` coal , water and air '' and promised to be `` as strong as steel , as fine as the spider 's web '' was received enthusiastically by the audience , many of them middle - class women , and made the headlines of most newspapers . Nylon was introduced as part of `` The world of tomorrow '' at the 1939 New York World 's Fair and was featured at DuPont 's `` Wonder World of Chemistry '' at the Golden Gate International Exposition in San Francisco in 1939 . Actual nylon stockings were not shipped to selected stores in the national market until May 15 , 1940 . However , a limited number were released for sale in Delaware before that . The first public sale of nylon stockings occurred on October 24 , 1939 , in Wilmington , Delaware . 4,000 pairs of stockings were available , all of which were sold within three hours . Another added bonus to the campaign was that it meant reducing silk imports from Japan , an argument that won over many wary customers . Nylon was even mentioned by President Roosevelt 's cabinet , which addressed its `` vast and interesting economic possibilities '' five days after the material was formally announced . However , the early excitement over nylon also caused problems . It fueled unreasonable expectations that nylon would be better than silk , a miracle fabric as strong as steel that would last forever and never run . Realizing the danger of claims such as `` New Hosiery Held Strong as Steel '' and `` No More Runs '' , Du Pont scaled back the terms of the original announcement , especially those stating that nylon would possess the strength of steel . Also , DuPont executives marketing nylon as a revolutionary man - made material did not at first realize that some consumers experienced a sense of unease and distrust , even fear , towards synthetic fabrics . A particularly damaging news story , drawing on DuPont 's 1938 patent for the new polymer , suggested that one method of producing nylon might be to use cadaverine , a chemical extracted from corpses . Although scientists asserted that cadaverine was also extracted by heating coal , the public often refused to listen , as in the case of a woman who confronted one of the lead scientists at DuPont and refused to accept that the rumour was not true . DuPont changed its campaign strategy , emphasizing that nylon was made from `` coal , air and water '' , and started focusing on the personal and aesthetic aspects of nylon , rather than its intrinsic qualities . Nylon was thus domesticated , and attention shifted to the material and consumer aspect of the fiber with slogans like `` If it 's nylon , it 's prettier , and oh ! How fast it dries ! '' . Production of nylon fabric ( edit ) Nylon stockings being inspected in Malmö , Sweden , in 1954 After nylon 's nationwide release in 1940 , production was increased . 1300 tons of the fabric were produced during 1940 . During their first year on the market , 64 million pairs of nylon stockings were sold . Close - up photograph of the knitted nylon fabric used in stockings While nylon was marketed as the durable and indestructible material of the people , it was sold at almost twice the price of silk stockings ( $4.27 per pound of nylon versus $2.79 per pound of silk ) . Sales of nylon stockings were strong in part due to changes in women 's fashion . As Lauren Olds explains : `` by 1939 ( hemlines ) had inched back up to the knee , closing the decade just as it started off '' . The shorter skirts were accompanied by a demand for stockings that offered fuller coverage without the use of garters to hold them up . However , as of February 11 , 1942 , nylon production was redirected from being a consumer material to one used by the military . DuPont 's production of nylon stockings and other lingerie stopped , and most manufactured nylon was used to make parachutes and tents for World War II . Once the war ended , the return of nylon was awaited with great anticipation . Although DuPont projected yearly production of 360 million pairs of stockings , there were delays in converting back to consumer rather than wartime production . In 1946 , the demand for nylon stockings could not be satisfied , which led to the Nylon Riots . In one case , an estimated 40,000 people lined up in Pittsburgh to buy 13,000 pairs of nylons . In the meantime , women cut up nylon tents and parachutes left from the war in order to make blouses and wedding dresses . Between the end of the war and 1952 , production of stockings and lingerie used 80 % of the world 's nylon . DuPont put a lot of focus on catering to the civilian demand , and continually expanded its production . Introduction of nylon blends ( edit ) As pure nylon hosiery was sold in a wider market , problems became apparent . Nylon stockings were found to be fragile , in the sense that the thread often tended to unravel lengthwise , creating ' runs ' . People also reported that pure nylon textiles could be uncomfortable due to nylon 's lack of absorbency . Moisture stayed inside the fabric near the skin under hot or moist conditions instead of being `` wicked '' away . Nylon fabric could also be itchy , and tended to cling and sometimes spark as a result of static electrical charge built up by friction . Also , under some conditions stockings could decompose turning back into nylon 's original components of air , coal , and water . Scientists explained this as a result of air pollution , attributing it to London smog in 1952 , as well as poor air quality in New York and Los Angeles . The solution found to problems with pure nylon fabric was to blend nylon with other existing fibres or polymers such as cotton , polyester , and spandex . This led to the development of a wide array of blended fabrics . The new nylon blends retained the desirable properties of nylon ( elasticity , durability , ability to be dyed ) and kept clothes prices low and affordable . As of 1950 , the New York Quartermaster Procurement Agency ( NYQMPA ) , which developed and tested textiles for the army and navy , had committed to developing a wool - nylon blend . They were not the only ones to introduce blends of both natural and synthetic fibres . America 's Textile Reporter referred to 1951 as the `` Year of the blending of the fibers '' . Fabric blends included mixes like `` Bunara '' ( wool - rabbit - nylon ) and `` Casmet '' ( wool - nylon - fur ) . In Britain in November 1951 , the inaugural address of the 198th session of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts , Manufactures and Commerce focused on the blending of textiles . DuPont 's Fabric Development Department cleverly targeted French fashion designers , supplying them with fabric samples . In 1955 , designers such as Coco Chanel , Jean Patou , and Christian Dior showed gowns created with DuPont fibers , and fashion photographer Horst P. Horst was hired to document their use of DuPont fabrics . American Fabrics credited blends with providing `` creative possibilities and new ideas for fashions which had been hitherto undreamed of . '' Longer - term popularity ( edit ) In spite of oil shortages in the 1970s , consumption of nylon textiles continued to grow by 7.5 per cent per annum between the 1960s and 1980s . Overall production of synthetic fibres , however , dropped from 63 % of the worlds textile production in 1965 , to 45 % of the world 's textile production in early 1970s . The appeal of `` new '' technologies wore off , and nylon fabric `` was going out of style in the 1970s '' . Also , consumers became concerned about environmental costs throughout the production cycle : obtaining the raw materials ( oil ) , energy use during production , waste produced during creation of the fibre , and eventual waste disposal of materials that were not biodegradable . Synthetic fibres have not dominated the market since the 1950s and 1960s . As of 2008 , nylon continued to represent about 12 % ( 8 million pounds ) of the world 's production of synthetic fibres . Although pure nylon has many flaws and is now rarely used , its derivatives have greatly influenced and contributed to society . From scientific discoveries relating to the production of plastics and polymerization , to economic impact during the depression and the changing of women 's fashion , nylon was a revolutionary product . The first flag planted on the moon , in a symbolic gesture of celebration , was made of nylon . The flag itself cost $5.50 , but had to have a specially - designed flagpole with a horizontal bar so that it would appear to `` fly '' . `` Nylon is one of the great symbols of the American century , on a par no doubt with Coca - Cola in the consumer dreams of 20th century men and women . ( ... ) it is not only a technologically advanced product , it has also captured the public 's imagination ( ... ) : nylon as an object of desire '' . Chemistry ( edit ) External video `` Making Nylon `` , Bob Burk , CHEM 1000 , Carleton University , Ottawa , Canada `` Making Nylon 6 , 6 `` `` Nylon production `` , Royal Society of Chemistry `` Nylon and Rayon Manufacture 1949 `` , Encyclopedia Britannica Films Nylons are condensation polymers or copolymers , formed by reacting difunctional monomers containing equal parts of amine and carboxylic acid , so that amides are formed at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers . Most nylons are made from the reaction of a dicarboxylic acid with a diamine ( e.g. PA66 ) or a lactam or amino acid with itself ( e.g. PA6 ) . In the first case , the `` repeating unit '' consists of one of each monomer , so that they alternate in the chain , similar to the so - called ABAB structure of polyesters and polyurethanes . Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends , the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer , unlike natural polyamide proteins , which have overall directionality : C terminal → N terminal . In the second case ( so called AA ) , the repeating unit corresponds to the single monomer . Nomenclature ( edit ) In common usage , the prefix ' PA ' ( polyamide ) or the name ' Nylon ' are used interchangeably and are equivalent in meaning . The nomenclature used for nylon polymers was devised during the synthesis of the first simple aliphatic nylons and uses numbers to describe the number of carbons in each monomer unit , including the carbon ( s ) of the carboxylic acid ( s ) . Subsequent use of cyclic and aromatic monomers required the use of letters or sets of letters . One number after ' PA ' or ' Nylon ' indicates a homopolymer which is monadic or based on one amino acid ( minus H O ) as monomer : PA 6 or Nylon 6 : ( NH − ( CH ) − CO ) made from ε - Caprolactam . Two numbers or sets of letters indicate a dyadic homopolymer formed from two monomers : one diamine and one dicarboxylic acid . The first number indicates the number of carbons in the diamine . The two numbers should be separated by a comma for clarity , but the comma is often omitted . PA or Nylon 6 , 10 ( or 610 ) : ( NH − ( CH ) − NH − CO − ( CH ) − CO ) made from hexamethylenediamine and sebacic acid ; For copolymers the comonomers or pairs of comonomers are separated by slashes : PA 6 / 66 : ( NH - ( CH ) − NH − CO − ( CH ) − CO ) − ( NH − ( CH ) − CO ) made from caprolactam , hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid ; PA 66 / 610 : ( NH − ( CH ) − NH − CO − ( CH ) − CO ) − ( NH − ( CH ) − NH − CO − ( CH ) − CO ) made from hexamethylenediamine , adipic acid and sebacic acid . The term polyphthalamide ( abbreviated to PPA ) is used when 60 % or more moles of the carboxylic acid portion of the repeating unit in the polymer chain is composed of a combination of terephthalic acid ( TPA ) and isophthalic acid ( IPA ) . Types of nylon ( edit ) Nylon 66 ( edit ) Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 66 using amides . In the case of nylons that involve reaction of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid , it is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct , and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons ( u ) . To overcome this problem , a crystalline , solid `` nylon salt '' can be formed at room temperature , using an exact 1 : 1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other . The salt is crystallized to purify it and obtain the desired precise stoichiometry . Heated to 285 ° C ( 545 ° F ) , the salt reacts to form nylon polymer with the production of water . Nylon 6 ( edit ) Carothers overlooked the possibility of using lactams . That synthetic route was developed by Paul Schlack at IG Farben , leading to nylon 6 , or polycaprolactam -- formed by a ring - opening polymerization . The peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone . The 428 ° F ( 220 ° C ) melting point of nylon 6 is lower than the 509 ° F ( 265 ° C ) melting point of nylon 66 . Nylon 46 ( edit ) Nylon 510 ( edit ) Nylon 510 , made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid , was studied by Carothers even before nylon 66 and has superior properties , but is more expensive to make . In keeping with this naming convention , `` nylon 6 , 12 '' or `` PA 612 '' is a copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid . Similarly for PA 510 PA 611 ; PA 1012 , etc . Other nylons include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid / diamine products that are not based upon the monomers listed above . For example , some fully aromatic nylons ( known as `` aramids '' ) are polymerized with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid ( → Kevlar , Twaron ) or isophthalic acid ( → Nomex ) , more commonly associated with polyesters . There are copolymers of PA 66 / 6 ; copolymers of PA 66 / 6 / 12 ; and others . In general linear polymers are the most useful , but it is possible to introduce branches in nylon by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amino groups . The general reaction is : Two molecules of water are given off and the nylon is formed . Its properties are determined by the R and R ' groups in the monomers . In nylon 6 , 6 , R = 4C and R ' = 6C alkanes , but one also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to get the number it donates to the chain . In Kevlar , both R and R ' are benzene rings . Industrial synthesis is usually done by heating the acids , amines or lactams to remove water , but in the laboratory , diacid chlorides can be reacted with diamines . For example , a popular demonstration of interfacial polymerization ( the `` nylon rope trick '' ) is the synthesis of nylon 66 from adipoyl chloride and hexamethylene diamine . Nylon 1 , 6 ( edit ) Nylons can also be synthesized from dinitriles using acid catalysis . For example , this method is applicable for preparation of nylon 1 , 6 from adiponitrile , formaldehyde and water . Additionally , nylons can be synthesized from diols and dinitriles using this method as well . Monomers ( edit ) Nylon monomers are manufactured by a variety of routes , starting in most cases from crude oil but sometimes from biomass . Those in current production are described below . Amino acids and lactams ( edit ) ε - Caprolactam : Crude oil → benzene → cyclohexane → cyclohexanone → cyclohexanone oxime → caprolactam 11 - aminoundecanoic acid : Castor oil → ricinoleic acid → methylricinoleate → methyl - 11 - undecenoate → undecenoic acid → 11 - undecenoic acid → 11 - bromoundecanoic acid → 11 - aminoundecanoic acid Laurolactam : Butadiene → cyclododecatriene → cyclododecane → cyclododecanone → cyclododecanone oxime → laurolactam Diacids ( edit ) Adipic acid : Crude oil → benzene → cyclohexane → cyclohexanone + cyclohexanol → adipic acid Sebacic acid ( decanedioic acid ) : Castor oil → ricinoleic acid → sebacic acid Terephthalic acid : Crude oil → p - xylene → terephthalic acid Isophthalic acid : Crude oil → m - xylene → isophthalic acid Diamines ( edit ) Tetramethylene diamine ( putrescine ) Crude oil → propylene → acrylonitrile → succinonitrile → tetramethylene diamine Hexamethylene diamine ( HMD ) : Crude oil → butadiene → adiponitrile → hexamethylene diamine 1 , 9 - diaminononane : Crude oil → butadiene → 7 - octen - 1 - al → 1 , 9 - nonanedial → 1 , 9 - diaminononane 2 - methyl pentamethylene diamine is a by product of HMD production Trimethyl Hexamethylene diamine ( TMD ) : Crude oil → propylene → acetone → isophorone → TMD m - xylylene diamine ( MXD ) : Crude oil → m - xylene → isophthalic acid → isophthalonitrile → m - xylylene diamine With increasing interest in biobased materials other monomers are being investigated : 1 , 5 - pentanediamine ( cadaverine ) ( PMD ) : starch ( e.g. cassava ) → glucose → lysine → PMD . Polymers ( edit ) Due to the large number of diamines , diacids and aminoacids that can be synthesized , many nylon polymers have been made experimentally and characterized to varying degrees . A smaller number have been scaled up and offered commercially , and these are detailed below . Homopolymers ( edit ) Homopolymer nylons derived from one monomer Monomer Polymer caprolactam 6 11 - aminoundecanoic acid 11 ω - aminolauric acid 12 Examples of these polymers that are or were commercially available PA6 Lanxess Durethan B PA11 Arkema Rilsan PA12 Evonik Vestamid L Homopolymer polyamides derived from pairs of diamines and diacids ( or diacid derivatives ) . Shown in the table below are polymers which are or have been offered commercially either as homopolymers or as a part of a copolymer . 1 , 4 - diaminobutane 1 , 5 - diaminopentane MPMD HMD MXD Nonanediamine Decanediamine Dodecanediamine bis ( para-aminocyclohexyl ) methane trimethylhexamethylenediamine Adipic acid 46 D6 66 MXD6 Sebacic acid 410 510 610 1010 Dodecanedioic acid 612 1212 PACM12 Terephthalic acid 4T DT 6T 9T 10T 12T TMDT Isophthalic acid DI 6I Examples of these polymers that are or were commercially available PA46 DSM Stanyl PA410 DSM Ecopaxx PA4T DSM Four Tii PA66 DuPont Zytel Copolymers ( edit ) It is easy to make mixtures of the monomers or sets of monomers used to make nylons to obtain copolymers . This lowers crystallinity and can therefore lower the melting point . Some copolymers that have been or are commercially available are listed below : PA6 / 66 DuPont Zytel PA6 / 6T BASF Ultramid T ( 6 / 6T copolymer ) PA6I / 6T DuPont Selar PA PA66 / 6T DuPont Zytel HTN PA12 / MACMI EMS Grilamid TR Blends ( edit ) Most nylon polymers are miscible with each other allowing a range of blends to be made . The two polymers can react with one another by transamidation to form random copolymers . According to their crystallinity , polyamides can be : semi-crystalline : high crystallinity : PA46 and PA66 ; low crystallinity : PAMXD6 made from m - xylylenediamine and adipic acid ; amorphous : PA6I made from hexamethylenediamine and isophthalic acid . According to this classification , PA66 , for example , is an aliphatic semi-crystalline homopolyamide . Flammability ( edit ) Nylon clothing tends to be less flammable than cotton and rayon , but nylon fibres may melt and stick to skin . Bulk properties ( edit ) Above their melting temperatures , T , thermoplastics like nylon are amorphous solids or viscous fluids in which the chains approximate random coils . Below T , amorphous regions alternate with regions which are lamellar crystals . The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity . The planar amide ( - CO-NH - ) groups are very polar , so nylon forms multiple hydrogen bonds among adjacent strands . Because the nylon backbone is so regular and symmetrical , especially if all the amide bonds are in the trans configuration , nylons often have high crystallinity and make excellent fibers . The amount of crystallinity depends on the details of formation , as well as on the kind of nylon . Hydrogen bonding in Nylon 6 , 6 ( in mauve ) . Nylon 66 can have multiple parallel strands aligned with their neighboring peptide bonds at coordinated separations of exactly 6 and 4 carbons for considerable lengths , so the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can line up to form interchain hydrogen bonds repeatedly , without interruption ( see the figure opposite ) . Nylon 510 can have coordinated runs of 5 and 8 carbons . Thus parallel ( but not antiparallel ) strands can participate in extended , unbroken , multi-chain β - pleated sheets , a strong and tough supermolecular structure similar to that found in natural silk fibroin and the β - keratins in feathers . ( Proteins have only an amino acid α - carbon separating sequential - CO-NH - groups . ) Nylon 6 will form uninterrupted H - bonded sheets with mixed directionalities , but the β - sheet wrinkling is somewhat different . The three - dimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain depends on rotations about the 109.47 ° tetrahedral bonds of singly bonded carbon atoms . When extruded into fibers through pores in an industry spinneret , the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow . If subjected to cold drawing afterwards , the fibers align further , increasing their crystallinity , and the material acquires additional tensile strength . In practice , nylon fibers are most often drawn using heated rolls at high speeds . Block nylon tends to be less crystalline , except near the surfaces due to shearing stresses during formation . Nylon is clear and colorless , or milky , but is easily dyed . Multistranded nylon cord and rope is slippery and tends to unravel . The ends can be melted and fused with a heat source such as a flame or electrode to prevent this . Nylons are hygroscopic , and will absorb or desorb moisture as a function of the ambient humidity . Variations in moisture content have several effects on the polymer . Firstly , the dimensions will change , but more importantly moisture acts as a plasticizer , lowering the glass transition temperature ( T ) , and consequently the elastic modulus at temperatures below the T When dry , polyamide is a good electrical insulator . However , polyamide is hygroscopic . The absorption of water will change some of the material 's properties such as its electrical resistance . Nylon is less absorbent than wool or cotton . Characteristics ( edit ) The characteristic features of nylon 6 , 6 include : Pleats and creases can be heat - set at higher temperatures More compact molecular structure Better weathering properties ; better sunlight resistance Softer `` Hand '' High melting point ( 256 ° C / 492.8 ° F ) Superior colorfastness Excellent abrasion resistance On the other hand , nylon 6 is easy to dye , more readily fades ; it has a higher impact resistance , a more rapid moisture absorption , greater elasticity and elastic recovery . Variation of luster : nylon has the ability to be very lustrous , semilustrous or dull . Durability : its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts , tire cords , ballistic cloth and other uses . High elongation Excellent abrasion resistance Highly resilient ( nylon fabrics are heat - set ) Paved the way for easy - care garments High resistance to insects , fungi , animals , as well as molds , mildew , rot and many chemicals Used in carpets and nylon stockings Melts instead of burning Used in many military applications Good specific strength Transparent to infrared light ( − 12 dB ) Uses ( edit ) Fibers ( edit ) These worn out nylon stockings will be reprocessed and made into parachutes for army fliers c. 1942 Blue Nylon fabric ball gown by Emma Domb , Science History Institute Bill Pittendreigh , DuPont , and other individuals and corporations worked diligently during the first few months of World War II to find a way to replace Asian silk and hemp with nylon in parachutes . It was also used to make tires , tents , ropes , ponchos , and other military supplies . It was even used in the production of a high - grade paper for U.S. currency . At the outset of the war , cotton accounted for more than 80 % of all fibers used and manufactured , and wool fibers accounted for nearly all of the rest . By August 1945 , manufactured fibers had taken a market share of 25 % , at the expense of cotton . After the war , because of shortages of both silk and nylon , nylon parachute material was sometimes repurposed to make dresses . Nylon 6 and 66 fibers are used in carpet manufacture . Nylon is one kind of fiber used in tire cord . Herman E. Schroeder pioneered application of nylon in tires . Shapes ( edit ) Nylon resins are widely used in the automobile industry especially in the engine compartment . Molded nylon is used in hair combs and mechanical parts such as machine screws , gears and other low - to medium - stress components previously cast in metal . Engineering - grade nylon is processed by extrusion , casting , and injection molding . Type 6 , 6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of nylon , and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of molded nylon . For use in tools such as spudgers , nylon is available in glass - filled variants which increase structural and impact strength and rigidity , and molybdenum disulfide - filled variants which increase lubricity . Its various properties also make it very useful as a material in additive manufacturing ; specifically as a filament in consumer and professional grade fused deposition modeling 3D printers . Nylon can be used as the matrix material in composite materials , with reinforcing fibers like glass or carbon fiber ; such a composite has a higher density than pure nylon . Such thermoplastic composites ( 25 % to 30 % glass fiber ) are frequently used in car components next to the engine , such as intake manifolds , where the good heat resistance of such materials makes them feasible competitors to metals . Nylon was used to make the stock of the Remington Nylon 66 rifle . The frame of the modern Glock pistol is made of a nylon composite . Food packaging ( edit ) Nylon resins are used as a component of food packaging films where an oxygen barrier is needed . Some of the terpolymers based upon nylon are used every day in packaging . Nylon has been used for meat wrappings and sausage sheaths . The high temperature resistance of nylon makes it useful for oven bags . Filaments ( edit ) Nylon filaments are primarily used in brushes especially toothbrushes and string trimmers . They are also used as monofilaments in fishing line . Nylon 610 and 612 are the most used polymers for filaments . Its various properties also make it very useful as a material in additive manufacturing ; specifically as a filament in consumer and professional grade fused deposition modeling 3D printers . Other forms ( edit ) Extruded profiles ( edit ) Nylon resins can be extruded into rods , tubes and sheets . Powder coating ( edit ) Nylon powders are used to powder coat metals . Nylon 11 and nylon 12 are the most widely used . Instrument strings ( edit ) In the mid-1940s , classical guitarist Andrés Segovia mentioned the shortage of good guitar strings in the United States , particularly his favorite Pirastro catgut strings , to a number of foreign diplomats at a party , including General Lindeman of the British Embassy . A month later , the General presented Segovia with some nylon strings which he had obtained via some members of the DuPont family . Segovia found that although the strings produced a clear sound , they had a faint metallic timbre which he hoped could be eliminated . Nylon strings were first tried on stage by Olga Coelho in New York in January , 1944 . In 1946 , Segovia and string maker Albert Augustine were introduced by their mutual friend Vladimir Bobri , editor of Guitar Review . On the basis of Segovia 's interest and Augustine 's past experiments , they decided to pursue the development of nylon strings . DuPont , skeptical of the idea , agreed to supply the nylon if Augustine would endeavor to develop and produce the actual strings . After three years of development , Augustine demonstrated a nylon first string whose quality impressed guitarists , including Segovia , in addition to DuPont . Wound strings , however , were more problematic . Eventually , however , after experimenting with various types of metal and smoothing and polishing techniques , Augustine was also able to produce high quality nylon wound strings . Hydrolysis and degradation ( edit ) All nylons are susceptible to hydrolysis , especially by strong acids , a reaction essentially the reverse of the synthetic reaction shown above . The molecular weight of nylon products so attacked drops , and cracks form quickly at the affected zones . Lower members of the nylons ( such as nylon 6 ) are affected more than higher members such as nylon 12 . This means that nylon parts can not be used in contact with sulfuric acid for example , such as the electrolyte used in lead -- acid batteries . When being molded , nylon must be dried to prevent hydrolysis in the molding machine barrel since water at high temperatures can also degrade the polymer . The reaction is of the type : Environmental impact , incineration and recycling ( edit ) Berners - Lee calculates the average greenhouse gas footprint of nylon in manufacturing carpets at 5.43 kg CO equivalent per kg , when produced in Europe . This gives it almost the same carbon footprint as wool , but with greater durability and therefore a lower overall carbon footprint . Data published by PlasticsEurope indicates for nylon 66 a greenhouse gas footprint of 6.4 kg CO equivalent per kg , and an energy consumption of 138 kJ / kg . When considering the environmental impact of nylon , it is important to consider the use phase . In particular when cars are lightweighted , significant savings in fuel consumption and CO emissions are realised . Various nylons break down in fire and form hazardous smoke , and toxic fumes or ash , typically containing hydrogen cyanide . Incinerating nylons to recover the high energy used to create them is usually expensive , so most nylons reach the garbage dumps , decaying slowly . Discarded nylon fabric takes 30 - 40 years to decompose . Nylon is a robust polymer and lends itself well to recycling . Much nylon resin is recycled directly in a closed loop at the injection molding machine , by grinding sprues and runners and mixing them with the virgin granules being consumed by the molding machine . Current market and forecast ( edit ) As one of the largest engineering polymer families , the global demand of nylon resins and compounds was valued at roughly US $20.5 billion in 2013 . 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Jump up ^ `` Polyamide Resins for an Extreme World Flagship Rilsan ® PA11 and Complementary Resins & Alloys '' . Arkema . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` VESTAMID ® L -- polyamide 12 '' . EVONIK . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Stanyl ® Polyamide 46 : Driving change in automotive '' . DSM . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` EcoPaXX : The green performer '' . DSM . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ForTii ® Pushing peak performance '' . DSM . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` zytel - PA6 , PA610 , PA612 , PA66 - dupont '' . Material Data Center . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Zytel ® 74G33EHSL NC010 '' . DISTRUPOL . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Kutz , Myer ( 2011 ) . Applied plastics engineering handbook processing and materials ( 1st ed . ) . Amsterdam : William Andrew . p. 5 . ISBN 9781437735154 . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` DuPont TM Selar ® PA 2072 '' ( PDF ) . DuPont . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Grilamid L PA12 '' . EMS . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Samperi , Filippo ; Montaudo , Maurizio S. ; Puglisi , Concetto ; Di Giorgi , Sabrina ; Montaudo , Giorgio ( August 2004 ) . `` Structural Characterization of Copolyamides Synthesized via the Facile Blending of Polyamides '' . Macromolecules. 37 ( 17 ) : 6449 -- 6459 . doi : 10.1021 / ma049575x . Jump up ^ `` Flammable clothing '' . The Children 's Hospital at Westmead . Retrieved 5 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Workshop on Mass Burns ( 1968 : Washington , D.C. ) ( 1969 ) . Phillips , Anne W. ; Walter , Carl W. , eds . Mass burns : proceeding of a workshop , 13 - 14 March 1968 / sponsored by the Committee on Fire Research , Division of Engineering , National Research Council and the Office of Civil Defense , Dept. of the Army . Washington , D.C. : National Academy of Sciences ; Springfield , Va . : reproduced by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific & Technical Information . p. 30 . Retrieved 5 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Valerie Menzer 's Nylon 66 Webpage . Arizona University Jump up ^ Campbell , Ian M. ( 2000 ) . Introduction to synthetic polymers . Oxford : Oxford Univ . Press . ISBN 978 - 0198564706 . Jump up ^ `` Measurement of Moisture Effects on the Mechanical Properties of 66 Nylon - TA Instruments Thermal Analysis Application Brief TA - 133 '' ( PDF ) . TA Instruments . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Bjarnason , J.E. ; Chan , T.L.J. ; Lee , A.W.M. ; Celis , M.A. ; Brown , E.R. ( 2004 ) . `` Millimeter - wave , terahertz , and mid-infrared transmission through common clothing '' . Applied Physics Letters. 85 ( 4 ) : 519 . doi : 10.1063 / 1.1771814 . Jump up ^ Caruso , David ( 2009 ) . `` Saving the ( Wedding ) Day : Oral History Spotlight '' ( PDF ) . Transmutations . Fall ( 5 ) : 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on July 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Engine Oil Pan '' . www.materialdatacenter.com . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Youssef , Helmi A. ; El - Hofy , , Hassan A. ; Ahmed , Mahmoud H. ( 2011 ) . Manufacturing technology : materials , processes , and equipment . Boca Raton , FL : Taylor & Francis / CRC Press . p. 350 . ISBN 9781439810859 . Jump up ^ `` NYLON 6 , 6 ( Nylon 6 ) '' ( PDF ) . Serrata . Retrieved 19 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Nylon 6 vs. Nylon 66 : What 's the Difference ? '' . PolyOne . Retrieved 5 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Fiberglass and Composite Material Design Guide '' . Performance Composites Inc . Retrieved 27 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Page , I.B. ( 2000 ) . Polyamides as engineering thermoplastic materials . Shawbury , Shrewsbury : Rapra Technology Ltd. p. 115 . ISBN 9781859572207 . Jump up ^ `` How do you take care of a nylon 66 or 77 ? You do n't '' . Field & Stream. 75 ( 9 ) . 1971 . Jump up ^ Sweeney , Patrick ( 2013 ) . Glock deconstructed . Iola , Wis. : Krause . p. 92 . ISBN 978 - 1440232787 . Jump up ^ Colbert , Judy ( 2013 ) . It happened in Delaware : remarkable events that shaped history ( First ed . ) . Morris Book Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7627 - 6968 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Oven Bags '' . Cooks Info . Retrieved 19 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` The History of Classical guitar strings '' . Maestros of the Guitar . Retrieved 27 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Bellow , Alexander ( 1970 ) . The Illustrated History of the Guitar . New York : Franco Colombo . p. 193 . Jump up ^ `` Adhesive for nylon & kevlar '' . Reltek . Retrieved 27 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Berners - Lee , Mike ( 2010 ) . How bad are bananas ? : the carbon footprint of everything . London : Profile Books . p. 112 , table 6.1 . Jump up ^ Eco-profiles and Environmental Product Declarations of the European Plastics Manufacturers : Polyamide 6.6 . Brussels : PlasticsEurope AISBL. 2014 . Jump up ^ Typically 80 to 100 % is sent to landfill or garbage dumps , while less than 18 % are incinerated while recovering the energy . See Francesco La Mantia ( August 2002 ) . Handbook of plastics recycling . iSmithers Rapra Publishing . pp. 19 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85957 - 325 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` Approximate Time it Takes for Garbage to Decompose in the Environment '' ( PDF ) . NH Department of Environmental Services . Retrieved 31 March 2018 . Jump up ^ Boydell , P ; Bradfield , C ; von Falkenhausen , V ; Prautzsch , G ( 1995 ) . `` Recycling of Waste from Glass - reinforced nylon resins '' . Engineering Design . 2 : 8 -- 10 . Jump up ^ `` Market Report : Global Polyamide Market '' . Acmite Market Intelligence . December 2014 . Further reading ( edit ) Textiles by Sara J. Kadolph , ISBN 0 - 13 - 118769 - 4 Kohan , Melvin ( 1995 ) . Nylon Plastics Handbook . Munich : Carl Hanser Verlag . ISBN 1569901899 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nylon . Making Nylon , Bob Burk , CHEM 1000 , Carleton University , Ottawa , Canada ) Polyamide Nylon Plastic `` How Nylon Yarn Is Made '' , January 1946 , Popular Science Plastics Chemical types Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ( ABS ) Cross-linked polyethylene ( PEX , XLPE ) Ethylene vinyl acetate ( EVA ) Poly ( methyl methacrylate ) ( PMMA ) Polyacrylic acid ( PAA ) Polyamide ( PA ) Polybutylene ( PB ) Polybutylene terephthalate ( PBT ) Polycarbonate ( PC ) Polyetheretherketone ( PEEK ) Polyester ( PEs ) Polyethylene ( PE ) Polyethylene terephthalate ( PET , PETE ) Polyimide ( PI ) Polylactic acid ( PLA ) Polyoxymethylene ( POM ) Polyphenyl ether ( PPE ) Polypropylene ( PP ) Polystyrene ( PS ) Polysulfone ( PES ) Polytetrafluoroethylene ( PTFE ) Polyurethane ( PU ) Polyvinyl chloride ( PVC ) Polyvinylidene chloride ( PVDC ) Styrene maleic anhydride ( SMA ) Styrene - acrylonitrile ( SAN ) Mechanical types Thermoplastic Duroplast Corrugated plastic Polymeric foam High performance plastics Additives Polymer additive Colorants Plasticizer Stabilizer for polymers Biodegradable additives Products Plastic industry Commodity plastics Engineering plastics Plastic film Plastic bottle Plastic bag Plastic shopping bag Plastic cutlery Blister pack Foam food container Construction Geosynthetics Category : Plastics applications Environment and health Health issues of plastics and polyhalogenated compounds ( PHCs ) Plasticizers : Phthalates DIBP DBP BBP ( BBzP ) DIHP DEHP ( DOP ) DIDP DINP Miscellaneous plasticizers Organophosphates Adipates ( DEHA DOA ) Monomers Bisphenol A ( BPA , in Polycarbonates ) Vinyl chloride ( in PVC ) Miscellaneous additives incl . PHCs PBDEs PCBs Organotins PFCs Perfluorooctanoic acid Health issues Teratogen Carcinogen Endocrine disruptor Diabetes Obesity Obesogen Polymer fume fever Pollution Plastic pollution Great Pacific garbage patch Persistent organic pollutant Dioxins List of environmental health hazards Regulations California Proposition 65 European REACH regulation Japan Toxic Substances Law Toxic Substances Control Act Waste Plastic pollution Great Pacific garbage patch Persistent organic pollutant Dioxins List of environmental health hazards Plastic recycling Biodegradable plastic Identification codes Fibers Natural Plant Abacá Bagasse Bamboo Coir Cotton Fique Flax Linen Hemp Jute Kapok Kenaf Piña Pine Raffia Ramie Rattan Sisal Wood Animal Alpaca Angora Byssus Camel hair Cashmere Catgut Chiengora Guanaco Hair Llama Mohair Pashmina Qiviut Rabbit Silk Tendon Spider silk Wool Vicuña Yak Mineral Asbestos Man - made Regenerated Art silk Semi-synthetic Acetate Diacetate Lyocell Modal Rayon Triacetate Synthetic Mineral Glass Carbon Tenax Basalt Metallic Polymer Acrylic Aramid Twaron Kevlar Technora Nomex Microfiber Modacrylic Nylon Olefin Polyester Polyethylene Dyneema Spectra Spandex Vinylon Vinyon Zylon Commons Fabric Woven Aertex Airdura Airguard Barathea Barkcloth Batiste Bedford cord Bengaline Beta cloth Bombazine Brilliantine Broadcloth Buckram Bunting Burlap C change Calico Cambric Canvas Chambray Capilene Cedar bark Challis Char cloth Charmeuse Charvet Cheesecloth Chiffon Chino Chintz Cloqué Cloth of gold Cordura Corduroy Duck Coutil Crape Crêpe Cretonne Dazzle Denim Dimity Donegal tweed Dornix Dowlas Drill Drugget Eolienne Flannel Foulard Fustian Gabardine Gauze Gazar Georgette Ghalamkar Gingham Grenadine Grenfell Cloth Grosgrain Habutai Haircloth Harris Tweed Herringbone Himroo Hodden Irish linen Jamdani Kerseymere Khādī Khaki drill Kente cloth Lamé Lawn Linsey - woolsey Loden Longcloth Mackinaw Madapolam Madras Moleskin Muslin Nainsook Nankeen Ninon Oilskin Organdy Organza Osnaburg Ottoman Oxford Paduasoy Percale Pongee Poplin Rakematiz Rayadillo Rep Rinzu Ripstop Russell cord Saga Nishiki Samite Sateen Satin Saye Scarlet Seersucker Sendal Serge Scrim Shot silk Stuff Taffeta Tais Toile Tucuyo Tweed Twill Ultrasuede Vegetable flannel Ventile Vinyl coated polyester Viyella Voile Wadmal Wigan Whipcord Zephyr Zorbeez Figured woven Brocade Camlet Damask Lampas Songket Pile woven Baize Chenille Corduroy Crimplene Fustian Mockado Moquette Plush Polar fleece Terrycloth Velours du Kasaï Velvet Velveteen Zibeline Nonwoven Felt Cedar bark Knitted Boiled wool Coolmax Machine knitting Milliskin Jersey Velour Netted Bobbinet Carbon fiber Lace Mesh Needlerun net Ninon Tulle Technical Ballistic nylon Ban - Lon Conductive Darlexx E-textiles Gannex Gore - Tex Silnylon Spandex Stub - tex SympaTex Windstopper Patterns Argyle Bizarre silk Chiné Herringbone Houndstooth Paisley Pin stripes Polka dot Shweshwe Tartan ( plaid ) Tattersall Textile fibers Acrylic Alpaca Angora Cashmere Coir Cotton Eisengarn Hemp Jute Kevlar Linen Mohair Nylon Microfiber Olefin Pashmina Polyester Piña Ramie Rayon Sea silk Silk Sisal Spandex Spider silk Wool Finishing and printing Androsia Batik Beetling Bingata Bògòlanfini Burnout Calendering Decatising Devoré Finishing Fulling Heatsetting Mercerization Moire Nap Rogan printing Rōketsuzome Roller printing Sanforization Tenterhook Textile printing Warp printing Waxed cotton Woodblock printing Indienne Fabric mills Carlo Barbera Cerruti Dormeuil Drago Ermenegildo Zegna E. Thomas Holland & Sherry Larusmiani Loro Piana Reda Scabal Vitale Barberis Canonico Related Dyeing Fiber History of textiles History of silk Knitting Pandy Shrinkage Swatches and strike - offs Synthetic fabric Terminology Manufacturing Preservation Weaving Yarn Clothing materials and parts Garment Structures Armscye Collar Clerical collar Detachable collar Cuff Dart Facing Fly Lapel Gore Hem Lining Placket Pleat Pocket Revers Ruffle Shoulder pad Strap Sleeve Train Waistband Yoke Textiles Artificial leather Cotton Elastic Fur Linen Nylon Polyester Rayon Silk Spandex Wool Animals hide / Leather Calf Deer Goat Kangaroo Ostrich Seal Sheep Snake Stingray Fasteners Back closure Belt hook Buckle Button Buttonhole Frog Shank Hook - and - eye Hook and loop Velcro Snap Zipper Seams Neckline Bustline Waistline Hemline NDL : 00567992 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nylon&oldid=846241288 '' Categories : Products introduced in 1935 American inventions Commodity chemicals Dielectrics DuPont Plastics Polyamides Synthetic fibers Hidden categories : Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2008 All articles containing potentially dated statements Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2014 Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Asturianu Bân - lâm - gú Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Қазақша Кыргызча Lietuvių Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog తెలుగు Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 54 more Edit links This page was last edited on 17 June 2018 , at 11 : 11 ( UTC ) . 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Comparison between U.S. states and countries by GDP (nominal)
Comparison between US states and countries by GDP ( nominal ) - wikipedia Comparison between US states and countries by GDP ( nominal ) This is a comparison between US states and countries ' nominal Gross Domestic Product for the Alternative Future as based on International Monetary Fund and Bureau of Economic Analysis data . Many of the states of the United States have large Gross Domestic Product ( called gross state product ) which would rank highly on a list of countries world GDP . Contents 1 State and country data 2 See also 3 Notes 4 References State and country data ( edit ) State GDPs , 3rd Quarter 2017 Rank State GDP ( in millions $ USD ) California 2,751,302 Texas 1,706,077 New York 1,111,714 Florida 976,658 5 Illinois 823,999 6 Pennsylvania 750,923 7 Ohio 656,190 8 New Jersey 592,859 9 Georgia 558,181 10 North Carolina 546,144 11 Massachusetts 530,675 12 Michigan 517,865 13 Virginia 513,776 14 Washington 506,534 15 Maryland 397,815 16 Indiana 361,732 17 Minnesota 355,665 18 Tennessee 346,767 19 Colorado 342,749 20 Arizona 321,635 21 Missouri 309,414 22 Wisconsin 290,902 23 Connecticut 263,834 24 Louisiana 244,472 25 Oregon 239,200 26 South Carolina 220,270 27 Alabama 216,094 28 Kentucky 205,448 29 Oklahoma 190,723 30 Iowa 190,103 31 Utah 167,462 32 Nevada 153,802 33 Kansas 153,307 -- District of Columbia 132,366 34 Arkansas 127,839 35 Nebraska 119,983 36 Mississippi 112,946 37 New Mexico 98,526 38 Hawaii 88,144 39 New Hampshire 80,226 40 West Virginia 77,665 41 Delaware 75,733 42 Idaho 72,191 43 Maine 61,779 44 Rhode Island 59,722 45 North Dakota 55,643 46 Alaska 52,210 47 South Dakota 48,810 48 Montana 47,820 49 Wyoming 41,284 50 Vermont 32,284 Total United States 19,384,746 National GDPs , 2nd quarter 2015 Rank Nation GDP ( in millions $ USD ) World 73,170,986 United States 17,947,000 9999999 European Union 16,220,370 China 11,007,721 Japan 4,123,258 Germany 3,357,614 5 United Kingdom 2,849,345 6 France 2,421,560 7 India 2,090,706 8 Italy 1,815,757 9 Brazil 1,772,589 10 Canada 1,552,386 11 South Korea 1,376,868 12 Russia 1,324,734 13 Australia 1,322,827 14 Spain 1,321,915 15 Mexico 1,144,334 16 Indonesia 858,953 17 Netherlands 738,419 18 Turkey 733,642 19 Switzerland 664,603 20 Saudi Arabia 653,219 21 Argentina 585,623 22 Taiwan 523,581 23 Sweden 492,618 24 Nigeria 490,207 25 Poland 474,893 26 Belgium 454,687 27 Thailand 395,288 28 Norway 389,482 29 Iran 387,611 30 Austria 374,124 31 United Arab Emirates 345,483 32 Egypt 330,765 33 South Africa 312,957 Hong Kong 309,931 34 Malaysia 296,219 35 Israel 296,073 36 Denmark 294,951 37 Colombia 293,243 38 Singapore 292,734 39 Philippines 291,965 40 Pakistan 269,971 41 Chile 240,222 42 Venezuela 239,572 43 Ireland 238,031 44 Finland 229,671 45 Bangladesh 205,715 46 Portugal 199,077 47 Greece 195,320 48 Peru 192,141 49 Vietnam 191,454 50 Qatar 185,395 51 Czech Republic 181,858 52 Romania 177,315 53 Kazakhstan 173,212 54 Algeria 172,278 55 New Zealand 172,248 56 Iraq 169,460 57 Kuwait 120,682 58 Hungary 120,636 59 Morocco 103,142 60 Angola 102,979 61 Ecuador 98,828 62 Ukraine 90,524 63 Slovak Republic 86,629 64 Sudan 83,612 65 Sri Lanka 82,095 66 Syria 77,460 67 Dominican Republic 67,492 68 Myanmar 66,983 69 Uzbekistan 65,683 70 Guatemala 63,911 71 Ethiopia 61,629 72 Kenya 61,405 73 Oman 58,491 74 Luxembourg 57,423 75 Belarus 54,609 76 Azerbaijan 54,048 77 Uruguay 53,794 78 Costa Rica 52,898 79 Panama 52,132 80 Lebanon 51,168 81 Bulgaria 48,957 82 Croatia 48,850 Macao 46,178 83 Tanzania 44,904 84 Tunisia 43,581 85 Slovenia 42,768 86 Lithuania 41,267 87 Democratic Republic of the Congo 38,873 88 Libya 38,300 89 Jordan 37,620 90 Yemen 36,852 91 Serbia 36,513 92 Ghana 36,039 93 Turkmenistan 35,680 94 Bolivia 33,210 95 Côte d'Ivoire 31,172 96 Bahrain 30,411 97 Cameroon 28,478 98 Paraguay 28,077 99 Latvia 27,048 100 El Salvador 25,766 101 Uganda 24,740 102 Trinidad and Tobago 24,553 103 Estonia 22,704 104 Zambia 21,889 105 Nepal 21,356 106 Honduras 20,295 107 Cyprus 19,330 108 Afghanistan 19,204 109 Cambodia 18,155 110 Iceland 16,718 111 Papua New Guinea 16,090 112 Bosnia and Herzegovina 15,794 113 Mozambique 14,965 114 Gabon 14,350 115 Zimbabwe 14,269 116 Georgia 14,007 117 Jamaica 13,924 118 Senegal 13,665 119 Mali 13,066 120 Botswana 12,860 121 Namibia 12,832 122 Laos 12,503 123 Nicaragua 12,222 124 Brunei Darussalam 11,786 125 Mongolia 11,735 126 Mauritius 11,608 127 Albania 11,543 128 Burkina Faso 11,009 129 Chad 10,894 130 Armenia 10,571 131 Macedonia 9,922 132 Malta 9,801 133 Madagascar 9,737 134 Equatorial Guinea 9,403 135 Republic of Congo 8,878 136 Bahamas 8,705 137 Haiti 8,618 138 Benin 8,471 139 Rwanda 8,267 140 Tajikistan 7,816 141 Niger 7,151 142 Guinea 6,696 143 Kyrgyz Republic 6,650 144 Malawi 6,416 145 Moldova 6,414 146 Kosovo 6,355 147 Suriname 5,192 148 Fiji 4,782 149 Mauritania 4,752 150 Eritrea 4,666 151 Barbados 4,412 152 Sierra Leone 4,167 153 Togo 4,165 154 Montenegro 4,039 155 Swaziland 4,028 156 Guyana 3,164 157 Maldives 3,130 158 Burundi 2,881 159 South Sudan 2,627 160 Timor - Leste 2,620 161 Bhutan 2,214 162 Liberia 2,035 163 Lesotho 2,032 164 Belize 1,763 165 Djibouti 1,727 166 Central African Republic 1,605 167 Cabo Verde 1,595 168 San Marino 1,566 169 St. Lucia 1,416 170 Seychelles 1,375 171 Antigua and Barbuda 1,287 172 Solomon Islands 1,147 173 Guinea - Bissau 1,057 174 Grenada 954 175 St. Kitts and Nevis 896 176 The Gambia 893 177 Samoa 838 178 Vanuatu 765 179 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 757 180 Comoros 589 181 Dominica 497 182 Tonga 414 183 São Tomé and Príncipe 318 184 Micronesia 318 185 Palau 287 186 Marshall Islands 183 187 Kiribati 162 188 Tuvalu 33 National GDPs and States GDPs , 2nd quarter 2015 Rank Nation GDP ( in millions $ USD ) World 73,170,986 United States 17,947,000 9999999 European Union 16,220,370 China 11,007,721 Japan 4,123,258 Germany 3,357,614 United Kingdom 2,849,345 5 California 2,424,033 6 France 2,421,560 7 India 2,090,706 8 Italy 1,815,757 9 Brazil 1,772,589 10 Texas 1,648,007 11 Canada 1,552,386 12 South Korea 1,376,868 13 Russia 1,324,734 14 Australia 1,223,887 15 Spain 1,221,785 16 Mexico 1,144,334 17 New York 1,124,406 18 Florida 883,735 19 Indonesia 858,953 20 Illinois 764,817 21 Netherlands 738,419 22 Turkey 733,642 23 Pennsylvania 677,582 24 Switzerland 664,603 25 Saudi Arabia 653,219 26 Ohio 592,899 27 Argentina 585,623 28 New Jersey 573,947 29 Taiwan 523,581 30 North Carolina 503,745 31 Georgia 496,180 32 Sweden 492,618 33 Nigeria 490,207 34 Virginia 476,919 35 Poland 474,893 36 Massachusetts 473,606 37 Michigan 462,252 38 Belgium 454,687 39 Washington 446,096 40 Thailand 395,288 41 Norway 389,482 42 Iran 387,611 43 Austria 374,124 44 Maryland 360,969 45 United Arab Emirates 345,483 46 Minnesota 330,782 47 Egypt 330,765 48 Indiana 326,538 49 Colorado 316,535 50 South Africa 312,957 51 Hong Kong 309,931 52 Tennessee 307,125 53 Wisconsin 296,971 54 Malaysia 296,219 55 Israel 296,073 56 Arizona 295,445 57 Denmark 294,951 58 Colombia 293,243 59 Singapore 292,734 60 Philippines 291,965 61 Missouri 287,207 62 Pakistan 269,971 63 Connecticut 259,661 64 Louisiana 252,965 65 Chile 240,222 66 Venezuela 239,572 67 Ireland 238,031 68 Finland 229,671 69 Oregon 225,661 70 Alabama 207,303 71 Bangladesh 205,715 72 Portugal 199,077 73 South Carolina 196,887 74 Greece 195,320 75 Kentucky 192,874 76 Peru 192,141 77 Vietnam 191,454 78 Qatar 185,395 79 Czech Republic 181,858 80 Oklahoma 181,089 81 Romania 177,315 82 Kazakhstan 173,212 83 Algeria 172,278 84 New Zealand 172,248 85 Iraq 169,460 86 Iowa 168,089 87 Utah 146,697 88 Kansas 146,219 89 Nevada 140,608 90 Arkansas 122,492 91 District of Columbia 121,798 92 Kuwait 120,682 93 Hungary 120,636 94 Nebraska 112,208 95 Mississippi 106,880 96 Morocco 103,142 97 Angola 102,979 98 Ecuador 98,828 99 New Mexico 90,810 100 Ukraine 90,524 101 Slovak Republic 86,629 102 Sudan 83,612 103 Sri Lanka 82,095 104 Hawaii 79,595 105 Syria 77,460 106 New Hampshire 71,632 107 West Virginia 71,123 108 Dominican Republic 67,492 109 Myanmar 66,983 110 Delaware 66,150 111 Uzbekistan 65,683 112 Idaho 65,202 113 Guatemala 63,911 114 Ethiopia 61,629 115 Kenya 61,405 116 Oman 58,491 117 Luxembourg 57,423 118 Rhode Island 56,323 119 Maine 55,137 120 Belarus 54,609 121 Alaska 54,256 122 Azerbaijan 54,048 123 Uruguay 53,794 124 North Dakota 53,686 125 Costa Rica 52,898 126 Panama 52,132 127 Lebanon 51,168 128 Bulgaria 48,957 129 Croatia 48,850 130 Macao 46,178 131 Montana 45,799 132 South Dakota 45,415 133 Tanzania 44,904 134 Tunisia 43,581 135 Slovenia 42,768 136 Lithuania 41,267 137 Wyoming 40,170 138 Democratic Republic of the Congo 38,873 139 Libya 38,300 140 Jordan 37,620 142 Yemen 36,852 143 Serbia 36,513 144 Ghana 36,039 145 Turkmenistan 35,680 146 Bolivia 33,210 147 Côte d'Ivoire 31,172 148 Bahrain 30,411 149 Vermont 29,750 150 Cameroon 28,478 151 Paraguay 28,077 152 Latvia 27,048 153 El Salvador 25,766 154 Uganda 24,740 155 Trinidad and Tobago 24,553 156 Estonia 22,704 157 Zambia 21,889 158 Nepal 21,356 159 Honduras 20,295 160 Cyprus 19,330 161 Afghanistan 19,204 162 Cambodia 18,155 163 Iceland 16,718 164 Papua New Guinea 16,090 165 Bosnia and Herzegovina 15,794 166 Mozambique 14,965 167 Gabon 14,350 168 Zimbabwe 14,269 169 Georgia 14,007 170 Jamaica 13,924 171 Senegal 13,665 172 Mali 13,066 173 Botswana 12,860 174 Namibia 12,832 175 Laos 12,503 176 Nicaragua 12,222 177 Brunei Darussalam 11,786 178 Mongolia 11,735 179 Mauritius 11,608 180 Albania 11,543 181 Burkina Faso 11,009 182 Chad 10,894 183 Armenia 10,571 184 Macedonia 9,922 185 Malta 9,801 186 Madagascar 9,737 187 Equatorial Guinea 9,403 188 Republic of Congo 8,878 189 Bahamas 8,705 190 Haiti 8,618 191 Benin 8,471 192 Rwanda 8,267 193 Tajikistan 7,816 194 Niger 7,151 195 Guinea 6,696 196 Kyrgyz Republic 6,650 197 Malawi 6,416 198 Moldova 6,414 199 Kosovo 6,355 200 Suriname 5,192 201 Fiji 4,782 202 Mauritania 4,752 203 Eritrea 4,666 204 Barbados 4,412 205 Sierra Leone 4,167 206 Togo 4,165 207 Montenegro 4,039 208 Swaziland 4,028 209 Guyana 3,164 210 Maldives 3,130 211 Burundi 2,881 212 South Sudan 2,627 213 Timor - Leste 2,620 214 Bhutan 2,214 215 Liberia 2,035 216 Lesotho 2,032 217 Belize 1,763 218 Djibouti 1,727 219 Central African Republic 1,605 220 Cabo Verde 1,595 221 San Marino 1,566 222 St. Lucia 1,416 223 Seychelles 1,375 224 Antigua and Barbuda 1,287 225 Solomon Islands 1,147 226 Guinea - Bissau 1,057 227 Grenada 954 228 St. Kitts and Nevis 896 229 The Gambia 893 230 Samoa 838 231 Vanuatu 765 232 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 757 233 Comoros 589 234 Dominica 497 235 Tonga 414 236 São Tomé and Príncipe 318 237 Micronesia 318 238 Palau 287 239 Marshall Islands 183 240 Kiribati 162 241 Tuvalu 33 See also ( edit ) Comparison between U.S. states and countries by GDP ( PPP ) Comparison between U.S. states and countries by per capita GDP ( nominal ) List of countries by GDP ( nominal ) per capita - GDP at market or government official exchange rates per inhabitant List of countries by GDP ( PPP ) - GDP calculated at purchasing power parity ( PPP ) exchange rates List of countries by GDP ( PPP ) per capita - GDP at purchasing power parity exchange rates per inhabitant List of regions by past GDP ( PPP ) per capita - for the periods between 1 AD and 2003 AD List of regions by past GDP ( PPP ) - for the periods between 1 AD and 2003 AD List of countries by future GDP ( nominal ) estimates List of countries by past and future GDP ( nominal ) Notes ( edit ) ^ The European Union ( EU ) is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe . As the EU is not a country , the United States is the first ranked country on the list . ^ Data for Syria 's 2014 GDP is from the September 2011 WEO Database , the latest available from the IMF . ^ Data for Syria 's 2014 GDP is from the September 2011 WEO Database , the latest available from the IMF . References ( edit ) ^ `` Gross domestic product ( GDP ) by state ( millions of current dollars ) '' ( CFM ) ( Press release ) . Bureau of Productivity Analytics . October 13 , 2017 . p. 7 . Retrieved March 24 , 2018 . ^ `` Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects '' . World Economic Outlook . International Monetary Fund . April 2016 . Lists of countries by GDP rankings Purchasing power parity ( PPP ) Per capita Past per capita Past and projected per capita Private consumption per capita Per hour Per person employed Ten largest historically 19th century Nominal Per capita Past and projected per capita Sector composition Growth rate African countries Asian states European Union member states European countries Latin American and Caribbean countries Oceanian countries Per capita 1980 -- 2010 growth Industrial growth Gross national income ( GNI ) PPP Nominal Countries by region Africa PPP nominal Commonwealth of Nations nominal Latin America & Caribbean PPP nominal North America PPP nominal nominal per capita South America PPP Arab League nominal and per capita PPP and per capita ASEAN Asia Asia & Pacific PPP Former Soviet Republics Europe PPP PPP per capita nominal nominal per capita Oceania PPP PPP per capita nominal nominal per capita Subnational divisions Argentina Australia Brazil Canada Chile per capita China per capita Colombia Croatia France Germany nominal nominal per capita Greece India per capita Indonesia Italy Japan Malaysia Mexico Pakistan Poland ( per capita ) Russia per capita South Africa South Korea Spain United States PPP nominal nominal per capita Thailand OECD Top country subdivisions by GDP nominal Lists of countries by financial rankings List of international rankings List of top international rankings by country Lists by country Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comparison_between_U.S._states_and_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)&oldid=837617245 '' Categories : Economy of the United States Lists of countries by GDP Lists of states of the United States Economics comparisons Talk Contents About Wikipedia Português اردو Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2018 , at 23 : 17 ( UTC ) . 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Soil
Soil - wikipedia Soil Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Soil ( disambiguation ) . A , B , and C represent the soil profile , a notation firstly coined by Vasily Dokuchaev , the father of pedology ; A is the topsoil ; B is a regolith ; C is a saprolite , a less - weathered regolith ; the bottom-most layer represents the bedrock . Surface - water - gley developed in glacial till , Northern Ireland . Soil is a mixture of organic matter , minerals , gases , liquids , and organisms that together support life . The Earth 's body of soil is the pedosphere , which has four important functions : it is a medium for plant growth ; it is a means of water storage , supply and purification ; it is a modifier of Earth 's atmosphere ; it is a habitat for organisms ; all of which , in turn , modify the soil . Soil has been called the Skin of the Earth as it interfaces with the lithosphere , the hydrosphere , the atmosphere , and the biosphere . The term pedolith , used commonly to refer to the soil , literally translates ground stone . Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter ( the soil matrix ) , as well as a porous phase that holds gases ( the soil atmosphere ) and water ( the soil solution ) . Accordingly , soils are often treated as a three - state system of solids , liquids , and gases . Soil is a product of the influence of climate , relief ( elevation , orientation , and slope of terrain ) , organisms , and its parent materials ( original minerals ) interacting over time . Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical , chemical and biological processes , which include weathering with associated erosion . Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists . Most soils have a dry bulk density ( density of soil taking into account voids when dry ) between 1.1 and 1.6 g / cm , while the soil particle density is much higher , in the range of 2.6 to 2.7 g / cm . Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic , although fossilized soils are preserved from as far back as the Archean . Soil science has two basic branches of study : edaphology and pedology . Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things . Pedology is focused on the formation , description ( morphology ) , and classification of soils in their natural environment . In engineering terms , soil is included in the broader concept of regolith , which also includes other loose material that lies above the solid geology . Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt ; technically , the term dirt should be restricted to displaced soil . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 1.1 Functions of soils 1.2 Description 2 History of the study of soil 2.1 Studies concerning soil fertility 2.2 Studies concerning soil formation 3 Soil formation 3.1 Soil - forming factors 3.1. 1 Parent material 3.1. 1.1 Classification of parent material 3.1. 1.2 Weathering of parent material 3.1. 2 Climate 3.1. 3 Topography 3.1. 4 Organisms 3.1. 5 Time 4 Physical properties of soils 4.1 Texture 4.2 Structure 4.3 Density 4.4 Porosity 4.5 Consistency 4.6 Temperature 4.7 Color 4.8 Resistivity 5 Soil water 5.1 Water retention forces 5.2 Moisture classification 5.3 Soil moisture content 5.4 Water flow in soils 5.4. 1 Saturated flow 5.4. 2 Unsaturated flow 5.5 Water uptake by plants 5.6 Consumptive use and water efficiency 6 Soil atmosphere 7 Composition of soil particles 7.1 Gravel , sand and silt 7.2 Mineral colloids ; soil clays 7.2. 1 Alumino - silica clays 7.2. 2 Crystalline chain clays 7.2. 3 Amorphous clays 7.2. 4 Sesquioxide clays 7.3 Organic colloids 7.4 Carbon and terra preta 8 Soil chemistry 8.1 Cation and anion exchange 8.1. 1 Cation exchange capacity ( CEC ) 8.1. 2 Anion exchange capacity ( AEC ) 8.2 Soil reaction ( pH ) 8.2. 1 Soil pH 8.2. 2 Base saturation percentage 8.3 Buffering of soils 9 Nutrients 9.1 Soil processes important for nutrient uptake 9.2 Carbon 9.3 Nitrogen 9.3. 1 Nitrogen gains 9.3. 2 Nitrogen sequestration 9.3. 3 Nitrogen losses 9.4 Phosphorus 9.5 Potassium 9.6 Calcium 9.7 Magnesium 9.8 Sulfur 9.9 Micronutrients 9.10 Non-essential nutrients 10 Soil organic matter 10.1 Humus 10.2 Climate and organic matter 10.3 Plant residue in soil 11 Soil horizons 12 Classification 12.1 Soil classification systems 12.1. 1 Australia 12.1. 2 European Union 12.1. 3 United States 13 Uses 14 Degradation 15 Reclamation 16 See also 17 References 18 Further reading 19 External links Overview ( edit ) Soil Profile : Darkened topsoil and reddish subsoil layers are typical in some regions . Functions of soils ( edit ) Soil is a major component of the Earth 's ecosystem . The world 's ecosystems are impacted in far - reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil , from ozone depletion and global warming , to rainforest destruction and water pollution . With respect to Earth 's carbon cycle , soil is an important carbon reservoir , and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance and climate change . As the planet warms , it has been predicted that soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher temperatures , a positive feedback ( amplification ) . This prediction has , however , been questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover . Soil acts as an engineering medium , a habitat for soil organisms , a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes , a regulator of water quality , a modifier of atmospheric composition , and a medium for plant growth , making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services . Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats , it contains most of the Earth 's genetic diversity . A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms , belonging to thousands of species , mostly microbial and in the main still unexplored . Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 10 organisms per gram , whereas the ocean has no more than 10 procaryotic organisms per milliliter ( gram ) of seawater . Organic carbon held in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms , but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of soil organic matter ; tillage usually increases the rate of respiration , leading to the depletion of soil organic matter . Since plant roots need oxygen , ventilation is an important characteristic of soil . This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores , which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake . Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water , but most regions receive sporadic rainfall , the water - holding capacity of soils is vital for plant survival . Soils can effectively remove impurities , kill disease agents , and degrade contaminants , this latter property being called natural attenuation . Typically , soils maintain a net absorption of oxygen and methane , and undergo a net release of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide . Soils offer plants physical support , air , water , temperature moderation , nutrients , and protection from toxins . Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various nutrient forms . Description ( edit ) Components of a loam soil by percent volume Water ( 25 % ) Gases ( 25 % ) Sand ( 18 % ) Silt ( 18 % ) Clay ( 9 % ) Organic matter ( 5 % ) A typical soil is about 50 % solids ( 45 % mineral and 5 % organic matter ) , and 50 % voids of which half is occupied by water and half by gas . The percent soil mineral and organic content can be treated as a constant ( in the short term ) , while the percent soil water and gas content is considered highly variable whereby a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a reduction in the other . The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water , both of which are critical for life in soil . Compaction , a common problem with soils , reduces this space , preventing air and water from reaching plant roots and soil organisms . Given sufficient time , an undifferentiated soil will evolve a soil profile which consists of two or more layers , referred to as soil horizons , that differ in one or more properties such as in their texture , structure , density , porosity , consistency , temperature , color , and reactivity . The horizons differ greatly in thickness and generally lack sharp boundaries ; their development is dependent on the type of parent material , the processes that modify those parent materials , and the soil - forming factors that influence those processes . The biological influences on soil properties are strongest near the surface , while the geochemical influences on soil properties increase with depth . Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master horizons : A , B and C. The solum normally includes the A and B horizons . The living component of the soil is largely confined to the solum , and is generally more prominent in the A horizon . The soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of the individual particles of sand , silt , and clay that make up the soil . The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic matter , water , gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes those particles to flocculate ( stick together ) to form aggregates or peds . Where these aggregates can be identified , a soil can be said to be developed , and can be described further in terms of color , porosity , consistency , reaction ( acidity ) , etc . Water is a critical agent in soil development due to its involvement in the dissolution , precipitation , erosion , transport , and deposition of the materials of which a soil is composed . The mixture of water and dissolved or suspended materials that occupy the soil pore space is called the soil solution . Since soil water is never pure water , but contains hundreds of dissolved organic and mineral substances , it may be more accurately called the soil solution . Water is central to the dissolution , precipitation and leaching of minerals from the soil profile . Finally , water affects the type of vegetation that grows in a soil , which in turn affects the development of the soil , a complex feedback which is exemplified in the dynamics of banded vegetation patterns in semi-arid regions . Soils supply plants with nutrients , most of which are held in place by particles of clay and organic matter ( colloids ) The nutrients may be adsorbed on clay mineral surfaces , bound within clay minerals ( absorbed ) , or bound within organic compounds as part of the living organisms or dead soil organic matter . These bound nutrients interact with soil water to buffer the soil solution composition ( attenuate changes in the soil solution ) as soils wet up or dry out , as plants take up nutrients , as salts are leached , or as acids or alkalis are added . Plant nutrient availability is affected by soil pH , which is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution . Soil pH is a function of many soil forming factors , and is generally lower ( more acid ) where weathering is more advanced . Most plant nutrients , with the exception of nitrogen , originate from the minerals that make up the soil parent material . Some nitrogen originates from rain as dilute nitric acid and ammonia , but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a result of nitrogen fixation by bacteria . Once in the soil - plant system , most nutrients are recycled through living organisms , plant and microbial residues ( soil organic matter ) , mineral - bound forms , and the soil solution . Both living microorganisms and soil organic matter are of critical importance to this recycling , and thereby to soil formation and soil fertility . Microbial activity in soils may release nutrients from minerals or organic matter for use by plants and other microorganisms , sequester ( incorporate ) them into living cells , or cause their loss from the soil by volatilisation ( loss to the atmosphere as gases ) or leaching . History of the study of soil ( edit ) Studies concerning soil Fertility ( edit ) The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to our urgent need to provide food for ourselves and forage for our animals . Throughout history , civilizations have prospered or declined as a function of the availability and productivity of their soils . The Greek historian Xenophon ( 450 -- 355 BCE ) is credited with being the first to expound upon the merits of green - manuring crops : `` But then whatever weeds are upon the ground , being turned into earth , enrich the soil as much as dung . '' Columella 's `` Husbandry , '' circa 60 CE , advocated the use of lime and that clover and alfalfa ( green manure ) should be turned under , and was used by 15 generations ( 450 years ) under the Roman Empire until its collapse . From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution , knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result , crop yields were low . During the European Dark Ages , Yahya Ibn al - ' Awwam 's handbook , with its emphasis on irrigation , guided the people of North Africa , Spain and the Middle East ; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish influence . Olivier de Serres , considered as the father of French agronomy , was the first to suggest the abandonment of fallowing and its replacement by hay meadows within crop rotations , and he highlighted the importance of soil ( the French terroir ) in the management of vineyards . His famous book Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et mesnage des champs contributed to the rise of modern , sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as the lifting of forest litter for the amendment of crops ( the French soutrage ) and assarting , which ruined the soils of western Europe during Middle Ages and even later on according to regions . Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen , which is not left on the ground after combustion , a belief which prevailed until the 19th century . In about 1635 , the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont thought he had proved water to be the essential element from his famous five years ' experiment with a willow tree grown with only the addition of rainwater . His conclusion came from the fact that the increase in the plant 's weight had apparently been produced only by the addition of water , with no reduction in the soil 's weight . John Woodward ( d . 1728 ) experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy and found muddy water the best , and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential element . Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant . Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals to the new plants . At the start of the 18th century , Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial to cultivate ( stir ) the soil , but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for plant absorption was erroneous . As chemistry developed , it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility . The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must ( combust ) oxygen internally to live and was able to deduce that most of the 165 - pound weight of van Helmont 's willow tree derived from air . It was the French agriculturalist Jean - Baptiste Boussingault who by means of experimentation obtained evidence showing that the main sources of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen for plants were air and water , while nitrogen was taken from soil . Justus von Liebig in his book Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology ( published 1840 ) , asserted that the chemicals in plants must have come from the soil and air and that to maintain soil fertility , the used minerals must be replaced . Liebig nevertheless believed the nitrogen was supplied from the air . The enrichment of soil with guano by the Incas was rediscovered in 1802 , by Alexander von Humboldt . This led to its mining and that of Chilean nitrate and to its application to soil in the United States and Europe after 1840 . The work of Liebig was a revolution for agriculture , and so other investigators started experimentation based on it . In England John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert worked in the Rothamsted Experimental Station , founded by the former , and ( re ) discovered that plants took nitrogen from the soil , and that salts needed to be in an available state to be absorbed by plants . Their investigations also produced the `` superphosphate '' , consisting in the acid treatment of phosphate rock . This led to the invention and use of salts of potassium ( K ) and nitrogen ( N ) as fertilizers . Ammonia generated by the production of coke was recovered and used as fertiliser . Finally , the chemical basis of nutrients delivered to the soil in manure was understood and in the mid-19th century chemical fertilisers were applied . However , the dynamic interaction of soil and its life forms still awaited discovery . In 1856 J. Thomas Way discovered that ammonia contained in fertilisers was transformed into nitrates , and twenty years later Robert Warington proved that this transformation was done by living organisms . In 1890 Sergei Winogradsky announced he had found the bacteria responsible for this transformation . It was known that certain legumes could take up nitrogen from the air and fix it to the soil but it took the development of bacteriology towards the end of the 19th century to lead to an understanding of the role played in nitrogen fixation by bacteria . The symbiosis of bacteria and leguminous roots , and the fixation of nitrogen by the bacteria , were simultaneously discovered by the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck . Crop rotation , mechanisation , chemical and natural fertilisers led to a doubling of wheat yields in western Europe between 1800 and 1900 . Studies concerning soil formation ( edit ) The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agricultural practices had considered it mainly as a static substrate . However , soil is the result of evolution from more ancient geological materials , under the action of biotic and abiotic ( not associated with life ) processes . After studies of the improvement of the soil commenced , others began to study soil genesis and as a result also soil types and classifications . In 1860 , in Mississippi , Eugene W. Hilgard studied the relationship among rock material , climate , and vegetation , and the type of soils that were developed . He realised that the soils were dynamic , and considered soil types classification . Unfortunately his work was not continued . At the same time Vasily Dokuchaev ( about 1870 ) was leading a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils , finding that similar basic rocks , climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types , and established the concepts for soil classifications . Due to language barriers , the work of this team was not communicated to western Europe until 1914 through a publication in German by Konstantin Dmitrievich Glinka , a member of the Russian team . Curtis F. Marbut was influenced by the work of the Russian team , translated Glinka 's publication into English , and as he was placed in charge of the U.S. National Cooperative Soil Survey , applied it to a national soil classification system . Soil formation ( edit ) Soil formation , or pedogenesis , is the combined effect of physical , chemical , biological and anthropogenic processes working on soil parent material . Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward , leaving deposits of clay , humus , iron oxide , carbonate , and gypsum , producing a distinct layer called the B horizon . This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand , silt , clay and humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time . These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity . As a result , layers ( horizons ) form in the soil profile . The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of distinctive soil horizons . However , more recent definitions of soil embrace soils without any organic matter , such as those regoliths that formed on Mars and analogous conditions in planet Earth deserts . An example of the development of a soil would begin with the weathering of lava flow bedrock , which would produce the purely mineral - based parent material from which the soil texture forms . Soil development would proceed most rapidly from bare rock of recent flows in a warm climate , under heavy and frequent rainfall . Under such conditions , plants ( in a first stage nitrogen - fixing lichens and cyanobacteria then epilithic higher plants ) become established very quickly on basaltic lava , even though there is very little organic material . The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with nutrient - bearing water that carries minerals dissolved from the rocks . Crevasses and pockets , local topography of the rocks , would hold fine materials and harbour plant roots . The developing plant roots are associated with mineral - weathering mycorrhizal fungi that assist in breaking up the porous lava , and by these means organic matter and a finer mineral soil accumulate with time . Such initial stages of soil development have been described on volcanoes , inselbergs , and glacial moraines . Soil - forming factors ( edit ) How soil formation proceeds is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the evolution of a soil . They are : parent material , climate , topography ( relief ) , organisms , and time . When reordered to climate , relief , organisms , parent material , and time , they form the acronym CROPT . Parent material ( edit ) The mineral material from which a soil forms is called parent material . Rock , whether its origin is igneous , sedimentary , or metamorphic , is the source of all soil mineral materials and the origin of all plant nutrients with the exceptions of nitrogen , hydrogen and carbon . As the parent material is chemically and physically weathered , transported , deposited and precipitated , it is transformed into a soil . Typical soil parent mineral materials are : Quartz : SiO Calcite : CaCO Feldspar : KAlSi O Mica ( biotite ) : K ( Mg , Fe ) AlSi O ( OH ) Classification of parent material ( edit ) Loess field in Germany . Parent materials are classified according to how they came to be deposited . Residual materials are mineral materials that have weathered in place from primary bedrock . Transported materials are those that have been deposited by water , wind , ice or gravity . Cumulose material is organic matter that has grown and accumulates in place . Residual soils are soils that develop from their underlying parent rocks and have the same general chemistry as those rocks . The soils found on mesas , plateaux , and plains are residual soils . In the United States as little as three percent of the soils are residual . Most soils derive from transported materials that have been moved many miles by wind , water , ice and gravity . Aeolian processes ( movement by wind ) are capable of moving silt and fine sand many hundreds of miles , forming loess soils ( 60 -- 90 percent silt ) , common in the Midwest of North America , north - western Europe , Argentina and Central Asia . Clay is seldom moved by wind as it forms stable aggregates . Water - transported materials are classed as either alluvial , lacustrine , or marine . Alluvial materials are those moved and deposited by flowing water . Sedimentary deposits settled in lakes are called lacustrine . Lake Bonneville and many soils around the Great Lakes of the United States are examples . Marine deposits , such as soils along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and in the Imperial Valley of California of the United States , are the beds of ancient seas that have been revealed as the land uplifted . Ice moves parent material and makes deposits in the form of terminal and lateral moraines in the case of stationary glaciers . Retreating glaciers leave smoother ground moraines and in all cases , outwash plains are left as alluvial deposits are moved downstream from the glacier . Parent material moved by gravity is obvious at the base of steep slopes as talus cones and is called colluvial material . Cumulose parent material is not moved but originates from deposited organic material . This includes peat and muck soils and results from preservation of plant residues by the low oxygen content of a high water table . While peat may form sterile soils , muck soils may be very fertile . Weathering of parent material ( edit ) The weathering of parent material takes the form of physical weathering ( disintegration ) , chemical weathering ( decomposition ) and chemical transformation . Generally , minerals that are formed under high temperatures and pressures at great depths within the Earth 's mantle are less resistant to weathering , while minerals formed at low temperature and pressure environment of the surface are more resistant to weathering . Weathering is usually confined to the top few meters of geologic material , because physical , chemical , and biological stresses and fluctuations generally decrease with depth . Physical disintegration begins as rocks that have solidified deep in the Earth are exposed to lower pressure near the surface and swell and become mechanically unstable . Chemical decomposition is a function of mineral solubility , the rate of which doubles with each 10 ° C rise in temperature , but is strongly dependent on water to effect chemical changes . Rocks that will decompose in a few years in tropical climates will remain unaltered for millennia in deserts . Structural changes are the result of hydration , oxidation , and reduction . Chemical weathering mainly results from the excretion of organic acids and chelating compounds by bacteria and fungi , thought to increase under present - day greenhouse effect . Physical disintegration is the first stage in the transformation of parent material into soil . Temperature fluctuations cause expansion and contraction of the rock , splitting it along lines of weakness . Water may then enter the cracks and freeze and cause the physical splitting of material along a path toward the center of the rock , while temperature gradients within the rock can cause exfoliation of `` shells '' . Cycles of wetting and drying cause soil particles to be abraded to a finer size , as does the physical rubbing of material as it is moved by wind , water , and gravity . Water can deposit within rocks minerals that expand upon drying , thereby stressing the rock . Finally , organisms reduce parent material in size and create crevices and pores through the mechanical action of plant roots and the digging activity of animals . Grinding of parent material by rock - eating animals also contributes to incipient soil formation . Chemical decomposition and structural changes result when minerals are made soluble by water or are changed in structure . The first three of the following list are solubility changes and the last three are structural changes . The solution of salts in water results from the action of bipolar water molecules on ionic salt compounds producing a solution of ions and water , removing those minerals and reducing the rock 's integrity , at a rate depending on water flow and pore channels . Hydrolysis is the transformation of minerals into polar molecules by the splitting of intervening water . This results in soluble acid - base pairs . For example , the hydrolysis of orthoclase - feldspar transforms it to acid silicate clay and basic potassium hydroxide , both of which are more soluble . In carbonation , the solution of carbon dioxide in water forms carbonic acid . Carbonic acid will transform calcite into more soluble calcium bicarbonate . Hydration is the inclusion of water in a mineral structure , causing it to swell and leaving it stressed and easily decomposed . Oxidation of a mineral compound is the inclusion of oxygen in a mineral , causing it to increase its oxidation number and swell due to the relatively large size of oxygen , leaving it stressed and more easily attacked by water ( hydrolysis ) or carbonic acid ( carbonation ) . Reduction , the opposite of oxidation , means the removal of oxygen , hence the oxidation number of some part of the mineral is reduced , which occurs when oxygen is scarce . The reduction of minerals leaves them electrically unstable , more soluble and internally stressed and easily decomposed . It mainly occurs in waterlogged conditions . Of the above , hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective , in particular in regions of high rainfall , temperature and physical erosion . Chemical weathering becomes more effective as the surface area of the rock increases , thus is favoured by physical disintegration . This stems in latitudinal and altitudinal climate gradients in regolith formation . Saprolite is a particular example of a residual soil formed from the transformation of granite , metamorphic and other types of bedrock into clay minerals . Often called ( weathered granite ) , saprolite is the result of weathering processes that include : hydrolysis , chelation from organic compounds , hydration ( the solution of minerals in water with resulting cation and anion pairs ) and physical processes that include freezing and thawing . The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary bedrock material , its physical features , including grain size and degree of consolidation , and the rate and type of weathering transforms the parent material into a different mineral . The texture , pH and mineral constituents of saprolite are inherited from its parent material . This process is also called arenization , resulting in the formation of sandy soils ( granitic arenas ) , thanks to the much higher resistance of quartz compared to other mineral components of granite ( micas , amphiboles , feldspars ) . Climate ( edit ) The principal climatic variables influencing soil formation are effective precipitation ( i.e. , precipitation minus evapotranspiration ) and temperature , both of which affect the rates of chemical , physical , and biological processes . Temperature and moisture both influence the organic matter content of soil through their effects on the balance between primary production and decomposition : the colder or drier the climate the lesser atmospheric carbon is fixed as organic matter while the lesser organic matter is decomposed . Climate is the dominant factor in soil formation , and soils show the distinctive characteristics of the climate zones in which they form , with a feedback to climate through transfer of carbon stocked in soil horizons back to the atmosphere . If warm temperatures and abundant water are present in the profile at the same time , the processes of weathering , leaching , and plant growth will be maximized . According to the climatic determination of biomes , humid climates favor the growth of trees . In contrast , grasses are the dominant native vegetation in subhumid and semiarid regions , while shrubs and brush of various kinds dominate in arid areas . Water is essential for all the major chemical weathering reactions . To be effective in soil formation , water must penetrate the regolith . The seasonal rainfall distribution , evaporative losses , site topography , and soil permeability interact to determine how effectively precipitation can influence soil formation . The greater the depth of water penetration , the greater the depth of weathering of the soil and its development . Surplus water percolating through the soil profile transports soluble and suspended materials from the upper layers ( eluviation ) to the lower layers ( illuviation ) , including clay particles and dissolved organic matter . It may also carry away soluble materials in the surface drainage waters . Thus , percolating water stimulates weathering reactions and helps differentiate soil horizons . Likewise , a deficiency of water is a major factor in determining the characteristics of soils of dry regions . Soluble salts are not leached from these soils , and in some cases they build up to levels that curtail plant and microbial growth . Soil profiles in arid and semi-arid regions are also apt to accumulate carbonates and certain types of expansive clays ( calcrete or caliche horizons ) . In tropical soils , when the soil has been deprived of vegetation ( e.g. by deforestation ) and thereby is submitted to intense evaporation , the upward capillary movement of water , which has dissolved iron and aluminum salts , is responsible for the formation of a superficial hard pan of laterite or bauxite , respectively , which is improper for cutivation , a known case of irreversible soil degradation ( lateritization , bauxitization ) . The direct influences of climate include : A shallow accumulation of lime in low rainfall areas as caliche Formation of acid soils in humid areas Erosion of soils on steep hillsides Deposition of eroded materials downstream Very intense chemical weathering , leaching , and erosion in warm and humid regions where soil does not freeze Climate directly affects the rate of weathering and leaching . Wind moves sand and smaller particles ( dust ) , especially in arid regions where there is little plant cover , depositing it close or far from the entrainment source . The type and amount of precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil , and aid in the development of different soil profiles . Soil profiles are more distinct in wet and cool climates , where organic materials may accumulate , than in wet and warm climates , where organic materials are rapidly consumed . The effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material depends on seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations , which favour tensile stresses in rock minerals , and thus their mechanical disaggregation , a process called thermal fatigue . By the same process freeze - thaw cycles are an effective mechanism which breaks up rocks and other consolidated materials . Climate also indirectly influences soil formation through the effects of vegetation cover and biological activity , which modify the rates of chemical reactions in the soil . Topography ( edit ) The topography , or relief , is characterized by the inclination ( slope ) , elevation , and orientation of the terrain . Topography determines the rate of precipitation or runoff and rate of formation or erosion of the surface soil profile . The topographical setting may either hasten or retard the work of climatic forces . Steep slopes encourage rapid soil loss by erosion and allow less rainfall to enter the soil before running off and hence , little mineral deposition in lower profiles . In semiarid regions , the lower effective rainfall on steeper slopes also results in less complete vegetative cover , so there is less plant contribution to soil formation . For all of these reasons , steep slopes prevent the formation of soil from getting very far ahead of soil destruction . Therefore , soils on steep terrain tend to have rather shallow , poorly developed profiles in comparison to soils on nearby , more level sites . In swales and depressions where runoff water tends to concentrate , the regolith is usually more deeply weathered and soil profile development is more advanced . However , in the lowest landscape positions , water may saturate the regolith to such a degree that drainage and aeration are restricted . Here , the weathering of some minerals and the decomposition of organic matter are retarded , while the loss of iron and manganese is accelerated . In such low - lying topography , special profile features characteristic of wetland soils may develop . Depressions allow the accumulation of water , minerals and organic matter and in the extreme , the resulting soils will be saline marshes or peat bogs . Intermediate topography affords the best conditions for the formation of an agriculturally productive soil . Organisms ( edit ) Soil is the most abundant ecosystem on Earth , but the vast majority of organisms in soil are microbes , a great many of which have not been described . There may be a population limit of around one billion cells per gram of soil , but estimates of the number of species vary widely from 50,000 per gram to over a million per gram of soil . The total number of organisms and species can vary widely according to soil type , location , and depth . Plants , animals , fungi , bacteria and humans affect soil formation ( see soil biomantle and stonelayer ) . Soil animals , including soil macrofauna and soil mesofauna , mix soils as they form burrows and pores , allowing moisture and gases to move about , a process called bioturbation . In the same way , plant roots penetrate soil horizons and open channels upon decomposition . Plants with deep taproots can penetrate many metres through the different soil layers to bring up nutrients from deeper in the profile . Plants have fine roots that excrete organic compounds ( sugars , organic acids , mucigel ) , slough off cells ( in particular at their tip ) and are easily decomposed , adding organic matter to soil , a process called rhizodeposition . Micro-organisms , including fungi and bacteria , effect chemical exchanges between roots and soil and act as a reserve of nutrients in a soil biological hotspot called rhizosphere . The growth of roots through the soil stimulates microbial populations , stimulating in turn the activity of their predators ( notably amoeba ) , thereby increasing the mineralization rate , and in last turn root growth , a positive feedback called the soil microbial loop . Out of root influence , in the bulk soil , most bacteria are in a quiescent stage , forming micro aggregates , i.e. mucilaginous colonies to which clay particles are glued , offering them a protection against desiccation and predation by soil microfauna ( bacteriophagous protozoa and nematodes ) . Microaggregates ( 20 - 250 μm ) are ingested by soil mesofauna and macrofauna , and bacterial bodies are partly or totally digested in their guts . Humans impact soil formation by removing vegetation cover with erosion , waterlogging , lateritization or podzolization ( according to climate and topography ) as the result . Their tillage also mixes the different soil layers , restarting the soil formation process as less weathered material is mixed with the more developed upper layers , resulting in net increased rate of mineral weathering . Earthworms , ants , termites , moles , gophers , as well as some millipedes and tenebrionid beetles mix the soil as they burrow , significantly affecting soil formation . Earthworms ingest soil particles and organic residues , enhancing the availability of plant nutrients in the material that passes through their bodies . They aerate and stir the soil and create stable soil aggregates , after having disrupted links between soil particles during the intestinal transit of ingested soil , thereby assuring ready infiltration of water . In addition , as ants and termites build mounds , they transport soil materials from one horizon to another . Other important functions are fulfilled by earthworms in the soil ecosystem , in particular their intense mucus production , both within the intestine and as a lining in their galleries , exert a priming effect on soil microflora , giving them the status of ecosystem engineers , which they share with ants and termites . In general , the mixing of the soil by the activities of animals , sometimes called pedoturbation , tends to undo or counteract the tendency of other soil - forming processes that create distinct horizons . Termites and ants may also retard soil profile development by denuding large areas of soil around their nests , leading to increased loss of soil by erosion . Large animals such as gophers , moles , and prairie dogs bore into the lower soil horizons , bringing materials to the surface . Their tunnels are often open to the surface , encouraging the movement of water and air into the subsurface layers . In localized areas , they enhance mixing of the lower and upper horizons by creating , and later refilling , underground tunnels. Old animal burrows in the lower horizons often become filled with soil material from the overlying A horizon , creating profile features known as crotovinas . Vegetation impacts soils in numerous ways . It can prevent erosion caused by excessive rain that might result from surface runoff . Plants shade soils , keeping them cooler and slow evaporation of soil moisture , or conversely , by way of transpiration , plants can cause soils to lose moisture , resulting in complex and highly variable relationships between leaf area index ( measuring light interception ) and moisture loss : more generally plants prevent soil from desiccation during driest months while they dry it during moister months , thereby acting as a buffer against strong moisture variation . Plants can form new chemicals that can break down minerals , both directly and indirectly through mycorrhizal fungi and rhizosphere bacteria , and improve the soil structure . The type and amount of vegetation depends on climate , topography , soil characteristics and biological factors , mediated or not by human activities . Soil factors such as density , depth , chemistry , pH , temperature and moisture greatly affect the type of plants that can grow in a given location . Dead plants and fallen leaves and stems begin their decomposition on the surface . There , organisms feed on them and mix the organic material with the upper soil layers ; these added organic compounds become part of the soil formation process . Human activities widely influence soil formation . For example , it is believed that Native Americans regularly set fires to maintain several large areas of prairie grasslands in Indiana and Michigan , although climate and mammalian grazers ( e.g. bisons ) are also advocated to explain the maintenance of the Great Plains of North America . In more recent times , human destruction of natural vegetation and subsequent tillage of the soil for crop production has abruptly modified soil formation . Likewise , irrigating soil in an arid region drastically influences soil - forming factors , as does adding fertilizer and lime to soils of low fertility . Time ( edit ) Time is a factor in the interactions of all the above . While a mixture of sand , silt and clay constitute the texture of a soil and the aggregation of those components produces peds , the development of a distinct B horizon marks the development of a soil or pedogenesis . With time , soils will evolve features that depend on the interplay of the prior listed soil - forming factors . It takes decades to several thousand years for a soil to develop a profile , although the notion of soil development has been criticized , soil being in a constant state - of - change under the influence of fluctuating soil - forming factors . That time period depends strongly on climate , parent material , relief , and biotic activity . For example , recently deposited material from a flood exhibits no soil development as there has not been enough time for the material to form a structure that further defines soil . The original soil surface is buried , and the formation process must begin anew for this deposit . Over time the soil will develop a profile that depends on the intensities of biota and climate . While a soil can achieve relative stability of its properties for extended periods , the soil life cycle ultimately ends in soil conditions that leave it vulnerable to erosion . Despite the inevitability of soil retrogression and degradation , most soil cycles are long . Soil - forming factors continue to affect soils during their existence , even on `` stable '' landscapes that are long - enduring , some for millions of years . Materials are deposited on top or are blown or washed from the surface . With additions , removals and alterations , soils are always subject to new conditions . Whether these are slow or rapid changes depends on climate , topography and biological activity . Physical properties of soils ( edit ) For the academic discipline , see Soil physics . The physical properties of soils , in order of decreasing importance , are texture , structure , density , porosity , consistency , temperature , colour and resistivity . Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles , called soil separates : sand , silt , and clay . At the next larger scale , soil structures called peds are created from the soil separates when iron oxides , carbonates , clay , silica and humus , coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger , relatively stable secondary structures . Soil density , particularly bulk density , is a measure of soil compaction . Soil porosity consists of the void part of the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water . Soil consistency is the ability of soil to stick together . Soil temperature and colour are self - defining . Resistivity refers to the resistance to conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures . These properties may vary through the depth of a soil profile . Most of these properties determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held within the soil . Influence of Soil Texture Separates on Some Properties of Soils Property / behavior Sand Silt Clay Water - holding capacity Low Medium to high High Aeration Good Medium Poor Drainage rate High Slow to medium Very slow Soil organic matter level Low Medium to high High to medium Decomposition of organic matter Rapid Medium Slow Warm - up in spring Rapid Moderate Slow Compactability Low Medium High Susceptibility to wind erosion Moderate ( High if fine sand ) High Low Susceptibility to water erosion Low ( unless fine sand ) High Low if aggregated , otherwise high Shrink / Swell Potential Very Low Low Moderate to very high Sealing of ponds , dams , and landfills Poor Poor Good Suitability for tillage after rain Good Medium Poor Pollutant leaching potential High Medium Low ( unless cracked ) Ability to store plant nutrients Poor Medium to High High Resistance to pH change Low Medium High Texture ( edit ) Main article : Soil texture Soil types by clay , silt and sand composition as used by the USDA Iron - rich soil near Paint Pots in Kootenay National Park , Canada The mineral components of soil are sand , silt and clay , and their relative proportions determine a soil 's texture . Properties that are influenced by soil texture , include porosity , permeability , infiltration , shrink - swell rate , water - holding capacity , and susceptibility to erosion . In the illustrated USDA textural classification triangle , the only soil in which neither sand , silt nor clay predominates is called `` loam '' . While even pure sand , silt or clay may be considered a soil , from the perspective of food production a loam soil with a small amount of organic material is considered ideal . The mineral constituents of a loam soil might be 40 % sand , 40 % silt and the balance 20 % clay by weight . Soil texture affects soil behaviour , in particular its retention capacity for nutrients and water . Sand and silt are the products of physical and chemical weathering of the parent rock ; clay , on the other hand , is a most often the product of the precipitation of the dissolved parent rock as a secondary mineral . It is the surface area to volume ratio ( specific surface area ) of soil particles and the unbalanced ionic charges within those that determine their role in the fertility of soil , as measured by its cation exchange capacity . Sand is least active , followed by silt ; clay is the most active . Sand 's greatest benefit to soil is that it resists compaction and increases a soil 's porosity . Silt is mineralogically like sand but with its higher specific surface area it is more chemically active than sand . But it is the clay content of soil , with its very high specific surface area and generally large number of negative charges , that gives a soil its high retention capacity for water and nutrients . Clay soils also resist wind and water erosion better than silty and sandy soils , as the particles bond tightly to each other . Sand is the most stable of the mineral components of soil ; it consists of rock fragments , primarily quartz particles , ranging in size from 2.0 to 0.05 mm ( 0.0787 to 0.0020 in ) in diameter . Silt ranges in size from 0.05 to 0.002 mm ( 0.002 to 0.00008 in ) . Clay can not be resolved by optical microscopes as its particles are 0.002 mm ( 7.9 × 10 in ) or less in diameter and a thickness of only 10 angstroms ( 10 m ) . In medium - textured soils , clay is often washed downward through the soil profile and accumulates in the subsoil . Soil components larger than 2.0 mm ( 0.079 in ) are classed as rock and gravel and are removed before determining the percentages of the remaining components and the texture class of the soil , but are included in the name . For example , a sandy loam soil with 20 % gravel would be called gravelly sandy loam . When the organic component of a soil is substantial , the soil is called organic soil rather than mineral soil . A soil is called organic if : Mineral fraction is 0 % clay and organic matter is 20 % or more Mineral fraction is 0 % to 50 % clay and organic matter is between 20 % and 30 % Mineral fraction is 50 % or more clay and organic matter 30 % or more . Structure ( edit ) Main articles : Ped , Soil structure , and Structural Soil The clumping of the soil textural components of sand , silt and clay causes aggregates to form and the further association of those aggregates into larger units creates soil structures called peds ( a contraction of the word pedolith ) . The adhesion of the soil textural components by organic substances , iron oxides , carbonates , clays , and silica , and the breakage of those aggregates from expansion - contraction , caused by freezing - thawing and wetting - drying cycles , shape soil into distinct geometric forms . The peds evolve into units which have various shapes , sizes and degrees of development . A soil clod , however , is not a ped but rather a mass of soil that results from mechanical disturbance of the soil . Soil structure affects aeration , water movement , conduction of heat , plant root growth and resistance to erosion . Water , in turn , has a strong effect on soil structure via the dissolution and precipitation of minerals and by promoting plant growth . Soil structure often gives clues to its texture , organic matter content , biological activity , past soil evolution , human use , and the chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil formed . While texture is defined by the mineral component of a soil and is an innate property of the soil that does not change with agricultural activities , soil structure can be improved or destroyed by the choice and timing of farming practices . Soil structural classes : Types : Shape and arrangement of peds Platy : Peds are flattened one atop the other 1 -- 10 mm thick . Found in the A-horizon of forest soils and lake sedimentation . Prismatic and Columnar : Prismlike peds are long in the vertical dimension , 10 -- 100 mm wide . Prismatic peds have flat tops , columnar peds have rounded tops . Tend to form in the B - horizon in high sodium soil where clay has accumulated . Angular and subangular : Blocky peds are imperfect cubes , 5 -- 50 mm , angular have sharp edges , subangular have rounded edges . Tend to form in the B - horizon where clay has accumulated and indicate poor water penetration . Granular and Crumb : Spheroid peds of polyhedrons , 1 -- 10 mm , often found in the A-horizon in the presence of organic material . Crumb peds are more porous and are considered ideal . Classes : Size of peds whose ranges depend upon the above type Very fine or very thin : < 1 mm platy and spherical ; < 5 mm blocky ; < 10 mm prismlike . Fine or thin : 1 -- 2 mm platy , and spherical ; 5 -- 10 mm blocky ; 10 -- 20 mm prismlike . Medium : 2 -- 5 mm platy , granular ; 10 -- 20 mm blocky ; 20 -- 50 prismlike . Coarse or thick : 5 -- 10 mm platy , granular ; 20 -- 50 mm blocky ; 50 -- 100 mm prismlike . Very coarse or very thick : > 10 mm platy , granular ; > 50 mm blocky ; > 100 mm prismlike . Grades : Is a measure of the degree of development or cementation within the peds that results in their strength and stability . Weak : Weak cementation allows peds to fall apart into the three textural constituents , sand , silt and clay . Moderate : Peds are not distinct in undisturbed soil but when removed they break into aggregates , some broken aggregates and little unaggregated material . This is considered ideal . Strong : Peds are distinct before removed from the profile and do not break apart easily . Structureless : Soil is entirely cemented together in one great mass such as slabs of clay or no cementation at all such as with sand . At the largest scale , the forces that shape a soil 's structure result from swelling and shrinkage that initially tend to act horizontally , causing vertically oriented prismatic peds . Clayey soil , due to its differential drying rate with respect to the surface , will induce horizontal cracks , reducing columns to blocky peds . Roots , rodents , worms , and freezing - thawing cycles further break the peds into a spherical shape . At a smaller scale , plant roots extend into voids and remove water causing the open spaces to increase , thereby decreasing aggregate size . At the same time , roots , fungal hyphae , and earthworms create microscopic tunnels that break up peds . At an even smaller scale , soil aggregation continues as bacteria and fungi exude sticky polysaccharides which bind soil into smaller peds . The addition of the raw organic matter that bacteria and fungi feed upon encourages the formation of this desirable soil structure . At the lowest scale , the soil chemistry affects the aggregation or dispersal of soil particles . The clay particles contain polyvalent cations which give the faces of clay layers localized negative charges . At the same time , the edges of the clay plates have a slight positive charge , thereby allowing the edges to adhere to the negative charges on the faces of other clay particles or to flocculate ( form clumps ) . On the other hand , when monovalent ions , such as sodium , invade and displace the polyvalent cations , they weaken the positive charges on the edges , while the negative surface charges are relatively strengthened . This leaves negative charge on the clay faces that repel other clay , causing the particles to push apart , and by doing , the flocculation of clay particles into larger , open assemblages . As a result , the clay disperses and settles into voids between peds , causing those to close . In this way the open structure of the soil is destroyed and the soil is made impenetrable to air and water . Such sodic soil tends to form columnar structures near the surface . Density ( edit ) Soil particle density is typically 2.60 to 2.75 grams per cm and is usually unchanging for a given soil . Soil particle density is lower for soils with high organic matter content , and is higher for soils with high iron - oxides content . Soil bulk density is equal to the dry mass of the soil divided by the volume of the soil ; i.e. , it includes air space and organic materials of the soil volume . The soil bulk density of cultivated loam is about 1.1 to 1.4 g / cm ( for comparison water is 1.0 g / cm ) . Soil bulk density is highly variable for a given soil . A lower bulk density by itself does not indicate suitability for plant growth due to the influence of soil texture and structure . A high bulk density is indicative of either soil compaction or high sand content . Soil bulk density is inherently always less than the soil particle density . Representative bulk densities of soils . The percentage pore space was calculated using 2.7 g / cm for particle density except for the peat soil , which is estimated . Soil treatment and identification Bulk density g / cm Pore space % Tilled surface soil of a cotton field 1.3 51 Trafficked inter-rows where wheels passed surface 1.67 37 Traffic pan at 25 cm deep 1.7 36 Undisturbed soil below traffic pan , clay loam 1.5 43 Rocky silt loam soil under aspen forest 1.62 40 Loamy sand surface soil 1.5 43 Decomposed peat 0.55 65 Porosity ( edit ) Main article : Pore space in soil Pore space is that part of the bulk volume of soil that is not occupied by either mineral or organic matter but is open space occupied by either gases or water . In a productive , medium - textured soil the total pore space is typically about 50 % of the soil volume . Pore size varies considerably ; the smallest pores ( cryptopores ; < 0.1 μm ) hold water too tightly for use by plant roots ; plant - available water is held in ultramicropores , micropores and mesopores ( 0.1 -- 75 μm ) ; and macropores ( > 75 μm ) are generally air - filled when the soil is at field capacity . Soil texture determines total volume of the smallest pores ; clay soils have smaller pores , but more total pore space than sands . Soil structure has a strong influence on the larger pores that affect soil aeration , water infiltration and drainage . Tillage has the short - term benefit of temporarily increasing the number of pores of largest size , but these can be rapidly degraded by the destruction of soil aggregation . The pore size distribution affects the ability of plants and other organisms to access water and oxygen ; large , continuous pores allow rapid transmission of air , water and dissolved nutrients through soil , and small pores store water between rainfall or irrigation events . Pore size variation also compartmentalizes the soil pore space such that many microorganisms are not in direct competition with one another , which may explain not only the large number of species present , but the fact that functionally redundant microorganisms ( organisms with the same ecological niche ) can co-exist within the same soil . Consistency ( edit ) Consistency is the ability of soil to stick to itself or to other objects ( cohesion and adhesion respectively ) and its ability to resist deformation and rupture . It is of approximate use in predicting cultivation problems and the engineering of foundations . Consistency is measured at three moisture conditions : air - dry , moist , and wet . In those conditions the consistency quality depends upon the clay content . In the wet state , the two qualities of stickiness and plasticity are assessed . A soil 's resistance to fragmentation and crumbling is assessed in the dry state by rubbing the sample . Its resistance to shearing forces is assessed in the moist state by thumb and finger pressure . Additionally , the cemented consistency depends on cementation by substances other than clay , such as calcium carbonate , silica , oxides and salts ; moisture content has little effect on its assessment . The measures of consistency border on subjective compared to other measures such as pH , since they employ the apparent feel of the soil in those states . The terms used to describe the soil consistency in three moisture states and a last not affected by the amount of moisture are as follows : Consistency of Dry Soil : loose , soft , slightly hard , hard , very hard , extremely hard Consistency of Moist Soil : loose , very friable , friable , firm , very firm , extremely firm Consistency of Wet Soil : nonsticky , slightly sticky , sticky , very sticky ; nonplastic , slightly plastic , plastic , very plastic Consistency of Cemented Soil : weakly cemented , strongly cemented , indurated ( requires hammer blows to break up ) Soil consistency is useful in estimating the ability of soil to support buildings and roads . More precise measures of soil strength are often made prior to construction . Temperature ( edit ) Further information : Soil thermal properties , Heat capacity , and Thermal conduction Soil temperature depends on the ratio of the energy absorbed to that lost . Soil has a temperature range between - 20 to 60 ° C. Soil temperature regulates seed germination , plant and root growth and the availability of nutrients . Below 50 cm ( 20 in ) , soil temperature seldom changes and can be approximated by adding 1.8 ° C ( 2 ° F ) to the mean annual air temperature . Soil temperature has important seasonal , monthly and daily variations . Fluctuations in soil temperature are much lower with increasing soil depth . Heavy mulching ( a type of soil cover ) can slow the warming of soil , and , at the same time , reduce fluctuations in surface temperature . Most often , agricultural activities must adapt to soil temperatures by : maximizing germination and growth by timing of planting optimizing use of anhydrous ammonia by applying to soil below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) preventing heaving and thawing due to frosts from damaging shallow - rooted crops preventing damage to desirable soil structure by freezing of saturated soils improving uptake of phosphorus by plants Soil temperatures can be raised by drying soils or the use of clear plastic mulches . Organic mulches slow the warming of the soil . There are various factors that affect soil temperature , such as water content , soil color , and relief ( slope , orientation , and elevation ) , and soil cover ( shading and insulation ) . The color of the ground cover and its insulating properties have a strong influence on soil temperature . Whiter soil tends to have a higher albedo than blacker soil cover , which encourages whiter soils to have lower soil temperatures . The specific heat of soil is the energy required to raise the temperature of soil by 1 ° C. The specific heat of soil increases as water content increases , since the heat capacity of water is greater than that of dry soil . The specific heat of pure water is ~ 1 calorie per gram , the specific heat of dry soil is ~ 0.2 calories per gram , hence , the specific heat of wet soil is ~ 0.2 to 1 calories per gram . Also , a tremendous energy ( ~ 540 cal / g ) is required to evaporate water ( known as the heat of vaporization ) . As such , wet soil usually warms more slowly than dry soil -- wet surface soil is typically 3 to 6 ° C colder than dry surface soil . Soil heat flux refers to the rate at which heat energy moves through the soil in response to a temperature difference between two points in the soil . The heat flux density is the amount of energy that flows through soil per unit area per unit time and has both magnitude and direction . For the simple case of conduction into or out of the soil in the vertical direction , which is most often applicable the heat flux density is : q x = − k δ T δ x ( \ displaystyle q_ ( x ) = - k ( \ frac ( \ delta T ) ( \ delta x ) ) ) In SI units q ( \ displaystyle q ) is the heat flux density , in SI the units are W m k ( \ displaystyle k ) is the soils ' conductivity , W m K . The thermal conductivity is sometimes a constant , otherwise an average value of conductivity for the soil condition between the surface and the point at depth is used . δ T ( \ displaystyle \ delta T ) is the temperature difference ( temperature gradient ) between the two points in the soil between which the heat flux density is to be calculated . In SI the units are kelvin , K . δ x ( \ displaystyle \ delta x ) is the distance between the two points within the soil , at which the temperatures are measured and between which the heat flux density is being calculated . In SI the units are meters m , and where x is measured positive downward . Heat flux is in the direction opposite the temperature gradient , hence the minus sign . That is to say , if the temperature of the surface is higher than at depth x the negative sign will result in a positive value for the heat flux q , and which is interpreted as the heat being conducted into the soil . Component Thermal Conductivity ( W m ‐ 1 K ‐ 1 ) Quartz 8.8 Clay 2.9 Organic matter 0.25 Water 0.57 Ice 2.4 Air 0.025 Dry soil 0.2 ‐ 0.4 Wet soil 1 -- 3 Soil temperature is important for the survival and early growth of seedlings . Soil temperatures affect the anatomical and morphological character of root systems . All physical , chemical , and biological processes in soil and roots are affected in particular because of the increased viscosities of water and protoplasm at low temperatures . In general , climates that do not preclude survival and growth of white spruce above ground are sufficiently benign to provide soil temperatures able to maintain white spruce root systems . In some northwestern parts of the range , white spruce occurs on permafrost sites and although young unlignified roots of conifers may have little resistance to freezing , less than half of the `` secondary mature '' root system of white spruce was killed by exposure to a temperature of 23.3 ° C in multiple year experiment with containerized trees from local nurseries in Massachusetts . Optimum temperatures for tree root growth range between 10 ° C and 25 ° C in general and for spruce in particular . In 2 - week - old white spruce seedlings that were then grown for 6 weeks in soil at temperatures of 15 ° C , 19 ° C , 23 ° C , 27 ° C , and 31 ° C ; shoot height , shoot dry weight , stem diameter , root penetration , root volume , and root dry weight all reached maxima at 19 ° C . However , whereas strong positive relationships between soil temperature ( 5 ° C to 25 ° C ) and growth have been found in trembling aspen and balsam poplar , white and other spruce species have shown little or no changes in growth with increasing soil temperature . Such insensitivity to soil low temperature may be common among a number of western and boreal conifers . Color ( edit ) Main article : Soil color Soil colour is often the first impression one has when viewing soil . Striking colours and contrasting patterns are especially noticeable . The Red River of the South carries sediment eroded from extensive reddish soils like Port Silt Loam in Oklahoma . The Yellow River in China carries yellow sediment from eroding loess soils . Mollisols in the Great Plains of North America are darkened and enriched by organic matter . Podsols in boreal forests have highly contrasting layers due to acidity and leaching . In general , color is determined by the organic matter content , drainage conditions , and degree of oxidation . Soil color , while easily discerned , has little use in predicting soil characteristics . It is of use in distinguishing boundaries within a soil profile , determining the origin of a soil 's parent material , as an indication of wetness and waterlogged conditions , and as a qualitative means of measuring organic , salt and carbonate contents of soils . Color is recorded in the Munsell color system as for instance 10YR3 / 4 Dusky Red . Soil color is primarily influenced by soil mineralogy . Many soil colours are due to various iron minerals . The development and distribution of colour in a soil profile result from chemical and biological weathering , especially redox reactions . As the primary minerals in soil parent material weather , the elements combine into new and colourful compounds . Iron forms secondary minerals of a yellow or red colour , organic matter decomposes into black and brown compounds , and manganese , sulfur and nitrogen can form black mineral deposits . These pigments can produce various colour patterns within a soil . Aerobic conditions produce uniform or gradual colour changes , while reducing environments ( anaerobic ) result in rapid colour flow with complex , mottled patterns and points of colour concentration . Resistivity ( edit ) Main article : Soil resistivity Soil resistivity is a measure of a soil 's ability to retard the conduction of an electric current . The electrical resistivity of soil can affect the rate of galvanic corrosion of metallic structures in contact with the soil . Higher moisture content or increased electrolyte concentration can lower resistivity and increase conductivity , thereby increasing the rate of corrosion . Soil resistivity values typically range from about 2 to 1000 Ω m , but more extreme values are not unusual . Soil water ( edit ) Further information : Water content and Water potential Water that enters a field is removed from a field by runoff , drainage , evaporation or transpiration . Runoff is the water that flows on the surface to the edge of the field ; drainage is the water that flows through the soil downward or toward the edge of the field underground ; evaporative water loss from a field is that part of the water that evaporates into the atmosphere directly from the field 's surface ; transpiration is the loss of water from the field by its evaporation from the plant itself . Water affects soil formation , structure , stability and erosion but is of primary concern with respect to plant growth . Water is essential to plants for four reasons : It constitutes 80 % - 95 % of the plant 's protoplasm . It is essential for photosynthesis . It is the solvent in which nutrients are carried to , into and throughout the plant . It provides the turgidity by which the plant keeps itself in proper position . In addition , water alters the soil profile by dissolving and re-depositing minerals , often at lower levels , and possibly leaving the soil sterile in the case of extreme rainfall and drainage . In a loam soil , solids constitute half the volume , gas one - quarter of the volume , and water one - quarter of the volume of which only half of which will be available to most plants . A flooded field will drain the gravitational water under the influence of gravity until water 's adhesive and cohesive forces resist further drainage at which point it is said to have reached field capacity . At that point , plants must apply suction to draw water from a soil . The water that plants may draw from the soil is called the available water . Once the available water is used up the remaining moisture is called unavailable water as the plant can not produce sufficient suction to draw that water in . A plant must produce suction that increases from zero for a flooded field to 1 / 3 bar at field dry condition ( one bar is a little less than one atmosphere pressure ) . At 15 bar suction , wilting percent , seeds will not germinate , plants begin to wilt and then die . Water moves in soil under the influence of gravity , osmosis and capillarity . When water enters the soil , it displaces air from some of the pores , since air content of a soil is inversely related to its water content . The rate at which a soil can absorb water depends on the soil and its other conditions . As a plant grows , its roots remove water from the largest pores first . Soon the larger pores hold only air , and the remaining water is found only in the intermediate - and smallest - sized pores . The water in the smallest pores is so strongly held to particle surfaces that plant roots can not pull it away . Consequently , not all soil water is available to plants . When saturated , the soil may lose nutrients as the water drains . Water moves in a draining field under the influence of pressure where the soil is locally saturated and by capillarity pull to dryer parts of the soil . Most plant water needs are supplied from the suction caused by evaporation from plant leaves and 10 % is supplied by `` suction '' created by osmotic pressure differences between the plant interior and the soil water . Plant roots must seek out water . Insufficient water will damage the yield of a crop . Most of the available water is used in transpiration to pull nutrients into the plant . Water retention forces ( edit ) Further information : Soil water ( retention ) and Water retention curve Water is retained in a soil when the adhesive force of attraction that water 's hydrogen atoms have for the oxygen of soil particles is stronger than the cohesive forces that water 's hydrogen feels for other water oxygen atoms . When a field is flooded , the soil pore space is completely filled by water . The field will drain under the force of gravity until it reaches what is called field capacity , at which point the smallest pores are filled with water and the largest with water and gases . The total amount of water held when field capacity is reached is a function of the specific surface area of the soil particles . As a result , high clay and high organic soils have higher field capacities . The total force required to pull or push water out of soil is termed suction and usually expressed in units of bars ( 10 pascal ) which is just a little less than one - atmosphere pressure . Alternatively , the terms `` tension '' or `` moisture potential '' may be used . Moisture classification ( edit ) The forces with which water is held in soils determine its availability to plants . Forces of adhesion hold water strongly to mineral and humus surfaces and less strongly to itself by cohesive forces . A plant 's root may penetrate a very small volume of water that is adhering to soil and be initially able to draw in water that is only lightly held by the cohesive forces . But as the droplet is drawn down , the forces of adhesion of the water for the soil particles make reducing the volume of water increasingly difficult until the plant can not produce sufficient suction to use the remaining water . The remaining water is considered unavailable . The amount of available water depends upon the soil texture and humus amounts and the type of plant attempting to use the water . Cacti , for example , can produce greater suction than can agricultural crop plants . The following description applies to a loam soil and agricultural crops . When a field is flooded , it is said to be saturated and all available air space is occupied by water . The suction required to draw water into a plant root is zero . As the field drains under the influence of gravity ( drained water is called gravitational water or drain - able water ) , the suction a plant must produce to use such water increases to 1 / 3 bar . At that point , the soil is said to have reached field capacity , and plants that use the water must produce increasingly higher suction , finally up to 15 bar . At 15 bar suction , the soil water amount is called wilting percent . At that suction the plant can not sustain its water needs as water is still being lost from the plant by transpiration ; the plant 's turgidity is lost , and it wilts . The next level , called air - dry , occurs at 1000 bar suction . Finally the oven dry condition is reached at 10,000 bar suction . All water below wilting percentage is called unavailable water . Soil moisture content ( edit ) See also : Soil moisture sensor and Moisture content When the soil moisture content is optimal for plant growth , the water in the large and intermediate size pores can move about in the soil and be easily used by plants . The amount of water remaining in a soil drained to field capacity and the amount that is available are functions of the soil type . Sandy soil will retain very little water , while clay will hold the maximum amount . The time required to drain a field from flooded condition for a clay loam that begins at 43 % water by weight to a field capacity of 22 % is six days , whereas a sand loam that is flooded to its maximum of 22 % water will take two days to reach field capacity of 11 % water . The available water for the clay loam might be 11 % whereas for the sand loam it might be only 8 % by weight . Wilting point , field capacity , and available water capacity of various soil textures Soil Texture Wilting Point Field Capacity Available water capacity Water per foot of soil depth Water per foot of soil depth Water per foot of soil depth % in . % in . % in . Medium sand 1.7 0.3 6.8 1.2 5.1 0.9 Fine sand 2.3 0.4 8.5 1.5 6.2 1.1 Sandy loam 3.4 0.6 11.3 2.0 7.9 1.4 Fine sandy loam 4.5 0.8 14.7 2.6 10.2 1.8 Loam 6.8 1.2 18.1 3.2 11.3 2.0 Silt loam 7.9 1.4 19.8 3.5 11.9 2.1 Clay loam 10.2 1.8 21.5 3.8 11.3 2.0 Clay 14.7 2.6 22.6 4.0 7.9 1.4 The above are average values for the soil textures as the percentages of sand , silt and clay vary . Water flow in soils ( edit ) Water moves through soil due to the force of gravity , osmosis and capillarity . At zero to one - third bar suction , water is pushed through soil from the point of its application under the force of gravity and the pressure gradient created by the pressure of the water ; this is called saturated flow . At higher suction , water movement is pulled by capillarity from wetter toward dryer soil . This is caused by water 's adhesion to soil solids , and is called unsaturated flow . Water infiltration and movement in soil is controlled by six factors : Soil texture Soil structure . Fine - textured soils with granular structure are most favourable to infiltration of water . The amount of organic matter . Coarse matter is best and if on the surface helps prevent the destruction of soil structure and the creation of crusts . Depth of soil to impervious layers such as hardpans or bedrock The amount of water already in the soil Soil temperature . Warm soils take in water faster while frozen soils may not be able to absorb depending on the type of freezing . Water infiltration rates range from 0.25 cm ( 0.098 in ) per hour for high clay soils to 2.5 cm ( 0.98 in ) per hour for sand and well stabilised and aggregated soil structures . Water flows through the ground unevenly , called `` gravity fingers '' , because of the surface tension between water particles . Tree roots create paths for rainwater flow through soil by breaking though soil including clay layers : one study showed roots increasing infiltration of water by 153 % and another study showed an increase by 27 times . Flooding temporarily increases soil permeability in river beds , helping to recharge aquifers . Saturated flow ( edit ) Water applied to a soil is pushed by pressure gradients from the point of its application where it is saturated locally , to less saturated areas . Once soil is completely wetted , any more water will move downward , or percolate , carrying with it clay , humus and nutrients , primarily cations , out of the range of plant roots . In order of decreasing solubility , the leached nutrients are : Calcium Magnesium , Sulfur , Potassium ; depending upon soil composition Nitrogen ; usually little , unless nitrate fertiliser was applied recently Phosphorus ; very little as its forms in soil are of low solubility . In the United States percolation water due to rainfall ranges from zero inches just east of the Rocky Mountains to twenty or more inches in the Appalachian Mountains and the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico . Unsaturated flow ( edit ) At suctions less than one - third bar , water moves in all directions via unsaturated flow at a rate that is dependent on the square of the diameter of the water - filled pores . Water is pulled by capillary action due to the adhesion force of water to the soil solids , producing a suction gradient from wet towards drier soil . Doubling the diameter of the pores increases the flow rate by a factor of four . Large pores drained by gravity and not filled with water do not greatly increase the flow rate for unsaturated flow . Water flow is primarily from coarse - textured soil into fine - textured soil and is slowest in fine - textured soils such as clay . Water uptake by plants ( edit ) Of equal importance to the storage and movement of water in soil is the means by which plants acquire it and their nutrients . Ninety percent of water is taken up by plants as passive absorption caused by the pulling force of water evaporating ( transpiring ) from the long column of water that leads from the plant 's roots to its leaves . In addition , the high concentration of salts within plant roots creates an osmotic pressure gradient that pushes soil water into the roots . Osmotic absorption becomes more important during times of low water transpiration caused by lower temperatures ( for example at night ) or high humidity . It is the process that causes guttation . Root extension is vital for plant survival . A study of a single winter rye plant grown for four months in one cubic foot of loam soil showed that the plant developed 13,800,000 roots , a total of 385 miles in length with 2,550 square feet in surface area ; and 14 billion hair roots of 6,600 miles total length and 4,320 square feet total area ; for a total surface area of 6,870 square feet ( 83 ft squared ) . The total surface area of the loam soil was estimated to be 560,000 square feet . In other words , the roots were in contact with only 1.2 % of the soil . Roots must seek out water as the unsaturated flow of water in soil can move only at a rate of up to 2.5 cm ( one inch ) per day ; as a result they are constantly dying and growing as they seek out high concentrations of soil moisture . Insufficient soil moisture , to the point of causing wilting , will cause permanent damage and crop yields will suffer . When grain sorghum was exposed to soil suction as low as 13.0 bar during the seed head emergence through bloom and seed set stages of growth , its production was reduced by 34 % . Consumptive use and water efficiency ( edit ) Only a small fraction ( 0.1 % to 1 % ) of the water used by a plant is held within the plant . The majority is ultimately lost via transpiration , while evaporation from the soil surface is also substantial . Transpiration plus evaporative soil moisture loss is called evapotranspiration . Evapotranspiration plus water held in the plant totals to consumptive use , which is nearly identical to evapotranspiration . The total water used in an agricultural field includes runoff , drainage and consumptive use . The use of loose mulches will reduce evaporative losses for a period after a field is irrigated , but in the end the total evaporative loss will approach that of an uncovered soil . The benefit from mulch is to keep the moisture available during the seedling stage . Water use efficiency is measured by transpiration ratio , which is the ratio of the total water transpired by a plant to the dry weight of the harvested plant . Transpiration ratios for crops range from 300 to 700 . For example , alfalfa may have a transpiration ratio of 500 and as a result 500 kilograms of water will produce one kilogram of dry alfalfa . Soil atmosphere ( edit ) The atmosphere of soil is radically different from the atmosphere above . The consumption of oxygen , by microbes and plant roots and their release of carbon dioxide , decrease oxygen and increase carbon dioxide concentration . Atmospheric CO concentration is 0.04 % , but in the soil pore space it may range from 10 to 100 times that level . At extreme levels CO is toxic . In addition , the soil voids are saturated with water vapour . Adequate porosity is necessary , not just to allow the penetration of water , but also to allow gases to diffuse in and out . Movement of gases is by diffusion from high concentrations to lower . Oxygen diffuses in and is consumed and excess levels of carbon dioxide , diffuse out with other gases as well as water . Soil texture and structure strongly affect soil porosity and gas diffusion . It is the total pore space ( porosity ) of soil not the pore size that determines the rate of diffusion of gases into and out of soil . A Platy soil structure and compacted soils ( low porosity ) impede gas flow , and a deficiency of oxygen may encourage anaerobic bacteria to reduce ( strip oxygen ) from nitrate NO to the gases N , N O , and NO , which are then lost to the atmosphere , thereby depleting the soil of nitrogen . Aerated soil is also a net sink of methane CH but a net producer of greenhouse gases when soils are depleted of oxygen and subject to elevated temperatures . Composition of soil particles ( edit ) Soil particles can be classified by their chemical composition ( mineralogy ) as well as their size . The particle size distribution of a soil , its texture , determines many of the properties of that soil , but the mineralogy of those particles can strongly modify those properties . The mineralogy of the finest soil particles , clay , is especially important . Gravel , sand and silt ( edit ) Gravel , sand and silt are the larger soil particles , and their mineralogy is often inherited from the parent material of the soil , but may include products of weathering ( such as concretions of calcium carbonate or iron oxide ) , or residues of plant and animal life ( such as silica phytoliths ) . Quartz is the most common mineral in the sand or silt fraction as it is resistant to chemical weathering ; other common minerals are feldspars , micas and ferromagnesian minerals such as pyroxenes , amphiboles and olivines . Mineral colloids ; soil clays ( edit ) Further information : Clay minerals Due to its high specific surface area and its unbalanced negative charges , clay is the most active mineral component of soil . It is a colloidal and most often a crystalline material . In soils , clay is a soil textural class and is defined in a physical sense as any mineral particle less than 2 μm ( 8 × 10 in ) in effective diameter . Many soil minerals , such as gypsum , carbonates , or quartz , are small enough to be classified as clay based on their physical size , but chemically they do not afford the same utility as do clay minerals . Chemically , clay is a range of minerals with certain reactive properties . Clay was once thought to be very small particles of quartz , feldspar , mica , hornblende or augite , but it is now known to be ( with the exception of mica - based clays ) a precipitate with a mineralogical composition that is dependent on but different from its parent materials and is classed as a secondary mineral . The type of clay that is formed is a function of the parent material and the composition of the minerals in solution . Clay minerals continue to be formed as long as the soil exists . Mica - based clays result from a modification of the primary mica mineral in such a way that it behaves and is classed as a clay . Most clays are crystalline , but some are amorphous . The clays of a soil are a mixture of the various types of clay , but one type predominates . There are four groups of clay : layer silicates ; crystalline chain silicates ; metal oxides and hydroxides and oxy - oxides ; and amorphous ; and allophanes . Most clays are crystalline and most are made up of three or four planes of oxygen held together by planes of aluminium and silicon by way of ionic bonds that together form a single layer of clay . The spatial arrangement of the oxygen atoms determines clay 's structure . Half of the weight of clay is oxygen , but on a volume basis oxygen is ninety percent . The layers of clay are sometimes held together through hydrogen bonds or potassium bridges and as a result will swell less in the presence of water . Other clays , such as montmorillonite , have layers that are loosely attached and will swell greatly when water intervenes between the layers . There are four groups of clays : Layer Crystalline alumino - silica clays : montmorillonite , illite , vermiculite , chlorite , kaolinite . Crystalline Chain carbonate and sulfate minerals : calcite ( CaCO ) , dolomite ( CaMg ( CO ) ) and gypsum ( CaSO 2H2O ) . Amorphous clays : young mixtures of silica ( SiO - OH ) and alumina ( Al ( OH ) ) which have not had time to form regular crystals . Sesquioxide clays : old , highly leached clays which result in oxides of iron , aluminium and titanium . Alumino - silica clays ( edit ) Alumino - silica clays are characterised by their regular crystalline structure . Oxygen in ionic bonds with silicon forms a tetrahedral coordination ( silicon at the center ) which in turn forms sheets of silica . Two sheets of silica are bonded together by a plane of aluminium which forms an octahedral coordination , called alumina , with the oxygens of the silica sheet above and that below it . Hydroxyl ions ( OH ) sometimes substitute for oxygen . During the clay formation process , Al may substitute for Si in the silica layer , and as much as one fourth of the aluminium Al may be substituted by Zn , Mg or Fe in the alumina layer . The substitution of lower - valence cations for higher - valence cations ( isomorphous substitution ) gives clay a local negative charge on an oxygen atom that attracts and holds water and positively charged soil cations , some of which are of value for plant growth . Isomorphous substitution occurs during the clay 's formation and does not change with time . Montmorillonite clay is made of four planes of oxygen with two silicon and one central aluminium plane intervening . The alumino - silicate montmorillonite clay is said to have a 2 : 1 ratio of silicon to aluminium . The seven planes together form a single crystal of montmorillonite . The crystals are weakly held together and water may intervene , causing the clay to swell up to ten times its dry volume . It occurs in soils which have had little leaching , hence it is found in arid regions . As the crystals are not bonded face to face , the entire surface is exposed and available for surface reactions , hence it has a high cation exchange capacity ( CEC ) . Illite is a 2 : 1 clay similar in structure to montmorillonite but has potassium bridges between the faces of the clay crystals and the degree of swelling depends on the degree of weathering of the potassium . The active surface area is reduced due to the potassium bonds . Illite originates from the modification of mica , a primary mineral . It is often found together with montmorillonite and its primary minerals . It has moderate CEC . Vermiculite is a mica - based clay similar to illite , but the crystals of clay are held together more loosely by hydrated magnesium and it will swell , but not as much as does montmorillonite . It has very high CEC . Chlorite is similar to vermiculite , but the loose bonding by occasional hydrated magnesium , as in vermiculite , is replaced by a hydrated magnesium sheet , that firmly bonds the planes above and below it . It has two planes of silicon , one of aluminium and one of magnesium ; hence it is a 2 : 2 clay . Chlorite does not swell and it has low CEC . Kaolinite is very common , highly weathered clay , and more common than montmorillonite in acid soils . It has one silica and one alumina plane per crystal ; hence it is a 1 : 1 type clay . One plane of silica of montmorillonite is dissolved and is replaced with hydroxyls , which produces strong hydrogen bonds to the oxygen in the next crystal of clay . As a result , kaolinite does not swell in water and has a low specific surface area , and as almost no isomorphous substitution has occurred it has a low CEC . Where rainfall is high , acid soils selectively leach more silica than alumina from the original clays , leaving kaolinite . Even heavier weathering results in sesquioxide clays . silica - sesquioxide Crystalline chain clays ( edit ) The carbonate and sulfate minerals are much more soluble and hence are found primarily in desert soils where leaching is less active . Amorphous clays ( edit ) Amorphous clays are young , and commonly found in volcanic ash . They are mixtures of alumina and silica which have not formed the ordered crystal shape of alumino - silica clays which time would provide . The majority of their negative charges originates from hydroxyl ions , which can gain or lose a hydrogen ion ( H ) in response to soil pH , in such way was as to buffer the soil pH . They may have either a negative charge provided by the attached hydroxyl ion ( OH ) , which can attract a cation , or lose the hydrogen of the hydroxyl to solution and display a positive charge which can attract anions . As a result , they may display either high CEC in an acid soil solution , or high anion exchange capacity in a basic soil solution . Sesquioxide clays ( edit ) Sesquioxide clays are a product of heavy rainfall that has leached most of the silica from alumino - silica clay , leaving the less soluble oxides iron hematite ( Fe O ) , iron hydroxide ( Fe ( OH ) ) , aluminium hydroxide gibbsite ( Al ( OH ) ) , hydrated manganese birnessite ( MnO ) . It takes hundreds of thousands of years of leaching to create sesquioxide clays . Sesqui is Latin for `` one and one - half '' : there are three parts oxygen to two parts iron or aluminium ; hence the ratio is one and one - half ( not true for all ) . They are hydrated and act as either amorphous or crystalline . They are not sticky and do not swell , and soils high in them behave much like sand and can rapidly pass water . They are able to hold large quantities of phosphates . Sesquioxides have low CEC but are able to hold anions as well as cations . Such soils range from yellow to red in colour . Such clays tend to hold phosphorus so tightly that it is unavailable for absorption by plants . Organic colloids ( edit ) Humus is the final state of decomposition of organic matter . While it may linger for a thousand years , on the larger scale of the age of the mineral soil components , it is temporary . It is composed of the very stable lignins ( 30 % ) and complex sugars ( polyuronides , 30 % ) , proteins ( 30 % ) , waxes , and fats that are resistant to breakdown by microbes . Its chemical assay is 60 % carbon , 5 % nitrogen , some oxygen and the remainder hydrogen , sulfur , and phosphorus . On a dry weight basis , the CEC of humus is many times greater than that of clay . Carbon and terra preta ( edit ) In the extreme environment of high temperatures and the leaching caused by the heavy rain of tropical rain forests , the clay and organic colloids are largely destroyed . The heavy rains wash the alumino - silicate clays from the soil leaving only sesquioxide clays of low CEC . The high temperatures and humidity allow bacteria and fungi to virtually dissolve any organic matter on the rain - forest floor overnight and much of the nutrients are volatilized or leached from the soil and lost . However , carbon in the form of charcoal is far more stable than soil colloids and is capable of performing many of the functions of the soil colloids of sub-tropical soils . Soil containing substantial quantities of charcoal , of an anthropogenic origin , is called terra preta . Research into terra preta is still young but is promising . Fallow periods `` on the Amazonian Dark Earths can be as short as 6 months , whereas fallow periods on oxisols are usually 8 to 10 years long '' Soil chemistry ( edit ) For the academic discipline , see Soil chemistry . The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects its physical properties and the health of its microbial population . In addition , a soil 's chemistry also determines its corrosivity , stability , and ability to absorb pollutants and to filter water . It is the surface chemistry of mineral and organic colloids that determines soil 's chemical properties . `` A colloid is a small , insoluble , nondiffusible particle larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in a fluid medium without settling . Most soils contain organic colloidal particles called humus as well as the inorganic colloidal particles of clays . '' The very high specific surface area of colloids and their net charges , gives soil its ability to hold and release ions . Negatively charged sites on colloids attract and release cations in what is referred to as cation exchange . Cation - exchange capacity ( CEC ) is the amount of exchangeable cations per unit weight of dry soil and is expressed in terms of milliequivalents of positively charged ions per 100 grams of soil ( or centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil ; cmol / kg ) . Similarly , positively charged sites on colloids can attract and release anions in the soil giving the soil anion exchange capacity ( AEC ) . Cation and anion exchange ( edit ) Further information : Cation - exchange capacity The cation exchange , that takes place between colloids and soil water , buffers ( moderates ) soil pH , alters soil structure , and purifies percolating water by adsorbing cations of all types , both useful and harmful . The negative or positive charges on colloid particles make them able to hold cations or anions , respectively , to their surfaces . The charges result from four sources . Isomorphous substitution occurs in clay during its formation , when lower - valence cations substitute for higher - valence cations in the crystal structure . Substitutions in the outermost layers are more effective than for the innermost layers , as the charge strength drops off as the square of the distance . The net result is oxygen atoms with net negative charge and the ability to attract cations . Edge - of - clay oxygen atoms are not in balance ionically as the tetrahedral and octahedral structures are incomplete . Hydroxyls may substitute for oxygens of the silica layers . When the hydrogens of the clay hydroxyls are ionised into solution , they leave the oxygen with a negative charge . Hydrogens of humus hydroxyl groups may be ionised into solution , leaving an oxygen with a negative charge . Cations held to the negatively charged colloids resist being washed downward by water and out of reach of plants ' roots , thereby preserving the fertility of soils in areas of moderate rainfall and low temperatures . There is a hierarchy in the process of cation exchange on colloids , as they differ in the strength of adsorption by the colloid and hence their ability to replace one another . If present in equal amounts in the soil water solution : Al replaces H replaces Ca replaces Mg replaces K same as NH replaces Na If one cation is added in large amounts , it may replace the others by the sheer force of its numbers . This is called mass action . This is largely what occurs with the addition of fertiliser . As the soil solution becomes more acidic ( low pH , and an abundance of H ) , the other cations more weakly bound to colloids are pushed into solution as hydrogen ions occupy those sites . A low pH may cause hydrogen of hydroxyl groups to be pulled into solution , leaving charged sites on the colloid available to be occupied by other cations . This ionisation of hydroxyl groups on the surface of soil colloids creates what is described as pH - dependent charges . Unlike permanent charges developed by isomorphous substitution , pH - dependent charges are variable and increase with increasing pH . Freed cations can be made available to plants but are also prone to be leached from the soil , possibly making the soil less fertile . Plants are able to excrete H into the soil and by that means , change the pH of the soil near the root and push cations off the colloids , thus making those available to the plant . Cation exchange capacity ( CEC ) ( edit ) Cation exchange capacity should be thought of as the soil 's ability to remove cations from the soil water solution and sequester those to be exchanged later as the plant roots release hydrogen ions to the solution . CEC is the amount of exchangeable hydrogen cation ( H ) that will combine with 100 grams dry weight of soil and whose measure is one milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil ( 1 meq / 100 g ) . Hydrogen ions have a single charge and one - thousandth of a gram of hydrogen ions per 100 grams dry soil gives a measure of one milliequivalent of hydrogen ion . Calcium , with an atomic weight 40 times that of hydrogen and with a valence of two , converts to ( 40 / 2 ) x 1 milliequivalent = 20 milliequivalents of hydrogen ion per 100 grams of dry soil or 20 meq / 100 g . The modern measure of CEC is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram ( cmol / kg ) of oven - dry soil . Most of the soil 's CEC occurs on clay and humus colloids , and the lack of those in hot , humid , wet climates , due to leaching and decomposition respectively , explains the relative sterility of tropical soils . Live plant roots also have some CEC . Cation exchange capacity for soils ; soil textures ; soil colloids Soil State CEC meq / 100 g Charlotte fine sand Florida 1.0 Ruston fine sandy loam Texas 1.9 Glouchester loam New Jersey 11.9 Grundy silt loam Illinois 26.3 Gleason clay loam California 31.6 Susquehanna clay loam Alabama 34.3 Davie mucky fine sand Florida 100.8 Sands -- -- -- 1 - 5 Fine sandy loams -- -- -- 5 - 10 Loams and silt loams -- -- - 5 - 15 Clay loams -- -- - 15 - 30 Clays -- -- - over 30 Sesquioxides -- -- - 0 - 3 Kaolinite -- -- - 3 - 15 Illite -- -- - 25 - 40 Montmorillonite -- -- - 60 - 100 Vermiculite ( similar to illite ) -- -- - 80 - 150 Humus -- -- - 100 - 300 Anion exchange capacity ( AEC ) ( edit ) Anion exchange capacity should be thought of as the soil 's ability to remove anions from the soil water solution and sequester those for later exchange as the plant roots release carbonate anions to the soil water solution . Those colloids which have low CEC tend to have some AEC . Amorphous and sesquioxide clays have the highest AEC , followed by the iron oxides . Levels of AEC are much lower than for CEC . Phosphates tend to be held at anion exchange sites . Iron and aluminum hydroxide clays are able to exchange their hydroxide anions ( OH ) for other anions . The order reflecting the strength of anion adhesion is as follows : H PO replaces SO replaces NO replaces Cl The amount of exchangeable anions is of a magnitude of tenths to a few milliequivalents per 100 g dry soil . As pH rises , there are relatively more hydroxyls , which will displace anions from the colloids and force them into solution and out of storage ; hence AEC decreases with increasing pH ( alkalinity ) . Soil reaction ( pH ) ( edit ) Main articles : Soil pH and Soil pH § Effect of soil pH on plant growth Soil reactivity is expressed in terms of pH and is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil . More precisely , it is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous solution and ranges in values from 0 to 14 ( acidic to basic ) but practically speaking for soils , pH ranges from 3.5 to 9.5 , as pH values beyond those extremes are toxic to life forms . Soil pH ( edit ) At 25 ° C an aqueous solution that has a pH of 3.5 has 10 moles H ( hydrogen ions ) per litre of solution ( and also 10 mole / litre OH ) . A pH of 7 , defined as neutral , has 10 moles hydrogen ions per litre of solution and also 10 moles of OH per litre ; since the two concentrations are equal , they are said to neutralise each other . A pH of 9.5 has 10 moles hydrogen ions per litre of solution ( and also 10 mole per litre OH ) . A pH of 3.5 has one million times more hydrogen ions per litre than a solution with pH of 9.5 ( 9.5 - 3.5 = 6 or 10 ) and is more acidic . The effect of pH on a soil is to remove from the soil or to make available certain ions . Soils with high acidity tend to have toxic amounts of aluminium and manganese . Plants which need calcium need moderate alkalinity , but most minerals are more soluble in acid soils . Soil organisms are hindered by high acidity , and most agricultural crops do best with mineral soils of pH 6.5 and organic soils of pH 5.5 . In high rainfall areas , soils tend to acidity as the basic cations are forced off the soil colloids by the mass action of hydrogen ions from the rain as those attach to the colloids . High rainfall rates can then wash the nutrients out , leaving the soil sterile . Once the colloids are saturated with H , the addition of any more hydrogen ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower ( more acidic ) as the soil has been left with no buffering capacity . In areas of extreme rainfall and high temperatures , the clay and humus may be washed out , further reducing the buffering capacity of the soil . In low rainfall areas , unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable sodium , soils may reach pH 10 . Beyond a pH of 9 , plant growth is reduced . High pH results in low micro-nutrient mobility , but water - soluble chelates of those nutrients can correct the deficit . Sodium can be reduced by the addition of gypsum ( calcium sulphate ) as calcium adheres to clay more tightly than does sodium causing sodium to be pushed into the soil water solution where it can be washed out by an abundance of water . Base saturation percentage ( edit ) There are acid - forming cations ( hydrogen and aluminium ) and there are base - forming cations . The fraction of the base - forming cations that occupy positions on the soil colloids is called the base saturation percentage . If a soil has a CEC of 20 meq and 5 meq are aluminium and hydrogen cations ( acid - forming ) , the remainder of positions on the colloids ( 20 - 5 = 15 meq ) are assumed occupied by base - forming cations , so that the percentage base saturation is 15 / 20 x 100 % = 75 % ( the compliment 25 % is assumed acid - forming cations ) . When the soil pH is 7 ( neutral ) , base saturation is 100 percent and there are no hydrogen ions stored on the colloids . Base saturation is almost in direct proportion to pH ( increases with increasing pH ) . It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil . The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of acid forming ions on the colloids not just those in the soil water solution . The addition of enough lime to neutralize the soil water solution will be insufficient to change the pH , as the acid forming cations stored on the soil colloids will tend to restore the original pH condition as they are pushed off those colloids by the calcium of the added lime . Buffering of soils ( edit ) Further information : Soil conditioner The resistance of soil to change in pH , as a result of the addition of acid or basic material , is a measure of the buffering capacity of a soil and ( for a particular soil type ) increases as the CEC increases . Hence , pure sand has almost no buffering ability , while soils high in colloids have high buffering capacity . Buffering occurs by cation exchange and neutralisation . The addition of a small amount highly basic aqueous ammonia to a soil will cause the ammonium to displace hydrogen ions from the colloids , and the end product is water and colloidally fixed ammonium , but little permanent change overall in soil pH . The addition of a small amount of lime , CaCO , will displace hydrogen ions from the soil colloids , causing the fixation of calcium to colloids and the evolution of CO and water , with little permanent change in soil pH . The above are examples of the buffering of soil pH . The general principal is that an increase in a particular cation in the soil water solution will cause that cation to be fixed to colloids ( buffered ) and a decrease in solution of that cation will cause it to be withdrawn from the colloid and moved into solution ( buffered ) . The degree of buffering is often related to the CEC of the soil ; the greater the CEC , the greater the buffering capacity of the soil . Nutrients ( edit ) Main articles : Plant nutrition and Soil pH § Effect of soil pH on plant growth Sixteen elements or nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction . They are carbon C , hydrogen H , oxygen O , nitrogen N , phosphorus P , potassium K , sulfur S , calcium Ca , magnesium Mg , iron Fe , boron B , manganese Mn , copper Cu , zinc Zn , molybdenum Mo , and chlorine Cl . Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients . Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant 's life cycle are considered non-essential . With the exception of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen , which are supplied by carbon dioxide and water , the nutrients derive originally from the mineral component of the soil . Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in a plant - available form . In most situations , nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form from ( or together with ) soil water . Although minerals are the origin of most nutrients , and the bulk of most nutrient elements in the soil is held in crystalline form within primary and secondary minerals , they weather too slowly to support rapid plant growth . For example , The application of finely ground minerals , feldspar and apatite , to soil seldom provides the necessary amounts of potassium and phosphorus at a rate sufficient for good plant growth , as most of the nutrients remain bound in the crystals of those minerals . The nutrients adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay colloids and soil organic matter provide a more accessible reservoir of many plant nutrients ( e.g. K , Ca , Mg , P , Zn ) . As plants absorb the nutrients from the soil water , the soluble pool is replenished from the surface - bound pool . The decomposition of soil organic matter by microorganisms is another mechanism whereby the soluble pool of nutrients is replenished -- this is important for the supply of plant - available N , S , P , and B from soil . Gram for gram , the capacity of humus to hold nutrients and water is far greater than that of clay minerals . All in all , small amounts of humus may remarkably increase the soil 's capacity to promote plant growth . Plant nutrients , their chemical symbols , and the ionic forms common in soils and available for plant uptake Element Symbol Ion or molecule Carbon CO ( mostly through leaves ) Hydrogen H , HOH ( water ) Oxygen O O , OH , CO , SO , CO Phosphorus H PO , HPO ( phosphates ) Potassium Nitrogen NH , NO ( ammonium , nitrate ) Sulfur SO Calcium Ca Ca Iron Fe Fe , Fe ( ferrous , ferric ) Magnesium Mg Mg Boron H BO , H BO , B ( OH ) Manganese Mn Mn Copper Cu Cu Zinc Zn Zn Molybdenum Mo MoO ( molybdate ) Chlorine Cl Cl ( chloride ) Soil processes important for nutrient uptake ( edit ) Nutrients in the soil are taken up by the plant through its roots . To be taken up by a plant , a nutrient element must be located near the root surface ; however , the supply of nutrients in contact with the root is rapidly depleted . There are three basic mechanisms whereby nutrient ions dissolved in the soil solution are brought into contact with plant roots : Mass flow of water Diffusion within water Interception by root growth All three mechanisms operate simultaneously , but one mechanism or another may be most important for a particular nutrient . For example , in the case of calcium , which is generally plentiful in the soil solution , mass flow alone can usually bring sufficient amounts to the root surface . However , in the case of phosphorus , diffusion is needed to supplement mass flow . For the most part , nutrient ions must travel some distance in the soil solution to reach the root surface . This movement can take place by mass flow , as when dissolved nutrients are carried along with the soil water flowing toward a root that is actively drawing water from the soil . In this type of movement , the nutrient ions are somewhat analogous to leaves floating down a stream . In addition , nutrient ions continually move by diffusion from areas of greater concentration toward the nutrient - depleted areas of lower concentration around the root surface . That process is due to random motion of molecules . By this means , plants can continue to take up nutrients even at night , when water is only slowly absorbed into the roots as transpiration has almost stopped . Finally , root interception comes into play as roots continually grow into new , undepleted soil . Estimated relative importance of mass flow , diffusion and root interception as mechanisms in supplying plant nutrients to corn plant roots in soils Nutrient Approximate percentage supplied by : Mass flow Root interception Diffusion Nitrogen 98.8 1.2 0 Phosphorus 6.3 2.8 90.9 Potassium 20.0 2.3 77.7 Calcium 71.4 28.6 0 Sulfur 95.0 5.0 0 Molybdenum 95.2 4.8 0 In the above table , phosphorus and potassium nutrients move more by diffusion than they do by mass flow in the soil water solution , as they are rapidly taken up by the roots creating a concentration of almost zero near the roots ( the plants can not transpire enough water to draw more of those nutrients near the roots ) . The very steep concentration gradient is of greater influence in the movement of those ions than is the movement of those by mass flow . The movement by mass flow requires the transpiration of water from the plant causing water and solution ions to also move toward the roots . Movement by root interception is slowest as the plants must extend their roots . Plants move ions out of their roots in an effort to move nutrients in from the soil . Hydrogen H is exchanged for other cations , and carbonate ( HCO ) and hydroxide ( OH ) anions are exchanged for nutrient anions . As plant roots remove nutrients from the soil water solution , they are replenished as other ions move off of clay and humus ( by ion exchange or desorption ) , are added from the weathering of soil minerals , and are released by the decomposition of soil organic matter . Plants derive a large proportion of their anion nutrients from decomposing organic matter , which typically holds about 95 percent of the soil nitrogen , 5 to 60 percent of the soil phosphorus and about 80 percent of the soil sulfur . Where crops are produced , the replenishment of nutrients in the soil must usually be augmented by the addition of fertilizer or organic matter . Because nutrient uptake is an active metabolic process , conditions that inhibit root metabolism may also inhibit nutrient uptake . Examples of such conditions include waterlogging or soil compaction resulting in poor soil aeration , excessively high or low soil temperatures , and above - ground conditions that result in low translocation of sugars to plant roots . Carbon ( edit ) Measuring soil respiration in the field using an SRS2000 system . Plants obtain their carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide . About 45 % of a plant 's dry mass is carbon ; plant residues typically have a carbon to nitrogen ratio ( C / N ) of between 13 : 1 and 100 : 1 . As the soil organic material is digested by arthropods and micro-organisms , the C / N decreases as the carbonaceous material is metabolized and carbon dioxide ( CO ) is released as a byproduct which then finds its way out of the soil and into the atmosphere . The nitrogen is sequestered in the bodies of the living matter of those decomposing organisms and so it builds up in the soil . Normal CO concentration in the atmosphere is 0.03 % , this can be the factor limiting plant growth . In a field of maize on a still day during high light conditions in the growing season , the CO concentration drops very low , but under such conditions the crop could use up to 20 times the normal concentration . The respiration of CO by soil micro-organisms decomposing soil organic matter contributes an important amount of CO to the photosynthesising plants . Within the soil , CO concentration is 10 to 100 times that of atmospheric levels but may rise to toxic levels if the soil porosity is low or if diffusion is impeded by flooding . Nitrogen ( edit ) Further information : Nitrogen cycle Generalization of percent soil nitrogen by soil order Nitrogen is the most critical element obtained by plants from the soil and nitrogen deficiency often limits plant growth . Plants can use the nitrogen as either the ammonium cation ( NH ) or the anion nitrate ( NO ) . Usually , most of the nitrogen in soil is bound within organic compounds that make up the soil organic matter , and must be mineralized to the ammonium or nitrate form before it can be taken up by most plants . The total nitrogen content depends largely on the soil organic matter content , which in turn depends on the climate , vegetation , topography , age and soil management . Soil nitrogen typically decreases by 0.2 to 0.3 % for every temperature increase by 10 ° C. Usually , grassland soils contain more soil nitrogen than forest soils . Cultivation decreases soil nitrogen by exposing soil organic matter to decomposition by microorganisms , and soils under no - tillage maintain more soil nitrogen than tilled soils . Some micro-organisms are able to metabolise organic matter and release ammonium in a process called mineralisation . Others take free ammonium and oxidise it to nitrate . Nitrogen - fixing bacteria are capable of metabolising N into the form of ammonia in a process called nitrogen fixation . Both ammonium and nitrate can be immobilized by their incorporation into the microbes ' living cells , where it is temporarily sequestered in the form of amino acids and protein . Nitrate may also be lost from the soil when bacteria metabolise it to the gases N and N O . The loss of gaseous forms of nitrogen to the atmosphere due to microbial action is called denitrification . Nitrogen may also be leached from the soil if it is in the form of nitrate or lost to the atmosphere as ammonia due to a chemical reaction of ammonium with alkaline soil by way of a process called volatilisation . Ammonium may also be sequestered in clay by fixation . A small amount of nitrogen is added to soil by rainfall . Nitrogen gains ( edit ) In the process of mineralisation , microbes feed on organic matter , releasing ammonia ( NH ) , ammonium ( NH ) and other nutrients . As long as the carbon to nitrogen ratio ( C / N ) of fresh residues in the soil is above 30 : 1 , nitrogen will be in short supply and other bacteria will feed on the ammonium and incorporate its nitrogen into their cells in the immobilization process . In that form the nitrogen is said to be immobilised . Later , when such bacteria die , they too are mineralised and some of the nitrogen is released as ammonium and nitrate . If the C / N is less than 15 , ammonia is freed to the soil , where it may be used by bacteria which oxidise it to nitrate ( nitrification ) . Bacteria may on average add 25 pounds ( 11 kg ) nitrogen per acre , and in an unfertilised field , this is the most important source of usable nitrogen . In a soil with 5 % organic matter perhaps 2 to 5 % of that is released to the soil by such decomposition . It occurs fastest in warm , moist , well aerated soil . The mineralisation of 3 % of the organic material of a soil that is 4 % organic matter overall , would release 120 pounds ( 54 kg ) of nitrogen as ammonium per acre . Carbon / Nitrogen Ratio of Various Organic Materials Organic Material C : N Ratio Alfalfa 13 Bacteria Clover , green sweet 16 Clover , mature sweet 23 Fungi 9 Forest litter 30 Humus in warm cultivated soils 11 Legume - grass hay 25 Legumes ( alfalfa or clover ) , mature 20 Manure , cow 18 Manure , horse 16 -- 45 Manure , human 10 Oat straw 80 Straw , cornstalks 90 Sawdust 250 In nitrogen fixation , rhizobium bacteria convert N to ammonia ( NH ) . Rhizobia share a symbiotic relationship with host plants , since rhizobia supply the host with nitrogen and the host provides rhizobia with nutrients and a safe environment . It is estimated that such symbiotic bacteria in the root nodules of legumes add 45 to 250 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year , which may be sufficient for the crop . Other , free - living nitrogen - fixing bacteria and blue - green algae live independently in the soil and release nitrate when their dead bodies are converted by way of mineralisation . Some amount of usable nitrogen is fixed by lightning as nitric oxide ( NO ) and nitrogen dioxide ( NO ) . Nitrogen dioxide is soluble in water to form nitric acid ( HNO ) solution of H and NO . Ammonia , NH , previously released from the soil or from combustion , may fall with precipitation as nitric acid at a rate of about five pounds nitrogen per acre per year . Nitrogen Sequestration ( edit ) When bacteria feed on soluble forms of nitrogen ( ammonium and nitrate ) , they temporarily sequester that nitrogen in their bodies in a process called immobilisation . At a later time when those bacteria die , their nitrogen may be released as ammonium by the processes of mineralisation . Protein material is easily broken down , but the rate of its decomposition is slowed by its attachment to the crystalline structure of clay and when trapped between the clay layers . The layers are small enough that bacteria can not enter . Some organisms can exude extracellular enzymes that can act on the sequestered proteins . However , those enzymes too may be trapped on the clay crystals . Ammonium fixation occurs when ammonium pushes potassium ions from between the layers of clay such as illite or montmorillonite . Only a small fraction of soil nitrogen is held this way . Nitrogen losses ( edit ) Usable nitrogen may be lost from soils when it is in the form of nitrate , as it is easily leached . Further losses of nitrogen occur by denitrification , the process whereby soil bacteria convert nitrate ( NO ) to nitrogen gas , N or N O . This occurs when poor soil aeration limits free oxygen , forcing bacteria to use the oxygen in nitrate for their respiratory process . Denitrification increases when oxidisable organic material is available and when soils are warm and slightly acidic . Denitrification may vary throughout a soil as the aeration varies from place to place . Denitrification may cause the loss of 10 to 20 percent of the available nitrates within a day and when conditions are favourable to that process , losses of up to 60 percent of nitrate applied as fertiliser may occur . Ammonium volatilisation occurs when ammonium reacts chemically with an alkaline soil , converting NH to NH . The application of ammonium fertiliser to such a field can result in volatilisation losses of as much as 30 percent . Phosphorus ( edit ) After nitrogen , phosphorus is probably the element most likely to be deficient in soils . The soil mineral apatite is the most common mineral source of phosphorus . While there is on average 1000 lb of phosphorus per acre in the soil , it is generally unavailable in the form of phosphates of low solubility . Total phosphorus is about 0.1 percent by weight of the soil , but only one percent of that is available . Of the part available , more than half comes from the mineralisation of organic matter . Agricultural fields may need to be fertilised to make up for the phosphorus that has been removed in the crop . When phosphorus does form solubilised ions of H PO , they rapidly form insoluble phosphates of calcium or hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum . Phosphorus is largely immobile in the soil and is not leached but actually builds up in the surface layer if not cropped . The application of soluble fertilisers to soils may result in zinc deficiencies as zinc phosphates form . Conversely , the application of zinc to soils may immobilise phosphorus again as zinc phosphate . Lack of phosphorus may interfere with the normal opening of the plant leaf stomata , resulting in plant temperatures 10 percent higher than normal . Phosphorus is most available when soil pH is 6.5 in mineral soils and 5.5 in organic soils . Potassium ( edit ) The amount of potassium in a soil may be as much as 80,000 lb per acre - foot , of which only 150 lb is available for plant growth . Common mineral sources of potassium are the mica biotite and potassium feldspar , KAlSi O. When solubilised , half will be held as exchangeable cations on clay while the other half is in the soil water solution . Potassium fixation often occurs when soils dry and the potassium is bonded between layers of illite clay . Under certain conditions , dependent on the soil texture , intensity of drying , and initial amount of exchangeable potassium , the fixed percentage may be as much as 90 percent within ten minutes . Potassium may be leached from soils low in clay . Calcium ( edit ) Calcium is one percent by weight of soils and is generally available but may be low as it is soluble and can be leached . It is thus low in sandy and heavily leached soil or strongly acidic mineral soil . Calcium is supplied to the plant in the form of exchangeable ions and moderately soluble minerals . Calcium is more available on the soil colloids than is potassium because the common mineral calcite , CaCO , is more soluble than potassium - bearing minerals . Magnesium ( edit ) Magnesium is one of the dominant exchangeable cations in most soils ( as are calcium and potassium ) . Primary minerals that weather to release magnesium include hornblende , biotite and vermiculite . Soil magnesium concentrations are generally sufficient for optimal plant growth , but highly weathered and sandy soils may be magnesium deficient due to leaching by heavy precipitation . Sulfur ( edit ) Most sulfur is made available to plants , like phosphorus , by its release from decomposing organic matter . Deficiencies may exist in some soils ( especially sandy soils ) and if cropped , sulfur needs to be added . The application of large quantities of nitrogen to fields that have marginal amounts of sulfur may cause sulfur deficiency in the rapidly growing plants by the plant 's growth outpacing the supply of sulfur . A 15 - ton crop of onions uses up to 19 lb of sulfur and 4 tons of alfalfa uses 15 lb per acre . Sulfur abundance varies with depth . In a sample of soils in Ohio , United States , the sulfur abundance varied with depths , 0 - 6 inches , 6 - 12 inches , 12 - 18 inches , 18 - 24 inches in the amounts : 1056 , 830 , 686 , 528 lb per acre respectively . Micronutrients ( edit ) The micronutrients essential for plant life , in their order of importance , include iron , manganese , zinc , copper , boron , chlorine and molybdenum . The term refers to plants ' needs , not to their abundance in soil . They are required in very small amounts but are essential to plant health in that most are required parts of some enzyme system which speeds up plants ' metabolisms . They are generally available in the mineral component of the soil , but the heavy application of phosphates can cause a deficiency in zinc and iron by the formation of insoluble zinc and iron phosphates . Iron deficiency may also result from excessive amounts of heavy metals or calcium minerals ( lime ) in the soil . Excess amounts of soluble boron , molybdenum and chloride are toxic . Non-essential nutrients ( edit ) Nutrients which enhance the health but whose deficiency does not stop the life cycle of plants include : cobalt , strontium , vanadium , silicon and nickel . As their importance are evaluated they may be added to the list of essential plant nutrients . Soil organic matter ( edit ) Main article : Soil organic matter Soil organic matter is made up of organic compounds and includes plant , animal and microbial material , both living and dead . A typical soil has a biomass composition of 70 % microorganisms , 22 % macrofauna , and 8 % roots . The living component of an acre of soil may include 900 lb of earthworms , 2400 lb of fungi , 1500 lb of bacteria , 133 lb of protozoa and 890 lb of arthropods and algae . A small part of the organic matter consists of the living cells such as bacteria , molds , and actinomycetes that work to break down the dead organic matter . Were it not for the action of these micro-organisms , the entire carbon dioxide part of the atmosphere would be sequestered as organic matter in the soil . Chemically , organic matter is classed as follows : Polysaccharides cellulose hemicellulose starch pectin Lignins Proteins Most living things in soils , including plants , insects , bacteria , and fungi , are dependent on organic matter for nutrients and / or energy . Soils have organic compounds in varying degrees of decomposition which rate is dependent on the temperature , soil moisture , and aeration . Bacteria and fungi feed on the raw organic matter , which are fed upon by amoebas , which in turn are fed upon by nematodes and arthropods . Organic matter holds soils open , allowing the infiltration of air and water , and may hold as much as twice its weight in water . Many soils , including desert and rocky - gravel soils , have little or no organic matter . Soils that are all organic matter , such as peat ( histosols ) , are infertile . In its earliest stage of decomposition , the original organic material is often called raw organic matter . The final stage of decomposition is called humus . In grassland , much of the organic matter added to the soil is from the deep , fibrous , grass root systems . By contrast , tree leaves falling on the forest floor are the principal source of soil organic matter in the forest . Another difference is the frequent occurrence in the grasslands of fires that destroy large amounts of aboveground material but stimulate even greater contributions from roots . Also , the much greater acidity under any forests inhibits the action of certain soil organisms that otherwise would mix much of the surface litter into the mineral soil . As a result , the soils under grasslands generally develop a thicker A horizon with a deeper distribution of organic matter than in comparable soils under forests , which characteristically store most of their organic matter in the forest floor ( O horizon ) and thin A horizon . Humus ( edit ) Humus refers to organic matter that has been decomposed by soil flora and fauna to the point where it is resistant to further breakdown . Humus usually constitutes only five percent of the soil or less by volume , but it is an essential source of nutrients and adds important textural qualities crucial to soil health and plant growth . Humus also hold bits of undecomposed organic matter which feed arthropods and worms which further improve the soil . The end product , humus , is soluble in water and forms a weak acid that can attack silicate minerals . Humus is a colloid with a high cation and anion exchange capacity that on a dry weight basis is many times greater than that of clay colloids . It also acts as a buffer , like clay , against changes in pH and soil moisture . Humic acids and fulvic acids , which begin as raw organic matter , are important constituents of humus . After the death of plants and animals , microbes begin to feed on the residues , resulting finally in the formation of humus . With decomposition , there is a reduction of water - soluble constituents , cellulose and hemicellulose , and nutrients such as nitrogen , phosphorus , and sulfur . As the residues break down , only stable molecules made of aromatic carbon rings , oxygen and hydrogen remain in the form of humin , lignin and lignin complexes collectively called humus . While the structure of humus has few nutrients , it is able to attract and hold cation and anion nutrients by weak bonds that can be released into the soil solution in response to changes in soil pH . Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil . It also reacts with amino acids , which further increases its resistance to decomposition , including enzymatic decomposition by microbes . Fats and waxes from plant matter have some resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for a while . Clay soils often have higher organic contents that persist longer than soils without clay as the organic molecules adhere to and are stabilised by the clay . Proteins normally decompose readily , but when bound to clay particles , they become more resistant to decomposition . Clay particles also absorb the enzymes exuded by microbes which would normally break down proteins . The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years . High soil tannin ( polyphenol ) content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered in proteins or cause nitrogen immobilisation . Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil . Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present . Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen . Raw organic matter , as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus , is a vital component affecting soil fertility . Humus also absorbs water , and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states , increasing soil porosity . Humus is less stable than the soil 's mineral constituents , as it is reduced by microbial decomposition , and over time its concentration diminshes without the addition of new organic matter . However , humus may persist over centuries if not millennia . Climate and organic matter ( edit ) The production , accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate . Temperature , soil moisture and topography are the major factors affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils . Organic matter tends to accumulate under wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature or excess moisture which results in anaerobic conditions . Conversely , excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients ; forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter to maintain their productivity . Excessive slope may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus . Plant residue in soil ( edit ) Typical types and percentages of plant residue components Cellulose ( 45 % ) Lignin ( 20 % ) Hemicellulose ( 18 % ) Protein ( 8 % ) Sugars and starches ( 5 % ) Fats and waxes ( 2 % ) Cellulose and hemicellulose undergo fast decomposition by fungi and bacteria , with a half - life of 12 -- 18 days in a temperate climate . Brown rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose , leaving the lignin and phenolic compounds behind . Starch , which is an energy storage system for plants , undergoes fast decomposition by bacteria and fungi . Lignin consists of polymers composed of 500 to 600 units with a highly branched , amorphous structure . Lignin undergoes very slow decomposition , mainly by white rot fungi and actinomycetes ; its half - life under temperate conditions is about six months . Soil horizons ( edit ) Main article : Soil horizon A horizontal layer of the soil , whose physical features , composition and age are distinct from those above and beneath , are referred to as a soil horizon . The naming of a horizon is based on the type of material of which it is composed . Those materials reflect the duration of specific processes of soil formation . They are labelled using a shorthand notation of letters and numbers which describe the horizon in terms of its colour , size , texture , structure , consistency , root quantity , pH , voids , boundary characteristics and presence of nodules or concretions . Few soil profiles have all the major horizons . Some may have only one horizon . The exposure of parent material to favourable conditions produces mineral soils that are marginally suitable for plant growth . That growth often results in the accumulation of organic residues . The accumulated organic layer called the O horizon produces a more active soil due to the effect of the organisms that live within it . Organisms colonise and break down organic materials , making available nutrients upon which other plants and animals can live . After sufficient time , humus moves downward and is deposited in a distinctive organic surface layer called the A horizon . Classification ( edit ) Main article : Soil classification Soil is classified into categories in order to understand relationships between different soils and to determine the suitability of a soil for a particular use . One of the first classification systems was developed by Russian scientist Dokuchaev around 1880 . It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers , and developed into the system commonly used until the 1960s . It was based on the idea that soils have a particular morphology based on the materials and factors that form them . In the 1960s , a different classification system began to emerge which focused on soil morphology instead of parental materials and soil - forming factors . Since then it has undergone further modifications . The World Reference Base for Soil Resources ( WRB ) aims to establish an international reference base for soil classification . Soil classification systems ( edit ) Australia ( edit ) Main article : Australian Soil Classification There are fourteen soil orders at the top level of the Australian Soil Classification . They are : Anthroposols , Organosols , Podosols , Vertosols , Hydrosols , Kurosols , Sodosols , Chromosols , Calcarosols , Ferrosols , Dermosols , Kandosols , Rudosols and Tenosols . European Union ( edit ) The EU 's soil taxonomy is based on a new standard soil classification in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources produced by the UN 's Food and Agriculture Organization . According to this , the major soils in the European Union are : Acrisols Albeluvisols Andosols Anthrosols Arenosols Calcisols Cambisols Chernozems Fluvisols Gleysols Gypsisols Histosols Kastanozems Leptosols Luvisols Phaeozems Planosols Podzols Regosols Solonchaks Solonetzes Umbrisols Vertisols United States ( edit ) Main article : USDA soil taxonomy § Orders A taxonomy is an arrangement in a systematic manner ; the USDA soil taxonomy has six levels of classification . They are , from most general to specific : order , suborder , great group , subgroup , family and series . Soil properties that can be measured quantitatively are used in this classification system -- they include : depth , moisture , temperature , texture , structure , cation exchange capacity , base saturation , clay mineralogy , organic matter content and salt content . There are 12 soil orders ( the top hierarchical level ) in soil taxonomy . The names of the orders end with the suffix - sol . The criteria for the different soil orders include properties that reflect major differences in the genesis of soils . The orders are : Alfisol -- soils with aluminium and iron . They have horizons of clay accumulation , and form where there is enough moisture and warmth for at least three months of plant growth . They constitute 10 % of soils worldwide . Andisol -- volcanic ash soils . They are young and very fertile . They cover 1 % of the world 's ice - free surface . Aridisol -- dry soils forming under desert conditions which have fewer than 90 consecutive days of moisture during the growing season and are nonleached . They include nearly 12 % of soils on Earth . Soil formation is slow , and accumulated organic matter is scarce . They may have subsurface zones of caliche or duripan . Many aridisols have well - developed Bt horizons showing clay movement from past periods of greater moisture . Entisol -- recently formed soils that lack well - developed horizons . Commonly found on unconsolidated river and beach sediments of sand and clay or volcanic ash , some have an A horizon on top of bedrock . They are 18 % of soils worldwide . Gelisol -- permafrost soils with permafrost within two metres of the surface or gelic materials and permafrost within one metre . They constitute 9 % of soils worldwide . Histosol -- organic soils , formerly called bog soils , are 1 % of soils worldwide . Inceptisol -- young soils . They have subsurface horizon formation but show little eluviation and illuviation . They constitute 15 % of soils worldwide . Mollisol -- soft , deep , dark fertile soil formed in grasslands and some hardwood forests with very thick A horizons . They are 7 % of soils worldwide . Oxisol -- are heavily weathered , are rich in iron and aluminum oxides ( sesquioxides ) or kaolin but low in silica . They have only trace nutrients due to heavy tropical rainfall and high temperatures and low CEC of the remaining clays . They are 8 % of soils worldwide . Spodosol -- acid soils with organic colloid layer complexed with iron and aluminium leached from a layer above . They are typical soils of coniferous and deciduous forests in cooler climates . They constitute 4 % of soils worldwide . Ultisol -- acid soils in the humid tropics and subtropics , which are depleted in calcium , magnesium and potassium ( important plant nutrients ) . They are highly weathered , but not as weathered as Oxisols . They make up 8 % of the soil worldwide . Vertisol -- inverted soils . They are clay - rich and tend to swell when wet and shrink upon drying , often forming deep cracks into which surface layers can fall . They are difficult to farm or to construct roads and buildings due to their high expansion rate . They constitute 2 % of soils worldwide . Alfisol Andisol Aridisol Entisol Gelisol Histisol Inceptisol Mollisol Oxisol Spodosol Utisol Vertisol The percentages listed above are for land area free of ice . `` Soils of Mountains '' , which constitute the balance ( 11.6 % ) , have a mixture of those listed above , or are classified as `` Rugged Mountains '' which have no soil . The above soil orders in sequence of increasing degree of development are Entisols , Inceptisols , Aridisols , Mollisols , Alfisols , Spodosols , Ultisols , and Oxisols . Histosols and Vertisols may appear in any of the above at any time during their development . The soil suborders within an order are differentiated on the basis of soil properties and horizons which depend on soil moisture and temperature . Forty - seven suborders are recognized in the United States . The soil great group category is a subdivision of a suborder in which the kind and sequence of soil horizons distinguish one soil from another . About 185 great groups are recognized in the United States . Horizons marked by clay , iron , humus and hard pans and soil features such as the expansion - contraction of clays ( that produce self - mixing provided by clay ) , temperature , and marked quantities of various salts are used as distinguishing features . The great group categories are divided into three kinds of soil subgroups : typic , intergrade and extragrade . A typic subgroup represents the basic or ' typical ' concept of the great group to which the described subgroup belongs . An intergrade subgroup describes the properties that suggest how it grades towards ( is similar to ) soils of other soil great groups , suborders or orders . These properties are not developed or expressed well enough to cause the soil to be included within the great group towards which they grade , but suggest similarities . Extragrade features are aberrant properties which prevent that soil from being included in another soil classification . About 1,000 soil subgroups are defined in the United States . A soil family category is a group of soils within a subgroup and describes the physical and chemical properties which affect the response of soil to agricultural management and engineering applications . The principal characteristics used to differentiate soil families include texture , mineralogy , pH , permeability , structure , consistency , the locale 's precipitation pattern , and soil temperature . For some soils the criteria also specify the percentage of silt , sand and coarse fragments such as gravel , cobbles and rocks . About 4,500 soil families are recognised in the United States . A family may contain several soil series which describe the physical location using the name of a prominent physical feature such as a river or town near where the soil sample was taken . An example would be Merrimac for the Merrimack River in New Hampshire . More than 14,000 soil series are recognised in the United States . This permits very specific descriptions of soils . A soil phase of series , originally called ' soil type ' describes the soil surface texture , slope , stoniness , saltiness , erosion , and other conditions . Uses ( edit ) Soil is used in agriculture , where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants ; however , as demonstrated by hydroponics , it is not essential to plant growth if the soil - contained nutrients can be dissolved in a solution . The types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated . Soil material is also a critical component in the mining , construction and landscape development industries . Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects . The movement of massive volumes of soil can be involved in surface mining , road building and dam construction . Earth sheltering is the architectural practice of using soil for external thermal mass against building walls . Many building materials are soil based . Soil resources are critical to the environment , as well as to food and fibre production . Soil provides minerals and water to plants . Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later , thus preventing floods and drought . Soil cleans water as it percolates through it . Soil is the habitat for many organisms : the major part of known and unknown biodiversity is in the soil , in the form of invertebrates ( earthworms , woodlice , millipedes , centipedes , snails , slugs , mites , springtails , enchytraeids , nematodes , protists ) , bacteria , archaea , fungi and algae ; and most organisms living above ground have part of them ( plants ) or spend part of their life cycle ( insects ) below - ground . Above - ground and below - ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected , making soil protection of paramount importance for any restoration or conservation plan . The biological component of soil is an extremely important carbon sink since about 57 % of the biotic content is carbon . Even on desert crusts , cyanobacteria , lichens and mosses capture and sequester a significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis . Poor farming and grazing methods have degraded soils and released much of this sequestered carbon to the atmosphere . Restoring the world 's soils could offset some of the huge increase in greenhouse gases causing global warming , while improving crop yields and reducing water needs . Waste management often has a soil component . Septic drain fields treat septic tank effluent using aerobic soil processes . Landfills use soil for daily cover . Land application of waste water relies on soil biology to aerobically treat BOD . Organic soils , especially peat , serve as a significant fuel resource ; but wide areas of peat production , such as sphagnum bogs , are now protected because of patrimonial interest . Geophagy is the practice of eating soil - like substances . Both animals and human cultures occasionally consume soil for medicinal , recreational , or religious purposes . It has been shown that some monkeys consume soil , together with their preferred food ( tree foliage and fruits ) , in order to alleviate tannin toxicity . Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry . Rain water and pooled water from ponds , lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata , thus becoming groundwater . Pests ( viruses ) and pollutants , such as persistent organic pollutants ( chlorinated pesticides , polychlorinated biphenyls ) , oils ( hydrocarbons ) , heavy metals ( lead , zinc , cadmium ) , and excess nutrients ( nitrates , sulfates , phosphates ) are filtered out by the soil . Soil organisms metabolise them or immobilise them in their biomass and necromass , thereby incorporating them into stable humus . The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding landslides in rugged landscapes . Degradation ( edit ) Main article : Soil retrogression and degradation Land degradation refers to a human - induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of land to function . Soils degradation involves the acidification , contamination , desertification , erosion or salination . Soil acidification is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils , but it degrades land when it lowers crop productivity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion . Soils are often initially acid because their parent materials were acid and initially low in the basic cations ( calcium , magnesium , potassium and sodium ) . Acidification occurs when these elements are leached from the soil profile by rainfall or by the harvesting of forest or agricultural crops . Soil acidification is accelerated by the use of acid - forming nitrogenous fertilizers and by the effects of acid precipitation . Soil contamination at low levels is often within a soil 's capacity to treat and assimilate waste material . Soil biota can treat waste by transforming it ; soil colloids can adsorb the waste material . Many waste treatment processes rely on this treatment capacity . Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function . Derelict soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the land can not be used safely or productively . Remediation of derelict soil uses principles of geology , physics , chemistry and biology to degrade , attenuate , isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore soil functions and values . Techniques include leaching , air sparging , chemical amendments , phytoremediation , bioremediation and natural degradation . Desertification is an environmental process of ecosystem degradation in arid and semi-arid regions , often caused by human activity . It is a common misconception that droughts cause desertification . Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands . Well - managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return . Soil management tools include maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels , reduced tillage and increased cover . These practices help to control erosion and maintain productivity during periods when moisture is available . Continued land abuse during droughts , however , increases land degradation . Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands accelerates desertification . Erosion of soil is caused by water , wind , ice , and movement in response to gravity . More than one kind of erosion can occur simultaneously . Erosion is distinguished from weathering , since erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin ( soil in transit may be described as sediment ) . Erosion is an intrinsic natural process , but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity , especially poor land use practices . These include agricultural activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy rain or strong winds , overgrazing , deforestation , and improper construction activity . Improved management can limit erosion . Soil conservation techniques which are employed include changes of land use ( such as replacing erosion - prone crops with grass or other soil - binding plants ) , changes to the timing or type of agricultural operations , terrace building , use of erosion - suppressing cover materials ( including cover crops and other plants ) , limiting disturbance during construction , and avoiding construction during erosion - prone periods . A serious and long - running water erosion problem occurs in China , on the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River . From the Yellow River , over 1.6 billion tons of sediment flow each year into the ocean . The sediment originates primarily from water erosion ( gully erosion ) in the Loess Plateau region of northwest China . Soil piping is a particular form of soil erosion that occurs below the soil surface . It causes levee and dam failure , as well as sink hole formation . Turbulent flow removes soil starting at the mouth of the seep flow and the subsoil erosion advances up - gradient . The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe . Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of the agricultural value of soils and vegetation . Consequences include corrosion damage , reduced plant growth , erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure , and water quality problems due to sedimentation . Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human - caused processes . Arid conditions favour salt accumulation . This is especially apparent when soil parent material is saline . Irrigation of arid lands is especially problematic . All irrigation water has some level of salinity . Irrigation , especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field , often raises the underlying water table . Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the capillary fringe of saline groundwater . Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing with higher levels of applied water in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage . Desertification Erosion control Reclamation ( edit ) Soils which contain high levels of particular clays , such as smectites , are often very fertile . For example , the smectite - rich clays of Thailand 's Central Plains are among the most productive in the world . Many farmers in tropical areas , however , struggle to retain organic matter in the soils they work . In recent years , for example , productivity has declined in the low - clay soils of northern Thailand . Farmers initially responded by adding organic matter from termite mounds , but this was unsustainable in the long - term . Scientists experimented with adding bentonite , one of the smectite family of clays , to the soil . In field trials , conducted by scientists from the International Water Management Institute in cooperation with Khon Kaen University and local farmers , this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients . Supplementing the farmer 's usual practice with a single application of 200 kg bentonite per rai ( 6.26 rai = 1 hectare ) resulted in an average yield increase of 73 % . More work showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years . In 2008 , three years after the initial trials , IWMI scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers in northeast Thailand , half of whom had applied bentonite to their fields . The average improvement for those using the clay addition was 18 % higher than for non-clay users . Using the clay had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables , which need more fertile soil . This helped to increase their income . The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays , and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique . If the soil is too high in clay , adding gypsum , washed river sand and organic matter will balance the composition . Adding organic matter ( like ramial chipped wood for instance ) to soil which is depleted in nutrients and too high in sand will boost its quality . See also ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Soil Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soils . Acid sulfate soil Agrophysics Alkaline soil Biochar Bulk soil Geoponic Factors affecting permeability of soils Index of soil - related articles Laterite Manure Mineral matter in plants Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage Nitrogen cycle Red Mediterranean soil Saline soil Shrink - swell capacity Soil management Soil zoology World Soil Museum References ( edit ) Citations Jump up ^ Miller , Austin ( 1953 ) . 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Jump up ^ Kitayama , Kanehiro ; Majalap - Lee , Noreen & Aiba , Shin - ichiro ( 2000 ) . `` Soil phosphorus fractionation and phosphorus - use efficiencies of tropical rainforests along altitudinal gradients of Mount Kinabalu , Borneo '' . Oecologia. 123 ( 3 ) : 342 -- 49 . doi : 10.1007 / s004420051020 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Sequeira Braga , Maria Amália ; Paquet , Hélène & Begonha , Arlindo ( 2002 ) . `` Weathering of granites in a temperate climate ( NW Portugal ) : granitic saprolites and arenization '' ( PDF ) . Catena. 49 ( 1 / 2 ) : 41 -- 56 . doi : 10.1016 / S0341 - 8162 ( 02 ) 00017 - 6 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Epstein , Howard E. ; Burke , Ingrid C. & Lauenroth , William K. ( 2002 ) . `` Regional patterns of decomposition and primary production rates in the U.S. Great Plains '' ( PDF ) . Ecology. 83 ( 2 ) : 320 -- 27 . doi : 10.1890 / 0012 - 9658 ( 2002 ) 083 ( 0320 : RPODAP ) 2.0.CO ; 2 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . 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( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Retallack , Gregory J. ( 2010 ) . `` Lateritization and bauxitization events '' ( PDF ) . Economic Geology. 105 ( 3 ) : 655 -- 67 . doi : 10.2113 / gsecongeo. 105.3. 655 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Pye , Kenneth & Tsoar , Haim ( 1987 ) . `` The mechanics and geological implications of dust transport and deposition in deserts with particular reference to loess formation and dune sand diagenesis in the northern Negev , Israel '' . In Frostick , Lynne & Reid , Ian . Desert sediments : ancient and modern ( PDF ) . Hoboken , New Jersey : Blackwell Science . pp. 139 -- 56 . ISBN 978 - 0632019052 . doi : 10.1144 / GSL. SP. 1987.035. 01.10 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Prospero , Joseph M. ( 1999 ) . `` Long - range transport of mineral dust in the global atmosphere : impact of African dust on the environment of the southeastern United States '' ( PDF ) . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 96 ( 7 ) : 3396 -- 403 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 96.7. 3396 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Post , Wilfred M. ; Emanuel , William R. ; Zinke , Paul J. & Stangerberger , Alan G. ( 1999 ) . `` Soil carbon pools and world life zones '' . Nature . 298 : 156 -- 59 . doi : 10.1038 / 298156a0 . Retrieved 14 July 2017 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Gómez - Heras , Miguel ; Smith , Bernard J. & Fort , Rafael ( 2006 ) . `` Surface temperature differences between minerals in crystalline rocks : implications for granular disaggregation of granites through thermal fatigue '' ( PDF ) . Geomorphology. 78 ( 3 / 4 ) : 236 -- 49 . doi : 10.1016 / j. geomorph. 2005.12. 013 . Retrieved 14 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Nicholson , Dawn T. & Nicholson , Frank H. ( 2000 ) . `` Physical deterioration of sedimentary rocks subjected to experimental freeze -- thaw weathering '' ( PDF ) . Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 25 ( 12 ) : 1295 -- 307 . doi : 10.1002 / 1096 - 9837 ( 200011 ) 25 : 12 < 1295 : : AID - ESP138 > 3.0.CO ; 2 - E. Retrieved 14 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Lucas , Yves ( 2001 ) . `` The role of plants in controlling rates and products of weathering : importance of biological pumping '' ( PDF ) . Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences . 29 : 135 -- 63 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. earth. 29.1. 135 . Retrieved 14 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Liu , Baoyuan ; Nearing , Mark A. & Risse , L. Mark ( 1994 ) . `` Slope gradient effects on soil loss for steep slopes '' ( PDF ) . Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers . 37 ( 6 ) : 1835 -- 40 . doi : 10.13031 / 2013.28273 . Retrieved 15 July 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Gans , Jason ; Wolinsky , Murray & Dunbar , John ( 2005 ) . `` Computational improvements reveal great bacterial diversity and high metal toxicity in soil '' ( PDF ) . Science . 309 ( 5739 ) : 1387 -- 90 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1112665 . Retrieved 15 July 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Dance , Amber ( 2008 ) . `` What lies beneath '' ( PDF ) . Nature . 455 ( 7214 ) : 724 -- 25 . PMID 18843336 . doi : 10.1038 / 455724a . Retrieved 15 July 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Roesch , Luiz F.W. ; Fulthorpe , Roberta R. ; Riva , Alberto ; Casella , George ; Hadwin , Alison K.M. ; Kent , Angela D. ; Daroub , Samira H. ; Camargo , Flavio A.O. ; Farmerie , William G. & Triplett , Eric W. ( 2007 ) . `` Pyrosequencing enumerates and contrasts soil microbial diversity '' ( PDF ) . The ISME Journal . 1 ( 4 ) : 283 -- 90 . PMC 2970868 . PMID 18043639 . doi : 10.1038 / ismej. 2007.53 . Retrieved 15 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Meysman , Filip J.R. ; Middelburg , Jack J. & Heip , Carlo H.R. ( 2006 ) . `` Bioturbation : a fresh look at Darwin 's last idea '' ( PDF ) . Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 21 ( 12 ) : 688 -- 95 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tree. 2006.08. 002 . Retrieved 16 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Williams , Stacey M. & Weil , Ray R. ( 2004 ) . `` Crop cover root channels may alleviate soil compaction effects on soybean crop '' ( PDF ) . Soil Science Society of America Journal . 68 ( 4 ) : 1403 -- 9 . doi : 10.2136 / sssaj2004. 1403 . Retrieved 16 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Lynch , Jonathan ( 1995 ) . `` Root architecture and plant productivity '' ( PDF ) . Plant Physiology. 109 ( 1 ) : 7 -- 13 . doi : 10.1104 / pp. 109.1. 7 . Retrieved 16 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Nguyen , Christophe ( 2003 ) . `` Rhizodeposition of organic C by plants : mechanisms and controls '' ( PDF ) . Agronomie. 23 ( 5 / 6 ) : 375 -- 96 . doi : 10.1051 / agro : 2003011 . Retrieved 23 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Widmer , Franco ; Pesaro , Manuel ; Zeyer , Josef & Blaser , Peter ( 2000 ) . `` Preferential flow paths : biological ' hot spots ' in soils '' . In Bundt , Maya . Highways through the soil : properties of preferential flow paths and transport of reactive compounds ( PDF ) . Zurich , Switzerland : ETH Library . pp. 53 -- 75 . doi : 10.3929 / ethz - a-004036424 . Retrieved 23 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Bonkowski , Michael ( 2004 ) . `` Protozoa and plant growth : the microbial loop in soil revisited '' ( PDF ) . New Phytologist. 162 ( 3 ) : 617 -- 31 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1469 - 8137.2004. 01066. x . Retrieved 23 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Six , Johan ; Bossuyt , Heleen ; De Gryze , Steven & Denef , Karolien ( 2004 ) . `` A history of research on the link between ( micro ) aggregates , soil biota , and soil organic matter dynamics '' ( PDF ) . Soil and Tillage Research . 79 ( 1 ) : 7 -- 31 . doi : 10.1016 / j. still. 2004.03. 008 . Retrieved 6 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Saur , Étienne & Ponge , Jean - François ( 1988 ) . `` Alimentary studies on the collembolan Paratullbergia callipygos using transmission electron microscopy '' ( PDF ) . Pedobiologia. 31 ( 5 / 6 ) : 355 -- 79 . Retrieved 6 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Oldeman , L. 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Jump up ^ Scheu , Stefan ( 1991 ) . `` Mucus excretion and carbon turnover of endogeic earthworms '' ( PDF ) . Biology and Fertility of Soils. 12 ( 3 ) : 217 -- 20 . doi : 10.1007 / BF00337206 . Retrieved 13 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Brown , George G. ( 1995 ) . `` How do earthworms affect microfloral and faunal community diversity ? '' . Plant and Soil. 170 ( 1 ) : 209 -- 31 . doi : 10.1007 / BF02183068 . Retrieved 13 August 2017 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Jouquet , Pascal ; Dauber , Jens ; Lagerlöf , Jan ; Lavelle , Patrick & Lepage , Michel ( 2006 ) . `` Soil invertebrates as ecosystem engineers : intended and accidental effects on soil and feedback loops '' ( PDF ) . Applied Soil Ecology. 32 ( 2 ) : 153 -- 64 . doi : 10.1016 / j. apsoil. 2005.07. 004 . Retrieved 13 August 2017 . 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Transactions of the 9th International Congress of Soil Science , Adelaide , Australia , August 5 - 15 , 1968 ( PDF ) . 2 . Sidney , Australia : Angus & Robertson . pp. 19 -- 27 . Retrieved 15 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Gyssels , Gwendolyn ; Poesen , Jean ; Bochet , Esther & Li , Yong ( 2005 ) . `` Impact of plant roots on the resistance of soils to erosion by water : a review '' ( PDF ) . Progress in Physical Geography. 29 ( 2 ) : 189 -- 217 . doi : 10.1191 / 0309133305pp443ra . Retrieved 15 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Balisky , Allen C. & Burton , Philip J. ( 1993 ) . `` Distinction of soil thermal regimes under various experimental vegetation covers '' ( PDF ) . Canadian Journal of Soil Science . 73 ( 4 ) : 411 -- 20 . doi : 10.4141 / cjss93 - 043 . Retrieved 15 August 2017 . Jump up ^ Marrou , Hélène ; Dufour , Lydie & Wery , Jacques ( 2013 ) . `` How does a shelter of solar panels influence water flows in a soil - crop system ? '' ( PDF ) . 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( 2004 ) . `` Describing condition - specific determinants of competition in boreal and sub-boreal mixedwood stands '' . For . Chron. 80 ( 6 ) : 736 -- 42 . doi : 10.5558 / tfc80736 - 6 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 71 . Jump up ^ `` Arizona Master Gardener Manual '' . Cooperative Extension , College of Agriculture , University of Arizona . p . Chapter 2 , pp. 4 -- 8 . Retrieved 27 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Color of Soil '' . US Department of Agriculture -- Natural Resources Conservation Service . Archived from the original on 16 March 2008 . Retrieved 8 July 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Electrical Design , Cathodic Protection '' . United States Army Corps of Engineers . 22 April 1985 . Archived from the original on 12 June 2008 . Retrieved 2 July 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The why and how to testing the Electrical Conductivity of Soils Resources '' . Retrieved 19 December 2010 . Jump up ^ R.J. Edwards ( 15 February 1998 ) . `` Typical Soil Characteristics of Various Terrains '' . Retrieved 2 July 2008 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 72 . ^ Jump up to : Wadleigh 1957 , p. 48 . Jump up ^ Richards & Richards 1957 , p. 50 . Jump up ^ Richards & Richards 1957 , p. 56 . Jump up ^ Wadleigh 1957 , p. 39 . Jump up ^ Richards & Richards 1957 , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 72 -- 74 . Jump up ^ `` Chapter 2 -- Soil and Water '' . Fao.org . Retrieved 7 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 72 -- 75 . Jump up ^ Wadleigh 1957 , p. 47 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 75 -- 76 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 76 -- 77 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 80 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 85 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 86 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 88 . Jump up ^ Brehm , Denise ( 11 December 2008 ) . `` CEE researchers explain mystery of gravity fingers '' . MIT Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering . MIT . Retrieved 31 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Urban Trees Enhance Water Infiltration '' . Fisher , Madeline . The American Society of Agronomy. 17 November 2008 . Archived from the original on 2 June 2013 . Retrieved 31 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Major floods recharge aquifers '' . University of New South Wales Science . 24 January 2011 . Retrieved 31 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 90 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 91 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 92 . Jump up ^ Wadleigh 1957 , p. 46 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 94 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 97 -- 99 . Jump up ^ Russell 1957 , pp. 35 -- 36 . Jump up ^ http://atmo.tamu.edu/class/geos489/lecture6/soiltracegasrev.pdf Jump up ^ College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources . `` Soil Mineralogy '' . www.ctahr.hawaii.edu . University of Hawai'i . Retrieved 7 August 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Russell , E. Walter ( 1973 ) . Soil conditions and plant growth . ( 10th ed . ) . London : Longman . pp. 67 -- 70 . ISBN 0582440483 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 101 -- 02 . Jump up ^ Simonson 1957 , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 102 . ^ Jump up to : Russell 1957 , p. 33 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 102 -- 07 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 101 -- 07 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 107 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 108 . ^ Jump up to : Russell 1957 , pp. 33 -- 34 . ^ Jump up to : Coleman & Mehlich 1957 , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 108 -- 10 . ^ Jump up to : Dean 1957 , p. 82 . ^ Jump up to : Allison 1957 , p. 90 . ^ Jump up to : Reitemeier 1957 , p. 103 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Coleman & Mehlich 1957 , p. 73 . Jump up ^ Holmes & Brown 1957 , p. 112 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 111 . ^ Jump up to : Olsen & Fried 1957 , p. 96 . Jump up ^ Reitemeier 1957 , p. 101 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 103 -- 12 . Jump up ^ Simonson 1957 , pp. 18 , 21 -- 24 , 29 . Jump up ^ Russell 1957 , pp. 32 , 35 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 112 . Jump up ^ Russell 1957 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Allaway 1957 , p. 69 . Jump up ^ Lehmann , J. `` Terra Preta de Indio '' . University of Cornell , Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences . Retrieved 30 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 103 -- 06 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 114 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 115 -- 16 . Jump up ^ Chang , Raymond ( 1984 ) . Chemistry . Random House , Inc. p. 424 . ISBN 039432983X . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 116 -- 17 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 116 -- 19 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 119 -- 20 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 120 -- 21 . ^ Jump up to : Dean 1957 , p. 80 . Jump up ^ Russel 1957 , pp. 123 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Dean 1957 , pp. 80 -- 81 . ^ Jump up to : Roy , R.N. ; Finck , A. ; Blair , G.J. ; Tandon , H.L.S. ( 2006 ) . `` Chapter 4 : Soil fertility and crop production '' . Plant nutrition for food security : a guide for integrated nutrient management ( PDF ) . Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . pp. 43 -- 90 . ISBN 9251054908 . Retrieved 20 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 123 -- 31 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 125 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 126 . Jump up ^ `` Lecture 22 '' . Northern Arizona University . Retrieved 22 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 123 -- 28 . Jump up ^ Wadleigh 1957 , p. 41 . Jump up ^ Broadbent 1957 , p. 153 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 128 . Jump up ^ Allison 1957 , pp. 85 -- 94 . Jump up ^ Broadbent 1957 , pp. 152 -- 55 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 128 -- 31 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 129 -- 30 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 145 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 128 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Allison 1957 , p. 87 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 130 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 131 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 134 -- 35 . Jump up ^ Reitemeier 1957 , pp. 101 -- 04 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 135 -- 36 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 136 . Jump up ^ Jordan & Reisenauer 1957 , p. 107 . Jump up ^ Holmes & Brown 1957 , pp. 111 . Jump up ^ Sherman 1957 , p. 135 . Jump up ^ Seatz & Jurinak 1957 , p. 115 . Jump up ^ Reuther 1957 , p. 128 . Jump up ^ Russel 1957 , p. 121 . Jump up ^ Stout & Johnson 1957 , p. 146 . Jump up ^ Stout & Johnson 1957 , p. 141 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 136 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Stout & Johnson 1957 , p. 107 . Jump up ^ Pimentel , D. ; et al. ( 1995 ) . `` Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits '' . Science . 267 ( 24 ) : 1117 -- 22 . Bibcode : 1995Sci ... 267.1117 P. PMID 17789193 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 267.5201. 1117 . ^ Jump up to : Foth , Henry D. ( 1984 ) . Fundamentals of soil science . New York : Wiley . p. 151 . ISBN 0471889261 . Jump up ^ Gilluly , Waters , Woodford ( 1975 ) . Principles of Geology ( 4th ed . ) . USA : W.H. Freeman . p. 216 . ISBN 978 - 0716702696 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Verkaik , Eric ; Jongkind , Anne G. ; Berendse , Frank ( 2006 ) . `` Short - term and long - term effects of tannins on nitrogen mineralization and litter decomposition in kauri ( Agathis australis ( D. Don ) Lindl . ) forests '' . Plant and Soil. 287 : 337 -- 45 . doi : 10.1007 / s11104 - 006 - 9081 - 8 . Jump up ^ Fierer , N. ; Schimel , Joshua P. ; Cates , Rex G. ; Zou , Jiping ( 2001 ) . `` Influence of balsam poplar tannin fractions on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in Alaskan taiga floodplain soils '' . Soil Biology and Biochemistry . 33 ( 12 -- 13 ) : 1827 -- 39 . doi : 10.1016 / S0038 - 0717 ( 01 ) 00111 - 0 . Jump up ^ Wagai , Rota ; Mayer , Lawrence M. ; Kitayama , Kanehiro ; Knicker , Heike ( 2008 ) . `` Climate and parent material controls on organic matter storage in surface soils : A three - pool , density - separation approach '' . Geoderma. 147 : 23 -- 33 . doi : 10.1016 / j. geoderma. 2008.07. 010 . Jump up ^ Minayeva , T. Yu. ; Trofimov , S. Ya. ; Chichagova , O.A. ; Dorofeyeva , E.I. ; Sirin , A.A. ; Glushkov , I.V. ; Mikhailov , N.D. ; Kromer , B. ( 2008 ) . `` Carbon accumulation in soils of forest and bog ecosystems of southern Valdai in the Holocene '' . Biology Bulletin . 35 ( 5 ) : 524 -- 32 . doi : 10.1134 / S1062359008050142 . Jump up ^ Sanchez , Pedro A. ( 1976 ) . Properties and management of soils in the tropics . New York : Wiley . ISBN 0471752002 . ^ Jump up to : Paul , E.A. ( 1997 ) . Soil organic matter in temperate agroecosystems : long - term experiments in North America . Boca Raton : CRC Press . p. 80 . ISBN 978 - 0849328022 . Jump up ^ Retallack , G.J. ( 1990 ) . Soils of the past : an introduction to paleopedology . Boston : Unwin Hyman . p. 32 . ISBN 978 - 0044457572 . Jump up ^ Buol , S.W. ( 1990 ) . Soil genesis and classification . Ames , Iowa : Iowa State University Press . p. 36 . ISBN 0813828732 . doi : 10.1081 / E-ESS . Jump up ^ IUSS Working Group WRB ( 2014 ) . World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014 . International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps ( PDF ) ( 3rd ed . ) . Rome : FAO . ISBN 978 - 9251083703 . Retrieved 29 August 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 30 June 2014 . Retrieved 8 October 2013 . Soils of the European Union by the EU Institute for Environment and Sustainability . Accessed on 8 October 2013 Jump up ^ The Soil Orders Archived 12 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine. , Department of Environmental Sciences , University of Virginia , retrieved 23 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 411 -- 32 . Jump up ^ Soil Survey Staff ( 1999 ) . Soil taxonomy : A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys . 2nd edition . Natural Resources Conservation Service . U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 436 . ( PDF ) . United States Dept. of Agriculture , Naturel Resources Conservation Service . Retrieved 10 March 2013 . Jump up ^ The Twelve Soil Orders : Soil Taxonomy , Soil & Land Resources Division , College of Agricultural and Life Sciences , University of Idaho ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 409 . Jump up ^ Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , pp. 409 -- 10 . ^ Jump up to : Donahue , Miller & Shickluna 1977 , p. 410 . Jump up ^ Leake , Simon ; Haege , Elke ( 2014 ) . Soils for Landscape Development . CSIRO Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0643109643 . Jump up ^ Ponge , Jean - François ( 2003 ) . `` Humus forms in terrestrial ecosystems : a framework to biodiversity '' ( PDF ) . Soil Biology and Biochemistry . 35 ( 7 ) : 935 -- 45 . doi : 10.1016 / S0038 - 0717 ( 03 ) 00149 - 4 . Jump up ^ De Deyn , Gerlinde B. ; Van der Putten , Wim H. ( 2005 ) . `` Linking aboveground and belowground diversity '' . Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 20 ( 11 ) : 625 -- 33 . PMID 16701446 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tree. 2005.08. 009 . Jump up ^ Hansen , J. ; et al. ( 2008 ) . `` Target atmospheric CO2 : Where should humanity aim ? '' . Open Atmospheric Science Journal . 2 : 217 -- 31 . Bibcode : 2008OASJ ... 2 ... 217H . arXiv : 0804.1126 . doi : 10.2174 / 1874282300802010217 Jump up ^ Lal , R. ( 11 June 2004 ) . `` Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security '' . Science . 304 ( 5677 ) : 1623 -- 27 . Bibcode : 2004Sci ... 304.1623 L. PMID 15192216 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1097396 . Jump up ^ Blakeslee , Thomas R. ( 24 February 2010 ) . `` Greening Deserts for Carbon Credits '' . Renewable Energy World.com . Retrieved 23 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Setz , EZF ; Enzweiler J ; Solferini VN ; Amendola MP ; Berton RS ( 1999 ) . `` Geophagy in the golden - faced saki monkey ( Pithecia pithecia chrysocephala ) in the Central Amazon '' . Journal of Zoology. 247 ( 1 ) : 91 -- 103 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1469 - 7998.1999. tb00196. x . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Kohne , John Maximilian ; Koehne , Sigrid ; Simunek , Jirka ( 2009 ) . `` A review of model applications for structured soils : a ) Water flow and tracer transport '' . Journal of Contaminant Hydrology. 104 ( 1 -- 4 ) : 4 -- 35 . Bibcode : 2009JCHyd. 104 ... 4K . PMID 19012994 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jconhyd. 2008.10. 002 . Jump up ^ Diplock , EE ; Mardlin DP ; Killham KS ; Paton GI ( 2009 ) . `` Predicting bioremediation of hydrocarbons : laboratory to field scale '' . Environmental Pollution. 157 ( 6 ) : 1831 -- 40 . PMID 19232804 . doi : 10.1016 / j. envpol. 2009.01. 022 . Jump up ^ Moeckel , Claudia ; Nizzetto , Luca ; Di Guardo , Antonio ; Steinnes , Eiliv ; Freppaz , Michele ; Filippa , Gianluca ; Camporini , Paolo ; Benner , Jessica ; Jones , Kevin C. ( 2008 ) . `` Persistent organic pollutants in boreal and montane soil profiles : distribution , evidence of processes and implications for global cycling '' . Environmental Science and Technology . 42 ( 22 ) : 8374 -- 80 . Bibcode : 2008EnST ... 42.8374 M. PMID 19068820 . doi : 10.1021 / es801703k . Jump up ^ Rezaei , Khalil ; Guest , Bernard ; Friedrich , Anke ; Fayazi , Farajollah ; Nakhaei , Mohamad ; Aghda , Seyed Mahmoud Fatemi ; Beitollahi , Ali ( 2009 ) . `` Soil and sediment quality and composition as factors in the distribution of damage at the December 26 , 2003 , Bam area earthquake in SE Iran ( M ( s ) = 6.6 ) '' . Journal of Soils and Sediments. 9 : 23 -- 32 . doi : 10.1007 / s11368 - 008 - 0046 - 9 . Jump up ^ Johnson , D.L. ; Ambrose , S.H. ; Bassett , T.J. ; Bowen , M.L. ; Crummey , D.E. ; Isaacson , J.S. ; Johnson , D.N. ; Lamb , P. ; Saul , M. ; Winter - Nelson , A.E. ( 1997 ) . `` Meanings of environmental terms '' . Journal of Environmental Quality . 26 ( 3 ) : 581 -- 89 . doi : 10.2134 / jeq1997. 00472425002600030002x . Jump up ^ Jones , j.a.a. ( 1976 ) . `` Soil piping and stream channel initiation '' . Water Resources Research . 7 ( 3 ) : 602 -- 10 . Bibcode : 1971WRR ... 7 ... 602J . doi : 10.1029 / WR007i003p00602 . Jump up ^ Dooley , Alan ( June 2006 ) . `` Sandboils 101 : Corps has experience dealing with common flood danger '' . Engineer Update . US Army Corps of Engineers . Archived from the original on 18 April 2008 . Retrieved 14 May 2008 . Jump up ^ ILRI ( 1989 ) . `` Effectiveness and Social / Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects : a Review '' ( pdf ) . In : Annual Report 1988 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement ( ILRI ) . Wageningen , The Netherlands . pp. 18 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Drainage Manual : A Guide to Integrating Plant , Soil , and Water Relationships for Drainage of Irrigated Lands . Interior Dept. , Bureau of Reclamation. 1993 . ISBN 0160616239 . Jump up ^ `` Free articles and software on drainage of waterlogged land and soil salinity control '' . Retrieved 28 July 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Improving soils and boosting yields in Thailand '' ( PDF ) . Success Stories . International Water Management Institute ( 2 ) . 2010 . doi : 10.5337 / 2011.0031 . Jump up ^ `` Provide for your garden 's basic needs ... and the plants will take it from there '' . USA Weekend. 10 March 2011 . Sources Donahue , Roy Luther ; Miller , Raymond W. ; Shickluna , John C. ( 1977 ) . Soils : An Introduction to Soils and Plant Growth . Prentice - Hall . ISBN 0138219184 . `` Arizona Master Gardener '' . Cooperative Extension , College of Agriculture , University of Arizona . Retrieved 27 May 2013 . Stefferud , Alfred , ed. ( 1957 ) . Soil : The Yearbook of Agriculture 1957 . United States Department of Agriculture . OCLC 704186906 . Kellogg . `` We Seek ; We Learn '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Simonson . `` What Soils Are '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Russell . `` Physical Properties '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Richards & Richards . `` Soil Moisture '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Wadleigh . `` Growth of Plants '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Allaway . `` pH , Soil Acidity , and Plant Growth '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Coleman & Mehlich . `` The Chemistry of Soil pH '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Dean . `` Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Allison . `` Nitrogen and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Olsen & Fried . `` Soil Phosphorus and Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Reitemeier . `` Soil Potassium and Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Jordan & Reisenauer . `` Sulfur and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Holmes & Brown . `` Iron and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Seatz & Jurinak . `` Zinc and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Russel . `` Boron and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Reuther . `` Copper and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Sherman . `` Manganese and Soil Fertility '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Stout & Johnson . `` Trace Elements '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Broadbent . `` Organic Matter '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Clark . `` Living Organisms in the Soil '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Flemming . `` Soil Management and Insect Control '' . In Stefferud ( 1957 ) . Further reading ( edit ) Soil-Net.com A free schools - age educational site teaching about soil and its importance . Adams , J.A. 1986 . Dirt . College Station , Texas : Texas A&M University Press ISBN 0890963010 Certini , G. , Scalenghe , R. 2006 . Soils : Basic concepts and future challenges . Cambridge Univ Press , Cambridge UK . David R. Montgomery , Dirt : The Erosion of Civilizations , ISBN 978 - 0520258068 Faulkner , Edward H. 1943 . Plowman 's Folly . New York , Grosset & Dunlap . ISBN 0933280513 LandIS Free Soilscapes Viewer Free interactive viewer for the Soils of England and Wales Jenny , Hans . 1941 . Factors of Soil Formation : A System of Quantitative Pedology Logan , W.B. 1995 . Dirt : The ecstatic skin of the earth . ISBN 1573220043 Mann , Charles C. September 2008 . `` Our good earth '' National Geographic Magazine `` 97 Flood '' . USGS . Archived from the original on 24 June 2008 . Retrieved 8 July 2008 . Photographs of sand boils . Soil Survey Division Staff . 1999 . Soil survey manual . Soil Conservation Service . U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 18 . Soil Survey Staff . 1975 . Soil Taxonomy : A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys . USDA - SCS Agric . Handb. 436 . United States Government Printing Office , Washington , DC . Soils ( Matching suitable forage species to soil type ) , Oregon State University Why Study Soils ? Janick , Jules. 2002 . Soil notes , Purdue University LandIS Soils Data for England and Wales a pay source for GIS data on the soils of England and Wales and soils data source ; they charge a handling fee to researchers . External links ( edit ) The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of : Soils and paleosols The Soil Water Compendium ( soil water content sensors explained ) Global Soil Partnership FAO Soils Portal World Reference Base for Soil Resources ISRIC -- World Soil Information ( ICSU World Data Centre for Soils ) World Soil Library and Maps Wossac the world soil survey archive and catalogue Soil Science Society of America USDA - NRCS Web Soil Survey European Soil Portal ( wiki ) National Soil Resources Institute UK Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary ( 1 ) Copies of the reference ' Soil : The Yearbook of Agriculture 1957 ' in multiple formats Topics in soil science Main fields Pedology Edaphology Soil physics Soil mechanics Soil chemistry Soil biology Soil zoology Soil ecology Soil morphology Environmental soil science Agricultural soil science ‎ Soil topics Soil Pedosphere Pedodiversity Pedogenesis Soil erosion Soil contamination Soil retrogression and degradation Soil compaction Soil compaction ( agriculture ) Soil salinity Alkali soil Soil pH Soil acidification Soil health Soil life Soil biodiversity Soil quality Soil value Soil fertility Soil resilience Soil color Soil texture Soil structure Pore space in soil Pore water pressure Soil crust Soil horizon Soil biomantle Soil carbon Soil gas Soil respiration Soil organic matter Soil moisture Soil water ( retention ) Soil type Soil classification USDA soil taxonomy Alfisols Andisols Aridisols Entisols Gelisols Histosols Inceptisols Mollisols Oxisols Spodosols Ultisols Vertisols World Reference Base for Soil Resources ( 1998 -- ) Acrisols Albeluvisols Alisols Andosols Anthrosols Arenosols Calcisols Cambisols Chernozem Cryosols Durisols Ferralsols Fluvisols Gleysols Gypsisols Histosol Kastanozems Leptosols Lixisols Luvisols Nitisols Phaeozems Planosols Plinthosols Podzols Regosols Solonchaks Solonetz Stagnosol Technosols Umbrisols Vertisols Other systems FAO soil classification ( 1974 -- 98 ) Unified Soil Classification System AASHTO Soil Classification System Référentiel pédologique ( French classification system ) Canadian system of soil classification Australian Soil Classification Polish Soil Classification 1938 USDA soil taxonomy List of U.S. state soils List of vineyard soil types Types of soil Applications Soil conservation Soil management Soil guideline value Soil survey Soil test Soil governance Soil value Soil salinity control Erosion control Soil policy Soil policy ( Victoria , Australia ) Agroecology Liming ( soil ) Related fields Geology Geochemistry Petrology Geomorphology Geotechnical engineering Hydrology Hydrogeology Biogeography Earth materials Archaeology Agricultural science Agrology Societies , Initiatives International Union of Soil Sciences Soil and Water Conservation Society National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists Soil Science Society of America National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated International Year of Soil World Congress of Soil Science See also Land use Land conversion Land management Vegetation Infiltration ( hydrology ) Groundwater Crust ( geology ) Impervious surface / Surface runoff Wikipedia : WikiProject Soil Category soil Category soil science Index of soil - related articles List of soil scientists Geotechnical engineering Exploration Investigation Testing On - site Cone penetration test Standard penetration test Monitoring well piezometer Borehole Crosshole sonic logging Nuclear densometer test Static load testing Laboratory Atterberg limits California bearing ratio Direct shear test Hydrometer Proctor compaction test R - value Sieve analysis Triaxial shear test Hydraulic conductivity tests Water content tests Soil Materials Clay Silt Sand Gravel Peat Permafrost Loam Loess Properties Soil classification Hydraulic conductivity Water content Void ratio Bulk density Thixotropy Reynolds ' dilatancy Angle of repose Cohesion Porosity Permeability Specific storage Mechanics Effective stress Pore water pressure Shear strength Overburden pressure Consolidation Compaction Shear wave Lateral earth pressure Foundations Shallow Deep Bearing capacity Dynamic load testing Pile integrity test Wave equation analysis Statnamic load test Retaining walls Gabion Ground freezing Mechanically stabilized earth Pressure grouting Slurry wall Soil nailing Tieback Stability Slope analysis mass wasting landslide Deformation monitoring automated Earthquakes Soil liquefaction Response spectrum Seismic hazard Ground -- structure interaction Geosynthetics Geotextile Geomembrane Geosynthetic clay liner Cellular confinement Numerical analysis Plaxis GEO5 SEEP2D STABL SVFlux SVSlope UTEXAS Natural resources Air Pollution / quality Ambient standards ( USA ) Index Indoor developing nations Law Clean Air Act ( USA ) Ozone depletion Emissions Airshed Trading Deforestation ( REDD ) Energy Law Resources Fossil fuels ( peak oil ) Geothermal Nuclear Solar sunlight shade Tidal Wave Wind Land Arable peak farmland Degradation Law property Management habitat conservation Minerals mining law sand peak rights Soil conservation fertility health resilience Use planning reserve Life Biodiversity Bioprospecting Biosphere Bushfood Bushmeat Fisheries law management Food Forests genetic resources law management Game law Gene bank Herbalist plants Marine conservation Non-timber forest products Rangeland Seed bank Wildlife conservation management Wood Water Types / location Aquifer storage and recovery Drinking Fresh Groundwater pollution recharge remediation Hydrosphere Ice bergs glacial polar Irrigation Rain harvesting Stormwater Surface water Wastewater reclaimed Aspects Desalination Floods Law Leaching Sanitation Conflict Conservation Peak water Pollution Privatization Quality Right Resources management policy Related Commons enclosure global land tragedy of Economics ecological Ecosystem services Exploitation overexploitation Earth Overshoot Day Management adaptive Natural capital accounting Nature reserve Systems ecology Urban ecology Wilderness Resource Common - 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First Day of My Life (Bright Eyes song)
First Day of My Life ( Bright Eyes song ) - Wikipedia First Day of My Life ( Bright Eyes song ) `` First Day of My Life '' Single by Bright Eyes from the album I 'm Wide Awake , It 's Morning Released March 21 , 2005 Format CD , 7 '' Recorded 2004 - 2005 Genre Indie folk Length 3 : 09 Label Saddle Creek SCE - 79 Songwriter ( s ) Conor Oberst Bright Eyes singles chronology `` When the President Talks to God '' ( 2005 ) `` First Day of My Life '' ( 2005 ) `` Easy / Lucky / Free '' ( 2005 ) Music video `` First Day of My Life '' on YouTube `` First Day of My Life '' is a single from the album I 'm Wide Awake , It 's Morning by the American band Bright Eyes , released on March 21 , 2005 . The song reached number 37 on the UK Singles Chart , and at least number 21 on the UK Indie Chart in 2009 . The video was directed by John Cameron Mitchell . The song was listed at # 266 on Pitchfork Media 's `` Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s '' . It can be heard in the 2007 film Elvis and Anabelle and the film The Bubble . It was also featured in the episode of NBC 's Chuck ( Season 4 Episode 23 ) titled `` Chuck Versus the Last Details '' . It was also used in a 2012 Zillow commercial . James Corden selected this song as one of his favorite on Radio 4 's `` Desert Island Discs '' . The song was covered by gnash for his 2016 EP , us . Contents 1 Track listing 2 Musicians 3 References 4 External links Track listing ( edit ) `` First Day of My Life '' ( Conor Oberst ) `` When the President Talks to God '' ( Oberst ) `` True Blue '' ( Oberst ) Musicians ( edit ) Conor Oberst - voice , guitar , keyboards and piano on track 3 Jesse Harris - guitar Tim Luntzel - bass References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Radio 1 - Chart - UK Top 30 Indie Singles Chart '' . BBC . February 12 , 2012 . Archived from the original on February 2 , 2007 . Retrieved February 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s : 500 -- 201 '' . Pitchfork Media . August 17 , 2009 . Retrieved April 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` BBC Radio 4 - Desert Island Discs , James Corden '' . Retrieved February 1 , 2013 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Bright Eyes Mike Mogis Conor Oberst Nate Walcott Rachel Blumberg Andy LeMaster Anton Patzner Janet Weiss Studio albums Letting Off the Happiness Fevers and Mirrors Lifted or The Story is in the Soil , Keep Your Ear to the Ground A Christmas Album I 'm Wide Awake , It 's Morning Digital Ash in a Digital Urn Cassadaga The People 's Key Other albums A Collection of Songs Written and Recorded 1995 - 1997 Motion Sickness Noise Floor Lagniappe : A Saddle Creek Benefit for Hurricane Katrina Relief EPs Bright Eyes / Squadcar 96 Every Day and Every Night Oh Holy Fools Do n't Be Frightened of Turning the Page There Is No Beginning to the Story One Jug of Wine , Two Vessels Four Winds Singles `` Motion Sickness '' `` Drunk Kid Catholic '' `` Lover I Do n't Have to Love '' `` Lua '' `` Take It Easy ( Love Nothing ) '' `` When the President Talks to God '' ' First Day of My Life '' `` Easy / Lucky / Free '' `` Susan Miller Rag '' `` Hot Knives '' `` Shell Games '' `` Singularity '' `` Jejune Stars '' Conor Oberst solo Water Here 's to Special Treatment The Soundtrack to My Movie Kill the Monster Before It Eats Baby Conor Oberst Upside Down Mountain Ruminations Salutations Related articles Discography Songs Saddle Creek Records Commander Venus Desaparecidos Monsters of Folk Park Ave . The Faint Conor Oberst and the Mystic Valley Band This 2000s single - related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Day_of_My_Life_(Bright_Eyes_song)&oldid=853151447 '' Categories : 2005 singles Bright Eyes ( band ) songs 2005 songs Saddle Creek Records singles 2000s single stubs Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from April 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats All stub articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Magyar Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 2 August 2018 , at 19 : 25 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia
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Data access object
Data access object - wikipedia Data access object Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the software design pattern . For the Microsoft library , see Jet Data Access Objects . In computer software , a data access object ( DAO ) is an object that provides an abstract interface to some type of database or other persistence mechanism . By mapping application calls to the persistence layer , the DAO provides some specific data operations without exposing details of the database . This isolation supports the Single responsibility principle . It separates what data access the application needs , in terms of domain - specific objects and data types ( the public interface of the DAO ) , from how these needs can be satisfied with a specific DBMS , database schema , etc. ( the implementation of the DAO ) . Although this design pattern is equally applicable to most programming languages , most types of software with persistence needs , and most types of databases , it is traditionally associated with Java EE applications and with relational databases ( accessed via the JDBC API because of its origin in Sun Microsystems ' best practice guidelines `` Core J2EE Patterns '' for that platform ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Advantages 2 Disadvantages 3 Tools and frameworks 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Advantages ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The advantage of using data access objects is the relatively simple and rigorous separation between two important parts of an application that can but should not know anything of each other , and which can be expected to evolve frequently and independently . Changing business logic can rely on the same DAO interface , while changes to persistence logic do not affect DAO clients as long as the interface remains correctly implemented . All details of storage are hidden from the rest of the application ( see information hiding ) . Thus , possible changes to the persistence mechanism can be implemented by just modifying one DAO implementation while the rest of the application is n't affected . DAOs act as an intermediary between the application and the database . They move data back and forth between objects and database records . Unit testing the code is facilitated by substituting the DAO with a test double in the test , thereby making the tests non-dependent on the persistence layer . In the non specific context of the Java programming language , Data Access Objects as a design concept can be implemented in a number of ways . This can range from a fairly simple interface that separates the data access parts from the application logic , to frameworks and commercial products . DAO coding paradigms can require some skill . Technologies like Java Persistence API and Enterprise JavaBeans come built into application servers and can be used in applications that use a JavaEE application server . Commercial products like TopLink are available based on Object - relational mapping ( ORM ) . Popular open source ORM products include Doctrine , Hibernate , iBATIS and JPA implementations such as Apache OpenJPA . Disadvantages ( edit ) Potential disadvantages of using DAO include leaky abstraction , code duplication , and abstraction inversion . In particular , the abstraction of the DAO as a regular Java object can hide the high cost of each database access , and can also force developers to trigger multiple database queries to retrieve information that could otherwise be returned in a single operation with normal SQL set operations . If an application requires multiple DAOs , one might find oneself repeating essentially the same create , read , update , and delete code for each DAO . This boiler - plate code may be avoided however , by implementing a generic DAO that handles these common operations . Tools and frameworks ( edit ) ODB compiler - based object - relational mapping ( ORM ) system for C++ ORMLite Lightweight object - relational mapping ( ORM ) Framework in Java for JDBC and Android Microsoft Entity Framework DBIx : : Class object - relational mapping ( ORM ) module for Perl See also ( edit ) Create , read , update and delete ( CRUD ) Data access layer Service Data Objects References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Core J2EE Patterns - Data Access Objects '' . Sun Microsystems Inc. 2007 - 08 - 02 . Jump up ^ See http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/java/library/j-genericdao/index.html for workarounds Jump up ^ Hodgson , Kyle ; Reid , Darren . ServiceStack 4 Cookbook . Packt Publishing Ltd. p . Chapter 4 . ISBN 9781783986576 . Retrieved 22 June 2016 . External links ( edit ) Java Persistence - The DAO Design Pattern PHP best practices ( Use Data Access Objects ( DAO ) ) ( hide ) Software design patterns Gang of Four patterns Creational Abstract factory Builder Factory method Prototype Singleton Structural Adapter Bridge Composite Decorator Facade Flyweight Proxy Behavioral Chain of responsibility Command Interpreter Iterator Mediator Memento Observer State Strategy Template method Visitor Concurrency patterns Active object Balking Binding properties Double - checked locking Event - based asynchronous Guarded suspension Join Lock Monitor Proactor Reactor Read write lock Scheduler Thread pool Thread - local storage Architectural patterns Front controller Interceptor MVC ADR ECS n - tier Specification Publish -- subscribe Naked objects Service locator Active record Identity map Data access object Data transfer object Inversion of control Other patterns Blackboard Business delegate Composite entity Dependency injection Intercepting filter Lazy loading Mock object Null object Object pool Servant Twin Type tunnel Method chaining Books Design Patterns Enterprise Integration Patterns People Christopher Alexander Erich Gamma Ralph Johnson John Vlissides Grady Booch Kent Beck Ward Cunningham Martin Fowler Robert Martin Jim Coplien Douglas Schmidt Linda Rising Communities The Hillside Group The Portland Pattern Repository Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_access_object&oldid=782221697 '' Categories : Software design patterns Architectural pattern ( computer science ) Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from February 2015 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Galego Italiano עברית Magyar 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 May 2017 , at 16 : 33 . 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Tropic of Capricorn
Tropic of Capricorn - wikipedia Tropic of Capricorn Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the circle of latitude . For other uses , see Tropic of Capricorn ( disambiguation ) . Coordinates : 23 ° 26 ′ 14 '' S 0 ° 0 ′ 0 '' W  /  23.43722 ° S - 0.00000 ° E  / - 23.43722 ; - 0.00000  ( Prime Meridian ) World map showing the Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Capricorn in 1794 Dunn Map of the World Monument marking the Tropic of Capricorn just north of Antofagasta , Chile Longreach , Queensland , Australia Sign marking the tropic in Maringá , Brazil Sundial on the Tropic of Capricorn , Jujuy Province , Argentina The Tropic of Capricorn ( or the Southern Tropic ) is the circle of latitude that contains the subsolar point on the December ( or southern ) solstice . It is thus the southernmost latitude where the Sun can be directly overhead . Its northern equivalent is the Tropic of Cancer . The Tropic of Capricorn is one of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of Earth . As of 6 January 2018 , its latitude is 23 ° 26 ′ 13.0 '' ( or 23.43695 ° ) south of the Equator , but it is very gradually moving northward , currently at the rate of 0.47 arcseconds , or 15 metres , per year . Contents ( hide ) 1 Geography and environment 2 Around the world 3 Places located along the Tropic of Capricorn 4 List of countries entirely south of the Tropic of Capricorn 5 Name 6 Length 7 See also 8 External links 9 Notes Geography and environment ( edit ) The Tropic of Capricorn is the dividing line between the Southern Temperate Zone to the south and the tropics to the north . The Northern Hemisphere equivalent of the Tropic of Capricorn is the Tropic of Cancer . The position of the Tropic of Capricorn is not fixed , but rather it varies in a complex manner over time ; see under circles of latitude for information . In Australia , areas on the Tropic have some of the most variable rainfall in the world and thus even the wetter areas can not be generally farmed , since irrigation sources invariably dry up in drought years . In southern Africa , where rainfall is more reliable , farming is possible , though yields are low even with fertilisers . In South America , whilst in the continental cratons soils are almost as old as in Australia and Southern Africa , the presence of the geologically young and evolving Andes means that this region is on the western side of the subtropical anticyclones and thus receives warm and humid air from the Atlantic Ocean . As a result , areas in Brazil adjacent to the Tropic are extremely important agricultural regions , producing large quantities of crops such as sugarcane , and the natural rainforest vegetation has been almost entirely cleared , except for a few remaining patches of Atlantic Forest . Further south in Argentina , the temperate grasslands of the Pampas region is one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world , producing of wheat , soybeans , maize , and beef , making the country one of the largest worldwide agricultural exporters , similar to the role played by the Prairies region in Canada . West of the Andes , however , the Humboldt Current makes conditions extremely arid , creating the Atacama Desert , one of the driest in the world , so that no glaciers exist between Volcán Sajama at 18 _̊ 30 'S and Cerro Tres Cruces at 27 _̊ S. Vegetation here is almost non-existent , though on the eastern slopes of the Andes rainfall is adequate for rainfed agriculture . Further south in the region of Patagonia , shared between Argentina and Chile , climate becomes colder , with heavy snowfall in the winter months and throughout the year . On the Western portion of Patagonia , climate is more humid , and dominated by fjords , coniferous forests and lakes owing to the presence of thawing currents from the permafrost in the peaks of the Andes mountains which divide the region . This makes the region a popular destination for ski and winter sports , particularly on the Argentine city of Bariloche and surrounding area . On the Eastern portion of Patagonia climate is generally cold and dry steppe , with high mesas and strong wind conditions . The southern tip of the island of Tierra del Fuego and other islands of the South Atlantic have Sub-Antarctic climate conditions . Around the world ( edit ) Starting at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards , the Tropic of Capricorn passes through 10 countries : Co-ordinates Country , territory or sea Notes 23 ° 26 ′ S 0 ° 0 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 0.000 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 0.000  ( Prime Meridian ) Atlantic Ocean 23 ° 26 ′ S 14 ° 27 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 14.450 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 14.450  ( Namibia ) Namibia Erongo , Khomas , Hardap , Khomas ( again ) , and Omaheke regions 23 ° 26 ′ S 20 ° 0 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 20.000 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 20.000  ( Botswana ) Botswana Kgalagadi , Kweneng and Central districts 23 ° 26 ′ S 27 ° 18 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 27.300 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 27.300  ( South Africa ) South Africa Limpopo Province 23 ° 26 ′ S 31 ° 33 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 31.550 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 31.550  ( Mozambique ) Mozambique Gaza and Inhambane provinces 23 ° 26 ′ S 35 ° 26 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 35.433 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 35.433  ( Indian Ocean ) Indian Ocean Mozambique Channel 23 ° 26 ′ S 43 ° 45 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 43.750 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 43.750  ( Madagascar ) Madagascar Toliara and Fianarantsoa provinces 23 ° 26 ′ S 47 ° 39 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 47.650 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 47.650  ( Indian Ocean ) Indian Ocean 23 ° 26 ′ S 113 ° 47 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 113.783 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 113.783  ( Australia ) Australia Western Australia , Northern Territory and Queensland 23 ° 26 ′ S 151 ° 3 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 151.050 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 151.050  ( Coral Sea ) Coral Sea Passing just south of Cato Reef in Australia 's Coral Sea Islands Territory 23 ° 26 ′ S 166 ° 46 ′ E  /  23.433 ° S 166.767 ° E  / - 23.433 ; 166.767  ( Pacific Ocean ) Pacific Ocean Passing just north of the Minerva Reefs ( Tonga ) , and just south of Tubuai ( French Polynesia ) 23 ° 26 ′ S 70 ° 36 ′ W  /  23.433 ° S 70.600 ° W  / - 23.433 ; - 70.600  ( Chile ) Chile Antofagasta Region 23 ° 26 ′ S 67 ° 07 ′ W  /  23.433 ° S 67.117 ° W  / - 23.433 ; - 67.117  ( Argentina ) Argentina Jujuy , Salta , Jujuy ( again ) , Salta ( again ) and Formosa provinces 23 ° 26 ′ S 61 ° 23 ′ W  /  23.433 ° S 61.383 ° W  / - 23.433 ; - 61.383  ( Paraguay ) Paraguay Boquerón , Presidente Hayes , Concepción , San Pedro and Amambay departments 23 ° 26 ′ S 55 ° 38 ′ W  /  23.433 ° S 55.633 ° W  / - 23.433 ; - 55.633  ( Brazil ) Brazil Mato Grosso do Sul , Paraná , and São Paulo states 23 ° 26 ′ S 45 ° 2 ′ W  /  23.433 ° S 45.033 ° W  / - 23.433 ; - 45.033  ( Atlantic Ocean ) Atlantic Ocean ( show ) Map all coordinates using OSM Map all coordinates using Google Export all coordinates as KML Export all coordinates as GPX Map all microformatted coordinates Place data as RDF Places located along the Tropic of Capricorn ( edit ) The following cities and landmarks are either located near the Tropic of Capricorn , or the tropic passes through them . This list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it . Argentina Andes Mountains The Chaco San Salvador de Jujuy Australia Paraburdoo , Western Australia Newman , Western Australia Lake Disappointment , Western Australia Gibson Desert , Western Australia Ikuntji ( Haast 's Bluff ) , Northern Territory Alice Springs , Northern Territory Longreach , Queensland Great Dividing Range , Queensland Emerald , Queensland Gracemere , Queensland Rockhampton , Queensland Cape Capricorn , Queensland Botswana Kalahari Desert Khutse Game Reserve Kule Mahalapye Brazil Itaquaquecetuba Mogi das Cruzes Maringá Santana de Parnaíba São Paulo - Guarulhos International Airport São Paulo Sorocaba Taguaí Ubatuba Chile Atacama Desert Andes Mountains Antofagasta Madagascar Toliara Mozambique Inhambane city Morrumbene Massinga Namibia Walvis Bay Swakopmund Namib Desert Paraguay Concepción South Africa Kruger National Park Polokwane Capricorn District Municipality Atsimo - Andrefana Region , Madagascar The Tropic of Capricorn marked in Jujuy Province in northern Argentina Monument marking the Tropic of Capricorn as it passes through Botswana A sign marking the Tropic of Capricorn as it passes through Namibia Roadway plaque marking the Tropic of Capricorn in the city of Santana do Parnaíba , Brazil , at the correct latitude for year 1917 . Marker for the tropic in Maringá , Paraná , Brazil , July 2012 Roadside monument marking Tropic of Capricorn in Rockhampton , Queensland , Australia , 28 January 2005 Monument marking Tropic of Capricorn in Rockhampton , Queensland , Australia , 1970 Road sign marking Tropic of Capricorn in Western Australia , Australia , 26 August 2008 Monument marking the Tropic of Capricorn just north of Alice Springs , Northern Territory , Australia Relationship between Earth 's axial tilt ( ε ) to the tropical and polar circles List of countries entirely south of the Tropic of Capricorn ( edit ) As the major portion of earth 's land is located in the Northern Hemisphere there are only four countries entirely south of the Tropic of Capricorn ( there are 74 countries entirely north of the Tropic of Cancer ) : Lesotho New Zealand Swaziland Uruguay Name ( edit ) The Tropic of Capricorn is so named because , when it was named about 2,000 years ago , the sun was also in the direction of the constellation Capricornus ( capricorn is Latin for goat horn ) at the December solstice . In modern times the sun appears in the constellation Sagittarius during this time . The change is due to precession of the equinoxes . The word `` tropic '' itself comes from the Greek trope ( τροπή ) , meaning turn , change in direction or circumstances , referring to the fact that the sun appears to `` turn back '' at the solstices . Length ( edit ) Length of the Tropic on 11 June 2015 , at 23 ° 26 ′ 14 '' S is 36,788 kilometres ( 22,859 mi ) . See also ( edit ) 23rd parallel south 24th parallel south Tropic of Cancer Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle Axial tilt Equator Milankovitch cycles Capricornus External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tropic of Capricorn . Look up tropic of capricorn in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Temporal Epoch Calculations Useful constants '' See : Obliquity of the ecliptic Montana State University : Milankovitch Cycles & Glaciation Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ obliquity of the ecliptic ( Eps Mean ) Jump up ^ Geographical Patterning of Interannual Rainfall Variability in the Tropics and Near Tropics Jump up ^ Exposure dating of Late Glacial and pre-LGM moraines in the Cordon de Doña Rosa , Northern / Central Chile ( ~ 31 ° S ) Jump up ^ The Cook islands , Tokelau and Niue , which are part of the Realm of New Zealand lie above the Tropic of Capricorn . Jump up ^ RhumbSolve online rhumb line calculator . Circles of latitude / meridians Equator Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle Equator Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle Equator Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn Arctic Circle Antarctic Circle W 0 ° E 30 ° 60 ° 90 ° 120 ° 150 ° 180 ° 30 ° 60 ° 90 ° 120 ° 150 ° 180 ° 5 ° 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 95 ° 105 ° 115 ° 125 ° 135 ° 145 ° 155 ° 165 ° 175 ° 5 ° 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 95 ° 105 ° 115 ° 125 ° 135 ° 145 ° 155 ° 165 ° 175 ° 10 ° 20 ° 40 ° 50 ° 70 ° 80 ° 100 ° 110 ° 130 ° 140 ° 160 ° 170 ° 10 ° 20 ° 40 ° 50 ° 70 ° 80 ° 100 ° 110 ° 130 ° 140 ° 160 ° 170 ° 0 ° 10 ° 20 ° 30 ° 40 ° 50 ° 60 ° 70 ° 80 ° 90 ° 10 ° 20 ° 30 ° 40 ° 50 ° 60 ° 70 ° 80 ° 90 ° 5 ° N 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 5 ° S 15 ° 25 ° 35 ° 45 ° 55 ° 65 ° 75 ° 85 ° 45x90 45x90 45x90 45x90 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tropic_of_Capricorn&oldid=816526934 '' Categories : Lines of latitude Tropics Hidden categories : Coordinates on Wikidata Lists of coordinates Geographic coordinate lists Articles with Geo Incomplete lists from February 2011 Use dmy dates from March 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Asturianu বাংলা Беларуская भोजपुरी Български བོད ་ ཡིག Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Walon Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 21 December 2017 , at 22 : 27 . 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Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast
Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast - Wikipedia Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast Jump to : navigation , search Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast Film poster Directed by Steve Loter Produced by Makul Wigert Screenplay by Kate Kondell Mark McCorkle Tom Rodgers Robert Schooley Story by Steve Loter Tom Rodgers Based on Peter and Wendy by J.M. Barrie Starring Ginnifer Goodwin Mae Whitman Rosario Dawson Lucy Liu Raven - Symoné Megan Hilty Narrated by Grey Griffin Music by Joel McNeely Cinematography Navneet Verma Edited by Margaret Hou Production company DisneyToon Studios Distributed by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment Release date December 12 , 2014 ( 2014 - 12 - 12 ) ( United Kingdom ) March 3 , 2015 ( 2015 - 03 - 03 ) ( United States ) Running time 76 minutes Country United States Language English Box office $31.2 million ( non-USA box office ) Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast is a 2014 American computer - animated fantasy film directed by Steve Loter . It is the sixth and most recent installment in the DisneyToon Studios Tinker Bell film series , based on the character Tinker Bell from J.M. Barrie 's Peter and Wendy . Mae Whitman , Lucy Liu , Raven - Symoné , Megan Hilty , Pamela Adlon , and Anjelica Huston reprise their roles of Tinker Bell , Silvermist , Iridessa , Rosetta , Vidia and Queen Clarion . Ginnifer Goodwin joins the cast , replacing Angela Bartys as the voice of Fawn in this film , Rosario Dawson joins the cast as new character Nyx . Singer Mel B also joins the cast as new character Fury in the British release while Danai Gurira voices Fury in the American release . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Release 3.1 Box office 3.2 Critical reception 4 Cancelled sequel 5 References 6 External links Plot ( edit ) This article 's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. ( April 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Fawn ( voiced by Ginnifer Goodwin ) rescues a baby hawk with a broken wing . Once it recovers , she , with the help of Tink , attempts to hide it from the others fairies on their trip taking it back to the forest , as grown hawks eat fairies and everyone is afraid of them . However , their hiding attempt fails and the baby hawk is revealed . The adult hawks hear its calls and arrive to attack and to reclaim the baby , but the scout - fairies are able to fend them off . Fawn is reprimanded by Queen Clarion for following her heart and not her head . After helping the baby hawk return to its rightful home , Fawn hears an unfamiliar roar and decides to fly to the depths of the forest to investigate . She finds a massive , hideous , strange creature that has never been seen before , laying in a cave beneath the earth . It has a thorn stuck in its paw and Fawn tries to get it out for him , but he `` blows '' her out of his lair with a powerful snort of air . Fawn is determined to get the thorn out , and later when the beast emerges from its slumber , she manages to get it out . She realizes the beast is n't vicious , it just simply goes along with its business : a strange behavior of moving rocks and boulders into a pile formation . Fawn stays to observe its behavior , and she surmises that it has traits similar to many different animals she 's encountered , such as thick legs for digging and wide , powerful jaws for carrying heavy weight . Eventually she names him Gruff . She helps Gruff as he builds four identical , giant rock towers , one in each season of Pixie Hollow . All the while Fawn tries to figure out why he 's doing it . Meanwhile in Pixie Hollow , an ambitious scout fairy named Nyx ( voiced by Rosario Dawson ) also heard the roar , and decides to investigate . She too happened upon the beast and does research in the fairy lore library to find out what she 's up against . Using some pieces of information gathered from several torn pages of an undisclosed animal - book , she discovers that Gruff is a creature that awakens about once every thousand years , where it will transform into an even more ferocious beast that could destroy Pixie Hollow with a mysterious series of events that leads to a deadly storm . Fawn reveals Gruff to Tinkerbell , Silvermist , Vidia , Rosetta , and Iridessa and explains how he is n't aggressive , but friendly . She wants to show him to the Queen and demonstrate that he is n't a fairy - eating monster . Her plan goes wrong when she approaches Queen Clarion , because Nyx got to her first and already presented the information of how this gigantic animal called the NeverBeast appears every 1000 years with a massive storm that could destroy Pixie Hollow . Fawn decides not to tell the Queen about Gruff . She is horrified of the legend but is confident that it all is just a big misunderstanding . Queen Clarion urges both Fawn and Nyx to work together and `` do the right thing '' regarding the protection of Pixie Hollow . Each fairy takes this edict to mean different things : Fawn sets out to relocate Gruff so he 'll be safe from the Scouts , while Nyx is determined to capture him and prevent the impending storm . The next day , before Fawn could move him , Gruff disappears and indeed transforms into the monster depicted in the fairy lore . growing wings and horns . Fawn and Tinkerbell set out to find him before the Scouts do . Tinkerbell finds him first but he does n't seem to recognize her , and she tries to urge him to that she is a friend , not a foe . He knocks Tinkerbell away with his tail so hard she passes out . Fawn finds Tinkerbell and is heartbroken to discover Nyx was right about Gruff . So she lures Gruff to her , where he is captured by Nyx and the other Scouts and taken away . Fawn breaks down crying . Tinkerbell wakes up and explains that if Gruff had n't shoved her out of the way she would 've been crushed by a falling tree . Fawn realizes she misunderstood the whole thing , so she and Tink set off to free Gruff . They successfully free Gruff and though he is weak from the ordeal of being captured , he and Fawn start the ritual that will save Pixie Hollow . The rock towers Gruff built have collected lightning and he flies through each one , where the lightning then redirects to his horns and the towers crumble . The last tower is destroyed by Nyx before Gruff can get to it . Thus the plan has failed , and the lightning strikes and starts a fire all around Pixie Hollow . When lightning almost hits Nyx , Gruff catches it in his horns and saves her , and Nyx finally understands that Gruff is good . There is no time to rebuild the towers , so Fawn comes up with an idea . She has Gruff fly high into the sky where he absorbs all the lightning strikes . Then he flies directly into the eye of the storm , and with a large blast , it ends . Gruff falls to the ground , where the fairies catch him with pixie dust before he lands , softening his fall . Gruff 's wings are burnt off and his once - long horns are now small nubs . Worst of all , Fawn is seemingly dead . The Neverbeast mourns her along with everyone else . His chin fur is touching Fawn 's body when after - lightning sparks through him and into her . This revives Fawn and all is well again . For the next few days , Gruff helps around Pixie Hollow by moving large things and such . He begins to feels the urge to go back into hibernation , as he suddenly becomes very tired . The fairies sadly send him off to his cave in a gentle , respectful ceremony of honor . His cave has been given a pillow made of cotton and a mattress made of straw for him to sleep on , as well as a trickling pool of spring water that emits of a soft glow of light . The fairies give their good byes , and leave the content Gruff to sleep for another 1000 years . His legend is retold as the Guardian and Hero of Pixie Hollow . Cast ( edit ) Ginnifer Goodwin as Fawn Mae Whitman as Tinker Bell Rosario Dawson as Nyx Lucy Liu as Silvermist Raven - Symoné as Iridessa Megan Hilty as Rosetta Pamela Adlon as Vidia Danai Gurira ( US release ) as Fury Mel B ( UK release ) as Fury Chloe Bennet as Chase Thomas Lennon as Scribble Jeff Corwin as Buck Olivia Holt as Morgan Grey Griffin as the Narrator Kari Wahlgren as Robin Anjelica Huston as Queen Clarion Release ( edit ) The film was released theatrically in selected markets including the United Kingdom on December 12 , 2014 . In the United States , it had a limited theatrical release , opening on January 30 , 2015 at the El Capitan Theatre for a 13 - day engagement , and was released direct - to - video on March 3 , 2015 . Box office ( edit ) Overseas , the film grossed $31,178,525 . Critical reception ( edit ) On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 74 % , based on 19 reviews , with an average rating of 5.6 / 10 . Metacritic reports a 52 out of 100 rating , based on 5 critics , indicating `` mixed or average reviews '' . Cancelled sequel ( edit ) In addition to Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast , Disney also had plans for a seventh film . In 2014 , The Hollywood Reporter stated that the seventh film was cancelled due to story problems . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Labrecque , Jeff ( November 10 , 2014 ) . `` See which Hollywood star is coming to Pixie Hollow in the trailer for the Tinker Bell movie '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Joel McNeely to Score Disney 's ' Legend of the NeverBeast ' '' . Film Music Reporter . June 14 , 2014 . Retrieved June 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` TINKERBELL AND THE LEGEND OF THE NEVERBEAST ( 2D ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . December 3 , 2014 . Retrieved August 6 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast - International Box Office Results '' . Box Office Mojo . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved December 2 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Alexander , Bryan ( October 21 , 2014 ) . `` Ta - da ! Ginnifer Goodwin turns into Tinker Bell 's best friend ( fairy exclusive ) '' . USA Today . Retrieved October 23 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` D23 Expo : New Art From the Upcoming Disney , Pixar and Disneytoon Movies '' . ComingSoon.net . August 9 , 2013 . Retrieved August 10 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast . Disney . 2015 -- via Netflix . Jump up ^ Duff , Chelsea ( 2015 - 01 - 26 ) . `` Olivia Holt is joining Tinker Bell 's fairy crew '' . GirlsLife.com . Retrieved 2015 - 02 - 18 . Jump up ^ Beck ( January 26 , 2015 ) . `` TRAILER : `` Tinkerbell and the Legend of the NeverBeast '' `` . Animation Scoop . Retrieved March 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast ( 2014 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Flixster . Retrieved December 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast reviews '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved December 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( April 3 , 2014 ) . `` How Tinker Bell Became Disney 's Stealthy $300 Million Franchise '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved October 21 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Official website Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast on IMDb Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast at Box Office Mojo Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast at Rotten Tomatoes Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast at Metacritic J.M. Barrie 's Peter Pan Characters and setting Main Peter Pan Wendy Darling Captain Hook Mr. Smee Tinker Bell Tiger Lily Other Neverland Lost Boys Pixie Hollow Cast members Literary adaptations Official books / plays The Little White Bird Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens Peter and Wendy ( play , book ) Peter Pan in Scarlet Starcatchers books Peter and the Starcatchers Peter and the Shadow Thieves Peter and the Secret of Rundoon Peter and the Sword of Mercy The Bridge to Never Land Never Land Books Film adaptations Peter Pan films Peter Pan ( 1924 ) Peter Pan ( 1953 ) Peter Pan ( 1988 ) Hook Return to Never Land Neverland Peter Pan ( 2003 ) Pan Tinker Bell films Tinker Bell Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue Pixie Hollow Games Secret of the Wings Pixie Hollow Bake Off The Pirate Fairy Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast Adaptations Television 1976 musical The Adventures of Peter Pan Peter Pan & the Pirates Jake and the Never Land Pirates Once Upon a Time Neverland Peter Pan Live ! Peter and Wendy Stage 1950 musical 1954 musical Peter Pan : A Musical Adventure Peter and the Starcatcher Peter Pan 360 Peter and Alice Finding Neverland ( musical ) Wendy & Peter Pan Peter Pan Goes Wrong Disney 's Peter Pan Jr . Video games Peter Pan and the Pirates Peter Pan : Adventures in Never Land Kingdom Hearts Hook Prose The Child Thief Graphic novels Peter Pank Lost Girls Marvel Fairy Tales Music Albums The Wendy Trilogy Faith , Trust , and Pixie Dust `` Lost Boy '' ( Ruth B song ) Somewhere in Neverland `` Peter Pan '' ( Kelsea Ballerini song ) Attractions Disney on Ice Fantasmic ! Peter Pan 's Flight ( ride ) Pixie Hollow Allusions Never Never Land Biographies The Lost Boys Finding Neverland Related Llewelyn Davies boys Peter Pan syndrome / Wendy dilemma Peter Pan copyright Disney franchise Peter Pan statue Disney home entertainment animated features Sequels / Followups The Return of Jafar ( 1994 ) Aladdin and the King of Thieves ( 1996 ) Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas ( 1997 ) Belle 's Magical World ( 1998 ) Pocahontas II : Journey to a New World ( 1998 ) The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) An Extremely Goofy Movie ( 2000 ) The Little Mermaid II : Return to the Sea ( 2000 ) Lady and the Tramp II : Scamp 's Adventure ( 2001 ) Cinderella II : Dreams Come True ( 2002 ) The Hunchback of Notre Dame II ( 2002 ) Atlantis : Milo 's Return ( 2003 ) 101 Dalmatians II : Patch 's London Adventure ( 2003 ) The Lion King 11⁄2 ( 2004 ) Mulan II ( 2004 ) Tarzan II ( 2005 ) Lilo & Stitch 2 : Stitch Has a Glitch ( 2005 ) Kronk 's New Groove ( 2005 ) Bambi II ( 2006 ) Brother Bear 2 ( 2006 ) The Fox and the Hound 2 ( 2006 ) Cinderella III : A Twist in Time ( 2007 ) The Little Mermaid : Ariel 's Beginning ( 2008 ) Films based on TV series Recess Christmas : Miracle on Third Street ( 2001 ) Recess : Taking the Fifth Grade ( 2003 ) Recess : All Growed Down ( 2003 ) Leroy & Stitch ( 2006 ) TV series pilots and compilations Gargoyles the Movie : The Heroes Awaken ( 1995 ) Mighty Ducks the Movie : The First Face - Off ( 1997 ) Hercules : Zero to Hero ( 1998 ) Buzz Lightyear of Star Command : The Adventure Begins ( 2000 ) Tarzan & Jane ( 2002 ) A Very Merry Pooh Year ( 2002 ) Stitch ! The Movie ( 2003 ) Once Upon a Halloween ( 2005 ) Pooh 's Heffalump Halloween Movie ( 2005 ) Original stories Pooh 's Grand Adventure : The Search for Christopher Robin ( 1997 ) Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmas ( 1999 ) Springtime with Roo ( 2004 ) Mickey , Donald , Goofy : The Three Musketeers ( 2004 ) Mickey 's Twice Upon a Christmas ( 2004 ) Spin - offs Disney Princess Enchanted Tales : Follow Your Dreams ( 2007 ) Tinker Bell ( 2008 ) Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure ( 2009 ) Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue ( 2010 ) Secret of the Wings ( 2012 ) The Pirate Fairy ( 2014 ) Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast ( 2015 ) Adaptations Winnie the Pooh : Seasons of Giving ( 1999 ) Mickey 's Magical Christmas : Snowed in at the House of Mouse ( 2001 ) Tarzan & Jane ( 2002 ) Mickey 's House of Villains ( 2002 ) Disney Sing - Along Songs series ( 1986 -- 2006 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tinker_Bell_and_the_Legend_of_the_NeverBeast&oldid=800360500 '' Categories : 2014 films English - language films Tinker Bell films American films American animated fantasy films 2014 animated films 2014 direct - to - video films 2014 computer - animated films 2010s American animated films 2010s fantasy films Film scores by Joel McNeely Sequel films DisneyToon Studios animated films Disney direct - to - video animated films Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from June 2014 Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from April 2017 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Dansk Deutsch Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 13 September 2017 , at 01 : 50 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
tinkerbell and the legend of the neverbeast ending
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Option key
Option key - wikipedia Option key Jump to : navigation , search The Option key may be labeled Alt , or Option , or both , and sometimes the symbol . The Option key is a modifier key ( ALT ) present on Apple keyboards . It is located between the Control key and Command key on a typical Mac keyboard . There are two option keys on modern Mac desktop and notebook keyboards , one on each side of the space bar . Apple commonly uses the symbol U + 2325 ⌥ option key to represent the Option key . From 1980 to 1984 , on the Apple II family , this key was known as the closed apple key , and had a black line drawing of a filled - in apple on it . ( See command key for information about the history and the `` open apple '' . ) Since the 1990s , `` alt '' typically appears on the key , as well , for use as an Alt key with non-Mac software , such as Unix and Windows programs . However , the Option key in a Mac operating system functions differently from the Alt key under other Unix - like systems or Microsoft Windows . Most notably , it is not used to access menus or hotkeys , but is instead used as a modifier for other command codes , and also to provide easier access to various accents and symbols . In this regard , it is akin to the AltGr key , found on some IBM - compatible PC keyboards . Contents ( hide ) 1 Use of the Option key 1.1 Alternative keyboard input 1.2 Alternative buttons and menu items 1.3 Common keyboard navigations 1.4 Alternative mouse actions 1.5 File downloads 1.6 Miscellaneous 2 References Use of the Option key ( edit ) Alternative keyboard input ( edit ) The use of the Option key is similar to that of the AltGr key on European keyboards of IBM - compatible PCs , in the sense that it can be used to type additional characters , symbols and diacritical marks . The options available differ depending on the keyboard input locale that the user has selected . For example , in the U.S. English keyboard input , ⌥ Option + a produces the `` å '' character , and ⌥ Option + 4 produces the cent sign `` ¢ '' . The Option key can also provide access to dead key functionality . For example , holding down ⌥ Option while pressing ` will create a highlighted grave accent which will be added to the next letter if possible -- so if an e is then pressed , the resultant character is è . If an r is pressed instead , the two characters are not compatible so the result is ` r . The highlighted orange keys show the accents available from the combination of the ⌥ Option key and the keyboard characters e ` i n u . The accent then can be applied to associated letters both lower and uppercase . The additional characters a Mac will produce are a combination of both the ⌥ Option key and the ⇧ Shift key pressed down together . With this combination pressed the keyboard will now produce a different set or an uppercase version of the previous set in some cases . The Option key is often used in conjunction with special keys like Tab ↹ , delete , and return to provide alternate functions . For example , ⌥ Option + Return typically produces a line break that is not interpreted as a paragraph break . Alternative buttons and menu items ( edit ) The key is also used to provide for alternative menu items and buttons when pressed down . Examples : Safari , Finder - the Option key causes the `` Close Window '' menu item to switch to `` Close All Windows '' when pressed down . Consequently , clicking a window 's close box with the option key depressed invokes `` close all '' as well . This functionality is a de facto Macintosh standard and available in numerous other programs . Dock - the Option key causes the `` Hide '' and `` Quit '' menu items in the context menu of a Dock icon to switch to `` Hide Others '' and `` Force Quit '' . iTunes - the Create Playlist button switches to a Create Smart Playlist button . Holding Option and clicking the green Window Zoom ( + ) button at the top - left forces the iTunes window into fullscreen view , rather than switching between the user - set window size and the iTunes Mini Player . iPhoto - the rotate image button toggles between a `` rotate right '' and a `` rotate left '' . Menu bar items - the Sound icon will show Audio Device input / output settings instead of the volume control slider , the battery item will show the condition of the battery , the MobileMe sync item will show the last sync date / time of individual synced items and will offer additional menu items such as Sync Diagnostics , and the Wireless icon will show extended wireless network information and , in Mac OS X Lion , offer an item for launching a Wi - Fi diagnostic application ( when AirPort is connected ) . The iPhoto example is an example of a control whose behavior is governed by a preference which is temporarily inverted by holding down the Option key . The preference in this case is which way to rotate the image : If the user changes the default rotation direction in the Preferences to clockwise , holding down Option will make the button rotate counterclockwise instead , and vice versa . It is common for such controls -- that is , those whose behavior is governed by a preference -- to be invertible in this way . Common keyboard navigations ( edit ) In text areas , the Option key can be used for quick keyboard navigation . ⌥ Option + ← / → - navigate to the previous / next word . Windows equivalent : Ctrl + ← / → ⌥ Option + ↑ / ↓ - navigate to the head / end of current paragraph . Terminal equivalent : ⇧ Shift + Home / End Windows equivalent : Home / End ⌥ Option + Page up / Page down - navigate caret up / down a page . Without the Option key , the Page up / Page down keys let the page view scroll up / down a page without moving the caret . Windows equivalent : Page up / Page down Alternative mouse actions ( edit ) When keeping the Option key pressed when using the mouse , the mouse action can change behaviour option - mouse clicking an application other than the current one , automatically hides the current application and switches to the clicked application . When dragging an item ( file in the Finder , or layer in Adobe Photoshop , for instance ) , keeping Option pressed will make sure you Duplicate something instead of moving it . File Downloads ( edit ) In browsers such as Safari and SeaMonkey , the option key can be used to download a file . Pressing down the option key when hitting return in the address bar causes the URL - specified file to be downloaded . Also , pressing the option key when clicking a hyperlink causes the link target to be downloaded . Besides the option key methods , other ways of downloading includes right - clicking ( or ctrl ( ^ ) clicking , in Macs ) a hyperlink to bring up a context menu , then selecting the appropriate download command , or pasting a URL directly into Safari 's Downloads window . Miscellaneous ( edit ) Some applications make unique uses out of the option key : Terminal ( including at least version 1.4. 6 - no longer true as of 2.0. 1 , ⌘ Cmd + ← / → works . ) - ⌥ Option + ← / → arrows navigates between open Terminal windows in a loop . Usually , programs use ⌘ Cmd + ` and ⌘ Cmd + ⇧ Shift + ` , which are also supported for Terminal . Scroll bars ( including at least OS X 10.3. x ) - Option - clicking a scroll bar arrow can cause the view to jump to the next page instead of moving by a few lines . Option - clicking in the scroll bar can cause the view to jump to that position instead of jumping to the next page . This behavior can be reversed in System Preferences : Appearance . Startup Disk - Holding the Option Key at boot time activates a boot manager built into the firmware , where the user may choose from which drive / partition to boot the computer from , including Mac OS and Mac OS X partitions or drives on PowerPC - based Macs , and Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows partitions or drives on Intel - based Macs ( running Mac OS X 10.4. 6 and later with Boot Camp from Apple Inc. installed ) . The built in bootloader can also boot other operating systems such as Linux ; however , these are labeled as `` Windows '' in the bootloader . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Unicode Character `` OPTION KEY '' at Fileformat.info Classic Mac OS Versions System 1 System 2 , 3 , and 4 System 5 System 6 System 7 Mac OS 8 Mac OS 9 Applications Calculator Chooser Drive Setup DVD Player Finder Graphing Calculator Keychain Access PictureViewer PowerTalk QuickTime Player Network Browser Scrapbook Sherlock Software Update Stickies System Information SimpleText Developer HyperCard MacsBug Macintosh Programmer 's Workshop ResEdit Technology Alias Appearance Manager Apple menu At Ease Balloon help Bomb Error Command key ( ⌘ ) Control Panel Control Strip Creator code Extensions Hierarchical File System HFS Plus Keychain Labels Macintosh File System Menu blinking MultiFinder Option key ( ⌥ ) OSType PICT QuickDraw QuickTime Resource fork Sosumi sound Startup Screen System folder System suitcase Type code WorldScript Related articles Manager Toolbox Memory management Old World ROM New World ROM EFI Software macOS History Architecture Components Technologies Server Software Versions Server 1.0 Hera Public Beta Kodiak 10.0 Cheetah 10.1 Puma 10.2 Jaguar 10.3 Panther 10.4 Tiger 10.5 Leopard 10.6 Snow Leopard 10.7 Lion 10.8 Mountain Lion 10.9 Mavericks 10.10 Yosemite 10.11 El Capitan 10.12 Sierra 10.13 High Sierra Applications Automator Calculator Calendar Chess Contacts Dashboard Dictionary DVD Player FaceTime Finder Game Center Grapher iTunes ( version history ) Launchpad Mac App Store Mail Messages Notes Notification Center Photo Booth Photos Preview QuickTime Reminders Safari ( version history ) Stickies TextEdit Time Machine Discontinued Front Row iChat iPhoto iSync Sherlock Utilities Activity Monitor AirPort Utility AppleScript Editor Archive Utility Audio MIDI Setup Bluetooth File Exchange Boot Camp ColorSync Configurator Console Crash Reporter DigitalColor Meter Directory Utility DiskImageMounter Disk Utility Font Book Grab Help Viewer Image Capture Installer Keychain Access Migration Assistant Network Utility ODBC Administrator Screen Sharing System Preferences System Information Terminal Universal Access VoiceOver Discontinued Software Update Remote Install Mac OS X Technology and user interface AirDrop Apple File System Apple menu Apple Push Notification Service AppleScript Aqua Audio Units Bonjour CloudKit Cocoa ColorSync Command key Core Animation Core Audio Core Data Core Foundation Core Image Core OpenGL Core Text Core Video CUPS Cover Flow Darwin Dock FileVault Fonts Gatekeeper Grand Central Dispatch icns iCloud Inkwell I / O Kit Kernel panic Keychain launchd Mach - O MacRuby Menu extra Metal Mission Control OpenCL Option key Preference Pane Property list Quartz QuickTime Quick Look Smart Folders Speakable items Spotlight Stacks System Integrity Protection Uniform Type Identifier Universal binary WebKit XNU XQuartz Deprecated Carbon HFS+ Discontinued BootX Brushed metal Classic Environment Rosetta Spaces Xgrid Keyboard keys Dead keys Compose Modifier keys Control Shift Alt / Option ( Apple ) AltGr Meta Command ( Apple ) / Windows ( Microsoft ) Super Hyper Fn Lock keys Scroll lock Num lock Caps lock F - Lock Navigation keys Arrow keys Page Up / Page Down Home End Esc Menu Editing Enter / Return Carriage return Backspace Insert Delete Tab Space bar Numeric keypad Language input Contextual Function keys Print screen System request Break / Pause Misc . Power management keys ( Power , Sleep , Wake ) Any key Macro key Concepts Keyboard layout Keyboard shortcut Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Option_key&oldid=797210056 '' Categories : Classic Mac OS Computer keys Macintosh platform Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 August 2017 , at 16 : 23 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia
what is mac option key on windows keyboard
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Bigg Boss Telugu 2
Bigg Boss Telugu 2 - wikipedia Bigg Boss Telugu 2 Bigg Boss Telugu ◄ Season 2 ( 2018 ) Name Entry Exit Amit Day 0 Deepti Day 0 Ganesh Day 0 Geetha Day 0 Kaushal Day 0 Nutan Day 0 Day 53 Day 75 Day 14 Day 68 Roll Day 0 Samrat Day 0 Syamala Day 0 Day 53 Day 28 Tanish Day 0 Pooja Day 43 Day 77 Deepthi Day 0 Day 70 Babu Day 0 Day 63 Nandini Day 8 Day 56 Tejaswi Day 0 Day 42 Bhanu Day 0 Day 35 Kireeti Day 0 Day 21 Sanjana Day 0 Day 7 Legend Evicted Nominated House Captain Immune Bigg Boss Telugu 2 is the second season of the Telugu - language version of the reality TV show Bigg Boss broadcast in India . The season premiered on June 10 , 2018 on Star Maa . Nani hosts the show . Unlike the first season , this season featured general public along with celebrities as housemates . For this season of Bigg Boss , a lavish house set has been constructed in Annapurna Studios , Jubilee Hills , Hyderabad . Contents 1 Housemates 1.1 Original entrants 1.1. 1 Celebrities 1.1. 2 Commoners 1.2 Wild - Card entrants 2 Guests 3 Voting History 3.1 Notes 4 Weekly summary 5 References 6 External Links Housemates ( edit ) Original entrants ( edit ) Celebrities ( edit ) Geetha Madhuri - Singer Amit Tiwari - Actor Deepti Nallamothu - TV9 Anchor Tanish Alladi - Actor Babu Gogineni - Indian Humanist , Rationalist and Human rights activist Bhanu Sree - Actress Roll Rida - Rapper Syamala - Anchor & Actress Kireeti Damaraju - Actor Deepthi Sunaina - Social Media Star & Actress Kaushal Manda - Actor & Model Tejaswi Madivada - Actress Samrat Reddy - Actor & Cricketer Commoners ( edit ) Ganesh - Radio Jockey , Vijayawada . Sanjana Anne - Model , Miss Hyderabad , Miss India Participant , Vijayawada . Nutan Naidu - Social Activist , Visakhapatnam . Wild - Card entrants ( edit ) Nandini Rai - Model , Winner of Miss Andhrapradesh title of 2010 and Actress Pooja Ramachandran - Model and Actress Guests ( edit ) Week ( s ) Guest ( s ) Notes Week 2 Srinivas Reddy and Vennela Kishore To promote the film Jamba Lakidi Pamba . Week 4 Sai Dharam Tej and Anupama Parameswaran To promote the film Tej I Love You Week 6 Pradeep Machiraju To inform about his new show - Pelli Choopulu Lakshmi Manchu To promote the film W / O Ram Week 8 Kamal Haasan , Pooja Kumar , Ghibran , and Shamdat Sainudeen To promote the film Vishwaroopam II Week 11 Anasuya Bharadwaj As a guest to Mehendi Task Taapsee Pannu , Aadhi Pinisetty and Ritika Singh To promote the film Neevevaro Host Nani On the occasion of Raksha Bandhan festival . Voting history ( edit ) Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 Week 14 Week 15 Day 22 Day 28 House Captain No Captain Samrat Amit Roll Kaushal Geetha Tanish Geetha Pooja Tanish Roll Deepti Captain 's Nomination Deepthi ( to evict ) Ganesh Geetha Ganesh Not eligible Refused to save Deepti Not eligible Kaushal Amit Not eligible Not eligible Kaushal ( to save ) Syamala ( to evict ) Kaushal Deepti Amit Samrat ( to evict ) Roll ( to save ) Vote to : Evict Save Evict None Save Evict Evict Save Amit Deepthi Ganesh Kaushal House Captain Kaushal Not eligible Refused to save Bhanu Not eligible Kaushal Babu Not eligible Immune Samrat Syamala Deepti Deepti Tanish Nutan Ganesh Kaushal Deepti Deepthi Kaushal Babu Tejaswi Bhanu Babu Nominated Deepthi Deepti Babu Ganesh Not eligible Not eligible Deepti Amit Samrat House Captain Geetha Tejaswi Ganesh Ganesh Ganesh Tanish Tejaswi Not eligible Babu House Captain Ganesh Babu House Captain Not eligible Geetha Kaushal Tanish Nutan Kaushal Amit Ganesh Deepthi Kaushal Kaushal Tejaswi Kireeti Kaushal Not eligible Roll Deepti Nandini Kaushal Not eligible Not eligible Ganesh Kaushal Pooja Amit Kaushal Geetha Kaushal Kireeti Deepthi Ganesh Kireeti Bhanu Ganesh Nandini House Captain Samrat Babu Nandini Not eligible Not eligible Kaushal Tanish Samrat Ganesh Samrat Amit Nutan Sanjana Kireeti Amit Evicted ( Day 14 ) Exempt Not Eligible Deepti Left due to injury ( Day 68 ) Amit Samrat Kaushal Roll Sanjana Nutan Nutan Ganesh Kireeti House Captain Not eligible Amit Roll Deepthi Kaushal Not eligible Not eligible Ganesh House Captain Nutan Kaushal Ganesh Samrat Deepthi Ganesh House Captain Ganesh Kireeti Kaushal Not eligible Tejaswi Samrat Deepthi Kaushal Not eligible Not eligible Samrat Pooja Kaushal Kaushal Nutan Syamala Syamala Kireeti Tanish Tejaswi Kireeti Ganesh Tejaswi Nominated Evicted ( Day 28 ) Exempt Not Eligible Syamala Amit Pooja Ganesh Nutan Tanish Tanish Kaushal Ganesh Nutan Ganesh Geetha Geetha Not eligible Samrat Tanish House Captain Not eligible Not eligible House Captain Pooja Deepti Kaushal Nutan Roll Pooja Not in House Exempt Not eligible House Captain Pooja Ganesh Syamala Evicted ( Day 77 ) Deepthi Amit Geetha Kaushal Ganesh Kireeti Syamala Not eligible Tanish Tanish Amit Roll Not eligible Not eligible Deepthi Evicted ( Day 70 ) Babu Sanjana Nutan Ganesh Deepthi Ganesh Deepti Not eligible Ganesh Roll Amit Kaushal Not eligible Not eligible Evicted ( Day 63 ) Nandini Not in House Exempt Kireeti Bhanu Tejaswi Nominated Tried to save Deepti Tejaswi Kaushal Ganesh Not eligible Evicted ( Day 56 ) Tejaswi Deepthi Ganesh Nutan Ganesh Deepti Kaushal Deepti Geetha Tejaswi Evicted ( Day 42 ) Bhanu Kireeti Tanish Babu Kaushal Kireeti Nandini Not eligible Nandini Evicted ( Day 35 ) Kireeti Deepthi Nutan Geetha Ganesh Geetha Evicted ( Day 21 ) Sanjana Roll Tejaswi Evicted ( Day 7 ) Notes - 1 , 2 , 3 4 , 5 6 7 , 8 , 9 10 , 11 12 13 , 14 15 , 16 15 , 17 , 18 , 19 - 20 , 21 Nominated Deepthi Ganesh Kireeti Kaushal Nutan Sanjana Deepthi Ganesh Nutan Kaushal Babu Ganesh Kireeti Bhanu Geetha Tejaswi Tejaswi Kaushal Ganesh Syamala Nandini Deepti Babu Geetha Syamala Nandini Deepti Deepti Ganesh Bhanu Amit Deepti Roll Samrat Tejaswi Tanish Kaushal Babu Ganesh Amit Deepthi Nandini Babu Ganesh Nandini Kaushal Deepti Babu Ganesh Geetha Syamala Deepti Tanish Pooja Geetha Roll Deepthi Nutan Syamala Pooja Tanish Deepti Kaushal Kaushal Nutan Ganesh Samrat Amit Left none Nutan none Evicted Sanjana Nutan Kireeti Syamala Bhanu Tejaswi No Eviction Nandini Babu Deepthi Pooja Syamala & Nutan Notes ( edit ) indicates the House Captain . indicates that the Housemate was directly nominated for eviction prior to the regular nominations process . indicates that the Housemate was granted immunity from nominations . indicates that the Evicted housemate was re-entered the house by wining special voting system . ^ Note 1 : Nominations were done in pairs . ^ Note 2 : Deepthi has been nominated directly for eviction prior to the regular nominations process by House Captain Samrat . ^ Note 3 : Nandini entered the house after nominations . Therefore , she got exempt from nominations . ^ Note 4 : Nandini granted immunity from nominations by Bigg Boss . ^ Note 5 : Face - to - face Nominations . ^ Note 6 : Three housemates with the fewest votes were in the danger zone . As the winners of Luxury Budget Task of Week 3 , Kaushal & Tejaswi got the Voting Power to save one of the three nominated housemates . The housemate not save was Evicted . ^ Note 7 : All Housemates are nominated but to get saved from nominations housemates have to complete the task given by Bigg Boss . Housemates who succeeded in given tasks will get saved while failed housemates will be directly nominated to face the public vote . ^ Note 8 : Bigg Boss gave a task to Deepti to get saved from nominations that she has to convince Nandini to try to convince Kaushal to self - nominate himself until the end of the season . Kaushal refused to do that to save Deepti . ^ Note 9 : As a part of the task , Ganesh had to self - nominate himself in order to save Roll . ^ Note 10 : Housemates were told to pair up , then the paired housemates had to mutually decide to save one of them from Eviction and nominate the other . ^ Note 11 : Amit was chosen by the housemates to be least talked to the housemate . As a result , he was directly nominated . But later got a secret task to save himself from Eviction . ^ Note 12 : This week voting lines were open to bring back one of the evicted housemates . Even though housemates were nominated there is no eviction . ^ Note 13 : Syamala & Nutan re-entered the house by gaining the most public votes among all evicted contestants . ^ Note 14 : Housemates had to rate themselves from number 1 being the best & number 12 being the worst . ^ Note 15 : The Guest Kamal Hassan gave Amit a special immunity for 2 weeks . ^ Note 16 : Bigg Boss plays a song , where housemates have to enter the tent house arranged in the garden area . The last person who enters the tent will be nominated . ^ Note 17 : Housemates have to pair up and mutually decide whether to save them selves are to nominate them selves . If paired housemates unable to decide then captain Tanish and Amit will decide to save one contestant . ^ Note 18 : Bigg Boss gave a special power to nominate one saved housemate . Captain Tanish nominated syamala . ^ Note 19 : Bigg Boss informs Nutan Naidu about his exit due to his critical shoulder injury and requires immediate medical attention during captaincy task . ^ Note 20 : Bigg Boss suspended Deepti from captaincy for not following house rules on day 75 . On the request of host nani bigg boss re-appointed deepti as captain on day 77 . ^ Note 21 : Housemates had to nominate 2 housemates and save 1 housemate . Weekly summary ( edit ) Week ( s ) Day ( s ) context Description Week Day 0 Entrances Geetha Madhuri , Amit Tiwari , Deepti Nallamothu , Tanish Alladi , Babu Gogineni , Bhanu Sree , Roll Rida , Syamala , Kireeti Damaraju , Deepthi Sunaina , Kaushal , Tejaswi Madivada , Samrat Reddy , Ganesh , Sanjana Anne and Nutan Naidu entered the Bigg Boss house on Day 0 . Day 0 to Day 5 House Captain No Captain Day 2 , 3 , 4 Luxury Budget Task Cheppandi Prabhu All 16 contestants are divided into two groups . Sanjana was the head of the first team and members of the other team were given a task to play servants to her team . The ratings of the first team will play a pivotal role in the captaincy task . Housemates won 3200 points but housemates lost 600 points for not using whistle while in the task , - 200 points for sleeping daytime , and - 200 points due to Tejaswi failed her secret task given by Bigg Boss . After all deductions , housemates won 2200 points to buy Luxury Items . Day 5 Captaincy Task BIGG BOSS MELA → Contenders : - Samrat Reddy , Bhanu Sree , Ganesh , Sanjana Anne . In this task , contenders have used some items from the stall provided in the garden area and have to advertise in a creative manner by using items from the stall . 100 tokens are given to remaining housemates to elect their captain by their performance . → Total tokens won by contenders : Ganesh 175 , Sanjana Anne 130 , Bhanu Sree 380 , and Samrat Reddy won week 2 captaincy with 395 tokens . Day 0 In Jail Sanjana Anne ( For 2 Days ) Nutan Naidu ( For 15 Hours ) Day 1 Nominations Deepthi Sunaina Ganesh Kireeti Damaraju Kaushal Nutan Naidu Sanjana Anne Day 7 Exits Sanjana Anne . Week Day 8 Entrances Nandini Rai entered Bigg Boss house as wild card contestant . Day 5 to Day 12 House Captain Samrat Reddy , 1st captain of the House . Day 9 , 10 , 11 Luxury Budget Task Evadura Rajyani Gelichedhi In this luxury budget task Nutan becomes the king , Deepti Nallamothu becomes the queen and Nandini is announced as the princess . They are assisted by Geetha ( chancellor ) and they will choose a team that would work for the princess . The other housemates become villagers and are asked to stay in huts set up in the garden area of the house . Round One Then two contestants come up to the activity room to compete in a task to join King 's Team . → Winners of Mud Pit tasks given by BIGG BOSS are joined King 's Team and remaining housemates became villagers who work for the princess . → King 's Team members are Amit , Samrat , Babu Gogineni , Ganesh , Bhanu , and Kireeti . → Princess Team members are Deepthi Sunaina , Tejaswi , Roll Rida , Syamala , Tanish , and Kaushal . Round Two BIGG BOSS placed one diamond in the living area which gives housemates more points to win Round two . → Losser team head will be locked in jail by winner team head . Raju Gari Malla is a task which hosted by Geetha . In this task , two teams have to get as many flowers from the pool in the garden area to make a garland. Princess Team won the task with 96 flowers . Raja Simhasanam is a task which hosted by Geetha . Nandhini ( Princess ) sits on a chair and two teams have to pull the chair to win . King 's Team won by pulling the chair to their side . BIGG BOSS announce Princess Team as a winner of round two and order Nandhini ( Princess ) to lock Nutan Naidu ( King ) , and Deepti Nallamothu ( Queen ) in jail . Round Three Princess Team have to protect the Jail Key for 8 hours which was placed in Gym area to win the luxury budget task . King 's team have to stole the key and rescue Nutan Naidu ( King ) and Deepti Nallamothu ( Queen ) to win the luxury budget task . Day 11 Result Won - Princess Team Day 12 Captaincy Task Oopiri Unnantha Varaku Contenders are Tanish , Kaushal , and Amit . The task is for the three contestants to hold on to a rope on a T stand arranged in Garden area . While the other housemates do everything and anything they can to get them to leave the hold of the rope and get off the podium . From tickling , shaving beards , dumping toothpaste to using lemon -- housemates try everything . None of them are ready to give up . Housemates decided Amit as the right person and convinced Kaushal & Tanish to leave the rope . Amit Tiwari won week 3 Captaincy Day 11 In Jail Nutan Naidu for 20 hours Deepti Nallamothu for 20 hours Day 8 Nominations Deepthi Sunaina Ganesh Nutan Naidu Kaushal Babu Gogineni Day 14 Exits Nutan Naidu Week Day 12 to Day 19 House Captain Amit Tiwari Day 16 , 17 , 18 Luxury Budget Task BIGG BOSS Sugar Cane Factory Bigg Boss house became sugar cane factory . In this task , there are two teams and one quality check manager . Yellow team owner is Kaushal , Green team owner is Kireeti Damaraju and Quality check manager and chancellor of the task is Bhanu Sree . Two teams have to complete the sugar cane juice bottles order given by Bigg Boss by using sugar cane juice machines placed in the garden area and save Bigg Boss money to win . Quality check manager should check the quality and accept or reject the bottles . Level One → Order One given by Bigg Boss 25 juice bottles for both teams . Green team won with 25 bottles . → Order Two given by Bigg Boss 50 bottles . Both teams failed to complete the order . → Order Three given by Bigg Boss 100 bottles . Bigg Boss canceled the order because of green team cheating by mixing water with sugar cane juice in bottles . Level Two → Order One given by Bigg Boss 100 bottles . Both teams failed to complete the order . → Order Two given by Bigg Boss 75 bottles . Both teams completed . But the yellow team won with 77 bottles . Yellow team are with 73,000 of Bigg Boss money worker ( Tejaswi ) and 15,000 with owner after giving wages to workers while the green team lost with 53,000 of Bigg Boss money worker ( Ganesh ) and 0 money with owner after giving wages to workers . And 31,000 Bigg boss money with quality check manager ( Bhanu Sree ) . Kaushal and Tejaswi awarded with special vote power by Bigg Boss for winning luxury budget task . Day 18 Result Won - Yellow Team Day 19 Captaincy Task BiryaniVindhu Contenders : - Ganesh , Kireeti Damaraju , Roll Rida . In this task contenders have to eat biryani as much as they can before end buzzer comes . Roll Rida won week 4 captaincy by eating 13 servings of biryani . Day 19 In Jail Tanish Alladi Babu Gogineni Day 15 Nominations Ganesh Kireeti Damaraju Geetha Madhuri Bhanu Sree Tejaswi Madivada Day 21 Exits Kireeti Damaraju . Week Day 19 to Day 26 House Captain Roll Rida Day 23 , 24 Luxury Budget Task BIGGBOSS HOSTEL Bigg Boss house became hostel . In this hostel , there are two teams . Lovers team and hostel staff team . Wardens and security guards have to prevent lovers secret meets , gift exchange and entering them into activity room . If boy met a girl and exchange their gifts hostel staff lose points . Hostel wardens : : Babu Gogineni and Geetha Madhuri Security guards : : Shyamala and Ganesh . Love Pairs : : Samrat and Tejeswi , Amit and Bhanu sree , Kaushal and Deepti Nallamothu , Roll Rida and Deepthi Sunaina , Tanish and Nandhini Rai . Lovers team won the task . They lost luxury budget points because of sleeping while task going on and taking breaks for lunch , rest . Day 26 Captaincy Task TBA Day 22 In Jail Geetha Madhuri Bigg Boss ordered Roll Rida to lock her in jail because she was talking about nominations with housemates and given punishment as she has to write Sorry Bigg Boss 100 times on wall by wearing boxing gloves . Day 22 Nominations Babu Gogineni Tejaswi Madivada Geetha Madhuri Kaushal Deepti Nallamothu Ganesh Nandhini Rai Syamala Day 28 Exits Syamala Week 5 Day 26 to Day 33 House Captain Kaushal Day 30 , 31 , 32 Luxury Budget Task Manchi Chedu In this luxury budget task there are two teams Manchivallu Team and Cheddavallu Team . Manchi Team : : Babu Gogineni , Roll Rida , Deepthi Sunaina , Kaushal , Nandini Rai , Deepti Nallamothu and Tanish . Chedu Team : : Tejeswi Madiwada , Samrat Reddy , Ganesh , Bhanu Sree , Amit Tiwari and Geetha Madhuri . Manchi team have to clean the things in house and they have to cook for all housemates . Chedu team try to make house dirty . Manchi team have to protect three lotus flowers and red apples for not to lose points and chedu team has to destroy those flowers and protect black apples to gain points . Apple tree was in garden area it contains red and black apples . While chedu team won the task bigg boss given 2600 amazon.in luxury budget points for good performances by both the teams and 200 points deducted due to tejaswi destroyed cleaning mop therefore housemates won 2400 amazon.in luxury budget points to buy luxury items . Day 32 Result Won - Chedu Team Day 33 Captaincy Task BIGGBOSS inti Samskarthallu Contenders are : Geetha Madhuri , Deepthi Sunaina Two contenders have to prepare their own campaigns on what reforms they are making and Propagate to each housemate and they should clarify housemates doubts . After propagations bigg boss conducted a election and all housemates have to drop their vote in ballet box arranged in garden area . Geetha Madhuri won week 6 captaincy with 11 votes . Day 32 In Jail Bhanu Sree Day 29 Nominations Deepti Nallamothu Ganesh Bhanu Sree Day 35 Exits Bhanu Sree Week 6 Day 33 to Day 40 House Captain Geetha Madhuri Day 37 , 38 , 39 Luxury Budget Task BIGG BOSS BLOCKBUSTER In this luxury budget task housemates have to shoot a film . Amit as Director , Deepti nallamothu as Assistant director ( A.D ) , Roll rida as Director of photography ( DOP ) , Tejaswi madivada as choreographer , makeup man and Stylist . Level one : - Director , Assistant Director and DOP have to prepare a story and its characters . The film should be in the order like Beginning , Romance , Action , and climax . Level Two : - Auditions has to be conducted by Amit ( Director ) , Deepti Nallamothu ( A.D ) , and Roll Rida ( DOP ) in Activity Room . Remaining housemates have to give audition to get selected in a character for the film . Rejected housemates become helping crew in the film and they are not eligible for next captaincy task . Day 40 Captaincy Task Tomato Juice Contestants : : Amit , Babu Gogineni , Tanish In Jail None Day 36 Nominations Amit ( 11 ) Deepti Roll Samrat Tejaswi Tanish Day 42 Exits Tejaswi Week 7 Day 43 Entrances Pooja Ramachandran entered Bigg Boss house as wild card contestant . Day 40 to Day 46 House Captain Tanish Day 46 Captaincy Task Move the Statue Contenders : : Geetha Madhuri , Deepthi Nallamotu , Amit Tiwar , Samrat Geetha Madhuri Won the Task and became as House Captain for Week 8 . This is second time for Geetha Madhuri to be as House Captain . Day 47 Luxury Budget Task Nadusthundu Nadusthundu Nadusthuneundu In this luxury budget task housemates have to divide into three teams . Each team has three members . One should swim to bring body spray bottle in the pool , one should walk from pool to standing person , and one should stand at the table . Swimming member have to bring only one fog body spray bottle at a time and has to give to their walking team member and walking member will give to their standing member and he / she will place the bottle on the table . Geetha Madhuri was chancellor for this task . Team one : - Kaushal , Deepti Nallamothu and Nandhini . Team Two : - Samrat Reddy , Tanish Alladi , Deepthi Sunaina . Team Three : - Pooja Ramachandran , Amit Tiwari , Roll Rida . Swimmers : - Kaushal , Samrat Reddy , and Pooja Ramachandran . Walkers : - Deepti Nallamothu , Tanish Alladi , and Amit Tiwari . Team one won this task and they awarded with luxury items available under the cap of the body spray bottle collected by them . In Jail None Day 43 Nominations Kaushal Amit Tiwari Deepthi Sunaina Ganesh Nandini Babu Gogineni Exits This week voting lines were open to bring back one of the evicted housemate . Even though housemates were nominated there is no eviction . Week 8 Day 53 Entrances Syamala and Nutan Naidu Re-entered the Bigg Boss house . Day 46 to Day 54 House Captain Geetha Madhuri Day 51 , 52 Luxury Budget Task Pirates VS Survivors In this task housemates are divided into two teams . Team One : - Deepthi Sunaina , Deepti Nallamothu , Geetha Madhuri , Pooja Ramachandran , Samrat Reddy and Roll Rida . Team Two : - Amit Tiwari , Ganesh , Babu Gogineni , Tanish , Nandini , and Kaushal . Day 1 Team one as survivors and team two as pirates . Roles are reversed on day 2 . Pirates have to attempt to drag survivors out off the plank while Survivors were supposed to hang on a plank and should n't touch the ground once stepped onto a plank . Team one won this luxury budget task by surviving three hours on planks as survivors . Day 54 Captaincy Task Dance with DJ Contenders : : Pooja Ramachandran , Roll Rida , Samrat In this Captaincy Task , housemates are asked to dance for the song , only one housemate for each Contenders for each song , total of five songs . and which DJ has got highest housemates danced to their song is a New Captain . Pooja Ramachandran won the task and became House captain of Week 9 . Day 52 In Jail Geetha Madhuri Ganesh ( Kaushal used his jail card and recused ganesh from jail ) Day 50 Nominations Kaushal Babu Nandini Ganesh Deepti Nallamothu Day 56 Exits Nandini Rai Week 9 Day 54 to Day 61 House Captain Pooja Ramachandran Day 58 , 59 Luxury Budget Task Purushulaki mahilalaki Madhya Anthima Yuddham In this task housemates are divided into two teams : - Boys Team and Girls Team . Every team has a control on any 2 places in the house . Team mates have to spend gold coins to use the area of other team . Bed room and Kitchen under the control of girls team , while living room and bath room under the control of boys team . To get more gold coins team mates have to finish some tasks given by bigg boss . The team with more coins win the task . Some Intermediate tasks : - Sharira Drudatvamtho Kudukunnadi : In this task four girls and four boys have to participate . There are two tires in the gym area . One should sit on the tire and the other to pull them from yellow mark ( Starting point ) to red mark ( End point ) . Boys team won this task and awarded with one gold coin packet . Samayaspurthitho Kudukunnadi : There are two lines and one center point in the garden area . Both teams have to decide there numbers from 1 to 4 chancellor will say one number they should try to get gold coin packet from the center point . Boys team won 3 gold coin packets . Kabaddi : Kabaddi sport in between boys team and girls team . There are five round the one with most points win the task . Boys team won this task with 4 points . Box opening : There are some locked boxes in the garden area and keys in the pool . Both the teams have to get the keys from pool and open the boxes . Each box contain one gold coin . Boys team won . Quiz to Girls : In this task quiz master is tanish and score marker is ganesh . Three girls from mahilalu team has to answer 20 out of 30 general knowledge ( GK ) questions to win gold coins . Girls lost this task by answering 16 out of 30 questions . Purushulu vantacheyaleru : In this task boys team have to cook some food ordered by bigg boss in 45 minutes to win gold coin packet . Purushulu team won this task . Mahilalu team has 325 coins . Purushulu team won this luxury budget task with 330 gold coins . Day 61 Captaincy Task Raangu Rabba Rabba Contenders : - Tanish and Deepti Nallamothu There are two paint buckets and one white board in garden area . Contenders has to select one color and start painting the white board . who 's paint color is highly visible on the board will become next captain of the house . Tanish won the task and became House captain of Week 10 . In Jail None Day 57 Nominations Babu Gogineni Geetha Madhuri Syamala Deepti Nallamothu Tanish Ganesh Day 63 Exits Babu Gogineni Week 10 Day 61 to Day 68 House Captain Tanish Day 65 , 66 Luxury Budget Task Bigg Boss Call Center Housemates are divided into two teams - Call Center Executives and Customers Team Kaushal : Samrat , Syamala , Kaushal , Deepti Nallamothu , Nuthan Naidu , Amit Tiwari Team Tanish : Roll Rida , Geetha Madhuri , Deepthi Sunaina , Tanish , Pooja Ramachandran , Ganesh Call center executives have to patiently listen to their customers complaints and should respond politely and make them to disconnect the call to gain one point . Customers have to irritate the executives and make them to disconnect the call to gain one point . Team one members are call center executives and Team two members are customers on day 1 . Roles are reversed on day 2 . Kaushal team won the task with 10 points and they are awarded with 2400 Luxury Budget points to buy luxury items . Day 68 Captaincy Task Padagottu Nillabettu Contenders : Kaushal and Roll Rida . There are two types of blocks placed in the garden area . Contenders have to construct a pyramid using the blocks and have protect it untill end buzzer comes . Remaining housemates have to throw ball to destroy the pyramids . Roll Rida won this task and became week 11 captain . In Jail None Day 64 Nominations Pooja Ramachandran Geetha Madhuri Roll Rida Nutan Syamala Deepthi Sunaina Day 70 Exits Deepthi Sunaina Week 11 Day 68 to Day 75 House Captain Roll Rida Day 75 Captaincy Task Mee Captaincy Merey Konukondi Contenders : Deepti Nallamothu and Kaushal . Two weighing machines were placed for the contenders ( one each ) in the garden area . Every housemate had to weigh belongings and drop in the basket of the contender they support giving their reasons behind their support . The contender with the maximum weight emerges the winner . Syamala was the chancellor of the task . She had to announce the winner and put the winner 's weighed belongings in the storeroom . Deepti Nallamothu won the task and became a new captain of the house . Day Luxury Budget Task Bigg Boss Inti Pelli In Jail None Day 71 Nominations Pooja Tanish Deepti Kaushal Day 77 Exits Pooja Ramachandran Week 12 Day 75 Day 77 to Day 82 House Captain Deepti Nallamothu Day 79 , 80 , 81 Luxury Budget Task Murder Mystery This is a luxury budget game . In this game bigg boss asked to pick one box in the confession room by housemates secretly . Randomly it consists of white pearl , Red pearl and black pearl . The housemate who got white pearl will become a public team people , Red pearl person become killer , black pearl persons become police and a detective man . Killer : Geetha Madhuri has to do some tasks given by bigg boss to kill a public member to win the task and to gain immunity for week 13 . Public Team : Kaushal , Amit Tiwari , Nutan Naidu , Samrat , Syamala , Deepti Nallamothu , Tanish . Public team have to protect their lives from the killer to win the task . If any housemate murdered by killer he / she should enter the graveyard arranged in the garden area . Police and Detective : Roll Rida is the police and ganesh is the detective . Both have to find the killer to win the task . Housemates do n't know who is the killer and who are public members and every one know who is the police and the detective . Following tasks done by Geetha Madhuri to kill Public team members : - Geetha Madhuri should complete all five tasks to win immunity and a special power . Task 1 : She have to irritate one housemate and made him anger . Geetha Madhuri successfully made kaushal anger and killed him . Task 2 : She have to feed food to one housemate . Geetha Madhuri successfully made syamala to eat bread by her hands and killed her . Task 3 : She have to right one housemate name on mirror in bathroom area . Geetha Madhuri successfully wrote amit tiwari name and killed him . Task 4 : She have to dance with one housemate . Geetha Madhuri danced with samrat and killed him . Task 5 : She have to spoil one housemate bed by using any food products . Geetha Madhuri successfully spoiled deepti nallamothu 's bed and killed her . All tasks are done secretly by geetha madhuri and won immunity for week 13 and a special power to nominate one housemate though out the season . Day Captaincy Task TBA Day In Jail TBC Day 78 Nominations Kaushal Samrat Nutan Naidu Amit Tiwari Ganesh Day Exits TBD Week 13 Day House Captain Day Captaincy Task TBA Day Luxury Budget Task TBA Day In Jail TBC Day Nominations TBD Day Exits TBD References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` ' Bigg Boss Telugu 2 ' marks TV debut of Nani as host , show goes on air from June 10 '' . The Indian Express . Retrieved 2018 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 first promo is out ; Auditions open for commoners '' . Times Of India . 2018 - 05 - 04 . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Biggboss house had been constructed in Hyderabad '' . The Indian Express . 2018 - 05 - 19 . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 : Sai Dharam Tej , Anupama to appear as celebrity guests to promote Tej I Love You '' . IB Times . 2018 - 07 - 05 . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , July 19 , 2018 : Pradeep reveals his reasons to enter the house '' . Times Of India . 20 July 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 next special guest : Lakshmi Manchu promotes Wife of Ram on Nani 's show '' . IB Times . 22 July 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Kamal Haasan promotes Vishwaroopam 2 on Nani 's Bigg Boss Telugu 2 '' . The Indian Express . Retrieved 4 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 : Anasuya Bharadwaj makes surprise entry in Nani hosted show '' . Retrieved 25 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Aadhi Pinisetty , Taapsee Pannu , Ritika Singh promote Neevevaro on Bigg Boss Telugu 2 '' . Retrieved 25 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , July 30 , 2018 : Deepthi drags Kaushal into the elimination race '' . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , Aug 3 , 2018 : Kamal Haasan gifts Amit a two - week extension card '' . Times Of India . Retrieved 4 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 updates : Nutan Naidu sudden exit from the show due to a shoulder dislocation '' . Retrieved 17 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu Season 2 launch highlights : Geetha Madhuri , Amit Tiwari and Tejaswi Madivada among others enter Bigg Boss house '' . The Indian Express . Retrieved 2018 - 06 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu season 2 written update , June 15 , 2018 : Samrat becomes the first captain of the house '' . Times Of India . 16 June 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu Season 2 Day 7 : Sanjana Anne Evicted from Bigg Boss house , and Nandini Rai enter Bigg Boss house as Wild Card Contestant '' . IB Times . Retrieved 2018 - 06 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , June 22 , 2018 : House witnesses some ugly fights , Amit emerges as the new captain '' . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu Season 2 Day 14 : Nutan Naidu Evicted from Nani'sBigg Boss '' . IB Times . Retrieved 2018 - 06 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , June 27 , 2018 : Kaushal and Tejaswi win a special voting power '' . Times of India . Retrieved 2018 - 06 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , June 29 , 2018 : Roll Rida is the new captain , Babu and Tanish jailed '' . Times Of India . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu Season 2 Episode 22 : Kireeti Damaraju Evicted from Bigg Boss Telugu 2 '' . IB Times . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 , 4th elimination live updates : Nandini , Deepti saved , Syamala evicted '' . IB Times . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , July 13 , 2018 : Geetha Madhuri wins a majority in captaincy race '' . Times Of India . Retrieved 3 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 elimination live updates : Bhanu Sree evicted , Nani asks her to pack bag '' . IB Times . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 week 6 elimination : Tejaswi Madivada shown doors , Samrat Reddy is safe from eviction '' . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 : Wildcard entry of Pooja Ramachandran old fixture in house '' . IB Times . 2018 - 07 - 27 . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss 2 Telugu , episode 47 : Geetha Madhuri Became captain for the second time '' . Hindustan Times . 27 July 2018 . Retrieved 13 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 ex-contestant's wildcard entry : Who should be brought back ? ( Poll ) '' . IB Times . 24 July 2018 . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 : No elimination from Nani 's show Nuthan Naidu , Syamala re-enter the house '' . IB Times . Retrieved 2018 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , Aug 2 , 2018 : Pooja is the new captain of the house '' . Times Of India . 3 August 2018 . Retrieved 13 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 eliminations Live updates : Nandini Rai is evicted , she drops Bigg bomb on Roll Rida '' . IB Times . Retrieved 6 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 written update , Aug 10 , 2018 : Tanish is the new captain of the house '' . Times Of India . 11 August 2018 . Retrieved 13 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 elimination live updates : Babu Gogineni evicted ; Tanish , Ganesh , Deepthi are safe '' . IB Times . Retrieved 13 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 elimination live updates : Deepthi Sunaina drops the Bigg Bomb on Tanish '' . Retrieved 20 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Bigg Boss Telugu 2 elimination live updates : Pooja Ramachandran drops bigg bomb on Geetha Madhuri '' . Retrieved 27 August 2018 . External links ( edit ) Official Website at Hotstar Big Brother Africa Africa Angola Nigeria South Africa Location of different versions of Big Brother . 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who got eliminated in bigg boss2 telugu today
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