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Let’s recall Fermat’s Little Theorem:
If is prime and is an integer where , then .
Recall that we can turn this directly into a test for primality, called the Fermat primality test, as follows: given some number that we want to test for primality, pick an integer between and (say, at random), and compute . If the result is not equal to , then Fermat’s Little Theorem tells us that is definitely not prime. Repeat some fixed number of times . If we get every time, then report that is probably prime.
Making Fermat Deterministic
This “probably prime” business is a little annoying. Can we somehow turn this into a deterministic primality test? Well, for one thing, instead of just picking random values, what if we tested all ? (Yes, of course this would take way too long, but bear with me for a bit!) If they all yield when raised to the power, could still possibly be composite, or could we conclude it is definitely prime? Put another way, are there any composite numbers such that for all ?
It turns out that this would work: there do not exist composite numbers such that for all , so if we test all possible values of and we always get , then we can conclude with certainty that is prime. Let’s prove it!
Suppose is composite, and let be some number which shares a nontrivial common divisor with , that is, . If is composite then such an must exist; for example, we could just take to be one of ’s prime divisors. Now, I claim that can’t possibly be equivalent to . Let be the remainder when dividing by , that is, . Rearranging gives , which means that is divisible by , that is, for some integer . Rearranging this again, we get . But by our assumption, and are both divisible by , and hence must be divisible by —but that means must be divisible by as well. Since we assumed that and have a nontrivial common factor, that is, , we conclude that too, that is, .
So we now know that any number which shares a common factor with will definitely reveal the fact that is composite. How many (or how few) such could there be? And what about other values of , which don’t share a factor with —how many of them might also reveal the fact that is composite? We’ll tackle these questions in my next post!
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Species can be listed as “threatened” and receive protection based on climate change projections that stretch until the end of the century, a federal appeals court has ruled, in a decision that could have major implications for the fate of animals as their environment rapidly changes.
A three-judge panel at the US ninth circuit court unanimously rejected an appeal by a coalition of oil companies, the state of Alaska and indigenous Alaskans to prevent a subspecies of the Pacific bearded seal from getting federal protection.
The federal government’s National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) decided that the Alaska-based populations of bearded seals would “almost certainly” be at risk of being wiped out due to disappearing Arctic sea ice by 2095.
Alaska, along with the oil companies, argued that listing the species as threatened wasn’t warranted because the climate predictions were speculative. The appeals court disagreed, potentially opening the way for other species to be protected due to long-range climate forecasts.
“The service need not wait until a species’ habitat is destroyed to determine that habitat loss may facilitate extinction,” the judges’ ruling states.
“The fact that climate projections for 2050 through 2100 may be volatile does not deprive those projections of value in the rule making process. All parties agree that there will be sea ice melt; the only uncertainty is the magnitude of warming, the speed with which warming will take place, and the severity of its effect.”
The court noted the position taken by the “overwhelming majority” of the world’s climate scientists who warn that diminishing sea ice, caused by warming temperatures, will pose an existential threat to species such as seals that depend upon the icy environment for mating, birthing and feeding.
Observational data from 2010 showed that the bearded seals’ habitat in Alaska had 40% less summer sea ice than the long-term average. Winter sea ice in the Bering and Okhotsk seas off Alaska and Russia is expected to decline by at least 40% by 2050, with summer ice forecasted to largely disappear.
The ruling is the first to affirm the federal government’s right to protect species because of climate models stretching until the end of the century. In 2008, the polar bear was listed as threatened based on loss of sea ice, although the forecast in that case will end in 2050.
“This is a huge victory for bearded seals and shows the vital importance of the Endangered Species Act in protecting species threatened by climate change,” said Kristen Monsell, an attorney at the Center for Biological Diversity who argued the case.
“This decision will give bearded seals a fighting chance while we work to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions melting their sea-ice habitat and keep dirty fossil fuels in the ground.”
The decision may be challenged by Alaska, which said such listings could hinder economic development in the state for little environmental benefit.
“If this opinion stands, the National Marine Fisheries Service would list a species that is abundant and in good health based on the claim that climate change will impact habitat over the next 100 years and may cause harm,” said Brad Meyen, senior assistant attorney general for Alaska.
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Understanding the Most Common Gastrointestinal Problems in Children
Gastrointestinal, or GI, conditions can affect different parts of the digestive system including the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines or the rectum. They can also impact other organs that assist in digestion, such as the liver, gallbladder or pancreas.
Our University Hospitals Rainbow Babies & Children’s team of digestive health specialists diagnose and treat a full range of GI conditions in children – from the more common to the most complex.
Hepatology Expertise for Liver Disorders Affecting Digestion
The liver plays a critical role in digestion. Two of its main functions are to remove toxins from blood and produce bile, which helps the body break down ingested fat. Conditions such as hepatitis, cancer or liver failure can cause significant problems by keeping the liver from functioning properly. Our specialists work together to accurately diagnose and treat liver disorders in children of any age. We work with patients and their families to help them better understand their unique condition and how to manage day-to-day.
GI Motility Disorder Expertise
The digestive tract runs from the top of the esophagus to the colon. It includes the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines as well as the rectum. Each has its own process for moving contents such as food into, through and out of the body. When the process gets interrupted, it can lead to a number of issues including trouble eating and swallowing, stomach pain and vomiting, constipation and fecal incontinence. Our team of pediatric digestive health experts work collaboratively with other physicians, such as allergy/immunology, urology and ENT specialists, to diagnose and treat children with a variety of GI motility issues.
Nutritional Disorders Affect Growth and Development
Nutritional disorders including vitamin deficiency and malnutrition, can occur at almost any age but are most common in babies and young children. Specialists at UH Rainbow Babies & Children’s diagnose and treat infants, children and adolescents with a wide range of nutritional disorders that can significantly affect growth and development. Our registered dietitians help educate patients and their families on dietary needs and how to improve nutritional intake.
Pancreatic Disorder Treatment to Improve Digestion
The pancreas is also important to digestion. It produces enzymes that help break down food and insulin to control sugar levels in the body. Conditions such as pancreatitis, acute and chronic, are the most common pancreatic diseases in children. In a recent study, UH Rainbow Babies & Children’s researchers found an increase in cases of acute pancreatitis in hospitalized children. Our team continues ongoing research to ensure we can offer our patients the most effective treatments available.
Short Bowel Syndrome Treatments Available
Short Bowel Syndrome typically occurs in children who have had part of their small intestines removed. The shortened length limits the amount of nutrients and water that can be absorbed by the body, causing diarrhea and malnutrition. UH Rainbow Babies & Children’s offers a range of services, including endoscopy, sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy, to help treat children with Short Bowel Syndrome.
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Symptoms before a heart attack – A heart attack is a serious health problem that causes a lot of people are afraid. Heart attacks can happen anytime and anywhere. So, we have to prevent the arrival of the disease in our bodies. The sophistication of medical technology and with the incidence of repetitive we can know the signs and symptoms of impending illness.
The diseases that can be detected early, the chance for cure is still a lot, but if we do not know the signs of a disease it could lead to fatal health. Thus, it is important to know the symptoms or signs that often occur before heart attack or specific disease.
The symptoms of Heart disease and cancer are often not known, so very many people who are late to treat it. So it is very important to always perform a health check ups, the goal is to find the disease early.
Cancer and heart disease are often dominated by unhealthy foods like fast food, fried food and junk food, including a variety of instant noodles.
7 Symptoms Before a Heart Attack
Here are some symptoms that often occur before a heart attack
1. Chest tightness
Tightness the chest is one of the symptoms of a heart attack, in addition you may experience shortness of pressure on the chest, a burning sensation. If you’ve experienced any of these things you should immediately consult a doctor.
Swelling that occurs several members of the body such as the abdomen, legs, hands and others may be a sign of heart attack. It occurs because the heart pumps blood to the abnormal condition that causes blood vessels to inflame.
3. Extreme Fatigue
Furthermore, symptoms that occur before a heart attack is a sudden fatigue. Tired without any apparent cause could be one sign of a heart attack.
Dizziness can also be a symptom of heart attack. But the question here is often a headache sudden or constant dizziness. It could have been triggered by insufficient supply of oxygen into the brain as a result of a weak heart. It is a definitive warning against impending heart attack.
5. Prolonged Cold
Flu is a disease commonly experienced by many people, but if the flu occur continuously you have to be alert because it could be one of the symptoms before a heart attack. The immune system is affected by the weakness of the heart that causes a lack of oxygen.
Furthermore, heart attack symptoms are nausea as a result of constant indigestion. Nausea is the case even if you eat healthy. You should seek the advice of health experts inside.
7. Shortness of breath
One sign of a weak heart is going shortness of breath. Shortness of breath is caused by the heart is not able to provide oxygen to the lungs that serves to regulate breathing.
Those are some common symptoms that occur before a heart attack. We must be aware of these symptoms in order to get health care early on.
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The recall followed an investigation by the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), after video-evidence from the Humane Society of the United States showed slaughter house workers forcing crippled cattle onto their feet and into the food chain.
The Humane Society's video footage led to fears that the use of crippled cattle could increase the risk of human exposure to Mad Cow Disease and other pathogens
FSIS Reassurance Initiative
To help reassure the public and other bodies that the US food supply is in good hands and that US meat is safe to eat the FSIS published a factsheet on its website earlier this month about its role in assuring food safety and an updated question and answer brief about the beef recall incident.
The FSIS repeatedly confirms that operations at the Hallmark/Westland Meat Packing Company will remain suspended until it has responded to the Notice of Suspension and submitted a corrective action plan to address its failure to properly implement the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act and FSIS regulations.
The FSIS said it believes "this to be an isolated incident of egregious violations to humane handling requirements and the prohibition of non-ambulatory disabled cattle from entering the food supply."
With regard to further actions taken, the FSIS assures that it has begun to "verify and thoroughly analyze" humane handling activities in all federally inspected establishments. This will include an increase in the time allocated per shift to verify handling activities and increased surveillance.
Humane Handling Documentation
The FSIS has reissued the instructions contained in FSIS Notice 12-05, Documentation of Humane Handling Activities. It provides new instruction for Public Health Veterinarians (PHVs) and other inspection programme personnel to conduct humane handling activities randomly throughout their tour of duty.
The document says that PHVs and other inspection programme personnel are to "vary from day-to-day the time during the tour of duty that they perform their activities to verify that animals are treated humanely".
Each slaughter shift they are to make observations under the Humane-handling Activities Tracking System (HATS) which come under the Electronic Animal Disposition Report System (eADRS) under Category IV, Handling During Ante Mortem Inspection.
They have to verity one or more HATs categories through each slaughter shift and ensure that all categories are verified routinely. Inspection personnel should focus on complete and quality verifications of each category.
HATS (established in 2004) records the time inspection programme personnel spend on humane handling related activities and seperates that time into nine categories, such as handling of suspect and disabled livestock, electric prod/alternative object use, and water and feed availability.
Under the reissued instruction PHVs are also now set to encourage establishments to develop and implement a systematic approach for the humane handling of animals.
In a statement FSIS said that it intends to review the HATS programme to determine what if any adjustments are needed to maximise its utility as a tracking tool to improve compliance.
The statement also said that surveillance and inspection activities will be focused at establishments where older or potentially distressed animals are slaughtered to make the best use of resources to ensure food safety.
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When Lady Caroline was 9 years old her father died, and the family which consisted of her mother, four brothers and two sisters, were left destitute. They existed on the charitable good will of friends and family as was common at the time, and it was necessary for the girls to make good financial marriages. This left a lasting impression on Lady Caroline concerning the position of women within British society.
In 1827 Lady Caroline married the Honourable George Chapple Norton, whom she had first met when aged 16. The match was made by her mother to lift the family out of poverty; Lady Caroline reluctantly agreed but the match proved unsuccessful. George Norton was a failure as a Barrister and Tory MP, and would take his anger out on his wife both physically and mentally, resulting in 1835 of the loss of their fourth child in utero. Such beatings were witnessed by servants and family members. Lady Caroline had a fierce intellect and was a successful society hostess within political circles both in entertaining and in discussing and influencing policy, which caused further conflict with her jealous husband.
Lady Caroline became a published poet in the first few years of her marriage which allowed her a degree of financial independence and enabled her to support her family when her husband was unable to. In 1830 as a result of the success of her second book of poems, Lady Caroline became editor of La Belle Assemblee and Court Magazine and her circle widened to include influential philosophers and writers as well as politicians.
Lady Caroline and her husband separated in 1836. George Norton sued on the grounds of adultery with then Prime Minister Lord Melbourne, with whom she was great friends and whom she had used her influence in her husband’s favour in the past. George Norton lost the case but the damage to Lady Caroline’s reputation was done. At the time, men held all the rights upon couples splitting, and Lady Caroline lost access to her three children Fletcher (born in 1829), Brinsley (born in 1831) and William (born in 1833). George Norton then sought to take the proceeds of her writing, which he again lost.
In 1848 George Norton finally granted a legal separation to Lady Caroline on the grounds that she would mortgage a property giving him the proceeds, through which he would pay an annuity of £500 and not claim further rights to any income she may earn throughout her lifetime. He would still refuse to grant a divorce and she could not sue for one as women were not entitled to do so. When her mother died in 1852 George Norton reneged on the agreement, and the fact they were married gave him the legal right to do so. He would continue this behaviour throughout his lifetime, continually taking Lady Caroline to court to assert his rights.
As a result of George Norton’s court actions, Lady Caroline began to campaign both for women’s rights to access and care of their children and to the financial proceeds of their labours, campaigns which were opposed by Lord Melbourne. She wrote pamphlets which were widely disseminated and was successful in both campaigns, being instrumental in both the passing of the Infant Custody Bill of 1839 and the Marriage & Divorce Act of 1857. Her earlier campaigns and writing also proved vital to the successful passing of the Married Women’s Property Act of 1870.
Sadly, in 1842 William died in a horse-riding accident and it was only at this point George Norton allowed Lady Caroline access to the surviving children. These visits would remain strictly supervised and she was never allowed overnight contact or any say in their upbringing.
Lady Caroline also campaigned for the rights of children of all classes and economic strata, fighting against the exploitation of the poorer classes, as well as the rights of women in English Law. However George Norton continued a campaign of harassment and damage to her reputation, claiming rights to any income including inheritance she might have, to which he was entitled until the passing of the Marriage & Divorce Act detailed above. None of his claims were ever proven, but it was enough to make the accusation to destroy a reputation.
It was not until around 1875 when George Norton died that Lady Caroline became free to wed again. She married close friend Sir William Stirling Maxwell on 1st March 1877, whom she had known for 25 years but with whom no romantic relationship had previously existed. Lady Caroline died on 15th June 1877, a few months after this happy marriage.
‘The Sorrows of Rosalie’ (1829)
‘The Undying One’ (1830)
‘Voice from the Factories’ (1836)
‘The Dream and Other Poems’ (1840)
‘The Child of the Islands’ (1845)
‘Stuart Dunleath: A Story of Modern Times’ (1851)
‘Lost and Saved’ (1863)
‘Old Sir Douglas’ (1867)
A Scandalous Woman: The Story of Caroline Norton by Alan Chedzoy (1992, Allison & Busby)
Blog by Tina Price-Johnson
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ARBOR THEMATIC CURRICULUM
Our fourth and fifth graders spend a year immersed in environmental science topics, viewing the world through a lens that widens from ecological niches to habitats, ecosystems, climate, and biomes. It's a year of mapping; students practice measurement, graphic, and scale work in surveying the campus (always to real purpose, such as building a cross-country course through the woods) and later use their skills to draw world maps in a projection of their choice. Along the way they learn about the adaptations that allow animals to survive in different parts of the world and consider how geography affects human culture. They read world folktales and write an original tale inspired by a culture from a biome they have researched in depth. They study oceanography and shore environments, capping that unit with a field trip to the Oregon coast to explore the tide pools.
This year also includes a major unit on the human body and the way different types of cells interact to perform various functions and create a system. Students choose a system to focus on, but necessarily learn about interconnected systems, too. They also combine their new knowledge of the human brain with a growing capacity for self-reflection and assessment, creating a change capsule of insights about themselves and their role in community that they will open again at their eighth-grade graduation.
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Creation in Isaiah
The truth of creation is a theme running through the whole of the Holy Scriptures. In Genesis we have the basic statements of God creating the heavens and the earth in the beginning, and some details of His work in the six days. The Psalms draw attention to the wonder, beauty and care shown in the creation, which show the power, glory and wisdom of the Lord. It was John Ray, the seventeenth century Puritan biologist, who put the text of Psalm 104:24 on the title page of the great book, The Ornithology of Francis Willoughby, that he edited for his patron and friend in 1678: “O Lord, how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all: the earth is full of thy riches.”
While three particular Hebrew words are used frequently elsewhere in the Old Testament, they occur together in Isaiah 45:18 and are translated “created”, “formed” and “made”. It is interesting that these words, bara (to prepare, form, fashion, create), yatsar (to form, fashion, frame, constitute), and asah (to do, make), are much more frequently used with reference to the creation in one particular book than in any of the others in the Old Testament: Isaiah.
The Old Testament prophets, with reference to Israel and the nations, portray God as the supreme ruler, king of the whole world. He is shown to be able and active. Like earthly monarchs, but of course superior to them, He is described as being capable of building or destroying, producing ruin or prosperity.
Emphasising this authority and power, references are made to God as the Eternal and the Creator. This makes Him not only vastly superior to any conceivable world ruler, whatever his powers and resources, but in a different category and unique. This approach is particularly apparent in Isaiah. It is a truth implied in the earlier chapters of the prophecy, but the statements are clearer and more frequent in the later passages of the book.
God’s power is indicated in that He will in judgment “shake terribly the earth”, in contrast with “man whose breath is in his nostrils” (Isaiah 2:19-22). This theme is continued when it is stated that He will assemble the outcasts of Israel, using geographical changes, for He “shall utterly destroy the tongue of the Egyptian sea: and with his mighty wind shall shake his hand over the river, and shall smite it in the seven streams, and make men go over dryshod” (Isaiah 11:12,15-16).
Further in the judgment of Babylon, described in chapter 13, God states He will stop the light of the moon and stars, and “I will shake the heavens, and the earth shall remove out of her place.” Again in chapter 24, we have the statement that “the Lord maketh the earth empty [baqaq—to make void], and maketh it waste, and turneth it upside down.” That “the moon shall be confounded and the sun ashamed when the Lord of hosts shall reign in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem” is recorded in the same chapter. This is similar to the state described in Revelation 21:23. Control of the Creation in Judgment is further illustrated in the prophecy against Ariel in chapter 29: “thou shalt be visited of the Lord of hosts, with storm and tempest, and the flame of devouring fire.” The greatness, power and wisdom of the Lord is described in the well-known gems of Isaiah 40: “who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance?” To Him “the nations are as a drop in the bucket, and are counted as the small dust of the balance: behold he taketh up the isles as a very little thing.” Also “He sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers: that stretcheth out [natah—to stretch out] the heavens as a curtain, and spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in.” His people are encouraged by the questions and statements: “Hast thou not known? hast thou not heard, that the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator [bara] of the ends of the earth fainteth not, neither is weary? there is no searching of his understanding.”
In chapter 41:18-20, God’s promised creation of fertility for Israel is mentioned; and in chapter 42:5, God is described as “He that created the heavens, and stretched [natah] them out; he that giveth breath [nishma] unto the people upon it, and spirit [ruach] to them that walk therein.” Jacob as a nation is also not to fear as the Lord has created (bara), formed (yatsar), made (asah) and redeemed him and will protect him (chapter 43:1,2,7,15]. This is repeated in chapter 44:21 and 24.
King Cyrus is told (chapter 45:7,12). “I form the light and create [bara] darkness”; “I have made [asah] the earth, and created [bara] man upon it; I, even my hands, have stretched out [natah] the heavens, and all their host have I commanded.” Also that Israel shall be saved with an everlasting salvation: “For thus saith the Lord that created [bara] the heavens; God himself that formed the earth and made [asah] it not in vain [tohu]—without form, as in Genesis 1:2], he formed [yatsar] it to be inhabited” (chapter 45:17-18). Thus an eternal, purposeful and benevolent Creator is revealed to this heathen Persian king.
Israel is reminded of her God being the Eternal and the Creator in chapter 48:12-13: “I am the first and I am also the last. Mine hand hath also laid [yasad] the foundation of the earth, and my right hand hath spanned the heavens; when I call unto them they stand together.” In chapter 51:12-13, the nation is comforted and reminded not to forget “The Lord thy Maker [asah], that hath stretched forth [natah] the heavens, and laid [yasad] the foundations of the earth.” There is more comfort in chapter 54:5, where her Maker is described as her husband.
Numerous other references are made by the prophet, to God acting as Creator and Controller of the natural world to fulfil His purposes. The climax in both prophecy and powerful activity is reached on a happy note in the last chapters, as the Lord states, “For behold I create [bara] new heavens and a new earth; and the former shall not be remembered, nor come to mind. But be ye glad and rejoice for ever in that which I create [bara] for behold I create [bara] Jerusalem a rejoicing, and her people a joy” (chapter 65:17-18). He also promises: “For as the new heavens and the new earth, which I will make [asah] shall remain before me … so shall your seed and your name remain” (chapter 66:22).
Throughout this book of Isaiah there is no suggestion of the use of an evolutionary process, but God’s action in Creation being mighty and immediate. Thus in picturesque, but accurate and not extravagant language, the inspired prophet records for his day and ours the importance of the doctrine of Creation. God, who is more than a superior ruler or earth mover, brings prophecy to pass, just as He brought forth the heavens and the earth, and He controls them. This is comfort for His people and a warning to man who is possessed of a rebellious nature and is proud of his material achievements.
Man is God’s vice-regent in the earth since the day Adam was given dominion over every living thing (Genesis 1:28 and Psalm 8:6). He was put in ‘the garden of Eden to dress it and keep it’ (Genesis 2:15). A number of other scriptures point to his being responsible to treat the Creation properly. The avoidance of disturbing the mother bird (Deuteronomy 22:6-7) is one example. The care of the domestic beast is commended (Proverbs 12:10). The need for the observation of the sabbath for man, beast and the land is frequently enjoined. This last provides for the refreshment and renewal of these principal parts of the Creation. Such considerations should be of value to modern ecologists.
Of course, the New Testament references to Creation are also numerous. Here we have the further revelation of the Personality who created all things, the Lord Jesus Christ, who was in the beginning (John 1:3) and who is the Source, Sustainer and Saviour of the physical world (Colossians 1:16-17) as well as of the spiritual. The created universe is for His pleasure (Revelation 4:11). Man, His creature, is expected to recognise the Creator through the observation of his created world (Romans 1:20-1). Here surely is justification for scientific study and research!
It was Sir Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century who stated that such activity was “for the glory of God and the relief of man’s estate.” However, failure to accept this doctrine of Creation through pride and unbelief shows man’s foolishness which leads to moral ruin and judgment. This is the ultimate result of evolutionary teaching. But the acceptance of the Divine teaching brings present blessing and the promise of participation in the new heavens and new earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness (2 Peter 3:13).
NOTE: Article reproduced courtesy of the Creation Science Movement, UK.
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The El Paujil Bird Reserve was created in November 2003 in order to preserve the Blue-billed Curassow (Crax alberti) is endemic to Colombia and in critical danger of extinction, while ensuring the preservation of one of the most vulnerable ecosystems which had been circulated in the Middle Magdalena valley, the rain forest.
Location and Area:
This protected area is located in the Sierra de las Quinchas, between the towns of Puerto Boyacá, Bolívar and Scimitar, more precisely in the departments of Boyacá and Santander, respectively, it covers 8.448 acres and is located between 150 and 1.200 m.s.n.m. (See map).
There has been about 360 species of birds registered in this place , 7 of which are endemic species, 8 threatened near-endemic and 8 threatened, 43 non-flying mammal species of which 18 are threatened, 24 species of flying mammals, 32 species of amphibians 1 of which is threatened and 46 species of reptiles. It also highlights: the Cotorra cabeciamarilla (Gypopsitta pyrilia), Carpintero bonito (Melanerpes pulcher), White-Mantled Barbet (Capito hypoleucus), Tiranuelo antioqueño (Phylloscartes lanyoni), Habia ceniza (Habia gutturalis), Mielero turqueza (Dacnis hartlaubi) Mono araña del Magdalena (Ateles hybridus), el Oso andino (Tremarctos ornatus) y Nutria del Magdalena (Pteronura longicauda), among others.
The reserve has an annual temperature of 27.8 ° C. The rainfall is bimodal seasonal tetra. The first period of rainfall occurs between April and May and the second between September and November, during these five months, receiving 57.62% of total rainfall, with October the wettest month with 304 mm and the driest January to 64.5 mm The average relative humidity is 78%, ranging from 75% in February and August, and 81% in October and November (Balcazar et al. 2000).
Consists of primary and secondary forests little surgery, pastures and plantations.
Ecological restoration, Land expansion and Women for conservation.
And tourism activities:
- River navigation.
- Wildlife photography.
- Observation of animal and plant species.
- Walking in high demand.
- Contact recreation and nature.
- Family vacation.
- Recreational fishing.
- Enjoy natural scenery (Caño cristal, La moya, Pozo lindo and Los chorros).
- Reforestation of native species.
- Horseback riding.
- Courses and training.
Accommodation for 43 guests in comfortable cabins, electricity service and water.
- Respect the natural values of the reserve, the plants and animals.
- Do not allow the collection of biological material.
- Follow signs to the reserve staff and travel on established trails.
- You can make camping in designated areas.
- Wear rubber boots.
- Report health problems or allergies.
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British Educational Policy and Growth of Modern Education
British Educational Policy in India :
First Phase (1758 – 1812) :
- The British East India Co. showed very little interest in the education of its subjects during this period, the 2 minor exceptions being :
- The Calcutta Madrsah set up by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study and teaching of Muslim law and subjects.
- The Sanskrit college at Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan in 1792 for the study of Hindu Law and Philosophy.
- Both were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to help the administration of law in the courts of Co.
Second Phase (1813 – 1853) :
- Due to the strong pressure exerted on the Co. by the Christian missionaries and many humanitarians, including some Indians, to encourage and promote modern education in India, The Charter Act of 1813 required the Co. to spend rupees 1 lakh annually for encouraging learned Indians and promoting the knowledge of modern sciences in India.
- Two controversies about the nature of education arose during the part of this phase. They were :
- Whether to lay emphasis on the promotion of modern western studies or on the expansion of traditional Indian learning?
- Whether to adopt Indian languages or English as the medium of instruction in modern schools and colleges to spread western learning?
- These 2 controversies were settled in 1835 when Lord William Bentinck (with the support of R.M. Roy) applied English medium.
- In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give govt, employment to Indians educated in English Schools. The success was thus assured (of English education). It made good progress in the 3 presidencies of Bengals Bombay and Madras where the number of schools and colleges increased.
- Three other developments were :
- A great upsurge in the activities of the missionaries who did pioneer work in quite a few fields of modern education.
- Establishment of medical, engineering and law colleges, which marked a beginning in professional education.
- Official sanction accorded to education of girls (Lord Dalhousie, in fact, offered the open support of govt.).
- The Govt, policy of opening a few English schools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools led to the neglect of education of masses.
- To cover up this defect in their policy, the British took recourse to the so – called ‘Downward Filtration Theory’ which meant that education and modern ideas were supposed to filter or radiate downward from the upper classes.
- This policy continued till the very end of British rule, although it was officially abandoned in 1854.
Third Phase (1854 – 1900) :
- The Educational Dispatch of 1854 was also called Wood’s Dispatch (after Sir Charles Wood, the then President of Board of Control, who became the first Secretary of State for India).
- It is considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India (forms a landmark in the history of modern education in India).
- It rejected the ‘filtration theory’ and laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of vernaculars, favoured secularism in Education.
- Creation of Education Departments in the provinces of Bombay, Madras, Bengal, N.W. Provinces and Punjab in 1855; Organizations of Indian Education Service in 1897 to cover the senior most posts.
- Establishment of universities of Calcutta (Jan 1857) Bombay (Jul 1857), Madras (Sep 1857), Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887).
- Lord Ripon appointed Hunter Commission (under Sir WW Hunter) :
- It recommended that local bodies (distt. boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the management of primary schools.
- Also said that govt, should maintain only a few schools and colleges; others to be left to private hands.
Fourth Phase (1901 – 1920) :
- Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his recommendations Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.
- It enabled the universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies), periodic inspection of institutions, speedier transaction of business, strict conditions for affiliation etc.
- Criticized by nationalists for its tightening govt, control over universities.
- In 1910, a separate department of Education was established at the Centre.
- The Saddler Commission was appointed by Lord Chelmsford to review the working of Calcutta University (2 Indians: Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed.). Main recommendations were:
- Secondary Education by a Board of Secondary education and duration of degree course be 3 yrs.
- 7 new universities were opened (Total 12 now). They were : Banaras, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Dhaka, Lucknow and Osmania.
- Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia were established.
- University course divided into pass course and Honours.
Fifth Phase (1921 – 1947) :
- Came under Indian control officially, as it became a provincial subject administered by provincial legislature. Thus, expansions started everywhere.
- Increase in number of universities (20 in 1947); improvement in the quality of higher education (on recommendations of Saddler Commission); establishment of an inter – University Board (1924) and beginning of inter collegiate and inter – university activities.
- Achievement in women’s education and education of backward classes.
Hartog Committee 1929 :
- Recommended the policy of consolidation and improvement of Primary education.
- Recommended a selective system of admission to universities and diversified courses leading to industrial and commercial careers.
- Universities should be improved.
- Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee after Gandhiji published a series of articles in the HariJan.
Sargeant Plan of Education 1944 :
It envisaged :
- Establishment of elementary schools and high school.
- Universal and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 – 11.
- High schools of 2 types :
- Technical and Vocational.
- Intermediate courses were to be abolished.
Application Form Submission 16 Dec 2020 to 16 Jan 2021.
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The United Nations has asked the United States and Canada to block a proposal for a coal mine upstream from a World Heritage Site shared by both nations, and there are signs the countries are paying heed.
The U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is concerned about Cline Mining Corp.'s plans for an open-pit coal mine in British Columbia's Flathead River Valley. UNESCO asked Canada to freeze Cline's application until the countries review the plan's environmental impacts and announced its intention to send a U.N. study team last February.
The Flathead Valley is rich in coal and coalbed methane, but it shares a watershed with Montana's Glacier National Park and Alberta's Waterton Lakes National Park, whose wilderness areas and wildlife earned a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation in 1995. Environmental groups that have long battled energy companies in the region say mining would damage resources the designation was intended to protect.
There are signs UNESCO's latest actions have grabbed the attention of Canadian and U.S. authorities. The British Columbia government has put Cline's application "effectively on hold," said David Karn, spokesman for the province's Environmental Assessment Office. The U.S. and Canadian federal governments have also agreed to conduct a joint assessment of the area by 2010.
Cline representatives did not return repeated phone calls and e-mails requesting a comment.
Even if Cline's bid is foiled, environmental groups say, the World Heritage Site will remain imperiled until British Columbia changes its land-use plan to ban mining in the Flathead River Valley. The groups are backed by the U.S. National Park Service and Sen. Max Baucus (D-Mont.).
"The Cline mine is a symptom of a land-use plan that doesn't recognize the international and global significance of this valley," said Will Hammerquist of the National Parks Conservation Association, which along with Earthjustice, the British Columbia chapter of the Sierra Club and other groups petitioned UNESCO to take action.
Karn said his agency could not yet comment on future plans for the valley.
The groups want UNESCO to formally declare the heritage site "in danger," a designation that indicates the host nations have provided inadequate protections. The designation is aimed at bringing international pressure on the provincial government and energy companies, Earthjustice's Jessica Lawrence said.
Lawrence noted that energy developers backed off a planned mine outside of Yellowstone National Park, another heritage site, after the United Nations declared the park endangered in the mid-1990s.
Lawrence said that if British Columbia does modify its land-use plan, the groups will drop their UNESCO petition. "Our goal is not to see [the site] listed as 'in danger'; our goal is to have it protected," Lawrence said. With UNESCO's latest action, she said, "we took a big step in that direction."
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For the more information about the air resources of the National Park Service, please visit http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/.
Barton River Marsh
A large, shallow, freshwater marsh, Barton River Marsh is considered one of the best in New England. The wetland and winding Barton River drain northward into Lake Memphremagog and provide prime habitat for waterfowl and marsh birds.
Location: Orleans County, VT
Year designated: 1973
Please remember, National Natural Landmarks (NNLs) are not national parks. NNL status does not indicate public ownership, and many sites are not open for visitation.
Last Updated: June 28, 2012
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Sum of Interior Angles of a Polygon
An interior angle is an angle located inside a shape. For example, a triangle has three interior angles, with a sum of 180°. As the number of sides, n, of a polygon increases, the sum of its interior angles, S, also increases by the following formula:
S = n−2⋅180°
Any polygon with n sides can be split into a union of n−2 triangles. This follows mathematical induction from two properties:
Base case: The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
Induction step: If a side is added, the sum of the angles must increase by 180°.
If a side is added, it is equivalent to the combination of two operations:
Splitting any existing side into two sides is possible by declaring a new vertex at a point anywhere along that side. The angle at the new vertex is 180°. As a result, the sum of the angles increases by 180°.
Adjusting the angles at all the vertices to get the new shape without changing the number of sides is possible. If one angle is increased, another angle must be decreased by the same value, otherwise the polygon will no longer be closed. The sum of the angles does not change using this operation.
In general, with regular polygons (all sides and angles are equal), each angle is equal to:
A = n−2⋅180°n
Adjust the slider to change the number of sides (n) on the polygon below.
Click "View Triangles" to see each angle of the polygon, as well as the sum of its interior angles.
Number of Sides:
Download Help Document
What kind of issue would you like to report? (Optional)
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Originally published 2006-02-27.
Read, sweet, how others strove…
Read, sweet, how others strove,
Till we are stouter;
What they renounced,
Till we are less afraid;
How many times they bore
The faithful witness,
Till we are helped,
As if a kingdom cared!
Read then of faith
That shone above the fagot;
Clear strains of hymn
The river could not drown;
Brave names of men
And celestial women,
Passed out of record
There are those who are courageous because they value truth over faith (“they bore the faithful witness,” stanza 1), and those who are courageous because of their faith (stanza 2), it seems. Those who have faith seem to win a very great glory.
If that division holds, then this poem is a simple expression of faith.
But we’re dealing with Emily Dickinson here. That division does not hold. Notice the last lines of the second stanza: some names have “passed out of record into renown.” Would that not be an apt description of the people being read about in the first stanza, the ones that teach the speaker and whoever/whatever is dear to her to be “stouter,” “less afraid,” and provide, generally, “help” independent of a kingdom?
“Read then” can mean, therefore, two things: it can mean an event that happens after the first stanza, or it can mean the same event as that which occurs in the first stanza. (An example of the logic of the latter: “If you do A, you then do B” – it is entirely conceivable A = B, or B is some integral component of A.) I take the second stanza to be an elaboration of the first, not a contrast.
Does that mean this poem is a secret atheist’s hymn? Well, the language of faith in the second stanza can’t just be thrown out, and shouldn’t be. It is very clearly the divine being spoken of in the second stanza: faith shines brighter than the “fagot,” a man-made thing; the sound of the hymn is never dulled by the river’s natural chaotic rush. Bravery/divinity ultimately comes from sharing one’s light with others, and leading a life that is distinct, worthy to be praised.
What Miss Dickinson is probably saying is that there are divine human beings on Earth, and that those divine human beings show the rest of us how to love life because they love truth. There is only one truth in this life which is a certainty, though, which is that we will perish. A genuine love of life means that the traditional grounds for hope are not secure; the care of a kingdom is in a deep sense scorned, for if we do love life, we want to forge our own paths, find the truth that matters to us. Nonetheless, this whole process makes those of us who care not for the divine very divine. We will be the peacemakers, we will be those who mourn. We will be those who ask, seek and knock. We will even be meek and poor, for magnanimity doesn’t mean bragging all the time – it means giving so our other virtues are not compromised.
We will want Truth for all of us, and thus that search is not mere atheism, if it is atheistic at all.
There is a reconciliation between religion and irreligion here, but it depends on a tension, and the beauty of the poem is in its forcing us to see that tension and not dismiss it as many of us do in everyday life.
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5 Fascinating Facts About Kingfishers
Common Kingfisher (Alcedo Atthis)
Just 12cm high with strident blue plumage and the flying-style of a speeding bullet, a kingfisher can really pack a punch. But in spite of all its dazzling brilliance, it is also deeply secretive. As a wildlife artist, I made it my mission to find out more. I built an artificial nest box and watched as a kingfisher pair raised their chicks inside. Here are five of the fascinating facts I learned.
1. Kingfishers inspired Japanese bullet trains
Kingfishers fly low and straight like bullets, reaching up to 25 miles per hour, but it’s not their speed that excites scientists; it’s their beaks. Sharp, pointed, and so long that they make up a third of a kingfisher’s height, these beaks slice soundlessly through water meaning kingfishers can dive into pools without alerting fish. Engineers working on Japan’s high-speed bullet train copied the shape of this beak to prevent sonic boom whenever these fast-moving trains enter a tunnel.
2. It’s all in the beak: Kingfisher beaks help tell the sexes apart
Males and female kingfishers are so similar it is hard to tell them apart. The easiest way, if you can get close enough to see it, is the fact that the lower bill of a female’s beak is orange, as if she’s applied a streak of lipstick. The chicks don’t develop this colouring until they are almost a year old, so youngsters are almost impossible to tell apart.
3. Kingfishers don’t actually like each other
Kingfishers are solitary birds and have to overcome a natural aversion to one another in order to come together to breed. Their courtship can have an underlying tension as they move awkwardly around one another. Even the male’s mating poise mirrors its aggressive stance.
4. Kingfisher chicks are ugly
Pink and bald, kingfisher chicks are particularly ugly when they hatch. At just one inch-high, they sit bolt upright, like baby pterodactyls, using each other as props to balance against. This interconnection keeps them warm and dry whilst the upright posture helps keep their tiny bodies off the dirt of their nest floor. Unlike many other bird species that maintain a clean nest by removing their chick’s faecal sacks, kingfisher nests can be filthy. This is also the reason why their flight feathers don’t grow until a week before they hatch. But when this blue and orange plumage finally emerges, these ugly ducklings transform into stunning beauties.
5. Kingfisher chicks have fluorescent beak tips to help their parents feed them in the dark
The length of a kingfisher’s beak can be something of a hindrance when it comes to feeding the chicks in the pitch black of an underground nest. But these birds have an ingenious answer to this problem: the chicks have a white tip to their beaks and their parents have a white flash on each side of their face, providing a luminous visual clue.
Find out more fascinating facts about kingfishers here:
And discover how I built an artificial kingfisher nest so that I would watch them bring up their chicks here:
Below is my collection of paintings inspired by watching kingfishers:
Author: Robert E Fuller
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Before you arrive at university you may not know what a reading list is, the purpose it serves, and how to navigate your way around it. Read on to find out…By Francesca Cornick
So what exactly is a reading list?
A reading list is exactly what it sounds like, a list of readings which have been carefully put together by academics which are associated to a particular lecture/week/module. Your lecturer will provide you with this list to supplement what is taught in face-to-face lectures or in preparation for seminars, for example. Your reading list may be organised into essential reading and then further reading, or by type of information source.
Your department may have added your reading list to the Library’s Reading List system (it also goes by the fancy name of Aspire- but you don’t need to worry about that!). If so you are in luck! Each item on your list will have a link taking you directly to the material making it really quick and easy to find what you need. The system also allows you to make notes and prioritise your reading. To check to see if your list is on the system, search for your reading list by module code if you know it or by browsing the hierarchy. Chances are there may also be a link to your list from your module page.
My reading list is terrifyingly long. How do I choose what to read?
Look and see if anything on the reading list has been marked as essential – start with this (recommended and further reading is exactly that). If you are asked to read a chapter of a book then you don’t necessarily need to read the book from cover to cover, as it may not be relevant to what is being taught on your module. It is important that you manage your reading time effectively to cover the necessary content.
What about the ‘Further Reading’?
The key here is to prioritise. Decide what is useful for your own needs. Will the item listed as further reading be useful to read in relation to a future assignment or feature on an exam? You may just have a huge thirst for knowledge and want to read everything ever written on a particular topic, if this is the case just try and keep a healthy work-life balance. (Incidentally, I have a thirst for chocolate milk).
Obviously the more effort you put into your reading, the more results you are likely to see, whether this be in preparation for assignments, contributions to seminar discussion, or exam results.
Should I buy the texts on reading lists?
This is up to you and depends upon what information your lecturer has given you. Is the item essential reading or further reading?
If the book is an essential key text that is going to be used heavily throughout the module and perhaps in other modules, then you may wish to have your own personal copy to hand. However, you may want to check if the Library has an e-book available. If you enjoy reading off a screen then you will be able to access the e-book anywhere and at any time.
You might want to consider pairing up with a course mate to purchase texts jointly and sharing them between you as necessary (play nicely!).
If the item on your reading list is recommended reading and perhaps only going to be needed in relation to one particular module and there are a number of copies in the Library, then you are probably not going to need to buy this item. Your money would be best allocated to an essential book which will be referred to over a wider part of your studies.
There is an item on my reading list which isn’t in the Library. Now what?
It could just be the case that there is a book you can’t get hold of because all of the copies are out on loan. If so, you can place a hold on the book via your My Library Account. The user who has the book will then be sent a notification that someone is waiting for it and will be asked to return it to the Library. Don’t forget to check if the book is available in the short loan collection.
A lot of the time your reading list will point you to the latest edition. If all copies are out on loan you might consider borrowing a previous edition as the Library will often have multiple editions in stock.
You could also check if the Library has an e-book of the item you require. There are no loan periods on e-books so you should be able to access them at any time.
If you have been asked to read an article or chapter or extract from a book, you may want to look at the Course Extracts page for your module to see if it has been made available electronically.
The Library should be notified by your department of any items which will be appearing on your reading lists. If you find there is an item on your reading list which the Library does not have at all, please let your Academic Support Librarian know.
Going beyond your reading list
After you have consulted all of the items on your reading list then what?
Through the Library you have access to a huge amount of books, academic journals and databases containing up-to-date literature and information about your topic. To really get ahead, take advantage of these resources.
Enter your key words into Library Search to see what other material is available beyond reading list items. Consult the Database page and browse the databases by subject to identify which one will contain the most suitable information for your needs.
The key to successfully managing your reading list is to prioritise, be organised, and maximise the resources which are available to you. What tips do you have for successfully managing your reading list?
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In the current scenario, internet has become an inseparable part of most of the humans prevailing in the world. There has been noted a considerable increase in the number of people joining internet in the last decade.
Internet is no doubt a tool that helps us to work irrespective of geographical borders. Be it for entertainment, college, office internet is becoming a necessity. With the advancement of technologies like AI, Cloud and features provided in multiple tools out of these technologies like Alexa, Siri, Google Assistant are making life easier and interesting and are also liked by children. They are becoming much friendlier and growing faster with these voice systems that work through internet. Voice control features on google, YouTube, televisions, refrigerators are all using internet that works at a command of our voice. In turn we have been completely inclined to internet be it studies, work or entertainment. Everything revolves virtually around us with the help of internet.
But then with these multiple advantages there comes a series of disadvantages too. This addiction to internet is still not considered as an addiction nor a disorder since it is providing multiple services at the click of a button from buying stuff to automating work to much more. Addiction rightly defined as psychological and physical inability to stop consuming something (service, any product,) even though it is affecting psychologically.
Internet addiction can be identified as a condition in which an individual is spending lot of time on computer or any web enabled device/system that indirectly starts affecting their health, finance, time management, relationships and everything and everyone around you. Also known as Internet addition disorder or Compulsive internet Use Disorder.
It’s mostly the younger generation that is getting affected by it mostly the college going students and below then that. They find internet the best thing and develop their hobbies around it and tend to develop a virtual world around it with virtual people and things. Ex- People who do not have real friends, they start finding friends on internet, completely unaware of the reality of people and sometimes fall prey in the hands of wrong people, people who can’t go out to shop they can keep doing it from home .Be it surfing, reading, playing games, social networking, online shopping, trading, gambling, blogging, online dating etc.
These people lose interest in non-online hobbies and activities. The easy access they get to all kinds of materials.
They lose track of time and fail to understand the world they are building virtually is based on superficial things, beliefs and cannot replace real-life relationships.
Internet addiction tends to give rise to mental health issues. Also, if they are taken away from internet they feel anxious, irritated.
This addiction of internet can in turn lead them to the inability to communicate in the real world, depriving them of the interpersonal skills.
However, some researchers say that it’s not the amount of time you spent on internet but how you use it defines your internet addiction. Whereas some research’s show that internet addiction is like a drug addiction when you have it you feel “high”, moment individual has to disconnect they lose it. This addictive behavior triggers release of a chemical substance called “dopamine” that promotes the use of things that please you and over time creates a dependency on it. Some reasons also suggest that every time you login to internet you find something new and that keeps the interest of an individual alive whereas in the real world you won’t find anything and everything interesting and new all the time. Being on internet, you don’t feel isolated from the world. Often, people who have signs of depression try to live in their world by switching on to internet.
There can be some emotional and physical symptoms of internet addiction. Some of the emotional symptoms are as below->
- Avoiding work
- Mood Swings
- Negative thoughts
- Loss of interest in real world, people, peers, activities
Some physical symptoms->
- Neck pain
- Lack of ability to sleep
- Poor eating and hygiene habits
- Weight gain
- Eye Issues
Some research’s and reports have shown that internet addiction is mostly affecting people in Asian countries especially Asian males. South Korea, china are some of the best examples of it. Pew Research Center shows that 77% of Americans connect to the internet daily. India is the world’s second largest in Internet use after China. As per the Internet and Mobile Association of India and Indian Market Research Bureau, out of 80 million active Internet users in urban India, 72% (58 million individuals) have used internet in some form of social networking in 2013, which is to reach around 420 million by June 2017. In a study on young people, it was found that about 74.5% were moderate (average) users and 0.7% were found to be addicts.
There are treatments available for internet addiction too but before that if you feel anyone is suffering from internet addiction can be asked some general questions like how much time they spend on internet, If internet is not available do they find themselves in bad mood, do they stay online more than they have decided to, Is their work, family and health getting effected out of the use of internet, do they have any physical symptoms due to it (like headache, backache), does switching off to internet makes you irritable, anxious.
There are multiple treatments available to treat this addiction. Some of them include medication, therapies, some exercise, some activities to include your involvement in the real world.
Looking at the current scenario, wherein people are stuck at home, some of them alone and they are entirely dependent on Internet for work, study, entertainment related activities. So, is everyone suffering from internet addiction. Answer is No, the idea is to use it responsibly to complete all your tasks and not fall prey to it affecting all other activities of your life.
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The Wednesday’s plenary presentations, including those by young leaders, highlighted emerging evidence of effective strategies for reaching young people with contraceptive information and services.
Speakers discussed specific ways to improve the sexual and reproductive health of young people, including youth-friendly health services, laws and policies focused on adolescent health, and conditional cash transfer programs. Young leaders at the conference emphasized the need to meaningfully engage youth and adolescents as key partners and decision-makers on family planning.
The issue of adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights is not just one about information; it is fundamentally interlaced with intersectional issues of social justice, finance and poverty alleviation,” said Nomtika Mjwana, young leader and ZAZI Women Empowerment Ambassador from South Africa. “When we talk about family planning, we are challenging the cultural beliefs about young women and the methods used… about education and the right to access information… it is essential to look at strategies that can inform and educate young girls and empower them not to see themselves as objects waiting for men, but as women with pride and the agency to decide what they need to do with their own bodies.”
The world’s population of young people is at a historic high, with 1.8 billion people entering their reproductive years. Adolescent girls are at a dramatically heightened risk for pregnancy- and childbirth-related health complications, which is a leading cause of death among young women ages 15 to 19 in low- and middle-income countries.
“Our youth leaders have told us loud and clear: know our interests and work with us, co-design and co-create with us to drive successful programs; invest in our empowerment education, health and employment; recognize that we are our nations’ precious human resources, and investments in us will produce wealth and well-being for all nations; leverage our collective power for the collective transformation we can bring to the 2030 Agenda,” said Dr. Benoit Kalasa, Director of the Technical Division, UNFPA. “Our journey to 2030 starts and ends with prioritizing adolescents and youth.”
Conference presentations noted that many youth pregnancies and pregnancy-related deaths are preventable through access to family planning information and contraceptives, yet contraceptive use among girls lags behind that of older women. Currently, only 22% of women ages 15 to 24 are using contraception, as compared to 60% of women over the age of 30. In parts of Asia and Africa, over half of youth who want to avoid pregnancy don’t have access to contraception.
“It is the opportunities, the needs and the choices of young people today, who account for half the world’s population, that will define the world not only as we know it, but as we want it,” said Katja Iversen, CEO of Women Deliver at the official ICFP press conference. “Giving them the opportunities and the access so they can make those choices and really reach their full potential is key for all of us.”
Speakers highlighted the importance of tailoring family planning programs to meet the unique needs of young people. Emphasis was placed on the value of programs that enlist youth and adolescents to educate their peers on family planning and create a safe space for conversations about sexual and reproductive health.
“There are two things to take into account [to increase access to youth-friendly services]…Number one: youth engagement is not the problem, youth engagement is the solution. We need to stop this symbolic engagement, we need to be deciding campaigns and programs [together]… from the beginning,” said Juan Ramón Díaz, Youth Coordinator for Children International in the Dominican Republic. “Number two: education is the key. Having access to education over time can make a huge difference… each school – it doesn’t matter how far it is – in every country should have a sexual education program… Including youth from the beginning works.”
Expanding family planning for youth and adolescents has long-term benefits for society as a whole. Young people who utilize family planning services and information are more likely to complete their education, pursue the career of their choice, raise healthy children and live healthier and more prosperous lives. When countries reduce unplanned births, they save money on other development priorities such as immunization, sanitation and education.
The conference closes on Thursday, 28 January, with the final sessions focusing on:
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Sixth Street Community Center >> LES Garden and Homestead Making
Written by Howard Brandstein
The homesteading movement grew out of two concurrent phenomena in the 1970s and early 1980s: increasing homelessness and overcrowding in New York’s low income neighborhoods juxtaposed with the deterioration and outright abandonment of thousands of privately-owned multifamily buildings. (Ironically, one would not recognize these same neighborhoods today where market forces and gentrification have pushed rents well out of reach of even the middle class). By the early 1970s these buildings, located in the Lower East Side, Harlem, South Bronx, East New York and other neighborhoods, no longer provided owners and slumlords the profits they historically derived renting to working class and poor people. The 1970s energy crisis and quadrupling of oil prices, following wars and upheavals in the Middle East and oil industry consolidation, was probably the most significant factor in this declining profitability. Owners stopped maintaining their buildings or burned them down in an epidemic of “arson for profit” schemes to collect insurance monies. Over the ensuing decade, most of these properties were foreclosed by the City government for unpaid taxes leaving the City with an enormous inventory of vacant structures and lots where buildings once stood. It was this inventory of buildings and land that became the geopolitical foundation of the homesteading movement. With increasing pressures of displacement on the remaining residents in blighted neighborhoods, community based organizations and churches, inspired by the activism of the 1960s, began to seize vacant buildings and land and create new communities based on an ethic of cooperative not-for-profit development.
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Garnets are historically one of the most important of the colored gemstones, valued for their good hardness and excellent brilliance. The name garnet actually refers to a family of different gemstones. There are many different varieties of garnet, but no gemstone that is simply called "garnet".
All of the different garnets share a common crystal structure but vary in their chemical composition. Gemology recognizes six common species of garnet based on their different chemical composition. They are pyrope, almandine, spessartite, grossularite, uvarovite and andradite. In addition to these six species, there are a number of other garnet varieties that are distinguished in the gem trade, based on their color or other special properties. Altogether there are at least 17 different varieties of garnet.
Excellent prices, excellent gemstones, easy to navigating, at the checkout, only a part of my cart was paid, then I get back to my chart, and the missing gemstones were there, so I pay it.At the end of the day, I did 2 consecutive purchases, paying 2 shippings. But even with that issue, I’m sure that worth it.Thanks!
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This afternoon, classes VW and SC worked together to conduct a scientific investigation. They worked in house groups in order to see if they could make plastic from milk and vinegar. The children had to work together to write a prediction, method, results/ observation section and conclusion. Children had great fun watching the curds form and then straining them through the sieve. The curds are called ‘casein’ and this forms when the protein in the milk meets the acid in the vinegar, causing the quick separation we witnessed. The children moulded the casein into different shapes- we will wait to see what happens over the next few days. The children had lots of fun, although nobody appreciated the smell!
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Slawomir Piatek, PhD, Hamamatsu Corporation & New Jersey Institute of Technology
April 2, 2015
Assessing the distance, size, or shape of an object is of great practical importance in everyday life. Stereoscopic vision is the main mechanism for humans and other organisms to nearly instantaneously obtain this information, whose accuracy depends on many variables. A few among them are the distance to the target; the target's intrinsic size, shape, or color; and the functionality of the light detectors — eyes. The eyes receive light from the surroundings, producing retinal images that the brain processes. This is a passive method. An example of an active method, though not optical, is echolocation by bats. A bat emits a short burst of sound; the sound reflects from a target (echo) and is later detected by the bat's ears. The time interval between the emission and reception gives clues about the distance. There are no examples of an active method using light echo in nature because the speed of light is close to one million times larger than the speed of sound, which means that for a given distance, the time of flight for a light pulse is about one millionth of that for sound. Nature has not developed clocks capable of measuring time intervals this short, but humans have.
An accurate and quantitative determination of distance using light has many practical applications in modern life. Point-by-point measurements give 3D imagery important in, for example, map making (distances on the order of kilometers), assembly line quality control (distances on the order of meters), or microscopy (distances on the order of micrometers). Numerous active and passive techniques have been developed to obtain 3D imagery, but a given method will belong to one of three main techniques: geometrical, time of flight (TOF), or interferometry. A geometrical technique such as triangulation relies on the spatial geometry between the source of light, target, and detector. The TOF method depends on the finiteness of the speed of light and our ability to measure the TOF either directly with clocks (direct TOF) or indirectly (indirect TOF) by, for example, comparing the phase of the intensity-modulated emitted and reflected light. Interferometry relies on the wave nature of light and the ability of waves to interfere. Critical to the last two techniques is an accurate value for the speed of light c and validation of the wave nature of light. Neither was obvious nor easy to determine experimentally. Centuries of theoretical and experimental effort have led us to understand that the speed of light is a fundamental constant of nature with its value fixed at c = 299,792,458 m/s and that light has a dual nature: it exhibits properties of a particle (photon), as in Compton scattering, and of a wave (electromagnetic wave), as in Young's double slit interference.
This article describes the basic ideas behind quantitative methods of measuring the distance, shape, or size of an object with light. The general methods discussed are:
Figure 1 is a flowchart of the methods of measuring distance. All of the methods can be divided into those that involve light (optical) and those that do not (non-optical, such us sonar). The optical methods divide into two categories: passive and active. In a passive technique, the measuring system does not illuminate the target; instead, the light from the target is either reflected ambient light or the light produced by the target itself. In an active technique, the measuring system does illuminate the target. Depending on the technique, the illumination may be some combination of monochromatic, polychromatic, continuous, pulsed, modulated, structured, polarized, coherent, or partly coherent light.
Figure 1. Flow chart of the techniques of measuring distance.
All of the methods — passive and active — can be divided into three broad categories: geometrical, TOF, and interferometry. In the first, the methods exploit a geometrical relationship between the target and the detection system. Examples of such techniques are passive and active triangulation, structured light, and depth from defocus. These techniques can be employed to measure distances on the scale from about a millimeter to many kilometers. An astronomical technique known as "stellar parallax" is a variant of passive triangulation, and is used by astronomers to measure distances to nearby stars, which are no closer than 1016 km away.
In TOF methods, the distance comes from measuring the time it takes the light signal to travel the distance between the target and the light detector. In a typical direct TOF setup, a clock measures this time, while in an indirect TOF setup, the time is inferred from, for example, the phase relationship between intensity-modulated emitted and detected light. This technique is akin to interferometry, though the range is not constrained by the wavelength of light but by the wavelength of modulation, which can be adjusted to specific needs. Another version of indirect TOF uses short (tens of ns) pulses of light; the distance again comes from phase comparison between the emitted and received pulses. Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) is a classic TOF system (both direct and indirect versions exist) for remote depth sensing. In direct TOF the time jitter of the clock and of the photodetectors used to control it limit the smallest measurable distance, whereas the strength of the returned light limits the largest. In indirect TOF using pulsed illumination, other factors, such as duration of the illumination pulse, limit the minimum and maximum ranges.
A technique based on interferometry exploits the wave nature of light and, thus, the ability of light to interfere. Because the wavelength of visible light is in the 400 — 700 nm range, devices based on this principle and using visible light can probe depth on a comparable scale. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a microscopy technique that exploits light interference to obtain images of "thick" biological samples. The central component of an OCT setup is a Michelson-Morley interferometer and a source generating light whose coherence length is smaller than the spatial structure under investigation.
Figure 2. The basic setup for passive triangulation.
Passive triangulation is a geometrical technique of measuring the shortest distance between a point on the target and the baseline, defined by two observation points. Figure 2 depicts the basic setup for this technique. The baseline has a known length x, and at both ends there are instruments (e.g., cameras) capable of measuring the angles α and β, respectively. Each angle is the angle between the corresponding line of sight to the target point and the baseline. The target point and the two observation points form a triangle; with known x and measured α and β, the distance d can be calculated using Equation 1:
In a special case where the perpendicular projection of the target point onto the baseline is midway between the detectors, α = β, and the equation for the distance reduces to d = x tan α. If α is measured with an uncertainty δα, then the uncertainty in the measured distance (assuming no uncertainty in x) is given by:
Equation 2 shows that for a given distance, the uncertainty δd is smallest if α = 45°; thus, the optimal length of the baseline is x = 2d.
Computer stereovision is one notable application of passive triangulation. The system employs two CCD cameras positioned in the same plane and with the same orientation, and separated by a known baseline. Each camera obtains simultaneously an image of the target scene. Thus, the data consist of two images of the same scene taken from two vantage points. After correcting the images for known geometrical distortions inherent to the CCD cameras themselves, a mathematical algorithm transforms the images to a common coordinate system — a process known as image rectification. Once in the same coordinate system, a feature (target point) that is common to both images will have different coordinates in the two images depending on the angles α and β. A mathematical algorithm calculates these angles, which, when used in Equation 1, yield a distance to the target point. Repeating this procedure for more target points produces a 3D map of the target. Stereovision works well for flat scenes with high contrast, albeit at the cost of a great deal of computational power. A more complex, rugged, uneven scene can create shadowing and occultation effects (discussed below), which diminish the effectiveness of stereovision.
Figure 3. A possible setup for active triangulation.
In a setup for active triangulation (depicted in Figure 3), a laser illuminates a spot on the target a perpendicular distance d from the baseline x. If the reflection of light from the target point is Lambertian-like, a position sensitive detector (PSD) or a CCD camera can determine the location of the point's image, x′, with respect to the optical axis of the objective lens of focal length ƒ. Knowing ƒ and x and measuring x′, the distance d can be determined from the properties of similar triangles, namely:
Equation 3 assumes that d >> ƒ. If x′ can be measured with an uncertainty δx′, then the corresponding uncertainty in the measured distance is given by:
Equation 4 shows that for a given distance d, the uncertainty is minimized by having a long baseline, long focal length, and high-resolution detector. All else being equal, δd increases as the square of d.
If the target moves horizontally in a controlled way with respect to the laser beam (or, alternatively, the laser spot moves on a stationary object), measurements of distance to multiple points on the target can be made, which together provide a three-dimensional picture of the target. This is known as laser scanning. Figure 4 illustrates the method and some of its limitations.
Figure 4. (left panel) Laser scanning to obtain 3D information about the target object; (middle panel) occultation occurs when there is no direct line of sight between the illuminated point and the camera; (right panel) shadowing occurs when there is no direct line of sight between the laser and the point intended for illumination.
The scanned object in Figure 4 moves to the left with respect to the stationary laser and CCD camera. The laser beam is perpendicular to the baseline x. The left panel shows a situation where the laser-camera system can make a successful distance measurement, whereas the middle and right panels show cases where they cannot. Occultation, depicted in the middle panel, occurs when the light from the reflection point cannot reach the camera because parts of the object block the way. Shadowing, depicted in the right panel, occurs when light from the laser cannot reach the point to be scanned. A remedy to reduce occultation is a decrease of x with the penalty of increased δd. To reduce or eliminate shadowing, the orthogonality of the beam and the baseline may have to be relaxed. This would involve moveable parts in the illumination/detection system — a major disadvantage.
Another disadvantage of point-by-point scanning is a slow rate of image acquisition, and a tradeoff between this rate and the density of points. The latter affects the spatial resolution of the scanned scene. The next section discusses a faster approach.
Figure 5. The concept of structured light approach of obtaining 3D information.
Point-by-point scanning is time consuming. A faster approach, albeit involving more complex data analysis and computing, is to illuminate the target object with structured light — a single line or a pattern of lines (e.g., parallel lines or a grid) — and use a 2D image sensor to detect the reflected pattern. Figure 5 illustrates the concept. In the left panel, the light projector casts a straight luminous line on the flat target. Here, the CCD image of the projection is also a straight line. In the right panel, the projected luminous line is comparable in size to the structural features of the target object (a cube, in this example). The image of the projection will not be a straight line (for most of the projector/camera configurations); for the fixed projector/camera locations, the shape of the image depends on the shape of the object. A mathematical algorithm can be developed to deduce the shape of the target given the geometry of the input and imaged structured light.
In practical applications of structured light, there are two approaches of generating structured light. The first uses two wide-beam lasers whose light generates an interference pattern, free of geometrical distortions, on the target. By changing the angle between the two beams, a wide range of patterns with large optical depth can be generated. The implementation of this approach is difficult because the geometry of the interference pattern is very sensitive to the relative orientation of the two beams. Another disadvantage is high cost. The second arrangement of illumination, less expensive than the first, uses a video projector, which projects a luminous pattern from, for example, a liquid crystal display, onto the target using lenses and mirrors. The tradeoff for the lower cost is a greater degree of geometrical distortions in the projected structured light and pixelated edges of the pattern if the image comes from a pixelated device such as a liquid crystal display. When analyzing the data, the geometrical distortions introduced by the projector and the detection system must be corrected for, which makes the mathematical algorithm more complex. Practical applications of structured light are diverse, ranging from video gaming (Microsoft Kinect), through fashion industry (made-to-measure apparel production), to forensics (fingerprint acquisition).
A technique known as "depth from defocus" is a variant of structured light. It relies on a mathematical relationship between the perpendicular distance from a target to a lens (so) and the distance from the lens to the image of the target formed by the lens (si). For a thin lens with a focal length ƒ, this relationship is given by the well-known thin lens equation:
Figure 6. Concept of depth from defocus. Adapted from Nayar et al. (1995).
Figure 6 illustrates the concept. Consider point P on the target (tip of the arrow), which is an unknown perpendicular distance so from the lens. The lens creates a real image of the point at P′, which a CCD camera located in the plane If would record as being in focus. Measuring the distance between If and the lens, si, and substituting the value into Equation 5 yields the unknown distance so. An extended object can be thought of as a superposition of an infinite number of points; therefore, repeating the above procedure to enough target points produces a depth map of the target. The points can be selected from the target itself or be projected onto the target (structured light) as described in a previous section.
Although conceptually correct, the method described in the previous paragraph (which is equivalent to point-by-point scanning) is impractical when applied to a target with a rugged and complex surface because the camera (or the lens) must be moved to bring a sampled point into focus. This is time consuming. In addition, the system has moveable parts and, thus, an elevated probability of mechanical failure.
An alternative approach uses two CCD cameras placed in planes I1 and I2 to obtain two images of the target. The appearance of point P is out of focus in both CCD images, and the degree of defocus depends on the values of α and β. An aperture stop placed in the focal plane on the side of the object ensures that the location of P′ (center of the blur disk) has the same coordinate in both CCD images regardless of the values of α and β. A mathematical algorithm determines so from the two images for point P and, using the same CCD images, for any number of preselected points on the target. A 3D map of the target results from two defocused CCD images without involving moveable parts. For further details, an interested reader is referred to Nayar et al. (1995) who give an in-depth discussion of the method, describe the key elements of the mathematical analysis required to extract depth information from two out-of-focus images, and present a functioning system capable of producing depth maps at the video rate of 30 Hz.
In the direct TOF techniques, the time of flight is measured directly with a clock. Figure 7 depicts a possible setup.
Figure 7. Possible setup for time-of-flight distance measurement using a pulsed laser. This setup is suitable for distances on the order of kilometers. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
The laser emits pulses of light of wavelength λ0, duration tp, and repetition period T. A beam splitter directs some fraction of the light to a "fast" photodetector such as a PIN photodiode or avalanche photodiode; the output pulse of the photodetector provides the "start" pulse to a timer (clock). The remaining fraction of light passes through the collimation and beam expander optics and travels to the target in a medium with index of refraction n. After reflection from the target, some fraction of the light is collected by the telescope and directed towards the second "fast" photodetector. The photodetector produces the "stop" pulse to the timer. Though not shown in the figure, the actual setup would also have bandpass filters centered on λ0 to reduce background light. If the time between start and stop pulses is t, then the distance d to the target is given by:
The uncertainty δd in the measured distance is primarily due to the uncertainty δt of the measured time t and is given by Equation 7:
There are several sources of δt. Figure 8 shows the relationship between the start and stop pulses that trigger the timer.
Figure 8. Relationship between the start and stop pulses. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
The amplitude AT of the start pulse — voltage or current produced by the photodetector — is controlled by the amount of light siphoned to the detector by the beam splitter. The amplitude AR of the stop pulse depends on the amount of reflected light collected by the telescope. For a given telescope aperture size, this quantity of light depends on the light power in the laser pulse, the distance to the target, and the characteristics of the reflection (i.e., the target's color, orientation, surface smoothness, etc.). Although AT can be adjusted by the beam splitter so that AT = AR, in most situations AT ≠ AR with the former being larger.
The timer starts and then stops if the leading edges of the start and stop pulses reach certain predetermined levels of voltage or current. In practice, these levels could be set to some fixed fraction of the peak values. Because of time jitter in the photodetectors, variations in rise times, and electrical noise in the pulses, the timer does not measure a constant TOF t — thus there is δt — even though the target is stationary. Although the laser also introduces time jitter into the repetition period, this jitter does not contribute to δt. Using 1 ns as a reasonable time jitter for each photodetector, δd ≈ 21 cm. For a target 1 m away, the jitter causes an almost 25% fractional error; reducing this error requires photodetectors with smaller jitter. All else being the same, the fractional error decreases with increasing distance to the target. In practice, however, all else is usually not the same. For a given telescope aperture size and laser light power, as the distance increases, the amount of reflected light illuminating the photodetector decreases, causing the stop pulse to be more noisy and thus contributing to δt.
As shown in Figure 8, the repetition period T of the laser pulses should not be smaller than Tmin = t + tp or the maximum repetition frequency not be greater than ƒmax = 1/Tmin. For a target 100 m away, t = 0.67 μs. If tp << t, ƒmax = 1.5 MHz. The repetition frequency decreases linearly with increasing d. This has no consequences if the target is stationary, but if it is not, the resolution of its position as a function of time decreases with d. The resolution is degraded even further if a setup uses a light chopper instead of a high-power pulsed laser; here, tp can be comparable to t.
Figure 9 illustrates the concept of measuring distance to a target using the phase shift φ between the intensity-modulated transmitted and received waves. The transmitter emits light whose intensity is modulated (sinusoidal modulation is common) by either the transmitter itself (if it is a laser or LED) or an optical system such as Kerr cell, Pockels cell, or a mechanical shutter. The light does not need to be monochromatic and polarized. The light reflects from the target and arrives at the receiver having a phase shift with respect to the transmitted wave of φ, which can have a value between 0 and 2π.
Figure 9. Phase comparison method of measuring distance. The emitted light is intensity-modulated (assumed sinusoidal) with the modulation wavelength λm. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
If the wavelength of the sinusoidal modulation is λm, Equation 8 gives the corresponding phase shift, while Equation 9 gives the distance to the target.
In the above equations, ƒm is the frequency of modulation and M is an integer that is equal to the number of full modulation wavelengths in the distance 2d as illustrated in Figure 10.
Figure 10. In this example, there are four full modulation wavelengths (M = 4) in the roundtrip distance from the transmitter to the target and back to the transmitter. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
For the sake of clarity, the roundtrip distance from the transmitter (at location A) to the target (at location B) and back to the receiver (at location A) has been "unfolded." In the example illustrated by the figure, M = 4. If M is not known, the absolute distance to the target cannot be determined, i.e., the distance is ambiguous. If M=0, the maximum unambiguous distance that can be measured is dmax = λm/2 = c/2ƒm. For ƒm = 10 MHz, dmax = 15 m. Decreasing modulation frequency increases the maximum unambiguous distance; however, doing so also increases the uncertainty δd in the measured distance. The uncertainty is given by:
where δΦ is the uncertainty in the measured phase difference between the emitted and received waves. For δΦ ≈ 1° and ƒm = 10 MHz, δd ≈ 4 cm, implying a fractional error of 0.3%.
A point-by-point scanning of a scene using either a direct or indirect TOF technique discussed above provides depth of the scene. Prior to the mid-1990s, a 3D camera employing either of these two techniques required a mechanical scanning system to sample an array of points on the target surface. One limitation of such an arrangement is a compromise between the frame rate and density of sampled points, where the former affects the temporal accuracy of depth measurement for a moving target, whereas the latter affects the spatial resolution of the features on the target. This compromise could have been lessened if it were possible to measure simultaneously all of the distances to an array of points on the target surface. This is now possible.
Figure 11. A simplified structure of a PMD (left panel) and its equivalent electrical circuit (right panel).
The breakthrough is the development of a CMOS-architecture imaging array where each pixel is a Photonic Mixer Device (PMD). The left panel in Figure 11 depicts a simplified structure of a PMD. An internal electric field directs the photogenerated charge carrier (electron) to one of the two charge storage locations. Two external signals Vtx1 and Vtx2 control the strength and direction of the electric field and, therefore, they also control how much charge each storage location receives in response to incident light. The output signals V1 and V2 are a measure of how much charge has been accumulated in locations 1 and 2, respectively. The right panel of Figure 11 shows a simplified electrical equivalent circuit of a PMD. The main components are a photodiode (generator of photo-charge), two capacitors (charge storage locations), and switches (responsible for directing the photo-charge to the appropriate capacitors).
In one common arrangement, a 3D camera system illuminates the scene with an intensity-modulated infrared light. The optics of the system creates an image of the scene on the array of PMD pixels. For each pixel, the system determines an autocorrelation function between the electrical signal that modulates the emitted light and the electrical signals coming from the two capacitors. Sampling the resulting function four times per period gives the phase shift, strength of the returned signal, and the background level using well-known mathematical relations. The distance is proportional to the phase shift.
In the second arrangement, a 3D camera system illuminates the scene with a pulse of infrared light of duration T0 (30 — 50 ns) while simultaneously making the pixels sensitive to light for the duration of 2T0. During the first half of 2T0, only one of the two capacitors collects the charge, whereas during the second half, only the second capacitor does. The distance imaged by a pixel derives from the relative amounts of charge collected by each of the two capacitors and is given by:
where V1 and V2 are the voltages developed on the two capacitors, respectively, in response to accumulated charge. For a given pulse duration, the maximum distance that can be measured is dmax = 1/2cT0, corresponding to V1 = 0 (no charge collected on the first capacitor). The uncertainty δd in the measured distance by a pixel increases linearly with T0 and decreases as inverse square root with increasing signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, . The noise N in the equation is a square root of the sum in quadrature of the signal (photon) shot noise, dark current shot noise, background shot noise, and read noise. The above equation assumes that the target is at 1/2 dmax so that the amount of charge accumulated by each capacitor is the same. If the photon shot noise is dominant, δd reduces to cT0/4√Ne, where Ne is the number of photoelectrons accumulated together by the two capacitors.
The TOF techniques discussed above work well for distant targets (meters away or more) but become progressively less accurate as the distance becomes smaller (meter and less). They eventually become inapplicable for distances on the order of mm or less, for example, comparable to the wavelength of light. In the case of a direct TOF technique, there is no clock capable of measuring roundtrip time of about 7 fs for 1 μm distance. To measure this distance with a phase-comparison, indirect TOF technique using intensity-modulated light, the required modulation frequency would have to be about 2×1014 Hz, while the duration of a pulse in the 3D PMD camera would have to be about 7 fs. None of the above technical requirements are easily attainable, but why not use the wavelength of light itself to probe distances on the micron scale? The Michelson-Morley interferometer allows just that.
Figure 12 depicts the basic design of the Michelson-Morley interferometer. The beam splitter divides the incoming continuous-wave light from a laser (coherent and polarized light) so that one portion travels to the stationary mirror — serving as the reference — and the other portion travels to the target.
Figure 12. Michelson-Morley interferometer.
After the reflections, the two beams are directed to the photodetector where they are made to interfere. The output of the photodetector is proportional to the optical intensity of the combined light and given by:
Here, I1 is the intensity of, for example, the reference beam (from the stationary mirror), and I2 is the intensity of the beam from the target. Equation 12 assumes that the light is spatially and temporally coherent and that the interfering beams have not acquired a net phase shift due to reflections. Assuming for the sake of simplicity that I1 = I2, Equation 12 shows that the combined intensity I varies from 0 to 4I1 depending on the value of . If , a constructive interference occurs and the combined intensity is 4I1. For , a destructive interference occurs and I = 0. Suppose that the location x of the reference mirror is such that the photodetector registers a maximum when the target is at location d. If the target now moves either away or towards the beam splitter, the photodetector will register a minimum and a maximum each time the target moves through a point that is and , respectively, away from the starting point, where n increases by 1, starting from 0, at each crossing. Counting the crossings makes it possible to determine the distance the target has moved to an accuracy of about λ/4.
If the interfering beams in the Michelson-Morley interferometer have acquired a relative phase shift of π, or λ/2, due to reflections, the conditions for the constructive and destructive interference that were stated in the previous paragraph interchange. In the case where d≠x, the completely constructive (I = 4I1) and completely destructive interference (I = 0) requires light to be temporally coherent because the interfering light at a given instant has been emitted — by the laser — at different times. Temporal coherence measures the correlation between the light wave at a given instant and at a later (or earlier) time. If the light is perfectly monochromatic, the correlation at t and t + T, where T is the wave's period, is 1. If the correlation is not 1, the wave cannot be monochromatic. Therefore, temporal coherence is a measure of how monochromatic a light wave is. Equation 13 defines visibility ν, where Imax and Imin are the maximum and minimum intensities for the interfering light:
For a perfect temporal coherence, ν = 1 and for a perfect incoherence, ν = 0.
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a technique to generate "slice" images in lateral and longitudinal directions of a three-dimensional target using light with a finite temporal coherence, such as from a superluminous light emitting diode (SLED). Figure 13 shows the basic setup for this technique. OCT is widely used in life sciences because it is capable of a noninvasive, in vivo, and in situ microimaging of biological tissue.
Figure 13. The basic setup for time-domain optical coherence tomography.
The basic setup for time-domain OCT resembles the Michelson-Morley interferometer. The light from a limited-coherence source divides into two paths or arms. The first arm leads to a moveable mirror and the second to a target sample. After reflecting from the mirror and structural features in the sample, the returning light combines and interferes on the surface of a photodetector. To perform a longitudinal scan of the sample, the output of the photodetector is recorded while the mirror smoothly moves at a known and controlled rate in one direction. Therefore, the instantaneous value of the photodetector output correlates with the instantaneous position of the mirror and may look like the left panel of Figure 14.
Figure 14. (left panel) A possible photodetector output as a function of the moveable mirror position for three reflection sites, as depicted in Figure 13. (right panel) The signal in the left panel after demodulation.
Here, the photodetector signal shows three distinct interference patterns that would result if there were three distinct reflection sites, as shown in Figure 13 (three strands in the sample). The coherence length of the light source determines the spatial width of a single interference pattern. The right panel shows the signal after demodulation. The relative locations of the three strands correspond to the locations of the peaks of the three distinct peaks. The width of a given strand (reflection site) affects the width of its corresponding demodulated signal.
The longitudinal (or axial) resolution of OCT is , whereas the lateral (or transverse) resolution is . In the equations, λ0 is the central wavelength, Δλ is the bandwidth of the light source, ƒ is the focal length of lens L2 (see Figure 13), and D is the diameter of the beam of light at lens L2. Most OCT systems use a light source with λ0 = 1300 nm and Δλ = 100 nm which imply δr ≈ 7μm. A typical transverse resolution is in the 10 — 25 μm range.
The time-domain OCT setup has some drawbacks: it contains moveable parts, which make the system slow and, thus, poorly performing in in vivo scans. Frequency- or Fourier-domain OCT is an alternative approach whose setup does not use moving parts, is faster, and yields a higher signal-to-noise ratio. There are two practical realizations of frequency-domain OCT. The first uses a wide-band illumination (similar to the one in time-domain OCT), fixed diffraction grating, and a CCD camera. The back-reflected light is the input to the grating, whereas the CCD camera records the resulting interference pattern, which is a function of the target's structure. The second possible setup uses a narrow-band, frequency-swept, and continuous-wave light source (e.g., tunable laser) and a single-element photodetector for detecting time-dependent interference signals. Although more costly to implement, frequency-domain OCT outperforms its time-domain counterpart; for a side-by-side comparison, refer to Leitgeb, Hitzenberger, and Fercher (2003).
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Fort Le Boeuf
|Waterford, Pennsylvania, USA|
Fort Le Boeuf in 1754
|Controlled by|| Kingdom of France 1753–1759
Kingdom of Great Britain 1759–1763
|Commanders||Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre|
|Battles/wars||French and Indian War
Fort Le Boeuf, (often referred to as Fort de la Rivière au Bœuf), was a fort established by the French in 1753 on a fork of French Creek, in present-day Waterford, in northwest Pennsylvania. The fort was part of a line that included Fort Presque Isle, Fort Machault, and Fort Duquesne.
The fort was located about 15 miles (24 km) from the shores of Lake Erie, on the banks of LeBoeuf Creek, which the fort was named for. The French portaged trade goods, materiel, and supplies from Lake Erie overland to Fort Le Boeuf. From there they traveled by raft and canoe down French Creek to the Allegheny River, the Ohio and the Mississippi.
Captain Francois Le Mercier began construction on 11 July 1753; Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre took command of the fort on 3 December 1753. This fort was the second in a series of posts that the French built between spring 1753 and summer 1754 to assert their possession of the Ohio Country. These four posts Fort Presque Isle, Fort LeBoeuf, Fort Machault, and Fort Duquesne ran from Lake Erie to the Forks of the Ohio; they represented the last links in France's effort to connect its dominions in Canada with those in the Illinois Country and Louisiana. The English trading post of John Frazier, at Venango at the junction of French Creek and the Allegheny River (where Franklin is now located) was seized and occupied. Leaving a force to garrison the new posts, the French command returned to Canada for the winter.
Fort LeBoeuf (modern Waterford, Pennsylvania) guarded the southern end of the portage road between Lake Erie and French Creek, which ran to the Allegheny River. It served as a French trading post and garrison until 1759, when the fall of Fort Niagara forced the French to abandon the Ohio Country.
Robert Dinwiddie, the governor of Virginia, sent the 21-year-old George Washington to Fort Le Boeuf with seven escorts, in order to deliver a message to the French demanding that they leave the Ohio Country. Dinwiddie's initiative was in response to the French building forts in the Ohio Country. Washington took Christopher Gist along as his guide; during the trip, Gist earned his place in history by saving the young Washington's life on two separate occasions. Washington and Gist arrived at Fort Le Boeuf on 11 December 1753. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, commandant at Fort Le Boeuf, a tough veteran of the west, received Washington politely, but contemptuously rejected his blustering ultimatum.
Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre gave Washington three days hospitality at the fort, and then gave Washington a letter for him to deliver to Dinwiddie. The letter ordered the Governor of Virginia to deliver his demand to the Major General of New France in the capital, Quebec City.
During his stay, Washington noted that the fort had one hundred men, a large number of officers, 50 birch canoes and 70 pine canoes, many unfinished. He described the fort as on a south or west fork of French creek, near the water, and almost surrounded by it. Four houses composed the sides. The bastions were made of piles driven into the ground, standing more than 12 feet (3.7 m) high, and sharpened at the top. Port holes for cannon and loop-holes for small-arms were cut into the bastions. Each bastion mounted eight six-pound cannon and one four-pound cannon guarded the gate. Inside the bastions stood a guard-house, chapel, doctor's lodging and the commander's private stores. Outside the fort were several log barracks, some covered with bark, others with boards. In addition, there were stables, a smithy and other buildings.
The French and Indian War began on 28 May 1754 with the Battle of Great Meadows. Some four years later, on 25 July 1759, the French surrendered Fort Niagara. In August 1759, the commander of Fort Presque Isle sent word to Fort Machault and Fort Le Boeuf to abandon their positions. After the French had complied, the British took possession of their sites. It is unclear whether the French burned down Fort Le Boeuf when they abandoned it. If so, the British rebuilt it.
On 1 August 1794, Major E. Denny reported to Governor Thomas Mifflin from Le Boeuf. He described a fortification with four blockhouses, manned by riflemen. The two rear blockhouses had a six-pound cannon on the second floor, as well as swivel guns over the gates.
When Judge Vincent settled in Waterford in 1797, he wrote, "There are no remains of the old French fort excepting the traces on the ground..."
- National Park Service
- Fort Le Boeuf Historical Marker
- "France in America, Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited, p. 181
- Nos racines, l'histoire vivante des Québécois, Éditions Comémorative, Livre-Loisir Ltée. p457
- "The Journal of Major George Washington, of His Journey to the French Forces on Ohio," George Washington, 1754.
- "The Frontier Forts of Western Pennsylvania," Albert, George Dallas, C. M. Busch, state printer, Harrisburg, 1896. Sketch of the site on pg. 556a shows Fort Le Boeuf at the intersection of Water Street and High Street (present-day Route 97). Caption reads, "Fort Le Boeuf built by the French in 1753 Burned in 1763." Description of fort by Washington, pg. 572. Descriptions of the fort, pgs. 566 - 581.
- Stotz, Charles Morse (2005). Outposts Of The War For Empire: The French And English In Western Pennsylvania: Their Armies, Their Forts, Their People 1749-1764. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-4262-3.
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Domestication and genome evolution under the light of 1,011 yeast natural isolates
Elucidating the origins of the astonishing phenotypic diversity observed in natural populations is a major challenge in biology. In all species, genetic diversity is the raw material for phenotypic diversity. Genome-wide investigation of the patterns of polymorphism in a large number of individuals is a first essential step to dissect the relationship between genotype and phenotype.
Beginning of 2013, we initiated a comprehensive polymorphic and phenotypic survey in more than 1,000 isolates of the yeast model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae (http://1002genomes.u-strasbg.fr/). At that time, yeast population genomic studies were limited to a small number of isolates (less than 100 strains), standing in stark contrast to large-scale projects conducted in other species including Arabidopsis thaliana (http://1001genomes.org/) and Human (http://www.1000genomes.org/). Consequently, our understanding of the genetic variation landscape in yeast was very limited. Our objective was to have a nearly exhaustive view of the genome architecture and genetic variants with the motivation to enable genome-wide association studies.
This large-scale study was conducted by my team (Université de Strasbourg / CNRS), the team of Gianni Liti (Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INSERM, IRCAN) and the Genoscope (Institut de biologie François Jacob du CEA, CNRS, Université d’Evry, Université Paris-Saclay) in the frame of a flagship project selected by the program France Génomique with the goal of generating a detailed map of the genetic in the classic model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The completion of whole genome sequencing of 1,011 natural isolates, plus the accompanying phenotyping efforts, led to one of the best understanding of population-level natural genetic and phenotypic diversity of any eukaryote model system. This study was published in the journal Nature (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0030-5).
Sequenced strains were collected world-wide to sample as much diversity as possible in terms of global locations (including all continents), as well as ecological sources (both human-related such as dairy products, wine, sake, bread and wild niches as trees, insects, flowers, soil). These isolates were also phenotyped and their growth fitness were determined in different conditions impacting various physiological and cellular responses leading to a global view of the phenotypic landscape of this species.
Altogether the generated datasets allowed to highlight key points of the evolutionary history, genome evolution and its impact on the genotype-phenotype relationship. First, the exquisite detail with which the pattern of polymorphism was examined, allowed to dissect the species’ history. This study provided novel and clear evidences of East Asian origin and strongly suggest that S. cerevisiae started to disperse through the world from a single out-of-China event. As a result of human activity, S. cerevisiae then has undergone substantial genomic and phenotypic changes during multiple and independent domestication events underlying specific human processes (e.g. wine, sake and beer fermentations). Interestingly, these various domestication events differently impacted genome evolution. Whereas the sake and wine populations are characterized by a low genetic diversity, beer populations present a higher genetic as well as more complex genomic diversity. Furthermore, human-related environment foster expansion and loss of genes resulting in rampant variation in genome content. By contrast, wild isolates share a similar genome content and genetic diversity is mainly generated via the accumulation of mutations.
Second, the study also provided an overview of the respective importance of the various genomic features (e.g. ploidy, aneuploidy, introgressions, genetic variants) shaping genome evolution and consequently the species-wide phenotypic landscape. As an example, it was possible to define the core genome (i.e. 4,940 genes present in all 1,011 sequenced strains) and the variable genome (2,908 variable genes only present in a fraction of the population). Gene content is variable among isolates with a set of dispensable genes subject to segregation, introgressions (from closely related species) and horizontal gene transfer. As an example, horizontal gene transfer events are mostly restricted to S. cerevisiae present in domestic fermentative environments. In addition, ploidy and aneuploidy levels are variable between subpopulations and depend on their ecological origin. Finally, this study shed new light on the genotype-phenotype relationship in a natural population. The S. cerevisiae species presents a high level of genetic diversity, much greater than that found in humans. Among the 1,011 genomes, much of the detected genetic polymorphisms are very low-frequency variants with a trend like the one observed in the human population, raising questions regarding the impact and importance of rare variants on the phenotypic landscape within a population. Genome-wide association analyses highlighted the importance of the copy number variants, which explain a larger proportion of the phenotypic variance and have greater effects on phenotype compared to the single nucleotide polymorphisms. Beyond the analysis reported in the upcoming paper, this resource will enable powerful genetic and genomic studies in a key model system.
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Neil MacDonald is the editor of Federal Technology Watch and Joshua Chamot is the editor of Space.com's Expert Voices: Op-Ed & Insights section. The authors contributed this article to Space.com's Expert Voices.
Establishing a permanent human presence at Mars is a daunting challenge for any nation. Yet global partners expect the United States to lead the effort, despite the policy gauntlet of new presidents every four to eight years, shifts in Congress every two years and an uncertain, evolving aerospace industry.
Under such conditions, securing a mandate for the multiyear, billion-dollar budgets to construct massive spacecraft and crew support for the first human visitors to Mars seems, at best, unlikely. [5 Manned Mission to Mars Ideas]
But what if Mars exploration were unshackled from the freeze-thaw cycles of American politics? What if instead of one massive mission to the Red Planet decades hence, public and private space industries launched dozens of smaller, more efficient coordinated missions — starting now?
We have the technology
A crewed mission to the Martian surface will likely be mired in budget talks for several political generations to come, but there is an alternative that could launch within years, not decades. If the goal shifts from establishing a colony on the Martian surface to the development of a permanent space station at Mars, crewed spaceflight can evolve from low-Earth orbit to low-Martian orbit in line with breakthroughs in transport.
This approach would combine the best successes from nearly two decades of building, operating and living safely aboard the International Space Station (ISS) with improved safety, recent developments in cargo-delivery vehicles and the critical breakthrough in orbital mechanics dictated by ballistic capture.
And it would mean the Mars mission need not rely on the budget cycle of any single nation. Instead, the existing international partners, and new members to the club, could simultaneously draw down ISS while sending a crew toward a space presence in orbit around the Red Planet.
Getting off planet, piece by piece
Key to starting now is sending components — including pre-assembled habitation modules modeled on the pieces that make up ISS — into orbit around Mars as part of a continuous cycle of deliveries that can launch at any time, when budgets and assembly dictate.
Such flexibility is made possible by a recent discovery in orbital mechanics. In 2014, mathematician Edward Belbruno of Princeton University in New Jersey and Francesco Topputo of Politecnico di Milano in Italy proposed a unique mechanism, called ballistic capture, to send spacecraft to Mars. By first sending a craft to one of several locations along a planet's orbit around the sun, not directly to the planet itself, the vehicle "catches up" with the planet over time.
If such a craft is heading toward a space station, or the location where a station is to be constructed, entering Martian orbit becomes the (far simpler) goal, instead of landing — which is reserved for smaller trips from station to surface. As long as missions are coordinated, then simultaneous construction projects are theoretically possible, allowing for nations or companies to send components as completed.
With launch timing nearly irrelevant, structures and supplies can be sent on a regular schedule, in manageable sizes, using mostly standard modular units. These would be space equivalents of the ubiquitous shipping containers that dominate most cargo movement on Earth.
This orbital pre-colonization allows a Mars mission with an international crew to overcome three critical obstacles:
- Crew safety concerns, as protection would be provided by mechanisms similar to those safeguarding crews on ISS, enhanced with current knowledge from long-term astronaut missions
- Time delay for communications to the Martian surface
- Budgetary delays, as competing ventures, or nations, can independently launch modules when available, without reliance on any single nation's budget cycles
The Mars International Space Terminal (MIST)
Crew safety and health remains the primary concern in sending humans to Mars. ISS has provided much useful information about how the human body copes with microzero gravity conditions in confined spaces for long periods — such as loss of bone mass and vision issues — as well as the potential exposure to large does of radiation on site and en route.
More experiments on the ISS, which is now expected to remain in orbit until 2024, could improve knowledge of human health issues for long-term space assignments by males or females, young or old.
A space station orbiting above Mars could continue to expand that knowledge, equipped to deal in real time with medical matters and employing a physician (who might also be a part-time researcher), luxuries a small surface exploration team could not justify.
The components needed to build a robust space station at Mars could be sent into orbit around the planet as they are made, assembled remotely, shielded from radiation and designed for safety, with emergency supplies and systems available whenever humans arrive.
A crew-return vehicle could also be pre-positioned, while smaller missions, some undertaken by private-sector partners, could accomplish a range of complex goals that less frequent, huge and expensive launches could not.
Once completed, the orbiting station, which we dub the Mars International Space Terminal (MIST), could offer a permanent Mars presence and a safe outpost from which to launch activities by more modest, and reusable, shuttles to the Red Planet's surface. [How Living on Mars Could Challenge Colonists (Infographic)]
And, critically, crews would be able to control surface robotics and communicate with human explorers on surface missions nearly instantaneously, instead of dealing with an Earth-Mars lag time that can be up to 24 minutes long one-way (depending on the ever-changing positions of the two planets in space).
A new way forward
Prior to permanent residents arriving at Mars, ISS could be used as a platform to conduct the necessary experiments for understanding the construction and assembly of modular structures made of metal, composites, and perhaps carbon composites and nanofibers in orbit around Mars.
ISS partners could gradually shift budgets into the MIST mission portfolio, avoiding a funding hiatus during the transition — and improving the stability of MIST management.
Further, rather than accept that ISS, after decommissioning in 2024, will become a huge piece of space junk — the largest human-made object in space, intended to burn up during re-entry — it could be possible to cannibalize some ISS structures and repurpose them for the Mars orbiting station. After the huge international investment made in ISS (more than $100 billion over the past few decades), it would be satisfying to see efforts made to recoup these costs by recycling some of the ISS structure and components. Meanwhile, safely dismantling ISS could offer lessons in space-debris control, perhaps a future grand challenge for sustainability.
To investigate the prospects of a MIST venture, NASA could convene a meeting of ISS partners to propose a multinational effort to: identify parts of ISS that could be repurposed, advise on methods and techniques to be used to dismantle ISS sections without making extra space debris, and suggest ways to employ unique or dedicated equipment systems from ISS in a potential orbiting Mars station without fitting that station with obsolete or outdated systems.
Recognizing that intense technical, operational, fiscal and geopolitical issues will accompany any U.S. or international effort to construct and operate an orbiting space station around the Red Planet, no crewed mission to Mars will be simple. But the obstacles that have held human exploration back for decades no longer need be the roadblocks they once were.
Follow all of the Expert Voices issues and debates — and become part of the discussion — on Facebook, Twitter and Google+. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher. This version of the article was originally published on Space.com.
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|Posted: Dec 21, 2016|
Nanoarray sniffs out and distinguishes multiple diseases(Nanowerk News) Before modern medical lab techniques became available, doctors diagnosed some diseases by smelling a patient's breath. Scientists have been working for years to develop analytical instruments that can mimic this sniff-and-diagnose ability.
|Now, researchers report in the journal ACS Nano ("Diagnosis and Classification of 17 Diseases from 1404 Subjects via Pattern Analysis of Exhaled Molecules") that they have identified a unique "breathprint" for each disease. Using this information, they have designed a device that screens breath samples to classify and diagnose several types of diseases.|
|Exhaled breath contains nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen, as well as a small amount of more than 100 other volatile chemical components. The relative amounts of these substances vary depending on the state of a person's health.|
|As far back as around 400 B.C., Hippocrates told his students to "smell your patients' breath" to search for clues of diseases such as diabetes (which creates a sweet smell). In more recent times, several teams of scientists have developed experimental breath analyzers, but most of these instruments focus on a single type of disease, such as cancer.|
|In their own work, Hossam Haick and a team of collaborators in 14 clinical departments worldwide wanted to create a breathalyzer that could distinguish among multiple diseases.|
|The researchers developed an array of nanoscale sensors to detect the individual components in thousands of breath samples from patients who were either healthy or had one of 17 different diseases, such as kidney cancer or Parkinson's disease.|
|By analyzing the results with artificial intelligence techniques, the team could use the array to classify and diagnose the conditions. The team used mass spectrometry to identify the breath components associated with the diseases. They found that each disease produces a unique volatile chemical breathprint, based on differing amounts of 13 components.|
|They also showed that the presence of one disease would not prevent the detection of others - a prerequisite for developing a practical device to screen and diagnose various diseases in a noninvasive, inexpensive and portable manner.|
|Source: American Chemical Society|
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times the specified
writes to the standard error stream,
the total time elapsed,
the time used to execute the
process and the time consumed by system overhead.
The following options are available:
flag is used, append to the specified file rather than overwriting
Otherwise, this option has no effect.
Print times in a human friendly format.
Times are printed in minutes, hours,
etc. as appropriate.
The contents of the
structure are printed as well.
Write the output to
instead of stderr.
exists and the
flag is not specified, the file will be overwritten.
output POSIX.2 compliant (each time is printed on its own line).
Some shells may provide a builtin
command which is similar or identical to this utility.
(see the status argument for
signal, the current time the given command is running will be written to the
environment variable is used to locate the requested
if the name contains no
could be timed successfully, its exit status is returned.
terminated abnormally, a warning message is output to stderr.
was found but could not be run, the exit status is 126.
could be found at all, the exit status is 127.
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At the crossroads, if the traffic lights are off, the driver should pass the following conditions:
1, the first vehicle on the right. If there is no traffic light, no traffic sign, marking, and no traffic police, the vehicle on the right side of the forward direction has the priority right. At this time, the right vehicle must be given priority.
2, let the line sign first. There are no traffic lights or traffic police crossings. If there is an offer sign, then one of them will give way.
3, relative direction, turn left first. There are no traffic lights or intersections for traffic police. A right-turn vehicle that drives in the opposite direction needs a left-turn vehicle.
4, around the island, the island outside the island. The principle of driving around the island is actually very simple. On the "island outside the island", when entering the roundabout, the vehicles that come in are allowed to come out.
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Publication Date:Dec 01, 1997
Source:Harvard Business School
English Hardcopy Black & White
Also Available in:
|English Hardcopy Black & White||
Wriston Manufacturing is a broad-line maker of components for the automotive industry. It has developed a network of nine plants as its product line has grown. Newer, higher-volume products tend to be made in newer, focused, high-volume plants, while older product lines tend to be assigned to the Detroit plant, the oldest one in the system. Because Detroit produces such a wide variety of products, its overhead costs are very high. Management needs to decide whether to close the Detroit plant or find a way to make it profitable. A rewritten version of an earlier case.
Helps students see that the cost structure of a plant is driven primarily by its mission--by the complexity or breadth of the product line it is asked to produce. Conventional accounting measures of profitability mask the reasons why complex plants have high costs.
Cost accounting; Decision making; Facilities; Manufacturing strategy; Operations management; Shutdowns
- Geographic: Michigan
- Industry: Automotive
- Company Revenue: $17 million revenues
- Event Year Begin: 1988
- Event Year End: 1988
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An important goal in evolutionary biology is to understand the genetic changes underlying novel morphological structures. We investigated the origins of a complex wing pattern found among Amazonian Heliconius butterflies. Genome sequence data from 142 individuals across 17 species identified narrow regions associated with two distinct red colour pattern elements, dennis and ray. We hypothesise that these modules in non-coding sequence represent distinct cis-regulatory loci that control expression of the transcription factor optix, which in turn controls red pattern variation across Heliconius. Phylogenetic analysis of the two elements demonstrated that they have distinct evolutionary histories and that novel adaptive morphological variation was created by shuffling these cis-regulatory modules through recombination between divergent lineages. In addition, recombination of modules into different combinations within species further contributes to diversity. Analysis of the timing of diversification in these two regions supports the hypothesis of introgression moving regulatory modules between species, rather than shared ancestral variation. The dennis phenotype introgressed into Heliconius melpomene at about the same time that ray originated in this group, while ray introgressed back into H. elevatus much more recently. We show that shuffling of existing enhancer elements both within and between species provides a mechanism for rapid diversification and generation of novel morphological combinations during adaptive radiation.
Butterflies show an amazing diversity of patterns on their wings. In fact, most of the 18,000 species of butterfly can be distinguished on the basis of their wing pattern. Much of this diversity is thought to arise through novel switches in the genome that turn genes on in new contexts during wing development, thereby producing new patterns. Here we study a set of switches that control the expression of optix, a gene that places red patches onto the wings of Heliconius butterflies. We show that two patterning switches—one that produces red rays on the hindwing and the other a red patch on the base of the forewing—are located adjacent to one another in the genome. These switches have each evolved just once among a group of 16 species but have then been repeatedly shared between species by hybridisation and introgression. Despite the fact that they are now part of a common pattern in the Amazon basin, these two pattern components actually arose in completely different species before being brought together through hybridisation. In addition, recombination among these switches has produced new combinations of patterns within species. Such sharing of genetic variation is one way in which mimicry can evolve, whereby patterns are shared between species to send a common signal to predators. Our work suggests a new mechanism for generating evolutionary novelty, by shuffling these genetic switches among lineages and within species.
Citation: Wallbank RWR, Baxter SW, Pardo-Diaz C, Hanly JJ, Martin SH, Mallet J, et al. (2016) Evolutionary Novelty in a Butterfly Wing Pattern through Enhancer Shuffling. PLoS Biol 14(1): e1002353. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002353
Academic Editor: Nick H. Barton, Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria), AUSTRIA
Received: June 17, 2015; Accepted: December 8, 2015; Published: January 15, 2016
Copyright: © 2016 Wallbank et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All complete genome sequence data are available through the Short Read Archive with project accession number ERP009041 (full details in Samples S3 Table). The sequence alignment, association data and other raw data are available on DataDryad http://dx.doi.org/10.5061/dryad.t3r02.
Funding: This study was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk grant number H01439X/1 to CDJ; the European Research Council MimEvol grant to MJ and the European Research Council Speciation Genetics to CDJ. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Abbreviations: BLAST, Basic Local Alignment Search Tool; HPD, highest posterior density; ML, maximum likelihood; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism
One of the major impediments to evolutionary innovation is the constraint on genetic change imposed by existing function . Mutations that confer advantageous phenotypic effects in a novel trait will often result in negative pleiotropic effects in other traits influenced by the same gene. Several mechanisms have been proposed by which evolution can circumvent such constraints, resulting in phenotypic diversification. In particular, the modularity of cis-regulatory elements [2–6] means that novel modules can encode new expression domains and functions without disrupting existing expression patterns [6,7]. This modularity underlying gene regulation has led to the assertion that much of morphological diversity has arisen through regulatory evolution .
Much of our understanding of modularity in regulatory evolution comes from Drosophila, in which the loss of trichomes on the larval cuticle , the gain of melanic wing spots [8–10], or changes in abdominal pigmentation [3,11] have been shown to involve evolutionary changes in cis-regulatory elements. These elegant developmental studies demonstrate the underlying logic of regulatory modularity, whereby novel expression domains can arise without disrupting existing function. These studies have also established a paradigm in which small effect mutations alter transcription factor binding sites in these regulatory modules and in combination produce large effect alleles . Similar conclusions come from recent work in other taxa, including mice and jewel wasps [2,12]. This might seem to imply that the evolution of novel regulatory alleles is relatively gradual, requiring the evolution of many small effect substitutions, but recent adaptive radiations can show extremely rapid rates of morphological change. The role of regulatory modularity therefore remains to be tested in adaptive radiations in which morphological variation evolves very rapidly.
Here we explore the origins of adaptive novelty among the wing patterns of Heliconius butterflies. These wing patterns are under strong natural selection for mimicry and warning colour, as well as being important mating signals . The rapid radiation in Heliconius is accompanied by an even more rapid diversification in mimicry patterns as well as convergence among species found in a given locality , both through independent convergent evolution and via introgression of gene regions between races and species [15,16]. Mimetic convergence reaches its peak among red dennis-ray pattern phenotypes in the Amazon (Fig 1), where 11 or more Heliconius species, as well as pierine butterflies and pericopine moths, share the same pattern. In addition to near perfect convergence in wing patterns in a given locality, there is also often striking divergence of patterns between localities as populations adapt to the many different mimicry complexes spread across the Neotropics . This diversity provides an opportunity to study the genetic and developmental basis of evolutionary novelty.
First row: H. burneyi huebneri, H. aoede auca, and H. xanthocles zamora; second row: H. timareta timareta f. timareta, H. doris doris, and H. demeter ucayalensis; third row: H. melpomene malleti, H. egeria homogena, and H. erato emma; fourth row: H. elevatus pseudocupidineus, Eueides heliconioides eanes, and E. tales calathus; and bottom: Chetone phyleis, a pericopine moth. Stars indicate the three species that are the focus of this study. Butterflies figured are from the Neukirchen Collection, McGuire Centre, Florida. The butterflies are from populations in both Ecuador and Peru.
Generally, the patterns on butterfly wings are a good system in which to link genetic changes to the developmental processes that generate diversity [18,19]. Wing colour patterns are mosaics of scales, each with a single colour, produced by a combination of pigment and ultrastructure. The relative positions of differently coloured scales are established during larval and pupal wing development . Wing development is thought to be broadly conserved in insects, with wing developmental genes showing similar expression patterns between flies and butterflies [21–23]. This therefore raises the question: how is this conserved landscape of wing development translated into the diversity of butterfly wing patterns? In Heliconius, pattern diversity is controlled by a surprisingly small number of genomic regions with large effect sizes [24,25]. In particular, genetic mapping and gene expression studies have shown that red elements are associated with expression of the transcription factor optix across all Heliconius species [26,27]. In the absence of fixed coding sequence changes between wing pattern forms, this implies that red pattern variation is controlled by differential regulatory control of optix . Population genomic studies have identified a region of non-coding sequence downstream of optix that is associated with phenotypic change [15,28]. Previous work suggests that there may be several distinct elements within this region. Occasional hybrid phenotypes possess only the “dennis” patch on the base of the forewing or the “ray” elements on the hindwing and have been hypothesised to be rare recombinants, although this has never been tested genetically [29,30]. Similarly, there are also established forms that exhibit only dennis or ray patterns (H. melpomene meriana and H. timareta timareta f. contigua, respectively, Fig 2). This suggests that the broad genomic interval already identified might contain discrete regulatory loci that vary the spatial expression of optix in different wing regions, a hypothesis that we can now test with genetic data.
(A) Examples of the principal red wing patterns: dennis-ray H. e. pseudocupidineus and H. m. malleti, dennis-only H. m. meriana, ray-only H. t. timareta f. contigua, and band H. m. rosina. (B) Association analysis across 96 genomes showing statistical association for the dennis (red dots) and ray phenotypes (orange dots). The horizontal black line represents significance after Bonferroni correction. Boxes show exon positions. (C) Sliding window analysis of fixed differences between specific comparisons to identify dennis- and ray-associated sites (orange and red lines—see also S1 Fig and S1 Table). (D) Recombination breakpoints allowed separate isolation of regions fully associated with dennis and ray phenotypes. Informative haplotypes are shown (H. elevatus, H. m. malleti, H. t. timareta f. contigua, H. m. meriana, and H. m. rosina, phenotypes shown above). Genotypes are indicated as D/d for dennis present/absent and R/r for ray present/absent. A H. melpomene recombinant hybrid was heterozygous in the dennis region and homozygous for ray-absent, as expected, but was not informative for precise breakpoint delineation because of missing data. See Dryad depository for plot data .
Here we focus on the H. melpomene lineage, in which the Amazonian dennis-ray phenotype has evolved recently from a red-banded ancestor . We carry out a population genomic analysis on H. melpomene and its relatives, H. elevatus and H. timareta, to identify putative regulatory modules associated with distinct red pattern elements. Previously, population genetic evidence has suggested that mimicry among H. melpomene, H. elevatus, and H. timareta has evolved through sharing of the dennis-ray allele by repeated adaptive introgression at the optix locus . This is especially surprising in the case of H. elevatus, which forms part of the “silvaniform” clade that diverged from H. melpomene around 4 million years ago . Our analysis here indicates that the origin of the red pattern elements is considerably more complex than has been previously supposed, with the dennis and ray elements of the widespread dennis-ray pattern having distinct evolutionary origins in different clades within the genus.
Results and Discussion
We took advantage of natural phenotypic variants in which the two red elements, dennis and ray, occur separately to identify putative functional regulatory regions controlling red pattern within the H. melpomene clade. Genomic analysis of 96 individuals from the melpomene-timareta clade revealed two distinct regions that showed strong association with the dennis and ray pattern elements, respectively. Our analysis included a race of H. melpomene, H. m. meriana, from the Guiana shield, which possesses the forewing dennis patch but not ray, as well as H. t. timareta f. contigua from Ecuador, which possesses ray but not dennis, plus a recombinant individual from an H. melpomene hybrid zone in Ecuador with dennis but not ray (Fig 2A). Across all 96 individuals, there were significant genotype-by-phenotype associations across all genome regions surveyed. This “background” signal of genotype-by-phenotype association is likely due to the presence of genetically divergent species in our dataset that are to some degree confounded with phenotype. Nonetheless, our analysis identified a peak of genotype-by-phenotype association spanning roughly 50 kb and located from 60–110 kb 3ʹ of the optix gene, similar to what has been observed previously (Fig 2B) . This region also corresponds closely to that identified recently in the mimetic species H. erato , implying convergence in the regulatory architecture controlling wing pattern mimicry at a finer scale than has been previously demonstrated [28,31].
Furthermore, within this region in our data, distinct adjacent peaks of association were observed for the dennis and ray elements. Focusing specifically on fixed single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) differences between alternative red phenotypes revealed two distinct peaks of association (Fig 2C). One, approximately 10 kb in length, contained SNPs perfectly associated with the red dennis patch. The other adjacent region was broader, roughly 25 kb, and contained SNPs perfectly associated with red hindwing rays.
We next used broader taxonomic sampling to further refine these intervals and identify exact sequence haplotypes associated with each of the two phenotypic elements (Fig 2D). To identify recombination breakpoints around dennis and ray haplotypes, we generated a high-quality sequence alignment by de novo assembly of each individual genome and then identified contigs across the associated region using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST). For the dennis region, alignment was assisted by a sequenced fosmid clone from H. m. aglaope (dennis phenotype) to complement the reference genome (derived from a non-dennis butterfly). The final alignment included the 96 melpomene-timareta individuals used for association analysis and a further 46 individuals that included species with no red (H. cydno) and species from the more distantly related silvaniform clade including H. elevatus, which has the dennis-ray pattern. The distal end of the dennis region, relative to optix, was delineated by a rapid loss of phenotype-associated variants across all species sampled, whilst the proximal end was determined by a single fixed recombination event in the race H. m. meriana (dennis but no ray phenotype), generating a region of ~7 kb fully associated with dennis. For ray, a breakpoint in the ray-only H. t. timareta f. contigua defined the distal end, whilst a recombination in H. m. meriana defined the proximal end, resulting in a larger ~37 kb region (Fig 2D). Each haplotype group was characterised by diagnostic SNPs as well as a fixed architecture of indel variation (Fig 3). These analyses therefore support the hypothesis derived from phenotypic evidence, that dennis and ray phenotypes are controlled by adjacent distinct genetic elements. In combination with previous work showing differential expression of optix across a wide diversity of Heliconius species and races, this provides clear genetic evidence for modularity in the cis-regulatory control of optix.
Each group of alleles is characterised by a complex structure of insertion and deletion variation. Horizontal bars represent aligned allele sequences for the outgroups (A), silvaniforms (B), H. elevatus (C), dennis morph melpomene/timareta (D), non-dennis morph melpomene/timareta (E), and the cydno/heurippa/pachinus clade (F). There are three general forms of the region: an “outgroup” allele (X) with many indels and lacking large sections of sequence; a silvaniform/dennis allele (Y), which possesses indel 1 and lacks indel 2; and a non-dennis/cydno allele (Z), which lacks indel 1 and possesses indel 2. Dotted lines and blue colouration indicate the point where dennis-morph melpomene/timareta alleles become silvaniform like (left) and where the dennis-only morph, H. m. meriana, recombines with the other non-rayed melpomene (right). Fixed SNPs in perfect association with the dennis phenotype are indicated by yellow asterisks and form two clusters. See Dryad depository for alignment .
We have previously hypothesised that the dennis-ray mimicry pattern introgressed as a single genomic block between H. melpomene and H. timareta, as well as more distantly between H. melpomene and H. elevatus . Our new data suggest a much more complex history than previously recognised, with dennis and ray having quite distinct origins. As expected, a maximum likelihood (ML) phylogeny shows that the ray alleles fall within the H. melpomene clade, indicating an origin derived from an ancestral H. melpomene phenotype. In contrast, however, alleles producing the dennis phenotype originated within the silvaniform clade, which diverged from H. melpomene around 4 million years ago (Fig 4) . Members of this clade have mottled orange/red, black, and yellow “tiger” patterns and are mostly co-mimics of butterflies in the tribe Ithomiini, whereas the melpomene-cydno clade are all co-mimics of other Heliconius species. Nonetheless, the silvaniforms commonly have orange patches on the base of the forewing, which in some cases are remarkably similar to the dennis patch of H. melpomene. In particular, the form H. hecale metellus has a dennis-like phenotype (Fig 4A), which suggests a plausible ancestral phenotype that might have provided the source of the dennis allele in H. melpomene.
(A) The phylogeny of species used in this study (left, from ) and their respective combinations of dennis and ray haplotypes (right). Note that although genetic data for Heliconius elevatus roraima are not analysed here or included in our alignment, this taxon is shown for completeness. Representative butterfly phenotypes are shown with their respective subspecies or form names. H. e. pseudocupidineus is abbreviated to pseudoc. (B) ML trees with bootstraps (generated using de novo assembled genomes) show that the dennis alleles cluster with the silvaniform clade (left), whilst the ray alleles cluster with the melpomene/timareta clade (right). Terminal nodes are coloured by silvaniform clade (green, except H. elevatus), dennis/ray (red, H. melpomene/timareta; burgundy, H. elevatus), melpomene/timareta non-dennis/ray forms (blue), and cydno/pachinus/heurippa clade (purple). Outgroup species are in black (see also S2 Fig for sample labels). H. m. meriana and H. t. timareta f. contigua have dennis-only and ray-only patterns, respectively, and cluster with their expected phenotypes. All trees were rooted to H. aoede. Bootstraps are given as percentages of 1,000 iterations.
Various scenarios might explain this complex history. Sharing of variation between species can be explained by either retention of ancestral polymorphism or introgression through hybridisation. We can directly test these alternative scenarios using dated trees inferred from our alignments. In order to provide comparable trees, we used the divergence date between the silvaniform and melpomene-cydno clades derived from a recent species tree for the Heliconinii to calibrate the dennis and ray region phylogenies. These trees support introgression and rule out ancestral polymorphism because the dates of coalescence of the H. melpomene and H. elevatus dennis and ray alleles are significantly more recent than the divergence of these two species. These species last shared a common ancestor at around 3.96 Ma (95% highest posterior density [HPD] interval 3.18–4.81 Ma) . In contrast, the dennis allele shared between H. elevatus and H. melpomene/timareta diverged around 1.95 Ma (2.79–1.25 Ma HPD). The divergence of the ray allele is even more recent and shared a common ancestor between H. elevatus and H. melpomene/timareta around 0.66 Ma (0.93–0.43 Ma HPD). The recent origin of these alleles is also supported by low levels of genetic diversity within these clades, with the average pairwise sequence divergence among the dennis alleles only 1.5%, including those from H. melpomene, H. timareta, and the more distantly related H. elevatus (Table 1, top). This is less than that found among the same individuals in flanking sequence (2.4%) and comparable to that among the red-forewing-banded “postman” group for the same locus (1.6%), which includes only more closely related melpomene and timareta individuals. The ray alleles also show only 1.1% average pairwise sequence divergence at the ray locus, similarly less than in the postman group at the same locus. Although sequence diversity is likely to be reduced in these regions because of functional constraint, it seems likely that such constraint is similar across different clades in the phylogeny, so the relatively low levels of diversity within the ray and dennis clade support their recent origin.
Our dated trees can also be used to infer the relative timing of introgression events. Here the data indicate that the ray allele originated within H. melpomene at around the same time as dennis introgressed into the H. melpomene clade from an ancestor of H. elevatus, sometime around 1.85 Ma (2.53–1.25 Ma HPD; Fig 5 and S3 Fig). This suggests that the characteristic mimetic dennis-ray phenotype first came together within H. melpomene at that time. In contrast, H. elevatus did not acquire the ray allele until about a million years later and perhaps persisted during this time as part of the Guiana Shield dennis-only mimicry ring. The dennis and ray alleles of H. timareta are each nested within those of H. melpomene and are more recent than the divergence of these species, implying introgression from H. melpomene into H. timareta and consistent with previous analyses . Nonetheless, dennis and ray events also differ in timing, as most of the H. timareta ray alleles diverge from their H. melpomene relatives around 1 Ma, but the dennis alleles diverged only around 0.45 Ma (Fig 5 and S3 Fig). H. timareta ray alleles are polyphyletic with respect to H. melpomene, also supporting multiple introgression events and recombination between the regions. Further sampling will be needed to resolve more clearly the timing and number of introgression events between these species.
Key events indicated on the x-axis are (A) introgression of dennis from H. elevatus into H. melpomene, inferred from the coalescence time of alleles sampled from these two species; (B) the origin of ray alleles within H. melpomene, inferred from the coalescence of dennis and non-dennis alleles within H. melpomene; (C) introgression of ray into H. timareta; (D) introgression of ray into H. elevatus, and (E) introgression of dennis into H. timareta. Dating of phylogenies was carried out using BEAST, and full dated trees with support limits are provided in S3 Fig. The species tree is derived from .
In addition to recombination between lineages, there is also shuffling of alternate alleles at these regulatory modules within species. Across most of their range, H. melpomene and H. timareta have either postman or dennis-ray haplotypes across the entire studied region. However, the race H. m. meriana has dennis alleles but shows recombination across the adjacent ray locus that removes the ray phenotype. Similarly, a single recombination event in H. t. timareta f. contigua produced a phenotype with ray but not dennis (Fig 2D; Fig 4). H. elevatus, like H. melpomene, also has a dennis-only race found in the Guiana Shield, which likely represents another case of enhancer shuffling within species, although we have not sampled this species here (Fig 4). Hence, although alleles within these regulatory modules are now highly divergent and presumably arose through accumulation of a number of mutations of small effect, novel phenotypes could have arisen rapidly through recombination between modules both within and between species.
We have demonstrated several aspects of the genetic architecture of wing pattern that have contributed to evolutionary innovation in the Heliconius radiation. First, distinct genetic elements are associated with different patches of red on the butterfly wing. This supports the hypothesis of regulatory modularity, which should facilitate evolutionary innovation. Second, the origin of the dennis-ray phenotype in H. melpomene involved a combination of evolutionary tinkering of existing patterns and introgression between species. Finally, we show that diversity within three lineages (H. elevatus, H. melpomene, and H. timareta) has been generated by shuffling of these distinct regulatory modules among populations and species. Within all three lineages, some populations possess one or other of these elements, providing further flexibility in pattern evolution. Our data imply that recombination between lineages can generate novel phenotypic combinations and demonstrate how modularity in the cis-regulatory control of key genes can drive the rapid evolution of novel morphologies. Although the evolution of novel regulatory modules may involve many mutational steps , these can subsequently be exchanged between lineages and shuffled into new combinations enabling rapid adaptive evolution. Recent studies showing that adaptation can proceed via gene flow of preadapted genetic modules between nearby populations or species suggest that similar mechanisms may be important in other radiations. In sticklebacks, adaptation to freshwater involves movement of alleles through the marine landscape . Mosquitoes, Darwin’s finches, and even humans also show evidence for introgression of alleles between species that facilitate adaptation [35–37]. The extent to which recombination between regulatory alleles can contribute to morphological novelty in these other groups of organisms remains to be seen.
Materials and Methods
Genome Sequencing and Analysis
Wings of field caught Heliconius butterflies were removed and stored in labelled envelopes and bodies preserved at −20°C in 20% DMSO, 0.25 M EDTA, salt saturated solution. For sample locations and phenotypes of Heliconius species collected, see S3 Table. DNA was isolated from one third of a thorax, yielding ~3 μg. Tissue was homogenised in buffer ATL using the TissueLyser (Qiagen) set for 4 min at 25 Hz, and DNA purified using the DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit (Qiagen). RNA was removed with RNase A.
Sequencing and alignment.
Whole genome shotgun sequences were generated for 93 samples using the Illumina HiSeq2000 platform, generating 100 bp, paired-end sequences (The Genepool, United Kingdom; Baylor College of Medicine Human Genome Sequencing Center, United States; FAS Center for Systems Biology, Harvard, US). The sequence for the HmD colour pattern region, obtained previously from 45 additional samples using targeted sequence capture (SureSelect, Agilent Technologies), was also analysed .
Raw reads from resequenced genomes were aligned to the H. melpomene melpomene reference (v1.1) using Stampy (v1.0.17) , with substitution rates of 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05 for H. melpomene, H. timareta/heurippa/cydno, and silvaniform samples, respectively. Duplicate reads were removed with Picard (v1.67, http://picard.sourceforge.net). The HE670865 HmBD colour pattern scaffold was extracted from genome BAM files using the Samtools view function, and each sample sorted and indexed. To minimise alignment errors around insertions and deletions, BAM files were combined and analysed using the Genome Analysis Tool Kit (GATK V 1.6–11) function RealignerTargetCreator to produce a single intervals file. The GATK function IndelRealigner was then used to correct read mapping inconsistencies around in/del regions, and then UnifiedGenotyper created a vcf file with the parameters -out_mode EMIT_ALL_CONFIDENT_SITES -baq CALCULATE_AS_NECESSARY -hets 0.01.
Genotype-phenotype association testing.
Genotypes of 96 individuals were extracted from vcf files using a custom perl script with a minimum mapping quality of 30, genotype quality of 30, minimum read depth 4, and maximum depth of 300. Sites failing these thresholds were scored as a missing genotype, N. Chi-squared tests for association between genotype and phenotype were performed with R program (R Development Core Team, 2011) package GenABEL, using the ccfast function. Plots (Fig 2B) show p-values with one degree of freedom, with Bonforroni correction for 219,501 informative sites (−log10 ~6.64).
Fixed nucleotide differences between samples.
Fixed nucleotide differences between two sample groups were identified using a custom python script (SM), and their distribution was plotted against scaffold HE670865 using R (R Development Core Team, 2011). Plots display the number of fixed sites within a 5 kb sliding window, moving at 1 kb intervals.
Fosmid and BAC sequencing.
A H. m. aglaope fosmid library was screened using a DNA probe amplified using PCR primers BD_probe_F 5ʹ-AAAGTAGTCGGGTGCGCTTA-3ʹ BD_probe_R 5ʹ-CTGACTCGACATCCCTGTCA-3ʹ. Clone 1048-3N15 was purified, sheared with sonication (Bioruptor, Diagenode), subcloned into pGEM-t-Easy vector (Promega), and shotgun sequenced using an ABI3730 DNA Analyzer (Accession KU200223). The 36 Kb clone was assembled into five contigs from 302 reads, and the ends were ordered based on the orientation of the vectors used to create the fosmid library. Internal contigs were ordered based on evidence from a H. m. agalope (aglaope.1) de novo genome assembly using ABySS with a k-mer of 41. A second screened clone, 1048-143N20, was partially sequenced by PCR amplification of the dennis region (S4 Table), su-cloned into pGEM-t-Easy vector, and Sanger sequenced using standard T7F and SP6 primers. The BAC sequence for AEHM-19L14 was sequenced previously and downloaded from NCBI GenBank .
Recombination Breakpoint Mapping
The paired-end sequencing reads for the 96 individuals used above plus an additional 43 individuals mainly representing outgroup species (S3 Table) were imported into CLC Genomics Workbench v5.5 and de novo assembled into contigs using default parameters (mismatch: 2; insertion: 3; deletion: 3; length fraction: 0.5; similarity fraction: 0.8). The resulting contigs were imported into Geneious v6.1 as FASTA files. These were used to construct BLAST databases in Geneious for each individual. Two further individuals were sampled in the form of the fully assembled reference sequences for dennis and ray regions, which were acquired from the H. melpomene reference genome v.1.1 and the fosmid 1048-3N15 from H. m. aglaope, which provided a reference sequence for the dennis haplotype. In Geneious, these sequences were then used as references to conduct BLASTn searches against the contig sequence databases for each of the 139 de novo assemblies. The BLAST results were then mapped back onto the reference sequence. Using the reference as a template, matching contigs were concatenated into a single FASTA file for each individual, with Ns filling regions between contigs spaced according to the reference (or closest relative). Unresolvable genomic repeats were detected as regions in which more than two haplotypes matched by BLAST and were replaced with Ns. Heterozygous haplotypes, in which just two contigs aligned, were assigned to two distinct FASTA versions of the region. Phasing of adjacent haplotypes was arbitrarily assigned, except for individuals heterozygous for phenotype, such as hybrid H. melpomene, in which heterozygous contigs could be clearly assigned to either dennis-ray or banded clades. In total, the final alignment included sequence derived from 142 individuals, including 139 de novo assembled genomes, two fosmid clones, a reference BAC sequence, and the reference genome.
Multiple alignment and tree generation.
The compiled sequences of contigs for the dennis and ray regions for each individual were aligned using MAFFT in Geneious v6.1. (E-INS-i algorithm; Gap open penalty: 1.53). ML trees were generated using the PHYML Geneious plug-in (GTR substitution model; SPR topology search; 1,000 bootstraps).
Average pairwise divergence analysis.
The multiple alignments generated for the dennis and ray region were analysed using MEGA 6.0 (http://www.megasoftware.net/). The average pairwise divergence was calculated for the following groups of taxa—outgroups: H. aoede, H. hecuba, H. hierax, H. xanthocles, H. doris, and H. wallacei; silvaniform group: H. numata bicoloratus, H. n. silvana, H. n. tarapotensis, H. n. elegans, H. ethilla, H. pardalinus ssp. nov., H. p. sergestus, H. ismenius, and H. hecale; dennis group: H. e. pseudocupidineus, H. e. bari, H. m. thelxiopeia, H. m. meriana, H. m. ecuadorensis, H. m. malleti, H. m. aglaope, and H. t. florencia; ray group: H. e. pseudocupidineus, H. e. bari, H. m. thelxiopeia, H. m. ecuadorensis, H. m. malleti, H. m. aglaope, H. t. florencia, and H. t. timareta f. contigua; and postman group: H. m. melpomene, H. m. rosina, H. m. amaryllis, H. m. amandus, H. m. vulcanus, H. m. cythera, H. m. bellula, and H. t. thelxinoe
Bayesian tree dating analysis.
Following the methodology used in Kozak et al. , the multiple alignments generated for dennis and ray regions were prepared using the BEAST input file formatting tool, BEUti v1.8.2 . The trees were calibrated by providing a nodal age prior to the silvaniform and melpomene-cydno clade split, with a mean of 3.96 Ma and an interval of 3.18–4.81 Ma, as predicted for that node by Kozak et al. . The tree prior used the “speciation: birth-death process” , and the MCMC chain was run for 10,000,000 states, with a 20% burn-in. The chain was run using BEAST v1.8.2 and checked for MCMC convergence using the diagnostic tool Tracer v1.5 . The output tree data were then compiled using TreeAnnotator v1.8.2, and the 95% HPD intervals were visualised using TreeFig v1.4.2 . Sequence data files have been submitted to the European Nucleotide Archive with project number ERP009041.
All software are available at http://tree.bio.ed.ac.uk/software/.
S1 Fig. Fixed nucleotide sites associated with the ray and dennis phenotypes in scaffold HE670865.
Pairwise sequence comparison using H. melpomene and/or H. timareta specimens grouped by phenotype reveals narrow regions associated with specific wing patterning phenotypes. Plots show the number of fixed nucleotide sites within a 5 kb sliding window (at 1 kb intervals) on scaffold HE670865, between two phenotypic groups (S1 Table). Protein coding exons spanning the scaffold, including optix, are shaded black. (A) Sequence comparison of ray and non-ray groups identified a minimal region of fixed nucleotide differences between 354,278 and 372,171 bp. (B) A comparison between dennis and non-dennis expressing phenotypes identified a minimal region of fixed nucleotide differences between 325,007 and 329,296 bp. (C) Sites associated with the ray and dennis phenotype are non-overlapping. See S1 Table, below, for samples used in pairwise comparisons. See Dryad depository for plot data .
S2 Fig. Phylogenies for multiple alignments of dennis and ray regions.
Labelled trees from Fig 2B, showing dennis morphs including H. elevatus (tree A) clustering with the silvaniform clade and ray morphs including H. elevatus (tree B) clustering with the H. melpomene and H. timareta clade. Individuals that have dennis-only pattern (D) group with dennis morphs (tree A), but not with ray morphs (tree B). The reverse is true of ray-only morphs (R). ML trees rooted to H. aoede outgroup, bootstraps = 1,000 iterations. See Dryad depository for ML treefiles .
S3 Fig. Dated phylogenies for multiple alignments of dennis and ray regions with dated species tree for comparison.
The nodes for trees generated from the dennis and ray alignments were dated using BEAST MCMC software, and the 95% HPD interval is depicted with horizontal bars. The clades are coloured according to S2 Fig, with the addition of the dennis-ray morph timareta, H. t. florencia, in light brown. Also shown is the equivalent portion of the species tree from Kozak et al. , with all dates given in Ma. Major events shown on Fig 5 in the main text are also marked here for comparison, with (A) showing introgression of dennis from H. elevatus into H. melpomene, inferred from the coalescence time of alleles sampled from these two species, and the recency of this compared to species tree divergence of silvaniform and melpomene clades at 3.96 Ma; (B) marking the origin of ray alleles within H. melpomene, inferred from the coalescence of dennis and non-dennis alleles within H. melpomene; (C) marking introgression of ray into H. timareta; (D) introgression of ray into H. elevatus, and (E) marking introgression of dennis into H. timareta. See Dryad depository for dated treefiles with node values .
S1 Table. Specimens used to conduct pairwise sequence comparisons for identification of sites associated with the ray and dennis phenotypes (S1 Fig and Fig 2C).
S2 Table. Additional nucleotide similarity matrices.
Identical nucleotide similarity comparison was conducted between alleles for the dennis and ray regions as shown in Table 1, but with ray-morph individuals grouped together for the dennis region analysis (top) and dennis-morph individuals grouped for the ray region analysis (bottom).
S3 Table. List of samples used for sequencing.
S4 Table. Seven pairs of primer sequences used to amplify sequential fragments from the dennis region of fosmid clone 143N20.
We thank Patricio Salazar and Richard Merrill for help with butterfly collection. We thank the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute for support for tissue collection and work with butterflies in Panama, and ANAM in Panama and the Ministerio del Ambiente in Ecuador for permission to collect butterflies.
Conceived and designed the experiments: CDJ SWB RWRW CPD. Performed the experiments: SWB RWRW CPD. Analyzed the data: SWB RWRW CPD SHM NN CS JJH. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: WOM JM KKD MJ CS. Wrote the paper: CDJ RWRW CPD SWB WOM JM KKD MJ JJH.
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Organic Pears and Pears produced through an integrated pest control
Organic farming means developing a mode of production of fresh vegetables and fruits paying maximum respect to the natural resources, in order to conserve the environment and protect the consumers’ health.
Like all fruit and vegetable varieties that are traded the most, even pears are now evaluated from an organic point of view, in accordance with the possible parasite control done through available phytosanitary products; nowadays, more attention is given to the organic farming and with this to the production of organic pears, as it produces fresh and high quality fruits that come from a farming that aims at prevention and acts especially to improve soil fertility, with the purpose to control, reduce or eliminate cultivation problems. Nowadays there are more and more producers of organic pears, importers of organic pears, exporters of organic pears, wholesalers of organic pears and retailers of organic pears, who embraced methods and values of organic farming.
Fruit and vegetable products coming from organic farming are produced using production methods that allow to utilize only substances of natural origin. The companies producing organic pears follow this norm during the fertilization period of the plant.
There are some substances needed by this fresh organic product for its production, such as for example nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In order to have these substances available when the plant of pears needs them, for example, it is necessary to know the mineralization time of nitrogen substances of organic origin that can be used as fertilizer, or to use raw salt or potassium sulphate if the plant lacks potassium, while manure (organic fertilizer obtained by the industrial recycling of the defecations of sheep farms) if the soil lacks of phosphorus.
It is an extremely important step for the consumer, as it outlines the quality of the process and of all the entities involved in the production of pears, guaranteed by the label of the organic fruit and vegetable product on the international market, with fruit and vegetable companies for the production of certified pears according to the EU norms of organic farming, to the European Regulation 2092/91, later annulled with the new CE 834/2007, created to protect the environment. The label, is thus a “certification” of valid, healthy and higher quality fruit and vegetable products.
The pear is a variety of fruit and vegetable product very suitable to the methods used in organic farming, above all for the early varieties, while for late varieties the control on the prevention of parasite attacks is more difficult.
Very important characteristics of the soil in the organic farming and in pears produced through an integrated pest control are those that determine also the choice of the rootstock.
Among the varieties of pears suitable to organic farming, the most known are:
- ABATE FETEL: variety of pears native to France in the XIX century. The fruit is large (weighing even more than 250 gr.), elongated, flask-shaped, with a green-yellowish skin blushed with red on the part exposed to sunlight and partially rusty. The flesh of this fresh fruit is white, gritty, slightly flavoured, very juicy, sugary and extremely aromatic and palatable. This variety of pear is very resistant and keeps well in the refrigerator until the first days of January. In Italy, this rare variety of pear is produced only in the region of Emilia, where it received the P.G.I. recognition.
- CARMEN: variety of pears with medium-large fruits (about 190 gr.), elongated and slanting at the top. The skin of this pear is yellow-green blushed with red on the 20-30% of the surface, with large and evident lenticels. The flesh of the pear is medium fine, flavoured and juicy. It is harvested at the end of July and the fruits of this variety of pears are quite resistant to handling and transports; it keeps well if stored in the refrigerator.
- CONFERENCE: fall variety of pears native to England at the end of the Nineteenth century. It is a variety of pear, with medium fruits, conical-elongated with a long, thin and curved petiole. This fresh fruit has a green-yellow skin, partially rusty, while the flesh is fine, ivory-white, very juicy, little acidic, sweet and nicely flavoured. This variety of pears is very appreciated and thus is very widespread in the fruit and vegetable market of the EU countries, apart from being a pear that can keep until December/January if harvested at the beginning of the ripening period and stored in the refrigerator.
- KAISER (also called BUTIRRA, BOSC OR ALEXANDER): old fall variety of pears native to France and nowadays very widespread and traded in several EU countries. It is a variety of pears with large, elongated fruits with a long and curved petiole. The skin is tobacco brown with many lenticels and completely rusty. The flesh of this pear is white-yellowish, slightly gritty, flavoured, sweet-acidic and juicy. The fruits of this varieties of pears are harvested during the second decade of September and can be kept until December, if stored in the refrigerator.
- SANTA MARIA: typical summer variety of pears, with medium-large fruits; it is harvested from mid-July to the end of October. The skin is smooth with small lenticels, yellow but blushed with red after the exposure to sunlight. The flesh of this pear is white, juicy, fine and firm; the taste is flavoured and sweet. The typical feature of this variety of pears is its high production level and early ripening.
- WILLIAM (or BARTLETT): variety of pears selected in England at the end of the eighteenth century. It is roundish, with a light green very thin skin and a white, juicy, sweet flesh with a flavour of Muscat. It is the most produced and exported type of fresh fruit in Italy and it is available on the fruit and vegetable market from August until October/November. As well as consumed as table fruit, this variety of pear is largely used in the industry for the production of juices and syrups.
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This text provides a comprehensive, but concise introduction to software engineering. It adopts a methodical approach to solving software engineering problems proven over several years of teaching, with outstanding results.
The book covers concepts, principles, design, construction, implementation, and management issues of software systems. Each chapter is organized systematically into brief, reader-friendly sections, with itemization of the important points to be remembered. Diagrams and illustrations also sum up the salient points to enhance learning. Additionally, the book includes a number of the author’s original methodologies that add clarity and creativity to the software engineering experience, while making a novel contribution to the discipline.
Upholding his aim for brevity, comprehensive coverage, and relevance, Foster’s practical and methodical discussion style gets straight to the salient issues, and avoids unnecessary topics and minimizes theoretical coverage.
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Significance of Math for DAT
Many college students nowadays opt for a career in dentistry, because it is a lucrative as well as a rewarding career. In order to gain admission in a premier dental school in the USA, you must score high marks in the Dental Admission Test (DAT). Moreover, since score for each section of the DAT is reported separately in the score card, DAT math marks are a significant part of the score card. Let us try to understand the importance of DAT math by reading the following section of this article.
Relevance of the Mathematics Section of DAT
Nearly 15% of the DAT question paper is the Quantitative Reasoning section or DAT math. This section of DAT evaluates your college level knowledge of various branches of Mathematics. You also need to understand the significance of DAT math, so that you are motivated to study for it. The following list will help you understand the importance of DAT math:
Important part of the score card: The DAT score card comprises 8 scaled along with percentile ranks, which are given based on these scaled scores. The American Dental Association (ADA) reports a separate score and rank for the Quantitative Reasoning section of the DAT. Like the rest of the scores of the DAT score card, the Quantitative Reasoning test score will also be taken into account, when your admissions applications will be analyzed.
Essential part of the Academic Average score: The DAT score card provides a separate scaled score called the 'Academic Average'. This score is calculated by taking into account the scores you have received in Quantitative Reasoning, Reading Comprehension and Survey of Natural Sciences sections. An average of these scores are taken and rounded to the nearest whole number.
The above-mentioned list will help you gain an insight into the importance of DAT math. However, before you begin preparing for the Quantitative Reasoning section, it is essential that you understand the nuances of DAT math. The following section of this article will acquaint you with the various characteristics of the Quantitative Reasoning section as well as its nature.
What is DAT Mathematics?
The DAT math comprises of questions designed to test your concepts of the various branches of Mathematics. The questions will examine not only your theoretical knowledge, but also how well you can apply them, in order to arrive at the answers. The various aspects of DAT math are as follows:
Time allotted and the sub-sections of DAT mathematics: The Quantitative Reasoning test of DAT comprises of 40 questions, which are to be completed in 45 minutes. The two main sub-sections of DAT math are as follows:
Mathematical problems: This sub-section consists of questions from all branches of Mathematics. In other words, you will have to solve theoretical problems on Algebra, Geometry, Statistics, Trigonometry, Probability and Geometry. In this sub-section, you will have to solve 30 questions.
Word problems: The remaining 10 questions of the Quantitative Reasoning test will need you to apply your knowledge of Mathematics. These questions can be based on one or more branches of Mathematics.
Scoring system: Like all the other sections of the DAT, the Quantitative Reasoning test is also scored on a scale from 0 to 30. Along with the score you will also receive a percentile rank, based on the overall performance of other students taking a similar test. The DAT Mathematics comprises multiple-choice questions and there is no negative marking in case you provide a wrong answer.
The above-mentioned list will help you understand the Mathematics part of the DAT. This knowledge is essential to kick-start your preparation for DAT math. Although, the number of questions in this section of the DAT is lesser than those of the other sections of the test, do not be under the misconception that the questions will be less detailed. So prepare well for the entire test and provide extra attention to the Mathematics section.
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The Aura Gravity Roof Ventilator removes heat from the attic in the summer and moisture in the winter. This allows for year-round ventilation. It functions like a spinning roof turbine but without any moving parts. Aura Gravity Ventilators rely on the Venturi Effect when the wind blows against the outer louvers. As a result, this creates an upward draft allowing air to freely flow out of the vent. Even the smallest breeze can create exhaust ventilation so that air is drawn out of the roof vent. This movement of air is proportional to the wind speed and is measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM).
The Aura Gravity Ventilator also ventilates the roof through “The Stack Effect”. This is when hot air naturally rises out through the roof vents.
The Collar Height is the height of the neck of the vent.
Net Free Area
in Sq. In.
The 1/8 inch louvers are designed to prevent rain, snow, insects and animals from entering inside the vent.
The Aura Gravity Ventilator comes in an array of diameters and collar heights allowing for installation in any climate zone. See the Climate Zone Chart to determine the proper collar height for installation in your area. In other words, this vent can be used for both flat and steep sloped roofs. It has been engineered to be used for both residential and commercial buildings. However, if you are looking to ventilate a duct, we offer roof vents with a tailpipe adapter. On the other hand, we also have Static Vents with curb mount flanges to be installed on roof curbs.
For any questions please see the frequently asked questions page. If you still have questions, email the sales team [email protected] or call 845-565-7770. If you are looking to determine the pitch of your roof, see the Roof Pitch Diagram.
As you know by now the Aura Gravity Ventilator uses wind to help exhaust out hot attic air with no moving parts. Here is a deeper explanation of how this gravity ventilator accomplishes this function. To start, when wind enters the outer row of louvers, the angle of the louvers causes the wind to spin around the circumference of the gravity vent. Spinning air creates suction towards the center of the vent. This suction creates the necessary vacuum to extract out the heat and moisture from the attic. This function is demonstrated by the animation above. Airflow ratings were documented by Georgia Tech.
Aura Gravity Ventilators are made up of aluminum, making them durable, lightweight, and will not rust. Gravity ventilators can be painted by our durable powder coating system, see our color options powder coat colors.
The diameter size of all roof vents determines the Net Free Area, also known as the "NFA". NFA is the measured amount of opening each vent offers at each specific size. to be available for venting air through a specific vent size. The calculator below will find the overall number of vents needed to effectively ventilate the targeted attic space.
Once you have the area, pulldown to select the specific vent diameter to show the number of vents of that size which would ventilate the specified area with both 1/300 and 1/150 rule.
The roof vent calculation values shown above are for the exhaust portion of the roof. The same amount of net free air inches is needed for air intake as well. Proper roof ventilation consists of 50% air exhaust and 50% air intake.
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Definition of clapper rail
: a grayish-brown long-billed American rail (Rallus longirostris) that inhabits coastal marshes
Origin and Etymology of clapper rail
from its rattle-like call
First Known Use: 1813
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up clapper rail? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
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Pythagoras is said to have been the first philosopher to apply the term cosmos to the Universe, perhaps referring to the starry firmament.
Russian cosmism is a cosmocentric philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in Russia in the early 20th century.
Cosmicism is a philosophical position that mankind is an insignificant aspect of a universe at best indifferent and perhaps hostile. This philosophy, explored by writers such as H.P. Lovecraft (who some say is the original proponent of the philosophy) and later writers who actually represented the beliefs in books such as Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
Read more about this topic: Cosmos
Other articles related to "philosophy":
... The twelfth century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which latter, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions ... This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) among the Persians, and to Judah ha-Levi (1140) among the Jews ... of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism ...
... In Western philosophy, misanthropy has been connected to isolation from human society ... In Plato's Phaedo, Socrates defines the misanthrope in relation to his fellow man "Misanthropy develops when without art one puts complete trust in somebody thinking the man absolutely true and sound and reliable and then a little later discovers him to be bad and unreliable...and when it happens to someone often...he ends up...hating everyone." Misanthropy, then, is presented as the result of thwarted expectations or even excessively naive optimism, since Plato argues that "art" would have allowed the potential misanthrope to recognize that the majority of men are to be found in between good and evil ...
... Psychology) Charité - Berlin University Medicine Faculty of Philosophy I (Philosophy, History, European Ethnology, Department of Library and Information Science) Faculty ...
... Illuminationist philosophy was a school of Islamic philosophy founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi in the 12th century ... This school is a combination of Avicenna's philosophy and ancient Iranian philosophy, with many new innovative ideas of Suhrawardi ... In logic in Islamic philosophy, systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155-1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity ...
Famous quotes containing the word philosophy:
“Only a philosophy of eternity, in the world today, could justify non-violence.”
—Albert Camus (19131960)
“A life-worshippers philosophy is comprehensive.... He is at one moment a positivist and at another a mystic: now haunted by the thought of death ... and now a Dionysian child of nature; now a pessimist and now, with a change of lover or liver or even the weather, an exuberant believer that Gods in his heaven and alls right with the world.”
—Aldous Huxley (18941963)
“In everyones youthful dreams, philosophy is still vaguely but inseparably, and with singular truth, associated with the East, nor do after years discover its local habitation in the Western world. In comparison with the philosophers of the East, we may say that modern Europe has yet given birth to none.”
—Henry David Thoreau (18171862)
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Every single person, in every single company is at risk from cybercrime. In this case we are talking about email attacks.
Here are the in’s and out’s of three major methods of attack that are becoming more and more common. It is important you are aware of these and what to look for in suspicious emails. These are real and they could happen to you and your colleagues. So read carefully and remain vigilant!
ATTACK METHOD: Phishing
Phishing is a type of fraud where the cyber attacker attempts to obtain information such as login credentials or accound information, by disgusing themselves as a reputable person from a reputable organisation in email, IM or other comms channels.
A random, mass mailing to thousands of possible customers of the organisation that’s identity is being used. This email will prompt the reciever to enter user credentials into a malicious, faked website.
Here’s an example;
ATTACK METHOD: Spear-phishing
Spear-phishing is an email fraud attempt which targets a specific organisation seeking access to unauthorised access to confidential data.
A cyberattacker does extensive research on a particular company and target. As in the example below, John is the victim. The attacker is aware that John is planning to attend an accounting conference. John has exchanged a few emails unknowingly with the attacker, who is posing as a conference organiser. After building up some trust with John the attacker strikes by sending a fake registration list to John. The attachment is loaded with malware however it’s highly likely John will trust him and open it!
ATTACK METHOD: Whaling
Whaling is a sophisticated scam that targets organisations that regularly make transfer payments, usually those that hold important and confidential information on customers and employees.
The cyberattacker very often targets a member of staff in accounts, impersonating the chief of finance or the managing director. The email will contain straightforward instructions, instilling a sense of urgency to add pressure, meaning the victim is very likely to take immediate action, thinking it is an urgent request from their boss.
Using the button below you can download a great e-boook from Mimecast which you can download and share with your employees and colleagues.
In this E-book, you’ll learn:
- Five security tips your employees should live by.
- Today’s most effective attack methods – and why they work.
- Why every employee – not just IT – must be accountable for security.
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Sagata K.,PNG Institute of Biological Research |
Mack A.L.,Powdermill Nature Reserve |
Wright D.D.,PNG Institute of Biological Research |
Lester P.J.,Victoria University of Wellington
Insectes Sociaux | Year: 2010
Tropical ant communities are frequently diverse, but highly patchy in nature. The availability of suitable nest sites may be a regulating force in structuring litter ant communities. Our aim was to examine ant resource utilization in naturally occurring twigs, and to modify the availability of these resources in order to quantify the influence of nest availability on ant communities in a Papua New Guinean forest. First, we compared ant communities that assemble in artificial twigs (drilled, wooden dowels), naturally occurring twigs, and the leaf litter. A total of 55 ant species were captured: 33 from the leaf litter, 29 from naturally occurring twigs, and only 12 from artificial nests. Significantly different communities formed in each of the three nest types. Second, we examined how the density of natural or artificial nest material influenced the ant abundance and species richness. Plots had between 5 and 96 potential nest sites. An average of only 11.2% of these twigs was colonized. Both species richness and the total abundance of adult ants were significantly positively correlated with increasing naturally occurring twig density. Conversely, increasing the availability of artificial nests from 5 to 20 per plot had no significant effect on the proportion of artificial nests colonized, species richness, or the colony size. We observed that ant species richness and abundance increased with natural twig density, at least for naturally occurring communities. But why so many twigs remain vacant and available for ant colonization remains unknown. Other biotic and abiotic factors likely influence the use of nesting habitat in these ant communities. © International Union for the Study of Social Insects (IUSSI) 2010.
Warakai D.,P.O. Box 7013 |
Okena D.S.,PNG Institute of Biological Research |
Igag P.,PNG Institute of Biological Research |
Opiang M.,PNG Institute of Biological Research |
Mack A.L.,Indo Pacific Conservation Alliance
Tropical Conservation Science | Year: 2013
Little is known of the frequency of use and reliance upon tree cavities by wildlife, nor the natural availability of cavities in New Guinea forests. We surveyed the literature for records of cavity use by birds and mammals in New Guinea. We examined every standing tree on one hectare of primary forest and one hectare of secondary forest for cavities, then carefully assessed every tree for cavities after they were felled. We put up 190 artificial nest boxes of five designs in three sites and monitored occupancy. At least 50 species (23.6%) of New Guinea terrestrial mammals and 118 species (17.7%) of non-marine or aquatic bird species are recorded in the literature as using tree cavities. Ground observation identified 36 suspected cavities in a hectare of lowland primary forest and 10 in nearby secondary forest. Upon inspection of all trees after felling, these figures changed to 26 and 0 respectively. Ground censuses are not accurate. Cavities were more commonly found in large trees. In less than a year, nest box occupancy reached exceeded 33%, with Phalanger spp. and Sugar gliders, Petaurus breviceps, being most common. Some bird use was detected by the presence of feathers; snakes and geckos were also found in boxes. Occupancy increased with time and would probably be higher after a second year. The larger boxes had greater occupancy, as did boxes placed higher in the trees. Bees occupied and probably excluded other users from 10% of boxes. As Papuan forests are disturbed by logging, hunting practices and gardening, conservationists might need to manage practices to ensure cavity availability. Artificial nest boxes might have utility for wildlife conservation and research. © Diatpain Warakai, Daniel Solomon Okena, Paul Igag, Muse Opiang and Andrew L. Mack.
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What can you expect during canine gestation? Quite a lot goes on, actually. Learn more about what goes on during each week of a dog's pregnancy, and get tips on caring for your pregnant dog.
Canine Gestation Calendar and Timeline
The approximate expected time of a dog's pregnancy is 63 days, though it can vary by several days. Dog pregnancy can generally be expected to last between eight and nine weeks. If you know when your dog was bred, use this dog gestation calculator to estimate when your dog is due.
Dog Gestation Chart
The week-by-week canine gestation calendar below will help you understand how the puppies are developing along a timeline, as well as the outward changes your dog is going through for the eight to nine weeks she will spend advancing through the stages of pregnancy until she delivers puppies.
|Zero to One|| |
Breeding takes place.
Within a few days, the sperm reaches the eggs and fertilization occurs.
The fertilized eggs make their way to the uterus for implantation.
You may notice behavioral changes in your dog that represent the first signs pregnancy. For example, she may become moody or more affectionate.
Implantation has taken place and the embryos begin to develop.
Your dog may begin to display mood swings, appetite changes and breast tissue development.
Fetuses can be felt in the uterine horns around day 28, and can also be seen by ultrasound.
The spinal cords are developing, and the fetuses are beginning to grow facial features.
Your bitch's uterus will shortly fill with fluids to protect the fetuses. After this, it will be weeks until the puppies can be felt again.
Your dog's appetite will likely increase, so offer her more of her food.
The fetuses develop their sex organs and begin to look like actual puppies. The leg buds lengthen and develop toes.
Your dog's belly will begin to look noticeably swollen as the pups take up more space.
With less room for full meals, it's time to begin serving smaller meals more frequently.
Pups continue to grow and pigmentation develops. The eyes now have lids and remain sealed until approximately ten days after birth.
Your dog is noticeably more uncomfortable at this point. She may vomit occasionally due to the extra pressure against her stomach.
You may also notice clear fluid discharge from her vulva. This is normal.
Puppies are well-developed, and now begin attaining size in preparation for birth.
You may be able to see/feel the puppies' movements in your bitch's abdomen.
Her breasts are well developed and probably contain a bit of colostrum or "first milk".
Your dog is noticeably tired and may begin searching for a place to whelp. Time to set up a whelping box.
The pups have fur and are now crowded in the uterus. You may notice a lot of activity as they get into position for the coming birth.
Your dog may begin digging the bedding in the whelping box. This is natural "nesting" behavior.
Allow her to feed freely as she is able.
|Eight to Nine|| |
The pups are ready for birth and may be quite still as they rest in preparation for the marathon to come.
When your dog is ready to give birth, she may appear uncomfortable and restless or anxious.
Time to begin taking rectal temperature readings 12 hours apart. Normal temperature is 100 to 101 F; a drop down near 97 F held for two consecutive readings indicates labor will begin within 24 hours.
Video Illustration of Dog Pregnancy Timeline
To further clarify the stages of dog pregnancy, review the week-by-week images in the following video:
Gestation Care Tips
It's important to take great care of your dog throughout all the stages of pregnancy.
- If you're already feeding a balanced diet, there's no need for additional vitamin supplements.
- As your dog's needs increase, simply offer her more of her current diet.
- You can add a spoonful of cottage cheese to her evening meal to boost calcium intake in a natural way, but refrain from giving calcium pills. They are too potent and can do more harm than good during the pregnancy.
As you can tell from the canine gestation calendar, it's a good idea to limit any strenuous activity during the first two weeks of pregnancy to ensure implantation takes place. After this time, your dog can resume her normal activities within reason. Once her belly begins to show, it's a good idea to limit her exercise to gentle walks to keep her well toned.
An early pregnancy check up and good communication with your vet are generally all that is required to make sure the pregnancy develops as it should. Call your vet if your dog displays any behavior you deem completely unusual or if she displays signs of distress. Do not give vaccinations or worm your dog until after whelping, and only with your vet's supervision.
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1. A spotlight on the ground shines on the wall 12 m away. If a man 2 m tall walks from the spotlight toward the building at a speed of 1.6 m/s, how fast is the length of his shadow on the building decreasing when he is 4 m from the building?
2. A boat is pulled into a dock by a rope attached to the bow of the boat and passing through a pulley on the dock that is m higher than the bow of the boat. If the rope is pulled in at a rate of 1 m/s, how fast is the boat approaching the dock when it is 8 m from the dock.
So far related rates problems have been pretty easy since we have been using geometric figures. I can't come up with an equation for either of these so I can solve for the change of rate. Can someone help me come up with the equations and show me how to do it in case I get something similar to these in the future?
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Personality Measures – Validity and Reliability
You textbook describes different types of personality measures, such as subjective, objective, and projective. Examples of subjective measures are observations, interviews, and situational tests. Examples of objective measures are questionnaires, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2), the Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator, and various questionnaires that measure the “big five” personality traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Examples of projective measures are the Rorschach inkblot test and the thematic apperception test. Each type of measure has strengths and limitations.
Personality measures vary widely in how valid and reliable they are. In objective measures, we see those that range from highly invalid and reliable, such as a quiz in a fashion magazine, to measures that show high reliability and validity, such as the MMPI-2.
In your text in the Unit 6 studies, you read definitions of “reliability” and “validity.” For this discussion, describe your understanding of the two terms in your own words. Describe why it is important to consider reliability and validity when using a personality measure for practices such as counseling and job placement.
2[u06d2] Unit 6 Discussion 2
Personality – Measuring Traits
Various personality measures are intended to measure different aspects of our personalities, as no test measures all aspects. For example, the “big five” measures the traits of openness, extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism. The MMPI-2 measures adult psychopathology.
For this discussion, take an online personality measure of your choice, and review the results (you are not required to reveal the results in your post). Answer the following:
How well did the measure describe the traits in you that it was intended to measure?
What reliability and validity information did you find for your measure? If you cannot find reliability and validity information for the measure, what might that mean about the measure?
Describe some of the strengths and limitations of using personality measures for various purposes, such as marriage counseling, team building, and matching people with jobs.
Applied Psychology Research – Human Factors
Research in psychology sometimes tests the use of products to improve the well-being of people. For example, in the online article you read in your studies for this unit, “Undoing Dyslexia via Video Games,” the authors describe how the Fast ForWord program is used to help children with dyslexia to distinguish between sounds.
For this discussion:
Find an example of how applied psychology has been used to develop or improve a product in the interest of human well-being. Note: if you are working with the topic of product development for your Unit 9 assignment on applied research in psychology, the product must be different from the one you select for this discussion.
Describe the product, and explain how it is used to promote well-being. What does research tell us about the effectiveness of the product? Provide the reference for the source that studied the product.
Use APA (6th edition) style and formatting for citing references.
[u07d2] Unit 7 Discussion 2
Applied Psychology Research – Ecology
Applied research in psychology is conducted, among many other uses, to discover ways to encourage people to use environmentally friendly behavior. Earlier in this unit, you read the article “Shaping Pro-Environment Behaviors.” Search the Capella University Library and the Internet for additional ways that applied research in psychology is used to promote pro-environment behavior. You might also be interested in exploring Thefuntheory.com, a Web site from Volkswagen, for ideas for this discussion.
For this discussion, complete the following:
Discuss the concept of the “tragedy of the commons.” How does the lack of awareness of the problems created by overconsumption of resources contribute to the tragedy of the commons?
Present some ways that applied research in psychology is being used to raise awareness and promote ecologically sound behavior.
Describe an idea of your own for ways to promote ecologically constructive behavior or for applying the ideas from the research you explored.
Social Behavior and Influence
After reading Milgram’s article; viewing the slideshow on the Stanford prison experiment; and reading about social influence, compliance, and conformity in the Coon and Mitterer textbook earlier in this unit, address the following:
What did the Milgram studies reveal about people’s tendencies to go against their own values in following authority?
In your thinking, what are the similarities and differences in meaning between the words “respect” and “obedience”?
Discuss a time when you were made uncomfortable by the request of an authority figure. How did you feel and react?
How can we help children and those we mentor make distinctions between respectfully complying with authority and blindly following abuses of authority?
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Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that is usually caused by the experience of a traumatic or life-threatening event. For some, symptoms of PTSD can occur after being exposed to the results of a trauma or seeing a traumatic event threaten or harm someone (e.g., terrorist attack, physical or sexual assault, car accident, natural disaster, war experiences, etc.).
The symptoms can be highly intrusive to the person’s experience. They may include nightmares, an avoidance of anything related to the trauma, insomnia, extreme agitation, mood swings, anger management issues and panic attacks. Medication can be useful in the management of these symptoms, but in some cases, abuse of prescription drugs for the treatment of PTSD can lead to a co-occurring disorder: substance abuse or addiction.
There are a number of different kinds of medications that can be useful in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including antidepressants (e.g., sertraline, paroxetine), atypical antidepressants (e.g., mirtazapine, venlafaxine), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., isocarboxazid, phenelzine), mood stabilizers (e.g., carbamazepine, lithium), antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone and prazosin).
Determining the correct combination of medications and the right doses can take time. Unfortunately, some patients may end up struggling with prescription drug abuse as a result of abuse of the medication used to treat their PTSD, especially if they also use illicit substances, including alcohol.
It is rare for patients to abuse most of the medications used in the treatment of PTSD. Only anti-anxiety medications (e.g., benzodiazepines like Ativan, Xanax and others) can create a high that may be addictive to users. In an effort to avoid the symptoms of panic and anxiety that can be overwhelming, patients may take too much or feel unable to manage certain situations without taking high doses of their prescribed medication.
Any use of a prescription drug outside of a doctor’s orders is termed “abuse,” and cravings for the drug can signify an addiction – as does the inability to stop use of the drug despite increasing negative consequences. If prescription medication abuse or addiction is suspected, immediate treatment is recommended.
Medication alone is not enough to treat PTSD effectively. Rather, a range of therapeutic options is recommended to help patients process the traumatic event and learn how to manage symptoms. Some recommended therapies for PTSD treatment include:
If someone you love is struggling with a substance abuse disorder due to the medications they are taking for PTSD, treatment should address both the PTSD symptoms and the addiction disorder. Call now for more information and to be connected to a treatment program that can help.
Integrated Treatment of Substance Abuse & Mental Illness
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Anthropology is an unusually broad discipline that embraces biological, historical and cross-cultural study. Anthropology courses at Kenyon reflect these three distinct but interrelated areas.
Biological anthropology studies the complex connections between our biological and cultural existence, investigating how humans have evolved in the past and how we are continuing to evolve in the present. More advanced courses focus on such topics as human skeletal anatomy, human paleontology, the anthropology of food and human adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
Courses in archaeology allow students to learn about prehistoric peoples of the New World (Aztecs, Maya, Inkas, Moundbuilders and Puebloans) as well as the Old World (Egypt, Mesopotamia and European megalith builders). Methods of investigation and analysis also are covered.
In cultural anthropology courses, students can study native North Americans and the peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America, as well as such topics as media, race, ethnomedicine, sexuality and gender, ethnomusicology, politics and development.
All anthropology courses deal with diversity, helping us to appreciate the varied ways of being human in the past and present and what links all of us despite those differences.
A first course in anthropology should be any of the three one-semester introductory courses listed below. Each course combines lecture and discussion.
This course is required for upper-level work in biological anthropology courses
This course is required for upper-level work in archaeology
This course is required for upper-level work in cultural anthropology
Having completed an introductory course, students may either enroll in any upper-level course in that area of the anthropology program or enroll in another introductory course to gain a broader understanding of anthropology.
Note: All departmental courses are one semester in length — half (0.5) unit
Minimum requirements are listed below:
An introductory course in each of the three anthropological sub-disciplines is required:
These courses should be taken as early in the major as practicable and may be taken in any sequence. Upper-level courses in anthropology normally have one of the foundation courses as a prerequisite.
A minimum of six upper-level courses, three (3) units is required, including at least one course in each of the three anthropological sub-disciplines (biological anthropology, archaeology and cultural anthropology). Majors also are encouraged to pay attention to when courses are offered and attempt to fulfill requirements for the upper-level course in each sub-discipline, earlier rather than later, to avoid scheduling conflicts.
The Senior Capstone in anthropology consists of a core of common readings, three seminar meetings at which the seniors and all faculty members in anthropology discuss these readings, and an examination in which students write a take-home exam in response to one question from a list provided by the faculty. The topic of the seminar generally requires an integration of three sub-disciplines and readings are frequently from new books that faculty members are exploring for the first time. The goals of this capstone are to place faculty and students together in the roles of expert and colleague, to critique and analyze readings together orally and to have each student produce a synthetic essay out of this common experience.
Seminar meetings take place during the early months of the fall semester. After the three meetings, the faculty members construct between two and four essay questions and students select one for the exam. Students have approximately one month to complete the essay and are encouraged to discuss their ideas with faculty members and to utilize additional sources based on either library research or readings from other classes. The essay due date is just before the Thanksgiving break. Faculty members evaluate the papers and students are notified in writing about their performance in December. Each student's paper is read by a member of the faculty, who also provide written and/or oral comments. Some students may be asked to rewrite the paper at this point. If a paper is being considered for distinction or a rewrite, we will elicit a second faculty member to evaluate the work.
Faculty members judge student performance not merely on the quality of the essay (clarity, insight and technical proficiency) but also on participation in the whole process of the capstone itself, especially the timely submission of the essay, as well as thoughtful and active participation in the discussions. Any extensions for completing the Senior Capstone must be approved by the dean for academic advising and support, following the same procedures in place for obtaining an Incomplete for any course.
The Honors Program in anthropology provides students with the opportunity to conduct significant independent research on a topic of their choice. Typically, a student will propose a research focus in consultation with a member of the faculty who agrees to serve as the project advisor.
Late in the student's junior year or early in the senior year, she or he submits a brief description of the honors project to the department. This synopsis outlines the central question being addressed, what methods will be used in conducting the study and how the thesis will be organized. All anthropology faculty not on leave at the time of the proposal's submission review the document and decide whether it will be approved or declined based on the proposal's intellectual merit and feasibility as well as the student's past classroom performance, demonstrated motivation in pursuit of excellence and organizational skills.
After the project is approved, the student builds an honors committee consisting of the advisor and one other faculty member who need not be an anthropologist. The student's senior year is spent conducting the research and writing the honors thesis, although both processes may well have begun in previous years.
The thesis is read by the two members of the honors committee as well as a third person who is an expert in the field addressed by the thesis but who is not a part of the Kenyon faculty. An oral thesis defense, involving the student and the three readers, takes place near the end of the spring semester. The readers then determine whether to award no honors, Honors, High Honors or Highest Honors to the thesis based on the written document and the student's defense of his/her work.
Requirements: GPA 3.33 overall; 3.5 in the major.
Classes: All students pursuing honors take ANTH 497–498 during the fall and spring semesters of their senior year.
Due date: Honors theses are due in the anthropology department office on April 1 or the closest Monday after that date. The thesis defense is scheduled for a time after April 1 that is convenient for the student and the readers.
More information about the honors program evaluation process is available from the Department of Anthropology.
All minors require a minimum of two and a half (2.5) units of coursework. No more than half of the courses may be taken at the foundation level (i.e., ANTH 111, 112, 113). Courses will typically be taken from at least two department faculty members. The courses selected for the minor will have a clear and cohesive focus (e.g., a sub-discipline within anthropology or a substantive theme to be examined within the discipline). The specific cluster of courses to be included within the minor will be selected by the student in consultation with a member of the department's faculty, who will serve as advisor. The final selection of courses will be approved by the department chair. The declaration of a minor does not guarantee students a place in any particular courses.
Subject to departmental approval, we will accept transfer credit for introductory anthropology courses (cultural, biological or archaeological, not 4-field introductory anthropology courses) taken at approved institutions. If approval is granted, the student will still have to complete five (5) units of anthropology at Kenyon.
The department will accept up to one (1) unit of credit from approved off-campus study courses to count toward the major. These fill the role of upper-level elective classes. Classes taken in high school (unless they are university transfer credits) will not count in place of any requirement for the major or minor.
The following course is double-listed in the anthropology department and can satisfy the social science requirement as well as count towards coursework in the major or minor.
MUSC 206D Seminar in Ethnomusicology.
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Carers and pharmacists are confused about how much paracetamol to give sick children who are obese or overweight, finds research published online in the European Journal of Hospital Pharmacy.
The correct therapeutic dose is important for this commonly used painkiller, say the authors, because it is potentially fatal to give too high a dose; and too low a dose may result in more serious illness.
The authors surveyed 45 carers and 28 community pharmacists to find out what dose of paracetamol they thought would be appropriate for an eight year old child, weighing 25, 32, or 50 kg.
They also observed the doses given to 86 children, one in three of whom was overweight/obese, in the emergency care department of a specialist children’s hospital.
The recommended paracetamol dose for children ranges between 15 and 20 mg/kg every 4 to 6 hours, up to a maximum of 60 mg/kg per day – extended to 90 mg/kg per day if under medical supervision.
But these doses are for children who are average/normal weight for their age. Current expert opinion suggests that doses should be reduced in children who are more than 120% above their ideal body weight, but it is unclear whether children should be dosed according to their actual, rather than their ideal, body weight, say the authors.
The survey results showed that while most carers and pharmacists knew the correct dose for a normal weight child, their responses varied widely as the hypothetical child’s weight increased.
By the time they were faced with the third scenario of the 50 kg child, the pharmacists recommended a twofold variation in dose; and one in four carers did not even answer the question.
When the doses were corrected according to actual and ideal body weight, for scenarios 1 and 2, all the recommended doses fell within the safe range of 10 and 20 mg/kg. But when it came to the heaviest child in scenario 3, one in three carers (36%) and one in four (24%) pharmacists underdosed when corrected for actual body weight.
And when corrected for ideal body weight, almost two out of three carers and three out of four pharmacists would have given the child a dose above 20 mg/kg.
Among the emergency department children, few children were given doses above 20 mg/kg when corrected for a child’s actual body weight. But the further a child was above their ideal body weight, the higher was the dose of paracetamol given, which goes against the recommendation to taper down the dose in overweight children.
“Simple evidence based dosing guidelines must be developed and communicated to practitioners to reduce the potential for confusion, which may lead to adverse consequences for these children,” conclude the authors. This is extremely important they add, as “childhood obesity will almost certainly continue to be an issue for many years to come.”
Source: British Medical Journal
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Reverse osmosis is one of the most popular ways to treat water at home.
Reverse osmosis filters have become more common as more people have become aware of all the potential lurking hiding in their water, including chemicals, heavy metals, and microbes.
Though they are more expensive than carbon water filters, many people are willing to spend more money to enjoy the high contaminant removal rate RO systems provide.
However, despite its better filtration performance, some homeowners (and apartment dwellers and RV/boat owners) are wary about drinking reverse osmosis water.
What could be so dangerous about drinking purified water? After all, most of the dangerous stuff has been filtered out.
It mostly has to do with minerals, or the lack thereof. Because RO water doesn’t contain any minerals, both good and bad, there are concerns that it might not be so good for the body.
In this article, we discuss the most common health and safety claims regarding reverse osmosis water and whether they warrant any concern.
But here’s our bottom-line: reverse osmosis water is safe and healthy for most people. Only a small subset of people – such as those with mineral deficiencies –needs to exercise some caution with RO water.
Claim: Reverse Osmosis Water is ‘Dead’ Since it is Demineralized
You may have heard reverse osmosis water described as ‘dead.’ The claim is that since the reverse osmosis process strips all the useful minerals from water, it is ‘dead’ nutritionally.
It is true that the semi-permeable membrane in an RO system doesn’t discriminate between good and bad minerals.
Useful minerals like copper, zinc, and magnesium as well as toxic ones like arsenic and lead are all filtered out.
But describing RO water as ‘dead’ is a bit of a stretch.
For one, most tap water isn’t that mineral-rich either. It doesn’t contribute a significant amount of minerals to your diet.
According to one report tap water provides more than 1% of the daily recommended intake for just four minerals: calcium, magnesium, sodium, and copper.
As long as you are eating a balanced diet, it doesn’t matter what kind of water you are drinking as long as it is free of harmful contaminants. Your diet provides virtually all your mineral needs.
By drinking reverse osmosis water, there is minimal risk of experiencing mineral deficiencies.
If you are still worried about not getting enough of healthy minerals, look for a reverse osmosis system that has a remineralization filter. It adds back healthy minerals (usually calcium and magnesium) to the RO water after it has passed through the membrane.
Alternatively, add mineral concentrates directly to your drinking water.
Claim: Reverse Osmosis Water is Acidic, Making it Unhealthy
When water is stripped of mineral ions, the pH drops. So sometimes, demineralized reverse osmosis water can be slightly acidic.
Some experts claim that this is bad for your body and that the acidic water can corrode pipes and leach contaminants like lead.
Indeed, acidic water is not very good for you. It can cause dental problems, worsen acid reflux, and leach dangerous metals into the water supply.
But RO water is not nearly acidic enough to cause such problems.
In fact, depending on the initial pH of your water and whether your system has a mineral filter, the resulting RO water can have neutral or alkaline pH.
You can do a pH test yourself using some pH strips. For accurate readings, use a pH meter. You’ll likely get a pH between 6 and 7. At most, it’ll be around 5-6.
In any case, the water will revert to a normal pH once you drink it, and it interacts with food in your stomach.
But if you don’t want even slightly acidic water, get a re-mineralizing RO system. It’ll produce purified mineral water with a pH between 7 and 8.
You can also add minerals directly to your drinking water to raise pH.
Claim: Reverse Osmosis Water Reduces Mineral Content in Food
This one is actually true. Cooking with demineralized water can lead to significant loses in mineral content in food.
Your food can lose up to 60% calcium, 66% copper, and 70% manganese.
Our recommendation: Do not use reverse osmosis water for cooking unless it has been re-mineralized.
Claim: Reverse Osmosis Water Will Cause My Kid’s Teeth to Decay Because it has no Fluoride
One of the chemicals removed during reverse osmosis is fluoride, which is added to the water in most cities to prevent tooth decay.
Some parents worry that by giving their kids fluoride-free RO water or using RO water to prepare formula, they risk tooth decay.
We recommend discussing this with your dentist or pediatrician.
But generally, for older kids, their main source of fluoride in toothpaste. If they use non-fluoridated toothpaste, ask your dentist if it’s necessary to give them water treated with fluoride.
If you prefer the drink RO water, your dentists may recommend fluoride drops or supplements.
For infants, however, it’s perfectly okay to use RO water for drinking and in baby formula. Children under 3 years need very little to no fluoride to keep their teeth healthy.
Infants less than 6 months old don’t need any fluoride at all since they have no teeth. In fact, they can suffer from fluorosis, a permanent discoloration of teeth caused by too much fluoride.
Claim: Reverse Osmosis Water Leeches Minerals from the Body
This claim is not based on any genuine study or research. It’s simply not true. Drinking reverse osmosis water will not cause minerals already in your body to leech out.
Benefits of Drinking Reverse Osmosis Water
For most people, the many benefits of reverse osmosis water outweigh the concerns. A reverse osmosis filter is the best way to protect your family from contaminants in water.
Here are some of the most significant benefits.
Chemicals like chlorine and hydrogen sulfide in water pose little to no health risk. But they affect the taste and smell of water.
A reverse osmosis system filters out chlorine, chloramines, VOCs, and any other chemicals that give water an unusual taste or smell.
It also gets rid of the metallic and rotten egg taste that’s common in well water.
If your main issue with your tap or well water is the smell or taste, a reverse osmosis filter will help. And it’ll cost you less compared to buying packs of bottled water every week.
No Heavy Metals
Heavy metals like lead and mercury are some of the most harmful water contaminants. Even minute amounts of these impurities can have adverse health effects, especially on children.
Reverse osmosis is the only filtration method that guarantees almost 100% removal of heavy metals from water (distillation is also effective, but it’s technically not a filtration method).
With kids across the United States (not just Flint) facing exposure to high levels of lead, you should be cautious about drinking tap water without treating it or at least having it tested.
No Waterborne Microbes
Chlorine or chloramines added to municipal water kills most of the bacteria and viruses in water.
If you want an extra line of defense against microbes like E. Coli, an RO system is a great choice. It traps bacteria, viruses, cysts, and other potentially harmful biologicals.
If you use untreated groundwater, installing a reverse osmosis system is even more important. It provides an easy way to access safe drinking water for your whole family.
Chlorine does a great job killing bacteria and viruses. But it doesn’t neutralize harmful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals, pesticides, herbicides, and VOCs.
These come from industrial pollution, agricultural runoffs, and other sources.
The activated carbon filters and the semi-permeable membrane in an RO system do a great job removing most of these chemicals.
Our Bottom Line
As I mentioned at the beginning, a reverse osmosis system is an excellent choice for most people and families.
It’s the best and most affordable way to guarantee safe drinking water at home.
RO systems used to be reasonably pricey a while back, but they’ve gotten cheaper. You can now get a good quality 5-stage reverse osmosis system for under $200.
Even the premium ones with a remineralization filter rarely cost over $300.
So if it’s the cost you are worried about, there are plenty of pocket-friendly options to choose from.
Remember that the effectiveness of reverse osmosis will vary among different models. Be careful when shopping for a new RO filter to make sure you choose the right one for your needs.
In our RO filter buying guide, we review and compare the best RO systems in the market from well-known brands like iSpring, Home Master, and APEC. It’s a great starting point for anyone looking to buy a reverse osmosis filter.
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A good tip for barberry pruning when the shrub is old, leggy or overgrown.
It is recommended that you prune the shrubs after they have fruited, during fall or winter.
During the first few weeks after planting, check soil moisture often and adjust irrigation time if necessary to keep the soil moist, not wet.
Dead woods should be removed during summer months, and the bushes should be pruned in the period between mid winter to late winters, i.e., before spring. According to the University of Minnesota Extension, barberry bushes should be trimmed at the time of bushcleanup.barted Reading Time: 5 mins. Both deciduous and evergreen varieties should be pruned in the summer. Barberry shrubs bloom on woody growth produced in the previous season.
It is best to prune as soon as the flowers are done in late summer or early fall. Barberry pruning done in winter while the plant is dormant will result in fewer flowers during the next growing season. Feb 26, When should I trim barberry shrubs? It is recommended that you prune the shrubs after they have fruited, during fall or winter. Dead woods should be removed during summer months, and the bushes should be pruned in the period between mid winter to late winters, i.e., before spring.
READ: How can I improve my presentation? Close-up of barberry bushes. Barberry (Berberis spp.) bushes help light up autumn with their colorful, long-lasting foliage and brighten dreary winter days with scarlet berries.
On the down side, some varieties of these non-native, aggressive growers can become invasive. Their numerous sharp thorns often make pruning a blood sport, so suit up with long sleeves and thick gloves -- and prune when your efforts.
A faster rate, such as in loose, sandy soil, may signal potentially dry site conditions.
Jan 20, In fact, pruning barberry plants may be the most work performed with this shrub. If you are keeping your barberry shrubs as a hedge, it is necessary to prune a couple of times a year. Prune for shape during the winter or fall after the plant has fruited.
Prune these shrubs in late winter or early spring before growth begins. Do not prune deciduous shrubs in late summer. Pruning shrubs in August or early September may encourage a late flush of growth.
This new growth may not harden sufficiently before the arrival of. Annual trimming is required if your shrub is Red Leaf Japanese Barberry (Berberis thunbergii"Atropurpurea").
The spreading purple foliage of this deciduous plant forms a 4-foot-square shrub that.
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Rep. Nydia Velázquez offers bill that prioritizes foreigners over her constituents.
The “Extinction Rebellion” death cult is scary, but what may be even more terrifying is a proposal Congress is considering.
Our U.S. House of Representatives is reviewing a new bill to protect “climate refugees.”
The Climate Displaced Persons Act, written by Rep. Nydia Velázquez (D-N.Y.), would create a new federal program specifically for refugees displaced by climate change. If enacted into law, the U.S. would take in at least 50,000 climate refugees each year, beginning in 2020.
What exactly is a “climate refugee?”
The Institute for Economics and Peace, an Australian think tank, recently estimated that in 2017 alone, 18 million people — 61.5 percent of global displacements — were forced to move due to natural disasters. (Those natural disasters are not universally caused by climate change, but global warming is predicted to cause more frequent and intense disasters.) And while projections vary, sources agree that those numbers are going to get a whole lot higher. That same report noted that nearly 1 billion people currently live in areas of “very high” or “high” climate exposure, which could result in millions of people displaced by climate change in the future. A 2018 World Bank report estimated that by 2050, there would be 143 million climate change-driven migrants from the regions of Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and southeast Asia alone.
But, if we’re talking about legally designated “climate refugees,” there’s a much different number being thrown around: zero.
The designation of refugee has very specific meaning under international agreements.
A refugee is someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war or violence. A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group. Most likely, they cannot return home or are afraid to do so. War and ethnic, tribal and religious violence are leading causes of refugees fleeing their countries.
And, because both the Border Wall and the Mexican troops have stopped the caravan, Velázquez is trying to create a work-around to bring in as many people as the Democrats need. After all, “climate change” can mean anything the activists wish it to mean.
Velázquez, the first Puerto Rican woman to serve in Congress, chairs the House Committee on Small Business.
Velázquez is a climate alarmist true believer, who was recognized by National Latino Coalition on Climate Change (NLCCC) for its work as “Latinos Leading in the Green Economy and Partnering for the Future.” Her bill would make it possible for any person claiming to be fleeing from a “climate emergency” obtain all the assistance given to real refugees.
An alien who qualifies for 24 climate-displaced person status under this section 25 shall be eligible for resettlement assistance, entitlement programs, and other benefits available to refugees admitted under section 207.
Of course, the spouse and kids would get those benefits as well!
To understand better the priorities of the Congresswoman, here is a video of Velázquez blasting HUD Secretary Ben Carson over President Trump’s Puerto Rico tweets.
Truly, it is terrifying to realize that members of Congress prioritize the needs and wants of foreigners more than the concerns and security of their constituents. I sure hope the GOP has plans to make NY07 competitive in 2020, as I find it hard to believe residents of Queens and Brooklyn would welcome a flood of climate refugees.DONATE
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Honor & Shame in God’s Revelation (1 Kgs 22)
Martin Munyao (Th.M., Daystar Academy of Nairobi) was a pastor and theology teacher in Kenya. He is earning his Ph.D. at Concordia Theological Seminary.
How did God use Israel’s cultural dynamics of honor-shame to reveal himself?
As an example, we take the joint military campaign between Israel and king Jehoshaphat of Judah against Aram in 1 Kings 22:1–28. This story involves multiple honor-shame dynamics, even though hidden in plain sight.
“Love of honor”
The chapter opens with a blatant and selfish pursuit of honor and glory from the kings of Israel and Judah.
And the king of Israel said to his servants, “Do you know that Ramoth-gilead belongs to us, and we keep quiet and do not take it out of the hand of the king of Syria?” (1 Kings 22:3)
They thought the land was in short supply, a “limited good.” If someone has it, then we don’t; if we get it, then they won’t have it.
Israel and Judah were initially the same people and blood before the kingdom was divided. But in honor-shame cultures, enemies do temporarily come together to find a common enemy.
“Will you go with me to battle at Ramoth-gilead?” And Jehoshaphat said to the king of Israel, “I am as you are, my people as your people, my horses as your horses.”
Even for warring factions within the same larger group do build temporal peace and unity when group/family honor is threatened by an outside enemy. There is a sense of loyalty to the same family name, and blood.
In ancient Mediterranean cultures, the kings played the patron role while all the subjects were clients by default. The prophets were mostly clients even though they were consulted as God’s mouthpiece, so say whatever they thought the patron wanted to hear. Notice the prophets’ response after the kings inquired for the word of the Lord (the Supreme Patron).
“Go up, for the Lord will give it into the hand of the king.” (v. 6b)
“And Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah made for himself horns of iron and said, ‘Thus days the Lord, with these you shall push the Syrians until they are destroyed.’” And all the prophets prophesied so and said, “Go up to Ramoth-gilead and triumph; the Lord will give it into the hand of the king.” (vv. 11–12)
From an HS perspective, this is manipulation of the powerful patrons for favors. King Jehoshaphat seems to understand this dynamic very well for he asks:
“Is there not here another prophet of the Lord of whom we may inquire?” (v. 7b)
For him 400 men to be in agreement on God’s revelation was suspicious enough to warrant for a call out for an alternative voice. That man was Micaiah, who never played in to the man-honoring game over and against God’s honor. Anyway, the king sends for Micaiah, who speaks God’s words (1 Kings 22:14, 17).
Zedekiah felt humiliated by Micaiah’s prophecy that ran contrary to what he and 400 men had prophesied.. Micaiah’s words exposed Zedekiah’s identity as a prophet of God .. Zedekiah lost face, so he struck Micaiah.
“How did the Spirit of the Lord go from me to speak to you?”( v. 24b)
- Challenge and riposte
In a quick return thrust of words between king Ahab and Micaiah, we see the following progression of conversation:
- Micaiah’s claim of worth to be a true prophet of Yahweh: “Behold, you shall see on that day when you go into an inner chamber to hide yourself.” (v. 25)
- Ahab’s challenge to that claim: “say, ‘Thus says the king, ‘Put this fellow in prison and feed him meager rations of bread and water, until I come in peace.’” (v. 27)
- Micaiah’s riposte or defense of the claim: “if you return in peace, the Lord has not spoken by me.” And he said, “Hear, all you peoples!” (v. 28)
- The public verdict: king Ahab never returns from the battle alive according to the word of the Lord (vv. 37-38).
This kind of conversation communicated honor to the Lord and his prophet, and dishonor to king Ahab and his 400 prophets.
God’s revelation through a lying prophet !?!
Finally, the Lord speaks, but apparently the Lord to sent a lying spirit to the prophets.
“Then a spirit came forward and stood before the Lord, saying, ‘I will entice him,’ By what means?’ And he said, I will go out, and will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.’ And he said, ‘You are to entice him, and you shall succeed; go out and do so.’ Now therefore behold, the Lord has put a lying spirit in the mouth of all these your prophets; the Lord has declared disaster for you.” (vv. 21 – 23)
Notice that twice in the passage the prophets are referred to as ‘his’ meaning they belonged to the king, and not the Lord’s. But nonetheless a lying spirit was sent forth from the Lord to entice and mislead Ahab to his death trap. Eventually that turns out to be a true revelation of the things to come as far as the battle at Ramoth-gilead is concerned, vv. 29 ff. How do we make sense of that, knowing that it is God’s character not to lie?
Key honor-shame dynamics culturally explain this passage. In honor-shame cultures, the intended meaning is often left unsaid. While truth in honor-shame contexts is a consensus of the majority especially the opinion leaders, God has the ultimate say in the end. Most importantly uses the cultural values of honor-shame to communicate to a disloyal king and his people, calling the loyal to His side.
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In 2008, candidate Barack Obama offered a plan "to empower Americans with disabilities,” promising to support universal screening — key to early help for children and families.
In particular, his campaign promised to support a national goal to re-screen all 2-year-olds for developmental disorders.
That's the age when some conditions, including autism, start to appear.
While it's not clear what the Obama campaign meant by "setting a national goal,” there are key signs the Obama administration has prioritized early childhood screening.
That's a big deal, experts say.
Early diagnosis means a chance for early treatment that can lessen the long-term impact of developmental disorders on kids, said Roxane Kaufmann, director of early childhood policy for Georgetown University Center for Child and Human Development.
And while organizations such as the American Academy of Pediatrics have for years encouraged routine developmental screening, in 2009 only half of pediatricians reported regularly using such screening tools.
Under the Obama administration, there's been real progress toward a goal of universal screening, said Sara Rosenbaum, a professor of health policy at George Washington University.
The most important changes came in the Affordable Care Act, the president's signature 2010 health care legislation:
• Bright Futures guidelines, published by the American Academy of Pediatrics, are now the standard for preventive care that many insurers must now cover without a co-pay. The guidelines include general developmental screening at ages 1 ½ and 2 ½, plus specific autism screening at 1 ½ and 2 years old. Still, employer plans with grandfathered status aren't required to meet these guidelines.
• Expansion of Medicaid, which includes developmental screening coverage that varies by state but must meet "reasonable standards of medical practice,” will boost the number of low-income kids with access. But the Supreme Court ruled states may opt out of the federal Medicaid expansion, which may limit the law's impact.
Other changes under the law will increase kids' access to doctors, such as growth in Community Health Centers and boosted Medicare payments to primary care physicians, said Brent Ewig, director of public policy for the Association of Maternal and Child Health Programs.
The law's changes are "a major victory for kids," he said.
Now the challenge is educating doctors and parents so kids benefit from new guidelines and coverage.
"That's always been the issue with all preventive screening guidelines,” Ewig said. "We've got a lot of work to do there to educate both providers and patients.”
The Health and Human Services Department says it's doing just that, with a "robust multi-agency effort” to make sure states have comprehensive newborn and childhood screening programs, and to help develop guidelines, test screening tools, raise public awareness and train health workers.
For example, a workgroup was launched in late 2010 to improve screening, diagnosis and treatment under Medicaid, which will release a series of strategy guides for states. Grants under the Affordable Care Act target high-risk children with home visits. The Administration for Children and Families is funding a study on Native American reservations, among other efforts.
Obama promised to "support setting a national goal to provide re-screening for all 2-year-olds.” The Affordable Care Act offers the clearest progress on this promise, with new guidelines for preventive care and an expansion of Medicaid. Meanwhile, federal health agencies chip away at challenges to universal screening. Still, efforts stop short of universal access. We rate this a Compromise.
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Saturn is the second largest planet in our solar system and you can easily spot it with a low-powered telescope. Sitting behind Jupiter, the sixth planet is made mostly of gas, helium specifically. And despite its size, it would actually float in a giant tub of water. Unfortunately, this also means that visiting Saturn is impossible for humans because there is no “surface” to land on. You’d simply sink deeper and deeper into the gas blankets that make up this planet.
Chordates are animals that share similar physical features, including a notochord. This fantastic body part allows the brain to talk to the rest of the body. In humans, the notochord is a very well-developed bundle of nerve axons called the spinal cord. To protect it, we (and other animals) evolved bony armor. This armor couldn’t just be one single piece of bone, otherwise, how would we move about freely? Thirty-three individual bones make up the spinal column, protecting the spinal cord, and keeping us upright yet flexible.
What’s a larynx anyway? Most people know the larynx as the voice box, since it houses the muscles that make up your vocal cords; however, this organ does so much more than just help you make sounds. Everything from swallowing, breathing, and not choking can be attributed to the function and structure of the larynx.
For a long time in history, people associated the heart with love. Even today, on Valentine’s Day and, well, whenever we want to show love, we use a picture of a red heart. An anatomically incorrect one at that… But were the ancients right? Is the heart really the seat of love? Sorry to be the bearer of bad news…
Astrocytes are star-shaped cells in the brain and spinal cord that play a role in many functions. Depending on where they are, they oversee things like gluconeogenesis, provide neurons with lactate, regulate ion concentration, repair the nervous system, and generally maintain homeostasis in the brain. Research has shown that disruption to astrocyte function contributes to worsening Alzheimer’s Disease (AD).
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For Immediate Release
Amy Kober, 206-898-3864 (cell)
National Climate Impacts Report Underscores Need to Protect, Restore Rivers and Water Resources
American Rivers called on Congress to strengthen and pass climate change legislation that significantly reduces carbon emissions and dedicates funding to a Natural Resources Climate Change Adaptation Fund to protect and restore healthy rivers and other natural resources that provide clean drinking water, flood protection, and boost communities' resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The report, "Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States," highlights that the U.S. will experience more wet-dry extremes, with heavier downpours and longer periods of drought. Communities will face increased risks from floods, water shortages for drinking, agriculture, energy and municipal uses, and increased water pollution. Specifically:
* Heavy downpours that are now 1-in-20-year occurrences are projected to occur about every 4 to 15 years and be between 10 and 25 percent heavier by the end of this century.
* Northern states east of the Mississippi River will experience between a 5 and 20 percent increase in runoff while southwestern areas experience between a 10 and 40 percent decrease by mid-century, based on a medium-high scenario of future carbon emissions.
* Spring snowmelts are projected to arrive more than 20 and in some cases 60 days earlier than usual in many parts of the West and 14 days earlier in Northeast. Early snowmelt can lead to drought in subsequent months.
"Nothing is more fundamental to our lives than clean water, and climate change is impacting rivers and clean water first and worst. If the floods and water shortages we've seen across the country over the past couple years weren't enough of a wake up call, this report should spur decision-makers to take action," said Rebecca Wodder, president of American Rivers. "The good news is, by protecting and restoring our rivers we can safeguard communities from damaging floods, water shortages, and waterborne diseases. By helping nature, we help ourselves."
American Rivers is advocating 21st century green infrastructure solutions to prepare communities for climate impacts. Green infrastructure approaches are reliable, flexible and cost-effective. They promote clean water, public health and safety, and deliver other benefits for people and wildlife.
Green infrastructure means restoring floodplains to protect communities instead of building taller levees; planting trees and restoring wetlands to naturally filter water, rather than building a costly new water treatment plant; and, choosing water efficiency and using captured rainwater instead of building a new water supply dam.
American Rivers urged communities to prepare for a changing climate by adopting the following green infrastructure approaches:
1. Protect healthy landscapes like forests and small streams that naturally sustain clean water supplies.
2. Restore degraded landscapes like floodplains and wetlands so they can better store flood waters and filter clean water.
3. Repair natural water systems in urban settings to capture and use water more wisely, and prevent stormwater and sewage pollution.
Many forward-looking cities are already embracing green infrastructure, including New York, Chicago, Portland, Seattle, San Francisco, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Toledo, Cincinnati, and Philadelphia.
"We are at a transformational moment. We have seen that the same old 19th and 20th century approaches to water management simply aren't fit for the challenges of this century," said Wodder. "It is time to embrace a 21st century approach to water that integrates green solutions, recognizes changing climatic conditions, and helps ensure community safety and security."
American Rivers is the only national organization standing up for healthy rivers so our communities can thrive. Through national advocacy, innovative solutions and our growing network of strategic partners, we protect and promote our rivers as valuable assets that are vital to our health, safety and quality of life.
Founded in 1973, American Rivers has more than 65,000 members and supporters nationwide, with offices in Washington, DC and the Mid-Atlantic, Northeast, Midwest, Southeast, California and Northwest regions.
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When workers at Cox Interior in Campbellsville trim wood while making doors, molding and stair parts, they’re not just crafting building products. They’re also creating fuel to help power the factory.
The facility has a combined heat and power (CHP) system that burns wood waste in producing electricity for lights and machines, and steam to heat wood-drying kilns.
Employees toss leftover pieces of wood into bins to be fed into the burner.
“Nothing gets thrown away here,” said Ruth Logsdon, environmental director for Cox Interior.
The business generates 75 to 80 percent of the electricity it needs, and sells power back to East Kentucky Power Cooperative at night when the system produces more than the factory needs.
Combined heat and power, also called co-generation, is the on-site production of electricity and heat from one fuel source.
Supporters say it can provide a number of benefits, including cheaper electricity; increased efficiency and less loss of electricity during transmission; waste reduction; and lower overall emissions.
“It is better for the environment because you use less fuel overall,” said Cheryl Cole Eakle, senior engineer at the Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center.
Producing power and heat separately has an efficiency of about 40 percent, compared to 70 percent or higher for co-generation, according to the state Energy and Environment Cabinet.
More energy is lost as wasted heat during power generation in the U.S. every year than the total energy use of Japan, but CHP cuts the amount of wasted energy nearly in half, according to the U.S. Department of Energy.
Cox Interior is one of only about 10 facilities in the state with CHP systems. The largest is the Domtar paper mill in Hawesville.
Others include chicken and soybean-processing facilities, a chemical manufacturer, wood-products companies and Fort Knox, which installed CHP units to increase energy security after a 2009 ice storm knocked out power to some buildings for days, according to the federal energy department.
Co-generation is much more common in the Northeast and other areas of the country where electricity costs more than in Kentucky, which has long had among the lowest rates in the country.
More than 4,000 factories, commercial buildings and other facilities use CHP in the U.S.
There is potential for significantly more CHP generation in Kentucky.
The systems in place now have the capacity to produce a total of 135 megawatts of electricity, according to a list from the federal energy department.
One study estimated businesses in the state have the technical potential to generate nearly 25 times more megawatts of electricity with CHP systems than the current level, according to information from the state Energy and Environment Cabinet.
The fact that it would be technically possible doesn’t mean it would be economically feasible for many facilities, but there is interest in boosting co-generation in Kentucky.
The state Department for Energy Development and Independence encourages development of CHP systems, said Michael Kennedy, an assistant director of the department.
The department took part in a program beginning in 2013 to figure out the barriers in policies, regulation and economics that keep businesses and public agencies from putting CHP systems in place.
The Kentucky Association of Manufacturers, the Kentucky Pollution Prevention Center and the Southeast CHP Technical Assistance Partnership participated as well.
One key goal was helping the state’s manufacturers hold down costs and remain competitive.
“This is one of the components we think will need to continue to be explored,” Greg Higdon, president of the Kentucky Association of Manufacturers, said of CHP systems.
In 2015, the legislature approved letting local governments create what are called Energy Project Assessment Districts, which create a way to offer businesses low-cost financing for CHP systems, with their property tax assessments as security. Seven communities have set up districts so far, Higdon said.
There also likely will be a proposal in the 2017 legislature for tax incentives for energy-efficiency projects that could boost use of CHP.
Higher electricity prices also could make CHP a possibility at more businesses, Kennedy said.
Co-generation at Cox Interior has consistently produced benefits since it was installed in 1994 at a cost of $5 million, according to the company.
The system produced net savings of about $1.2 million in 2014 and 2015, Logsdon said. The return has been even higher at times, said Barry Cox, chief executive officer of the company.
“For 25 years, this thing has been the biggest savings of anything that we’ve invested in,” Cox said.
Cox, whose father Charles E. Cox started the business in 1983, owns it with siblings Lanny Cox and Kay Cox Legg.
The business has more than a dozen warehouses in the Eastern U.S. and 450 employees. That’s less than before the 2008 recession sapped the home-construction business, but employment has rebounded significantly from 2010, Logsdon said.
In Campbellsville, workers feed wood waste into two boilers using separate conveyors, one painted University of Kentucky blue and the other University of Louisville red.
The boilers burn at 2,000 degrees or more, heating water to create steam that drives turbines to generate electricity for the factory, which has more than 20 acres under roof.
The system, which includes emission controls, uses wood pieces, bark and sawdust from the factory. Cox also buys wood waste from sawmills and accepts tree debris from Danville.
The plant has a machine to grind pallets and other waste into pieces small enough to burn efficiently. The company doesn’t burn any treated wood.
The system could probably produce all the electricity the plant would need, but the top priority is heat for the 13 drying kilns, so some steam that could turn a turbine to make electricity is diverted, Logsdon said.
The company generates electricity for 5 to 6 cents per kilowatt, while the cost to buy electricity is at least 11 cents, Logsdon said.
In addition to supplying lower-cost power and steam, the system allows Cox Interior to buy less expensive green lumber and dry it, and it gets rid of waste economically.
“It fulfills many beneficial needs,” Logsdon said of the CHP system. “It’s absolutely a major benefit, and I don’t think the company could do without it and be as economically stable as we are today.”
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Thursday, January 03, 2013
Spending time immersed in nature can increase creativity and critical thinking, study confirms
study has found that spending time fully immersed in nature can improve creativity and problem-solving. "Little is known about the human brain on technology, but many social psychologists fear that so much 'screen time' is rewriting our neural circuitry, and not for the better," Kevin Redmon of Pacific Standard magazine reports. Researchers wanted to find a tangible measure of how nature impacted the brain to counteract technology's sometimes negative impacts, something that had previously been unavailable. (Kentucky Tourism photo)
David Strayer, a professor of cognition and neural science at the University of Utah, and University of Kansas psychologists Ruth and Paul Atchley worked with Outward Bound to complete their experiment. Fifty-six students were asked to complete neural wordplay activities known as remote associates tests. Half the students took the tests before a camping trip, and the other half took them about midway through the trip. Students who took the tests after four days in the woods scored 50 percent higher then their peers. "Current research indicates that there is a real, measurable cognitive advantage to be realized if we spend time truly immersed in a natural setting," the authors write. The study, "Creativity in the Wild: Improving Creative Reasoning through Immersion in Natural Settings," was published in this month's issue of Plos One. (Read more)
The findings should be no surprise in New England, the New Hampshire Union Leader editorial board opines. "Most Granite Staters know that living among the hills, rivers, forests and mountains is good for the soul and body," the editorial states. "We also know what it can do for our peace of mind. Now scientists are confirming that it can improve creativity, attention span and mental function. Nice of them to catch up to us."
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St. Joseph Plantation History
This 1000 acre plantation is the birthplace of H. H. Richardson, one of America's most important architects of the 19th century.
The maison principale was acquired by a French doctor, who was hired to care for the plantation masters, their families, and slaves.
Josephine Aime, daughter of Valcour Aime, "The Louis XIV of Louisiana", married Alexis Ferry. They purchased the plantation in 1858 and enjoyed the lavish lifestyle that existed prior to the Civil War. In 1877, unable to retain ownership after slavery was abolished, they lost their plantation for non-payment of back taxes.
The lives of these families through the years were deeply intertwined with neighboring plantations, Oak Alley, Laura, "Le Petit Versailles", and still to this day, Felicite.
Learn about the sugar cane industry in South Louisiana from 1795, when sugar was first produced on a commercial scale and sugar was considered white gold, to the present day. Sugar continues to play a vital role in the economy of Louisiana.
View the renovated slave cabins as well as Creole Cottages, detached kitchen, barns, chicken coops, blacksmith shop carpenter shop and other dependencies necessary to sustain life during these early years.
These are the tireless volunteers; some, cousins as distant as the fourth degree. As a family, we have come together to breathe new life into this beautiful house so that we may share our home's wonderful story with all who have a desire to take in the wealth of information provided by time.
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An illustration of an earthworm. The basic body plan of an earthworm is a tube, the digestive system, within a tube, the muscular outer body. The body is annular, formed of segments that are most specialized in the anterior. Earthworms have a simple circulatory system. They have two main blood vessels that extend through the length of their body: a ventral blood vessel which leads the blood to the posterior end, and a dorsal blood vessel which leads to the anterior end. Most earthworms are decomposers feeding on undecayed leaf and other plant matter, others are more geophagous.
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The fact that Iraq fired an anti-ship missile at the WWII battleship USS Missouri in 1991 is not secret, but is still relatively not known in the general public. Even inside the defense community, the event is often poorly understood, or full of errors and bad timelines.
What makes this so curious is that more than any war before or since, operation “Desert Storm” was saturated with media coverage, and the two battleships in particular were among the most interesting pieces of hardware. Furthermore this event was the first time in history that a warship shot down a missile with a missile, and the last time that a battleship was attacked by any method.
(WWII ends aboard USS Missouri on 2 September 1945.)
(Iraqi “Seersucker” missiles captured during operation “Desert Storm”.)
(USS Missouri firing in the Persian Gulf in 1991. A departing 16″ shell is visible.)
In the general media, Silkworm is typically used as a catch-all for any combloc origin shore-to-ship missile system. There were actually several variants of so-called Silkworms in use in the Persian Gulf at the start of the 1990s.
Prior to the Sino-Soviet split, the USSR provided China with the P-15 Termit ship-to-ship missile, better known by it’s NATO reporting name SS-N-2 “Styx”. The “Styx” was already famous (or, infamous depending on your viewpoint) by 1991. In 1967 the Egyptian navy used the “Styx” to sink the Israeli destroyer INS Eilat (formerly HMS Zealous of the WWII Royal Navy) and it was also successfully employed by India in 1971, sinking the Pakistani destroyer PNS Khaibar (formerly HMS Cadiz in WWII) and damaging PNS Shah Jahan (during WWII, HMS Charity).
(Iraq’s navy also used the original sea-fired SS-N-2 “Styx” on some warships. This one is on its Soviet-made Zil transporter during a Baghdad military parade.)
For ship-to-ship use, the SS-N-2 “Styx” was put into Chinese production as the HY-1, with the reporting name CSS-N-1 “Scrubbrush”. The same HY-1 missile, when mounted on a towed trailer ashore, was called CSSC-2 “Silkworm”.
The “Silkworm” was a winged-body missile with a 519 lbs warhead. It was 19′ long with 7’10”-span wings and an aircraft-style tail. Launched from a rail, it had a solid-fuel booster underneath the tail which dropped off after launch. The main propulsion was a liquid-fueled rocket. The “Silkworm” flew a straight course at 1,000′ altitude around Mach 0.8. It was guided by autopilot until it neared it’s target, where an onboard radar seeker took over.
(A Chinese display model of the original “Silkworm” on a launch trailer.)
The “Silkworm”s seeker used conscan (conical radiating principle) which was a WWII technology. During the 1960s, the US Navy already developed a method to defeat Soviet conscan missile seekers. By broadcasting the seeker’s frequency back at it, the incoming weapon thinks the targeted is always centered, even if it is actually far off course. RCA developed the AN/SLQ-19 jammer for this purpose.
(RCA executives discussing how the AN/SLQ-19 jammer could be retrofitted aboard WWII Sumner and Gearing class destroyers still in US Navy use during the Vietnam War.) (photo via RCA)
Even without jamming, conscan had problems. The “Silkworm” needed to be pointed almost dead down the target ship’s bearing at launch, or the seeker would fail to acquire it to begin an attack and the weapon would thus just fly a straight line until it’s fuel ran out. This is one explanation of why the Iraqis had trouble with longer-ranged shots in the 1980s: as the target ship was moving, it might have already left the circular “viewing range” by the time the “Silkworm” arrived.
Iraq began receiving “Silkworm”s in the late 1970s. These “Silkworm”s were marketed as the HY-1J by China, indicating the mercury barometer was replaced by a radio-altimeter. During the opening months of the 1980 – 1988 Iran-Iraq War, some were successfully used against Iranian ships fleeing Bandar-e-Khomeini. The Iraqis discovered their Chinese-made “Silkworm”s were not as great as hoped. China claimed a usable range of 35 NM (the fuel-exhaustion maximum was 47 NM), however the Iraqis discovered that anything past 21 NM was pretty much hopeless.
The missiles themselves were often of poor manufacturing quality. They were also susceptible to HERO (hazard of electromagnetic radiation to ordnance) meaning if stored near a powerful radar they might spontaneously explode.
A persistent problem was the new radio-altimeter which was supposed to have been an improvement; a design flaw meant that if it momentarily lost track of the sea’s surface, it crashed the missile. The “Silkworm” was marketed by China with a 70% hit probability, but Iraq said that 9 out of every 10 fired during 1980 had missed. After 1983 deliveries were of the “Seersucker”. The last known Iraqi use of the actual “Silkworm” was on 3 September 1986 when seven were fired at the al-Omayeh oil platform which Iran was using as an observation post. Shortly thereafter, an Iraqi unit destroyed its remaining “Silkworm”s as their launch site was overrun to prevent their capture.
The weapon involved in the USS Missouri incident was actually a CSSC-3 “Seersucker”, also called HY-2 and now C-201 in the modern Chinese nomenclature system.
(Captured Iraqi “Seersucker” aboard an American M915 truck in 1991.)
Based on the “Styx” / “Scrubbrush” / “Silkworm”, the “Seersucker” continued the same concept, layout, and shape of the earlier weapons. However it was slightly larger, a bit faster, more longer-ranged, and had internal improvements. An effort by the CASC 3rd Academy in China rectified the sloppy craftsmanship found in the “Silkworm”.
(Original Chinese factory stenciling on a captured Iraqi “Seersucker” in 1991.) (Associated Press photo)
(Captured Iraqi “Seersucker” at Kuwait City’s merchant harbor after Desert Storm, being made ready for transport to the USA.)
(Captured “Seersucker” at the al-Faw launch site inside Iraq, which was manned by the 3rd Naval Infantry Brigade during Desert Storm. The Chinese designation HY-2G, more common, was China’s general built-for-export code. HY-2J, seen here, was used specifically to quickly fill Iraqi orders from Chinese “Seersucker”s already in stock during the 1980s Iran-Iraq War. This missile is defueled and judging by the open access panels, had interior components extracted by the Americans.) (official US Defense Department photo)
The “Seersucker” weighed 3¼ tons and had a 1,160 lbs warhead. It was of aluminum construction. The nose was a dielectric cap over the seeker’s radar dish, followed by the electronics section, a compressed air bank (to operate the tail / wing surfaces and to force propellant and oxidizer out of their tanks), the warhead, the propellant tank, the oxidizer tank, and the Isayaev motor.
(A captured Iraqi “Seersucker” with a cracked nose cap, which would have rendered it unusable.)
(The warhead and compressed air section of a Polish navy SS-N-2 “Styx”. The one in a “Seersucker” would be larger but generally similar.)
Compared to the “Silkworm”, the “Seersucker” cruised at a lower altitude (340′ – 680′) which was nowhere near the sea-skimming performance of the French Exocet or American Harpoon, but less detectable on radar than the “Silkworm”s altitude of nearly a fifth of a mile high. It had much better range, with up to 100 NM being absolute fuel exhaustion but 51 NM generally considered the realistic usable limit. The “Seersucker” cruised between 581 – 615 kts, depending on which phase of it’s flight it was in and it’s altitude. The airframe had a Mach 0.9 limit, which equates to 596 kts at 1′ altitude in 0% humidity and increasing in equivalent knots as altitude increased.
The main improvement was to the seeker. The conscan model of the “Silkworm” was replaced by a modern monopulse radar on the “Seersucker”, making it less vulnerable to jamming.
Just like the “Silkworm”, the “Seersucker” was fired off a trailer. The trailer had to be as even as possible relative to sea level; any degree of variation cost the weapon some range and at 10° variance, it could not launch. The rail did not have to be pointed at the target, but as close as possible was preferable. The USSR’s original “Styx” handbook recommended that the missile not be expected to make turns exceeding a constant 3° at any point of it’s flight, to minimize stresses on the airframe. Presumably the “Seersucker” had the same.
(British troops with a captured launcher.)
(Reloads were carried aboard this type of trailer, which could not fire them. This one was found inside a civilian warehouse in Basra after the 2003 conflict, not Desert Storm. A separate crane was needed to move reloads from this trailer onto a launcher.)
The “Seersucker” used a SPRD-30 solid-fuel booster, with a flapper in the exhaust which separated it off the missile when it burnt out.
(The booster and it’s flapper shown on a Chinese display HY-2.)
(The booster on an Iraqi “Seersucker”, atop a reload trailer.)
(Flipped upside down, this “Seersucker” shows the rear embrasure where the booster would have been fitted. This one particular missile has quite an odd story; it was buried by the Iraqis during the Hussein era for unknown reasons and unearthed in 2010, briefly being misidentified as a bomber-dropped AS-5 “Kelt”.) (Associated Press photo)
(The main engine blew through a frangible cover in the weapon’s rear. This “Seersucker” was captured by the USA during Desert Storm.)
At around 4 NM from the target’s expected location, the autopilot shut off and the seeker’s radar began operating. After locking on, the “Seersucker” gradually descended to between 7′ – 18′, until it hit the target.
Most military literature examines just the combat traits of the “Silkworm” and “Seersucker” without looking at the problems their fuel caused on the ground. The engine of these missiles used a binary liquid fuel.
(A heavily redacted intelligence document from December 1990 about Chinese binary fuel sales to Iraq. Norinco, the PRC’s arms conglomerate, is misspelled.)
The propellant was a chemical called TG-02 by Iraq or by its common trade name, Tonka. Based on the WWII German R-Stoff, it is a 50/50 blend of xylidine and triethylamine.
The oxidizer was IRFNA (halogen-inhibited red fuming nitric acid). An extremely dangerous chemical, IRFNA severely burns skin on contact, while its vapor causes blindness and permanent lung injury. IRFNA quickly eats through military uniforms, rubber sheeting, and protective gloves. Prolonged contact will destroy plastic and corrode metal. IRFNA’s sunlight decomposition byproduct, nitrogen dioxide, is itself another poison.
(This IRFNA storage “egg” was found in Kuwait City after Desert Storm. The red circle marks a bullet hole, the white discoloration is escaping IRFNA vapor eating through the steel tank from the outside in.) (photo via Gulflink)
Any contact between the propellant and oxidizer, even spilled drops on the ground, immediately forms the binary fuel which can explode in ambient air. Therefore extreme care needs to be taken when fueling a “Seersucker”. In theory, the missile could be left fueled however the Iraqis discovered that time and travel, such as towing the trailer repeatedly, degraded the Chinese coating in the missile’s oxidizer tank causing it to leak at its seams. (The Chinese themselves guaranteed the coating for only two years). Therefore if possible, they were fueled only before use was expected. The oxidizer was stored in “eggs” coated inside with a fluoride lacquer as seen in the photo above.
Countries which operated the “Seersucker” – Iraq by no means alone – discovered that the one-time investment in the actual missile was modest, but the ongoing cost of training men to fuel it and maintaining the necessary fuel infrastructure was far greater.
(Australian EOD specialist defueling a captured “Seersucker” a month after Desert Storm ended. Wearing a full hazmat suit, he power-flushed the propellant and oxidizer tanks, and then refilled them with water.) (photo via Royal Australian Navy)
Iraq’s coastal defense missiles during operation “Desert Storm”
(Iraqi “Seersucker” sites in 1991, with launcher locations underlined.) (map via Bing)
In 1990 American intelligence estimated that Iraq had 7 operational launch trailers, 10 to 15 reload carry trailers, and between 50 to 70 “Seersucker” missiles.
The coastal defense force’s central facility was at Umm Qasr, which was also the Iraqi navy’s GHQ. Here were 16 hardened bunkers each sized for 4 – 6 missiles. This alone would be enough for most of the “Seersucker” inventory however the bunkers also housed reload SS-N-2 “Styx”s used by Iraqi warships. A central distribution point for oxidizer and propellant was also here.
(One of the Umm Qasr bunkers a month after Desert Storm ended. A derelict SS-N-2 “Styx” is outside and a “Seersucker” under tarp just inside the door.) (Royal Australian Navy photo)
The only launch site in Iraq proper was on the al-Faw peninsula. In 2011, retired LtGen. Abid Mohammed al-Kabi said this site was elaborate, including buried underground cables by which “Seersucker”s could be fired remotely.
After Iraq overran Kuwait in August 1990, the Iraqi military began moving coastal defense missiles into the country, which Saddam Hussein wished to annex as a new province of Iraq. An interesting facility was the al-Badiwayah Girls School Of Science (commonly just called “girls school site”) in Kuwait City’s southern suburbs. This served as a HQ with reload “Seersucker”s, bulk oxidizer and propellant storage, command radios, and a handling crane. The site offered zero military benefit; it was unhardened and 5 miles driving distance – some of it on residential side streets – to deliver missiles to any of the closest launch sites.
(Taken by a U-2 reconnaissance plane, this shows the site with north to the right. The highlighted tank was feared to contain mustard gas, but actually contained rocket fuel. The black splotch in the lower left is smoke from burning oil wells.)
Clearly the site was chosen because the Iraqis predicted (correctly) that the USA would not bomb a civilian schoolhouse.
Iraq established temporary “Seersucker” launch sites along the Kuwaiti coastline and on Failaka island, which saw its civilian population expelled. After the start of operation “Desert Storm” in January 1991, the United States moved quickly to destroy launchers from the air.
By 20 February 1991, the USA felt it had eliminated all seven mobile launchers (including one which USS Missouri destroyed via 16″ gunfire) and a good percentage of the missiles. Clearly this was wrong, as evidenced by the attack on USS Missouri five days later, after which additional launchers were destroyed. Even after this, two mobile launchers were still captured intact meaning either Iraq started the war with many more launchers than estimated, or, that airstrike assessments had been optimistic.
The flip side of this was that of the estimated 50 – 70 “Seersucker” missiles, the only examples fired the whole war were the two against USS Missouri described below. It appears that the Iraqis had massive problems handling the oxidizer and propellant, as described earlier. Starting in December 1990, “Seersucker”s were emplaced as decoys, often in a very amateurish way. For example it appears that the battery on Failaka was never even partially operational and instead completely decoys.
(Taken by a F-14 Tomcat off USS Ranger (CV-61) at 25,000′, this shows the silly beach defense scheme on Failaka: a World War One-style slit trench, followed by three “Seersucker”s lined up like sitting ducks on the sand (the top one having tipped over). The Tomcat pilot identified the missiles as decoys.)
(This “Seersucker” was placed on a makeshift ramp of welded rods, set on loose sand. It seems impossible that the missile could have been fired this way.)
(This “Seersucker” was strafed by American aircraft but did not blow up, meaning it had neither warhead nor fuel inside.)
During the last week of February 1991, the launch sites in Kuwait were overrun, along with the “girls school site”. Here six “Seersucker” missiles were captured intact along with a reloading crane, two diagnostic carts, a pair of reload trucks, an electric generator, fueling hoses, and an IRFNA bulk storage tank.
(This photo was taken as evidence for war crimes charges due to using a civilian school in an occupied country for military purposes. Nothing ever became of it.)
(The missiles were stored using the courtyard walkway to shield them from air reconnaissance.)
As a side note, the building is still used as a school as of 2019. It is now called al-Nasser School.
Iowa class: anti-missile defensive systems
When the Iowa class recommissioned in the 1980s, they were upgraded with new systems to deal with the anti-ship missile threat that had evolved while they were mothballed.
(One of USS Missouri’s Phalanx mounts being test-fired during operation “Desert Shield” in 1990.)
The Mk15 Phalanx CIWS (close-in weapon system) is centered around a six-barrelled, gatling-type M61 20mm gun. Atop it is a radome with two radars, one that acquires the target and another that tracks the gap between the incoming missile and the outgoing bullets, with a computer adjusting aim until the two meet. The rate of fire is 3,000rpm; as the late-1980s version of the gun only held 989 rounds, these were typically fired in 220rds bursts.
(Mk149 20mm round for the Mk15 Phalanx. As it is a APDS design, the muzzle velocity is irrelevant but the bullet travels at 3,650fps at the moment of sabot discard. Each round cost $30 in 1991 money.) (drawing via General Dynamics)
The battleships carried four Phalanx mounts. The system is completely automated and unmanned. The computer rejects any target outside the gun’s 2¾ NM effective range, rejects any target with an opening range relative to the host ship, rejects friendly SAMs leaving the host ship, and automatically engages anything else. There is no IFF system so care must be used if friendly aircraft are in the area. There are three modes; dormant, standby, and auto-engage.
The heart of the battleship’s new electronic warfare (EW) system was the AN/SLQ-32(V)3 of which two were carried at the top of the conning tower. This system had two functions. The basic AN/SLQ-32 detected faint radar emissions of an incoming missile, so even if it was missed by radar and visually, the ship would be alerted. The more expensive (V)3 version aboard major combatants also had a function called Sidekick. This broadcast a ghost radar image of the battleship further away, the idea being that a missile would veer towards the imaginary “sidekick” and ignore the real ship.
The Mk36 SRBOC (Super-Rapid Bloom-Off Chaff) system is an automated launcher for chaff rockets. Invented during WWII, chaff is strips of thin foil to blind radar. On the battleships, the SRBOC launchers and AN/SLQ-32(V)3 systems could each operate alone or in partnership.
All 20mm and 40mm AA guns of WWII were removed. During WWII, the ten Mk28 Mod2 twin 5″ turrets had proven useful against Japanese warplanes. However during the 1980s refits four of the ten turrets had been removed and the remaining six were considered bombardment artillery only with no AA potential. Had the battleships remained in service through the 1990s, the US Navy proposed to replace two of the four 5″ gun director structures with digital devices to measure the ballistics of outgoing 16″ shells to improve the main gun’s aim.
(USS Missouri’s Mk28 Mod2 twin 5″ turrets are outlined by the muzzle flash of the forward Mk7 16″ weapons, during a mission against Iraqi army targets in early February 1991. This photo also shows a Phalanx in the upper left and a Bushmaster on the deck edge. )
prelude to the events
The US Navy already had some experiences with coastal defense missiles in the Persian Gulf. During the 1988 “Praying Mantis” operation, Iran fired a pair of “Silkworm” missiles at USS Gary (FFG-51) which were defeated by the frigate’s countermeasures. A pair of Iranian “Silkworm”s were also fired at two civilian barges being leased by the American military; both of these missed on their own.
As USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin entered the Persian Gulf as part of operation “Desert Shield” in 1990, the biggest foreseen threats to the WWII battleships were not the coastal missiles, but rather mines and air-fired anti-ship missiles.
(This was, during the “Desert Shield” period, the most-feared threat in the US Navy: an Iraqi air force Mirage F.1EQ with drop tank, AM.39 Exocet anti-ship missile, two Magic air-to-air missiles, two Remora jammer pods, and a second drop tank to balance the Exocet. Iraq made devastating use of the Mirage & Exocet combination during the 1980s against civilian tankers in the Persian Gulf.)
Only one Coalition warship, HMS Brazen, was targeted by air attack during the whole war and the Iraqi planes were shot down by American fighters far away. The Exocet threat simply failed to materialize.
(This was the very first mine spotted by USS Missouri, on 9 January 1991, a week before “Desert Storm” began. It is either a M-08 or a MYaM, both Soviet moored contact weapons. The M-08 was a WWII mine used by the USSR into the 1960s and exported to both Iran and Iraq; Iranian examples damaged the supertanker M/V Bridgeton in 1987 and frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58) in 1988. The MYaM was a smaller Cold War model exported to Iraq. If it was a M-08, it could have been left over from the 1980-1988 war, having broken free of a rusted-through chain. Alternatively if it was of either type, it might have been freshly planted by Iraq in 1991; as Saddam Hussein instructed his navy to release intentionally-cut, free-floating mines into the Persian Gulf, to drift in the currents until they happened to hit whatever they hit or washed ashore. An alert watchstander on the battleship spotted the mine and a smallboat was dispatched to destroy it via demolition charge.)
(The LUGM-145 was another cheap moored mine, often released in the free-floating style described above. During Desert Storm, USS Tripoli (LPH-10) hit a LUGM-145, knocking the ship out of the conflict with $3.5 million in damage.) (photo via Royal Australian Navy)
A lot of the Iraqi floating mines facing USS Missouri in 1991 were quite honestly, not much better than the Imperial Japanese Navy mines facing the battleship in 1945. For example the LUGM-145 shown above is very similar in style, function, and explosive payload to the Shimose Type 88 and still used the same detonation method; “hertz horns” which were hollow metal protrusions that, when bumped by a ship, crushed a glass vial of acid setting off the warhead.
(Mines were eliminated by a smallboat planting a C4 charge. This mine was spotted by USS Missouri and destroyed. One of the battleship’s escorting frigates is in the distance.)
(The al-Muthena was an Iraqi designed mine. This one was disarmed and then dissected, as no intelligence had previously been available on the al-Muthena.)
The Iowa class’s underwater protection in WWII was to defeat both mines and torpedoes. The lateral anti-torpedo portion, which differed from other WWII battleship classes worldwide, had an outer shell of steel, then first and second internal steel bulkheads, and the lower part of the lower belt armor forming a third bulkhead. It was expected that a torpedo would penetrate the outer shell and one or more of the first two bulkheads, but hopefully not the belt. The final barrier was a “holding bulkhead” that was supposed to deform inwards from the resulting shock as opposed to rupturing.
This was not ideal but contrary to how it is described today, the system was not a “mistake”. The US Navy wanted a heavily-armored battleship class as fast as cruisers, carrying 16″ guns, and still able to use the Panama Canal. So some compromises were necessary. Still, during WWII the system was a concern. Had the last ship of the class, USS Kentucky (BB-66) been finished a modified set-up would have been used and the never-built Montana class had a different concept entirely.
None the less, in 1991 the Iowa lateral system would have certainly sufficed against floating Iraqi contact mines. Iraq had no submarines so the performance against torpedoes was irrelevant.
During WWII several navies made limited use of seabed mines. As their name suggests, these sit on the bottom and are triggered by the target ship’s noise or magnetic influence as it passes overhead. The detonation is directed upwards and creates a shockwave of water that impacts the bottom of the ship. Against these, the Iowa class had a triple bottom.
Compared to WWII, modern seabed mines had greatly increased in sophistication and destructive power. The MN103 Manta, shown below, was sold to Iraq by Italy during the 1980s.
(A pair of captured Mantas (blue) with LUGM-145s for comparison. USS Princeton (CG-59) was damaged by a Manta during Desert Storm.)
The Manta could be laid by ships or pushed out of helicopters, in depths from the surfline to 334′. It had a 375 lbs warhead of HBX-3. The Manta’s shape was designed to appear invisible to sonar and it remained armed for a year or more.
(photo via All Hands, the US Navy’s magazine)
With high-performance bottom mines like the Manta, there was a concern with the Iowa class. Depending on the lay depth and the target’s draught, not only would the seawater shock wave slam into the keel but perhaps even the rising blast column itself could penetrate the ship’s bottom. On the Iowa class, the forward turret’s barbette armor tapered at the bottom to follow the sleek hull shape. Thus, that turret’s powder room had limited protection to a blast directly below. The US Navy was aware of this when it recommissioned the class in the 1980s however 40+ years after their construction, there was no way to alter them for this modern threat.
Neither USS Missouri nor USS Wisconsin struck mines of any type during the war so the issue was moot. Both operated consistently alongside modern mine warfare vessels.
(A minesweeper passes by USS Missouri during operation “Desert Storm”.)
The attempted missile strike
In the most simple and commonly quoted version of this story…
USS Missouri was bombarding Iraqi ground targets inside occupied Kuwait when a “Seersucker” was detected. The battleship launched SRBOC chaff rockets, while HMS Gloucester fired two Sea Dart surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) at the “Seersucker”, destroying it. Meanwhile the frigate USS Jarrett activated it’s Phalanx CIWS which engaged USS Missouri‘s chaff clouds, sending 20mm rounds downrange which then struck the battleship.
This version contains truth but is a distortion and conflation of two separate events, as described below.
THE FIRST EVENT
On 24 February 1991, USS Missouri (BB-63) was in the northern Persian Gulf, along with the frigate USS Jarrett (FFG-33), the British destroyer HMS Gloucester, the British frigate HMS London, and the minesweepers HMS Cattistock and USS Avenger (MCM-1). The purpose of the SAG (surface action group) was to make Saddam Hussein believe that an outflanking amphibious assault was imminent, thereby tying down Iraqi army divisions in northern Kuwait and precluding them from reinforcing forces further south, who were getting steamrolled by advancing US Marines.
(USS Missouri firing a 16″ salvo, as seen from HMS Gloucester.)
At 23:00 on 24 February, the SAG was ordered to make a feint against the area of the al-Shuaiba Docks, which was one of the assets the Iraqis felt would be a prime target for an amphibious assault to seize. This operation, which began around 00:55 on 25 February, involved USS Missouri shelling targets inland with 16″ gunfire, a wave of helicopters which would turn around short of the beach, and dummy radio chatter to make the Iraqis believe a landing was starting. USS Missouri was on a southerly course, with the starboard side thus facing landward, unmasking all nine 16″ barrels.
(Taken by USS Missouri’s Pioneer UAV about 36 hours before the first “Seersucker” incident, this shows an Iraqi ammo bunker far inland taking a direct 16″ hit.)
By 03:00 on 25 February, smoke from oil wells the Iraqis had set ablaze reduced ambient nighttime light to nearly nothing and the sky was an inky black void. Muzzle flashes from USS Missouri‘s 16″ guns were clearly visible on the horizon from shore; which was about 11 NM at it’s closest point and 14 NM from known Iraqi observation points. Even without radar, the Iraqis could thus triangulate the rough bearing of the battleship, which is enough to pretarget a “Seersucker”. As their front to the south was rapidly collapsing, the Iraqis would have little reason not to use whatever missiles they had at this opportunity. A Royal Navy captain later remarked that he felt certain the battleship would take incoming missiles that night.
At 04:52 on 25 February, a pair of “Seersucker” missiles were launched. The launches were visually observed by an A-6 Intruder attack plane, who reported two distinct plumes from the area of al-Fintas, which was the northernmost “Seersucker” site south of Kuwait City. One of the missiles immediately flopped into the sea, with the other leveling off and heading east towards USS Missouri.
Because of the way the Coalition’s radio network was set up, the advance warning never made it to the battleship or its escorts. The Intruder’s transmission was sent to USS Valley Forge (CG-50) and to the NavCent GHQ ashore, both of which were not tied in to the LINK system used locally by the SAG.
The incoming “Seersucker” was instead detected via radar aboard HMS Gloucester at 21 NM range, and classified as an anti-ship missile based on its flight path and lack of transponder. At the weapon’s incoming speed (Mach 0.89), the British destroyer had under a minute to classify it as hostile, decide to engage, and then do so. This was not a simple decision as the “Seersucker”s initial detection point was in an air lane used by Coalition warplanes returning to Saudi Arabia after bombing Iraq. If the decision was wrong, a friendly plane would be shot down. The decision to fire was made 43 seconds after the “Seersucker” was first detected.
The attack came at the worst possible time. Both HMS Gloucester and USS Jarrett were ‘front-enders’, meaning that their main AA weapon (Sea Dart GWS.30 and RIM-66 Standard SAMs, respectively) were fired off launchers ahead of their bridge, with a field of fire limited roughly 100° to either side of the bow. The plan for defending the SAG called for at least one escort to maintain a north/south heading unmasking their SAM launcher to the west at all times, however, at this precise moment both were maneuvering and both were headed due east, preventing use of their SAMs. This simultaneous turn was mandated by the width of the lane swept of Iraqi sea mines.
(Launch of a Sea Dart SAM.)
Aboard USS Missouri, the “Seersucker” had been spotted by visual lookouts and correctly classified as an incoming missile. The battleship activated the electronic warfare suite which resulted in SRBOCs being fired and (presumably) the jammers coming online. The battleship’s four Phalanxes also were switched from standby to auto-engage, however they did not fire. There are several possibilities: the Phalanxes may have not had sufficient warm-up time before the missile was out of range again; or they may have been blotted out by the battleship’s own chaff; or the “Seersucker”s flight path might have already been at an obtuse angle to USS Missouri by the time the CIWS radars acquired it, meaning the Phalanxes would reject it as an opening-range non-threat.
HMS Gloucester initiated a hard turn to unmask the Sea Dart launcher. Firing nearly “over the shoulder” to starboard, two Sea Darts were launched, of which one hit the Iraqi missile. The entire event took 89 seconds.
The interception range varies with the account given; ranging from 2¾ NM to 4 NM away from HMS Gloucester, and 4 NM to 7 NM away from USS Missouri. Likewise the altitude of the intercept is debated, with USS Jarrett‘s history listing it at 375’ to visual witnesses aboard HMS London who estimated between 680′ – 1,000′.
(The interception of the “Seersucker”, the first time in history that a warship in real combat used a missile to shoot down a missile.)
HMS Gloucester‘s Phalanxes also activated, however they did not engage, presumably as the “Seersucker” did not enter the range envelope before it was shot down. USS Jarrett‘s Phalanx did not fire as the “Seersucker” was outside of the range envelope. HMS London was also out of SAM range (this was later disputed by the US Navy) and the minesweepers had no weapon capable of engaging a missile.
Before its intercept the “Seersucker” had already passed astern of USS Missouri. Eyewitnesses aboard both the battleship and USS Jarrett recall the missile veering sharply northwards seconds before its destruction, presumably distracted by the battleship’s chaff or jammers. However the tactical track aboard HMS Gloucester showed it ignoring the chaff and maintaining a steady course to the end, albeit one which was not going to hit anything.
The closest vessel to the missile’s flight path at any point was actually the minesweeper HMS Cattistock which it almost directly overflew. Having failed to lock on to either the closer minesweeper or the huge battleship, it appears that the “Seersucker”s seeker was possibly defective.
The A-6 Intruder which had first observed the “Seersucker” launches attacked the area where the launch plumes originated with a dozen Mk20 Rockeye cluster bombs.
(Painting of the event by the artist John C. Roach.)
Quite remarkably, during the post-2003 American occupation, an Iraqi veteran came forward claiming to have been part of the 1991 event. He insisted that three “Seersucker” missiles had been fired at an American battleship. There is no evidence whatsoever to back up a third missile; the A-6 observed only two launch plumes of which one quickly crashed, and both USS Missouri and HMS Gloucester tracked only one missile inbound. On the other hand, the man knew the correct date of the attack and it is unclear what he had to gain by lying. If a third “Seersucker” was fired, it missed by such a huge margin that HMS Gloucester never even detected it as a threat.
After sunrise on 25 February 1991, one of USS Missouri‘s RQ-2A Pioneer observation drones located another “Seersucker” launcher which the Intruder had missed. US Army OH-58D Kiowa helicopters, temporarily operating off USS Jarrett‘s helipad, destroyed it with AGM-114 Hellfire missiles. Later during the morning of 25 February, helicopters off USS Okinawa (LPH-3) scoured the area for “Seersucker” launchers, finding decoys but no more launchers. The Iraqis appeared to be continuing preparations to repel an amphibious assault.
(This unusual diorama was found inside a school in Kuwait City after the city was liberated, and was apparently some sort of anti-amphibious battle plan.) (official US Navy photo)
THE SECOND EVENT
During the late afternoon of 25 February, USS Missouri returned to the same area (actually, almost exactly the spot where HMS Gloucester had been the previous night) to bombard targets ashore. With HMS Gloucester having departed, now along with the battleship were the minesweeper HMS Atherstone, USS Jarrett again, and the destroyer HMS Exeter which was acting as the central node of the flotilla. HMS Exeter received a voice report from HMS Atherstone that the launch plume of an anti-ship missile had been observed ashore.
In fact there had never been a missile. The tall upwards flame which HMS Atherstone observed ashore was Iraqi troops dynamiting an oil well to start it on fire. Of course this was not known until after the event.
Using the LINK system, HMS Exeter notified the other ships that a probable missile was inbound. USS Missouri fired off SRBOC rockets to distract the presumed threat. The SRBOCs came down inbetween the battleship and USS Jarrett, quite close to the frigate, which had already set its Phalanx to auto-engage. The Phalanx immediately slewed to starboard, locked on to one of the SRBOC chaff clouds which it mistook as a threat, and fired a 220rds burst in the direction of the chaff cloud. A moment later, USS Missouri‘s next SRBOC chaff volley detonated in the sky, this time nearly directly on top of USS Jarrett. The frigate’s Phalanx again started firing to starboard, however this time a sailor aboard USS Jarrett shut the weapon off mid-burst, after 100 rounds had been fired.
This sequence and the placement of the ships resulted in a nearly straight line-of-fire 2¾ NM long from USS Missouri, through battleship’s chaff clouds, to USS Jarrett.
In almost all versions of the event, it is said that 20mm rounds from USS Jarrett‘s Phalanx impacted USS Missouri. The most commonly quoted number is 4 individual rounds, which (even given the dispersion field at the extreme end of the Phalanx’s range) seems very low given the hundreds fired by the frigate. One round penetrated a 3/8″ steel plate and one internal bulkhead into a bunking area. The most commonly repeated location is “…by the plaque” (the deck marker where WWII ended, starboard and slightly aft of the B 16″ turret). If so, the spot could only be compartments #1-74-1-L or #1-78-3-L which are actually directly under the plaque, and after the 1980s refits were junior officer living spaces. Less the captain’s stateroom (#1-89-1L) any other compartment is not a bunking space, not in that area, or under massive armor. At least in the unclassified realm, there is no known photo of the actual damage.
Another round apparently hit a piece of equipment stowed on deck, slightly injuring one sailor via a shard of flying plastic – although sometimes the injured sailor is recalled as being inside the ship, struck by shrapnel from the round that penetrated the bunking spaces. Other accounts mention 20mm rounds “bouncing off” which would likely mean hits to the belt or a 16″ turret.
Most points are generally agreed on by those recalling the events. But even here there is vagueness. One example is an interview of a former USS Missouri crewman (who’s name is redacted, but described as “Executive Officer”). Done seven years after Desert Storm by a group investigating depleted uranium exposure to American servicemen, the record contains a number of remarkable points. The document incorrectly conflates the two separate events described above into one continuous sequence, incorrectly describes the liquid-fueled missile as a “ramjet”, and most surprisingly claims that USS Missouri engaged the Iraqi missile with 5″ gunfire. This last point is, quite frankly, very difficult to accept as reality. In fairness to the interviewed officer, the report is a “summary” vice verbatim transcript, and it is unknown if the writer chose to take editorial liberties.
The US Navy’s brief statement of the event, which was released 6½ months after Desert Storm ended, mentions “superficial damage”, but specifically states no injuries. This seemingly conflicts with the story of the nameless sailor cut by shrapnel, unless his wound was so minor as to not be considered an official casualty.
To further confuse things Gen. Sir Peter de la Billière, CinC of British forces in the war, stated that 20mm rounds from a Phalanx aboard HMS Gloucester had struck USS Missouri which does not agree with any other account. USS Jarrett‘s official history of the account states that a SH-60 Seahawk anti-submarine helicopter was also in the area and deployed chaff, which is not mentioned by any other source.
How would the “Seersucker” perform against USS Missouri had it hit?
This seemingly simple question has an incredibly complex answer. The differences between a WWII battleship shell and a Cold War anti-ship missile are numerous…a shell is heavier, much denser, but has less explosives inside and loses kinetic energy in flight. A missile is flimsy, but contains a very large warhead and as it is under power, it hits the target at full speed.
The first missile, if it can be called that, fired at American warships was the Japanese Okha manned suicide rocket, none of which hit a battleship during WWII.
(A captured MXY7 Okha being disassembled at Yantan AFB in Okinawa near the end of WWII.)
To answer the battleship vs missile question for a weapon in the 1990s it is first preferable to understand the armor the Iowa class was built with during WWII, and the ordnance it was designed to defeat in the 1940s.
WWII battleship shells were either High-Capacity (HC) or Armor-Piercing (AP). HC, as the name implies, had a high capacity of explosives and were intended for bombardment. (Most of the rounds USS Wisconsin and USS Missouri fired in 1991 were HCs.) AP shells had a much smaller amount of explosive filler, but were much heavier, more dense, and designed to puncture armor before exploding.
A variation was APC (Armor-Piercing: Capped). These had a hollow metal skin called the windshield to make them aerodynamic, followed by a “cap” of soft iron atop the hardened steel penetrator. The cap’s job was to deform upon impact and allow the main penetrator to pass through it into the target’s armor. This “stuck” the hit at an optimal angle reducing the chances that the penetrator would ricochet or shatter. It also prestressed the armor an instant before the penetrator hit it, increasing the chances that the armor would crack.
(Diagram of a Japanese Type 91 16″ shell of IJN Nagato which was studied during the occupation of Japan. It shows the windshield (1), cap (3), penetrator (4), and TNA explosive (13). This APC shell had an added feature, a pre-cap (2) to prevent damage to the cap upon hitting water.)
One innovation of the first world war carried into the second was plunging fire. Here, a battleship captain sought not for the shell to slam horizontally into the thick vertical armor belt or turret faces, but rather plunge diagonally through the weather deck and down into the ship, exploding the target’s main gun magazine. The Imperial Japanese Navy took this a step further and trained captains to aim slightly short, so that shells would plunge momentarily through the water then impact beneath the waterline below the belt; combining the best aspects of plunging fire, direct fire, and a torpedo hit.
USS Missouri was originally “designed impervious to herself”, or in other words, armored to be survivable against the same guns onboard. Specifically the goal was protection against 16″ shells fired between 8¾ NM – 15 NM. Less than 8 NM, it was considered that a 16″ shell would impact at high velocity and penetrate regardless, while above 15NM the shell would have to be at a plunging angle.
(diagram via Robert Sumrall)
The Iowa class had internal belt armor. Carrying the belt internally is harder for a shipyard to perfect and much more difficult to repair if damaged, but it allowed for a sleek hull able to use the Panama Canal. The shell plating of the hull was a high-tensile steel intended to rip off the cap on APC shells before they hit the belt. The belt was 38’6″ tall and extended from one deck below the weather deck, to beneath the waterline to counter the Japanese submerged-plunging tactic. The top portion was Class A armor, an expensive steel which is extremely hard on the surface but softer and more pliable to the rear. The lower portion was Class B, slightly less hard but less brittle. The upper portion was 12.1″ thick and the lower 12.1″ tapering down. This 12.1″ belt was sloped 19º which gave it the same ballistic effect as being 17″ thick at 0°.
(USS Missouri under construction during WWII. To the right can be seen the thick lower belt, inside the thinner shell plating and then the shipyard supports.)
Against plunging fire the horizontal “bomb deck” was 1½” hardened steel. As its name implies, one function was to directly defeat small aircraft bombs. But a more important role was to set the delayed fuze of plunging shells, while ripping off their cap and causing them to yaw and hit the armor deck below at a bad angle.
The “armor deck” was the strongest horizontal part of USS Missouri, in fact, the Iowa class was effectively “upside down” in that it bore more structural load than the keel. It was 4¾” Class B armor over 1½” steel. This was the main protection against plunging hits. Beneath a girder was the “splinter deck” of ¾” steel. It was a “last line of defense” and also intended to bear the weight of debris from the heavier armor above.
(Taken during WWII, this shows an Iowa class turret under construction. Shown is the ¾” sheet steel to which the turret side 9½” Class A armor will be attached. The turret face, not yet started, will be steel 2½” thick overlaid with plates of 17″ Class B armor. This photo also shows the core of the armored conning tower.) (US Navy photo)
The conning tower was protected by a 17½” thick Class B cylinder that connected it to the citadel. The photo below was taken during the 1980s reactivation and shows it’s strength.
The Iowa class was “all-or-nothing” meaning armor was concentrated in a central “citadel” that ran from ahead of the foremost 16″ turret to just behind the rear 16″ turret. It was basically a box, formed by the belts on the sides, strong fore and aft internal bulkheads, and the horizontal armor described above. Everything important – magazines, boilers, engines, and after the 1980s, the CIC – was inside this citadel. Still within the citadel, underneath the three main turrets were barbettes. These were cylinders of 17¼” Class A.
Other areas were nearly unprotected. For example the bow ahead of frame 10 was almost completely defenseless; as there was nothing important in that area and that section of ship had little buoyancy above its own weight.
Despite the all-or-nothing classification, the designers set out to make the best battleship possible and did not strictly limit themselves. Other areas, including the main director towers and an area over the propeller shafts, had some armor.
A lot of factors affect armor performance, and the art of making it was just being truly perfected as the battleship era ended. Therefore it is exceedingly hard to gauge performance vs a specific weapon, especially if that weapon is an entirely different type, like a missile.
(A plate from the turret face armor of IJN Shinano, which was instead converted into an aircraft carrier and never received it. Tested vs a 16″ gun in the USA after WWII, the US Navy discovered that things like trace elements in the alloy and how it was quenched during manufacture, affected its final performance. These tests were for metallurgical study and not a “battle simulation” as sometimes reported.)
The raw kinetic energy, or Ek = (½m)(v²) of a “Seersucker” impact can be calculated easily. At a horizontal impact point 10′ above sea level, the missile would be traveling 603 kts (1,018fps). The mass at launch is 6,227 lbs.
(“Seersucker” weight distribution at launch.)
However it would have obviously traveled some distance; for purposes of study assume 20 NM. At this, 208 lbs of propellant and 471 lbs of oxidizer (11% of the missile’s weight) would have been consumed already. All this considered, the impact would have raw kinetic energy of 121.4 MJ, or 89,540,045 foot-lbs onto the target.
(This omits two critical items: projectile density and impact angle, but shows the impact speed (Vt) and kinetic energy (Ek) of various projectiles along with USS Missouri’s own.)
Unlike an impacting heavy-caliber shell of solid steel however, almost none of the kinetic energy from a “Seersucker” comes from weight. Assuming a 20 NM flight beforehand, of the remaining 89% launch weight, 22% would be in liquid form (remaining oxidizer and propellant) and less the warhead, the rest either aluminum or plastic with no penetrative ability. So unlike an impacting WWII shell, the actual kinetic energy has to be calculated from the warhead’s explosion.
(One of the most famous photos of WWII, this shows the final moment of a kamikaze as it crashes into USS Missouri on 11 April 1945. Similar to a “Seersucker”, the A6M “Zero” was a largely hollow aluminum object, but unlike the missile it lacked a warhead. It barely dented the battleship. On paper it had only slightly less kinetic energy than a 8″ heavy cruiser shell but obviously the effect was far less. The pilot, believed to be PO3 Setuso Ishino, was buried with honors by the battleship’s crew.)
The total potential energy of the explosive in a “Seersucker”s warhead is a massive 2,411 MJ (1.778 billion foot-pounds or 12,349,694psi). Once again however, the easiest factor to calculate is also the least relevant. In an imaginary 3D spherical explosion near an imaginary 1D vertical sheet, about 30% of the energy (732 MJ) hits the sheet at full effect, 50% (1,206 MJ) is wasted, and the remaining 473 MJ impacts the sheet at roughly the cosine of approach angle – for example, imagining a half-sphere, the “head-on” 30% impacts at a factor of 1.0, while a “ray” at 25° at factor 0.906, 50° at factor 0.643, at 80° at factor 0.174, and so on. But “Seersucker”s do not actually function this way, as described further below.
Other factors make it challenging to model effects of modern anti-ship missiles against WWII armor intended to defeat shells. For an incoming 16” AP shell during WWII, penetration of USS Missouri‘s armor would have started from a hyper-concentrated area ≅0∅ (the smallest imaginable point of the tip of the shell’s penetrating body) with all it’s energy momentarily concentrated there, expanding to no more than a constant 16″ diameter plus friction over the shell’s length. On the other hand with the “Seersucker”, the primary blast’s impact area starts spread out in a broad 30″ diameter already to begin with and expands without inherent limit.
the HEAT factor
Directed-energy ammunition has a hollow inwards-facing cone which concentrates the blast towards one direction. The most familiar application is High-Energy Anti-Tank (HEAT) rounds of land combat. The cone is lined with a mild metal. Since explosives release energy on their surface, detonation melts the mild metal and compresses it into a slug-like molten jet in the hollow cone’s core, which is rammed forwards at extreme velocity into the target by the rest of the blast behind it. (Contrary to popular perception, HEAT does not work by heat, and the molten jet penetrates by force, not by ‘melting through’ an object.)
The warhead of the “Seersucker” was derived from the “Silkworm”, itself a Chinese copy of the Soviet “Styx”. Unclassified statements of captured Iraqi missiles describe a “copper jacket” inside the warhead; this being a tell-tale trait of HEAT.
When the Soviets designed the original “Styx”, it is true they designed it with a HEAT-like warhead. However the application here is often mistakenly “scaled up” from the way HEAT is used ashore. In a tank engagement, the objective of HEAT is that the molten jet can penetrate armor resistant to a solid, all the way into the tank’s cramped interior. The small molten jet will kill one or two of the crewmen (effectively knocking the tank out of the battle) or even better, touch ammunition exploding it altogether – even though the jet itself causes minimal damage.
The Soviet navy’s approach was different. Due to the “Styx”s large warhead size to begin with, the logic was that a HEAT feature would neither help nor detract against frigates, minesweepers, corvettes, etc (which would probably be sunk outright by simple blast regardless), but against big oilers, cruisers, LSTs, or aircraft carriers which might survive the main blast, the molten jet would proceed far further into the ship severing electrical lines, maybe lighting off ammo, or at least starting fires which the crew would have to deal with in addition to the main damage.
Against USS Missouri in 1991, it is unfortunately hard to decipher what the added HEAT effect would be, absent advanced modeling computers. The molten jet is not like a laser; but instead erodes as it passes through solid material, to an eventual diameter of 0. After Desert Storm, a US Marine stated that if the HEAT jet was the size of a fist on the skin of a T-72, it would be the diameter of a finger as it entered the tank’s interior.
A rule of thumb with HEAT warheads against tanks is that penetration (depending on the technology of the weapon and quality of the targeted steel) is 2x to 7x the warhead’s diameter. For example, a 105mm tank gun HEAT round’s jet would penetrate between 210mm – 735mm (8¼” – 2’5″) of steel. The diameter of the “Seersucker”s warhead is 30″, so that would equate to a humongous 5′ – 17’6″ (median 11’6”) of steel, far above USS Missouri‘s 1’ belt or 1’7½” turret faces. But it is entirely unclear if this effect actually scales up a true 1-1 as starting diameters and target thicknesses become so large.
Surprisingly the most serious research into how a Cold War-era missile with directed-energy warhead would perform against 1940s battleship armor, came before the Cold War or missile era even started. Very late in WWII, as part of the Razon guided-bomb project, the US Navy constructed a mock-up of what it thought the Yamato class’s vertical protection might be: a stack of plates 11″ Class B, then 4″ Class B, then three ¾” common steel; with 8′ of space between each of the five plates. A 1,000 lbs bomb with a crude HEAT-like warhead penetrated down to the last ¾” plate. The molten jet also cooked off some obsolete anti-personnel bombs simulating battleship ordnance in a magazine.
While extremely impressive this was not exactly ground-breaking. The Imperial Japanese Navy’s Type 99 No.80 bomb, designed before WWII, was a crude non-HEAT 1,760 lbs weapon that none the less demonstrated ability to penetrate 5¾” Class B then three layers of ¼” steel.
These tests were conducted a week before the failed “Ten-Go” operation that saw the destruction of IJN Yamato with ordnance already in use. Now with no serious battleship opposition remaining in the world, the US Navy apparently lost interest. The results were forwarded to the Pentagon a year after WWII ended, forgotten, and were fully declassified in 1962 when few people thought there would ever be battleships in commission again.
Since the “Seersucker” could not dive on target, the possibility of a deck hit or turret roof hit is excluded. Since USS Missouri‘s 16″ turrets were trained towards the shore during the event, the possibility of a turret-side hit is excluded. Against a turret face, another factor often ignored in “textbook” simulations that the flying “Seersucker” (the missile overall, not just its warhead) would likely clip one of the 16″ barrels inbound, meaning that the HEAT jet might not even be oriented properly.
It’s doubtful that the effects of HEAT (or lack thereof) would have made much difference had the “Seersucker” hit in 1991. It is possible (and probably, likely) that molten jet penetration – even through the belt – might have occurred, but it is certainly impossible that a dual penetration (belt then barbette) could happen. Given the size of a battleship, the effect of a small-diameter molten jet going some distance through, say, a boiler room or bunking spaces would cause crew casualties, a fire, and equipment damage, but not anything catastrophic beyond what the primary blast itself caused.
location of hit
Obviously this matters greatly. Against USS Missouri‘s starboard belt, the direct (not tertiary, as described further below) damage would have been, in all likelihood, limited. While a HEAT jet may or may not have made it through as described above, the primary blast alone would not have penetrated the belt.
Against the conning tower, the damage would have been catastrophic, but during the 1980s reactivation, the role of this structure greatly diminished. Whereas in WWII it was a command node, during Desert Storm it’s upper levels were occupied by weather facilities, workshops, and processor rooms; none critical to the ship’s survival.
As mentioned above, the sides, rears, and roofs of the main turrets can be excluded, and their exposed area (the faces) had even thicker armor. A “Seersucker” hit there would have disabled the turret’s ability to fight and caused casualties inside, but would have been unlikely to destroy it outright. These turrets were quite robust. During the 1989 accident aboard USS Missouri‘s sister USS Iowa, 655 lbs of powder ignited inside the B turret’s center gun followed quickly by another 2,000 lbs in the turret’s handling area. The tragedy applied pressures of 4,000psi and 8,241psi to the turret but did not rupture it nor allow the fireball to reach the shell rooms below, or the powder room below them.
One hit zone that might have been problematic would be any of the remaining 5″ twin turrets onboard. These were armored between 1″ – 2½” which would have been insufficient protection against anything in 1991. For certain a 5″ turret struck would be annihilated along with the sailors inside, with the warhead’s outright blast and flying steel debris from the destroyed turret causing secondary damage elsewhere. The 5″ ammo was stored two (or three, with the two elevated mounts) decks below and brought up through flashproof hoists, so it is doubtful the ammunition would explode.
The “Seersucker”s monopulse seeker aimed towards the center of the target’s radar cross section (RCS) without regard to what was in that spot was aboard the targeted vessel. Using the missile’s closest point of approach during the actual 1991 incident (approaching on a starboard-to-port line aligned slightly diagonally aft), USS Missouri‘s RCS to the Iraqi weapon would have probably been highest in an area from the aft 16″ turret through the starboard side of the director tower and the starboard aft set of Tomahawk launchers to the front of the aft funnel.
On an optimistic note, the opposite can happen with RCS and radar-guided ordnance. The upper conning tower area, with the Mk38 director and lattice structure under the big AN/SPS-49 antenna, had a surprisingly high degree of radar reflectivity. A missile hitting there would cause heavy damage and destroy most of the battleship’s electronics, but it would not endanger the ship to the point of loss.
Given the seeker’s lack of sophistication, all this needs to be taken with a grain of salt.
(USS Missouri’s aft 16″ turret, behind it the 5″ gun director atop the helicopter ops station, and behind that the armored base of the 16″ director tower with a port side aft Tomahawk ABL and port aft Harpoons to the left.)
secondary damage & “mission kill”
Direct damage is not the only factor, as any hit anywhere by a “Seersucker” would generate a large amount of flying debris and shrapnel. It should be remembered that while sinking a ship is preferable, damaging it to the extent that it gets knocked out of a war (a “mission kill”) is also a worthy outcome.
(A Type 97 which was ejected as debris from the wing of a crashing kamikaze and impaled into a Mk4 40mm AA gun aboard USS Missouri during WWII.)
When the United States reactivated the Iowa class, it was realized that the number of modern “soft systems” had increased dramatically since WWII. These included new radar antennas, missile launchers, below-decks processors vulnerable to shock and damage from firefighting water, and so on. To the maximum extent possible, the US Navy abated these. A good example was one of the most flammable things aboard USS Missouri, the helicopter fuel.
During WWII, the aft end of the battleship held the two seaplane catapults, the seaplane crane, and two tubs for Mk4 quad 40mm AA guns. On the first deck below was the motor to turn the crane and a deck below it, the winch & cable reel for the crane. A deck below this and atop a bilge was the AVGAS Void (compartment #7-204-2E), a space where seaplane fuel was stored.
(The area described above during WWII. This also offers a glimpse of the Measure 32/Des. 22D camouflage. On the weather deck, a reduced-size outline was painted cockeyed to port, to throw off the aim of Japanese bombardiers. One 16″ barrel on each turret was painted black in hopes that the battleship would be classified as a triple-double instead of a triple-triple design.)
When the battleships were reactivated during the 1980s (the catapults already long gone), the crane was removed and its motor room was used to house the Nixie torpedo decoys (also the reason for the two new cuts on the transom) while the former winch room was used for storage. The JP-5 helicopter fuel was carried in two steel cylinders in the former AVGAS Void. The starboard empty gun tub housed an electrical panel and switchboard to start helicopter engines. Meanwhile the port tub housed the JP-5 fueling hose reel. This could be jettisoned overboard in an emergency; the reason for the cut-out in the gun tub.
(A good shot of the same area after the 1980s, with the cut-out in the gun tub. The white rectangle on the edge of the helipad is a cargo hatch, and behind the two men sitting down is a smaller hatch to bring up small arms ammo to helicopters. The cutouts under the ship’s name are for the Nixies.)
Despite all these efforts, a “Seersucker” hit in 1991 would have still caused significant secondary damage through shock, shrapnel, and possibly fire.
One more thing (often overlooked) needs to be mentioned; and that is the danger posed by the “Seersucker”s IRFNA. During Desert Storm, a US Air Force plane bombed an Iraqi SA-2 “Guideline” (which used the same oxidizer in it’s upper stage) missile battery before it could fire, and the pilot observed “a brown stain” loft up and then settle back down onto the area. Doubtlessly, this was IRFNA kicked up by “Guideline” warheads cooking off. The health effects on the Iraqi soldiers below are unrecorded but it is hard to imagine them being good. In a nautical setting, during the INS Eilat sinking in 1967, two “Styx” missiles hit the destroyer and a third as the crew was abandoning ship. However a fourth “Styx” clipped part of the sinking wreck still above the waterline, causing IRFNA chemical injuries to Israeli sailors in the water. If the “Seersucker” had hit USS Missouri in 1991, doubtlessly part of the ship would have been contaminated with IRFNA residue.
All things considered, the lone “Seersucker” shot at USS Missouri would have neither sunk it outright nor caused its subsequent loss, but in all likelihood the damage would have been severe enough to result in it being pulled out of area. Looking at the bigger picture, by the date of the attack the war was so far along that barring some unimaginable blunder, there was no possible way the USA could be defeated. Hence, any damage whatsoever would have likely resulted in the battleship getting yanked off station. A bigger problem would have been the casualty count. Certainly there would have been some and given the size of an Iowa class’s crew, even a small percentage would have been disproportionally large to the total casualties in the whole conflict.
Congress had already decided to phase out battleships before Desert Storm started. If the damage was significant (and, given the size of a “Seersucker” warhead, it would have been) it is entirely possible that it would have never been repaired, even enough to just mothball the ship, and USS Missouri would have been scrapped.
continued obscurity of the event
Now 28 years later, it is surprising that the world’s first missile-vs-missile intercept in combat receives so little attention, especially as the target was one of the most legendary American warships.
The mistaken mashing together of the timeline is sometimes cited as an attempt to sweep the event under the rug, but this is untrue. Aboard a warship in combat, days are measured less by a calendar and more by naps between General Quarters (calls to battlestations) and equipment repairs. It is understandable that some recollections of the event confuse exact times.
Part of the US Navy’s brevity in 1991 might have to do with the Phalanx CIWS system. During the 1980s, it was relentlessly pilloried in Congress and the media on the grounds that the thing simply didn’t work. This perception wasn’t helped any in 1987, when a then-neutral US Navy frigate, USS Stark (FFG-31) was hit by two Exocet missiles fired from an Iraqi jet in the Persian Gulf.
Because the Phalanx system lacks IFF, the frigate’s captain had it shut down at the time as the Persian Gulf’s airspace was so crowded. (Ironically one of the things he feared was the Phalanx accidentally shooting down an Iraqi warplane.) As such, it did not “fail” but the American media went with that narrative anyways. Iraq claimed the attack was a mistake, and reportedly the pilot was executed upon landing. In 2004, evidence surfaced that he was not. The truth remains uncertain.
What is certain is that four years later, the US Navy did not want another circus with Phalanx. The strange sequence with USS Jarrett‘s CIWS locking onto USS Missouri‘s chaff did not exactly paint the system in a great light. Perhaps the US Navy in 1991 figured that if nobody was particularly curious about an engagement which ended successfully, then it was best to say little about it.
Somewhat related, during the early 1990s the AN/SLQ-32(V)3 was one of the most highly classified things in the whole US Navy. There was probably no point in showcasing an engagement involving it, when zero information about the system would follow.
This wasn’t the only incident of Desert Storm which remains unexplained in 2019.
In February 1991 (the date is disputed) a Saudi missile corvette named Faisal made an urgent radio call that it was “rocketed by the helicopters (sic)”. Faisal already had a dim reputation in the US Navy, as on 24 January 1991 the ship had fired a RGM-84 Harpoon at an Iraqi warship which apparently existed only in the captain’s imagination. In any case, at NavCent HQ ashore, an urgent analysis was made. There were no Coalition helo ops anywhere near, and E-2 Hawkeye and E-3 Sentry AWACS planes found no aircraft of any type in the area. The distress call was chalked up to fog of war but when Faisal limped back to port, the ship had indeed taken heavy damage. Some years after Desert Storm, a reconstruction concluded that a US Air Force F-4G Wild Weasel had attempted to fire a AGM-88 HARM anti-radar missile. The weapon indicated live but the rocket motor failed to start. The pilot followed procedure and jettisoned it off his plane. As it tumbled to earth, the rocket apparently kicked in, sending it eastwards towards the Persian Gulf where it locked onto Faisal‘s search radar. This would be a remarkable chain of events. Even more oddly, years later the Saudi Defense Ministry “scrubbed” any mention of Faisal ever having been damaged.
On 24 February 1991, something impacted the water at high speed far abeam of USS Jarrett and exploded. There was no Iraqi ordnance in known range, no Iraqi aircraft in the skies, and no Coalition aircraft or ship had an unaccounted-for missile firing. This incident’s cause remains unknown today.
Operation “Desert Storm” ended four days after the failed attack on USS Missouri.
After the cease-fire 60 anti-ship missiles were destroyed by American EOD teams. These were a mixture of ship-fired “Styx”s and ashore-launched “Seersucker”s, the exact breakdown being unrecorded.
(Captured Iraqi anti-ship missiles lined up for demolition.)
However many “Seersucker”s there were, they were in addition to the two fired at USS Missouri and the half-dozen captured at the girls school, plus however many (and there were a lot) destroyed on their launchers or wasted as beach decoys. So clearly Iraq possessed a substantially larger number in 1991 than the USA’s 1990 intelligence thought.
Under the U.N.-brokered cease-fire, Iraq was allowed to keep “Seersucker”s as they were categorized as a non-ballistic, sub-strategic missile. It is thought that Saddam Hussein still had 15 – 20 after the war’s end in 1991, plus another 4 recovered through a daring January 1993 burglary of a U.N. warehouse in Kuwait.
On 21 March 2003, a MIM-104 Patriot SAM shot down a “Seersucker” fired at an American military installation in Kuwait. On 23 March 2003, one was fired aimlessly from the al-Faw site in Iraq towards the general direction of Kuwait City, hitting a shopping mall. These were the final Iraqi uses of the weapon.
In 2004, American occupation troops in Iraq found two “Seersucker”s. They had been tagged by U.N. inspectors after Desert Storm but then lost in storage. They were the last two extant examples in Iraq and were destroyed.
USS Missouri decommissioned 30 March 1992, being the last battleship in service worldwide. The vessel is today a museum ship in Hawaii. HMS Gloucester decommissioned 30 June 2011 and was scrapped in 2015. USS Jarrett decommissioned 26 May 2011 and was scrapped in 2015.
(In 2019 debris of the 1991 war remains in Kuwait, including this “Seersucker” tail section.)
25 thoughts on “missile attack on battleship USS Missouri”
Reblogged this on Dave Loves History.
Interesting. We visited the Mighty Mo at Pearl Harbor this past January. While much mention is made of the WWII attack, I don’t remember any mention of this missile attack.
I was aboard 2 Sumners and a Fletcher destroyer in the late 1960s. The Styx missile was in a lot of talk. I was aware of the ability to make our ship appear bigger or smaller by ECM. Not too comforting after the INS Eliat attack. We traveled with a carrier and could have been the designated target. The 5″ 38 was a great WWII weapon, but still had trouble bringing down Kamikazes. It was still the most common 5″ gun in the 1960s. For jets, our plan was to predict a course of the aircraft and fill a space along the path with gunfire. I don’t think the guns could turn fast enough to follow a close jet. Hitting a Styx would be near impossible. The shells are VT, explode when close to the target. Maybe if it wasn’t a surprise, all the guns were manned and the Styx was off the broadside where every gun could fire. A gun with a good crew could fire every 2-4 seconds.
I was on DD-754 during a major shipyard overhaul. At that time the navy had a facility that rebuilt the guns and mount to like new and were replaced whole including the hoist and fusesetter that hung below. It takes 4 to 6 hours to completely load or unload ammo from a destroyer. About 2000 rounds.
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I was aboard the USS Missouri during both incidents. I am SM1(sw) Levi. I saw the missile pass down the starboard side. we took cover on the port side when the Missile turned back around on us. The Sea Dart looked like bottle rockets taking off. The Missile exploded and I felt the shock wave. The second incident they passed the word to brace for shock. We were running from the STBD Signal bridge to the Port Signal Bridge when the rounds hit from the USS Jarrett hit us. two hit the mast and one hit went through the light locker and out the other side. There were 6 of us Signalmen in that wind tunnel when it hit. One round hit the port side stateroom of the HT department head. two Sailors were in the passageway when the round hit an armored ammunition locker and blew back out. It did not go through. a piece of shrapnel that blew back cut or pierced one of the sailors ear’s. Our Signal Bridge was responsible for reloading the chaff launchers. Nobody contacted anybody I know of for a depleted plutonium study. I could stick my thumb through the holes it made in the 1/4 in steel light locker. Oh they were neck level high and about a foot and a half from killing all six of us. SM1 (sw) James T. Levi.
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thank you for the details, always best to hear from somebody who was there! *STS3/SS here by the way
I was there, on the USS Jarrett. I was on the fan tail with Petty Officer First Class Robert Thorn manning a .50 cal machine gun. That whole incident happened right in front of us. The Missouri was a waterfall of sparks.
AT2 Ty E. Shrake
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Just a question (from me, the author) for anybody reading this; was this featured in the media somewhere today? wwiiafterwwii usually averages between 350 – 800 visitors per day, but this article has been visited by over 16,000 people in the past 24 hours. Just curious.
Found this article from here:
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It was shared on a desert storm combat vet group I belong to on FB
ok thank you!
Retired SWO here-Great article! To answer your question, I got here from a wargame discussion board: http://www.matrixgames.com/forums/tm.asp?m=4664393
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Greatly enjoyed this article. Sorry, but can’t recall just HOW I ended up here other than that it was a link on my cell phone. It might have been on Flipboard as I subscribe to that.
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BZ to the author for taking the time to research this and get it (more or less) correct. Big frustration to see these events conflated, confused , and underreported in official and unofficial accounts alike. Thank you
Thanks SM1 Levi for your comments and leadership.
FWIW: Article was posted and well received on Missouri vets.
QM2 Gary Moorefield (on the Missouri bridge 2/25; in aft steering for the other)—-2/25 biggest fireball I’ve ever seen or felt,,,,reported altitude is way high based on first-hand accounts I’ve read, and what I saw for myself.
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Great article!!Can i share this?
[…] the one that came nearest to us. I’ll never forget the name of that ship either. (There is a lengthy article about the missile attack incident you can also […]
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Nice article. One thing about the potential armor penetration: The Iowas had a internal armor belt, as indicated here. The outer hull plating was 1.5″ of STS armor, then a void with bulkheads, equipment, etc, and THEN the inclined armor belt. The outer hull STS was designed to decap incoming projectiles, and yaw them so if they didn’t outright arm and explode in the void, they wouldn’t hit “head on”, they’d hit it sideways or some angle besides a direct path.
This was put to the test at Guadalcanal, when the USS South Dakota (basically the same armor scheme as the Iowas) was hit by a 14″ round at close range. There is some debate, but modern analysis indicates that it was yawed and hit the armor (barbette, I believe) sideways, with minimal damage.
This would have been the case with the missles as well, I think. That outer STS belt doesn’t get mentioned much, but it was an integral part of the armor SCHEME, but only the actual armor plating itself gets talked about, it seems.
So… It took three Styx missiles to sink an 1700 ton unarmored destroyer and you are proposing that one similar type would put a heavily armored 45,000 ton battleship out of service? Just asking… I’m not a squid, but I know HEAT rounds. I was in the same war leading an M1A1 tank team with 1AD.
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Yes, “mission kill” is different than blasting it out of the water. The first Styx hit on INS Eilat was sufficient to render it DIW, the second nearly split it in half. The third was basically overkill as it was sinking and the fourth clipped a mast still above the waterline. With the battleship, certainly in a worst case scenario even, the ship would be in no danger of sinking. But if the radar and satcom systems were taken out, it would have been pulled off station.
I doubt a single Styx missile would end a battleship from continuing operations if it was desperately needed. Loss of radar doesn’t stop the guns. It would depend on where the missile hit. I don’t think it could penetrate to a magazine. It’s not an anti tank round. The biggest damage would be a fire from the remaining fuel.
Mission kill depends on how vital the mission is and what abilities the ship looses. Today with the politically correct admirals we have, any serious damage would probably end the mission. But in WWII, battleships were designed with carrying on the battle even with damage. Counter flooding was a major part of damage control training for battleship sailors. At Pearl Harbor, the difference between the Oklahoma rolling over and the West Virginia settling on an even keel was a damage control officer ordering counter flooding.
Enterprise CV-6 was damaged in battles around Guadalcanal, patched up but with reduced abilities and remained on station several months until relieved by new ships coming from the East Coast. For a few months the Big E was the only carrier between the Japanese and the West Coast. That would be a good story for someone to write.
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BY SYDNEY ROSS SINGER – April 29, 2011 is International Save the Frog Day. Why save the frogs?
Besides being beautiful, fascinating, a source of medicinal substances, and essential for healthy ecosystem function, frogs are canaries in the environmental coal mine. They are sensitive to pollution and climate change. And their numbers are declining at extinction rates.
That’s bad news for the rest of us living in the coal mine. Clearly, we need to change our ways.
But change is difficult for a culture to accept. Until people are dying at the rate of frogs, nothing will alter our bad cultural behaviors.
So the next best thing to do is try saving the frogs. We may not be able to stop pesticide and herbicide use, or end the deforestation and development of wild areas, or stop all the industries and lifestyles that contribute to climate change. But we can catch frogs where they are declining and find new, healthier places for them to live.
We might not have the political and economic clout to stop multinational corporations from exploiting and altering the world’s environments. But we can help refugee species flee the destruction and avoid extinction.
There are places on the planet that can serve as sanctuaries for these refugees. One place, in particular, stands out as one of the best – Hawaii.
If you move frogs from one place to another that already has frogs, the immigrants will compete with the natives, and you can possibly lose native frog populations. Hawaii, however, has no native frogs, or any native reptiles, amphibians, land snakes, or lizards. What better place to introduce frogs? Lots of insect pests to eat, warm and humid conditions, and few predators. If we wanted a sanctuary for endangered and threatened frogs, this is the place.
But wait. Can we just move a species from one part of the planet to another? Won’t it become invasive and cause damage?
It is this question that is keeping frogs from finding new homes. According to current trends in environmental thinking, species “belong” where they are “native”. You’re not supposed to move them to places where they “don’t belong”. When it comes to frogs, the Hawaii government has said they clearly “don’t belong”.
Of course, there are already frogs and toads in Hawaii, which were brought by environmental managers for insect control decades ago. Back then species were introduced deliberately to enhance biodiversity and provide needed environmental services, such as pest control, or to serve as a food source. The environment was seen as a garden for us to plant and inhabit as we saw fit.
That has all changed. Now the goal of managers is to kill introduced species in order to preserve and restore native ecosystems as they had existed prior to western contact centuries ago. They won’t get rid of the people, or the agriculture, or the chemical spraying, or the bulldozing, or the deforestation, or the development, or the intercontinental shipping, or the industries and energy policies that help cause climate change. It’s hard to change these aspects of the culture. But you sure can kill things that “don’t belong”.
What was called “exotic” or “immigrant” is now called “alien” or “invasive”. We have gone from an open immigration policy to a bio-xenophobia.
When coqui tree frogs accidentally arrived in Hawaii with shipments of plants from Florida or Puerto Rico, the response was ballistic. The mayor of Hawaii declared a state of emergency. Scientists feared the sky was falling, and that the coquis, which eat lots of insects, would decimate the insect population to the point of starving all other insectivorous creatures. The sound of the frogs, a two-toned “ko-KEE”, was described as a “shrill shriek” guaranteed to keep everyone awake at night, run down property values, and drive away tourists.
Ironically, this same coqui frog is the national animal of Puerto Rico, its native land. In fact, Puerto Ricans love this frog and its chirping sound so much that it is honored in local folklore. People describe the nighttime sound of the coqui as soothing and necessary for sleep, and Puerto Rican travelers often bring recordings of coquis with them when away from home to help them sleep.
Puerto Rico has numerous species of coqui frogs, many of which are now extinct or threatened. Unfortunately, frog numbers are declining because of fungal infections, development, climate change, and pesticide and herbicide use. So you can imagine how angry and upset Puerto Ricans were when Hawaii announced its Frog War to eradicate the newly arrived coquis.
Over the past 10 years, millions of dollars have been spent in Hawaii trying to kill coquis. And despite wide cost-saving cuts in government spending, there is still money to kill coquis.
At first, they tried an experiment to kill coquis with concentrated caffeine, giving the frogs a heart attack. A special emergency exemption was needed from the EPA to allow this spraying of caffeine into the environment. It’s impact on humans, pets, plants, lizards, and other non-target species was unknown, or what it would do once it entered the groundwater and flowed to the oceans. Chemical warfare suits were needed by applicators to prevent exposure to the highly dangerous caffeine, which was at concentrations 100 times that of coffee. There is no antidote for caffeine poisoning.
When the caffeine experiment proved untenable and too dangerous, citric acid was encouraged as a frogicide. Sprayers soaked the forests with acid, sometimes sprayed from helicopters, to drench the tiny frogs and burn them to death. Of course, this also killed plants and other critters, such as lizards. But since lizards are non-native, nobody in the government cared.
But citric acid is expensive. So another experiment was tried, using hydrated lime to burn the frogs. This caustic chemical can also cause irreversible eye and lung damage to people and pets on contact, so another emergency exemption was needed from the EPA to experiment with it. As it turned out, the hydrated lime didn’t work very well, and it killed lots of plants.
So the University of Hawaii experimented on developing a frog disease to unleash on the frogs. They tried a fungus to infect the frogs, the same one killing frogs elsewhere in the world. They realized the fungus might also kill the geckos, skinks, anoles, and other lizards, as well as the toads. But since none are native to Hawaii, none of the eradicators cared. In fact, destroying all the lizards and toads would be considered a plus. The coqui frogs, however, survived the fungus, so it was never released wide scale.
By now you may wonder how people can get away with this abuse of frogs. Aren’t there laws protecting animals from this type of cruelty?
There are. So to get around the laws the Hawaii legislature passed a law defining the coqui as a “pest”. Pest species are exempted from humane laws.
This moral depravity reached its zenith in 2007, with a planned Coqui Bounty Hunter contest to be held by public schools on the Big Island. Schools instructed students to kill coquis, either by burning them with acid, cooking them alive, or freezing them. The school with the most “kills” would receive a prize — the violent video games Playstation 3 and Xbox. The contest was canceled once it was pointed out to the schools that students are supposed to receive humane, not inhumane, education.
Despite the eradication attempts, the frogs spread. Actually, sometimes they spread because of these attempts, since coquis try leaving areas disturbed by spraying. An interisland quarantine on the coqui still exists, requiring all plant nurseries treat plants with hot water, proven lethal to coquis and their eggs, prior to transport to other islands. But the coquis seem to frequently survive that, too.
So here is the irony. Frogs are disappearing from everywhere in the world except in Hawaii, where the government is trying to make them disappear.
Yet, despite the endless anti-coqui propaganda, people are coming to like the little coqui frog, especially those people who have arrived to Hawaii since the advent of the coqui. To these people, the sound of Hawaii includes the coqui. To these new human immigrants, the coqui is normal, and enjoyable. They understand why the Puerto Ricans love these frogs.
If we are to save the world’s endangered and threatened frogs, and other wildlife that needs rescue from the human-damaged world, we need to change our environmental immigration policy. It doesn’t matter where a species is native, or where it “belongs”. That these species survive is what matters. And this may require finding them a new home.
This is not to suggest that we bring in species willy nilly, without thinking about the impact on local species. We need careful study to know which species can be introduced, and where. But unless we open our borders, and our hearts, to these refugee species, they will die.
We caused their problems. Their fate is in our hands.
For more info on the coqui, see Panic in Paradise: Invasive Species Hysteria and the Hawaiian Coqui Frog War (ISCD Press, 2005), and visit www.HawaiianCoqui.org.
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The knee is comprised of four major ligaments, the ACL (anterior cruciate ligament), PCL (posterior cruciate ligament), the MCL (medial collateral ligament) and LCL (lateral collateral ligament). Each of these ligaments is critical to the stability of the knee. When one of these ligaments is injured, it is known as a knee sprain.
Causes of Knee Sprains
A knee sprain usually occurs due to unnatural movements during physical activity. Sudden turns or pivoting can cause injury to your ligaments. Knee sprains are common in sports with lots of running, jumping, and turning, such as in football, basketball, and skiing.
Direct hits to the knee can also cause knee sprains. The most obvious example is in contact sports, when there may be physical contact between two players or the ground. An incident such as falling or a car accident can also cause knee sprains.
Symptoms of Knee Sprains
Many patients suffering from knee sprains hear a popping noise at the time of injury. Pain and tenderness in the knee accompanied by stiffness and swelling are common signs of a knee sprain. Some patients may also experience bruising and instability when walking. In more severe cases, the patient may have trouble bearing weight on the affected leg.
How to Treat Knee Sprains
A knee sprain is not an ideal diagnosis because it does not tell you which ligament is injured or how severely it is injured. If you suspect that you have a knee sprain, consult a physician to undergo further diagnosis.
Minor knee sprains may heal over time with rest, ice, compression and elevation (RICE). Patients can also control pain and inflammation by taking over-the-counter pain relievers such as ibuprofen or aspirin. Wearing a brace or compression sleeve for the sprain will also help provide the added stability you need while healing. More serious injuries such as a torn ACL may require surgery and physical therapy.
As with any injury, your doctor will be the best source of advice on the appropriate treatment method for your situation.
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|Oracle® Database Application Developer's Guide - Object-Relational Features
10g Release 1 (10.1)
Part Number B10799-01
This chapter describes the advantages and key features of the Oracle object-relational model. The chapter contains these topics:
Oracle object technology is a layer of abstraction built on Oracle relational technology. New object types can be created from any built-in database types and any previously created object types, object references, and collection types. Metadata for user-defined types is stored in a schema that is available to SQL, PL/SQL, Java, and other published interfaces.
Object types and related object-oriented features such as variable-length arrays and nested tables provide higher-level ways to organize and access data in the database. Underneath the object layer, data is still stored in columns and tables, but you are able to work with the data in terms of the real-world entities, such as customers and purchase orders, that make the data meaningful. Instead of thinking in terms of columns and tables when you query the database, you can simply select a customer.
Internally, statements about objects are still basically statements about relational tables and columns, and you can continue to work with relational data types and store data in relational tables as before. But now you have the option to take advantage of object-oriented features too. You can begin to use object-oriented features while continuing to work with most of your data relationally, or you can go over to an object-oriented approach entirely. For instance, you can define some object data types and store the objects in columns in relational tables, which enables you to extend the system built-in types with user-defined ones. You can also create object views of existing relational data to represent and access this data according to an object model. Or you can store object data in object tables, where each row is an object.
In general, the object-type model is similar to the class mechanism found in C++ and Java. Like classes, objects make it easier to model complex, real-world business entities and logic, and the reusability of objects makes it possible to develop database applications faster and more efficiently. By natively supporting object types in the database, Oracle enables application developers to directly access the data structures used by their applications. No mapping layer is required between client-side objects and the relational database columns and tables that contain the data. Object abstraction and the encapsulation of object behaviors also make applications easier to understand and maintain.
Below are listed several other specific advantages that objects offer over a purely relational approach.
Database tables contain only data. Objects can include the ability to perform operations that are likely to be needed on that data. Thus a purchase order object might include a method to sum the cost of all the items purchased. Or a customer object might have methods to return the customer's buying history and payment pattern. An application can simply call the methods to retrieve the information.
Using object types makes for greater efficiency:
Object types and their methods are stored with the data in the database, so they are available for any application to use. Developers can benefit from work that is already done and do not need to re-create similar structures in every application.
You can fetch and manipulate a set of related objects as a single unit. A single request to fetch an object from the server can retrieve other objects that are connected to it. For example, when you select a customer object and get the customer's name, phone, and the multiple parts of his address in a single round-trip between the client and the server. When you reference a column of a SQL object type, you retrieve the whole object.
In a relational system, it is awkward to represent complex part-whole relationships. A piston and an engine have the same status in a table for stock items. To represent pistons as parts of engines, you must create complicated schemas of multiple tables with primary key-foreign key relationships. Object types, on the other hand, give you a rich vocabulary for describing part-whole relationships. An object can have other objects as attributes, and the attribute objects can have their own object attributes too. An entire parts-list hierarchy can be built up in this way from interlocking object types.
Oracle implements the object-type system as an extension of the relational model. The object-type interface continues to support standard relational database functionality such as queries (
SELECT…FROM…WHERE), fast commits, backup and recovery, scalable connectivity, row-level locking, read consistency, partitioned tables, parallel queries, cluster database, export and import, and loader. Plus SQL and various programmatic interfaces to Oracle; including PL/SQL, Java, Oracle Call Interface, Pro*C/C++, and OO4O; have been enhanced with new extensions to support objects. The result is an object-relational model, which offers the intuitiveness and economy of an object interface while preserving the high concurrency and throughput of a relational database.
This section lists the key features and concepts of the object-relational model that are related to the database.
An object type is a kind of datatype. You can use it in the same ways that you use more familiar datatypes such as
VARCHAR2. For example, you can specify an object type as the datatype of a column in a relational table, and you can declare variables of an object type. You use a variable of an object type to contain a value of that object type. A value of an object type is an instance of that type. An object instance is also called an object. Example 1-1 shows how to create a user-defined object type named
Example 1-1 Creating the Person_typ Object
CREATE TYPE person_typ AS OBJECT ( idno NUMBER, name VARCHAR2(30), phone VARCHAR2(20), MAP MEMBER FUNCTION get_idno RETURN NUMBER ); / CREATE TYPE BODY person_typ AS MAP MEMBER FUNCTION get_idno RETURN NUMBER IS BEGIN RETURN idno; END; END; /
Object types also have some important differences from the more familiar datatypes that are native to a relational database:
A set of object types does not come ready-made with the database. Instead, you define the specific object types you want by extending built-in types with user-defined ones as shown in Example 1-1.
Object types are composed of parts, called attributes and methods.
Attributes hold the data about an object's features of interest. For example, a
student object type might have
date attributes. An attribute has a declared datatype which can in turn be another object type. Taken together, the attributes of an object instance contain that object's data.
Methods are procedures or functions provided to enable applications to perform useful operations on the attributes of the object type. Methods are an optional element of an object type. They define the behavior of objects of that type and determine what (if anything) that type of object can do.
Object types are less generic than native datatypes. In fact, this is one of their major virtues. You can define object types to model the actual structure of the real-world entities, such as customers and purchase orders, that application programs deal with. This can make it easier and more intuitive to manage the data for these entities. In this respect object types are like Java and C++ classes.
You can think of an object type as a blueprint or template which defines structure and behavior. An instantiation of the object type creates an object built according to the template. Object types are database schema objects, subject to the same kinds of administrative control as other schema objects.
See Also:Chapter 6, " Managing Oracle Objects "
You can use object types to model the actual structure of real-world objects. Object types enable you to capture the structural interrelationships of objects and their attributes instead of flattening this structure into a two-dimensional, purely relational schema of tables and columns. With object types you can store related pieces of data in a unit along with the behaviors defined for that data. Application code can then retrieve and manipulate these units as objects.
When you create a variable of an object type, you create an instance of the type and the result is an object. An object has the attributes and methods defined for its type. Because an object instance is a concrete thing, you can assign values to its attributes and call its methods.
You use the
TYPE statement to define object types. In Example 1-1, the
TYPE statement define the object type
The indented elements
phone in the
TYPE statements are attributes. Each has a datatype declared for it. These are simplified examples and do not show how to specify member methods.
Defining an object type does not allocate any storage. After they are defined, object types can be used in SQL statements in most of the same places you can use types like
CREATE TABLE contacts ( contact person_typ, contact_date DATE ); INSERT INTO contacts VALUES ( person_typ (65, 'Vrinda Mills', '1-800-555-4412'), '24 Jun 2003' );
contacts table is a relational table with an object type as the datatype of one of its columns. Objects that occupy columns of relational tables are called column objects.
See Also:"Row Objects and Column Objects"
Methods are functions or procedures that you can declare in an object type definition to implement behavior that you want objects of that type to perform. For example, a method is declared in Example 1-1 to allow comparisons between
The general kinds of methods that can be declared in a type definition are:
A principal use of methods is to provide access to the data of an object. You can define methods for operations that an application is likely to want to perform on the data so that the application does not have to code these operations itself. To perform the operation, an application calls the appropriate method on the appropriate object.
For example, the following SQL statement uses the
get_idno() method to display the Id number of persons in the
SELECT c.contact.get_idno() FROM contacts c;
You can also define static methods to compare object instances and to perform operations that do not use any particular object's data but instead are global to an object type.
A constructor method is implicitly defined for every object type, unless this default constructor is over-written with a user-defined constructor. A constructor method is called on a type to construct or create an object instance of the type.
See Also:"Object Methods"
Type inheritance adds to the usefulness of objects by enabling you to create type hierarchies by defining successive levels of increasingly specialized subtypes that derive from a common ancestor object type, which is called a supertype of the derived types. Derived subtypes inherit the features of the parent object type but extend the parent type definition. The specialized types can add new attributes or methods, or redefine methods inherited from the parent. The resulting type hierarchy provides a higher level of abstraction for managing the complexity of an application model.
For example, specialized types of persons, such as a student type or a part-time student type with additional attributes or methods, might be derived from a general person object type. See "Inheritance in SQL Object Types".
TYPE statement, you can modify, or evolve, an existing user-defined type to make the following changes:
Add and drop attributes
Add and drop methods
Modify a numeric attribute to increase its length, precision, or scale
Modify a varying length character attribute to increase its length
Change a type's
Dependencies of a type to be altered are checked using essentially the same validations applied for a
TYPE statement. If a type or any of its dependent types fails the type validations, the
TYPE statement rolls back.
Metadata for all tables and columns that use an altered type are updated for the new type definition so that data can be stored in them in the new format. Existing data can be converted to the new format either all at once or piecemeal, as it is updated. In either case, data is always presented in the new type definition even if it is still stored in the format of the older one.
CREATE TABLE person_obj_table OF person_typ;
You can view this table in two ways:
As a single-column table in which each row is a
person_typ object, allowing you to perform object-oriented operations
As a multi-column table in which each attribute of the object type
person_typ; such as
phone; occupies a column, allowing you to perform relational operations
For example, you can execute the following instructions:
INSERT INTO person_obj_table VALUES ( 1, 'John Smith', '1-800-555-1212'); SELECT VALUE(p) FROM person_obj_table p WHERE p.name = 'John Smith';
The first statement inserts a
person_typ object into
person_table as a multi-column table. The second selects from
person_obj_table as a
single-column table, using the
VALUE function to return rows as object instances. See "VALUE" for information on the
By default, every row object in an object table has an associated logical object identifier (OID) that uniquely identifies it in an object table. In a distributed and replicated environment, the system-generated unique identifier lets Oracle identify objects unambiguously.
See Also:"Storage Considerations for Object Identifiers (OIDs)" for information on Object Identifiers and using
Objects that are stored in complete rows in object tables are called row objects. Objects that are stored as columns of a table in a larger row, or are attributes of other objects, are called column objects.
An object view is a way to access relational data using object-relational features. It lets you develop object-oriented applications without changing the underlying relational schema.
Oracle allows the creation of an object abstraction over existing relational data through the object view mechanism. You access objects that belong to an object view in the same way that you access row objects in an object table. Oracle also supports materialized view objects of user-defined types from data stored in relational schemas and tables. By using object views, you can develop object-oriented applications without having to modify existing relational database schemas.
Object views also let you exploit the polymorphism that a type hierarchy makes possible. A polymorphic expression can take a value of the expression's declared type or any of that type's subtypes. If you construct a hierarchy of object views that mirrors some or all of the structure of a type hierarchy, you can query any view in the hierarchy to access data at just the level of specialization you are interested in. If you query an object view that has subviews, you can get back polymorphic data—rows for both the type of the view and for its subtypes.
REF is a logical pointer to a row object that is constructed from the object identifier (OID) of the referenced object and is an Oracle built-in datatype.
REFs and collections of
REFs model associations among objects, particularly many-to-one relationships, thus reducing the need for foreign keys.
REFs provide an easy mechanism for navigating between objects. You can use the dot notation to follow the pointers. Oracle does joins for you when needed, and in some cases can avoid doing joins.
You can use a
REF to examine or update the object it refers to. You can also use a
REF to obtain the object it refers to. You can change a
REF so that it points to a different object of the same object type hierarchy or assign it a null value.
The following example illustrates a simple use of a
Example 1-2 Using a REF to an Object
CREATE TYPE emp_person_typ AS OBJECT ( name VARCHAR2(30), manager REF emp_person_typ ); / CREATE TABLE emp_person_obj_table OF emp_person_typ; INSERT INTO emp_person_obj_table VALUES ( emp_person_typ ('John Smith', NULL)); INSERT INTO emp_person_obj_table SELECT emp_person_typ ('Bob Jones', REF(e)) FROM emp_person_obj_table e WHERE e.name = 'John Smith';
In declaring a column type, collection element, or object type attribute to be a
REF, you can constrain it to contain only references to a specified object table. Such a
REF is called a scoped
REF types require less storage space and allow more efficient access than unscoped
The following example shows
contact_ref scoped to
person_obj_table which is an object table of type
CREATE TABLE contacts_ref ( contact_ref REF person_typ SCOPE IS person_obj_table, contact_date DATE );
To insert a row in the table, you could issue the following:
INSERT INTO contacts_ref SELECT REF(p), '26 Jun 2003' FROM person_obj_table p WHERE p.idno = 1;
REF can be scoped to an object table of the declared type (
person_typ in the example) or of any subtype of the declared type. If scoped to an object table of a subtype, the
REF column is effectively constrained to hold references only to instances of the subtype (and its subtypes, if any) in the table.
See Also:"Inheritance in SQL Object Types"
It is possible for the object identified by a
REF to become unavailable through either deletion of the object or a revoking of privileges. Such a
REF is called dangling. Oracle SQL provides a predicate (called
DANGLING) to allow testing
REFs for this condition.
REFs can be avoided by defining referential integrity constraints. See "Rules for REF Columns and Attributes".
SELECT DEREF(c.contact_ref), c.contact_date FROM contacts_ref c;
SELECT e.name, e.manager.name FROM emp_person_obj_table WHERE e.name = 'Bob Jones';
In the example,
e.manager.name follows the pointer from the person's manager, and retrieves the manager's name. Following the
REF like this is allowed in SQL, but not in PL/SQL.
You can obtain a
REF to a row object by selecting the object from its object table and applying the
REF operator. For example, you can obtain a
REF to the person with identification number 1 as follows:
DECLARE person_ref REF person_typ; BEGIN SELECT REF(p) INTO person_ref FROM person_obj_table p WHERE p.idno = 1; END;/
The query must return exactly one row.
See Also:"Storage Size of REFs"
For modeling multi-valued attributes and many to many relationships, Oracle supports two collection datatypes: varrays and nested tables. Collection types can be used anywhere other datatypes can be used. You can have object attributes of a collection type in addition to columns of a collection type. For example, you might give a purchase order object type a nested table attribute to hold the collection of line items for a given purchase order.
You use the
TYPE statement to define collection types. In Example 1-3, the
TYPE statements define the object types
Example 1-3 Creating a Collection Datatype
CREATE TYPE people_typ AS TABLE OF person_typ; / CREATE TYPE dept_persons_typ AS OBJECT ( dept_no CHAR(5), dept_name CHAR(20), dept_mgr person_typ, dept_emps people_typ); /
In this simplified example,
people_typ is a collection type, specifically a nested table type. The
dept_persons_typ object type has an attribute
people_typ of this type. Each row in the people_typ nested table is an object of type
person_typ which was defined in Example 1-1.
See Also:"Creating Collection Datatypes"
This section lists the key features of the object-relational model that are related to languages and application programming interfaces (APIs).
To support the new object-related features, SQL extensions, including new DDL, have been added to create, alter, or drop object types; to store object types in tables; and to create, alter, or drop object views. There are DML and query extensions to support object types, references, and collections.
PL/SQL is an Oracle database programming language that is tightly integrated with SQL. With the addition of user-defined types and other SQL types, PL/SQL has been enhanced to operate on user-defined types seamlessly. Thus, application developers can use PL/SQL to implement logic and operations on user-defined types that execute in the database server.
Oracle Java VM is tightly integrated with the RDBMS and supports access to Oracle Objects through object extensions to Java Database Connectivity (JDBC), which provides dynamic SQL, and SQLJ, which provides static SQL. Thus, application developers can use the Java to implement logic and operations on user-defined types that execute in the database server. With Oracle, you can now also create SQL types mapped to existing Java classes to provide persistent storage for Java objects using SQLJ object types where all the methods are implemented in their corresponding Java classes. See "Java Object Storage".
Database functions, procedures, or member methods of an object type can be implemented in PL/SQL, Java, or C as external procedures. External procedures are best suited for tasks that are more quickly or easily done in a low-level language such as C, which is more efficient at machine-precision calculation. External procedures are always run in a safe mode outside the address space of the RDBMS server. Generic external procedures can be written that declare one or more parameters to be of a system-defined generic type. The generic type permits a procedure that uses it to work with data of any built-in or user-defined type.
Object Type Translator (OTT) and Oracle JPublisher provide client-side mappings to object type schemas by using schema information from the Oracle data dictionary to generate header files containing Java classes and C structures and indicators. These generated header files can be used in host-language applications for transparent access to database objects.
Oracle provides an object cache for efficient access to persistent objects stored in the database. Copies of objects can be brought into the object cache. Once the data has been cached in the client, the application can traverse through these at memory speed. Any changes made to objects in the cache can be committed to the database by using the object extensions to Oracle® Call Interface programmatic interfaces.
Oracle Call Interface (OCI) and Oracle C++ Call Interface provide a comprehensive application programming interface for application and tool developers seeking to use the object capabilities of Oracle. Oracle Call Interface provides a run-time environment with functions to connect to an Oracle server, and control transactions that access objects in the server. It allows application developers to access and manipulate objects and their attributes in the client-side object cache either navigationally, by traversing a graph of inter-connected objects, or associatively by specifying the nature of the data through declarative SQL DML. Oracle Call Interface also provides a number of functions for accessing metadata information at run-time about object types defined in the server. Such a set of functions facilitates dynamic access to the object metadata and the actual object data stored in the database.
The Oracle Pro*C™ precompiler provides an embedded SQL application programming interface and offers a higher level of abstraction than Oracle Call Interface. Like Oracle Call Interface, the Pro*C precompiler allows application developers to use the Oracle client-side object cache and the Object Type Translator Utility. Pro*C supports the use of C bind variables for Oracle object types. Furthermore, Pro*C provides new simplified syntax to allocate and free objects of SQL types and access them by either SQL DML, or through the navigational interface. Thus, it provides application developers many benefits, including compile-time type checking of (client-side) bind variables against the schema in the server, automatic mapping of object data in an Oracle server to program bind variables in the client, and simple ways to manage and manipulate database objects in the client process.
See Also:"Oracle Call Interface (OCI)"
See Also:"Oracle Objects For OLE (OO4O)"
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voir la définition de Wikipedia
|This article does not cite any references or sources. (May 2010)|
|Sam the Eagle|
|The Muppets character|
|First appearance||The Muppet Show|
|Created by||Jim Henson|
|Species||Muppet bald eagle|
Sam the Eagle is a character from the syndicated television show The Muppet Show, performed by Frank Oz. The name "Sam" is possibly derived from Uncle Sam. The Bald Eagle is the official symbol of the United States.
Sam's patriotic spirit differentiates him from the rest of the Muppet cast, as does his general stuffiness and pomposity. Because of this, it has been a running gag in either The Muppet Show, or Muppet movies, that shows his patriotism towards the United States. In The Muppet Christmas Carol, the fourth wall was broken when Sam (playing Scrooge's former headmaster) tells the young Scrooge that he will love business because "It's the American way". Gonzo, playing Charles Dickens, as well as the narrator, whispers in his ear that the line is, "It's the British way," because the story takes place in Great Britain. The character was based on notorious Englishman Pete Rowe.
Sam often rallied against the 'low brow' entertainment he claimed was on the show, and often tried to bring 'dignity and class' to the performances, usually without any real success. During the first season, Sam would introduce two Muppet characters named Wayne and Wanda who would often sing various songs that were considered by Sam to be 'normal' and 'high brow' when compared to the rest of the show and its cast. In one episode the other Muppets claimed that Sam had gone on vacation to Moret-sur-Loing, France. However, due to time constraints these scenes found their way to the cutting-room floor; but can be viewed in several of the newly released Muppets DVDs.
On the show, Sam acts as a censor and comments on his being under-appreciated. He often gives self-important lectures in which he complains about some conservative idea only to find himself forced to stop in embarrassment at risk of sounding like a hypocrite. On one occasion he gives a lecture about conservationism in which he reads a list of endangered animal species that he feels are the focus of misguided conservation efforts, only to sheepishly withdraw his statement when he realizes that his own species is included. In another sketch, he lectures on indecency because all people are naked underneath their clothes, leaving the podium in embarrassment upon realizing that all birds are similarly naked underneath their feathers.
Throughout the first season of The Muppet Show, Sam introduces his favorite singing duo, Wayne and Wanda, with gushing aplomb, praising them for their appropriateness. Although they are never able to finish a song (their routines always end with slapstick violence), Sam still adores them because they appeal to his conservative sensibilities: the couple sings old standards like "You Do Something to Me" and "It's Only a Paper Moon".
Though he claims to be a cultured bird, close observation reveals that Sam knows nothing about culture, especially the culture of his own country. He has mistaken Beethoven for a playwright and hilariously believes The Sound of Music was written by William Shakespeare. When informed that ballet dancer Rudolf Nureyev would be the guest star (Episode 213), Sam declared Nureyev as his favorite opera singer. Also when Nureyev arrived, Sam didn't recognize him and ejected him from the theater. Sam is often hostile toward others who do not possess similar views to his own.
Sam does not interact with the guest stars of the show as often as the rest of the cast, but he is featured prominently in several episodes. In one he throws casually-dressed guest star Rudolf Nureyev out of the building in a fit of temper, mistaking him for a bum. Although he is forgiven by Nureyev, he is still disheartened because Mr. Nureyev (whom he believes is an opera singer rather than a ballet dancer) did not live up to his expectations. Similarly, Sam makes a bet with Kermit the Frog during the Elton John episode and is forced to wear a flamboyant, albeit patriotic, costume. During the third season's Halloween episode, Sam confronts Alice Cooper. Railing against the audience and "indecency" and "low brow" humor, Sam calls Cooper a "demented, sick, degenerate, barbaric, naughty, Freako!" Rather than being insulted by these comments as Sam was intending, Cooper takes it as a compliment and thanks Sam, to which Sam despairingly retorts, "Freakos one, civilization zero."
Sam appears in many of the Muppet feature films, usually with only a brief cameo. However in Muppet Treasure Island he plays first mate Samuel Arrow and thus takes a more active role in the story.
In Muppets from Space, Sam appears at Cape Doom with the rest of the Muppets during the party the alien Muppets cause by singing Celebration. Sam is at first appalled at a girl who is dancing in a shirt which bares her midriff, but is then later seen dancing and enjoying himself. This is the first time Sam was shown in any of the Muppet films actively participating in normal youth culture.
In the 2011 film, Sam is seen doing a segment on news TV called "Everything Stinks" during a montage of getting The Muppets back together; he is then pulled off-screen with a cane. He is later on seen as one of the phone operators of The Muppet Telethon.
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Jeux de lettres
Lettris est un jeu de lettres gravitationnelles proche de Tetris. Chaque lettre qui apparaît descend ; il faut placer les lettres de telle manière que des mots se forment (gauche, droit, haut et bas) et que de la place soit libérée.
Il s'agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres. Il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases. Les lettres doivent être adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs. Participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! Jouer
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A tree, usually small but occasionally 80 ft or more high in the wild, the bark of the trunk separating from it into long, loose, plate-like scales; young shoots at first coated with a loose, pale down. Leaves 9 to 15 in. long, made up of seven to thirteen leaflets, which are of narrow lanceolate shape with long tapered points, finely, often inconspicuously toothed, obliquely rounded or tapered at the base; 21⁄2 to 51⁄2 in. long, 1⁄2 to 11⁄2 in. wide; at first covered with pale down which mostly falls away during the summer. Fruits egg-shaped, pointed, conspicuously four-winged, 1 to 11⁄2 in. long; kernel bitter.
Native of the S.E. United States; discovered about the beginning of the nineteenth century. It inhabits low, swampy, often inundated places and, as it is associated in a wild state with Liquidambar styraciflua and Taxodium distichum, should, one would imagine, be as hardy as they are, but it is apparently not adapted to our climate. The long, unusually narrow leaflets make it distinct amongst the hickories.
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The Telangana movement refers to a movement for the creation of a new state, Telangana, from the pre-existing state of Andhra Pradesh in India. The new state corresponds to the Telugu-speaking portions of the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad. After several years of protest and agitation, the central government, under the United Progressive Alliance, decided to bifurcate the existing Andhra Pradesh state and on 7 February 2014, the Union Cabinet unilaterally cleared the bill for the creation of Telangana. Lasting for almost a decade, this has been one of the most longlasting movements in South India. On 18 February 2014, the Lok Sabha passed the bill with a voice vote. Subsequently, the bill was passed by the Rajya Sabha two days later, on 20 February. As per the bill, Hyderabad would be the capital of Telangana, while the city would also remain the capital of residual state of Andhra Pradesh for no more than ten years. On 2 June 2014, Telangana was created.
- 1 History
- 2 Telangana state arguments
- 3 Views of political parties between 2009 and 2013
- 4 Early incidents (1969 to 1985)
- 5 1997 to 2010
- 6 2010: Srikrishna Committee
- 7 2011
- 8 2012
- 9 2013
- 10 Events leading to the formation of Telangana
- 11 In popular culture
- 12 See also
- 13 References
- 14 External links
In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission was appointed to prepare for the creations of states on linguistic lines. The commission, due to public demand, recommended disintegration of Hyderabad State and a merge of the Marathi-speaking region with Bombay state and of the Kannada-speaking region with Mysore state. The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) discussed pros and cons of the merger of Telugu speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad state with Andhra state. Paragraph 374 of the SRC report said "The creation of Vishalandhra is an ideal to which numerous individuals and public bodies, both in Andhra and Telangana , have been passionately attached over a long period of time, and unless there are strong reasons to the contrary, this sentiment is entitled to consideration". Discussing the case of Telangana, paragraph 378 of the SRC report said "One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas who were swamped by people of Tamilnadu already". In its final analysis SRC recommended against the immediate merger. In paragraph 386 it said "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusions that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residuary Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification."
After going through the recommendations of the SRC, the then Home Minister Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant decided to merge Andhra state and Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh state on 1 November 1956 after providing safeguards to Telangana in the form of Gentleman's agreement.
Telangana state argumentsEdit
Telangana was the largest of the three regions of Andhra Pradesh state, covering 41.47% of its total area. It is inhabited by 40.54% of the state's population. The following is the breakup of Andhra Pradesh's revenue by region:
|Source||Percentage of total revenue|
|Telangana (including Hyderabad)||45.47%|
|Telangana (excluding Hyderabad District, but including parts of GHMC in suburbs)||8.3%|
Note: The income generated by the capital city of the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh is a complex issue with income being generated from all regions. This has caused a lot of confusion in region-wise income distribution. Also, after the bifurcation, companies will pay their portion of taxes to Telangana or present day Andhra Pradesh depending on where they operate. Before the bifurcation, many companies were paid taxes to capital city Hyderabad for their operations in Seemandhra.
Proponents of a separate Telangana state cite perceived injustices in the distribution of water, budget allocations, and jobs. Within the state of Andhra Pradesh, 68.5% of the catchment area of the Krishna River and 69% of the catchment area of the Godavari River are in the plateau region of Telangana and flowing through the other parts of the state into bay of Bengal. Telangana and non-coastal parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra states form Deccan Plateau. Telangana supporters state that 74.25% of irrigation water through the canal system under major irrigation projects goes to the Coastal Andhra region, while Telangana gets 18.20%. The remaining 7.55% goes to the Rayalaseema region.
As per Volume-II of Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal Award, "The area which we are considering for irrigation formed part of Hyderabad State and had there been no division of that State, there were better chances for the residents of this area to get irrigation facilities in Mahboobnagar District. We are of the opinion that this area should not be deprived of the benefit of irrigation on account of the reorganisation of States."
The share of education funding for Telangana ranges from 9.86% in government-aided primary schools to 37.85% in government degree colleges. The above numbers include the expenditure in Hyderabad. Budget allocations to Telangana are generally less than 1/3 of the total Andhra Pradesh budget. There are allegations that in most years, funds allocated to Telangana were never spent. Since 1956, Andhra Pradesh government established 11 new medical colleges in the state. 8 were in Seemandhra and only 3 were in Telangana. Telangana was not compensated for lost opportunities because of inward migration of lot of students into Hyderabad from Seemandhra.
According to Professor Jayashankar only 20% of the total Government employees, less than 10% of employees in the secretariat, and less than 5% of department heads in the Andhra Pradesh government are from Telangana; those from other regions make up the bulk of employment. He also alleged that the state was represented by Telangana chief ministers for only 6 1/2 years out of over five decades of its existence, with no chief minister from the region being in power continuously for more than 2 1/2 years. As per Srikrishna committee on Telangana, Telangana held the position of CM for 10.5 years while Seema-Andhra region held it for 42 years.
According to the Backward Regions Grant Fund 2009–10, 13 backward districts are located in Andhra Pradesh: nine (all except Hyderabad) are from Telangana and the rest are from other regions.
Proponents of a separate Telangana state feel that the agreements, plans, and assurances from the legislature and Lok Sabha over the last fifty years have not been honoured, and as a consequence Telangana has remained neglected, exploited, and backward. They allege that the experiment to remain as one state has proven to be a futile exercise and that separation is the best solution.
Note: The above content has been sourced from news articles and articles. It can only be regarded as opinions of a few people rather than solid facts.
Views of political parties between 2009 and 2013Edit
Most of the parties in the state changed their stand about Telangana statehood several times. Here are the stands taken by various parties in the state when the movement was at its peak between 2009 and 2013. Congress party, the ruling party at the centre, took its final decision to go ahead with creating the Telangana state in July 2013.
|Indian National Congress (31/155) acg||All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeenf(1/7)||YSR Congressb (2/17)|
|Telangana Rashtra Samithi (2/17)||Communist Party of India (Marxist) (0/1)||Independents (0/2)|
|Bharatiya Janata Party (0/3)||Telugu Desam Partyae (6/86)|
|Communist Party of India (1/4)|
|Lok Sattaad (0/1)|
(a) Parties which were in favor of Telangana state before 9 December 2009, but changed the stand to neutral on 10 December 2009, the day the process for formation of Telangana state was announced by central government and later retracted on 23 December.
(d) The Lok Satta adds that it will welcome the formation of a separate state as part of a comprehensive and amicable solution. It, however, states that the real issue is to improve the lives of people irrespective of the formation of a separate state.
(e) During the all party meeting on 28 December 2012, TDP representatives gave a letter signed by its president to Home minister of India which said that the party had never withdrawn its letter to Pranab Mukherjee in 2008 which supported Telangana state formation.
(f) MIM wants the state to remain united. If division is unavoidable, the party wants a separate state of Rayala-Telangana with Telangana and Rayalseema regions along with Hyderabad as capital. They oppose Hyderabad being declared as a union territory.
(g) The Congress Working Committee (CWC) unanimously passed a resolution On 30 July to create the State of Telangana.
Early incidents (1969 to 1985)Edit
1969 to 1973: This period was marked by two political kranthi namely 'Jai Telangana' and 'Jai Andhra' movements. Social tensions arose due to influx of people from the Coastal Andhra region. Protests started with the hunger strike of a student from Khammam district for the implementation of safe-guards promised during the creation of Andhra Pradesh. The movement slowly manifested into a demand for a separate Telangana.
Some students protested for "implementation of the safe guards from Andhra Pradesh" while some protested for a "Separate Telangana". The local newspaper Indian Express reported that the latter group were dominant. According to the 19 January 1969 edition of The Indian Express, the agitation turned violent when a crowd attempted to set fire to a sub-inspector's residence. 17 were injured in police firing. Discussions about the promised safe-guards were held. The Telangana Regional Committee was, however, not fully convinced of the outcome. This agitation was met by a counter agitation by the Andhra students accusing the transfer Andhra employees as a discrimination between one region and the other. The transfers were eventually challenged in the high-court.
The army had to be called in. After several days of talks with leaders of both regions, on 12 April 1969, Prime minister put forth, an eight-point plan. Telangana leaders rejected the plan and protests continued under the leadership of newly formed political party Telangana Praja Samithi in 1969 asking for the formation of Telangana. Under the Mulki rules in force at the time, anyone who had lived in Hyderabad for 12 years was considered a local, and was thus eligible for certain government posts.
Telangana Praja Samithi was formed under the leadership of Pratap Kishore with the intention of leading the movement. The party however, split in November 1969 with the exit of dissident Congress leaders.
1971: In the May 1971 parliamentary elections, Telangana Praja Samithi won 10 out the 14 Parliament seats in Telangana. Despite these electoral successes, some of the new party leaders gave up their agitation in September 1971 after realising that the Prime Minister was not inclined to towards a separate state of Telangana, and rejoined the safer political haven of the Congress ranks. Chief Minister Brahmananda Reddy resigns to make room for a Telangana Chief Minister. On 30-September-1971, P.V.Narasimha Rao – who would later become the Prime Minister of India – was appointed the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. "The Telangana Praja Samiti was dissolved and its members rejoined the Congress."
1972: When the Supreme Court upheld the Mulki rules the Jai Andhra movement, with the aim of re-forming a separate state of Andhra, was started in Coastal Andhra and Rayalseema regions. The movement lasted for 110 days. The Supreme Court upheld the implementation of Mulki rules. The people from the Andhra region viewed the Mulki rules as "treating them like aliens in their own land".
1973: a political settlement was reached with the Government of India with a Six-Point Formula. It was agreed upon by the leaders of the two regions to prevent any recurrence of such agitations in the future. To avoid legal problems, constitution was amended (32nd amendment) to give the legal sanctity to the Six-point formula.
In 1985, when Telangana employees complained about the violations to six point formula, government enacted government order 610 (GO 610) to correct the violations in recruitment. As Telangana people complained about the non-implementation of GO 610, in 2001, the government formed the Girglani commission to look into violations.
1997 to 2010Edit
In 1997, the state unit of the BJP passed a resolution seeking a separate Telangana. In 2000, Congress party MLAs from the Telangana region who supported a separate Telangana state formed the Telangana Congress Legislators Forum and submitted momorandum to their president Sonia Gandhi requesting to support the Telangana state.
A new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS), led by Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), was formed in April 2001 with the single-point agenda of creating a separate Telangana state with Hyderabad as its capital.
In 2001, the Congress Working Committee sent a resolution to the NDA government for constituting a second SRC to look into the Telangana state demand. This was rejected by then union home minister L.K. Advani citing that smaller states were neither viable nor conducive to the integrity of the country.
In April 2002, Advani wrote a letter to MP A. Narendra rejecting a proposal to create Telangana state explaining that "regional disparities in economic development could be tackled through planning and efficient use of available resources". He said that the NDA government, therefore, does "not propose creation of a separate state of Telangana" However, in 2012, Advani said that if their then partner TDP cooperated during NDA tenure, a separate state of Telangana could have been created. This was confirmed by the President of the TDP, Chandrababu Naidu, on 1 September 2013 in a public meeting.
In the run-up to the 2004 Assembly and Parliament elections, then Union Home Minister L. K. Advani ruled out inclusion of Telangana in the NDA agenda and said "Unless there is consensus among all political parties in the state and unless that consensus is reflected in a resolution of the state Assembly, we don’t propose to include it in the NDA agenda"
For these elections, the Congress party and the TRS forged an electoral alliance in the Telangana region to consider the demand of separate Telangana State. Congress came to power in the state and formed a coalition government at the centre; TRS joined the coalition after the common minimum program of the coalition government included that the demand for separate Telangana state will be considered after due consultations and consensus.
In February 2009 the state government declared that it had no objection, in principle, to the formation of separate Telangana and that the time had come to move forward decisively on this issue. To resolve related issues, the government constituted a joint house committee. In the lead-up to the 2009 General Elections in India, all the major parties in Andhra Pradesh supported the formation of Telangana.
In the 2009 elections TRS managed to win only 10 assembly seats out of the 45 it contested and only 2 MP seats. Some media analysts thought Telangana sentiment faded.
Within few months of getting re-elected as popular CM, Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy (YSR) died in a helicopter crash in September 2009. This resulted in a leadership crisis within the Congress party and also created a political vacuum in the state. During this time, TRS president K. Chandrashekar Rao (KCR) raised his pitch for the separate state. On 29 November 2009, he started a fast-unto-death, demanding that the Congress party introduce a Telangana bill in Parliament. Student organisations, employee unions, and various organisations joined the movement. General strikes shut down Telangana on 6 and 7 December. In an all party meeting called by the state government on the night of 7 December to discuss regarding KCR's fast and how to handle it, all major Opposition parties extended their support for a separate state for Telangana. The state Congress and its ally Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen have left it to the Congress high command to take a final decision. Minutes of the meeting were faxed to Congress high command.
Announcement of bifurcation and subsequent rollbackEdit
On 9 December 2009, Union Minister of Home Affairs P. Chidambaram announced that the Indian government would start the process of forming a separate Telangana state, pending the introduction and passage of a separation resolution in the Andhra Pradesh assembly. This resulted in protests across both Andhra and Rayalseema. Students, workers, lawyers and various organisations in the regions launched the Samaikyandhra Movement demanding that the state be kept united. MLAs from these regions also submitted their resignations in protest seeking a reversal of the home minister's statement.
On 23 December, keeping in view the reactions of people of other regions, the Government of India announced that no action on Telangana will be taken until a consensus is reached by all parties and groups in the state. Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema region MLAs started withdrawing their resignations while MLAs and ministers from Telangana started submitting their resignations, and demanded that the Centre take immediate steps to initiate the process of bifurcating Andhra Pradesh.
A Joint Action Committee (also known as JAC or TJAC) comprising political and non-political groups was formed to lead the demand for separate Telangana with Osmania University professor M Kodandaram as its convenor.
On 3 February, the government appointed a five-member committee headed by Justice SriKrishna to look into the issue.
2010: Srikrishna CommitteeEdit
The Srikrishna Committee headed by former Chief Justice B. N. Srikrishna toured all the regions of state extensively and invited people from all sections of the society to give their opinion on the statehood. It received over one lakh petitions and representations from political parties, organisations, NGOs and individuals. It also held consultations with political parties and general public while also factoring in the impact of recent developments on different sections of people such as women, children, students, minorities, Other Backward Classes, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
On 16 December 2010, two weeks before the deadline for the submission of the Srikrishna report, TRS organised a public meeting in Warangal. It was estimated that over 2.6 million people attended this meeting. It was reported that even more would have attended, but were stranded due to traffic jams along roads leading to the city. TRS president K. Chandrasekhar Rao appealed to Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to note that the people of Telangana were losing patience. He demanded that the Centre introduce the Bill on Telangana in the next session of Parliament.
Days before the Srikrishna committee submitted its report to the Central government, KCR declared that his party was ready to wash Sonia Gandhi's feet if she agrees to the Telangana demand. He said his party is associated with the movement and was willing to dissolve the party if the state was formed.
Release of the report and summary of findingsEdit
The Indian Home Ministry released the 505 page Srikrishna committee on 6 January 2011. The committee opined that most regions of Telangana (excluding Hyderabad) were either "on par or a shade lower" than Coastal Andhra. When Hyderabad is included, Telangana fared better. The most backward of all regions was in fact Rayalaseema. The committee, however, agreed with the violations of GO 610. Most violations, however, have been in the education and health sectors due to dearth of qualified locals. It also noted that the funds released for educational institutions in Telangana were lower than in the other two regions of the state. The committee did not see the Telangana movement as a threat to national integrity. Noting the emotions in the general public about the issue, a perceived neglect in implementation of assurances given to the region, it also said that "The continuing demand, therefore, for a separate Telangana, the Committee felt, has some merit and is not entirely unjustified". The conclusion of the report included the following statements "Therefore, after taking into account all the pros and cons, the Committee did not think it to be the most preferred, but the second best, option. Separation is recommended only in case it is unavoidable and if this decision can be reached amicably amongst all the three regions"
The report discusses six solutions to the problem, the preferred option being keeping the State united by simultaneously providing certain definite constitutional and statutory measures for socio-economic development and political empowerment of Telangana region through the creation of a statutorily empowered Telangana Regional Council. The second best option is bifurcation of the State into Telangana and Seemandhra as per existing boundaries, with Hyderabad as the capital of Telangana and Seemandhra to have a new capital.
Reactions to the reportEdit
The eighth chapter of the report was not made public for undisclosed reasons. After a judgement delivered by Justice L Narasimha Reddy of Andhra Pradesh High Court, the contents of the "secret" chapter were submitted to the High Court. The Chief Justice, in his 60-page judgement, said "The Committee travelled beyond the terms of reference in its endeavour to persuade the Union of India not to accede to the demand for Telangana". The judgement also quoted the SKC report's 8th chapter and said "The manoeuvre suggested by the Committee in its secret supplementary note poses an open challenge, if not threat, to the very system of democracy." The eighth chapter was not make public after division bench comprising the Chief Justice of the AP high court has stayed the order of Justice L Narasimha Reddy. Hence, the facts of the comments of the judge on the eighth chapter remain unverified.
Non-cooperation movement and Million MarchEdit
On 17 February 2011, a noncooperation movement was started which lasted for 16 days with participation by 3,00,000 government employees. It caused a loss of Rs 8 billion per day in revenue to government. In February and March, Assembly session was boycotted for weeks and Parliament session was disrupted for several days by Telangana representatives.
Million March was organised by Telangana JAC in Hyderabad on 10 March 2011. Many seemandhra bound police were dropped into Hyderabad city to stop the Telangana movement. In a move to disrupt the march, seemandhra police arrested over thousand activists throughout the region and closed down entry to Hyderabad city by stopping certain transportation services and diverting traffic. Around 50,000 people reached the venue of the march, Tank Bund by hoodwinking police. Telangana activists damaged 16 statues of personalities representing Andhra culture and threw some of the remnants into the lake.
In November 2011, Telangana Rashtra Samiti Vidyarthi Vibhagam (TRSV) state president Balka Suman was arrested by Hyderabad police after cases were registered against him in connection with damaging statues on Tank Bund during the 'Million March,' attacking police personnel, damaging police and Seemandhra media vehicles.
From April till June, the movement saw a lull, with different parties citing various reasons and fresh deadlines to renew the agitation. In July, 81 of 119 Telangana MLAs in the state, 12 out of 15 Telangana ministers in state, 13 out of 17 Telangana MPs in Lok Sabha, 1 Rajyasabha MP (Congress), 20 MLCs resigned protesting delay in the formation of Telangana. On 20 July 30-year-old Yadi Reddy was found dead 100 yards from Parliament House in Delhi. An eight-page suicide note says the young driver from greater Hyderabad region of Telangana was upset over the government not creating a new state for his homeland. The speaker of the AP assembly on 23 July summarily rejected the resignations of all 101 MLAs citing that they were made in an emotionally surcharged atmosphere. All Telangana MPs who earlier submitted their resignations and were boycotting the parliament session also decided to attend the parliament monsoon session citing Sonia Gandhi's ill health.
Sakala Janula SammeEdit
On 12 September 2011, a day before Sakala Janula Samme (All people's strike), TRS organised a public meeting in Karimnagar which was attended by over a million people including TJAC leaders, BJP and New Democracy party leaders.
Starting 13 September, as part of 'strike by all section of people' supporting Telangana statehood, government employees throughout Telangana stayed out of work, lawyers boycotted courts and 60,000 coal miners of Singareni Collieries (SCCL Ltd.) also joined the strike. Soon government teachers, state road transport corporation employees and state electricity board employees joined the strike.
On a call given by JAC, road blockades on national highways throughout Telangana, rail blockade and the strike of auto rikshaw union were organised on 24 and 25 September causing disruption in transport services. Virtually all sections of people joined this strike. On 30 September, as the strike entered the 18th day, even while Congress central leadership met several Telangana congress leaders, JAC called a bundh in Hyderabad city. On 2 October, JAC leaders, employee unions leaders and TRS leaders including KCR met Prime minister to explain the situation in Telangana due to the strike and asked to expedite the decision on the statehood demand. The strike has resulted in an unprecedented power crisis in the state with only 223 MU of power generated against the demand of 275MU impacting both the industry and agriculture.
Due to Rail blockade call on 15 October 110 trains were cancelled and 68 trains were diverted by authorities. The railways operated 12 trains and Hyderabad metro trains with full police protection. Telangana protestors tried to have sit in on rail platforms or on railway tracks at various places. Police arrested thousands of protesters including 8 MPs and 4 MLAs. On 16 October public transport employees called off the strike. Within days other unions too called off the strike one after another. After 42 days, on 24 October, remaining employees unions called off the strike. M. Kodandaram said that the strike had impacted the overall thinking of the Centre towards creation of separate State and the movement will continue with other protest activities.
On 29 October 2011, three Congress party MLAs belonging to Telangana region resigned and joined TRS in protest as they were disappointed with Congress leadership's delay in Telangana state formation.
On 1 November, Congress MLA Komatireddy Venkat Reddy started an indefinite hunger strike until the central government announced a roadmap for Telangana state. 5 days later, the fast was broken when police arrested him under Section 309 of IPC (attempt to commit suicide) and shifted him to NIMS, Hyderabad where he was kept under intravenous fluids. He ended his fast on 9 November. 97-year-old Freedom fighter Konda Laxman Bapuji also launched his week-long satyagraha at Jantar Mantar in New Delhi, demanding statehood to the region.
In January, BJP led by State party president Kishan Reddy started the 22-day Telangana 'Poru Yatra', across 88 assembly constituencies stressing the need for Telangana state. Though the tour was successful in reiterating the party's pro-Telangana stance, it could not garner as much support as hoped because of the indifferent attitude of the TRS and TJAC. In fact the failure of the TRS in declaring its support to Kishan Reddy's yatra has resulted in growing differences between the two parties.
By-elections took place on 18 March in 6 Telangana assembly seats. TRS won four out of five seats it contested with huge majorities ranging from 15,024 to 44,465. In two out of the four seats won by TRS (Kamareddy and Adilabad), the TRS candidates polled fewer votes compared to 2009 assembly elections when they contested as candidates from TDP which was in alliance with TRS. Ex-TDP MLA Nagam Janardhan Reddy won from Nagarkurnool seat as an independent with TJAC support. Congress lost deposit in one constituency and TDP in 3 constituencies.
Bye-polls were conducted for 18 Assembly seats and 1 Parliament seat on 12 June. The YSRCP won 15 assembly seats and the lone Parliament seat in Seema-Andhra region. TRS's candidate managed to win the Parkal seat with a slender majority of 1562 votes over YSRCP candidate Konda Surekha. TDP finished third after polling 30,000 votes and retained its deposit. Both BJP and Congress lost their deposits.
In September 2012, Sushilkumar Shinde, the newly appointed Home minister of India commented that the Telangana demand needs to be handled carefully since similarly carved smaller states saw increased Naxal problems. Addressing a public meeting in Nizamabad district, AIMIM president Asaduddin Owaisi said that formation of a separate Telangana state is not possible and reaffirmed his party's stand on the issue. He also said that Muslims would not accept a separate state.
On 14 August 2012, KCR gave a deadline to the centre to declare statehood in 2 weeks and promised to launch another round of agitation if the centre doesn't. He later declared that he got feelers that a positive announcement will be made by Eid. In another interview after Eid, he remarked that Sonia Gandhi has always been in favour of Telangana and that the central government will call his party for discussions in "few weeks or so" On 6 September, KCR left for Delhi and announced that the issue will be resolved by end of September. After his 23-day stay in Delhi, KCR returned to Hyderabad hoping for a final round of talks with the Congress leadership on the issue. He claimed that his discussions with several leaders was fruitful.
After setting 30 September as the deadline for the Centre to announce the formation of Telangana, the TJAC threatened to organise a 'Telangana March' in Hyderabad on the lines of the 'Dandi March' . Anticipating violence and possibility of attack on properties of Andhraites, Police initially refused permission to the march which is scheduled around the time of Ganesh Nimmajjan on 29 September and UN conference on Bio diversity on 1 October. The Police begun checking buses and trains entering the city and students who are trying to enter the city to participate in the protest are being sent back. They identified troublemakers and arrested certain pro-Telangana activists throughout the Telangana region. Police said that there are intelligence reports that the protestors could attack properties of people of Seemandhra.
On 28 September, after long discussions between JAC leaders and ministers from Telangana region, the state government ignoring warnings about the possible breakdown of law and order, gave permission for the march. The JAC leaders gave written assurance to the government that the agitation programme would be conducted in a peaceful and "gandhian" manner from 15:00 to 19:00 on 30 September on the Necklace Road on the edge of Hussain Sager lake. Indian Railways cancelled several express and passenger trains and all local and sub-urban train services in Hyderabad reportedly on the advice of police.
On 30 September, the day of the march, Police closed the gates and blocked students at the Osmania University gate and other protestors at several places in the city when they were proceeding in rallies towards the March venue. Congress MPs from Telangana were arrested in front of Chief minister's office when they staged a dharna as they were not allowed to meet him over the detention of their party supporters who were stopped from reaching the venue.
Though police sealed all the entry points to the Necklace Road and opened only the Buddha Bhavan route, by 4pm around 2 lakh protestors including various party leaders and their supporters reached the venue from all routes. Coming under attack from both sides, the police ceded the entire Necklace Road to the protesters who marched on till Jal Vihar. According to the Police, the protesters torched two police vehicles at People's Plaza on the Necklace Road. The mobs also set afire three police vehicles, a couple of media outdoor broadcasting vans, machinery and a temporary cabin room of a construction company. The protesters made an attempt to set on fire a local train at Khairatabad station. At the railway's Hussainsagar junction cabin, around 1,000 Telangana supporters went on a rampage overpowering over 100 uniformed men stationed in the area and burnt down the cabin after manhandling railway staff. The entire signalling system was damaged and officials pegged the loss at around Rs. 60 lakh.
After 19:00, TJAC leaders violated the deadline and refused to leave the venue till the government issues a statement on Telangana. Police first used water cannons and later lobbed tear gas shells on the crowd and on to the stage to force the protestors to leave the venue. Finally at midnight the JAC called off the March citing heavy rain and injured supporters.
The next day, local police registered 15 cases against Kodandaram and others for conducting the march beyond the permitted time of 7 pm and till midnight and also for violence during the march. Railway police also registered cases against unidentified persons for damage to the signalling system at Lakdikapul. Cases were booked against the student leaders of TSJAC, OUJAC, Telangana Vidyarti Parishad and TVV. The bandh drew little response in Hyderabad and was partial in Telangana districts. Osmania University students again resorted to stone throwing and police retaliated by using tear gas shells.
On 27 December 2012 a meeting was organised by Home minister of India to discuss the Telangana issue. It was attended by 8 political parties having significant presence in the state legislature. After hearing views of all the parties, the home minister said that this will be the last such meeting on this issue and that the government will come up with a decision within 30 days. In the meeting, MIM and CPI (M) reiterated their strong opposition to division of the state. YSR Congress remained neutral and requested the central government to take a decision. Congress representatives gave conflicting views, one supporting the division and one opposing it. TDP representatives gave a letter signed by its president which said that it never withdrawn its letter to Pranab Mukharjee in 2008 supporting Telangana state formation. Telangana JAC demanded more clarity from Telugu Desam before they allow TDP to be a member of JAC.
2013 witnessed more protest by the TJAC including blockade of the road blockade of NH 7 in Mahbubnagar district. Public property was destroyed. This year also witnessed protest by 5 Congress MPs for 48 hours at the entrance of the Indian Parliament.
In May 2013, chalo assembly the TJAC gave a call to lay siege to the state legislative Assembly in Hyderabad on 14 June 2013 to demand the formation of Telangana. Government refused permission to the march as they had information that anti-social elements might participate in the event and cause violence like in previous events of Sagara Haram and Million March where violence erupted despite promises made by the TJAC. Police made pre-emptive arrests of activists through the region which led to stalling of the assembly proceedings by opposition parties. The chief minister directed the Director-General of Police at a high-level review meeting not to use even rubber bullets in their efforts and observe utmost restraint in maintaining law and order. Amid fear of violence by Naxalites after an open letter claimed to have been written by them on the rally, police sounded a high alert across the state and almost sealed all the arterial roads leading to the Assembly. Over 25,000 policemen belonging to both central and state security forces were deployed. The TJAC leaders alleged that the government has been using repressive measures to prevent them from representing the aspirations of Telangana people in a peaceful manner. Educational institutions declared a holiday and public transport went off the roads and shops and establishments shut as a precautionary measure.
On the day of the event in spite of the restrictions placed, police could not totally prevent Telangana activists from sneaking into prime locations and making a vain bid to rush towards the Assembly. Hundreds of people including state legislators, the JAC Chairman and other leaders were arrested across the city. Osmania University campus witnessed pitched battles as police closed the campus gate to stop students leaving campus in a rally then resorted to tear gas shelling when student started stone pelting. After the march, the TJAC Chairman remarked that their goal to reach the Assembly complex and highlight their demand was fulfilled.
Congress Core Committee MeetingEdit
According to an internal survey reportedly done for the state government (cited by media sources in June), the Congress party will get around 35-40 seats out of 294 MLA seats in the state, with TRS ahead in Telangana region while YSRCP in the Seema-Andhra region. This survey was reportedly being considered to arrive at a decision on the statehood issue.
On 30 June, Congress leaders belonging to Telangana region organised a public meeting in Hyderabad with a turn out of over 100,000 to show their support to Telangana state. It was attended by Damodar Raja Narasimha, Deputy Chief minister of the state, central ministers, state ministers, MPs and MLAs who expressed the confidence that their party leadership will create the separate state soon and said that Congress will perform well in the next elections in such a situation.
On 1 July, Congress party's in-charge of the state, Digvijay Singh said that party is at the final stages of taking decision on Telangana issue. He also directed state chief minister, deputy chief minister and state party president (they represent assembly constituencies in Rayalaseema, Telangana and Coastal Andhra regions respectively) to furnish a roadmap, keeping both options open, that could help lead to a decision. On 11 July the three leaders presented their views in the Congress core committee meeting, post which it was announced that a decision will be taken by the Congress Working Committee.
The Chief Minister N Kiran Kumar Reddy met several MPs, MLAs and MLCs on 29 July in a bid to resolve the issue being taken up by the central Congress government.
CWC resolution on bifurcationEdit
The Congress Working Committee (CWC) unanimously passed a resolution On 30 July to create the State of Telangana. The committee also assured that the concerns of people from the remaining regions regarding sharing of water and power resources will be addressed. The bifurcation decision sparked off fresh protests as part of the Samaikyandhra Movement.
TRS welcomed the decision and its chief K. Chadrashekhar Rao said that his party is fine with Hyderabad being the joint capital. This was seen as an attempt by the INC to merge TRS into itself for the general and provincial election after being marginalised in the Rayalseema and coastal regions by the YSR Congress. and that their party supports the creation of Telangana and Vidarbha. They demanded that other requests for the creation of new states such as those of Gorkhaland and Bodoland need to be done by appointing a Second States Reorganisation Commission earlier too. We now demand that the government should set it up and seek a report within a specific timeframe.
Many parties and politicians including the Chief Minister-who hails from Rayalaseema- protested the bill. Some even termed it as "undemocratic". The congress and YSRCP were wiped out in the following elections, however in all three regions of the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh. 2014 Indian general election.
The decision sparked protests by the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) in the form of an indefinite strike for Gorkhaland. GJM President Bimal Gurung also resigned from the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration in demand for Gorkhaland, citing West Bengal government's interference with its autonomy. It was even speculated by the media that more such moves could gain steam, such as that by the Bundelkhand Mukti Morcha for Bundelkhand. Meanwhile, the national Home Ministry opined that the lack of development in the proposed areas and the proximity to other hotbeds in Chattishgarh's Bastar and Maharashtra's Gadhidoli regions might cause an increase in Naxalism in Telangana Communist Party of India (Maoist) if the administration is not quickly consolidated.
The next steps towards the re-formation of Telangana, expected by early 2014, are: The national cabinet sharing its plans with the President of India and the Andhra Pradesh legislature. The Prime Minister would then organise a committee to negotiate a consensus between the leaders from the three regions for issues such as sharing revenue and water. Both national houses of parliament would then have to pass a resolution to create Telangana.
Cabinet approval of Telangana stateEdit
3 October 2013, the Union Cabinet approved the creation of the new State of Telangana. A Group of Ministers (GoM) was created to settle issues concerning the new state and the State of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad will be the shared capital for 10 years, after which it will belong to Telangana, said the Home Minister.
On 8 October, recently retired director general of police Dinesh Reddy said the Chief minister, Kiran Kumar Reddy pressured him to issue a public statement that the creation of Telangana would lead to intensification of Maoist activities. He also charged that the CM had reprimanded him for seeking additional central forces for containing expected trouble in Seemandhra in the run up to the Congress Working Committee's Telangana resolution at the end of July.
Events leading to the formation of TelanganaEdit
Formation of Group of Ministers (GoM)Edit
Govt of India set up the Group of Ministers (GOM) headed by union home minister Sushilkumar Shinde to address all the issues that need resolution at the central and state government levels during the formation of Telangana state. GOM met on 11 October for the first time released its terms of reference on 16 Oct. GOM met 2nd time on 19 October and considered the background notes which had been prepared by the Home Ministry regarding the various issues pertaining to the bifurcation. It also asked feedback from public to send their suggestions pertaining to the specific terms of reference before 5 November. On 29 October, the background notes prepared by Home ministry for GOM appeared in the media. On 30 October, Union Home Minister Sushil Kumar Shinde called for an all-party meeting, to be attended by representatives of national and regional parties of the state, to discuss the issues related to bifurcation. In a letter to 8 major political parties in the state, home ministry asked the parties to submit their suggestions to the GoM by 5 November, following which an all-party meeting will be held. On 13-14 November GOM met the representatives all parties of the state to discuss (TDP boycotted the meeting) about the issues related to bifurcation. GOM had meetings including some with CM, Deputy CM, cabinet ministers from the state and other state leaders while finalizing the Telangana draft bill.
On 3 December, Talk of including two Rayalaseema districts, Ananthapur district and Kurnool district, in Telangana state by GOM was criticised by pro-Telangana groups. TRS and JAC called for Telangana wide bandh (strike) on 5 December 2013 which had a good response.
On the evening of 5 December 2013, the cabinet approved the Telangana draft bill prepared by Group of Ministers (GoM). The bill have to approved by Parliament before it becomes 29th state of the union.
6 December 2013: India's Union Home Ministry sends the Telangana draft bill to The President of India.
11 December 2013: The President of India reviews the bill and passes it on to the Andhra Pradesh State Assembly to elicit its views, giving it until 23 January to respond with its views. The bill was urgently hand-delivered the following day, to Assembly secretariat by the Joint Secretary of Union Home Ministry.
16 December 2013: The Telangana draft bill was introduced in Andhra Pradesh state assembly by deputy speaker Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka in the speaker's absence. This was met by protests and chaos created by the Seemandhra MLAs.
17 December 2013: Assembly's proceedings remain disrupted. The Business Advisory Committee (BAC) of the State Assembly decides to discuss the Bill starting the following day. This evokes mixed reactions including allegations on Seemandhra leaders' attempt to derail the bill by delaying the process.
18,19 December 2013: Assembly proceedings continue to be disrupted. The situation forces the speaker, Nadendla Manohar to adjourn the house until 3 January. This is met with protests from the Telangana MLAs. Telangana and Seemandhra leaders meet The President Pranab Mukherjee vying with each other to complain about the way the Telangana bill was being handled.
1 January 2014: 2 days before the start of the next assembly session, the Chief Minister Kiran kumar Reddy replaces D Sridhar Babu with S Sailajanath. This move comes criticised as the former hails from Telangana and the latter is actively involved with Samaikyandhra Movement. Sridhar Babu resigns from the cabinet in protest.
6 January 2014: Unable to continue Assembly sessions amid chaos, the speaker requests members to submit written amendments, if any, to the clauses of the Bill by 10 January.
8 January 2014: The bill is finally taken up for debate. However, this lasts for only a few minutes with the YSR Congress Party MLAs resuming protests.
9 January: The debate continues only after YSRCP MLAs were suspended. While there was polarisation on regional lines, debate more or less turned into a blame game over the state bifurcation issue as every party indulged in a game of political one-upmanship. Congress leader from Seemandhra and minister Vatti Vasanth Kumar spoke opposing the Telangana bill and said bifurcation is against Seemandhra interests. On 10 January, debate started after YSRCP members staged walk out. Among others, TRS floor leader, E Rajender spoke in length supporting Telangana bill while highlighting the grievances of Telangana people and the history of the movement. CPI floor leader G Mallesh, Congress leader from Telangana and government chief whip Gandra Venkaramana Reddy spoke supporting Telangana bill. House was adjourned until 17 January. After 17 January, debate had less disruptions. Chief Minister requested the President four weeks of additional time for the debate a move opposed by Telangana leaders. On 23 January, President gave 7days extension, until 30 January, for assembly to give its views on Telangana draft bill.
23-25 Jan 2014: The Chief Minister presents his analysis on how the bifurcation is detrimental to both regions, the highlights being the effect on current irrigation projects in Telangana and better subsidised electricity given to farmers of Telangana. Telangana MLAs ridicule the Chief Minister and prevent the proceedings citing no opportunity to make a counter argument. The Chief Minister later expresses his opinion as the AP Reorganisation Bill-2013 being defective. Other members view this as an unduly delayed reaction.
27 Jan 2014: Chief Minister Kirankumar Reddy, gave notice to assembly speaker requesting to move resolution rejecting the Telangana bill. The move was criticised by Telangana MLAs including the ministers and deputy chief minister saying that cabinet was not consulted on the subject. They said this "amounts to defying the Union Cabinet, Constitution and President". After this, no debate was possible in the assembly as Telangana members insisted that speaker reject the Chief minister's notice.
On 30 January 2014, Andhra Pradesh assembly speaker declared that assembly completed the debate and all the members gave their views. He said, he would send to the President of India a compilation of 9,072 suggestions and amendments he received in writing from members, including 87 members who had spoken on the Bill in the house. Further he accepted the Chief minister's notice of resolution to reject the AP Reorganisation Bill and declared that resolution passed by voice vote without even waiting for the MLAs in the house to say ‘aye’, amidst pandemonium and protests from Telangana MLAs. Earlier in the day Seemandhra members rushed to the well of the House demanding that the resolution moved by the CM, without cabinet approval, be put to vote, those from the Telangana region, including the ministers and deputy chief minister, did the same with the demand that there should be no voting. At 11.30 pm, in what appears to be a coordinated strategy between the speaker, the chief minister and the Seemandhra legislators, all the members from that region converged at the well of the House and formed a wall around the speaker even as Manohar read out the resolution, put it to voice vote and declared it as having been passed. The bill will now be sent back to President Pranab Mukherjee after which it is slated to be tabled in Parliament. The resolution was placed in the house and was declared passed within 15 seconds. Analysts say "rejection of Telangana bill" is not valid and is useful only for political grand standing. Union cabinet minister Jaipal Reddy said that the resolution to reject the Telangana bill was passed in the assembly by cheating and it has no statutory and political sanctity. General secretary of Congress Party and party's in-charge for Andhra Pradesh, Digvijay Singh said that the bill that the President sent to the Assembly was never meant to be put to vote and said that the Congress high command and the Center would go ahead with its plans to introduce and pass the Telangana Bill in Parliament during the forthcoming session.
On 4 February, GOM cleared the Telangana bill after making few amendments to it based upon the input from state assembly.
On 7 February, Union cabinet cleared the Telangana bill and plans to introduce in upper house of Parliament with 32 amendments. Amendments include the details of financial package to Seemandhra to address their concerns.
On 13 February, Telangana bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, by Union home minister, Sushilkumar Shinde despite protests, disruptions of Seemandhra MPs. In an unprecedented incidence, the use of pepper spray by Seemandhra MP, Lagadapati Rajagopal in the Lok Sabha during the introduction of the bill caused all the members to leave the house and some members to be hospitalised.
18 February 2014: the Telangana Bill is passed by the Lok Sabha with support from the Congress, TRS and other local parties. Broadcast of the proceedings enters a blackout during the voice vote. This caused widespread criticism of the manner in which the bill was passed.
20 February 2014: The Telangana bill is passed by Rajya Sabha with the support from the Congress, TRS, BJP and other local parties. The bill receives the assent of the President and published in the gazette on 1 March 2014. On 4 March 2014 the Government of India declares 2 June 2014 the Telangana Formation Day. Telangana is the 29th state of the Union of India with Hyderabad as its capital. Both states will share the capital for 10 years until Seemandhra can establish its own. However, the revenues of Hyderabad and state governing power will go only to Telangana. No special status was accorded to Seemandhra, though it was hinted in the Telangana Bill.
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Made in America American Flags in West Warren MA 01092
A nationwide icon that goes by the nicknames “The Stars and Stripes”, “Old Glory”, and also “The Star-Spangled Banner”, the American flag is one of the highly identifiable icons on the planet today. This is generally as a result of the condition of the United States as one of one of the most influential nations in history. The American Flag is the third oldest of the National Standards of the world – older than the Union Jack of Britain or the Tricolor of France. It is distinct in the deep as well as worthy importance of its message to the whole globe. It represents a message of national independence, of individual freedom, of idealism, and also of patriotism.
Who designed the American Flag?
According to popular legend, the first American flag was made by Betsy Ross, a Philadelphia seamstress who was acquainted with George Washington. In May 1776, so the story goes, General Washington as well as two people from the Continental Congress went to Ross at her upholstery store and also showed her a rough layout of the flag.
In those days, the flag was not the same as we know it today. The act mentioned, “Resolved, that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternating red and also white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation.”
Just what does the American Flag represent?
The flag initially rose over thirteen states along the Atlantic coast, with a population of some 3 million people. Today it flies over fifty states, expanding across the continent, and also over great islands of the two seas; and millions owe it loyalty. It has been brought to this proud position by love and sacrifice. People have actually progressed it and heroes have actually died for it.
The flag consists of 13 alternating red and also white horizontal stripes standing for the first thirteen British colonies that stated freedom from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and ended up being the initial states in the United States. A blue rectangular shape in the canton shows 50 little, white stars representing each state. The stars are arranged in 9 horizontal rows offset of each other. This blue area of the flag is called the Union.
The symbolism of the Flag, as quoted from Washington: “We take the stars from Heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white stripes, hence revealing that we have separated from her, and also the white stripes will decrease to posterity representing Liberty.”
It incarnates for all humanity the spirit of freedom as well as the glorious principle of human liberty; not the freedom of unrestraint or the liberty of license, however an one-of-a-kind ideal of equal opportunity for life, liberty as well as the pursuit of happiness, guarded by the stern and also soaring principles of duty, of decency and of justice, and possible by obedience to self-imposed legislations.
It personifies the significance of patriotism. Its spirit is the spirit of the American country. Its background is the history of the American people. Decorated upon its folds in letters of living light are the names and also fame of our brave dead, the Fathers of the Republic that devoted upon its altars their lives, their treasures as well as their spiritual honor. Twice told tales of national honor and glory collection heavily about it. Ever before victorious, it has emerged victorious from eight great nationwide conflicts. It flew at Saratog, at Yorktown, at Palo Alto, at Gettysburg, at Manila bay, at Chateau-Thierry, at Iwo Jima. It demonstrates to the enormous development of our nationwide limits, the development of our natural resources, as well as the superb structure of our world. It prophesises the victory of preferred federal government, of public as well as religious freedom and of nationwide decency throughout the globe.
Why is the American Flag vital to American community?
The American flag is really vital due to the fact that it represents the independent government as described under the United States Constitution. The flag also symbolizes the numerous achievements of the nation as well as the pride of its people.
This nationwide icon advises people, not only in the state of MA, but throughout the entire USA about the different vital aspects of the Declaration of Independence. It is a complex icon, which means the liberty and legal rights of Americans. Drifting from the soaring peak of American optimism, it is a beacon of withstanding hope.
It is the indicator made visible of the solid spirit that has brought freedom and success to the people of America. It is the flag of all us alike. Let us accord it honor as well as commitment.
Where can I purchase American Flags?
You probably already discovered this, but there are a lot of areas where you could get American flags. It is vital to keep in mind that the flag you’re going to acquire ought to be “Made in America. There are multiple sellers whose flags are identified as made in China, and also flying a China-made American flag just does not make any sense, does it?
Based upon data, Americans invest over 5.3 million US dollars on imported flags yearly – a lot of which are made in China. Maybe a lot more perplexing is that during 2001, in the wave of patriotism that spread over America after 9/11, Americans bought $52 million US dollars in imported flags. The flag must represent the blood, sweat, as well as tears of American people that brought this nation right into existence, not our debt to China as well as the fatality of the American production field.
The flag represents national self-reliance and also popular sovereignty. It is not the flag of a reigning family or imperial house, but of the millions free people welded into a nation, one as well as indivisible, unified not only by community of passion, but by important unity of sentiment as well as objective; a nation differentiated for the clear specific perception of its citizens alike of their duties and their opportunities, their commitments and also their rights.
So have a little pride, spend a few more bucks, as well as get an American flag made by Americans in the United States of America.
West Warren ZIP codes we serve: 01092
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Michael Hambidge shares his research discoveries on infant and maternal health and development, performed in Chimaltenango. He explains the reasons for carrying out this investigation, as well as the motivations and interests that led to such important findings.
He lectures about the worldwide situation on child mortality and underdevelopment, focusing on the different variables that have influenced this health-related situation.
Hambidge tells about the role micronutrients play in an infant’s development, and talks about the importance of prenatal and preconception nutrition. Based on multi-country studies, along with common protocol data, he explains the existing relationship between the height and weight of the children measured. He also comments on the window of opportunity in regards to interventions that can be implemented when a deficit in micronutrients is present, but focuses on the importance of key moments of prevention and intervention in the early stages of preconception and post conception.
Finally, he explains the role of the epigenome concerning the modifications on the genetic material of the cell based on the social, environmental, and genetic conditions of a person.
Michael Hambidge is pediatric gastroenterologist. He is Professor Emeritus of Pediatrics…
14 de octubre de 2010
22 de agosto de 2011
Nuestra misión es la enseñanza y difusión de los principios éticos, jurídicos y económicos de una sociedad de personas libres y responsables.
Universidad Francisco Marroquín
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Teaching English Amidst Covid19 Pandemic: A Cross-level Educators’ Perception
Keywords:Cross-Level Educators, Online Learning, Perspectives
The impact of the corona virus makes it difficult for teachers and students to adjust learning. The purpose of this study is to analyze as well to investigate the phenomenon of teaching English online amidst the re-emerging pandemic situation forcing the teaching learning process to be re-implemented online. The subjects were 10 cross-level English teachers situated in Java and Sumatra. Qualitative approach utilizing semi-structured interview method in obtaining the necessary data was chosen as the best method and approach in the study. The participants mainly agreed with the online learning system, though they faced challenges like limited subsidiary quotas, students' poor conditions, students' misbehavior and lack of better equipments. Besides various approaches and solutions in facing the challenges, it was also known that writing was considered the most challenging to teach among the four basic skills. The implication of this study endeavor the insights on tackling down the challenges of teaching amidst a pandemic. Synergy among so many elements like cross-level teachers, students, parents and policy makers was badly demanded to make the progress of online learning comes to betterment.
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The discovery of North Sea oil and gas was a boon to Britain. Piper Alpha made a productive contribution. Originally an oil platform, it was later modified for gas production and consisted of four safety modifies separated by firewalls. In July 1988 Piper Alpha was producing ten per cent of the North Sea’s annual production. The revenue amounted to millions of daily dollars, but events soon proved that harvesting black gold from beneath the sea could exact a terrible price.
Two pumps on Piper Alpha compressed gas for onward transmission, but on July 6 Pump As safety valve was removed for maintenance and the open pipe sealed with a metal plug. At 21.45, Pump B failed. Supply had to be maintained at all costs and control room staff tragically failed to find the written notification that Pump A was out of commission. They started it at 21.55, immediately initiating a major leak through the temporary plug.
The gas ignited, causing an explosion that demolished safety walls built to withstand fire only. The control room was abandoned an events ran out of control. A second explosion rocked the platform at 22.20, intensifying the blaze. The Tharos rescue and firefighting vessel drew alongside at 20.30, only to be driven off as the second gas line went, creating a massive fireball.
The crew were either sheltering in the fireproofed accommodation block or leaping desperately into the sea, but the end was nigh. At 23.50 most of the platform collapsed into the sea, the rest soon following. As dawn broke, all that could be seen above the sullen swell was the skeletal remains of one module, its top still burning. Of 226 people on the platform that fatal night, fewer than a third survived the world’s worst offshore oil disaster.
When: July 6 1988
Where: North Sea
Death toll: 167 died (Including two crew members from a rescue boat); 59 survived,
You should know: The initial fire on Piper Alpha would have burnt out and the death toll been greatly reduced had the platform not been a staging point for pipelines from the Tartan and Claymore platforms. The cost of shutting these down was so great that both continued pumping into the heart of Piper-Alpha’s fire, creating an unstoppable conflagration that destroyed the rig and cost the lives of so many crew members.
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Everyone knows that making cement produces CO2. But did you know that concrete reabsorbs a significant amount of that CO2 over its lifetime in a process known as carbon uptake or recarbonation?
It is well-known that concrete is responsible for significant CO2 emissions, primarily as a result of the carbon-intensive process by which its key ingredient, cement, is manufactured. What is less well known is that concrete absorbs CO2 throughout its lifecycle, a property known as cement recarbonation, concrete carbonation or, more simply, carbon uptake.
Recarbonation is a natural process, occurring when concrete reacts with CO2 in the air. The exact amount of CO2 that concrete can reabsorb has a maximum of 100% of that emitted during the calcination of limestone in the cement manufacturing process. (These are known as process CO2 emissions and are the cause of approximately 60% of the embodied CO2 of concrete.) The actual amount of carbon uptake will depend on a range of parameters including the resistance class, exposure conditions, thickness of the concrete element, recycling scenario and secondary use. A practical estimate of the global carbon sink provided by all concrete is 25% of the process CO2 emissions released during cement production.
The carbon uptake process also happens at different speeds, occurring relatively quickly in non-reinforced products or thin/porous applications (renders, mortars, concrete blocks and mineral foams), but more slowly in reinforced concrete and thicker elements. Non-reinforced porous applications, such as masonry, that are exposed to air, can fully recarbonate within a few years, and it is estimated that such applications account for about two-thirds of the concrete global carbon sink.
Another significant portion of concrete carbon uptake occurs when reinforced concrete structures are demolished, as the increased surface area and exposure to air accelerates the process. The amount of carbon uptake is even greater when stockpiles of crushed concrete are left exposed to the air before reuse.
Finally, several carbonation-based binders have emerged, which are not only produced with lower CO2 emissions (burnt at lower temperature) but mostly use a significant amount of CO2 to harden. Such applications are however currently limited to niche markets.
Header photo by Paul Mocan on Unsplash
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Religion in the American Revolution and Founding
|Colonial Establishment||State Establishment||Disestablishment||Tax Support||Tests|
|New Hampshire||Protestant by town1||Protestant by town2||18193||Yes4||Yes5|
|Massachusetts||Protestant by town6||Protestant7||18338||Yes9||Yes10|
|Connecticut||Congregational/ Anglican14||Christian by town15||181816||Yes17||No51,53|
|New York||Protestant by town18,19||None||177720||Yes||Yes21|
States banning clergy holding office: North Carolina (1776), New York (1777), South Carolina (1778), Delaware (1792), Maryland (1799), Georgia (1799), Mississippi (1817)49, Tennessee (1796), and Kentucky (1799)50
1. “Any Protestant group that won a town election could become the establishment.” Levy, p. 23 “Quakers, Anglicans, Presbyterians, and Baptists who attended their own churches were exempt from supporting the local established church, which, because of the Congregational dominance in town after town, was Congregationalist.” Levy p. 23.
4. “The colonial religious establishments were more than legal niceties. For many years they provided the only forms of public religious practice available to colonists in America. Through 1760, at least half the churches in the British mainland colonies were those that were sanctioned or mandated by law. They served well-defined areas and they utilized governmental coercive power to collect taxes to pay their ministers and maintain their buildings. Such patterns typified religious settings in nine of the thirteen colonies – New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia.” Hoffman and Albert p. 4.
5. Massachusetts, New Hampshire, South Carolina: “These three along with North Carolina, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, also required profession of ‘the Christian religion’ as a requirement for state office.” Albert and Hoffman p. 188-189.
6. “The General Court’s act…provided for an establishment of religion on a town basis by simply requiring every town to maintain an ‘able, learned and orthodox’ minister, to be chosen by the voters of the town and supported by a tax levied on all tax payers” Levy, p. 15.
7. The State Constitution of Massachusetts (1780) created a multiple establishment of all Protestant churches and allowed taxpayers to choose the church that would receive their compulsory support. See Levy, p. 26-27.
14. The official establishment in Connecticut was the Congregational church, but Anglicans enjoyed the same rights and tax support as the standing order. See Levy, p. 20-22 “The basic law governing Connecticut’s establishment … required the collection of taxes from everyone, even in towns without a settled minister.” The taxes went to benefit Congregational churches originally, but in 1727 taxes paid by Anglicans were authorized to be rebated to their own ministers. Levy, p. 20-21.
15. Towns would vote for the established church and pay taxes to support that church. However, Christians who could prove they were members of other churches could have their taxes support the church they attended. Non-Christians and the un-churched had to pay taxes to support the local establishment. See Levy, p. 41-43.
16. “A constitutional convention of 1818…disestablished church and state by providing that no one could be compelled to support any religious society, yet allowed any religious society to tax itself and privately collect the assessment from each member.” Levy, p. 44.
19. “Legislatures in South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, and New York enacted their first establishment laws between 1693 and 1710, and they refined and tightened them through the 1720s. Only in Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut did lawmakers build on old establishments.” Hoffman and Albert p. 5.
30. “‘Yet the Legislature may, in their discretion, lay a general and equal tax, for the support pf the Christian religion; leaving to each individual the power of appointing the payment of the money, collected from him, to the support of any particular place of worship or minister.’” Levy, p. 47.
45. “The charter of Georgia declared liberty of worship, but on its abrogation the Church of England was established by royal edict and legislative enactment, a few years before the Revolution.” Cobb, p. 71.
46. “‘All persons whatever shall have the free exercise of their religion;…and shall not, unless by consent, support any teacher or teachers except of their own profession.’” This resulted in a tax law to support one’s own religion, and it is “not clear whether this measure ever went into operation” See Levy, p. 48-49.
51. Hooker “Had no sympathy for the theocratic ideal.” Cobb p. 240.
52. New Jersey Constitution pg. 25 Levy.
53. “Happily in Connecticut, Ellsworth concluded, we have no such laws.” Gaustad pg. 230.
Sanford H. Cobb, The Rise of Religious Liberty in America: A History (New York: MacMillan, 1902)
Thomas J. Curry, The First Freedoms: Church and State in America to the Passage of the First Amendment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986)
Edwin S. Gaustad, “Religious Tests, Constitutions and ‘Christian Nation,’” in Religion in a Revolutionary Age
Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Religion in a Revolutionary Age (USA: The University Press of Virginia, 1994)
Leonard Levy, The Establishment Clause: Religion and the First Amendment (New York: MacMillan, 1986)
Steven K. Green, The Second Disestablishment: Church and State in Nineteenth Century America
Philip Hamburger, Separation of Church and State, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002)
Chris Beneke, Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism (Oxford University Press, 2006)
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The history of education in the South is woven to the history of race. When whites saw public-school integration coming, many started private schools, sometimes called "segregation academies" – and they still play a role.
The group of legislators that routinely opposes Governor Bobby Jindal's use of one-time money in his proposed budgets met over the weekend, and may soon have an alternate way to fund some of higher education's budget.
Last year, the fiscal hawks proposed over $160 million of cuts to lower priority areas of the budget. Representative Kirk Talbot, a leader of the group, says those weren’t considered until the mid-year shortfall. They’ll try again this year.
Governor Bobby Jindal wants to utilize one-time funds to keep the state afloat. Jindal's proposed budget was unveiled Friday to the Legislature's Joint Committee on the Budget.
The Governor's budget it $24.7 billion in size. One-time funds make up only $424 million of it – but last year, the budget’s use of one-time funds was smaller than that, and those funds not coming through were partially to blame for mid-year budget cuts.
It’s been nearly 60 years since the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, and the subsequent flurry of lawsuits forcing the desegregation of schools. Two recent studies—one from Stanford University, the other from UCLA—say that schools, particularly in the South, are becoming re-segregated after the lawsuits are settled. Louisiana’s East Baton Rouge Parish appears to be part of that pattern.
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The United States has a long tradition of pioneering the making of things, but recently these efforts have come into question for a variety reasons. Changes in labor markets and the supply of energy are two such reasons. The role of technology is perhaps one of the most disruptive. Some fear that automated equipment will put people out of jobs, but there are emerging examples of people and technology working together.
Although technology can take away some jobs, it also creates new opportunities for innovation. According to the authors of Making in America, changes in how we create things will drive innovation. Technology can speed production and provide more energy sources. It can also help level the playing field when it comes to labor costs. Instead of thinking of robots as job stealers, we ought to think of them as job changers. For decades, some among us have been foreboding that robots will steal our jobs, putting us out of work, leaving us desolate and wayward. But, in fact, many of these predictions have failed to come true. And where robots have entered the workforce, they often work along side people, supporting them where and when necessary. This is perhaps a more sensible way to envision the future, one in which robots do the jobs we won’t — or can’t — do.
Robots are extending our reach beyond our grasp. Automated assembly has been around for decades, with people typically feeding materials into the assembly line and robots performing dangerous or repetitive tasks. Future versions of these manufacturing facilities might, in fact, be completely empty of people yet be heavily under the influence of skilled workers. Called ‘cloud manufacturing’, researchers envision people providing their skills remotely around the world. A person with a particular skill could virtually work at numerous manufacturing facilities, using robots to execute their commands on physical objects. In other words, workers might be able to build a car from home.
Robots are poised to take over some dangerous jobs that have, until now, been done exclusively by people. SINTEF Fisheries and Agriculture in Norway developed a robotic arm that can filet a fish. Using 3D scanning, the robot senses the incoming fish, develops the optimal cutting solution to minimize waste, and uses an arm-and-knife to execute the cuts. Although a human fishmonger is currently much more adept at the task, future iterations of SINTEF’s robot could save human fingers from being severed along with fish heads. If people wish to avoid an environment in which knives slice through air and flesh with ease, surely even more would wish to avoid an environment that all together lacks air. Experiencing space as a traveler (from the comfort of a transport vessel) is inevitable. But experiencing space as an assembly line worker is probably not high on many people’s career goals. Engineers from Tethers Unlimited, Inc developed a robot that would gladly do this job. Called SpiderFab, the system will 3D print and automatically assemble large structures in space, structures that are currently much too large to be launched from the ground on a rocket.
Robots are ever ready, able to be deployed at a moments notice. Some suspect that the future of transportation of goods is in the hands (or grippers?) of drones. Flying robots will deliver food and other goods to people in urban and remote areas. Although this could put some pizza delivery folks out of a job, drones such as these have a higher calling. Requiring no sleep and being constantly ready, drones could save lives. Developed by the German company Height-Tech, defibrillators could be deployed through the air, arriving well before emergency medical services. But the goal is not to replace emergency medical personnel. Rather, the drone will extend the window for help to arrive.
We have long feared that robots will take over our jobs, but current trends point to collaborative human-robot teams. These systems will draw on the strengths of each. Robots will allow us to exert our will in distance factories, perform tasks in dangerous environments, and move equipment with response times that would make the Minute Men jealous. People will still play important roles. They will monitor and intervene using their expertise, making decisions and performing tasks that algorithms are incapable of performing. At least not yet, anyway…
Image credit: Steve Jurvetson
(This article first appeared in 2013; updated in 2018.)
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Then Joshua called together the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. He told them, . . . “Your wives, children, and cattle may remain here on the east side of the Jordan River, but your warriors, fully armed, must lead the other tribes across the Jordan to help them conquer their territory.” - Joshua 1:12, 14
Some people think that God gave Israel two commandments when he told them to love their neighbors as they loved themselves. Command number one—love yourself. Command number two—love your neighbors. The argument goes that, as some people have a low self-image, they need to learn how to love themselves before they can love anybody else. But apart from the fact that Scripture says nothing of the sort, common sense tells us that everybody, however low his or her self-image, is governed to a certain extent by self-interest and instincts for self-preservation. The reality is that self-interest is behind much that makes the world go round.
Self-interest was a reality in the ancient world, too. On their way to the Promised Land, the children of Israel passed through and conquered territory that lay on the eastern shores of the Jordan river. Some of the men involved in the fighting decided that they would prefer to stay there rather than go ahead with the rest of the people, crossing the Jordan and starting the slow and painful task of occupying the land God had given them. After all, they had large flocks and herds, it was good land, and it was there for the taking! So they asked to be excused from the occupation of Canaan and to be allowed to settle down, secure their families, and get on with the business of living their lives. Self-interest was ruling supreme!
Moses was not at all pleased when he heard their request, and he told them in no uncertain terms that they were just like the people who had turned back from entering the land forty years earlier. He called them “a brood of sinners, doing exactly the same thing” (Num. 32:14). Moses also said, “Do you mean you want to stay back here while your brothers go across and do all the fighting?” (Num. 32:6). He obviously suspected self-interest was at work! But the tribesmen replied, “We simply want to build sheepfolds for our flocks and fortified cities for our wives and children. Then we will arm ourselves and lead our fellow Israelites into battle until we have brought them safely to their inheritance” (Num. 32:16-17). Since they were willing to bear their share of the burden of fighting, Moses agreed to their proposal. Joshua reminded them, the tribesmen kept their promise, and self-interest was subsumed by the Lord’s interest in his work and by the interests of others. And this is how they loved the Lord and their neighbors as they loved themselves.
The instinct for self-preservation is fine. Self-interest is here to stay. But self-absorption has to be seen for what it is—immaturity run rampant. Caring for and loving others sacrificially is the only way to grow.
For Further Study: Joshua 1:1-18
Excerpted from The One Year Devotions for Men, Copyright ©2000 by Stuart Briscoe. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers. All rights reserved.
For more from Stuart Briscoe, please visit tellingtthetruth.org.
Our world is filled with people who are hurting, broken, and beaten down. That’s why Stuart Briscoe wants to help you stay encouraged – and know how best to encourage others – with this powerful series of messages. It’s our “thank-you” gift for your donation, so be sure to request yours today!
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Aristotle remains one of the most celebrated thinkers of all time in large part thanks to his incisive critical thinking skills. In Politics, which can be considered one of the foundational books of the western political tradition, the focus is on problem-solving, and particularly on the generation and evaluation of alternative possibilities.
Aristotle’s aim, in Politics, is to determine how best to organize a society. He looks in turn at several different type of organization – kingship, oligarchy and the polity, or rule in the hands of many – and evaluates the arguments for each in turn. But he takes the exercise further than his predecessors had done. Having concluded that rule by the aristocracy would be preferable, since it would mean rule by citizens capable of taking decisions on behalf of the society as a whole, Aristotle subjects his solution to a further checking process, asking productive questions in order to make a sound decision between alternatives.
Politics was ground-breaking in its approach. Unlike previous thinkers, Aristotle based all his ideas on a practical assessment of how they would play out in the real world. Ultimately, Aristotle argues, the problem of self-interest means that the adoption of a mixed constitution – one based on carefully considered laws which aims at a balance of power between the people and the elite – is most likely to bring eudaemonia (happiness). It’s a conclusion firmly based on careful evaluation (not least the process of judging the adequacy of arguments) and the product of outstanding problem-solving skills.
Ways in to the Text
Who was Aristotle?
What does Politics Say?
Why does Politics Matter?
Section 1: Influences
Module 1: The Author and the Historical Context
Module 2: Academic Context
Module 3: The Problem
Module 4: The Author's Contribution
Section 2: Ideas
Module 5: Main Ideas
Module 6: Secondary Ideas
Module 7: Achievement
Module 8: Place in the Author's Work
Section 3: Impact
Module 9: The First Responses
Module 10: The Evolving Debate
Module 11: Impact and Influence Today
Module 12: Where Next?
Glossary of Terms
People Mentioned in the Text
Making the ideas of the world’s great thinkers accessible, affordable, and comprehensible to everybody, everywhere.
With a growing list of over 180 titles across a broad range of subject areas, Macat works with leading academics from the world’s top universities to produce new analyses that focus on the ideas and the impact of the most influential works ever written. By setting them in context – and looking at the influences that shaped their authors, as well as the responses they provoked – Macat encourages readers to look at these classics and game-changers with fresh eyes.
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This Math: Navigating the World Around Me lesson plan also includes:
- Join to access all included materials
Young mathematicians research and discuss real world math word problems and ways in which they apply math concepts in their everyday lives. They create a storyboard of a math word problem from which they create a slide for a multi-media presentation. Pupils solve each others' problems after the presentations are complete.
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On this day, Union General John Fulton Reynolds is born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
One of nine children, Reynolds received his education at private academies before Senator James Buchanan, a family friend, secured him an appointment at West Point in 1837. He graduated in 1841, 26 out of 52 in his class. Prior to the Mexican War, Reynolds served in Maryland, South Carolina, and Florida. He was part of General Zachary Taylor’s army in Mexico, and he distinguished himself at the Battles of Monterey and Buena Vista. His heroism earned him promotions to captain and major.
In the 1850s, Reynolds served in Maine, fought Native Americans in the West, and participated in the Mormon War of the late 1850s. In 1860, he returned to West Point as commandant of cadets. With the outbreak of the Civil War, Reynolds received command of a regular army regiment. His orders were soon changed, however, and he became a brigade commander with orders to serve at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Before he shipped for service along the coast, General George B. McClellan—then commander of the Army of the Potomac—used his leverage to secure Reynolds’s service in McClellan’s army.
In 1862, Reynolds participated in the Seven Days’ Battles around Richmond, Virginia. This was the climax of McClellan’s Peninsular campaign, in which Confederate General Robert E. Lee attacked the Yankees and drove them away from the Rebel capital. At the Battle of Gaines’ Mills, Virginia, on June 26, Reynolds’s brigade—protecting a Union retreat—bore the brunt of a Confederate attack. The next day, Reynolds held his position, but he was detached from the main Union army. The Confederates overran Reynolds and part of his command, and the general was sent to Richmond’s Libby Prison.
Reynolds spent less than six weeks at Libby before he was exchanged in August 1862. He was given command of a division, and fought at the Second Battle of Bull Run, Virginia, on August 29 and 30, just three weeks after his release. In November, Reynolds returned to the Army of the Potomac as a commander of I Corps. His force fought at Fredericksburg, Virginia in December, but was held in reserve at Chancellorsville, Virginia, in May 1863.
Reynolds commanded the left wing of the Army of the Potomac during the Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, campaign. On the morning of July 1, he rode into Gettysburg and placed his force in front of advancing Confederates, forcing Union General George Meade, commander of the Army of the Potomac, to fight. The 42-year-old Reynolds was killed that day, most likely by a Confederate volley, and was buried in Lancaster, his birthplace.
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|Origin:||obliger, from Latin obligare, from ligare 'to tie'|
o‧blige S3 formal
1 [transitive usually passive]
if you are obliged to do something, you have to do it because the situation, the law, a duty etc makes it necessary
oblige somebody to do something
The minister was obliged to report at least once every six months.
Circumstances had obliged him to sell the business.
feel obliged to do something (=feel that you have a duty to do something)! Do not use oblige when you are talking about making someone do something they do not want to do. Use force or make: No one can force (NOT oblige) you to stay in a job that you hate.
Many parents feel obliged to pay for at least part of the wedding.
2 [intransitive and transitive]
to do something that someone has asked you to do:
It's always a good idea to oblige important clients.
happy/glad/ready etc to oblige
If you need a ride home, I'd be happy to oblige.
3 spoken formal
used to make a polite request:
I'd be obliged if you'd treat this matter as strictly confidential.
4 spoken old-fashioned
used to thank someone very politely
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Travel is just the thing to get young minds moving. Turn travel time during a family trip into a great bonding and learning adventure with activities that build language for literacy and boost kids’ brain development. Don’t forget to pack your imagination!
What to bring:
Before your trip, take time to make a sing-along playlist of family favorites. (Remember to bring whatever you need to connect your mobile device to the car stereo and keep it charged.) On the road, get kids listening by asking them to keep an ear out for certain words or sounds and clapping when they hear them. Then get them singing along!
With the car stereo off, try teaching each other classic kids’ songs, folk songs, Sesame Street and Disney tunes, the national anthem, or Broadway hits. You’ll find lyrics online or you can show kids how they can make their own music by inventing new verses to songs like “If You’re Happy and You Know It.”
Invest some time before your trip in choosing some audio books the whole family can listen to. Search for recommendations in Reading Rockets list of Favorite Audio Books or ask your librarian for ideas. Your public library may have books on CD that you can borrow or lend electronic audio books you can download to your device. Choose audio books that will stimulate discussion, like classics or books on topics of interest to everyone in your family.
Look too for audio books of stories you’ve shared with your child, and plan to talk about how the reader’s interpretation is similar or different from yours, especially if the audio book reader is the author! If you are listening to picture books, bring along a copy so kids can look at the illustrations while listening.
Let kids pack some favorite titles to look at, to read to you, or have read aloud to them while you’re on the road. And bring along some new books, too. A new release by a favorite author or a new book in a beloved series will add excitement to your trip.
Family stories, tales of road trips past, adventures of your youth stories, and stories and facts about your destination do more than pass the time on the road. As kids hear and learn from the successes, mistakes, values, and ideas in your stories, their understanding of how to have their own adventures — and their own stories — will grow.
As you share stories, give your child a chance to ask questions and offer his perspective. Storytelling is more fun if everyone gets a chance to tell a story! Try telling a memorable family story with everyone taking turns or turn family photos into family stories. Have photos on your mobile device or bring along copies of pictures and share stories about the people and the places important to your family.
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Scientists have compiled a list of the astronomical phenomena observed in the Solar system, which is absolutely impossible to explain. These facts are proven, and to doubt their reality is not necessary. Yes, only existing picture of the world they do not fit. This means that either we don’t quite understand the laws of nature or someone these same laws are constantly changing.
Who accelerates space probes
In 1989, the research unit “Galileo” went on a long journey to Jupiter. In order to give it the desired speed, the researchers used a “gravity assist”. The probe has twice approached the Earth so that the gravity of the planet were able to push it, giving additional acceleration. But after the maneuvers the speed of Galileo was higher than calculated.
The methodology was developed and earlier all devices were dispersed normally. Then the scientists had to send into deep space three research stations. The probe went NEAR to the asteroid Eros, the Rosetta went on to study the comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko, and Cassini went to Saturn. They have made gravitational maneuver the same way, and all final velocity was greater than the calculated for this indicator scientists have followed seriously after seen the anomaly with the Galileo.
Explanation of what happens was not. But all devices sent to other planets after Cassini, strange additional acceleration in a gravitational maneuver has somehow not received. So what is “something” in the period from 1989 (“Galileo”) to 1997 (“Cassini”) attached all probes going to the outer space, the additional acceleration?
Scientists still shrug: who’d want to push the four satellites? In UFO circles, even had the theory that a Higher intelligence decided that it would be necessary to help people to explore the Solar system. Now this effect is not observed, and evident whether he ever yet — unknown.
Why the Earth escapes from the sun?
Scientists have long learned to measure the distance from our planet to the sun. Now it is equal to 149 597 870 kilometers. Previously believed, though it consistently. But in 2004, the Russian astronomers discovered that the Earth receding from the Sun, about 15 centimeters in a year is 100 times greater than the measurement error.
What happens is that previously described only in science fiction novels: the planet went to “free floating”? The nature of the outbreak travel is not yet known. Of course, if the removal rate does not change, it will take another hundred million years before we move away from the Sun so that the planet will freeze. But suddenly, the speed will increase. Or, on the contrary, the Earth will begin to approach the sun? While no one knows what will happen next.
Who are the “pioneers” would not let abroad
The American probes pioneer 10 and pioneer 11 were launched respectively in 1972 and 1983. So far, they have had to fly beyond the Solar system. However, at some point, and the second for unknown reasons began to change trajectory, as if an unknown force doesn’t want to let them go too far.
“Pioneer-10” has deviated already at four hundred thousand kilometers from the calculated trajectory. “Pioneer-11 in exactly the same way brother. There are many versions: the influence of the solar wind, a fuel leak programming errors. But they are not too convincing because both ships fired with an interval of 11 years, behave the same way.
If you do not take into account the machinations of the aliens, or the divine plan not to let people outside of the Solar system, it is possible that here again is manifested the influence of the mysterious dark matter. Or are some unknown gravitational effects?
What lurks on the outskirts of our system
Far, far beyond the dwarf planet Pluto has a mysterious asteroid Sedna is one of the largest in our system. Besides, Sedna is the most red object in our system — he’s even redder than Mars. We don’t know why.
But the main mystery in the other. Full revolution around the Sun he was doing for 10 thousand years. And drawn in a very elongated orbit. Whether this asteroid came to us from another star system, or can be, according to some astronomers, with a circular orbit it was hit by the gravitational pull of a large object. What? Astronomers can’t detect it.
Why solar eclipses are so perfect
In our system, the size of the Sun and moon and the distance from the earth to the moon and to the Sun matched very original. If our planet (by the way, only where there is intelligent life) to observe a solar Eclipse, the disk of Selene closes perfectly smoothly drive the light — their dimensions are identical.
Would be a little less or Moon was farther from Earth, total solar eclipses, we’d never been. Coincidence? I don’t believe…
Why do we live so close to our sun
All astronomers studied the star systems of the planet are on the same order of size: the larger the planet, the closer it is to the sun. In our own Solar system giants — Saturn and Jupiter — are located in the middle, behind the kids” — mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Why it happened — is unknown.
If we had the same order as in the vicinity of all the other stars, the Earth would have been somewhere in the area of present Saturn. And there is a hell of a cold and no conditions for intelligent life.
The radio signal from the constellation of Sagittarius
In the 1970-ies in the United States began a program to search for possible extraterrestrial radio signals. For this radio telescope were sent to different parts of the sky, and he was scanning the airwaves on different frequencies, trying to detect a signal of artificial origin.
For several years astronomers to boast at least some results could not. But on August 15 1977 while on duty astronomer Jerry Ehman recorder, recording everything that came in the “ears” radio telescope have recorded a signal or noise, which lasted 37 seconds. This phenomenon is known as Wоw! – on the sidenote, which led in red ink stunned, Ajman.
Signal was at a frequency of 1420 MHz. According to the international agreements, none of the terrestrial transmitter does not work in this range. He came from the direction of the constellation Sagittarius, where the nearest star is located at a distance of 220 light years from Earth. Artificial if he was – no answer so far. Subsequently, scientists have repeatedly searched the heavens. But to no avail.
All the galaxies in our Universe with great speed revolve around a single center. But when scientists estimated the total mass of galaxies, it was found that they are too light. And the laws of physics all this carousel would long ago have broken down. However, it does not break.
To explain what is happening, scientists have come up with a hypothesis, like there is in the Universe a kind of dark matter that cannot be seen. But what is it and how would it feel, astronomers still have no idea. We only know that its mass is 90% of the mass of the Universe. This means that we know what kind of world surrounds us, just one tenth.
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How numerous bacteria were on the soap | Homework Help
Q1. Some dogs have erect ears; others have drooping ears. Some dogs bark while following a scent; others are silent. Erect ears and barking are because of dominant alleles located on different chromosomes. A dog homozygous for both dominant traits is mated to a droopy-eared silent follower. The expected phenotypic ratio and genotypic ratio in the F-1 generation.
Q2. Imagine that after washing your hands, you leave ten bacteria cells on a new bar of soap. You then decide to do plate count of the soap after it was left in the soap dish for 24 hours. You dilute 1g of the soap 1:106 and plate it on standard plate count agar. After 24 hours of incubation, there are 168 colonies. How numerous bacteria were on the soap? How did they get there?
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The world has changed since the last time Jerry Brown was at the helm of the State of California. First elected to statewide office in 1970, Governor Brown is no stranger to campaigning throughout the “Golden State.” One major difference between the campaign that eventually brought him his first tenure as governor and his 2010 campaign was his use of social media.
Since President Barack Obama’s use of social media in his presidential campaign, many other prospective lawmakers have used social media as a way to get their message out to voters. Social media is becoming increasingly important as traditional marketing channels are becoming less effective. Printed newspaper ads, for example, are costly to run and do not reach the same number of people that a Facebook fan profile or Twitter profile have the possibility of reaching. Social media profiles are almost always free to create. However, most candidates have a paid staff member or team that creates, monitors and updates these profiles on behalf of the candidate.
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An analysis of hamlets real tragedy by william shakespeare
Hamlet: That's a fair thought to lie between maids' legs. Laertes is an antagonist character in the play Hamlet and works against the main character. The royal couple's actions have destroyed his faith in humanity, and he contemplates suicide.
Hamlet tragedy analysis
This essay will help to explain Hamlet as well as his thought process throughout the book story. Motive Power of Hamlet: Revenge The act of revenge never fails to gather an audience, due to the simple fact that revenge raises one of the great questions in regards to human life: how does one seek justice when the law ceases to function properly? The retribution he happens to exact is exacted too late, moreover, to prevent all the deaths that need not have occurred, if only he had killed Claudius sooner. Interfering Polonius Additional matters, including Polonius's interference and spying, contribute to Hamlet's tragedy. The character of Hamlet himself is very relatable today especially to young. Therefore, he should be classified as a major character. She falls into insanity and dies a tragic death. He continues to talk reverently of his high regard for his late father throughout the play. The royal couple's actions have destroyed his faith in humanity, and he contemplates suicide. By forcing Ophelia to refuse Hamlet's company, Polonius would have exacerbated his feelings of being unable to trust the women he loved. The actual recognition of his love for Ophelia can only come when Hamlet realizes that she is dead, and free from her tainted womanly trappings: I loved Ophelia: forty thousand brothers Could not, with all their quantity of love, Make up my sum. He has come to the realization that destiny is ultimately controlling all of our lives: Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting, That would not let me sleep: methought I lay Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. The Tragedy of Vengeance in Shakespeare's Masterpiece The most common distinction between a tragedy and a comedy is the arc of plot development. She has married a man for whom Hamlet has little regard and whom he compares very badly with his father. He is not incoherent or paranoid; his ferocity cannot be blamed on insanity.
Hamlet must be held accountable for his treatment of Ophelia. Shakespeare's work demonstrates Hamlet's dilemma as the role of revenger showing a man of thought forced to be a man of action. His Mother's Behaviour The second cause of Hamlet's tragedy is his mother's behaviour.
Ophelia: Ay, my lord. Shakespearean Tragedy. Hamlet is extremely philosophical and introspective.
Elements of tragedy in hamlet
His mother cannot help but notice Hamlet's outward appearance of mourning, but Hamlet makes it clear that the overt signs of grief do not come close to conveying how much sorrow he feels inside: For they are the actions that a man might play, But I have that within which passes show, These but the trappings and the suits of woe. Instead of changing through the course of the play, she remains suffering in the misfortunes perpetrated upon her. When Hamlet does finally die, it is his princely qualities that make the lasting imprint in our minds. Although Hamlet himself desires to see Claudius pay for his crime, he realizes the evil in the deed of killing the King, prompted by both "heaven and hell" II. The protagonist is very reflective and too sensitive, thus unfit for taking revenge through action. The Immoral Ambitions of Iago in Othello and Claudius in Hamlet Almost every tragedy has a villain, to provide the conflict which catapults the plot into its bitter end. Usage terms Public Domain But what if we proceed on the opposite assumption? He is particularly drawn to difficult questions or questions that cannot be answered with any certainty. This act of treachery by Gertrude, whom Hamlet obviously loved greatly at one time, rips the very fabric of Hamlet's being, and he tortures himself with memories of his late father's tenderness towards his mother: So excellent a king, that was to this Hyperion to a satyr, so loving to my mother, That he might not beteem the winds of heaven Visit her face too roughly; heaven and earth, Must I remember? Shakespeare's Birthplace Shakespeare's Birthplace.
The character of Hamlet himself is very relatable today especially to young. Kiernan Ryan explains why. He has to undo the past, but the paradox of guilt and justice baffles him.
Hamlet as a tragedy essay
Polonius further adds to Hamlet's tragedy by eavesdropping on his conversation with his mother. By forcing Ophelia to refuse Hamlet's company, Polonius would have exacerbated his feelings of being unable to trust the women he loved. She has married a man for whom Hamlet has little regard and whom he compares very badly with his father. A tragedy, on the other hand, typically begins Shakespeare IV. The Ghost has placed Hamlet in a most unnatural position by asking him to commit murder. The belief that Hamlet still genuinely loves Ophelia, and that his deep sensitivity and hunger for justice compel him to behave the way he does, allows us to conclude that Hamlet is at once so heartless and yet so virtuous. As it was, by re-marrying so quickly, Gertrude showed no respect for her late husband, and no support for her distraught son. Since all the characters die at the end of the play the throne has to be given to a foreigner. To answer these questions we must journey with Hamlet from beginning to end, and examine the many facets of his character.
The text in this article is available under the Creative Commons License. Rashly, And prais'd be rashness for it, let us know, Our indiscretion sometime serves us well When our deep plots do pall, and that should learn us There's a divinity that shapes our ends, Rough-hew them how we will.
Inaction is the major tragic flaw which hastens his tragic downfall.
based on 46 review
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The time of their first sleep varied with season and social class, but usually commenced a couple of hours after dusk and lasted for three or four. Take a look inside a high school classroom you will most likely find a teacher at the front of the class and students sitting at their desks yet, look closer, and you. There's a legitimate reason why teenagers fall asleep in class the biology of human sleep timing, like that of other mammals, changes as we. I had to become a lot more conscientious about my sleep, and in that i took in my waking hours, or a particularly excellent class discussion.
Students in elementary grades don't often fall asleep in class, but when they do, it can be a distraction to you and to the other students sleeping in class also. Sleep is no less important than food, drink, or safety in the lives of children although this may seem apparent, many of us actually do not allow our children to get. Sleep journal essay college students like myself often put off sleep for up all night and skipping meals makes it difficult to focus in class.
When this happens they are more likely not to fall asleep on time, which causes them to either not pay attention in class or even fall asleep in. Sleep is vital for giving your body a rest and allowing it to prepare for the next day this article about sleep will teach you why your brain needs to spend time in. I'm almost certain that everyone in some point of their lives has fallen asleep in class whether you are currently in classes, planning to attend. Weve all been there youre sitting in class and a wave of exhaustion crashes over you your eyelids start to drop, and even though youll need. More can be done to help teens get the sleep they need to do well in school.
I was surprised by how many teachers i spoke with about this topic who stated that they just let tired students continue to sleep through their classes. One study found that children who were making cs, ds, and fs in classes were sleeping 25 to 30 minutes less on average than their peers who. This article examines the importance of adequate sleep for student athletes the eight hours of work includes classes, studying, homework,. Students fall asleep in class, are easily distracted, and are stressed all of these problems can be solved, or helped by chewing gum, that is why. Sleep scientists understand how various factors affect sleep and why they with age are covered at length in the essay changes in sleep with age some antidepressants, from the class of drugs known as ssris, have.
1 day ago she didn't get her essay turned in she knew that i knew that, but i didn't beat her up about it meg fell asleep in class yesterday i let her. Read this full essay on student sleep habits and their grades divided the students into a series of three classes based on their sleep habits (tsai & li, 2004. Never caught sleeping in class sleep is something we all need and love, but its something we usually don t get enough of especially for teens. This is a persuasive essay that i wrote for my language arts class stress causes lack of sleep, slipping grades, fatigue, unhealthy eating.
If students regularly fall asleep in class, keep them awake and engaged with physical movement and mentally stimulating activities in a well-lit. Cassandra described falling asleep as like being caught in a carousel of thoughts every idea, notion and event from her day would replay in her mind,. Sleep loss also has less obvious effects on health, emotions, academic for long periods of time, and remember what they learn in class.Download
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Assessing the Importance of Woodland Landscape Locations for Both Local Communities and Conservation in Gorongosa and Muanza Districts, Sofala Province, Mozambique
Timothy Lynam, Tropical Resource Ecology Program, University of Zimbabwe
Robert T Cunliffe
Full Text: HTML
In collaboration with two communities living in, and on the edge of, Gorongosa National Park (GNP), Mozambique, we researched the importance of different landscape units to these communities and used the information to develop a management plan for GNP. We conceived the importance of a landscape to local people as a ratio of the benefits they derive from it and the costs of accessing or using those benefits. To test this expectation, we developed Bayesian belief models, for which the parameters were the relative preference weightings derived from community members (the relative preferences for benefits and relative expectations of costs). We then collected field data to confront the models for each of the two sites.
In a parallel process, we conducted a vegetation survey to generate a map of the vegetation types, as well as an index of biodiversity importance for each vegetation type of the two 20-km2 sites.
For each site, we simplified and converted the benefit:cost model into a local community importance surface, or map, and then overlaid a conservation importance surface on it in order to identify locations that were of high importance to both conservation groups and the local community. Such areas would require careful management attention. This paper discusses the implications of the research for the planning of GNP, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the approach.
Bayesian Belief Network, Mozambique, conservation importance, landscape importance, participatory methods
Ecology and Society. ISSN: 1708-3087
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C. Snouck Hurgronje
WE can hardly imagine a poorer, more miserable population than that of the South-Arabian Country Hadramaut. All moral and social progress in there is impeded by continuance of the worst elements of Jahiliyyah (Arabian paganism), side by side with those of Islam. A Secular nobility is formed by groups of people, who grudge each other their very lives and fight each other according to the rules of retaliation unmitigated by any more humane feelings. The religious nobility is represented by descendants of the Prophet, arduous Patrons of a most narrow minded orthodoxy and of most bigoted fanaticism. In well-ordered society, making the most of all the means offered by modern technical science, the dry barren soil might be made to yield sufficient harvests to satisfy the wants of its members; but among these inhabitants, paralysed by anarchy, chronic famine prevails. Foreigners wisely avoid this miserable country, and if they did visit it, would not be hospitably received. Hunger forces many Hadramites to emigrate; throughout the centuries we find them in all the countries of Islam, in the sacred cities of Western-Arabia, in Syria, Egypt, India, Indonesia, where they often occupy important positions.
In the Dutch Indies, for instance, they live in the most important commercial towns, and though the Government has never favoured them, and though they have had to compete with Chinese and with Europeans, they have succeeded in making their position sufficiently strong. Before European influence prevailed, they even founded states in some of the larger islands or they obtained political influence in existing native states. Under a strong European government they are among the quietest, most industrious subjects, all earning their own living and saving something for their poor relations at home. They come penniless, and without any of that theoretical knowledge or practical skill which we are apt to consider as indispensable for a man who wishes to try his fortune in a complicated modern colonial world. Yet I have known some who in twenty years' time have become commercial potentates, and even millionaires.
The strange spectacle of these latent talents and of the suppressed energy of the people of Hadramaut that seem to be waiting only for transplantation into a more favourable soil to develop with amazing rapidity, helps us to understand the enormous consequences of the Arabian migration in the seventh century.
The spiritual goods, with which Islam set out into the world, were far from imposing. It preached a most simple monotheism: Allah, the Almighty Creator and Ruler of heaven and earth, entirely self-sufficient, so that it were ridiculous to Suppose Him to have partners or Sons and daughters to support Him; who has created the angels that they might form His retinue, and men and genii (jinn) that they might obediently serve Him; who decides everything according to His incalculable will and is responsible to nobody, as the Universe is His; of whom His Creatures, if their minds be not led astray, must therefore stand in respectful fear and awe. He has made His will known to mankind, beginning at Adam, but the spreading of mankind over the surface of the earth, its seduction by Satan and his emissaries have caused most nations to become totally estranged from Him and His service. Now and then, when He considered that the time was come, He caused a prophet to arise from among a nation to be His messenger to summon people to conversion, and to tell them what blessedness awaited them as a reward of obedience, what punishments would be inflicted if they did not believe his message.
Sometimes the disobedient had been struck by earthly judgment (the flood, the drowning of the Egyptians, etc.), and the faithful had been rescued in a miraculous way and led to victory; but such things merely served as indications of Allah's greatness. One day the whole world will be overthrown and destroyed. Then the dead will be awakened and led before Allah's tribunal. The faithful will have abodes appointed them in well-watered, shady gardens, with fruit-trees richly laden, with luxurious couches upon which they may lie and enjoy the delicious food, served by the ministrants of Paradise. They may also freely indulge in sparkling wine that does not intoxicate, and in intercourse with women, whose youth and virginity do not fade. The unbelievers end their lives in Hell-fire, for the punishment as well as the reward are everlasting.
Allah gives to each one his due. The actions of His creatures are all accurately written down, and when Judgment comes, the book is opened; moreover, every creature carries the list of his own deeds and misdeeds; the debit and credit sides are carefully weighed against each other in the divine scales, and many witnesses are heard betore judgment is pronounced. Allah, however, is clement and merciful; He gladly forgives those sinners who have believed in Him, who have sincerely accepted Islam, that is to say: who have acknowledged His absolute authority and have believed the message of the prophet sent to them. These prophets have the privilege of acting as mediators on behalf of their followers, not in the sense of redeemers, but as advocates who receive gracious hearing. Naturally, Islam, submission to the Lord of the Universe, ought to express itself in deeds. Allah desires the homage of formal worship, which must be performed several times a day by every individual, and on special occasions by the assembled faithful, led by one of them. This service, salat acquired its strictly binding rules only after Mohammed's time, but already in his lifetime it consisted chiefly of the same elements as now: the recital of sacred texts, especially taken from the Revelation, certain postures of the body (standing, inclination, kneeling, prostration) with the face towards Mecca. This last particular and the language of the Revelation are the Arabian elements of the service, which is for the rest an imitation of Jewish and Christian rituals, so far as Mohammed knew them. There was no sacrament, consequently no priest to administer it; Islam has always been the lay religion par excellence. Teaching and exhortation are the only spiritual help that the pious Mohammedan wants, and this simple care of souls is exercised without any ordination or consecration.
Fasting, for a month if possible, and longer if desired, was also an integral part of religious life and, by showing disregard of earthly joys, a proof of faith in Allah's promises for the world to come. Almsgiving, recommended above all other virtues, was not only to be practised in obedience to Allah's law and in faith in retribution, but it was to testify contempt of all earthly possessions which might impede the striving after eternal happiness. Later, Mohammed was compelled, by the need of a public fund and the waning zeal of the faithful as their numbers increased, to regulate the practice of this virtue and to exact certain minima as taxes (zakat).
When Mohammed, taking his stand as opposed to Judaism and Christianity, had accentuated the Arabian character of his religion, the Meccan rites of pagan origin were incorporated into Islam; but only after the purification required by monotheism. From that time forward the yearly celebration of the Hajj was among the ritual duties of the Moslim community.
In the first years of the strife yet another duty was most emphatically impressed on the Faithful; jihad, i.e., readiness to sacrifice life and possessions for the defence of Islam, understood, since the conquest of Mecca in 630, as the extension by force of arms of the authority of the Moslim state, first over the whole of Arabia, and soon after Mohammed's death over the whole world, so far as Allah granted His hosts for the victory.
For the rest, the legislative revelations regulated only such points as had become subjects of argument or contest in Mohammed's lifetime, or such as were particularly suggested by that antithesis of paganism and revelation, which had determined Mohammed's prophetical career. Gambling and wine were forbidden, the latter after some hesitation between the inculcation of temperance and that of abstinence. Usury, taken in the sense of requiring any interest at all upon loans, was also forbidden. All tribal feuds with their consequences had henceforward to be considered as non-existent, and retaliation, provided that the offended party would not agree to accept compensation, was put under the control of the head of the community. Polygamy and intercourse of master and female slave were restricted; the obligations arising from blood-relationship or ownership were regulated. These points suffice to remind us of the nature of the Qoranic regulations. Reference to certain subjects in this revealed law while others were ignored, did not depend on their respective importance to the life of the community, but rather on what happened to have been suggested by the events in Mohammed's lifetime. For Mohammed knew too well how little qualified he was for legislative work to undertake it unless absolutely necessary.
This rough sketch of what Islam meant when it set out to conquer the world, is not very likely to create the impression that its incredibly rapid extension was due to its superiority over the forms of civilization which it supplanted. Lammens's assertion, that Islam was the Jewish religion simplified according to Arabic wants and amplified by some Christian and Arabic traditions, contains a great deal of truth, if only we recognize the central importance for Mohammed's vocation and preaching of the Christian doctrine of Resurrection and judgment. This explains the large number of weak points that the book of Mohammed's revelations, written down by his first followers, offered to Jewish and Christian polemics. It was easy for the theologians of those religions to point out numberless mistakes in the work of the illiterate Arabian prophet, especially where he maintained that he was repeating and confirming the contents of their Bible. The Qoranic revelations about Allah's intercourse with men, taken from apocryphal sources, from profane legends like that of Alexander the Great, sometimes even created by Muhammed's own fancy - such as the story of the prophet Salih, said to have lived in the north of Arabia, and that of the prophet Hud, supposed to have lived in the south; all this could not but give them the impression of a clumsy caricature of true tradition. The principal doctrines of Synagogue and Church had apparently been misunderstood, or they were simply denied as corruptions.
The conversion to Islam, within a hundred years, of such nations as the Egyptian, the Syrian, and the Persian, can hardly be attributed to anything but the latent talents, the formerly suppressed energy of the Arabian race having found a favourable soil for its development; talents and energy, however, not of a missionary kind. If Islam is said to have been from its beginning down to the present day, a missionary religion,1 then mission is to be taken here in a quite peculiar sense, and special attention must be given to the preparation of the missionary field by the Moslim armies, related by history and considered as most important by the Mohammedans themselves.
Certainly, the nations conquered by the Arabs under the first khalifs were not obliged to choose between living as Moslims or dying as unbelievers. The conquerors treated them as Mohammed had treated Jews and Christians in Arabia towards the end of his life, and only exacted from them submission to Moslim authority. They were allowed to adhere to their religion, provided they helped with their taxes to fill the Moslim exchequer. This rule was even extended to such religions as that of the Parsis, although they could not be considered as belonging to the "People of Scripture" expressly recognized in the Qoran. But the social condition of these subjects was gradually made so oppressive by the Mohammedan masters, that rapid Conversions in masses were a natural consequence; the more natural because among the conquered nations intellectual culture was restricted to a small circle, so that after the conquest their spiritual leaders lacked freedom of movement. Besides, practically very little was required from the new converts, so that it was very tempting to take the step that led to full citizenship.
No, those who in a short time subjected millions of non-Arabs to the state founded by Mohammed, and thus prepared their conversion, were no apostles. They were generals whose strategic talents would have remained hidden but for Mohammed, political geniuses, especially from Mecca and Taif, who, before Islam, would have excelled only in the organization of commercial operations or in establishing harmony between hostile families. Now they proved capable of uniting the Arabs commanded by Allah, a unity still many a time endangered during the first century by the old party spirit; and of devising a division of labour between the rulers and the conquered which made it possible for them to control the function of complicated machines of state without any technical knowledge.
Moreover, several circumstances favoured their work; both the large realms which extended north of Arabia, were in a state of political decline; the Christians inhabiting the provinces that were to be conquered first, belonged, for the larger part, to heretical sects and were treated by the orthodox Byzantines in such a way that other masters, intolerant, might be welcome. The Arabian armies consisted of hardened Bedouins with few wants, whose longing for the treasures of the civilized world made them more ready to endure the pressure of a discipline hitherto unknown to them.
The use that the leaders made of the occasion commands our admiration; although their plan was formed in the course and under the influence of generally unforeseen events. Circumstances had changed Mohammed the Prophet into Mohammed the Conqueror; and the leaders, who continued the conqueror's work, though not driven by fanaticism or religious zeal, still prepared the conversion of millions of men to Islam.
It was only natural that the new masters adopted, with certain modifications, the administrative and fiscal systems of the conquered countries. For similar reasons Islam had to complete its spiritual store from the well-ordered wealth of that of its new adherents. Recent research shows most clearly, that Islam, in after times so sharply opposed to other religions and so strongly armed against foreign influence, in the first century borrowed freely and simply from the "People of Scripture" whatever was not evidently in contradiction to the Qoran. This was to be expected; had not Mohammed from the very beginning referred to the "people of the Book" as "those who know"? When painful cxperience induced him afterwards to accuse them of corruption of their Scriptures, this attitude necessitated a certain criticism but not rejection of their tradition. The ritual, only provisionally regulated and continually liable to change according to prophetic inspiration in Mohammed's lifetime, required unalterable rules after his death. Recent studies2 have shown in an astounding way, that the Jewish ritual, together with the religious rites of the Christians, strongly influenced the definite shape given to that of Islam, while indirect influence of the Parsi religion is at least probable.
So much for the rites of public worship and the ritual purity they require. The method of fasting seems to follow the Jewish model, whereas the period of obligatory fasting depends on the Christian usage.
Mohammed's fragmentary and unsystematic accounts of sacred history were freely drawn from Jewish and Christian sources and covered the whole period from the creation of the world until the first centuries of the Christian era. Of course, features shocking to the Moslim mind were dropped and the whole adapted to the monotonous conception of the Qoran. With ever greater boldness the story of Mohammed's own life was exalted to the sphere of the supernatural here the Gospel served as example. Though Mohammed had repeatedly declared himself to be an ordinary man chosen by Allah as the organ of His revelation, and whose only miracle was the Qoran, posterity ascribed to him a whole series of wonders, evidently invented in emulation of the wonders of Christ. The reason for this seems to have been the idea that none of the older prophets, not even Jesus, of whom the Qoran tells the greatest wonders, could have worked a miracle without Mohammed, the Seal of the prophets, having rivalled or surpassed him in this respect. Only Jesus was the Messiah; but this title did not exceed in value different titles of other prophets, and Mohammed's special epithets were of a higher order. A relative sinlessness Mohammed shared with Jesus; the acceptance of this doctrine, contradictory to the original spirit of the Qoran, had moreover a dogmatic motive: it was considered indispensable to raise the text of the Qoran above all suspicion of corruption, which suspicion would not be excluded if the organ of the Revelation were fallible.
This period of naively adopting institutions, doctrines, and traditions was soon followed by an awakening to the consciousness that Islam could not well absorb any more of such foreign elements without endangering its independent character. Then a sorting began; and the assimilation of the vast amount of borrowed matter, that had already become an integral part of Islam, was completed by submitting the whole to a peculiar treatment. It was carefully divested of all marks of origin and labelled hadith,
3 so that henceforth it was regarded as emanations from the wisdom of the Arabian Prophet, for which his followers owed no thanks to foreigners.
At first, it was only at Medina that some pious people occupied themselves with registering, putting in order, and systematizing the spiritual property of Islam; afterwards similar circles were formed in other centres, such as Mecca, Kufa, Basra, Misr (Cairo), and elsewhere. At the outset the collection of divine sayings, the Qoran, was the only guide, the only source of decisive decrees, the only touchstone of what was true or false, allowed or forbidden. Reluctantly, but decidedly at last, it was conceded that the foundations laid by Mohammed for the life of his community were by no means all to be found in the Holy Book; rather, that Mohammed's revelations without his explanation and practice would have remained an enigma. It was understood now that the rules and laws of Islam were founded on God's word and on the Sunnah, i.e., the "way" pointed out by the Prophet's word and example. Thus it had been from the moment that Allah had caused His light to shine over Arabia, and thus it must remain, if human error was not to corrupt Islam.
At the moment when this conservative instinct began to assert itself among the spiritual leaders, so much foreign matter had already been incorporated into Islam, that the theory of the sufficiency of Qoran and Sunnah could not have been maintained without the labelling operation which we have alluded to. So it was assumed that as surely as Mohammed must have surpassed his predecessors in perfection and in wonders, so surely must all the principles and precepts necessary for his community have been formulated by him. Thus, by a gigantic web of fiction, he became after his death the organ of opinions, ideas, add interests, whose lawfulness was recognized by every influential section of the Faithful. All that could not be identified as part of the Prophet's Sunnah, received no recognition; on the other hand, all that was accepted had, somehow, to be incorporated into the Sunnah.
It became a fundamental dogma of Islam, that the Sunnah was the indispensable completion of the Qoran, and that both together formed the source of Mohammedan law and doctrine; so much so that every party assumed the name of "People of the Sunnah" to express its pretension to orthodoxy. The contents of the Sunnah, however, was the subject of a great deal of controversy; so that it came to be considered necessary to make the Prophet pronounce his authoritative judgment on this difference of opinion. He was said to have called it a proof of God's special mercy, that within reasonable limits difference of opinion was allowed in his community. Of that privilege Mohammedans have always amply availed themselves.
When the difference touched on political questions, especially on the succession of the Prophet in the government of the community, schism was the inevitable consequence. Thus arose the party strifes of the first century, which led to the establishment of the sects of the Shi'ites and the Kharijites, separate communities, severed from the great whole, that led their own lives, and therefore followed paths different from those of the majority in matters of doctrine and law as well as in politics The sharpness of the political antithesis served to accentuate the importance of the other differences in such cases and to debar their acceptance as the legal consequence of the difference of opinion that God's mercy allowed. That the political factor was indeed the great motive of separation, is clearly shown in our own day, now that one Mohammedan state after the other sees its political independence disappearing and efforts are being made from all sides to re-establish the unity of the Mohammedan world by stimulating the feeling of religious brotherhood. Among the most cultivated Moslims of different countries an earnest endeavour is gaining ground to admit Shi'ites, Kharijites, and others, formerly abused as heretics, into the great community, now threatened by common foes, and to regard their special tenets in the same way as the differences existing between the four law schools: Hanafites, Malikites, Shafi'ites and Hanbalites, which for centuries have been considered equally orthodox.
Although the differences that divide these schools at first caused great exitement and gave rise to violent discussions, the strong catholic instinct of lslam always knew how to prevent schism. Each new generation either found the golden mean between the extremes which had divided the preceding one, or it recognized the right of both opinions.
Though the dogmatic differences were not necessarily so dangerous to unity as were political ones, yet they were more apt to cause schism than discussions about the law. It was essential to put an end to dissension concerning the theological roots of the whole system of Islam. Mohammed had never expressed any truth in dogmatic form; all systematic thinking was foreign to his nature. It was again the non-Arabic Moslims, especially those of Christian origin, who suggested such doctrinal questions. At first they met with a vehement opposition that condemned all dogmatic discussion as a novelty of the Devil. In the long run, however, the contest of the conservatives against specially objectionable features of the dogmatists' discussions forced them to borrow arms from the dogmatic arsenal. Hence a method with a peculiar terminology came in vogue, to which even the boldest imagination could not ascribe any connection with the Sunnah of Mohammed. Yet some traditions ventured to put prophetic warnings on Mohammed's lips against dogmatic innovations that were sure to arise, and to make him pronounce the names of a couple of future sects. But no one dared to make the Prophet preach an orthodox system of dogmatics resulting from the controversies of several centuries, all the terms of which were foreign to the Arabic speech of Mohammed's time.
Indeed, all the subjects which had given rise to dogmatic controversy in the Christian Church, except some too specifically Christian, were discussed by the mutakallims, the dogmatists of Islam. Free will or predestination; God omnipotent, or first of all just and holy; God's word created by Him, or sharing His eternity; God one in this sense, that His being admitted of no plurality of qualities, or possessed of qualities, which in all eternity are inherent in His being; in the world to come only bliss and doom, or also an intermediate state for the neutral. We might continue the enumeration and always show to the Christian church-historian or theologian old acquaintances in Moslim garb. That is why Maracci and Reland could understand Jews and Christians yielding to the temptation of joining Islam, and that also explains why Catholic and Protestant dogmatists could accuse each other of Crypto-mohammedanism.
Not until the beginning of the tenth century A.D. did the orthodox Mohammedan dogma begin to emerge from the clash of opinions into its definite shape. The Mu'tazilites had advocated man's free will; had given prominence to justice and holiness in their conception of God, had denied distinct qualities in God and the eternity of God's Word; had accepted a place for the neutral between Paradise and Hell; and for some time the favour of the powers in authority seemed to assure the victory of their system. Al-Ash'ari contradicted all these points, and his system has in the end been adopted by the great majority. The Mu'tazilite doctrines for a long time still enthralled many minds, but they ended by taking refuge in the political heresy of Shi'itism. In the most conservative circles, opponents to all speculation were never wanting; but they were obliged unconsciously to make large concessions to systematic thought; for in the Moslim world as elsewhere religious belief without dogma had become as impossible as breathing is without air.
Thus, in Islam, a whole system, which could not even pretend to draw its authority from the Sunnah, had come to be accepted. It was not difficult to justify this deviation from the orthodox abhorrence against novelties. Islam has always looked at the world in a pessimistic way, a view expressed in numberless prophetic sayings. The world is bad and will become worse and worse. Religion and morality will have to wage an ever more hopeless war against unbelief, against heresy and ungodly ways of living. While this is surely no reason for entering into any compromise with doctrines which depart but a hair's breadth from Qoran and Sunnah, it necessitates methods of defence against heresy as unknown in Mohammed's time as heresy itself. "Necessity knows no law" is a principle fully accepted in Islam and heresy is an enemy of the faith that can only be defeated with dialectic weapons. So the religious truths preached by Mohammed have not been altered in any way; but under the stress of necessity they have been clad in modern armour, which has somewhat changed their aspect.
Moreover, Islam has a theory, which alone is sufficient to justify the whole later development of doctrine as well as of law. This theory, whose importance for the system can hardly be over-estimated, and which, nevertheless, has until very recent times constantly been overlooked by Western students of Islam, finds its classical expression in the following words, put into the mouth of Mohammed: "My community will never agree in an error." In the terms more familiar to us, this means that the Mohammedan Church taken as a whole is infallible; that all the decisions on matters practical or theoretical, on which it is agreed, are binding upon its members. Nowhere else is the catholic instinct of Islam more clearly expressed.
A faithful Mohammedan student, after having struggled through a handbook of law may be vexed by doubt as to whether these endless casuistic precepts have been rightly deduced from the Qoran and the Sacred Tradition. His doubt, however, will at once be silenced, if he bears in mind that Allah speaks more plainly to him by this infallible Agreement (Ijma') of the Community than through Qoran and Tradition; nay, that the contents of both those sacred sources, without this perfect intermediary, would be to a great extent unintelligible to him. Even the differences between the schools of law may be based on this theory of the Ijma'; for, does not the infallible Agreement of the Community teach us that a certain diversity of opinion is merciful gift of God? It was through the Agreement that dogmatic speculations as well as minute discussions about points of law became legitimate. The stamp of Ijma' was essential to every rule of faith and life, to all manners and customs.
All sorts of religious ideas and practices, which could not possibly be deduced from Mohammed's message, entered the Moslim world by the permission of Ijma'. Here we need think only of mysticism and of the cult of saints.
Some passages of the Qoran may perhaps be interpreted in such a way that we hear the subtler strings of religious emotion vibrating in them. The chief impression that Mohammed's Allah makes before the Hijrah is that of awful majesty, at which men tremble from afar; they fear His punishment, dare hardly be sure of His reward, and hope much from His mercy. This impression is a lasting one; but, after the Hijrah, Allah is also heard quietly reasoning with His obedient servants, giving them advice and commands, which they have to follow in order to frustrate all resistance to His authority and to deserve His satisfaction. He is always the Lord, the King of the world, Who speaks to His humble servants. But the lamp which Allah had caused Mohammed to hold up to guide mankind with its light, was raised higher and higher after the Prophet's death, in order to shed its light over an ever increasing part of humanity. This was not possible however, without its reservoir being replenished with all tbe different kinds of oil that had from time immemorial given light to those different nations. The oil of mysticism came from Christian circles, and its Neo-Platonic origin was quite unmistakable; Persia and India also contributed to it. There were those who, by asceticism, by different methods of mortifying the flesh, liberated the spirit that it might rise and become united with the origin of all being; to such an extent, that with some the profession of faith was reduced to the blasphemous exclamation: "I am Allah." Others tried to become free from the sphere of the material and the temporal by certain methods of thought, combined or not combined with asceticism. Here the necessity of guidance was felt, and congregations came into existence, whose purpose it was to permit large groups of people under the leadership of their sheikhs, to participate simultaneously in the mystic union. The influence which spread most widely was that of leaders like Ghazali, the Father of the later Mohammedan Church, who recommended moral purification of the soul as the only way by which men should come nearer to God. His mysticism wished to avoid the danger of pantheism, to which so many others were led by their contemplations, and which so often engendered disregard of the revealed law, or even of morality. Some wanted to pass over the gap between the Creator and the created along a bridge of contemplation; and so, driven by the fire of sublime passion, precipitate themselves towards the object of their love, in a kind of rapture, which poets compare with intoxication. The evil world said that the impossibility to accomplish this heavenly union often induced those people to imitate it for the time being with the earthly means of wine and the indulgence in sensual love.
Characteristic of all these sorts of mysticism is their esoteric pride. All these emotions are meant only for a small number of chosen ones. Even Ghazali's ethical mysticism is not for the multitude. The development of Islam as a whole, from the Hijrah on, has always been greater in breadth than in depth; and, consequently, its pedagogics have remained defective. Even some of the noblest minds in Islam restrict true religious life to an aristocracy, and accept the ignorance of the multitude as an irremediable evil.
Throughout the centuries pantheistic and animistic forms of mysticism have found many adherents among the Mohammedans; but the infallible Agreement has persisted in calling that heresy. Ethical mysticism, since Ghazali, has been fully recognized; and, with law aud dogma, it forms the sacred trio of sciences of Islam, to the study of which the Arabic humanistic arts serve as preparatory instruments. All other sciences, however useful and necessary, are of this world and have no value for the world to come. The unfaithful appreciate and study them as well as do the Mohammedans; but, on Mohammedan soil they must be coloured with a Mohammedan hue, and their results may never clash with the three religious sciences. Physics, astronomy, and philosophy have often found it difficult to observe this restriction, and therefore they used to be at least slightly suspected in pious circles.
Mysticism did not only owe to Ijma' its place in the sacred trio, but it succeeded, better than dogmatics, in confirming its right with words of Allah and His Prophet. In Islam mysticism and allegory are allied in the usual way; for the illuminati the words had quite a different meaning than for common, every-day people. So the Qoran was made to speak the language of mysticism; and mystic commentaries of the Holy Book exist, which, with total disregard for philological and historical objections, explain the verses of the Revelation as expressions of the profoundest soul experiences. Clear utterances in this spirit were put into the Prophet's mouth; and, like the canonists, the leaders on the mystic Way to God boasted of a spiritual genealogy which went back to Mohammed. Thus the Prophet is said to have declared void all knowledge and fulfillment of the law which lacks mystic experience.
Of course only "true" mysticism is justified by Ijma' and confirmed by the evidence of Qoran and Sunnah; but, about the bounds between "true" and "false" or heretical mysticism, there exists in a large measure the well-known diversity of opinion allowed by God's grace. The ethical mysticism of al-Ghazali is generally recognized as orthodox; and the possibility of attaining to a higher spiritual sphere by means of methodic asceticism and contemplation is doubted by few. The following opinion has come to prevail in wide circles: the Law offers the bread of life to all the faithful, the dogmatics are the arsenal from which the weapons must be taken to defend the treasures of religion against unbelief and heresy, but mysticism shows the earthly pilgrim the way to Heaven. It was a much lower need that assured the cult of saints a place in the doctrine and practice of Islam. As strange as is Mohammed's transformation from an ordinary son of man, which he wanted to be, into the incarnation of Divine Light, as the later biographers represent him, it is still more astounding that the intercession of saints should have become indispensable to the community of Mohammed, who, according to Tradition, cursed the Jews and Christians because they worshipped the shrines of their prophets. Almost every Moslim village has its patron saint; every country has its national saints; every province of human life has its own human rulers, who are intermediate between the Creator and common mortals. In no other particular has Islam more fully accommodated itself to the religions it supplanted. The popular practice, which is in many cases hardly to be distinguished from polytheism, was, to a great extent, favoured by the theory of the intercession of the pious dead, of whose friendly assistanee people might assure themselves by doing good deeds in their names and to their eternal advantage.
The ordinary Moslim visitor of the graves of saints does not trouble himself with this ingenious compromise between the severe monotheism of his prophet and the polytheism of his ancestors. He is firmly convinced that the best way to obtain the satisfaction of his desire after earthly or heavenly goods is to give the saint whose special care these are what he likes best; and he confidently leaves it to the venerated one to settle the matter with Allah, who is far too high above the ordinary mortal to allow of direct contact.
In support even of this startling deviation from the original, traditions have been devised. Moreover, the veneration of human beings was favoured by some forms of mysticism; for, like many saints, many mystics had their eccentricities, and it was much to the advantage of the mystic theologians if the vulgar could be persuaded to accept their aberrations from normal rules of life as peculiarities of holy men. But Ijma' did more even than tradition and mysticism to make the veneration of legions of saints possible in the temples of the very men who were obliged by their ritual law to say to Allah several times daily: "Thee only do we worship and to Thee alone do we cry for help."
In the tenth century of our era Islam's process of accommodation was finished in all its essentials. From this time forward, if circumstances were favourable, it could continue the execution of its world conquering plans without being compelled to assimilate any more foreign elements. Against each spiritual asset that another universal religion could boast, it could now put forward something of a similar nature, but which still showed characteristics of its own, and the superiority of which it could sustain by arguments perfectly satisfactory to its followers. From that time on, Islam strove to distinguish itself ever more sharply from its most important rivals. There was no absolute stagnation, the evolution was not entirely stopped; but it moved at a much quieter pace, and its direction was governed by internal motives, not by influences from outside. Moslim catholicism had attained its full growth.
We cannot within the small compass of these lectures consider the excrescences of the normal Islam, the Shi'itic ultras, who venerated certain descendants of Mohammed as infallible rulers of the world, Ishma'ilites, Qarmatians Assassins; nor the modern bastards of Islam, such as the Sheikhites, the Babi's, the Beha'is -- who have found some adherents in America -- and other sects, which indeed sprang up on Moslim soil, but deliberately turned to non-Mohammedan sources for their inspirations. We must draw attention, however, to protests raised by certain minorities against some of the ideas and practices which had been definitely adopted by the majority.
In the midst of Mohammedan catholicism there always lived and moved more or less freely "protestant" elements. The comparison may even be continued, with certain qualifications, and we may speak also of a conservative and of a liberal protestantism in Islam. The conservative protestantism is represented by the Hanbalitic school and kindred spirits, who most emphatically preached that the Agreement (Ijma') of every period should be based on that of the "pious ancestors." They therefore tested every dogma and practice by the words and deeds of the Prophet, his contemporaries, and the leaders of the Community in the first decades after Mohammed's death. In their eyes the church of later days had degenerated; and they declined to consider the agreement of its doctors as justifying the penetration into Islam of ideas and usages of foreign origin. The cult of saints was rejected by them as altogether contradictory to the Qoran and the genuine tradition. These protestants of Islam may be compared to those of Christianity also in this respect, - that they accepted the results of the evolution and assimilation of the first three centuries of Islam, but rejected later additions as abuse and corruption. When on the verge of our nineteenth century, they tried, as true Moslims, to force by material means their religious conceptions on others, they were combated as heretics by the authorities of catholic Islam. Central and Western Arabia formed the battlefield on which these zealots, called Wahhabites after their leader, were defeated by Mohammed Ali, the first Khedive, and his Egyptian army. Since they have given up their efforts at violent reconstitution of what they consider to be the original Islam, they are left alone, and their ideas have found adherents far outside Arabia, e.g., in British India and in Northern and Central Africa.
In still quite another way many Moslims who by the prevailing law and doctrine, have returned found their freedom of thought or action impeded to the origin of their religion. Too much attached to the traditions of their faith, deliberately to disregard these impediments, they tried to find in the Qoran and Tradition arguments in favour of what was dictated to them by Reason; and they found those arguments as easily as former generations had found the bases on which to erect their casuistry, their dogma, and their mysticism. This implied an interpretation of the oldest sources independent from the catholic development of Islam, and in contradiction with the general opinion of the canonists, according to whom, since the fourth or fifth centtiry of the Hijrah, no one is qualified for such free research. A certain degree of independence of mind, together with a strong attachment to their spiritual past, has given rise in the Moslim world to this sort of liberal protestantism, which in our age has many adherents among the Mohammedans who have come in contact with modern civilization.
That the partisans of all these different conceptions could remain together as the children of one spiritual family, is largely owing to the elastic character of Ijma', the importance of which is to some extent acknowledged by Catholics and Protestants, by moderns and conservatives. It has never been contested that the community, whose agreement was the test of truth, should not consist of the faithful masses, but of the expert elect. In a Christian Church we should have spoken of the clergy, with a further definition of the organs through which it was to express itself: synod, council, or Pope. Islam has no clergy, as we have seen; the qualification of a man to have his own opinion depends entirely upon the scope of his knowledge or rather of his erudition. There is no lack of standards, fixed by Mohammedan authorities, in which the requirements for a scholar to qualify him for Ijma' are detailed. The principal criterion is the knowledge of the canon law; quite what we should expect from the history of the evolution of Islam. But, of Course, dogmatists and mystics had also their own "agreements" on the questions concerning them, and through the compromise between Law, Dogma, and Mysticism, there could not fail to come into existence is a kind of mixed Ijma'. Moreover, the standards and definitions could have only a certain theoretical value, as there never has existed a body that could speak in the name of all. The decisions of Ijma' were therefore to be ascertained only in a vague and general way. The speakers were individuals whose own authority depended on Ijma', whereas Ijma' should have been their collective decision. Thus it was possible for innumerable shades of catholicism and protestantism to live under one roof; with a good deal of friction, it is true, but without definite breach or schism, no one sect being able to eject another from the community.
Moslim political authorities are bound not only to extend the domain of Islam, but also to keep the community in the right
path in its life and doctrine. This task they have always conceived in accordance with their political interests; Islam has
had its religious persecutions but tolerance was very usual, and even official favouring of heresy not quite exceptional
with Moslim rulers. Regular maintenance of religious discipline existed nowhere. Thus in the bond of political obedience
elements which might otherwise have been scattered were held together. The political decay of Islam in our day has done
away with what had been left of official power to settle religious differences and any organization of spiritual authority
never existed. Hence it is only natural that the diversity of opinion allowed by the grace of Allah now shows itself on
a greater scale than ever before.
1 With extraordinary talent this thesis has been defended by Professor T. W. Arnold
in the above quoted work, The Preaching of Islam, which fully deserves the attention also of those who do not
agree with the writer's argument. Among the many objections that may be raised against Prof. Arnold's conclusion, we
point to the undeniable fact that the Moslim scholars of all ages hardly speak of "mission" at all, and always treat the
extension of the true faith by holy war as one of the principal duties of the Moslim Community.
2 The studies of Professors C. H. Becker, E. Mittwoch, and A. T. Wensinck, especially
taken in connection with older ones of Ignaz Goldziher, have thrown much light upon this subject.
3 Hadith, the Arabic word for record, story, has assumed the technical meaning
of "tradition" concerning the words and deeds of Mohammed. It is used as well in the sense of a single record of this sort
as in that of the whole body of sacred traditions.
1 With extraordinary talent this thesis has been defended by Professor T. W. Arnold in the above quoted work, The Preaching of Islam, which fully deserves the attention also of those who do not agree with the writer's argument. Among the many objections that may be raised against Prof. Arnold's conclusion, we point to the undeniable fact that the Moslim scholars of all ages hardly speak of "mission" at all, and always treat the extension of the true faith by holy war as one of the principal duties of the Moslim Community.
2 The studies of Professors C. H. Becker, E. Mittwoch, and A. T. Wensinck, especially taken in connection with older ones of Ignaz Goldziher, have thrown much light upon this subject.
3 Hadith, the Arabic word for record, story, has assumed the technical meaning of "tradition" concerning the words and deeds of Mohammed. It is used as well in the sense of a single record of this sort as in that of the whole body of sacred traditions.
Essays by C. Snouck Hurgronje
Answering Islam Home Page
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Changing your eating habits to encourage weight loss
When dining out,think before you order.Consider replacing things like mashed potatoes and gravy with an extra vegetable,or a side salad.For lunch,choose a sandwich that is light.Turkey or chicken (grilled) is generally a good option.Soups are also usually low in calories,but watch out for cream soups.
When eating at home,use a smaller plate. This tricks the mind into thinking you are eating a lot more than you really are. If you use a large plate,there is a lot more space to fill.
It's not a diet. It's a lifestyle change. So do it right!
Changing what you eat can be very tough to do. Your personal eating habits develop at a young age,and If you are brought up eating a lot of junk foods,then you will probably continue that habit as an adult. There are so many different types of food out there nowadays,and most of them are not good for you. The more processed a certain type of food is,the more bad things you will find in it. Some of the earliest humans ate things such as nuts,berries,fruits,and it is speculated that they probably ate animals as well. They didn't have things like candy bars,and TV dinners. But,the fact that these types of food are readily available and also quite tasty,means that most of us will probably eat too much of them. The first step in changing that would be to get back to the basics.
Fruits and vegetables go through very little processing. Even in their canned form,they are very healthy and low in calories. The first change that you should make would be to start eating more fruits and veggies. Keep them stocked in your refrigerator,so that when you get the urge to snack,you can grab an apple,or baby carrots to curb your craving. When we are sitting in front of the TV,we tend to eat snack foods at a much faster rate. We don't pay attention,and before you know it,you just ate the entire bag of potato chips. If you like to snack while watching your favorite TV shows,here is a suggestion.
Take an apple,grapes,cantaloupe,or whatever fruits you like,and make yourself a healthy little fruit bowl. Cut up any large fruits,so that they are bite size. This will make it seem more like a "snack". You wont have to do anything except reach your hand in the bowl,and munch away. You really don't even have to worry about portion control,because nobody ever got fat on eating fruit. Fruit is good for you! You can do the same with broccoli,carrots,cauliflower,etc. Even if you use a veggie dip,or ranch dressing (low fat),it will still be healthier than sweets and potato chips.
The next thing we are going to talk about is soda. Yes,soda tastes good. It has that great fizzy feeling that you can't get from any other drink. But do you ever look at the calories on the back of the can? If you did,you would notice that the average can of soda has around 150 calories,sometimes more. So every time you drink a can of soda,you are downing an extra 150 calories. Wouldn't you rather eat something with 150 calories,than to just have a drink that does nothing for your hunger? The same thing goes for other drinks,such as Gatorade,fruit juices,etc. They all have extra calories that you do NOT need. Soda should be cut out of your diet completely,while juices should be labeled 100% fruit juice,and only used in moderation. The best thing for you to do,is switch to water. Water contains no calories at all,and your body needs it to survive.Sure,you can get water through other drinks.But not without adding inches to your waist!
When appropriate,try using non-fat cooking sprays instead of vegetable oil. Little things can add up to a lot of excess calories.
Pay attention to food labels.They are there to help you make good choices.
Pay close attention to what you are putting into your body. Most of us don't even think about looking at the calories in what we are eating. But,if you get into a habit of doing it,you will realize that there are a lot more calories in food than you thought! Try switching to lower calorie versions of your favorite things. They usually don't have much of a difference in taste,and if it does,your taste buds will eventually not even notice,because you will be used to eating it. Consider switching to low calorie wheat bread. I suggest wheat bread because it is much better for you,and has more fiber,which can help you feel full. They also make low calorie/low fat cheese,milk,yogurts,puddings,and other dairy products. Just open your eyes next time you are at the grocery store and you will see that there are a lot of options out there. Making the switch to lower calorie foods can make a tremendous difference in your weight.
Now,if you are a serious junk food junkie,there is still hope. Food companies keep coming out with healthier options for snacking. The most interesting thing I have seen is the low calorie snack packs. These are normally based on popular junk foods,such as potato chips,cookies,etc. But they are packaged in a box containing small 100 calorie packs. If you are going to indulge once in awhile,this is the best way to do it. I have seen Reese's peanut butter sticks,oreos,party mix,snack cakes,crackers...just about anything you could imagine is now available in a 100 calorie pack. Just don't eat more than one pack at a time,or that ruins the whole point of it.
Also,remember that you will lose weight much faster and easier if you are doing some sort of exercise on a daily basis. Walking and jogging are both excellent ways to lose weight. If you would like to take it a step farther and also get toned up a bit,start an aerobics routine at home. There really is no reason to spend money at a gym,because you can lose weight without leaving the house if you are doing the right type of exercises. Always remember that if you are not used to a lot of exercise,you should not push your body too hard at first.Start with some easy workouts,and work your way up from there.
For an added boost,try these quick cardio workouts!
- Fat Blasting Cardio Workouts
While it is true that you won't lose weight unless you devote time to exercising,there are some exercises that are designed to be very high energy and burn calories,in a short period of time. With the exercises in this article,even you can find enoug
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Iron Age Hillfort at Monday Cleugh (Akeld)
This Iron Age hillfort is on the south west and west slopes of Harehope Hill. It sits on level ground at the head of a deep crag-sided hollow, known as Monday Cleugh. The enclosure is semi-circular in shape and measures 138m north-south and 101m east-west. It is surrounded on three sides by earth and stone banks, but on the east side the crags provide a natural defence. The ramparts still survive, in places to a height of 1.2m. In many places kerb stones are still visible along their edges. There are two main entrances: an opening in the south-east corner and another in the west side. The turf-covered remains of three huts are visible within the enclosure, with very low standing walls. A larger rectangular foundation (6m x 19m) can be seen close to the west entrance. Other similar rectangular foundations can be seen attached to the outer rampart.. In the medieval period a number of sheepfolds were build over the remains of the fort, and the rectangular buildings may relate to this period. This is a Scheduled Monument protected by law.
|Historical period:||Roman (43 to 410)
Iron Age (800BC to 43AD)
|Legal status:||Scheduled Ancient Monument|
|Event(s):||FIELD OBSERVATION, Ordnance Survey Archaeology Division Field Investigation 1955; E Geary|
FIELD OBSERVATION, Ordnance Survey Archaeology Division Field Investigation 1969; R W Emsley
FIELD SURVEY, Hill forts and settlements in Northumberland ; G Jobey
Source of Reference
Local History of Akeld
Please note that this information has been compiled from a number of different sources. Durham County Council and Northumberland County Council can accept no responsibility for any inaccuracy contained therein. If you wish to use/copy any of the images, please ensure that you read the Copyright information provided.
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Librarians are indispensable members of the professional community in promoting education in Cambodia.
The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports has developed several school libraries to meet the learning and teaching needs of students and teachers. Amidst this effort the word “librarian” is taken lightly and is not so well known in Cambodia. Some people misunderstood that librarians are just people who arrange books on the shelves and do not need any in-depth knowledge. However, this is a misconception because to analyze each document and classify it on a particular subject, librarians are required to have a specialized course in Library Science and general knowledge in education.
Librarians are responsible for collecting, organizing, classifying and issuing resources such as books, films, e-resources and audio files. They work in a range of settings including public libraries, schools, and museums. Their duties include issuing resources, cataloging books, and conducting regular audits. In short, a librarian is the focal person of the library.
The librarians are also educators who work with students to encourage good reading habits, provide techniques in searching for the right books. Librarians are also responsible for book maintenance and repair, book loan services and providing library training courses for students who want to know the skills related to the library.
Schools that have a well-functioned library, usually have students who are generally more courageous, polite, disciplined, and better-educated compared to schools that do not have a library or take the library for granted. There are more needed efforts to change the perception about librarians and there are more works to do in order to improve libraries in Cambodia. We can begin to realize this change in our own school.
-By Socheata Sou
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Writing may arguably be one of the most important inventions of humankind. For centuries writing was a means for humans to record history, ideas and discoveries, and to communicate with each other.
Thought to have originated in Mesopotamia around 3,200 BC, writing has undergone a mass of technological development to get where it is today. Handwriting has been evident in many forms: inscribing with tools on stone, leaf, wood, wax, papyrus and parchment and in more recent times, on paper.
These days, people handwrite less and less. The arrival of the printing press in the mid-15th century meant multiples of transcriptions and books became easier to produce. Then the typewriter eliminated the need for composing everything by hand. In recent years the rapid development of computers and smartphones all but do away with the need to write by hand; instead we use texting, emailing and instant messaging. And that’s a pity.
The Whanganui Regional Museum archives hold numerous examples of handwritten text, some as early as the 16th century, in the form of legal documents, mortgage papers, manuscripts, indentures, patents, diaries, letters, business records, cash books, autographs and personal papers. In delving into the pages of these beautifully kept records we can appreciate the art, skill and importance of hand-written text. Future generations are unlikely to stock museums with our dull digital printouts.
Why is the art of handwriting so important? Firstly, learning to write by hand is a vital component of literacy. There is evidence to suggest that more information is retained and expressed when putting pen to paper. Handwriting engages more sections of the brain than typing. Learning how to shape and link letters improves reading comprehension. Researchers have ascertained that students who hand-write their notes indeed learn more. Writing a word out, letter by letter, is a self-conscious process that requires a certain processing of information, which provides a deeper connection to thoughts than is acquired by using a keyboard. Handwriting can also increase creativity and improve memory.
Secondly, someone’s handwriting gives clues to their personality that cannot be assessed in digital text. The unique style and slope of individual letters, a flowing cursive and the expressive quality of an individually written word is something that we stand to lose. There is warmth and personality attached to a handwritten letter or note, a postcard sent home or daily diary entries.
Other than the ubiquitous handwritten shopping list, scrawled reminder note or obligatory form filling, how many of us use handwriting on a daily basis? When did any of us last write a handwritten letter to someone? Texts, emails and other forms of technical communication have taken over and caused us to neglect our penmanship. Technology has diluted our collective handwriting ability and there is a real possibility that the skill of hand-writing is dying out.
Handwriting is unique. It has a tremendous expressive power, and more than that, handwritten text can be incredibly gorgeous. The physical act of writing takes time and can communicate that the writer cares about the content of the communication, and in turn the person intended to receive it. There is something special about sending or receiving a precious hand-written note or letter.
Pick up a pen. And write something.
Rachael Garland is the Events Coordinator at Whanganui Regional Museum.
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*Pathology of the Muscular System*
The Muscular System
Muscular system is the system of Human Body that provides motor power for all movements of body parts. Muscular system is composed of special tissue called muscular tissue. Muscles have the ability to contract actvely to provide the force for movements of body parts. Muscular system is an important system of human body because without it, life will completely stop. Muscles produce not only those movements that are under the control of our will and that we can see and feel, but also those movements that are responsible for activities like breathing, digestion of food, pumping of blood etc.
The muscles of the head and neck perform many important tasks, including movement of the head and neck, chewing and swallowing, speech, facial expressions, and movement of the eyes. These diverse tasks require both strong, forceful movements and some of the fastest, finest, and most delicate adjustments in the entire human body.Producing the body’s ability to close the mouth, bite, and chew food, the muscles of mastication move the mandible relative to the rest of the skull. These muscles, including the masseter and temporalis, elevate the jaw forcefully during chewing and gently during speech.
The Neck Muscles, Facial Muscles and more..
The motion of the muscles of the neck are divided into four categories: rotation, lateral flexion, flexion, and hyperextension. Rotation describes the action of moving the head from side to side, lateral motion brings the ear to the shoulder, flexion moves the chin to the chest (as in looking down), and hyperextension moves the neck so that the head tilts upward.
You may have to deal with a stiff neck or tight shoulders due to the following causes:
Bad Posture: Keeping your neck, arms, and shoulders still for extended periods will affect your muscles. For example, it almost always leads to neck stiffness if you work on a computer all day long.
Injury: An injury resulting from a collision, automobile accident, or sports accident that may make your head to jerk around forcefully is more likely to cause stiffness. This may even damage the ligaments in your neck.
Muscle Spasm: You experience a muscle spasm when your nerves signal your muscles to contract. A spasm in the neck may lead to stiffness.
Injury- Bones and muscles can be injured. A fracture is a crack or break in a bone. A simple fracture is when a bone breaks but doesn’t tear through muscle or skin tissue. A compound fracture, however, pushes through muscle and skin. You can often see the end of the broken bone sticking out of the skin. Bones are composed of living cells so they can repair themselves. A doctor would push the parts back in place so that the bone can repair itself in the correct position. A cast is often used to hold the bone in place as it is repairing itself. Ligaments that connect bones can also be injured. A sprain is an injury in which a ligament is stretched or torn. A muscle can also be strained if it is overstretched. This can happen when people don’t lift things correctly. Many people hurt their back muscles when they bend over to lift heavy objects. The proper way to lift something heavy is with the legs. Bend the legs and then take hold of the object to be lifted. Then straighten the legs and lift the object to the proper height.
Keeping the Muscular System Healthy The first part of keeping muscles healthy is a good diet. For muscles to grow, they need the right kinds of food. Do not eat fatty foods. Eat grains such as bread and pasta. Eat lots of fruits, vegetables and dairy products. Drink at least eight 8-ounce glasses of water daily. Limit drinks such as soda and certain juices. They are high in sugar and can lead to fat storage in the muscles. Get regular exercise. A good exercise program has five parts: • Warm up with light exercise • Stretch • Raise your heart rate with aerobic exercise • Build muscle with resistance exercise such as weights. Because the catabolic processes of cells are never 100% efficient, some of the energy released is lost as heat. Because skeletal muscle tissues produce such a massive amount of heat even when they are doing hardly any work they have a great effect on body temperature.
Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" consists of spindle shaped muscle cells found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, ureters, bladder, and blood vessels. Smooth muscle cells contain only one nucleus and no striations.
• Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" but it is striated in structure and appearance. Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle cells contain only one nucleus. Cardiac muscle is found only within the heart.
• Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored by tendons to the bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the nuclei peripherally located. Skeletal muscle is called 'striated' because of the longitudinally striped appearance under light microscopy.
Functions of the skeletal muscle include:
• Support of the body
• Aids in bone movement
• Helps maintain a constant temperature throughout the body
The Muscular System
Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle cell. An individual skeletal muscle may be made up of hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled together and wrapped in a connective tissue covering. Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called the epimysium. Fascia, connective tissue outside the epimysium, surrounds and separates the muscles. Portions of the epimysium project inward to divide the muscle into compartments. Each compartment contains a bundle of muscle fibers. Each bundle of muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Within the fasciculus, each individual muscle cell, called a muscle fiber, is surrounded by connective tissue called the endomysium.
Skeletal muscles have an abundant supply of blood vessels and nerves. This is directly related to the primary function of skeletal muscle, contraction. Before a skeletal muscle fiber can contract, it has to receive an impulse from a nerve cell. Generally, an artery and at least one vein accompany each nerve that penetrates the epimysium of a skeletal muscle. Branches of the nerve and blood vessels follow the connective tissue components of the muscle of a nerve cell and with one or more minute blood vessels called capillaries.
The Muscular System - CrashCourse Biology #31
Muscular dystrophy is the name given to a large number of medical conditions where there is a progressive weakening and wasting of muscles. Cause: The main cause is genetic. They are usually inherited from a parent or parents through their genes, but sometimes appear out of the blue. They affect babies, children, young people and adults of any race. About one in every 2,000 people in the US will have an nmd, but the effects are much wider than that. Relatives may be carrying the faulty genes while not showing any symptoms. That is why so much research has already gone into finding which genes are at fault and how they might be repaired. The genetic risks vary. In some types of nmd both the father and mother must have a faulty gene to pass it on. This is called recessive inheritance
Muscles of The Face
Don't forget to be active and keep your muscles working. They need to be fit and strong, and just like with your Lymph nodes and your overall health you have to keep your muscles hydrated. Don't forget to eat healthy so that your muscles get enough nutrients and vitamins in order to carry on though the whole day.
If you have any emergency related issues visit your M.D for more information.
Thanks, Happy Holidays, M
© 2015 Mahsa S
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Hanohano wale noʻoe
E ke anuenue o Mānoa
Ku kamahaʻo ʻo Kahalaopuna
Pua lei a ka ua me ka makani
Famous is the story of
The Rainbow Goddess of Mānoa
Kahalaopuna, the sacred one
Born of the wind and the rain
(Cabral, Boyd & Makuakane)
During the days of Kākuhihewa, ruling chief of O‘ahu from about 1640 to 1660, Kahaukani ((K) Mānoa wind) and Kaʻaukuahine ((W) Mānoa rain) were brother and sister twins.
When the children were grown up, their foster parents decided they should be united; they were married and Kahalaopuna was born to them – a uniting of the Mānoa wind and rain. She is deemed of semi-supernatural descent.
A house was built for her in a grove of sandalwood trees at Kahaiamano (some say the home was at Kahoiwai) on the way to Waiakeakua, where she lived with a few devoted servants. The house was embowered in vines and two poloulou (tabu staves) were kept standing beside the entrance (to indicate that they guarded from intrusion a person of high rank.)
Kahalaopuna “was so beautiful that a rainbow followed her wherever she went.” “Her cheeks were so red and her face so bright that a glow emanated therefrom which shone through the thatch of her house when she was in.
A rosy light seemed to envelop the house, and bright rays seemed to play over it constantly. When she went to bathe in the spring below her house, the rays of light surrounded her like a halo.”
She was betrothed in childhood to Kauhi, a young chief of Kailua.
When she was grown to young womanhood, she was so exquisitely beautiful that the people of the valley would make visits to the outer puloulou at the sacred precinct of Luaʻalaea, the land adjoining Kahaiamano, just to get a glimpse of the beauty.
Two men, Kumauna and Keawaʻa, had never seen Kahalaopuna, but they fell in love with her from the stories told of her. They would weave and deck themselves lei of maile, ginger and ferns and go bathing at Waikīkī and boast of their conquest of the famous beauty.
When the surf was up, it would attract people from all parts of the island. Kauhi, the betrothed of Kahalaopuna, was one of these. The time set for his marriage to Kahalaopuna was drawing near, and as yet he had not seen her, when he heard the assertions of the two men.
“How strange indeed was the behavior of your intended wife, Kahalaopuna! She went dancing two nights now, and on each night had a separate lover.”
Kauhi eventually believed them and he went into a jealous rage, stating he would kill Kahalaopuna.
He took her to the back of the valley; Kauhi struck her across the temple with a heavy bunch of hala nuts. The blow killed the girl instantly, and Kauhi hastily dug a hole under the side of the rock and buried her; then he started down the valley toward Waikiki.
As soon as he was gone, a large pueo (owl – a god and a relative of Kahalaopuna) immediately started digging out the body and restored life back to Kahalaopuna.
Kauhi then took Kahalaopuna to the ridge between Mānoa Valley and Nuʻuanu and killed her again. The owl, again, scratched her out and revived her. This was repeated again and again at Nuʻuanu and then in Kalihi. Finally, at Pōhākea, on the ʻEwa slope of Mount Kaʻala, he killed her again; this time the owl was not able to free and revive her and the owl left.
There had been another witness to Kauhi’s cruelties, ʻElepaio, a little green bird (a cousin to Kahalaopuna.) As soon as this bird saw that the owl had deserted the body of Kahalaopuna, it flew straight to her parent, Kahaukani and Kauakuahine, and told them all that had happened.
There was disbelief that anyone in his senses, including Kauhi, could be guilty of such cruelty to such a lovely, innocent being, and one, too, belonging entirely to himself.
In the meantime, the spirit of Kahalaopuna discovered itself to a party who were passing by; and one of them, a young man, moved with compassion, went to the tree indicated by the spirit, and, removing the dirt and roots, found the body.
He wrapped it in his kihei (shoulder scarf), and then covered it entirely with maile, ferns and ginger, and carried it to his home at Mōʻiliʻili. There, he submitted the body to his elder brother, who called upon two spirit sisters of theirs, with whose aid they finally succeeded in restoring her to life. They kept her last resurrection secret.
Kauhi was caught and subjected to a test. He lost and he and the two false accusers are put to death. His spirit, however, enters a man-eating shark, which lurks along the coast until it catches the girl out sea-bathing and finally consumes her body so that resuscitation is impossible.
Kumauna and Keawaʻa were, through the power of their family gods, transformed into the mountain peaks on the eastern side of Mānoa Valley.
Just above Puʻu o Manoa (Rocky Hill at the top of Punahou School) is another hill known as Puʻu Pueo. This was where the Owl God, Pueo, resided.
Today, you can still find the spirit of Kahalaopuna (the Princess of Mānoa) in the ānuenue (rainbows) spanning Mānoa Valley. (Information here is from Nakuina, Beckwith, Fornander, Thrum, Westervelt and Kalākaua.)
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Overall, all groups of students
I was just two
There’s Only One of Me and Twenty-Seven of You: Peer to Peer Problem Solving
Multicultural literature opens the dialogue on issues regarding diversity (Colby & Lyon, 2004). Reading literature with a multicultural focus followed by discussion prompts children to read, think, and become engaged with the text’s content and the author’s message (Salas, Lucido, & Canales, 2001).
Ramsey (2008) identifies two dimensions for teaching cultural awareness and acceptance -- planned curriculum and spontaneous conversation. Multicultural literature provides the impetus for both of these occurrences. Stories that mention cultural celebrations or religious ceremonies provide an opportunity for cross-cultural comparisons and interdisciplinary teaching. Lessons can also be developed to explore the importance of language as a means of connection and self-identity (Siddiqui, 2012). Impromptu discussions during or following a read aloud of any type of literature are constructive encounters, but they are particularly important when reading multicultural children’s literature, since they provide the opportunity to clarify misconceptions. An open dialog in which children actively engage with the information promotes learning (Shultz, 2010).
While dragons, kites, and pandas may appear as common themes in the stories recommended, there are no stereotypes portrayed, and Chinese culture is not distorted or misrepresented. Instead, they allow Chinese Americans to identify themselves with their inherited culture and provide an authentic glimpse into Chinese culture. Many of the books recommended provide messages that are timeless and universal, and they all provide insight into Chinese beliefs and customs. Use of these books in early childhood and elementary classrooms will encourage children to develop a better understanding of the vast diversity present in their world while also enabling them to see the shared commonalities that make human cohesiveness possible. As Dowd (1992) argues ". . . by reading, hearing, and using culturally diverse materials, young people learn that beneath surface differences of color, culture or ethnicity, all people experience universal feelings of love, sadness, self-worth, justice and kindness" (p. 220).
Al-Hazza, T. (2010). Motivating disengaged readers through multicultural children's literature. New England Reading Association Journal, 45(2), 63-68
Barta, J., & Grindler, M.C. (1996). Exploring bias using multicultural literature for children. The Reading Teacher, 5(30), 269-270.
Bishop, (1997). Selecting literature for a multicultural curriculum. In V. J. Harris (Ed.), Using multicultural literature in the K-8 classroom (pp. 1-19). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.
Brinson, S. A. (2002). Knowledge of multicultural literature among early childhood educators. Multicultural Education, 19(2), 30-33.
Brinson, S. A (2005). R-e-s-p-e-c-t for family diversity. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 33(2), 24-30.
Boles, M. (2006). The Effects of Multicultural Literature in the Classroom. Digital Commons @ EMU, Paper 62. Retrieved from http://commons.emich.edu/honors/62/
Colby, S.A. & Lyon, A.F. (2004). Heightening awareness about the importance of using multicultural literature. Multicultural Education, 24-28.
DeLeon, L. (2002). Multicultural literature: Reading to develop self-worth. Multicultural Education, 10(2), 49-51.
Dowd, F. S. (1992). Evaluating children's books portraying Native American and Asian cultures. Childhood Education, 68(4), 219-224.
Higgins, J. J. (2002). Multicultural children's literature: Creating and applying an evaluation tool in response to the needs of urban educators. New Horizons in Education. Retrieved from http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/strategies/topics/multicultural-education/multicultural-childrens-literature/multiculturalchildrensliteraturecontinue/sample-literature-evaluation-form/index.html
Hill, T. J. (1998). Multicultural children’s books: An American fairy tale. Publishing Research Quarterly, 14(1), 36-45.
Hefflin, B. R., & Barkdale-Ladd, M. A. (2001). African American children's literature that helps students find themselves: Selection guidelines for grades k-3. The Reading Teacher, 54(8), 810-881.
Hillard, L. L. (1995). Defining the "multi-" in "multicultural" through children's literature. The Reading Teacher, 48(8), 728.
Norton, D. E., & Norton, S. (2010). Through the eyes of a child: An introduction to children's literature (8th ed). New York: Pearson.
Pang, V. O., Colvin, C, Tran, M., & Barba, R. H. (1992). Beyond chopsticks and dragons: Selecting Asian-American literature for children. The Reading Teacher, 46(3), 216-224.
Ramsey, P. G. (2008). Growing up with the contradictions of race and class. In C. Copple (Ed.), A world of difference: Readings on teaching young children in a diverse society. (pp. 24-28). Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Robinson, J. A. (2013). Critical approaches to multicultural children's literature in the elementary classroom: Challenging pedagogies of silence. New England Reading Association Journal, 48(2), 43-51.
Salas, R. G., Lucido, F., & Canales, J. (2001). Multicultural literature: Broadening young children's experiences. In J. Cassidy & S.D. Garrett (Eds.), Early childhood literacy: Programs & strategies to develop cultural, linguistic, scientific and healthcare literacy for very young children and their families, 2001 yearbook. (pp. 139-150). College of Education Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi: Center for Educational Development, Evaluation, & Research
Schliesman, M. (n.d.). Cooperative Children’s Book Center Retrieved from http://ccbc.education.wisc.edu/books/multicultural.asp
Shultz, S. (2010). Judging a book by its cover: An evaluation tool for the evaluation, selection and inclusion of multicultural children’s literature in the elementary
classroom. San Rafael, CAA: Dominican University of California
Chang, G., & Chang, C. (Illustrator). (2007). Jin Jin The Dragon. Brooklyn, NY: Enchanted Lion Books.
Chang, G., & Chang, C. (Illustrator). (2009). Jin Jin and Rain Wizard. Brooklyn, NY: Enchanted Lion Books.
Louie, A., & Young, E. (Illustrator). (1982). Yeh-Shen: A Cinderella story from China. New York: Puffin.
Mahy, M., (Author) Tseng, J. & Tseng, M. (Illustrators). (1990). The Seven Chinese
Brothers. New York, NY: Blue Ribbon.
Muth, J. J. (2005). Zen Shorts. New York, NY: Scholastic Press.
Muth, J.J. (2008). Zen Ties. New York, NY: Scholastic Press.
Muth, J. J. (2010). Zen Ghosts. New York, NY: Scholastic Press.
Tompert, A., & Parker, R. (Illustrator). (1990). Grandfather Tang’s Story. New York, NY:
Young, E. (1989). Lon Po Po: A Red-Riding Hood Story from China. New York, NY: Philomel Books.
Dr. Rebecca M. Giles is a Professor in the Department of Leadership and Teacher Education at the University of South Alabama in Mobile, AL where she coordinates the graduate Elementary and Early Childhood Education programs.
Dr. Paige Vituli is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Integrative Studies at the University of South Alabama in Mobile, AL where she coordinates the Interdisciplinary Studies, Educational Studies, and Art Education programs.
Dr. Susan Martin is an Associate Professor in the Department of Leadership and Teacher Education at the University of South Alabama in Mobile, AL where she coordinates the Secondary Education and ESOL programs.
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Be careful on the ice, beware of ponds and lakes, warns Eastside Fire and Rescue
Icy conditions that the Valle is experiencing this week not only creates hazards on the roads for drivers, but cold weather conditions can also present their share of hazards to children and adults on small lakes or retention ponds, warns staff at Eastside Fire and Rescue.
The weather service reports freezing conditions will continue through the weekend.
Each year, EFR responds to calls where children and adults playing on these bodies of water end up falling through the ice, needing to be rescued.
So when is ice safe? There is no sure answer. Ice is tricky, and just because a lake or stream is frozen doesn’t mean the ice is safe. A layer of ice is seldom frozen evenly. It can be a foot thick in one spot and only a quarter of an inch thick in another. The biggest risk on a frozen body of water is that of falling through the ice. This can be fatal, as it is very difficult to climb out of freezing water risking drowning and suffering from hypothermia.
Natural ice is very unpredictable; it can crack even when you think it has sufficient thickness to accommodate your weight. The urge to get on the ice may be overwhelming, especially to children, however, the potential for a disaster is far outweighed by a winter of good fun.
Please take extra precautions while out on or near our retention ponds and small lakes. Have a buddy with you when venturing on or near any body of water, and always wear a life vest. The best advice is to avoid these potentially hazardous areas if at all possible.
EFR provides fire, rescue and medical aid in North Bend, Carnation, the Lower Valley and surrounding communities.
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Snoring is defined as a coarse sound made by vibrations of the soft palate and other tissue in the mouth, nose & throat (upper airway). It is caused by turbulence inside the airway during inspiration; the sound may be mild or very loud where it may affect others.
The irregular airflow is caused by a passageway blockage and usually due to one of the following
- Throat weakness, causing the throat to close during sleep
- Mispositioned jaw, often caused by tension in the muscles
- Fat gathering in and around the throat
- Obstruction in the nasal passageway
- The tissues at the top of airways touching each other causing vibrations
- Relaxants such as alcohol or drugs relaxing throat muscles
- Sleeping on one’s back, which may result in the tongue dropping to the back of the mouth
Snoring is involuntary and cannot be cured. It can however, be successfully controlled once the cause (usually a physical abnormality) is identified. The causes of snoring can be found by applying simple tests after which simple remedies can be applied to counter them. Risk factors for snoring include: sleeping on your back, increasing body weight, alcohol consumption, smoking, heavy meals (late in the evening), sleeping tablets or mood-altering drugs.
Remedies for Snoring
- Eat a well-balanced diet designed to keep weight balanced with height, age and body type. Persons that are overweight should begin an exercise program that will help in toning muscles and losing body fat. Losing weight is one of the most important natural snoring remedies, as the excess weight causes an increase in the amount of fatty tissue in the throat passage. This narrows the airway, causing snoring.
- Do not consume alcohol at least three hours before going to sleep.
- Avoid foods that increase the production of mucous which can lead to more severe snoring. Dairy foods such as milk, butter, cheese, and cream should be avoided especially two hours before sleep.
- Change sleep position. Avoid sleeping on your back as this causes the tongue to slide back to the throat and obstruct the airway. Sleep on your sides and try to keep the head elevated. Change worn out pillows with new ones.
- Allergies, asthma, a cold, or sinus infections will lead to blocked airways which make inhalation difficult and create a vacuum in the throat, leading to snoring. Try to keep the nasal passages clear by treating these conditions and using nasal decongestants or nasal strips.
- Avoid alcohol and medications before bed as they tend to increase relaxation of throat and tongue muscles and increase the chance of snoring.
- Relieve congestion by using a humidifier which will help to lubricate the throat; this is a natural remedy for snoring.
- The use of aromatherapy which encompasses herbal properties can help to stop snoring. Lavender is a natural relaxant that enhances sleep; marjoram clears sinus, helping you breathe easily. Simply leave the herb jars open in an area close to the bed for easy inhalation. Inhaling steam before going to bed also helps relieves nasal congestion by loosening mucus in the back of the throat. Eucalyptus oil can be added to the steaming water for better results.
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The growing use of technology in the classroom has unlocked new possibilities in how schools educate their students. New channels and resources to forever change how teachers connect their students to the world seem to emerge each day. As innovation in the edtech space continues to advance rapidly, Google has become one of the leaders in the field, offering a free platform, Google Classroom, for students and educators to collaborate and share information instantly.
As more schools and districts seek to adopt this technology, they are bound to have some questions as they bring Google Classroom into their classrooms. To understand its potential, and how it can best be implemented, FETC recently hosted a live Twitter chat, addressing a wide range of questions and concerns about Google Classroom. Following are some of the topics explored:
Is Google Classroom more than homework management?
While Google Classroom indeed helps teachers streamline the process for assigning, collecting and grading assignments, its functionality goes far beyond that. For instance, with the Expeditions app, teachers can bring their lessons to life with virtual reality. Equipped with their mobile devices, teachers can take their students on virtual field trips to anywhere – historical sites, coral reefs or even the surface of Mars. Teachers can also share students’ results with their parents, letting them know how their children are performing in real-time, rather than waiting for parent-teacher conferences.
Paper enabled teachers to write comments on a student’s work. Don’t you lose this ability when you move to Google Classroom?
This is a common concern about transition from paper to a web-based platform. However, Google Classroom actually has drawing and writing tools that enable teachers to underline, add notes and highlight key passages, just as they would with paper and a red pen, contributing to a more interactive learning experience.
What else can Google be used for in the classroom?
Google Classroom has a number of features to transform how learning is delivered. With Inbox by Gmail, students and teachers can easily group or bundle messages together for quick reference. And since Google Classroom enables teachers and students to see everything in one place, it’s easier to collaborate on assignments and share feedback and ideas. Students can also create their own clubs, connecting with their peers in new ways. Moreover, with other Google features like YouTube, Google Earth and Hangouts, and integrations with solutions like EDPuzzle, Blendspace, Wizer.me and more, there are many different ways to interact, learn and share information.
Do I need to know a lot about Google Classroom to get started?
The simple platform is easy to get started on and use, regardless of one’s technological skills. Plus, Google offers comprehensive online training and support to help teachers, students and parents use the tool most effectively.
How can I learn more about Google Classroom?
Google for Education has a great online community, enabling teachers to connect with their peers and learn how others are using Google Classroom at their schools. Teachers can meet up – virtually or in person – with other Google users to learn, share and inspire each other on how to best meet their students’ needs. Google Classroom will also be explored at the National Future of Education Technology Conference (FETC), taking place in Orlando January 23-26, 2018, with several workshops and sessions showing how educators can get maximum benefit from the platform.
Schools and districts will only increase their efforts to bring technology into their education strategies, and Google Classroom is one of the platforms facilitating this transformation. As our Twitter chat showed, educators have many questions as they seek to adopt this technology. But as one participant pointed out, it’s ok to make mistakes with the platform, providing the opportunity for teachers to learn and grow together with their students.
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Could oxygen make cancer therapy work better?
NBC News - 03/04/2015
“I was looking to solve the problem of existence of tumors and anti-tumor killer cells in the same patient,” said Michail Sitkovsky of Northeastern University in Boston, who led the study.
Most people do produce immune system cells that can kill tumors, and most cancer experts believe they actually do a good job of it, taking out tumors long before they can ever cause symptoms. But, clearly, not always, or else cancer would not be the No. 2 killer, after heart disease.
Sitkovsky and colleagues looked at one particular property of tumors. They can live without much oxygen, in what are known as hypoxic environments.
“Since the root of all problems is the lack of oxygen in tumors, a simple solution is to give tumors more oxygen,” Sitkovsky told NBC News.
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Cholera is on the rise with an estimated 1.4 billion people at risk in endemic countries and an estimated 3 million to 5 million cases and 100,000-120,000 deaths per year worldwide. New, more virulent and drug-resistant strains of Vibrio cholerae continue to emerge, and the frequency of large protracted outbreaks with high case fatality ratios has increased, reflecting the lack of early detection, prevention and access to timely health care. These trends are concerning, signal a growing public health emergency and have gained the interest and investment of UNICEF at all levels.
Regional overview Cholera is endemic in at least half of the 21 countries in the UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa region. In 2016, more than 70,000 cholera cases were reported in 12 countries in the region. The Eastern and Southern Africa region accounted for 68 per cent of cases reported in Africa as a whole, with just 4 East African countries making up 61 per cent of all cases reported in Africa: Ethiopia (31 per cent), Somalia (15 per cent), the United Republic of Tanzania (9 per cent) and Kenya (6 per cent). The case fatality rate in Eastern and Southern Africa was 1.5 per cent which is above the World Health Organisation (WHO) threshold of 1 per cent.
In highly endemic areas, a small number of specific geographic zones and populations are known as cholera ‘hotspots’. Such hotspots experience alternating seasonal outbreaks and lull periods and are thought to be the source of epidemics that spread beyond their boundaries. For example, frequent outbreaks among the fishing communities of Lake Malawi seem to be the origin of cholera transmission in Malawi. Cholera hotspots have also been identified in parts of the Great Lakes region, including several in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: on Lake Kivu bordering Rwanda; on Lake Tanganyika which borders Burundi, the United Republic of Tanzania, and Zambia; and on Lake Albert and border districts in Uganda. These hotspots have been associated with both in-country and cross-border spread of cholera within the region.
Drivers of cholera in the region include insufficient access to safe drinking water and adequate basic sanitation, as well as poor hygiene practices. Population displacements, whether due to conflict and instability or environmental and weather-related causes, are a major factor contributing to the persistence of the disease. With increased mobility of populations, cholera outbreaks can spread easily between countries, especially in high-risk epidemiological basins. The 2009–2010 Zimbabwe outbreak which spread across all countries of southern Africa bar Lesotho is an example, as are outbreaks in camps hosting South Sudanese refugees in Uganda (2016) and Burundian refugees in the United Republic of Tanzania (2015). Cholera control can be particularly challenging in the context of protracted emergencies, as in Somalia where in 2016 severe drought conditions exacerbated the incidence of malnutrition among the population; more than 1 million people were in urgent need of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions; and insecurity continued to hamper humanitarian access to communities.
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An Introduction to Overtime in India
By A&A LAW
Overtime refers to the time worked in excess of ones’ regular working hours which, in India, is eight to nine hours per day and forty eight to fifty hours per week, depending upon the establishment one is employed under. If a person works for longer than the regular working hours, that person is eligible to receive remuneration for that period, which will be twice the persons’ normal wage.
Overtime Laws in India
Several statutes regulate overtime and overtime payment, and different legal acts provide for respectively different periods of working hours. However, the working hours prescribed under the Factories Act, 1948 is taken as a standard period. Under Section 51 of the Factories Act, employees are not supposed to work for more than 48 hours in a week, and under section 59, for not more than nine hours a day. The time worked in excess of these 48 hours per week and nine hours per day will be counted as overtime under the Act, and will require the employer to pay workers twice the standard wage.
Section 14 of the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 states that after an employee is paid his or her minimum wage for a fixed period, they are required to be paid extra as an overtime rate.
Under section 33 of the Mines Act, 1952 if any mine worker works for more than nine hours above the ground and more than eight hours below it in a day or works for more than 48 hours in a week anywhere, whether above or below, he or she is entitled to be paid twice the ordinary wage for the extra time that was worked. Also, the act does not allow anyone to work for more than ten hours in a day, inclusive of overtime under Section 36.
Under section 17 and 18 of the Bidi and Cigar Workers (Conditions of Employment) Act, 1966, no one is to work for more than ten hours a day and fifty-four hours a week, including overtime. Similarly, under the Plantation Labour Act, 1951, if one works for more than the normal number of hours, he or she is to get overtime wages.
Overtime Laws for Women and Children
The Factories Act, 1948 restricts the employment of women between 7:00 pm and 6:00 am, which can be relaxed by the Chief Inspector of factories in certain cases. If such a relaxation of stipulated working hours exceeds the normal period of working hours, employees will be eligible for overtime compensation. Even then, this relaxation is still time sensitive, that is, women cannot be required to work between 10:00 pm to 05:00 am.
Under the same Act, Section 75 specifies that no child below 14 years of age can be employed in any factory. A child above fourteen who is eligible to work in a factory cannot be allowed to work for more than four and a half hours in a day and cannot work between 10:00 pm and 6:00am. In addition, a female child is not allowed to work in any factory, except between 8:00 am and 7:00 pm.
RELATED: India Regulatory Brief: Maternity Leave to Increase to 26 Weeks and New FDI Rules for Non-Banking Finance Companies
It is seen that in many employment agreements, there is a clause, which states that the workers must/may be required to work overtime. However, working overtime should be voluntary and not forced through an agreement. It should be the employee who should decide whether they want to do overtime or not.
Where the employer asks for overtime, it should generally be in special circumstances, such as to meet the sudden increase in demand. Even in that case, the employees should not be forced to do overtime.
Every establishment should have a register of overtime, containing the details of the worker, the extra time he or she has given to work, and the calculation of overtime amount due to be paid to the worker.
A&A LAW is a full service law firm, offering comprehensive legal services in all major areas of law. The firm offers contentious and non-contentious legal services to clients. The non-contentious services include strategic planning, providing legal opinions, preparing documents, and conducting negotiations. The contentious services include arbitration, representation of clients in court hearings at all levels, and enforcement of court judgments and arbitral awards. In addition, they provide services for commercial & non-commercial litigation and corporate governance. The combined experience of the firm’s professionals is over sixty two (62) years, spanning across the world. A&A LAW have worked with industry leaders in the field and have delivered as per their requirements.
An Introduction to Doing Business in India 2015 (Second Edition)
Doing Business in India 2015 is designed to introduce the fundamentals of investing in India. As such, this comprehensive guide is ideal not only for businesses looking to enter the Indian market, but also for companies who already have a presence here and want to keep up-to-date with the most recent and relevant policy changes. We discuss a range of pertinent issues for foreign businesses, including India’s most recent FDI caps and restrictions, the key taxes applicable to foreign companies, and how to conduct a successful audit.
Using India’s Free Trade & Double Tax Agreements
In this issue of India Briefing magazine, we take a look at the bilateral and multilateral trade agreements that India currently has in place and highlight the deals that are still in negotiation. We analyze the country’s double tax agreements, and conclude by discussing how foreign businesses can establish a presence in Singapore to access both the Indian and ASEAN markets.
Passage to India: Selling to India’s Consumer Market
In this issue of India Briefing magazine, we outline the fundamentals of India’s import policies and procedures, as well as provide an introduction to engaging in direct and indirect export, acquiring an Indian company, selling to the government and establishing a local presence in the form of a liaison office, branch office, or wholly owned subsidiary. We conclude by taking a closer look at the strategic potential of joint ventures and the advantages they can provide companies at all stages of market entry and expansion.
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Are you considering quitting your mouse and supplanting it with a graphics tablet? Or have you ever been meddling around with your PC or laptop and wish that you might have a “pen” for writing or drawing? Graphics tablets are the best solutions for this that allow you to do the same that you desire. They are tools that mimic the characteristics of writing and drawing on paper with a pen, like a stylus.
Graphic tablets are available for everyone who used to work or design using conventional tools. And you couldn’t even imagine how much it would modify your workflow. Whether you’re a graphic designer, illustrator, teacher, doctor, or belong to any other profession, graphic tablets are admirably valuable tools.
But the question is, what is a graphic tablet? What are the uses of graphic tablets? And How do they even work?
If you are unaware of all these questions, read more to know about these excellent graphic tablets.
What Is A Graphics Tablet?
The graphics tablet is a hardware input device applied essentially by digital professionals, although several non-artists also use the graphic tablet. The graphics tablet has a rigid plastic, touch-sensitive drawing exterior that fetches stylus or mouse actions to the screen. The position of the mouse or stylus is spontaneously related to the spot of the cursor on the monitor. It takes a little time to get used to drawing on the tablet’s surface, but once you cross the teaching or learning curve, it is as realistic as applying a pencil or pen on the paper.
What Are the Uses of Graphics Tablets?
It is almost difficult to describe the use of graphic tablets in a single sentence since they are used instead of a mouse in various ways. They are a necessary tool adopted across a pile of multiple industries and artistic niches.
Graphic tablets use the human hand’s fluid motion and physical positioning to its most magnificent power. Utilizing a graphic tablet is as convenient and straightforward as using a pencil, pen, or airbrush.
We have mentioned some of the uses of graphic tablets in various areas around the world below-
Illustrators, Animators, Photographers, And Graphic Designers
Since the beginning, animators and illustrators have been using graphic tablets for their work, as they found using a graphic tablet to be very useful.
However, using a graphics tablet is absolutely a choice; but believe us, it’ll definitely make your life easier. Like animating can be a really time-consuming and repetitive process on most days. From concept design to storyboarding to character development, a graphic tablet will help you to make the entire process smoother and faster. Many illustrators, animators, photographers & graphic designers move towards adopting tablets that help them to complete their projects faster and easier.
Using a graphic tablet allows designers a more consistent and natural way to draw and revise their work than just doing it with a mouse or a touchpad.
A graphic tablet with a screen will surely make your job much more enjoyable.
Industrial Design, Architects And Engineers
In industrial design, architects & engineers spend hours in the head of computer screens to build that ideal design. This may increase the need for persuasive drawing devices with unique features to induce their visions to life. The hardware and congenial software are steadily advancing. With the height of the list of new products, it is possible to discard your traditional screen and mouse and move entirely to a graphic tablet.
The one who does many illustrations, concept design, sketching, or rendering work might find a graphic tablet most useful.
They use graphic tablets because the use of a digital pen feels more natural to hold and work. This empowers them to create and design more smoothly and speedily.
Medical And Healthcare
Since the graphic tablets were brought to the market, the medical & healthcare industry has visualized adopting them and holding these innovative technologies and features inherent to these devices. As for medical & healthcare providers, intensifying the speed and capability of processes is essential for upgrading patient outcomes and decreasing costs. Doctors can quickly write prescriptions for the patients and orders with a few clicks and approve them directly on the screen.
Using a graphic tablet can speed up the processes of medical document management by digitizing and replacing paperwork. It also decreases the time, energy, and expense required for scanning, printing, archiving, processing, and recovering paper documents. Using a graphic tablet can empower a familiar, convenient patient experience.
Education And Training
Graphic tablets are effective and affordable teaching devices that combine the most beneficial characteristics of conventional and new teaching media. It benefits to produce a regular, interactive lecture, just like a standard chalkboard that is more adaptable. These tablets enable tutors to hand-draw pictures, graphics, and diagrams to construct knowledge-rich content in a virtual learning classroom for an interactive learning atmosphere.
In today’s education system, teachers and educators start using graphic tablets, along with large-screen monitors or projection screens, to aid them in instruction and explaining procedures. This works similar to the way a pointer is used. But rather than drawing a diagram over and over in each class, the teacher can quickly pick up the file and start demonstrating the topic, using the digital pen to intensify the description for the students.
GIS Mapping And Control Systems
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) mapping and control systems use graphic tablets due to their ease to use and natural feel. Geophysicists, civil engineers, and cartographers use these graphic tablets for creating graphics designs and maps because these tools help them select the coordinates or analyze data efficiently.
As graphic tablets do, moving menu sliders and other controllers more manageable and faster and holding the control centre updated with promptly available, ultra-modern data, emergency acknowledgement, and other control systems can be worked more cautiously and correctly.
Business And Office
For businesses and offices, when it comes to examining new products, costs and time management acts as an essential component. Graphics tablets can be the best option for this purpose that helps in reducing costs and time throughout the office.
Various business people, such as sales professionals, use these graphic tablets for doing demonstrations or presentations of their products or services in the same way that teachers use them. From diminishing extraneous paper consumption to advancing direct content design for easy note-taking, there are many uses of graphic tablets in businesses and offices.
These digital tools empower businesses to digitize their standard and in-person document workflows while maintaining that natural handwritten experience.
How Does A Graphics Tablet Work?
A graphics tablet is an optional electronic input device for computers, generally used by architects, engineers, artists, and others who want to correctly measure pictures. It includes two main components, i.e., a flat, rectangular pad on which to pull and a stylus applied to locate shapes on the pad. The tablet manages drawing and painting software to create an extensive sort of technical and art photographs. Display tablets too are available where you can directly write or draw on the screen.
Depending on your requirement, you can choose the tablet.
The most prominent area of the tablet is used for drawing and tracing that connects a point on the tablet’s surface with a puck or stylus that moves the cursor instantly to the point on the screen. There are assignable spaces on the surface of the pad that you can consider as a unique function “key” when you touch an area amidst a stylus.
Various graphics tablets utilize a Bluetooth connection, just like another wireless computer interface applied with trackpads, keyboards, mice, and different devices. Different tablets make use of the Universal Serial Bus that attaches to the device with a cable.
The stylus is a pen-like electric tool utilized at the time of sketching on the surface of a tablet. When you paint with a stylus on a tablet, then software on your device tracks your movements, creating a drawing on the screen. On several tablets, you can utilize the tablet puck or cursor and a choice of a stylus. The stylus seems just similar to your pen/pencil and it seems like working on paper.
Graphics tablets operate together with the software on various devices. If you initially attach your tablet to the computer or any other device, then you open a Windows control panel on the device and configure the graphics tablet. Further, the different software you utilize, like Adobe Illustrator, AutoDesk’s AutoCAD, or Corel’s Painter, should adjust the graphics tablet’s features and techniques and obtain reasonable control of the graphic tablet.
Few graphics tablets have a pressure-sensitive device that allows an artist to create nuances in a computer sketch. By pressing harder on the stylus, the software can react by making a line more spacious or deeper, although other consequences are also possible. And this trait can simulate popular artistic ways, like airbrushing. All the XP-Pen Graphics tablets come with a pressure sensitivity of 8192 levels which is the best in class.
Whether you need to draw, enter the design world, want to improve your video and animation abilities or enhance a note-taking pro, there are multiple methods to acquire art with a graphic tablet.
XP-PEN is a licensed and trustworthy supplier of pen display monitors, graphics tablets, stylus pens, etc. XP-Pen tablet maker team is bound to continuous modification to bring new techniques in the graphic tablets into the digital era with unique tools and technology to satisfy the specific requirements.
Also Read About: Best Tablets For Online Teaching
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Flags, The World Encyclopedia of : An illustrated guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns Hardback
Throughout the ages flags have been a means of cultural and national identity, communication, and a means of representation for groups and associations.
Compiled by a leading authority this book, newly updated for this larger format edition, is a definitive and exhaustive visual reference to international flags, from the largest countries to the smallest states.
Split into two sections, the first part of the book presents a fascinating overview of the history of flags, from the 3rd century BC to the 21st century.
The second section covers over 600 flags in current use, including a continent- by-continent examination of countries, territories, organisations, individuals and causes.
Lavishly illustrated, this book is both a stunning reference book and an invaluable resource.
Fascinating and compelling, it offers historical, geographical and political insights into one of our most ancient forms of identification and communication.
- Format: Hardback
- Pages: 256 pages, 1400 colour illustrations and photographs
- Publisher: Anness Publishing
- Publication Date: 31/07/2019
- ISBN: 9780754834809
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Both ENDS and the climate strike
On September 20 and 27 the global climate strike takes place. Both ENDS joins the Dutch Climate Strike on September 27 in The Hague. This is why.
The ecological, social and economical impact of climate change is huge. Land degradation, droughts and rising temperatures threaten global food security. Melting glaciers affect the water supply of large cities and extreme weather like heatwaves, heavy rainfall and storms damage people and their livelihoods.
Climate change is not only happening far away. Heatwaves also cause health problems in the Netherlands, farmers here are affected by changing precipitation patterns and the rising sea level is a serious threat for our country which is mainly lying below sea level.
Living up to the Paris Agreement
We are now approaching a "point of no return", in which the individual effects of climate change reinforce and accelerate each other. That is why Both ENDS advocates for Dutch governments, banks and companies to do everything possible to reduce global emissions.
Like almost all countries in the world, the Dutch government has signed the Paris climate agreement. By doing so, they have promised to do everything in their power to reduce Dutch emissions and limit global warming to 1.5 degrees. It is high time to comply with this agreement.
Public action is necessary
The first steps have been taken in the Netherlands with our own national climate agreement. But this agreement only looks at measures within our country. As long as the Dutch government keeps on stimulating deforestation through the unrestrained import of, for example, soy and palm oil, supporting the development of infrastructure for the fossil sector with export credit insurance for Dutch companies and concludes trade agreements that slow down the energy transition rather than accelerate it, the actions from the national climate agreement are just drops in the ocean.
That is why public action is needed now. Together with thousands of others from the climate movement, trade unions, school students, and other residents of the Netherlands, Both ENDS will strike on 27 September. This way we let our government know that there is no more time to waste and that it must take significant action in all policy areas to stop climate change.
More information on the Dutch Climate Strike can be found on www.klimaatstaking.nl
Read more about this subject
Event / 27 September 2019, 13:00
On Friday 27 September, Both ENDS joins the Dutch Climate Strike and the march in The Hague.
This way we let our government know that there is no more time to waste and that it must take significant action in all policy areas to stop climate change.
More information on the Dutch Climate Strike can be found on https://klimaatstaking.nl/english/
Event / 10 March 2019, 13:00 - 16:00
On Sunday the 10th of March 2019 Both ENDS will be taking part in what is expected to become the largest climate march in The Netherlands as of yet. The march is organised by Milieudefensie, Greenpeace, Oxfam Novib, FNV, De Goede Zaak and the Woonbond and supported by Both ENDS and a large number of diverse civil society organisations. Together, we demand a safe future for ourselves, our children and for all people whose lives have already been or will soon be made almost impossible because of the effects of climate change such as droughts, disease, floods or food shortages.
News / 25 September 2019
52 charity organisations, community groups, foundations and NGOs, many of whom are not primarily concerned with climate change, have come together to express their concern about the dangers of climate change for everyone and everything in a joint declaration. They call for urgent action and support the Climate Strike this Friday 27 September in The Hague.
Blog / 29 January 2019
The climate debate in the Netherlands is bogged down in what we can change at home and does not touch on our actions abroad. And that is a missed opportunity. Precisely because our international trade model is both so influential and, at the same time, such a widespread cause of pollution, changes in that policy can have an immediate effect.
In 2015, the member states of the United Nations committed themselves to the ambitious Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Unlike their predecessors, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the SDGs recognise the importance of equality within and between countries, of decision-making processes in which all people are included and heard, and of legal systems that are independent and accessible to all.
Event / 20 September 2019, 19:30
Last June, after months of negotiations in five different 'climate roundtables', the Dutch government presented its Climate Agreement . Negotiations had taken place in a roundtable for 'industry', for 'built environment', for 'electricity', 'mobility' and for 'agriculture and land use'. Climate measures that the Netherlands can take within its borders are pretty much covered by these climate roundtables. But the Netherlands also has a huge climate footprint outside its borders. It seems we have forgotten about the 'International' Climate Roundtable.
Blog / 19 September 2019
Reward high-risk international business projects investing in a green future and stop support for the international fossil industry
The climate is 'hot'. Everyone is talking about it. 'Everyone needs to do something' calls the government in its recently started public campaign. Good plan. Let's really do something. For a start, we can stop supporting international trade in fossil energy by our own multinationals. That would free up 1.5 billion euros which we could use to combat climate change on an international scale and at the same time give our own innovative businesses a boost. Today's Vergeten Klimaattafel (Forgotten Climate Roundtable) will discuss the opportunities for the Netherlands to have a real impact. And those opportunities are enormous. Because our big money and our influence lie beyond our borders.
News / 16 August 2019
Today, an op-ed by Nathalie van Haren and Stefan Schüller was published in the Dutch national newspaper De Volkskrant about the IPCC's latest report "Climate Change and Land". Below you find the English translation.
News / 21 March 2019
We asked three of our partner organisations to tell us how climate change is already affecting the daily lives of the people they work with, what they are doing to turn the tide and if they think the Climate Court Case against Shell can be important in the context of climate change. Jahin Shams Sakkhar of UTTARAN (Bangladesh) talks about floods, salinity and (in)justice.
News / 19 March 2019
We asked three of our partner organisations to tell us how climate change is already affecting the daily lives of the people they work with, what they are doing to turn the tide and if they think the Climate Court Case against Shell can be important in the context of climate change. Ana di Pangracio, working for FARN (Argentina) tells us about climate threats to large wetlands, while these same wetlands are crucial in mitigating global climate change.
Press release / 27 September 2017
Despite climate agreements, the Netherlands supports the fossil sector with 7.6 billion euros a year
Although outgoing economics minister Henk Kamp stated in May of this year that fossil fuels are not subsidised in the Netherlands, a report out today shows that this is clearly not the case. The report. ‘Phase-Out 2020: Monitoring Europe’s fossil fuel subsidies’, by the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) and Climate Action Network Europe (CAN-Europe), says that the Netherlands is supporting the fossil sector at home and abroad with more than 7.6 billion euros a year (1). The Netherlands made international agreements as long ago as 2009 (2) to ban subsidies for fossil fuels. Environment NGO Milieudefensie and Both ENDS – both members of CAN-Europe – call attention to these findings because they find it unacceptable that the government perpetuates our dependence on fossil fuels in this way.
Press release / 14 May 2017
The Dutch pension fund, ABP, invested about two billion euros more in the fossil energy industry at the end of 2016 than the year before. This is announced by the report "Dirty & Dangerous: the fossil fuel investments of Dutch pension fund ABP," published today by Both ENDS, German urgewald and Fossielvrij NL. The report criticizes these investments because of the impact on the climate and the catastrophic consequences for the people in the areas where coal, oil and gas are being produced.
Pension funds have a lot of influence because of their enormous assets. Both ENDS therefore wants pension funds such as the Dutch ABP to withdraw their investments from the fossil industry and to invest sustainably instead.
Publication / 4 November 2009
Publication / 8 April 2019
Press release / 9 May 2018
New research by Both ENDS, Fossielvrij NL and urgewald shows that, in 2017, pension fund ABP invested 500 million euros more in coal, oil and gas than in the previous year – a total of 10.9 billion euros. These investments in fossil fuels not only stand in sharp contrast to ABP's claim that it has achieved substantial successes in its climate policy, but are also in flagrant violation of the Paris climate agreement. Unlike international forerunners among pension funds, ABP continues unabated to invest in the fossil energy sector.
Press release / 6 May 2019
Almost 100 candidate EU Members of Parliament have signed a pledge drafted and endorsed by European NGOs and prominent individuals in which they commit - once elected - to promoting policies to protect and restore forests worldwide and to recognising and securing forest peoples’ territories and their rights, including the rights of women, for generations to come. The organisers hope to get many more signatures before the EU elections, to make sure the new EU parliament will start treating these topics with high urgency as soon as it is installed.
News / 12 April 2019
We asked three of our partner organisations to tell us how climate change is already affecting the daily lives of the people they work with, what they are doing to turn the tide and if they think the Climate Court Case against Shell can be important in the context of climate change. Sara Crespo Suarez of our Bolivian partner Probioma explains how the effects are already being felt in her country.
Press release / 5 April 2019
The Hague, April 5, 2019 - Today Friends of the Earth Netherlands will deliver a court summons to Shell to legally compel the company to cease its destruction of the climate, on behalf of more than 30,000 people from 70 countries. A 236 page complaint will be delivered to Shell's International Headquarters in the Hague this afternoon by Friends of the Earth Netherlands, ActionAid NL, Both ENDS, Fossielvrij NL, Greenpeace NL,Young Friends of the Earth NL, Waddenvereniging and a large group of co-plaintiffs.
Press release / 12 February 2019
Amsterdam, 12 February 2019 - Fossil fuel giant Royal Dutch Shell is facing legal action from environmental and human rights organisations if it fails to align its growth plans with global climate goals aimed at averting catastrophic global warming.
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Scientists have proposed an unusual method for cutting aircraft fuel consumption – they want to fly jumbo jets in formation like geese.
The prospect of flotillas of airliners soaring across the sky in V-shaped flocks, like migrating birds, is startling. Nevertheless, research by aviation experts has shown that it could lead to major reductions in aircraft fuel consumption.
The work follows research carried out almost 100 years ago by a German researcher, Carl Wieselsberger. In 1914, he published a paper in which he calculated that birds flying in V-formations use less energy to flap their wings than those on solo flights. Birds in flocks can therefore fly for longer periods than those travelling on their own.
Wieselsberger showed that when a bird flaps its wings it creates a current known as upwash; essentially, air lifts up and rises round the tips of the wings as they flap. Other birds, flying in the first one's wake, experience an updraft, allowing them to fly further.
This idea is supported by observations by French scientists who studied great white pelicans trained to fly behind an aircraft. The team – from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Villiers-en-Bois – strapped instruments and transmitters to individual birds. These revealed that the birds' heart rates went down when they were flying together, and also showed that they were able to glide more often when they flew in formation. "They fly in formation to save energy," said team leader Henri Weimerskirch.
Such experiments suggest that 25 large birds – such as pelicans or geese – flying in a V-shaped formation can travel 70% further than solo birds. Many of the great migratory journeys, some covering thousands of miles, made by birds would be impossible without the energy-saving effects of group flight, scientists say.
But aviation engineers have now taken these discoveries to their logical conclusion and have proposed that aircraft fly in V-shaped groups so they can benefit from similar energy-saving effects. This idea is the brainchild of researchers led by Professor Ilan Kroo, of Stanford University, California, who say airlines could make substantial cuts in the amount of aviation fuel they use.
In one calculation, the team envisaged three passenger jets leaving Los Angeles, Las Vegas and San Francisco airports en route to the east coast of the US. In the hypothetical exercise, the planes rendezvoused over Utah, then continued their journeys travelling in a V, with planes taking turns to lead the formation. The group found that the aircraft used 15% less fuel and produced less carbon dioxide when flying in formation compared with solo performances.
Such an approach could make significant inroads into the amount of carbon dioxide that is pumped into the atmosphere by planes. The aviation industry is expected to become a major emitter of greenhouse gases over the next two decades, and airline chiefs are desperately looking for ways to cut fuel consumption. Formation flights could be the answer, says Kroo and his team.
However, critics have pointed to problems. Safety could be compromised by craft flying in tight formation, while co-ordinating departure times and schedules could become a major headache. Kroo and his team say such difficulties can be overcome by more detailed work on their scheme.
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